ELJKVJENTH
MOTION
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COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVIII
MEDAL to MUMPS
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. J~
See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR. \ Monge, Gaspard
A. E. G. REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. f
Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and the J iu|: P opi B
Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the inner Life of
Jesus; &c.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. ") Mesozoa.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.Hisr.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' J
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- ] Morton, John.
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. I
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J ?J enius; Mennonites;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. 1 ra nn ounons,
L Morone.
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, M.A., Lrrr.D., C.M.G. f
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J s ** i
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to the] ler ' Hnore.
Constitutional History of Canada. I
A. Ha. ADO H-NACK Mlllennlum .
A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. /
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ ""Shed.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J . ,.
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore | Missions U part).
Educational Service. L
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. f
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formerly Editor of the -! Mexico: Geography.
Rio News, Rio de Janeiro. L
A. L. ANDREW LANG. /
See the biographical article, LANG, ANDREW. I
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. J Mouehez.
See the biographical article, CLERKE, A. M. I
f Megapode; Merganser;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Mocking Bird;
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. 1 Moor-Hen; Morillon;
LMotmot; Mouse-Bird.
A. Se.* ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. {
n. J
Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity Coll
in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909.
.
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 1
A. V. G. BARON ALFRED VON GUTSCHMID. [ Moses O f chorene (in part)
See the biographical article, GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON. (_
A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. "Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred,
Lord Tennyson. Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets ; editions of Dickens, Tenny-
son, Arnold, Lamb; &c.
Morris, William.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
19S7
v
B. J.
B. M.*
C. A.
C. B. W.*
C. C.
C. El.
C. F. A.
C. F. B.
C G. Ala.
C. J. B.
C. J. F.*
C. J. L.
C. Mi.
C. Mo.
C. Pf.
C. R. B.
C. R. W. B.
C. S. R.
C. We.
D. B. Ma.
D. F. T.
D. Gi.
I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
BEENHARD JULG (1825-1886).
Formerly Professor of Classical Philology in the University of Innsbruck. Author
of Mongolische Mdrchensammlung; Uber Wesen und Aufgabe der Sprachwissenschaft;
and On the Present State of Mongolian Researches.
BUDGETT MEAKIN (1866-1906).
Formerly Editor of the Times of Morocco. Author of The Land of the Moors; Lhe
Moorish Empire; Life in Morocco; &c.
CLEVELAND ABBE, A.M., LL.D.
Professor of Meteorology, U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington. Director of the
Cincinnati Observatory, 1863-1873. Editor of Monthly Weather Remew; and
Bulletin of Mount Weather Observatory. Author of Meteorological Apparatus and
Methods; &c.
CHARLES BERTIE WEDD, F.G.S.
Joint-author of various memoirs and maps of the Geological Survey.
CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D.
King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; .Tenner
and Vaccination ; Plague in India ; &c.
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-general at Zanzibar; and Consul-general
for German East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University
of Dublin. Author of Public Finance ; Commerce of Nations ; Theory of International
Trade; &c.
CHALONER GRENVILLE ALABASTER.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
; Language.
^ Morocco (in part).
Meteorology.
Millstone Grit; Miocene.
J Monster (in part) ;
^ Morgagni.
Mnr . wi - nia _..
P Medal- Wnr
4 "
I W" f")-
J Monetary Conferences;
1 Money.
{
^
Money-Lending.
Served through-^ Mohmand Campaign.
f Morelli.
\
CHARLES JASPER BLUNT, A.O.D.
Major, Royal Artillery. Chief Ordnance Officer, Singapore.
Chitral Campaign.
CONSTANCE JOCELYN FFOULKES. .
Translator of Morelli's Italian Painters; &c. %
SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. JEdin.). r
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's College,
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894,^ Mofaddaliyat.
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. f Michael Obrenovich III.;
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo- { Milnch
tentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-1903. [ m
WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE.
See the biographical article, MONKHOUSE, WILLIAM COSMO.
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D-is.-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author
of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry
the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
C. R. W. BIGGAR, M.A., K.C.
Hon. CHARLES STEWART ROLLS, M.A., F.R.G.S. (1877-1910).
Trinity College, Cambridge. British Pioneer of Motoring and Aviation. Formerly
Managing Director of Rolls-Royce, Ltd.
CECIL WEATHERLY.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A.
J
\
Mjii ais
^ Merovingians.
[_
r Mela Pomponius
! v P an )>
Mercator;
L Monte Corvino.
Mowat, Sir Oliver.
r .. , , .,,..,,,
J raolor vel1
[ Light Vehicles.
f
Monument.
Author I
Theory ; \ Muf ti.
of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional
Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The \ MendelSSOnn-BarthOldy
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (in part) ;
I Motet; Mozart (in part),
SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc.
H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic Survey
of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar Parallax Micrometer.
by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony, and
Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa ; Catalogues of Stars for the
Equinoxes, 1850, 1860, 1885, 1890, /poo; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. LI. T.
D. Ma.
D. Mn.
D. N. P.
D. R.-M.
D. S. M.*
E. A. M.
E. B. T.
E. C. B.
E. E. A.
E. F. S. D.
E. Or.
E. H. B.
E. H. M.
E. K.
Ed. M.
E.G.*
E. Pr.
| Milton (in part).
Autfcor of Constructive -{ Melville, Andrew
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis 1899 and 1 Mersina; Miletus.
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens,
1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY. r
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal] Meloria' Mina
Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. r
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and ] Merthvr Tvdfil
Rhondda. [
DAVID MASSON, LL.D.
See the biographical article, MASSON, DAVID.
REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate.
Congregational Ideals; &c.
DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Super-
intendent of Research Laboratory of -Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, -j Metabolic Diseases.
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of Essentials of Human
Physiology; &c. I
DAVID RANDALL-MAC!VER, M.A., D.Sc. r
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester J Monomotapa.
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c. [
DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. . r
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic \
Papyri of the Bodleian Library ; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam ; Cairo, Jerusalem 1
and Damascus. [
EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton
College, Oxford.
EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article, TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT.
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of The Lausiac History of Palladius "
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
ERNEST E. AUSTEN.
Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
LADY DILKE.
See the biographical article, DILKE, SIR C. W., BART.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article, GARDNER, PERCY.
Meroe.
SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, BART., M.A., F.R.G.S.(d. 1895).
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852.
&c.
Author of A History of Ancient Geography ;
I Medusa.
("Mexico: Ancient History
\ (in part).
f Mendicant Movement
and Orders;
] Monasticism;
I Monte Cassino.
-j Mosquito.
- Millet, Jean Francois.
f Megalopolis;
J Megara (.in part);
[ Melos.
J Mela, Pomponius
' 1 (in part).
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f"
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian -j Melanchlaeni.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C. r
Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing,-^ Mercerizing.
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Cohurists.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte
des Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbar-
stamme.
Media;
Memnon of Rhodes;
Menander (MILINDA)
(in part);
Mentor of Rhodes;
_ Mithrada.tes.
EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r .._
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner J Mouth and Salivary
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of Glands (Surgery).
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I
EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner
in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador, J jyjOTaes.
Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy |
of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a P'ortuguese
Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.
Vlll
E. R. L.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College. London,
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898.-
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 18981907.
Vice- President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905.
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
Metamerism;
Mollusea (in part).
E. St.
E. S. S.
F. C. C.
F. G. M. B.
F. G. P.
F. H. Ne.
F. J. H.
F. LI. G.
F. N. M.
F. 0. B.
F.We.
F. W. R.*
G. A. B.
G. C. W.
G. E. D.
G. F. B.
G. G. S.
G. H. Fo.
G. P. R.
G. Sa.
G. Sn.
"{Missions (in part).
EUGENE STOCK.
Formerly Editorial Secretary of the Church Missionary Society.
EDWARD SHRAPNELL SMITH. ["Motor Vehicles:
Editor of The Commercial Motor. Hon. Treasurer of the Commercial Motor Users -| Heavy Commercial
Association. Organiser of the Lancashire Heavy Motor Trials of 1898, 1899-1901. [ Vehicles.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. .
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and
Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
Moses of Chorene
(in part).
Mercia.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. f
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Mouth and Salivary
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, | Glands.
L
London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Lecturer in Natural Science, Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.
Metallography (in part).
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on
Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. r Memphis; Menes;
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J m oer j s Lake Of
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial "
German Archaeological Institute.
COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University.
Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign.
FREDERICK ORPEN BOWER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow.
Botany for Beginners; &c.
FREDERICK WEDMORE.
See the biographical article, WEDMORE, FREDERICK.
FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S
Author of War and the World's
Mummy.
Metz.
Author of Practical \ M n l> Hugo von.
J Meryon.
3ERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -I
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
Moldavite.
GEORGE A. BOULENGER. D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S. f
In charge of the collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -j Mormyr.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, Litt.D. r
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Miniature;
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition of ] Morland, George.
Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.
SURGEON-MAJOR GEORGE EDWARD DoBSON,M.A.,M.B.,F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1893). f
Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria J Mnlfl (V -hnrt\
Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; A Monograph }
of the Inseclivora, Systematic and Anatomical.
GEORGE F. BARWICK. r
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British J Midhat Pasha.
Museum.
GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. r
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J Montgomerie.
of James IV. ; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.
GEORGE HERBERT FOWLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., PH.D.
Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester; and Assistant -j Microtomy.
Professor of Zoology at University College, London.
GERALD PHILIP ROBINSON. r
President of the Society of Mezzotint Engravers. Mezzotint Engraver to Queen J Mezzotint.
Victoria and to King Edward VII.
GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article, SAINTSBURY, G.
r Merimee; Michelet, Jules;
J Montaigne; Montesquieu;
[ Montpensier, Duchesse de.
GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. (
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J Mithras
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of i
With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old ] Mubarrad.
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. f
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. 1 Miller, Hugh.
President, Geologists Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. I
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f" Meredith, George;
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Milan Obrenovitch IV
of the Encyclopaedia Bntannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. Morley Viscount
H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. r
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of I
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library 1
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c.
H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ. J
Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts, Paris. ]_ Meissonier.
H. F. B. HORATIO ROBERT FORBES BROWN, LL.D. r
Editor of the Calendar of Venetian State Papers, for the Public Record Office. Author I ,,..
of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, a Biography; 1 Milan (in part).
&c. L
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. f M . ,.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Authors Ml S ratlon: zoology;
of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. \_ Moa.
H. H. L. HENRY HARVEY LITTLEJOHN, M.A., M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S. (Edin.), F.R.S. (Edin.) f Medical Jurisprudence
Professor of Forensic Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. \ (i n p ar f)
H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSEY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. /Medical Education, U.S.A.
L (in part).
H. L. S. H. LAWRENCE SWINBURNE (d. 1907). / Medal: War Decorations
I (in part).
H. M. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, .
University of California. Author of History of the French Revolution; Modern] Ml rabeau, Honore.
European History ; &c. [
H. N. D. HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. ' f
Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, J Mediterranean Sea;
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford. Author] Mexico, Gulf of.
of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. L
H. 0. HERMANN OELSNER, M.A., Pn.D. f
Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in University of Oxford. Member I Mjctral
of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Literature; 1
&c. L
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. f Metemnsvchosis
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \
H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. r
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British I , . , . N
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 losaic - Ancient (in part).
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. L
H. S. M. HENRY SMITH MUNROE, D.Sc., PH.D. /Mining
Professor of Mining, Columbia University, New York. \
H. S. W. HENRY SPENSER WILKINSON, M.A.
Chichele Professor of Military History, University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' \ Moltke, Count von.
College. Author of The Brain of an Army; &c.
H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. r
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of " The I Miinn<: (In t,nrf\
Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the]
Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible.
H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. J MesoDotamia
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. \ '
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, \ Montfort, Simon de.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
H. W. R.* REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A. f
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J Minnh C * A
Oxford, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology]
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. I
LA. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Meir : Meir of Gothenburg;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. I Menasseh ben Israel;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short 1 Mendelssohn, Moses;
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Mocatta; Molko.
J. A. C. SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G. fiw m iin / ,\
See the biographical article, CROWE, SIR J. A. ^ P art) -
x
J. A. F.
J. A. S.
J. A. V,
J. Bt.
J. B. T.
J. D. B.
J. E. H.
J. F. K.
J. F. P.
J. G. H.
J. G. R.
J. G. Sc.
J. H. F.
J. H. Je.
J. H. M.
J. H. R.
J. HI. R.
J. Le.
J. L. W.
J. M. Bu.
J. M. M.
Jno. S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
;I
Meter, Electric.
Metastasio.
I Methodism (in part).
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc.
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow
of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and I
Electric Currents. [
JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.
REV. J. A. VANES.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Wesleyan College, Richmond.
JAMES BARTLETT. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's College, J ,
London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1 Jriar.
Engineers. I
SIR JOHN BATTY TUKE, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f
President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director .
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universities of Edinburgh
and St Andrews, 1900-1910. v.
JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Ea.stern Europe. J Montenegro.
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of I
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
REV. JOSEPH EDMUND HUTTON, M.A. {Moravian Brethren.
Author of History of the Moravian Church.
JAMES FURMAN KEMP, D.Sc. f
Professor of Geology, Columbia University, New York. Geologist to United States 4 Mineral Deposits.
and New York Geological Surveys. Author of Handbook of Rocks ; &c.
JOSEPH FRANK PAYNE, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.(i84o-ioip). (
Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians, London. Hon. Fellow J m j- -a- , / ,\
of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the University of London. Author of] ffl eaicme: History (in part).
Lectures on Anglo-Saxon Medicine; &c. L
Medical Education.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I. MECH.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the
English Language, Strassburg University. Author of History of German Literature;
&c. L
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; 4 Mekong; Mmbu.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. I
Metal-Work: Industrial.
Meistersinger.
JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
Menander;
Mirror: Ancient;
Moesia.
JAMES HOPWOOD JEANS, M.A., F.R.S. C
Stokes Lecturer in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -J Molecule.
College. Author of Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism ; &c.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lirr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f Metal-Work: Art
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director (j n part)'
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South 4 Mnnreale* '
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; ' .
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. [ Mosaic: Ancient (in part).
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. f Mortain;
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and4 M ow brav' F m'lv
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. f
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Mollien, Count;
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European 1 Montholon, Marquis de.
Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.
REV. JAMES LEGGE, D.D.
See the biographical article, LEGGE, JAMES.
Mencius.
JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.
Merlin.
REV. JAMES MONROE BUCKLEY, D.D., LL.D.
Editor of the Christian Advocate, New York.
the United States ; &c.
Author of History of Methodism in -\ Methodism: United States
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. [Mill, John Stuart
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London 4 (in part) ;
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 Miltiades; Mnemonics.
SIR JOHN SCOTT, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.C.L. [
Formerly Deputy Judge-Advocate-General to His Majesty's Forces. Judge, M -i- f T
afterwards Vice-President, International Court of Appeal in Egypt. 1874-1882. 4 fl 1Wr ^ Law -
Judge of High Court, Bombay, 1882-1890. Judicial Adviser to the Khedive of
Egypt, 1890-1898. Vice-President, International Law Association.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. S. Bl.
J. S. F.
J. S. G.
J. S. Ma.
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J. T. S.*
K. A. M.*
K. S.
L. Bl.
L. Bo.
L. F.
L. J. S.
M. H C.
M. H. S.
M. N. T.
M. 0. B, C.
M. P.
N. W. T.
0. Ba.
0. C. W.
Joint-editor of the -I Missal.
JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
Assistant Editor, gth edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Encyclopaedia Biblica.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
JOHN STARKIE GARDNER, F.S.A.
Expert Metal Worker. Author of Armour in England; Ironwork (for the Educational '
Department) ; &c.
Metamorphism;
Metasomatism;
Mica-Schist;
Micropegmatite;
. Monzonite.
Metal- Work: Modern Art.
JAMES SAUMAREZ MANN, M.A.
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity College, Oxford.
Bedford College, London. Joint-editor of Social England.
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical-
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
Professor of Greek at \ Mexico: Modern History.
Merv; Minsk (in part);
Moscow (in part).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. f
Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J Mollusca (in part) ;
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Mullet.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. <
| Middle Ages.
Morocco (in part).
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
KATE A. MEAKIN (Mrs Budgett Meakin).
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the'
Orchestra.
Louis BELL, PH.D.
Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Transmission .
Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical World,
New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission; &c. 1.
LUDWIG BOLTZMANN (1844-1906). f
Formerly Professor of Theoretical Physics, Universities of Munich, Vienna and J Model.
Leipzig. Author of Lectures on the Theory of Gas; Lectures on Maxwell's Theory j
of Electricity and Light. <-
LAZARUS FLETCHER, M.A., F.R.S.
Director of Natural History Departments of the British Museum. Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum, 1880-1909. Secretary to the Mineralpgical Society, -i Meteorite.
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Introduction to the Study
of Meteorites ; &c.
Monochord; Mouthpiece.
Motors, Electric.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera-
logical Magazine.
MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., D.C.L., K.C.
Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly
Member of the General Council of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, -
and Standing Counsel to the University of Oxford. President of the Eugenics
Education Society.
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of
International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco-
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait
Painting to the opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British
Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -
ham University, 1905-1908.
REV. MARK PATTISON.
See the biographical article, PATTISON, MARK.
NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Soci^te' d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.
OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A.
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
OWEN CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, M.A., D.D.
Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.
Melaconite; Mica;
Microcline; Millerite;
Mimetite; Mineralogy;
Mispickel; Molybdenite;
. Monazite.
Mediation.
Medal (in part).
Messene; Messenia.
Megara (in part).
4 More,
Sir Thomas.
Medium.
Montagu (Family)
'
J Messiah (in part).
Xll
0. Hr.
P. A. K.
P. C. M.
P. Ge.
P. G. K.
P. La.
P. V.
R. A. S. M.
R. C. P.
R. H. C.
R. I. P.
R. K. D.
R. L.*
R. M.-S.
R. N. B.
R. P. S.
R. S. C.
S. A. C.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
s. c.
St. C.
S. N.
OTTO HENKER, PH.D.
On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany.
- Microscope.
/Minsk (in part);
I Mongolia; Moscow.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article, KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Monster (in part) ;
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888^1891. 1 Morphology (in tart)
Author of Outlines of Biology; &c. I
PATRICK GEDDES, F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Professor of Botany, University College, Dundee. Formerly Lecturer on Natural J Morphology (in part)
History in School of Medicine, Edinburgh. Part-author of Evolution of Sex. |
Author of Chapters in Modern Botany. I
PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. H Memlinc (in part).
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c.
PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly .
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology.
Mexico: Geology.
PASQUALE VILLARI.
See the biographical article, VILLARI, PASQUALE.
ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
St John's College, Cambridge.
don Fund.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora-
/Medici (Family).
f Mich mash; Mizpah;
REGINALD CRUNDALL PUNNETT, M.A.
Professor of Biology in the University of Cambridge.
College. Superintendent of the Museum of Zoology.
Fellow of Gonville and Caius -{ Mendelism.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. f
Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British J
Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author
of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees; &c.
i
Moses, Assumption of.
REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
/Millipede; Mimicry;
I Mite.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and J M
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and\ Mongols.
Literature of China ; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (-Megatherium; Mole (in part);
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of I Monodelphia;
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] Monotremata; Mouse;
All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. [ Multituberculata.
RICHMOND MAYO-SMITH, PH.D.
See the biographical article, MAYO-SMITH, RICHMOND.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum,
j Migration (in part),
r Menshikov;
1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the Mirha.l Tear-
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J "
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from
to 1796; &c.
1 Moltke, Count A. G.;
[ Moltke, Count A. W.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. r
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, S Mosque; Mouldings.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. L
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.). <-
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville")
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, -
1904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the
Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient
Palestine; &c.
SIDNEY COLVTN, LL.D.
See the biographical article, COLVIN, SIDNEY.
VISCOUNT ST. CYRES.
See the biographical article, IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF.
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article, NEWCOMB, SIMON.
Melchizedek (in part);
Menahem; Midrash;
Mizraim; Moab;
Moloch (in part);
Moses.
J Michelangelo.
- Molinos.
/Mercury; Moon.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii
[ Mediolanum;
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.). Megara Hyblaea;
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical
Topography of the Roman Campagna.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Messina; Metapontum;
Milan (in part);
Minturnae; Misenum;
Monrealet/n part);
Monte le one Calabro;
Motya; Monument: //../.-.
Medical Jurisprudence
(in part);
Midwife;
Migration (in part).
T. Ca. THOMAS CASE, M.A. r
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of j f h .
Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of 1 leta P n y slcs -
Magdalen College.
T. C. A. SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B. , M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. Physician to Adden- J Medicine: Modern
brooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 1 Progress.
Editor of Systems of Medicine. I
T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. ("
Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898, Gold Medallist, R.G.S. J
(London), 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's]
Award; India; Tibet; &c. L
T. K. R. THOMAS KIRKE ROSE, D.Sc.
Chemist and Assayer, The Royal Mint, London. Author of Metallurgy of Gold ; The H Mint.
Precious Metals; &c.
Th. N. THEODOR NOLDEKE, PH.D. f
See the biographical article, NOLDEKE, THEODOR. \
T. S. W. THEODORE SALISBURY WOOLSEY, LL.D. r
Professor of International Law, Yale University. Editor of Woolsey's International -j Monroe Doctrine.
Law. Author of America's Foreign Policy; &c. [
T. W. R. D. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Medhankara;
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal M / \r-i- j \
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism ; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Menantter (Milinda).
Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). fMeiringen; Meran;
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's Marian- Mont Cfinii-
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range \
of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in Bral >
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. [ Mttller, Johannes von.
W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J J
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. Metternich; Minister;
[ Mitre.
W. B. Ri. SIR WILLIAM BLAKE RICHMOND, K.C.B. /Mni<" if //.,
See the biographical article, RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE. \ ffl
W. B. S.* WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, M.A. f Morley Tnomas .
Assistant in Charge of Printed Music, British Museum. \
W. C. R.-A. SIR WILLIAM CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. f Metalloeranhv (in barfl
See the biographical article, ROBERTS-AUSTEN, SIR W. C. \*
W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. J. Misdemeanour.
Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (2yA edition).
W. F. D. WILLIAM FREDERICK DENNING, F.R.A.S. r
Gold Medallist, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1877-1878. J Meteor.
Author of Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings ; The Great Meteoric Shower ; &c.
W. F. Sh. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. |"
Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, J. Mensuration.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.
W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. /Mint
See the biographical article, FLOWER, SIR W. H. \
W. H. H. WILLIAM HENRY HOWELL, M.D., PH.D., LL.D. r
Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University, J Medical Education, U.S.A.
Baltimore. President of the American Physiological Association. Associate-editor] (in part).
of American Journal of Physiology. (.
W. H. M. WILLIAM HERRICK MACAULAY, M.A. f Motion, Laws of.
Fellow and Tutor of King's College, Cambridge. \
W. L.* WALTER LEHMANN, D.M. [Mexico: Ancient History
Directorial Assistant, Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Author of Methods -( , . A
and Results in Mexican Research; &c.
XIV
W. M.
W. M. C.
W. M. R.
W. P. A.
W. R. M.
W. R. S.
W. R. S.*
W. S. R.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WILLIAM MINTO, LL.D.
See the biographical article, MINTO, WILLIAM.
SIR W. MARTIN CONWAY.
See the biographical article, CONWAY, SIR W. M.
/Mill, John Stuart
I (in part).
-j Mountaineering.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. J Moroni.
See the biographical article, ROSSETTI, DANTE, G.
LlEUT.-COLONEL WlLLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. f
Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the^ Michigan, Lake.
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. |_
WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910).
Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I Mjdriewiez Adam
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution Oxford. Author of Russia; |
Slavonic Literature; &c. I
[ Medina;
Melchizedek (in part) ;
1 Messiah (in part);
Micah (in part);
[Moloch (in part).
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article, SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
WILLIAM ROY SMITH, M.A., PH.D.
Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.
WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. [ Mendelssohn-Bartholdy
Author of A General History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the -j (j, n part) ;
Present Period; and other works on the history of music. 1 Mozart (in part).
Missouri Compromise.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Melbourne.
Melon.
Meningitis.
Mercantile System.
Mercury (Chemistry).
Mermaids.
Metal.
Metallurgy.
Michigan.
Micronesia.
Militia.
Milk.
Mineral Waters.
Ministry.
Minnesingers.
Minnesota.
Mississippi.
Mississippi River.
Missouri.
Monaco.
Monmouthshire.
Monopoly.
Montana.
Moors.
Moravia.
Mormons.
Morphine.
Mortgage.
Mounted Infantry.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XVIIT
MEDAL (Fr. medaitte, from Lat. metallum), strictly the
term given to a memorial piece, originally of metal, and
generally in the shape of a coin, used however not as currency
but as an artistic product. " Medallion " is a similar term
for a large medal, but is now usually restricted to a form of
bas-relief in sculpture. The term " medal " is, artistically,
extended by analogy to pieces of the same character not neces-
sarily shaped like coins. The history of coins and medals
is inseparable, and is treated under the general heading of
NUMISMATICS. That article may be supplemented here by an
account of (i) the more recent progress in the art of the medallist,
and (2) the use of medals for war decorations.
i. The medal as it is understood to-day enjoys a life
entirely independent of the coin on the one hand, and, on the
other, of the sculptured medallion, or bas-relief; and its renais-
sance is one of the chief phenomena in art during the period
since about 1870. It is in France that it has risen to the greatest
perfection. Its popularity there is well-nigh universal; it is
esteemed not only for memorials of popular events and of
public men, but also for private celebrations of all kinds. No
other nation approaches in excellence in artistic feeling,
treatment, and sensitiveness of execution the artists and the
achievements of France. In England, although the Royal
Academy seeks to encourage its students to practise the art,
the prize it offers commonly induces no competition. The
art of the medallist is not properly appreciated or understood,
and receives little or no support. The prevailing notion
concerning it is that it consists in stamping cheap tokens out of
white metal or bronze, on which a design, more or less vulgar,
stands out in frosty relief from a dazzling, glittering background.
These works, even the majority of military and civic medals,
demonstrate how the exquisite art of the Renaissance had been
degraded in England almost without protest or even recognition
so that they are, to a work of Roty or Chaplain, what a
nameless daub would be to a picture by Rembrandt or Velasquez.
It is probable that Jacques Wiener (d. 1899), of Belgium,
was the last of the medallists of note who habitually cut his
steel dies entirely with his own hand without assistance, though
others in some measure do so still. Although most modern
workers, exclusively medallists, have themselves cut dies,
they now take advantage of the newest methods; and the
gT-iveur en medailles has become simply a medailleur. His
knowledge of effect is the same though the effect sought is
different: in earlier times the artist thought chiefly of his
shadows; now he mainly regards his planes. Otherwise his
aims are not dissimilar. At the present day the medallist,
after making conscientious studies from life (as if he were about
to paint a picture), commonly works out his design in wax,
or similar substance, upon a disk of plaster about 12 or 14 inches
in diameter. From that advanced model a simple mould,
or matrix, is made, and a plaster cast is taken, whereupon the
artist can complete his work in the utmost perfection. Then,
if a struck medal is required, a steel cast is made, and from
that a reduction to the size required for the final work is pro-
duced by means of the machine the tour d reduire. It is this
machine which has made possible the modern revival, and has
revolutionized' the taste of designers and public alike. It
was invented by Contamin, who based it upon that tour A
portrait which Houlot produced in 1766, and which helped
to fame several engravers now celebrated. This machine was
first exhibited in Paris in 1839, and was sold to the Munich
Mint; while a similar invention, devised at the same time by
the English engraver Hill, was acquired by Wyon for 2000,
and was ultimately disposed of to a private mint in Paris. From
that city comes the machine, based by the French inventor
M. Ledru upon the two already referred to, now in use at the
Royal Mint in London. A well-served medallist, therefore,
need trouble himself nowadays about little beyond the primary
modelling and the final result, correcting with his own hand
only the slightest touches refining, perfecting but sometimes
merely confining himself to giving his directions to the profes-
sional engraver. 1
The great majority of the artistic medals at present in the
world (in the great collection of France there is a total of not
fewer than 200,000 medals) are cast, not struck. There is in
them a charm of surface, of patina, of the metal itself, which
the struck medal, with all the added beauties which it allows
of delicate finish and exquisite detail, can hardly give. But
the production of the cast medal is much slower, much more
uncertain, and the number of fine copies that can be produced
is infinitely smaller. All the early medals were cast, being first
modelled in wax, and then cast by the cire perdue (waste wax)
1 The method of preparing the dies, &c., is the same for medals
as for coins, save that for larger and heavier work more strokes are
required, as in the case of L. Coudray's popular " Orphee " rather a
sculpture-relief than a medal. The dies are capable of a great yield
before becoming quite worn-out ; it is said that no fewer than three
million copies were struck of Professor J. Tautenhayn's Austrian
jubilee medal of the Emperor Francis Joseph. In France, Thonelier's
perfected machine, substituting the lever for the screw, has been in
use for coins since 1844; but for the striking of medals the same old-
fashioned screw-press is retained which had till then been employed
both for coins and medals since the time of Louis XIV. In its present
form the machine consists of an iron or bronze frame, of which the
upper part is fitted with a hollow screw wherein works an inner screw.
This screw, moved by steam or electricity, drives the dies, set in iron
collars, so that they strike the blank placed between them. This
machine can deliver a strong blow to produce a high relief, or a delicate
touch to add the finest finish. In the Paris Mint large medals can
be struck with comparative ease and rapidity. A hydraulic press
of nearly two million pounds pressure is utilized for testing the dies
xvm. i
MEDAL
process, and were usually worked over by the chaser afterwards;
indeed, it was not until the beginning of the i6th century
that dies, hitherto used only for coins executed in low relief,
were employed for larger and bolder work. The medallists
of those days always cast in bronze or lead, and only proceeded to
use silver and gold as a luxurious taste began to demand the
more precious metals. There is little doubt that the material
to be preferred is dull silver ( mat or sable sand-blasted)
as the work, with all its variations of light and shade, can be
better seen in the delicate grey of the surface.
The medal, properly considered, is not sculpture. Vasari
was happy in his definition when he described the medallic
art as the link between sculpture and painting that is to say,
painting in the round with the colour left out. Less severe
than sculpture, it need not be less dignified; it is bound down
by the conventions of low relief, and by compulsions of com-
position and design, dependent on shape, from which sculpture,
even when the relief is the lowest, is in a great measure free.
In the medal, otherwise than in sculpture, elaborate perspective
and receding planes are not out of place. The genius of the
modern Frenchman rebelled against the rule that commonly
governed the medal during the decadence, and has triumphed
in his revolt, justifying the practice by his success. The modern
medal and the plaquette aim at being decorative yet vigorous,
reticent and dignified, delicate and tender, graceful and pure;
it may be, and often is, all these in turn. Imagination, fancy,
symbolism, may always be brought into play, allied to a sense
of form and colour, of arrangement and execution. By the
demonstration of these qualities the artist is to be differentiated
from the skilful, mechanical die-sinker, who spreads over the
art the blight of his heavy and insensitive hand and brain.
So with portraiture. Accurate likeness of feature as well as
character and expression are now to be found in all fine works,
such as are seized only by an artist of keenly sensitive tempera-
ment. It is thus that he casts the events and the actions of
to-day into metallic history, beautifully seen and exquisitely
recorded; thus that the figure on the medal is no longer a mere
sculpturesque symbol, but a thing of flesh and blood, suave
and graceful in composition, and as pleasing in its purely decora-
tive design as imagination can inspire or example suggest.
It is thus that the art, while offering easy means of permanent
memorial, has afforded to men of restricted means the eagerly
seized opportunity of forming small collections of masterpieces
of art at a small outlay.
France. In France the example of Oudir.6, coming after that
of David d' Angers, did much to revolutionize the spirit animating
the modern medallist, but Chapu, by his essentially modern treat-
ment, did more. To Ponscarme (pupil of Oudin<5) is chiefly due
the idea of rendering mat the ground as well as the subject on the
medal, the suppression of the raised rim, and the abandonment of
the typographic lettering hitherto in vogue, together with the
mechanical regularity of its arrangement. Degeorge, with his
semi-pictorial treatment, was followed by Daniel Dupuis, whose
delicate and playful fancy, almost entirely pictorial, makes u's forget
alike the material and the die. J. C. Chaplain is unsurpassed as a
modeller of noble heads, including those of four presidents of the
French Republic Macmahon, Casimir-Perier, Faure and Loubet
and his allegorical designs are finely imagined and admirably worked
out (see Plate); but L. Oscar Roty (pupil of Ponscarme) is at the
head of the whole modern school, not only by virtue of absolute
mastery of the technique of his art, but also of his originality of
arrangement, of the poetic charm of his symbolism and his allegories,
the delicate fancy, the exquisite touch, the chasteness and purity
of taste wedding a modern sentiment to an obvious feeling for the
Greek. Though expressly less virile than Chaplain, Roty is never
effeminate. To Roty belongs the credit of having first revived the
form of the plaquette, or rectangular medal, which had been aban-
doned and forgotten along with many other traditions of the Renais-
sance (see Plate). Alphfe Dubois, Lagrange, and Borrel must
be mentioned among those who are understood to engrave their own
dies. Followers are to be found in Mouchon, Lechevrel, Vernon
Henri Dubois, Patey, Bottee (see Plate) all sterling artists if not
innovators. Medallists of more striking originality but less finish,
and of far less elegance are Michel Cazin, Levillain (who loves as
much as Bandinelli to make over-display of his knowledge of
muscular anatomy), Charpentier, and their school, who aim at a
manner which makes less demand of highly educated artistry such
as that of Roty or of Chaplain. It is learned and accomplished in
its way, but lumpy in its result; breadth is gained, but refinement
and distinction are in a great measure lost. It may be added to
give some idea of the industry of the modern medallist, and the
encouragement accorded to him that between 1879 and 1900
M. Roty executed more than 150 pieces, each having an obverse
and a reverse.
Austria. The two leading medallists of the Austrian school are
Josef Tautenhayn (see Plate) and Anton Scharff, both highly
accomplished, yet neither displaying the highest qualities of taste,
ability and " keeping," which distinguishes the French masters.
About 330 pieces have come from the hand of Anton Scharff. Stefan
Schwartz, Franz Pawlik, Staniek, Marschall and J. Tautenhayn,
junior, are the only other artists who have risen to eminence.
Germany. A characteristically florid style is here cultivated,
such as lends itself to the elaborate treatment of costume, armorial
bearings, and the like; but delicacy, distinction, and the highest
excellence in modelling and draughtsmanship qualities which should
accompany even the most vigorous or elaborate designs are lack-
ing in a great degree. Professors Hildebrand and Kowarzik have
wrought some of the most artistic works there produced.
Belgium. Although sculpture so greatly flourishes in Belgium,
medal work shows little promise of rivalling that of France. The
influence of the three brothers Wiener (Jacques, Leopold and Charles)
good medallists of the old school has not yet been shaken off.
The remarkable architectural series by the first-named, and the
coinage of the second, have little affinity with the spirit of the modern
medal. Lemaire has perhaps done as well as any, followed by Paul
Dubois, J. Dillens (a follower of the French), G. Devreese and
Vingotte (see Plate) whose plaquette for the Brussels Exhibition
award (1887) is original, but more admirable in design than in finish.
Holland. In Holland not very much has been done. Patriotism
has called forth many medals of Queen Wilhelmina, and the best of
them are doubtless those of Bart van Hove and Wortman. Baars
is a more virile artist, who follows Chaplain at a distance. Wienecke
is interesting for the sake of his early Netherlandic manner; the
incongruity is not unpleasant.
Switzerland. The medal 'is also popular in Switzerland. Here
Bovy is the leader of the French tradition and Hans Frei of a more
national sentiment. The last-named, however, is more remarkable
as a revivalist than as an original artist.
Great Britain. In England only two medallists of repute can be
counted who practically confine themselves to their art G. W. de
Saulles, of the Royal Mint, best known by the Diamond Jubilee
medal of Queen Victoria and by his medal of Sir Gabriel Stokes,
and Frank Bowcher (see Plate) by that of Thomas Huxley. These
artists both cut their own dies when necessary. Emil Fuchs,
working in England in the manner of the French medallists, but
with greater freedom than is the wont of the older school, has pro-
duced several examples of the art: the medals commemorative
of the South African War and of Queen Victoria (two versions), all
of 1900; and many portrait medals and plaquettes of small size have
come from the same hand. Besides these, the leading English
sculptors have produced medals Lord Leighton, Sir Edward
Poynter, Hamo Thornycroft, T. Brock, Onslow Ford, G. Frampton
and Goscombe John; but, practising more continually in sculpture,
they do not claim rank as medallists, nor have they sought to acquire
that class of dexterity which constant habit alone can give. Alphonse
Legros, who has cast a certain number of portrait medals, is usually
included in the French school.
United States. Among American medallists Augustus St Gaudens
(see Plate) is perhaps the most prominent; but he is not, strictly
speaking, a medallist, but a sculptor who can model in the flat.
AUTHORITIES. F. Parkes Weber, Medals and Medallions of the
I Qth Century relating to England by Foreign Artists (London, 1894);
Roger Marx, " The Renaissance of the Medal in France," The Studio
(vol. xv. 1898) ; M. H. Spielmann, " Frank Bowcher, Medallist, with
some Comment on the Medallic Art," The Magazine of Art (February
1900); Spink & Son's Monthly Numismatic Circular (passim),
1892 onwards (in English, French and German); Roger Marx, Les
Medailleurs frangais depuis 1789 (Paris, 1897); Les Medailleurs
franc,ais contemporains (Plates) (Paris, 1899); La Monnaie de
Paris a ['Exposition Universelle (Paris, 1900) ; Cent ans de numis-
matique francaise (2 vols., 1893-1895); F. Mazerolle, L. O. Roty:
Biographie et catalogue de son ceuvre (Paris, 1897); J. F. Chaplain:
Biographic et catalogue de I'oMvre (Paris, 1897); Dr H. J. de
Dompidre de Chaufepi6, Les Medailles et plaquelles modernes (in
Dutch and French) (Haarlem, 1897) ; A. R. v. Loehr, Wiener Medail-
leure, 1899. (Vienna, 1899); A. Lichtwark, " Die Wiedererweckung
der Medaille," Pan, 1895, pp. 34-40; 1896, pp. 311-318; Die Moderne
MedaiUe (a monthly magazine, passim) (Vienna); L. Forrer, Bio-
graphical Dictionary of Medallists , vol. i. A-D. (London, 1902)
(M. H. S.)
MEDALS AS WAR DECORATIONS
Although the striking of medals to commemorate important
events is a practice of considerable antiquity, yet the custom
of using the medal as a decoration, and especially as a decoration
to do honour to those who have rendered service to the state
MEDAL
PLATE I.
DUPLESSIS PLAQUETTE.
ROTY.
MAURICE ALBERT
PORTRAIT.
ROTY.
STUDY.
ROTY.
WEDDING MEDAL.
ROTY.
BOULANGER PLAQUETTE.
ROTY.
AMBROISINE MERLIN.
From the Medal by
MICHEL CAZIN.
xvm. 2.
MEDALS AND PLAQUETTES.
JULES CHAPLAIN.
PLATE II.
MEDAL
HENRI DUBOIS.
MEDAL OF AWARD FOR THE COPE
AND NICOL SCHOOL OF PAINTING.
F. BOWCHER.
FRANCE, 1870.
ROTY.
GREAT GOLD MEDAL, BRUSSELS, 1898.
Designed by P. WOLFERS. Engraved by VIN^OTTE.
GOLD MEDAL, VIENNA,
1894.
By JOSEPH TAUTENHAYN.
PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 1889.
By LOUIS BOTTEE.
INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, CHICAGO, 1893.
By AUGUSTUS ST GAUDENS.
MEDAL
in time of war, is comparatively modern. It has been supposed
that the circular ornaments on the Roman standards had medals
in their centres, but there is no evidence to show that this
was the case, and the standards shown on the column of Trajan
appear only to have had plain bosses in their centres. It is
true that the Chinese are said to have used military medals
during the Han dynasty (ist century A.D.), but, as far as the
West is concerned, we have to come to the i6th century before
we find the custom of wearing medals as decorations of honour
a recognized institution.
The wearing of decorative medals was common in England in
the reign of Henry VIII., but the first medals commemorating
a particular event that were evidently intended as a personal
decoration, and were in all probability (though there is no
absolute proof) bestowed as reward for military services rendered
to the Crown, are the " Armada " medals of Queen Elizabeth,
1588-1589. Of these there are two. The earliest, generally
styled the " Ark in flood " medal, is a large oval medal of
silver (2 by 1-75 in.), and bears on the obverse a profile bust
of the queen surrounded by the inscription, ELIZABETH
D. G. ANGLIAE. F. ET HI. REG. On the reverse is an ark
on waves, with above the rays of the sun, and around the
legend, SAEVAS TRANQVILLA PER VNDAS. This medal
dates from 1588, and in the following year there was given
another medal, a little larger (2-3 by 2-1 in.) and struck in gold,
silver and copper. The obverse of this second medal bore a
full-face bust of Elizabeth, with the legend, characteristic
both of the monarch and the period, DITIOR IN TOTO NON
ALTER CIRCULUS ORBE. The reverse has an island around
which ships are sailing and sea-monsters swimming, and on
the island there are houses, a flourishing bay-tree, standing
uninjured by a storm of wind, and lightning emerging from
heavy clouds above. The island is inscribed NON IPSA
PERICVLA TANGVNT. These medals are of special interest
as demonstrating thus early the existence of a doctrine of
sea-power. In fact, in the medals of James I. (1603-1625),
none of which have a distinct reference to war services, the
" ark in flood " design was again reproduced on the reverse,
this time with the legend slightly altered, viz. STET SALVVS
IN VNDIS.
Other European nationalities were also about this period
conferring decorative medals as a reward for war services,
as for example, the " Medal to Volunteers " issued in Holland
in 1622-1623 and the " Military Medal of Gustavus Adolphus "
issued in Sweden in 1630. Here it may be noted that in follow-
ing the history of medals as used as a decoration to reward
military services, only those of British origin need be dealt
with in detail, since Great Britain has utilized them in a much
greater degree than any other nationality. The countless
minor wars of the igth century, waged by the forces of the
Crown of every class, navy, army and auxiliary, have no equiva-
lent in the history of other states, even in that of France, the
United States and Russia. The great wars of the ipth century
were divided by long intervals of peace, and the result is that
with most of the great military powers the issue of campaign
medals has been on a small scale, and in the main decorations
have taken the form of " Orders " (see KNIGHTHOOD AND
CHIVALRY: Orders), or purely personal decorations for some
meritorious or exemplary service.
During the reign of Charles I. (1625-1649), we come across
numerous medals and badges; a considerable number of these
were undoubtedly associated with, and given, even system-
atically given, as rewards for war services; for a royal warrant
" given at our Court of Oxford, the eighteenth day of May,
1643," which directed " Sir William Parkhurst, Knight, and
Thomas Bushell, Esquire, Wardens of our Mint, to provide
from time to time certain Badges of silver, containing our Royal
image, and that of our dearest son, Prince Charles, to be delivered
to wear on the breast of every man who shall be certified under
the hands of their Commanders-in-Chief to have done us faithful
service in the Forlorn-hope."
From the foregoing it must not be deduced that this medal
was in any way intended to reward special valour. In those
days " forlorn-hopes " were not volunteers for some desperate
enterprise, as to-day, but a tactical advanced guard which
naturally varied, both in numbers and arm of the service,
according to ground and circumstances. That a very free
distribution of the award was contemplated is evident from
the fact that " soldiers " alone were specified as recipients
and that a clause was inserted in the warrant strictly forbidding
the sale of the medal. This letter ran:
" And we do, therefore, most straitly command, that no
soldier at any time do sell, nor any of our subjects
presume to buy, or wear, any of these said Badges,
other than they to whom we shall give the same, and
that under such pain and punishment as our Council
of War shall think fit to inflict, if any shall presume
to offend against this our Royal command."
As there are in existence several medals of this period which
bear t*he effigies of both the king and Prince Charles, it is
uncertain which in particular was used for the " forlorn-hope "
award. Very probably it is one, an oval silver-gilt medal
(1-7 by 1-3 in.) which bears on the obverse a three-quarters
(r.) bust of Charles I., and on the reverse a profile (1.) bust of
Prince Charles (see Mayo, Medals and Decorations of the British
Army and Navy, vol. i. No. 16, Plate 5, No. 3). During the
Commonwealth (1649-1660), parliament was lavish in the
award of medals in recognition of war services, and for the
first time we find statutory provision made for their bestowal
as naval awards, in the shape of acts of parliament passed
Feb. 22, 1648 and April 7, 1649 (cap. 12, 1648 and cap. 21,
1649), and Orders in Council of May 8 and Nov. 19 and
21, 1649, and Dec. 20, 1652. There is no doubt whatever
that there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for sea service
issued in 1649. This medal, oval -(-95 by -85 in.) and struck
in gold and silver, had on the obverse an anchor, from the
stock of which are suspended two shields, one bearing the
cross of St George, and the other the Irish harp. The motto
is MERVISTI. On the anchor stock, T. S. 1 The reverse
has on it the House of Commons with the Speaker in the chair.
This medal is referred to in a minute of the Council of State
of Nov. 15, 1649:
" (5) That the Formes of the medalls which are now brought
in to be given to the severall Mariners who have
done good service this last Surher be approved off,
viz': the Armes of the Cofhon wealth on one side
with Meruisti written above it, and the picture
of the House of Cofnons on the other."
That there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for land service
as well, is proved by the following extract from the Journals
of the House of Commons (vii. 6, 7) :
" Resolved, That a Chain of Gold, with the Medal of the Parlia-
ment, to the Value of One Hundred Pounds, be sent
to Colonel Mackworth, Governor of Shrewsbury, as a
mark of the Parliament's Favour, and gopd acceptance
of his fidelity: And that the Council of State do take
care for the providing the same, and sending it forth-
with."
This order was duly carried out, as is shown in the minutes
of the Council of State, June 2 and July 30, 1652, but there
is no trace to-day of either medal or chain. It is not un-
likely that this medal is one figured at page 117 of Evelyn's
Numismata (the engraving, unnumbered, is placed between
Nos. 39 and 40, and there is no allusion to it in the text), which
has on the obverse a representation of the parliament, and on
the reverse a bust of the Protector with a camp and troops in
the background.
The most splendid of all the naval awards of this period
were those given for the three victories over the Dutch in 1653,
namely:
Thomas Simon, master and chief graver of the mint. Most
of the medals of this period were his work, and they are considered
to be amongst the best specimens of the medallic art that have been
produced in the country.
MEDAL
i. The fight of Feb. 18/20, when Blake, Deane and Monk
defeated Van Tromp and De Ruyter, the battle beginning
off Portland and ending near Calais; (2) the fight of June 2
and 3, off the Essex coast, when Monk, Deane (killed), Penn
and Blake, again defeated Van Tromp and De Ruyter; (3) the
fight of 3ist of July off the Texel, in which Monk, Penn and
Lawson beat Van Tromp in what was the decisive action of
the war. The authorization for these awards will be found
recorded in the Journals of the House of Commons (vii. 296,
297), under date Aug. 8, 1653. The medals, all oval, and in
gold, were given in three sizes, as described below:
A (2-2 by 2 in.). Only four of these medals were issued,
to Admirals Blake and Monk, each with a gold chain of the
value of 300, and to Vice-Admiral Penn and Rear-Admiral
Lawson, each with a gold chain of the value of 100. On the
obverse is an anchor, from the stock of which are suspended
three shields, bearing respectively St George's cross, the saltire
of St Andrew, and the Irish harp, the whole encircled by the
cable of the anchor. On the reverse is depicted a naval battle
with, in the foreground, a sinking ship. Both obverse and reverse
have broad, and very handsome, borders of naval trophies, and
on the obverse side this border has imposed upon it the arms
of Holland and Zeeland. Of these four medals three are known
to be in existence. One, lent by the warden and fellows of
Wadham College, Oxford (Blake, it may be noted, was a member
of Wadham College) was exhibited at the Royal Naval Exhibi-
tion of 1891. A second is in the royal collection at Windsor
Castle. The third, with its chain, is in the possession of the
family of Stuart of Tempsford House, Bedfordshire. This
latter medal is known to have been the one given to Vice-
Admiral Penn, an ancestor of the Stuart family. The one
at Windsor is presumably Blake's, as Tancred states " the
medal given to Blake was purchased for William IV. at the
price of 150 guineas (Tancred, Historical Records of Medals,
p. 30). The medal at Wadham was formerly in Captain
Hamilton's collection. He purchased it at a low figure, but
secrecy was kept as to the owner, and the original chain that
was with it went into the melting-pot: there is therefore nothing
to show whether it was Monk's or Lawson's, as the chain would
have done. It was sold at Sotheby's in May 1882 for 305.
B (2 by 1-8 in.). Four of these medals were issued, each
with a gold chain of the^value of 40, to the " Flag Officers,"
i.e. to the flag captains who commanded the four flag-ships.
The obverse and reverse of this medal are, with the exception
of the borders, precisely as in (A). The borders on both sides
are a little narrower than those of (A), and of laurel instead
of trophies. One of these medals that given to Captain William
Haddock, who was probably Monk's flag-captain in the " Van-
guard," in the February fight, as he had been in that ship in
the previous year, and who commanded the " Hannibal,"
(44) in the June battle is now (1909) in the possession of
Mr C. D. Holworthy, who is maternally descended from
Captain Haddock.
C (1-6 by 1-4 in.). This medal is precisely the same as (B).
but has no border of any kind, and also was issued without
the gold chains. It was in all probability one that was issued
in some numbers to the captains and other senior officers of
the fleet.
Some of these medals have in the plate of the reverse an
inscription: FOR EMINENT SERVICE IN SAVING Y
TRIUMPH FIERED IN FIGHT WH Y DVCH IN JULY
1653. The medal so inscribed was given only to those who
served in the " Triumph," and commemorates a special service.
Blake, incapacitated by wounds received in the fight of February,
took no part in this action, but his historic flag-ship, the
" Triumph," formed part of the fleet, and early in the battle
was fired by the Dutch fire-ships. Many of the crew threw
themselves overboard in a panic, but those who remained on
board succeeded by the most indomitable and heroic efforts
in subduing the flames, and so saving the vessel.
But undoubtedly the most interesting of all the medals of
the Commonwealth period, is that known as the " Dunbar
Medal," authorized by parliament, Sept. 10, 1650, in a resolu-
tion of which the following is an extract :
"Ordered, that it be referred to the Committee of the Army,
to consider what Medals may be prepared, both for
Officers and Soldiers, that were in this Service in Scotland ;
and set the Proportions and Values of them, and their
number; and present the Estimate of them to the
House. (Journals of the House of Commons, vi. 464-465.)
So came into being, what, in a degree, may be regarded as
the prototype of the " war medal " as we know it to-day, for
the " Dunbar Medal" is the very earliest that we know was
issued to all ranks alike, to the humblest soldiers as well as to
the commander-in-chief. It differed however in one very
material point from the war medal of to-day in that it was
issued in two sizes, and in several different metals. There
is no evidence to show what was the method that governed the
issue of this medal; but the medal itself undoubtedly varied
in size or metal, or both, according to the rank of the recipient.
Of the two sizes in which the medal was issued the smaller,
i by -85 in. was apparently intended for seniors in the
respective grades, for it was struck in gold, silver and copper.
The larger, 1-35 by 1-15 in. was struck in silver, copper and
lead (see Mayo. op. cit. i. 20 2I). 1 On the obverse of both
issues of the " Dunbar Medal " is a left profile bust of Oliver
Cromwell, with, in the distance, a battle. The reverse of the
larger medal has the parliament assembled in one House with
the Speaker; and, on the left, a member standing addressing
the chair. The reverse of the smaller medal is the same as
that of the larger, except that the member addressing the House
is omitted. Cromwell himself expressed a wish to the " Com-
mittee of the Army, at London," in a letter dated the 4th of
February 1650/51, that his likeness, to procure which accurately
the committee had sent Mr Simon to Scotland, should not appear
on the medal. He writes:
" If my poor opinion may not be rejected by you, I have to offer
to which I think the most noble end, to witt, The Commemoracon
of that great Mercie att Dunbar, and the Gratuitie to the Army,
which might be better expressed upon the Medall, by engraving,
as on the one side the Parliament which I hear was intended
and will do singularly well, so on the other side an Army, with this
inscription over the head of it, The Lord of Hosts which was
our Word that day. Wherefore, if I may beg it as a favour from
you, I most earnestly beseech you, if I may do it without offence,
that it may be soe. And if you think not fitt to have it as I offer,
you may alter it as you see cause; only I doe think I may truly say,
it will be very thankfully acknowledged by me, if you will spare
the having my Effigies in it."
In spite of this request Cromwell's " Effigies " is made the
prominent feature of the obverse of the medal, to which the
representation of the " Army " is entirely subordinated. His
wish that the " word " for the day should be commemorated
is, however, observed in the legend on the obverse, as is also,
on the reverse, his suggestion that on one side of the medal
there should be a representation of the parliament.
During the reign of Charles II. the issue of medals was numer-
ous, and though we have it on the authority of Evelyn that
many of these were bestowed as " gratuities of respect," yet
many were given as naval awards; and, for the first time,
there appears official authorization for the conferring of particu-
lar awards on those who had succeeded in the very hazardous
service of destroying an enemy's vessel by the use of fire-ships.
In what are probably the earliest " Fighting Instructions "
issued those of Sir William Penn, in 1653, and again in an
abridged form in 1655 no allusion to these awards is made,
but that the custom of rewarding this special service prevailed,
there is a piece of strong indirect evidence to show, in the shape
of an amusing letter from a certain Captain Cranwill, of
" ye Hare Pinke," to the Admiralty Committee, dated Feb. 4,
1655:
1 An excellent reproduction of this medal, both obverse and re-
verse, is given in Plate 8, figs. 4 and 5, of the same work, and on
Plate 9 will be found equally well reproduced facsimiles of the three
medals for " Victories over the Dutch, 16^3," figs. I, 2 and 3 and of
the " Medal of the Parliament, for Sea Service, 1649," fig I
MEDAL
5
' " As for ye Pay yor Honrs were please to order mee for my service
in ye Hare Pinke, I return most humble thankes, and am ready to
serve yor Honrs and my Country for ye future
For though ye Hare be mewsed in ye sand
yet Cranwell at your mercy still doth stand
A fire Ship now doth hee Crave,
And the Fox fain would he Have,
then has hee had both Fox and Hare,
then Spanish Admirall stand you cleare,
For Cranwell means ye Chaine of goold to ware ;
Sett penn to paper it is done,
for Cranwell still will be your man,"
all of which goes to show that it had not been unusual to bestow
gold chains, with or without medals, on the captains of fire-
ships. By the " Fighting Instructions" issued zoth of April,
1665, by James, duke of York, lord high admiral, it was pro-
vided as follows. In the case of the destruction of an enemy's
vessel of forty guns or more, each person remaining on board
the fire-ship till the service was performed was to receive 10,
" on board ye Admirall imediately after ye service done,"
and the captain a gold medal and " shuth other future encourage-
ment by preferment and commande as shall be fitt both to
reward him and induce others to perform ye like Service."
If it was a flag-ship that was fired " ye Recompense in money
shall be doubled to each man performing itt, and ye medall
to ye Commander shall be shuth as shall particularly express
ye Eminensye of ye Service, and his with ye other officers
preferement shalbe suitable to ye meritt of itt." This was
followed by an " Oder of the King in Council " dated Whitehall
1 2th of January 1660-1670, in which the lord high admiral is
authorized " to distribute a Medall and Chaine to such Captaines
of Fire Shipps as in the last Dutch Warr have burnt any Man
of Warr, as also to any of them that shall perform any such
service in the present Warr with Algiers. Which Medalls
and Chaines are to be of the price of Thirty Pounds each or
thereabouts "
To complete the story of fire-ship awards, it may here be
noted (though out of chronological order) that in 1703 revised
" Fighting Instructions " were issued by Admiral Sir George
Rocke, in which it was provided that the captain was to have
his choice between a gratuity of 100, or a gold medal and
chain of that value. Lastly an order of the king in council,
dated, St James's, i6th of December, 1742, ordered that all
lieutenants of fire-ships (which originally carried no officers
of this rank) should be entitled to a gratuity of 50 " in all
cases where the Captain is entituled to the Reward of 100."
Though probably others were conferred, so thorough an investi-
gator as the late John Horsley Mayo, for many years assistant
military secretary at the India office, who had special opportun-
ities of access to official records, traced but three authenticated
fire-ship awards. Those were: (i) to Captain John Guy, who
blew up his fire-ship the " Vesuvius " under the walls of St
Malo in 1693; (2) to Captain Smith Callis who, with his fire-
ship the " Duke," in 1742, destroyed five Spanish galleys
which had put into St Tropez, to the eastward of Marseilles;
(3) to Captain James Wooldridge, who commanded the British
fire-ships in Aix Roads on the nth of April 1809, when four
French sail of the line were burnt. This latter is believed
to be the last award of the kind that was issued. Fire-ships
awards are of special interest as affording a precedent, in future
naval wars, for the award of special decorations for torpedo
services.
It is in this reign also that we first find a case of medals
being granted by the Honourable East India Company. The
earliest of these would appear to have been a gold medal of
the value of 20, conferred on Sir George Oxinden, president
at Surat, 1622-1669, in 1668, for considerable civil and military
services. Surat was then and until 1687, when Bombay took
its place, the seat of government of the Western Presidency,
and the most eminent of Sir George's services was the defence
of the Company's treasures and possessions at that place against
Sivajee and the Mahrattas in 1664. It is not known what
has become of this medal, but there is indirect evidence to
show that it was a circular medal, three inches in diameter.
On the obverse the " Arms of the Governor and Company of
Merchants of London trading to the East Indies, with creast,
supporters, and mottoes," and around the legend NON MINOR
EST VIRTVS QUAM QVAERERE PARTA TVERI. The
reverse was probably blank to admit of an inscription. This
award was the forerunner of many given by the H.E.I. Co.,
several of which were " general distributions " of the very highest
interest, which will be dealt with together later on.
The awards made in the reigns of James II., William and
Mary, William III., Anne, George I., George II., may be very
briefly dealt with. Almost without an exception they were
either naval or conferred by the Hon. East India Company,
and with only perhaps one or two exceptions, they were " per-
sonal " as distinct from " general " awards. Of the very few
medals awarded by James II., one was an undoubted military
award, though curiously enough the recipient was a bishop.
This was Peter Mew, who had been made bishop of Bath and
Wells in 1672, was translated to Winchester 1684, " and next
year was commanded by the king, in compliance with the re-
quest of the gentry of Somerset, to go against Monmouth, and
did eminent service at the battle of Sedgmoor, where he managed
the artillery; for which he was rewarded with a rich medal "
(Hutchins's History of Dorset, 3rd ed., vol. iv. p. 149).
The possible exceptions in the way of a " general " distribu-
tion of a medal during the reigns under review are the cases
of the medals struck after the battles of La Hogue, 1692,
and Culloden, 1746. By an act of parliament passed in 1692
(4 Gul. and Mar. c. 25), it was enacted that a tenth part of
the prize money taken by the navy should be set apart " for
Medalls and other Rewards for Officers, Mariners, and Seamen
in their Majesties Service at Sea who shah 1 be found to have
done any signal or extraordinary service." (Later a Royal
Declaration of Queen Anne, the ist of June 1702, provided that
all medal and monetary awards " shall be also paid out of Her
Majesties Shares of Prizes.") This is the first case in naval
records authorizing the issue of medals to men as well as to
officers, and the conferring of the " La Hogue " medal was
the first case in which the enactment was carried into effect,
at any rate as far as admirals and officers are concerned. Seamen
and soldiers had a more substantial reward, for the queen sent
30,000 to be distributed amongst them, whilst gold and silver
medals were struck for the admirals and officers. The medal,
which was circular, 1-95 in. in diameter, had on the obverse
the busts conjoined of William and Mary, r., with around GVL
ET MAR D G M B F ET H REX ET REGINA. On the reverse
was a representation of the fight, showing the French flag-ship,
" Le Soleil Royal," in flames, with above the legend, NOX
NVLLA SECVTA EST, and, in the exergue, PVGN NAV INT
ANG ET FR 21 MAY 1692.
As regards the medal struck after Culloden, fought on the
1 6th of April 1746, and in which the adherents of the young
Pretender were completely routed, there is nothing even to
show that it was issued even by the authority of the government,
though it was undoubtedly worn, and (if a contemporary portrait
is to be relied upon, that of an ancestor of Mr W. Chandos-Pole
of Radbourne Hall in Derbyshire) around the neck attached
to a crimson ribbon with a green edge. There is no doubt it
was struck in gold, silver and copper, but how it was awarded
there is no proof, probably only to officers. The obverse had
an r., bust of the duke of Cumberland, with above CUMBER-
LAND, below YEO f (Richard Yeo fecit), and, on the reverse,
an Apollo, laureate, leaning upon his bow and pointing to a
dragon wounded by his arrow. The reverse legend was ACTUM
EST ILICET PERIIT, and, in the exergue PROEL COLOD
AP XVI MDCCXLVI. The medal is a strikingly handsome
one, with an ornamental border and ring for suspension, oval,
i -75 by i -45 in., but very few specimens are known to exist.
Those in gold were probably only given to officers commanding
regiments and a very fine specimen of these, originally conferred
on Brigadier-General Fleming (at one time in command of the
36th Foot) is now in the collection of Major-General Lord
MEDAL
Cheylesmore. In his monograph, Naval and Military Medals,
Lord Cheylesmore mentions another " Culloden " medal in
his collection, " a slightly larger one in white metal, which
leads one to suppose that it was given in inferior metal to the
more junior branches, probably officers; but whether this was
the case or no I am unable authoritatively to state." However,
one thing is fairly certain, that the issue of the " Culloden "
medal was in no sense " general," as we now understand the
term, nor as were the issues for " Dunbar " or the issues of the
Honourable East India Company, which will next be dealt with.
No medal awards were made to either the naval or military
services for the Seven Years' War, and the American War of
Independence. In fact George III. had been more than thirty
years on the throne when the first medal award by the Crown
was given, in the shape of the navy gold medals, first issued
in 1794. It will however be more convenient to deal later with
these medals and the army gold medals and crosses given for
services in the long and arduous struggle of 1793-1815, and to
describe here in sequence those medals which were issued by the
Honourable East India Company, the issue of which was, with
certain limitations, " general," thus reverting to the precedent
first established in the " Dunbar " award, namely an issue to
all ranks. They are nine in number, and are described below
in the chronological order of the military operations for which
they were awarded.
1. The " DECCAN " medal. Authorized, first in 1784, and again
1785. Obverse: Figure of Britannia seated on a military trophy,
with her right hand holding a wreath of laurel and extended towards
a fortress over which the British flag flies. Reverse: Persian in-
scriptionsIn centre, " Presented by the Calcutta Government
in memory of good service and intrepid valour, A. D. 1784, A. H. 1199;"
around, Like this coin may it endure in the world, and the exer-
tions of those lion-hearted Englishmen of great name, victorious
from Hindostan to the Deccan, become exalted." This medal was
issued in two sizes, diameters 1-6 and 1-25 in. The larger medal
was struck both in gold and silver, the smaller in silver only, and
both were worn round the neck suspended from a yellow cord. This
medal was awarded to two large detachments of the Bengal army,
denominated the " Bombay Detachment "(authorized 1784), and
the " Carnatic Detachment " (authorized 1785), which respectively
fought in the west of India and Guzerat, 1778-84, and in the south
of India, 1780-84. The medal was not given to any Europeans,
only to natives; the larger medal in gold to Subadars, and in silver
to Jemadars; the smaller silver medal to non-commissioned officers
and sepoys. By a minute of council, dated the I5th of July 1784, a
further boon was granted to the " Bombay Detachment," inasmuch
as it exempted all Hindus of that detachment from payment of the
duties levied by the authorities on pilgrims to Coya in Behar. As
the large majority of the troops were high caste Hindus, and Coya
was, and is the Mecca of Hinduism, this favour must have been
much appreciated by the recipients of the medal. This is the earliest
Anglo-Indian example of a medal issued alike to all ranks.
2. The "MYSORE" medal. Authorized, 1793. Obverse: A
sepoy holding in his right hand the British colours, in his left an
enemy's standard reversed, whilst his left foot rests on a dismounted
cannon. A fortified town is in the background. Reverse: Within
a wreath; " For Services in Mysore, A.D. 17911792." Between
wreath and rim is an inscription in Persian : " A memorial of devoted
services to the English government at the war of Mysore. Christian
Era, 1791-1792, equivalent to the Mahomedan Era, 1205-1206."
Like the " Deccan this medal was in two sizes, diameters vj in.
and i'5 in., the larger being struck both in gold and silver, the smaller
in silver only, and both were worn suspended from the neck by a
yellow cord. The medal was awarded for the operations against
Tippoo Sultan, and was bestowed on the " Native Officers and Sepoys
of the Infantry and Cavalry, and on the Artillery Lascars, who either
marched by land, or proceeded by sea to the Carnatic and returned
to Bengal. ' The large gold medals were given to Subadars, the
large silver to " Jemadars and Serangs," the small silver medals to
" Havildars, Naicks, Tindals, Sepoys and Lascars." The award
therefore, followed precisely the precedent set in the " Deccan "
medal. One of the very rare gold specimens of this medal is in the
collection of Captain Whitaker, late 5th Fusiliers, whose collection,
and that of Lord Cheylesmore, are probably the two finest that
have as yet been brought together.
3. The "CEYLON" medal. Authorized, 1807. Obverse: An
English inscription: " For Services on the Island of Ceylon,
A.D. 1795-6." Reverse: A Persian inscription: "This Medal was
presented to commemorate good services in Ceylon during the years
of the Hegira 1209-10." This medal was issued in only one size,
2 in. diameter, and was awarded to a small force of Bengal native
artillery which formed a fraction of a large body of British and native
troops (the rest did not receive the medal) which captured Ceylon
from the Dutch in 1795-96. It is the only instance of a war medal
that has merely a verbal design on both obverse and reverse, and
moreover it sets a precedent that was destined to be followed only
too often in that it was only granted twelve years after the services
that had earned it had been rendered. Onjy 123 medals were struck,
two in gold for native officers, and 121 in silver for other ranks.
Like the two preceding, it was worn from the neck suspended from
a yellow cord.
4. The "SERINGAPATAM "medal. Authorized, 1799, for services
in Lord Harris's campaign of that year, and the storm of Seringa-
patam. Obverse: A representation of the storming of the breach
at Seringapatam, with the meridian sun denoting the time of the
storm. In the exergue is a Persian inscription: "The Fort
of Seringapatam, the gift of God, the 4th May 1799." Reverse:
A British lion overcoming a tiger, the emblem of Tippoo Sultan.
Above is a standard, with, in the innermost part of the hoist im-
mediately contiguous to the staff, the Union badge, and, in the fly,
an Arabic legend signifying " The Lion of God is the Conqueror."
Intheexergue: IV. MAY, MDCCXCIX. (thedateof theassault). It
was in one size, 1-9 in. but of five different kinds. Although
the medal was authorized in 1799, it was 1801 before orders for the
E reparation of 30 gold medals, 185 silver-gilt, 850 silver, 5000 copper
ronzed, and 45,000 pure tin, were given, the artist being C. H.
Kuchler, and the medals made by Matthew Boulton at the Soho
Mint, Birmingham. It was 1808 before they came out to India for
distribution, and it was not till 1815 that the Company's European
officers had the prince regent's sanction to wearing them on public
occasions. For the first time the issue was absolutely " general,"
to Europeans as well us natives, to Crown troops as well as to those
of the H.E.I. Co., but it was not till 1851, when the First India G.S.
Medal was awarded, that official sanction was given to their being
worn by Europeans in uniform. The medal was given in gold to
general officers, in silver-gilt to field officers, in silver to captains and
subalterns, in copper bronzed to non-commissioned officers, and
in pure grain tin to privates and sepoys. With regard to this medal
there is an incident that is worth recording. The bulk of the troops
engaged at Seringapatam were Crown forces, or belonged to the
Madras and Bombay presidencies; the only Bengal troops taking
part being five battalions of infantry, and artillery detachments.
On their return to Bengal no steps were taken with regard to medals
till 1807, when medals copied from the Soho Mint one, but 1-8 in.
only in diameter, were made at the Calcutta Mint. Following the
Bengal precedents as set in the " Deccan," " Mysore "and" Ceylon "
medals, the medals were struck in gold for officers, and in silver for
the other ranks. A Bengal native officer therefore wore just the
same medal as a general officer of any of the other forces,
and similarly a Bengal sepoy wore the same medal as a British
captain or subaltern of the Crown. The Bengal medal can easily
be distinguished from the others, for in the reverse the artist s
initials C.H.K. are rendered "C.M.H." Some officers, amongst
them Lord Harris himself and "Ms second-in-command Sir David
Baird, wore the medal with the red, blue-bordered ribbon, which is
the same as that worn with the Army Gold Medal (see below) and
was in fact the only authorized military ribbon then in use; but
though no ribbon was issued with the medal, recipients were given
to understand that the ribbon would be of a deep maize colour and
watered, the shading on the ribbon symbolizing the stripes in the
fur of the tiger, Tippoo Sultan's favourite emblem. The duke of
Wellington's medal (silver gilt), has the maize (or yellow as it is
often termed) ribbon, and the medal was undoubtedly more generally
worn with, this ribbon than with the red and blue one. There are
also apparently occasional instances of it having been worn with a
plain red ribbon.
5. The "EGYPT" medal. Authorized, 1802. Obverse: A
Sepoy holding the Union Flag in his right hand ; in the background
a camp. In exergue, in Persian: " This medal has been presented
in commemoration of the defeat of the French Army in Egypt by
the victorious and brave English Army." Reverse: A British ship
sailing towards the coast of Egypt. In the background, an obelisk
and four pyramids. In the exergue, MDCCCI. This medal was
only awarded to native officers and men of the small force of Bengal
and Bombay troops which formed part of the expeditionary force
from India, that co-operated in Sir Ralph Abercromby's descent on
Egypt in 1801 (see BAIRD, SIR DAVID). This was another case of
a belated issue (1811 for the Bengal troops and two years later for
the Bombay troops). The medal was issued in only one size, 1-9 in.
in diameter. For the Bengal troops 776 medals were struck, 16 in
gold for commissioned officers, 760 in silver for other ranks. The
Bombay government obtained the approval of the court of directors
for the issue of the medal to their troops in 1803, but apparently
did nothing till 1812, when they asked the Calcutta Mint for a copy
of the medal to enable them to prepare similar ones. The Bombay
Mint would not however appear to have been equal to the occasion,
for the sample was returned to Calcutta with the request that 1439
medals might be struck there. This was accordingly done, but all
of these medals were made of silver, and so the medal went to the
Bombay troops in all ranks alike. As in the case of the " Deccan "
medal, Hindu sepoys, who had volunteered for Egypt, were exempted
from the duties levied on pilgrims. This medal was worn suspended
from the neck by a yellow cord.
MEDALS AND DECORATIONS
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MEDAL
6. The " RODRIGUES, BOURBON AND MAURITIUS "
medal. Authorized, 1811. Obverse: A sepoy, holding in his right
hand the British flag, in his left a musket with bayonet fixed, stands
with his left foot trampling a French eagle and standard ; beside the
figure a cannon, and, in the background the sea and ships. Reverse :
Within a wreath, in Persian: " This medal was conferred in com-
memoration of the bravery and devotion exhibited by the Sepoys
of the English Company in the capture of the Islands of Rodrigues,
Bourbon, and Mauritius, in the year of the Hegira 1226." In the
circumference, in English: RODRIGUES VI. JULY MDCCCIX.
BOURBON VIII. JULY AND ISLE OF FRANCE III. DEC.
MDCCCX. This medal was awarded to the native troops of the
Bengal Presidency that formed part of the combined naval and mili-
tary forces that effected the reduction of these islands in 1809-10.
The government of Bengal also suggested " for the consideration
of the governments of Fort St George and Bombay, that corre-
sponding Medals shall be conferred on the native troops from those
Establishments;" but those governments dp not appear to have
complied with the suggestion, a distinct injustice to the Madras
and Bombay troops employed. The medals, struck at the Calcutta
Mint for the Bengal troops, were 1-9 in. in diameter, and in gold
and silver, 45 gold for native officers, 2156 silver for all other ranks.
They were worn as was customary in so many cases with yellow silk
cord suspended from the neck.
7. The "JAVA" medal. Authorized, 1812. Obverse: A
representation of the storming of Fort Cornelis. On a flag-staff
the British flag is shown flying aboye a Dutch one, and over all is
the word Cornelis. Reverse : In Persian : " This medal was conferred
in commemoration of the bravery and courage exhibited by the
Sepoys of the English Company in the capture of Java, 1228, Hegira."
In circumference, in English: "JAVA CONQUERED XXVI.
AUGUST MDCCCXI." This medal was awarded to the native
troops of the Honourable East India Company (all Bengal),
which took part in the expedition under Lieut.-General Sir Samuel
Auchmuty which effected the capture of Java from the Dutch in
1811. The medal, 1-9 in. in diameter, was struck in gold and
silver, 133 in the former metal for native officers, and 6519 in silver
for other ranks, and was worn in the usual manner with a yellow
silk cord.
8. The '-'NEPAL" medal. Authorized, 1816. Obverse: Hills
crowned with stockades. In right foreground the colours and
bayonets of an attacking force, to the left a cannon. Reverse: In
Persian: "This Medal was conferred by the Nawab Governor-
General Bahadur in testimony of the energy, good service, skill and
intrepidity, which were displayed in the Hills in the years of the
Hegira 1229 and 1230." This was awarded to the native troops
of the East India Company who took part in the arduous operations
in Nepal in 1814-16. This medal, 2 in. in diameter, marks a
very interesting new departure, for it was struck only in silver,
and given to all ranks precisely alike, whether the recipient was
commissioned or not. It was worn from the usual yellow silk
cord.
9. The " BURMAH " medal. Authorized, 1826. Obverse:
Representation of the storming of the great pagoda at Rangoon; on
the left, a palm tree under which the general and staff, and the river
with steamer and boats of the Irrawaddy flotilla joining in the attack.
In exergue, in Persian: " The Standard of the victorious Army of
England upon Ava." Reverse: The White Elephant of Burma
crouching in submission before the British Lion; behind the lion,
the British flag flying broad, behind the elephant, the Burma flag
drooping and between the two flags palm trees. In the exergue,
in Persian^ " The elephant of Ava submits to the lion of England,
year 1826." This, one of the most beautiful of all war medals, was
designed by W. Daniell, R.A., and executed by W. Wyon; and was
awarded to all the Company's native troops, that participated in
the First Burmese War, 1824-26. The medal, 1-5 in. diameter, was
issued in gold to native officers, in silver to other ranks. In all there
were struck; for Bengal troops, 308 gold, 13,108 silver; and for those
of Madras, 450 gold and 20,025 silver. Of the Madras medals how-
ever nearly half were still unclaimed in 1840. It is with this medal
that we first find, as regards Indian medals, definite instructions
as to the use of a ribbon, and the manner in which medals should
be worn. In 1831, it was officially ordered that the colour should be
red with blue edges it was in fact precisely similar to the Waterloo
ribbon (for which see Plate I.) and the instructions were that the
medal " be worn perfectly square upon the centre of the left breast,
the upper edge of the ribbon being even with the first button for
ranks wearing Sword Belts only, and even with the second button
for ranks wearing Cross Belts." Like the Waterloo medal also, it
was mounted on a steel clip and ring, and the medals were struck
at the Royal Mint instead of, as heretofore, in India. 1
1 Most of the authorities on medals, including Mr Thomas Carter
and Captain Tancred, style as the reverse of the medal what above
is styled the obverse and vice versa. We, however, prefer to agree
with the description of the medal as given by Mayo and for this
reason. The side of the medal which is described above as the
obverse depicts a chief incident of the war; the allegorical repre-
sentation on the other side is after all but the pictorial equivalent
of a verbal inscription, and so is properly the reverse of the medal.
This closes the list of the Indian medals, which, with the excep-
tion of that for Seringapatam, were issued only to the native
troops of the Honourable East India Company. All are now
very rare and very highly valued by collectors.
As has already been stated, the first war medals awarded
by the Crown in the reign of George III., were the navy gold
medals, instituted on the occasion of Lord Howe's great victory
over the French fleet on the ist of June 1794. On the 26th of
that month the king and queen visited Portsmouth, and, on
the deck of the " Queen Charlotte," Lord Howe's flag-ship,
presented the victorious admiral with a diamond-hilted sword
of the value of three thousand guineas. Gold chains, from
which the medals were afterwards to be suspended, were also
conferred on Admiral Lord Howe; Vice- Admirals Graves and
Sir Alexander Hood; Rear-Admirals Gardner, Bowyer and
Pasley; and Captain of the Fleet Sir Roger Curtis. At the
same time the king announced his intention of conferring gold
medals on each of the officers named, and similar, but smaller
medals on the captains. The medals were delivered in 1796,
the Admiralty ordering " The Admirals to wear the Medal
suspended by a ribband round their necks. The Captains
to wear the Medal suspended to a ribband, but fastened through
the third or fourth button-hole on the left side. The colour of
the ribband, blue and white."
The ribbon, which is white with broad blue borders (see
Plate I.), did not of course supersede the gold chain in the case
of those officers on whom chains had been conferred. They
wore their chain with the ribbon, and the medal of Admiral
Bowyer (now in the collection of Lord Cheylesmore) is so sus-
pended. The same splendid and intensely interesting medal
was later conferred for various fleet and ship actions deemed
worthy of special acknowledgment; and so came into being
the first " regulation " medal for naval officers.
The two medals are, with but one slight distinction, identical
in design, the larger being 2, and the smaller 1-3, in. in diameter.
The design is:
Obverse: The fore part of an antique galley, on the prow of which
rests a figure of Victory who is placing a wreath on the head of
Britannia who stands on the deck of the galley, her right foot resting
upon a helmet, her left hand holding a spear. Behind Britannia is a
" union " shield, charged with the Cross of St George and the Saltire
of St Andrew. (Ireland had not then been added to the Union).
Reverse: Within a wreath of oak and laurel, the name of the re-
cipient, the event for which the medal was conferred, and the date.
(In the smaller medal the wreath is omitted.)
In all, eighteen actions were recognized by this medal, the
complete list of which is as follows:
The " Glorious First of June " (7 large and 18 small medals) ; St
Vincent (Feb. 14, 1787) (6 large and 15 small medals); Camperdown
Oct. II, 1797) (2 large, 15 small medals); The Nile (Aug. I,
1798) (i large and 14 small medals); Re-capture of the frigate
" Hermione " from the Spaniards by the boats of H.M.S. " Surprise "
at Porto Cavallo (Oct. 25, 1799) (l small medal); Trafal-
gar (Oct. 21, 1805) (3 large and 27 small medals); Action off
Ferrol (Nov. 4, 1805) (4 small medals); Action off St Domingo
(Feb. 5, 1806) (3 large and 7 small medals); Capture of Curagoa
(Jan. I, 1807) (4 small medals); Capture of the Turkish frigate
" Badere Zaffer " by H.M.S. " Seahorse " (July 6, 1808) (l small
medal) ; Capture of the French frigate " Thetis " by H.M.S.
"Amethyst" (Nov. 10, 1808) (l small medal); Capture of the
French frigate " Furieuse " by H.M. ship-sloop " Bonne Citoyenne "
July 6, 1809 (i small medal); Capture of the Island of Banda Neira
(Aug. 9, 1810) (i small medal); Captain W. Hoste's action off
Lissa (March 13, 1811) (4 small medals); Capture of the French
74-gun ship " Rivoli " by H.M.S. " Victorious " (Feb. 22, 1812)
(i small medal); The "Chesapeake" and "Shannon" (June i,
1813) (l small medal); Capture of the French frigate " Etoile " by
H.M.S. " Hebrus " (March 27, 1814) (i small medal) ; Capture of the
American frigate " President " by H.M.S. " Endymion " (Jan. 15,
1815) (i small medal).
In all 22 large medals, and 117 small, were awarded; but this does
not say that all who were entitled to the medal received it. This
is most notably the case with regard to the " Glorious First of June."
When the issue was made, in 1796, the medals were given only to
those flag officers who had received gold chains, and to such captains
as were specially mentioned in Lord Howe's despatch of the 2 1st
of June, despite the fact that the admiral specially put it on record
that the selection therein made, " should not be construed to the
disadvantage of the other commanders, who may have been equally
8
MEDAL
deserving of the approbation of the Lords Commissioners of the
Admiralty, although I am not enabled to make a particular state-
ment of their merits." For this reason the medal was never awarded
to Rear- Admiral B. Caldwell, fifth in command on the great day, to
his flag-captain, Captain G. B. Westcott, and to seven other captains
of line of battle ships engaged. One captain however, who was not
mentioned in despatches, succeeded in gaining the medal, by a
tour deforce eminently characteristic of the superb breed of naval
officers that the great wars had brought into being. This was
Collingwood, who had been flag-captain to Bowyer in the " Barfleur."
When Collingwood was awarded the medal for St Vincent, where he
commanded the " Excellent," he flatly refused to receive it unless
that for the First of June was also conferred upon him, which was
done. For St Vincent, the Nile and Trafalgar, all flag officers and
captains engaged received the medal. At the Nile, Troubridge's
ship, the " Culloden," grounded in entering the bay, and so, strictly
speaking, he was never engaged in the action; but the king specially
included him in the award, " for his services both before and since,
and for the great and wonderful exertions he made at the time of
the action, in saving and getting off his ship."
For Camperdown, one captain, afterwards found guilty by court-
martial of failure in duty, did not receive the medal. Several
posthumous awards of the smaller medals were made to the relatives
of officers who were either killed in action or died of wounds. These
were: on the first of June, Captains Hutt ("Queen"), Montagu
(" Montagu "), Harvey (" Brunswick "); at Camperdown, Captain
Burgess (" Ardent ") ; at the Nile, Captain Westcott (" Majestic ") ;
at Trafalgar, Captains Duff (" Mars ") and Cooke (" Bellerophon ").
Captain Westcott was doubly unfortunate, for he was one of the
First of June captains who should have received the medal but did
not. Captain Miller of the " Theseus " also did not receive his medal
for the Nile, for, though not killed in the action, he perished at Acre
in an accidental powder explosion the May following, the medal
arriving after his death, and being returned to the Admiralty. In
only two cases were large medals conferred on officers below flag rank,
these being Sir R. Curtis, captain of the fleet to Lord Howe on the
First of June, and Nelson, who only flew a commodore's broad
pendant at St Vincent. Following this latter precedent Sir R.
Strachan should have had the large medal for the action of the ^.th
of November 1805, for he also was a commodore, but it was denied
him for what seems quite an inadequate reason, namely that he was
junior in rank to Captain Hervey of the " Temeraire," who was the
senior of the Trafalgar captains. Hervey was promoted to rear-
admiral for Trafalgar on the 9th of November, and Strachan to the
same rank on the following day.
The small medal too was conferred in only three cases on officers
below the rank of post captain. These were Commander Mounsey
of the " Bonne Citoyenne," for the capture of the " Furieuse " and
Lieuts. Pilfold and Stockham, who at Trafalgar commanded respec-
tively the " Ajax " and the " Thunderer," the captains of those
two ships being at the time of the action in England giving evidence
at the court-martial of Sir Robert Calder. In all, of the eighteen
awards of the Navy Gold Medal, eight were for fleet actions (one of
which was between squadrons of frigates), seven for single ship
actions, one between line of battleships, six in which frigates were
engaged, two for shore operations (in both cases the taking of islands
from the Dutch), and lastly the re-capture of the " Hermione " by
the " Surprise." This last mentioned award is one particularly
memorable, not only because it was the first time that the medal
was awarded to a frigate captain, but also because it is the only case
in which the medal was awarded for boat service pure and simple.
Nelson's two great victories, the Nile and Trafalgar, also earned
a medal for all ranks that participated in them, but these awards
were not made by the Crown but by the generosity of two private
individuals, though of course with the king's approval and permis-
sion. The first of these is " Davison's Nile Medal," which Mr
Alexander Davison, Nelson's prize agent and a valued friend, caused
to be struck at a cost of near 2000, and one of which was presented
to every officer and man engaged at the Nile. The medal, 1-85 in.
in diameter, was given in gold to Nelson and his captains, in
silver to lieutenants and officers of corresponding rank, in copper
gilt to warrant and petty officers, and in copper bronze to seamen
and marines:
Obverse: Hope, standing on a rock in the sea, holding in her
right hand an olive branch, and supporting with her left side a shield
on which is the bust of Nelson surrounded by the legend:
" EUROPE'S HOPE AND BRITAIN'S GLORY/' Behind the
figure and shield is an anchor, whilst around all is inscribed :
" REAR-ADMIRAL LORD NELSON OF THE NILE." Reverse:
The French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay, the British fleet ad-
vancing to the attack: a setting sun denotes the time of the action.
Around: " ALMIGHTY GOD HAS BLESSED HIS MAJESTY'S
ARMS "; and, in exergue: " VICTORY OF THE NILE AUGUST
I 1798." In the reverse the engraver when sinking the die'forgot
to transpose the position of the objects, and so the sun is made to set
in the east instead of in the west, and the land which is shown on the
right should properly be on the left.
Davison's Nile medal Was struck at the Soho Mint, Birmingham,
by Boulton, and it was this that probably inspired the latter to
present a medal to all who took part in the battle of Trafalgar.
" Boulton's Trafalgar Medal " was 1-9 in. in diameter, and given
in gold to the three admirals, in silver to captains and first-lieuten-
ants, and in pewter to other ranks. In a very considerable number of
cases the pewter medals were either returned, or thrown overboard,
the recipients being disgusted at what they deemed the paltriness
of the reward. Obverse: A bust of Lord Nelson in uniform with
around: HORATIO, VISCOUNT NELSON, K.B. DUKE OF
BRONTE, &c. Reverse: A representation of the battle, with
around on a scroll: ENGLAND EXPECTS EVERY MAN WILL
DO HIS DUTY. In exergue: TRAFALGAR OCTR. 21 1805.
Both the Davison and the Boulton medals were worn sus-
pended from a blue ribbon. These are the only two cases in
which officers and men of the navy and army have accepted
and worn medals presented by a private individual.
The Gold Medal given by George III. to the superior officers in
command at the battle of Maida, in Sicily, on the 4th of July 1806,
is an award of special interest, for not only was it the first
military award made by the Crown during the reign, but it was
moreover the prototype of the superb army gold medals and
crosses which were so widely distributed during the years that fol-
lowed. A general order of the duke of York, commander-in-chief,
dated Horse Guards, 22nd of February 1808, awarded a gold
medal for Maida to Sir John Stuart, K.B., his three brigadiers,
and nine other officers. Subsequently four other officers
received it, so in all seventeen officers received the award.
It was prescribed that the medal " should be worn suspended
by a Ribband of the colour of the Sash, with a blue edge, from
a button of the coat on the left side." It was in fact to be worn
in the same way as the small Navy Gold Medal, and as this
grant established blue and white as the specific navy ribbon,
so did the Maida award establish red with a blue border as the
regulation military ribbon. The Maida ribbon is in fact precisely
the same as the Waterloo ribbon shown in Plate I. The Maida
medal was 1-5 in. in diameter and struck in gold only. It
was issued precisely alike, quite irrespective of rank, to each of
its seventeen recipients.
Obverse: Head of George III., laureated and facing left, with
below the legend: GEORGIUS TERTIUS REX. Reverse:
Britannia casting a spear with her right hand, and on her left arm
the Union shield, above, and approaching her is a Flying Victory
holding out a wreath. In front of Britannia in four lines, is MAI/
DA/IVL IV/MDCCCVI/; behind her the triquetra or trinacria, the
symbol of the Island of Sicily. In the exergue are crossed spears.
Two and a half years after the Maida award the king author-
ized the " Army Gold Medal," the first grant of which was
notified by the commander-in-chief, in a Horse Guards general
order dated the pth of September 1810. This authorized the
bestowal of the medal on 107 senior officers mentioned by name.
The battles commemorated were Roleia, Vimiera (1808), the
cavalry actions of Sahagun and Benevente (1808), Corunna
and Talavera (1809). The Army Gold Medal so awarded was
in two sizes, large, 2-1 in. in diameter, for general officers,
small, 1-3 in. in diameter, for officers of lower rank: and the
regulations provided that it should be worn from a red ribbon
edged with blue, the larger round the neck, the smaller on the
left breast from a button-hole of the uniform. The ribbon
was the same width, if for both ribbons, and precisely the
same later on for the Gold Cross. Both large and small medals
were of identical design, in fact there was no difference, either
in medals or in ribbons, except in size and the style in which
they were worn :
Obverse: Britannia seated on a globe, holding in her right hand
a laurel wreath, and in her left, which rests upon a Union shield
resting against the globe, a palm leaf; at her feet to her right, a lion.
Reverse: A wreath of laurel, encircling the name of the battle or
operations for which the medal was granted.
In the following years subsequent orders similar to the
original grant extended the award of the Army Gold Medal,
until eventually twenty-four distinct awards were made, com-
memorating twenty-six actions, or series of operations, which
took place not only in the Peninsula, but also in North America,
and both the East and the West Indies.
The Peninsula medals were for Roleia and Vimiera, Sahagun
and Benevente, Corunna, Talavera, Busaco, Barrosa, Fuentes
d'Onor, Albuera, Ciudad Rodrigo (1812), Badajoz (1812),
MEDAL
Salamanca, Vittoria, Pyrenees, St Sebastian, Nivelle, Nive,
Orthes, Toulouse. The West Indies medals were for Martinique
(Feb. 1809) and Gaudaloupe (Jan.-Feb. 1810), the North
American for Fort Detroit (Aug. 16, 1812), Chateauguay (Oct.
26, 1813) and Chrystler's Farm (Nov. n, 1813), and there
was, lastly, a medal awarded for Java (Aug.-Sept. i8u).
From the above it will be seen that as time went on many
officers became entitled to two, three and even more medals,
and as this was found inconvenient, the method of granting
the award was very materially amended as notified by the
commander-in-chief, in a general order, dated Horse Guards,
October 7, 1813. This order formulated regulations which were
as follows:
1 . That one medal only was to be borne by each officer recom-
mended for the distinction.
2. That for a second and a third action a gold clasp was to be
attached to the ribbon from which the medal was suspended inscribed
with the name of the action.
3. When a fourth distinction was earned, the medal and two
clasps were to be replaced by a Gold Cross having the four actions
for which it was awarded inscribed upon it, one upon each arm.
4. On every occasion the recipient was awarded the decoration
after the fourth a Gold Clasp worn on the ribband was added to the
Cross.
The regulations further laid down that only officers should
be recommended who had been " personally and particularly
engaged " on the occasion, and that officers were to be named
by " special selection and report of the Commander of the
Forces upon the spot, as having merited the distinction by
conspicuous service Further, the Commander of the Forces
was restricted in his selection to General Officers, C.Os. of
Brigades, C.Os. of Artillery or Engineers, and certain staff
officers holding field rank, and Commanding Officers of Units,
and Officers succeeding to such command during an engagement. 1
It was also ordered that awards earned by deceased officers
should be transmitted " to their respective families." The
Gold Cross that was, under these regulations, instituted is as
follows: (
A Maltese Cross, li inches square, with an ornamental border;
in the centre, a lion, facing right; in each limb of the cross the name
of one of the actions for which it was conferred. The back of the
cross is the same as the front. The cross was precisely the same
irrespective of whether it replaced a large or a small medal.
The clasps were all of the same pattern, whether worn with
the cross, the large gold medal, or the small gold medal. They
are 2 in. in length by | in. in width, and bear, within a border
of laurel, the name of the action for which they were conferred.
At the close of the war in the Peninsula the issue of this handsome
and much coveted decoration was discontinued, the enlargement
of the Order of the Bath (January 1815) affording another
method of reward which the Crown deemed more appropriate.
On the occasion of this extension all officers who had obtained
the cross with one clasp, i.e. who had been decorated for five
or more actions, were made Knights Commander of the Bath.
In all 847 awards of this superb decoration were made. The
medal alone went to 469 officers, whilst 143 received it with
one clasp, and 72 with two clasps. The cross was issued singly
in 61 cases, with one clasp in 46, with two in 18, with three in
17, with four in 8, and with five clasps in 7 cases. The cross
with six clasps was gained by Sir Colin Campbell (Lord Clyde),
Sir Alexander Dickson (d. 1840) and Sir George Murray (d. 1846).
Two officers, Viscount Beresford and Sir Denis Pack (d. 1823)
received it with seven clasps. The duke of Wellington's had
nine, the decoration thus commemorating fourteen out of the
twenty-six battles, sieges or operations for which the Gold
Medals, Cross and Clasps were awarded. On the limbs of this
cross are, ROLEIA AND VIMIERA, TALAVERA, BUSACO,
FUENTES DE ONOR. The clasps are for CIUDAD ROD-
RIGO, BADAJOZ, SALAMANCA, VITTORIA, PYRENEES,
NIVELLE, NIVE, ORTHES and TOULOUSE. Not until
1 Captain Sayers of the royal navy, who commanded the " Leda "
36, and landed in command of the 500 seamen who erected and
manned the batteries for the attack of Fort Cornells, received the
small medal for Java. This is the only case of the Army Gold Medal
having been conferred on a naval officer.
after the close of the Great War, however, do we meet with
the real prototype of the war medal as we know it to-day; for
the Waterloo Medal of 1815 is the first actual " general "
medal that was ever issued, because it was issued precisely
alike to all ranks. In the twelve cases in which we have seen
that a medal was given to all ranks, the medals differed either
in size or in metal, or in both, according to the rank of the
recipient, and in eight out of the nine issued by the Hon. East
India Company the award was withheld from the British officers
and men employed. Again in none of -the cases quoted were
the awards made by the Crown. The " Dunbar " medal was
awarded by the Commonwealth parliament. The men of the
Nile and Trafalgar wore their medals through the generosity
of private individuals. In the other nine cases the award was
made by the directors of the Hon. East India Company. It
was with the issue of the Waterloo Medal that all this was
changed and for this well-merited and much prized boon the
Services owe all gratitude to the duke of Wellington. Writing
from Orville on June 28, 1815, to H.R.H. the duke of York,
he says:
" I would likewise beg leave to suggest to your Royal Highness
(the then Commander-in-chief) the expediency of giving to the non-
commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the battle of Waterloo,
a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army;
and, if that battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve
it."
Again, writing from Paris, Sept. 17, 1815, to Lord Bathurst,
then war secretary:
" I have long intended to write to you about the medal for Water-
loo. I recommend that we should all have the same medal, hung
to the same ribband as that now used with the medals."
(i.e. the army gold medals and crosses). It is also fair to point
out that in his place in the House of Commons, and on the
day after the duke's letter to the commander-in-chief had been
penned, William Watkins Wynn urged that medals should
be given to the survivors of Waterloo, and that they should
be the same for both officers and men, " so that they who had
been fellows in danger might bear the same badge of honour."
And so came into being that type of " general " medal, which
beginning with Waterloo has continued down to the present.
The description of these later medals, and the points of
interest about them, will now be given as fully as exigencies
of space will allow.
1. Waterloo, 1815. Awarded by the Prince Regent, 1816. Ob-
verse: Bust of the Prince Regent. Leg. GEORGE P. REGENT.
Reverse: Figure of Victory seated; in her right hand, a palm branchy
in her left, an olive branch. Above, WELLINGTON; below,
WATERLOO, JUNE 18, 1815. Ribbon : Crimson with blue borders
(Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The notification of this award was made in a memorandum by
H.R.H. the commander-in-chief, dated Horse Guards, March 10,
1816, and it is worth noting that the prince regent commanded that
the ribbon " shall never be worn but with the medal suspended to it."
The medal was conferred on all the British troops, including the
King's German Legion, present on the i6th June at Quatre Bras,
on the I7th in the fighting that took place during the retirement
through Genappe to Waterloo, and on the i8th at Waterloo. It was
also given to four regiments, 2nd Batt. 35th, 1st Batt. 54th, 2nd Batt.
59th, and 1st Batt. gist Regiments of Foot, which formed Sir Charles
Colville's Brigade, which was detached. The reverse of this medal
would appear to have been copied from the Greek Coin of 'Elis, about
450 B.C., a specimen of which is in the British Museum. The medals
most prized by collectors are those of the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Dragoons
(the Union Brigade "), and the 28th and 42nd Regiments of Foot,
as those regiments suffered very severely and consequently fewer
survivors received the medal than in other corps.
2. Ghuznee, 1839. Awarded by the Government of India, 1842.
Obverse: The Gateway of the Fortress. Below, GHUZNEE.
Reverse: In centre a space for name of recipient; above, 23rd July;
below, a mural crown with underneath it 1839; the whole within
a wreath of laurel. Ribbon: Particoloured, crimson and green
(Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
This medal originated with Shah Soojah, whose part the Indian
government took in the Afghan troubles of the time. His downfall
and death having taken place before the medals were ready, the
actual award was made by the Government of India. It was origin-
ally ordered (Bengal Military Proceedings, May 27, 1842; Nos. 151
and 152) that the ribbon should be green and yellow, and it was
undoubtedly so worn by some recipients; but there is no pfficia
record to show why the colours were altered to green and crimson.
xvm. i o
10
MEDAL
The medal was awarded to all troops both of the Crown and of the
Company that were actually present at the siege and capture of the
fortress, July 21,22, and 23, 1839.
3. Syria, 1840. Awarded by the Sultan of Turkey, 1841. Obverse:
A fortress on which the Turkish flag is flying, and above six stars;
below, in Turkish, " The People of Syria ; and the Citadel of Acre,
A.H. 1258." Reverse: Cypher of the Sultan, within a laurel wreath.
Ribbon: Red with white edges. Clasps: Nil.
The St Jean d'Acre medal, as it is commonly called, was awarded
to the officers and men of the British fleet that were engaged in the
operations off the coast of Syria, against Mehemet AH, which culmin-
ated in the bombardment and capture of St Jean d'Acre, Nov. 3, 1840.
The medal, ii in. in diameter, is purely a naval medal therefore,
although a few artillery and engineer officers doing duty in the fleet
received it. It was given in gold to officers of flag rank and captains
(or field officers), in silver to quarter-deck and warrant officers, and
in copper to other ranks. This is the only instance of there being a
difference made according to the rank of the recipient since the
" Burma " medal.
4. China, 1840-42 (ist Medal); China, 1857-60 (2nd Medal).
Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1842, 1861. Obverse: Head of
Queen Victoria, diademed, 1. Leg. VICTORIA REGINA. Reverse:
Naval and military trophy, with behind a palm tree, and in
front a shield of the Royal Arms. Above, ARMIS EXPOSCERE
PACEM. In exergue, CHINA I842. 1 Ribbon: Red with yellow
borders (Plate I.). Clasps: 1st medal, nil; 2nd medal, six
CHINA 1842; FATSHAN i857 2 ; CANTON 1857; TAKU FORTS
1858"; TAKU FORTS 1860; PEKIN 1860.
The first China medal was awarded to all the naval and military
forces, both of the Crown and of the Hon. East India Company, that
took part in the first China War, 18^0-42. Another medal was
struck, and is to be found in proof, but it was never issued as it was
deemed it might give offence to China. Of this the obverse is the
same as that described above; but the reverse had, under the same
motto, the British lion trampling upon the Chinese dragon, and
in the exergue, NANKING 1842. The second China medal was
similarly awarded to both the naval and military forces, British and
Indian, that took part in the second China war, i857-6o. To those,
however, who were already in possession of the first China medal
the second medal was not awarded, they receiving a clasp CHINA
1842 to go on their original medal, together of course with the clasps
to which their services in the second war had entitled them. The
second medal was in fact not a new decoration but a re-issue. The
first China medal was the first to be issued with the effigy of Queen
Victoria upon it. The first medal with clasps for the second China
war is very rare, and in almost every case would probably be found
to be a naval medal. Of the second medal only one was issued
with all the five new clasps. This was to a Royal Marine Artillery-
man, and it is now in the Cheylesmore collection. Medals specially
valued by collectors are those given to the 1st Dragoon Guards with
the two clasps TAKU FORTS 1860 and PEKIN 1860, as only two
squadrons of the regiment were present. In a G.O. by Lord Ellen-
borough, governor-general of India, dated Simla, Oct. 14, 1842, it
was intimated that the Government of India would present to the
Indian Army a medal, the design of which was indicated in the order,
but this idea was of course abandoned when the queen intimated
her intention of making the award.
5. Jellalabad, 1842. Awarded by the Government of India, 1842.
First medal Obverse: A mural crown; above, JELLALABAD.
Reverse: VII April 1842. Second medal Obverse: Head of
Queen Victoria as in China medal, but legend, VICTORIA VINDEX.
Reverse: Figure of Victory flying, in her right hand two wreaths,
in hejr left the British flag. Beneath, the town of Jellalabad. Above,
JELLALABAD VII APRIL: in exergue, MDCCCXLII. Ribbon
(both medals): Military ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
In a G.O., dated Allahabad, April 30, 1842, Lord Ellenborough
announced that the Government of India would present a medal
to the Company's troops, and with the consent of Her Majesty,
to those of the Crown, that held Jellalabad, under Sir Robert Sale
(Nov. 12, 1842 April 7, l8/p). The queen's consent to her troops
(I3th Foot, now Somersetshire Light Infantry) receiving the medal
was granted in August. The governor-general being dissatisfied
with the first medal, made at the Calcutta Mint, the second (generally
known as the " Flying Victory ") was ordered in England, and it
was notified that on their arrival the first medals, all of which had
been distributed, could be exchanged for the second. The new issue
was ready by March 13, 1845, but the recipients apparently preferred
the original medals, for very few were exchanged. Both are very
rare, for only 2596 medals were issued. The " military ribbon of
India " is a tri-cofour composed of the three primary colours shading
into one another. It was designed by Lord Ellenborough, and is
intended to symbolize an Oriental sunrise.
6. Afghanistan, 1842 (ist Afghan). Awarded by Government
of India, 1842. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First
China Medal. Reverse: No. I. CANDAHAR 1842 within a laurel
wreath; above, a crown. No. 2. GHUZNEE CABUL each within
a laurel wreath ; above, a crown ; below, 1842. No. 3. CANDAHAR
1 The second medal has no date.
5 Royal Navy and Royal Marines only.
GHUZNEE CABUL 1842 all within a laurel wreath ; above, a crown.
No. 4. CABUL 1842 within a laurel wreath ; above, a crown. Ribbon :
Military ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The authority for this medal is a G.O. of the governor-general dated
October 4, 1842. It was awarded to all troops, both of the Crown
and the Hon. East India Company, who took part in the operations
in Afghanistan in 1842, that is to say the second phase of the First
Afghan War. The medal, with reverses I, 2 and 3, was awarded
to those troops that were with Major-General Sir William Nott in
Candahar, and took part in the operations around that place, re-
captured Ghuznee, and then joined hands with the column under
Major-General Pollock at Cabul. The -medal with reverse 4 was
awarded to the column which advanced from Peshawur on Cabul,
being joined en route by the victorious garrison at Jellalabad. This
is the first of the four occasions on which the reverse of a medal has
been used to denote the actual part taken in the operations by the
recipient, in the manner that is now done by clasps. Of these
medals the one with the No. I reverse is the rarest, as its issue was
confined to the small portion of his army that Major-General Nott
left behind him in Candahar. The medal with the No. 2 reverse
is also rare, as its distribution was very limited.
7. Kelat-i-Ghilzie, 1842. Awarded by Government of India, 1842.
Obverse: A shield inscribed KELAT I GHILZIE encircled by a
laurel wreath, and surmounted by a mural crown. Reverse: A
military trophy, beneath, on a tablet, INVICTA MDCCCXLII.
Ribbon: Military ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The authority for this medal is the same as that for the First
Afghan Medal, and the medal itself was awarded to the troops of
the Hon. East India Company, which defended this hill fortress for
several months, and finally, before they were eventually relieved
from Candahar utterly routed and drove off a force of four thousand
men. As the medal was given only to 950 in all (forty being
European artillerymen, the remainder native troops), it is naturally
very scarce.
8. Sinde, 1843. Awarded by Queen Victoria to the forces of the
Crown, and by the Government of India to the troops of the Company.
Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China Medal. Reverse:
i. MEEANEE 1843. 2. HYDERABAD 1843. 3. MEEANEE
HYDERABAD 1843. In each case the inscription is surrounded
by a laurel wreath, and surmounted by a crown. Ribbon: Military
ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The award of a medal for Sir Charles Napier's conquest of Sinde
was first notified, as far as the troops of the Crown were concerned,
by a letter from Lord Stanley, then war secretary, to the president
of the India Board, dated July 18, 1843, and it is worth noting that
this is the only instance of any medals for Indian service being paid
for by the Crown. The notification of a similar award by the Govern-
ment of India to their own troops, followed in a G.O. by the governor-
general, dated September 22, 1843. The award was confined to
those who had been present at either Meeanee or Hyderabad, and
the medals were issued according as to which actions the recipient
had been present, no one of course receiving more than one medal
for the campaign. In addition to the land forces of the Hon. East
India Company, the medal was also given to the naval officers and
crews of the Company's flotilla on the Indus. The only Crown
regiment that received this medal was the 22nd Foot.
9. Gwalior, 1843 (" Maharajpoor " and " Punniar " Stars).
Awarded by the Government of India, 1844. This decoration took
the form of a bronze star of six points, 2 in. in diameter. Obverse :
In centre a silver star, ij in. in diameter, around the centre of
which is a circle in which is inscribed either MAHARAJPOOR 1843
or PUNNIAR 1843, and in centre of circle the date 2gth DECR.
Reverse: Plain for name and regiment, or corps, of recipient.
Ribbon: Military ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The award of a medal to the troops of the Crown and the Hon.
East India Company engaged in the Gwalior Campaign of 1843
was first notified in governor-general's G.O., dated Camp, Gwalior
Residency, January 4, 1844; and the queen's permission for it to
be worn by Crown troops given June 26, 1844. The force moved
in two columns, the main and larger under Sir Hugh (Viscount)
Gough, the smaller under Major-General Gray. Each force fought
an action on the same day, December 29, 1843, the former at Maharaj-
poor, the latter at Punniar, and the star was inscribed according to
which action the recipient was engaged. The stars were manu-
factured from the metal of the captured guns. The star given to
Sir Hugh Gough had in the centre a silver elephant in lieu of a silver
star, and it was originally intended that all should be the same, but
the silver star was substituted for reasons of economy. As there
were fewer troops at Punniar that star is of course the more un-
common.
10. Sutlej, 1845-46 (ist Sikh War). Awarded by Government
of India, 1845. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China
Medal. Reverse: Figure of Victory, standing, with in right hand
outstretched a wreath, in left a palm branch ; at her feet a trophy
of captured Sikh weapons and armour. In exergue, name and year
of the first battle of the war in which recipient was engaged. These
inscriptions are four, viz. MOODKEE 1845, FEROZESHUHUR
1845, ALIWAL 1846, SOBRAON 1846. Ribbon: Blue with
crimson borders (Plate I.). Clasps: FEROZESHUHUR, ALIWAL,
SOBRAON.
MEDAL
ii
This award, given to all the troops, both Crown and Hon. East
India Company engaged in the First Sikh War, was first notified
in governor-general's G.O., dated Camp, Ferozepore, December 25,
1845, the queen's consent for Crown troops to receive the medal
being given six months later. As there was a considerable number
of troops engaged in this campaign, the medal is not a very rare one,
but a very rare combination is the medal with Ferozeshuhur in the
exergue and the clasp for Aliwal, as only half a company of native
artillery was present in these two battles and in no other. This
is a specially noticeable medal, for it is the first time that " clasps "
were issued with a " general " medal, the precedent followed being
that of the Army Gold Medal. For every action after his first battle,
which was inscribed on the medal itself, the recipient received a clasp.
Thus a medal with " Moodkee " in the exergue might carry one,
two or three clasps; a " Sobraon " medal could have no clasps.
This and the " Punjab " medal, to be described later, are generally
considered to be the two finest pieces of medal work by W. Wyon,
R.A.
11. Navy General Service, 1793-1840. Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1847. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China
Medal; under head, 1848. Reverse: Britannia seated on a sea
horse; in her right hand, a trident; in her left, a laurel branch.
Ribbon: White, with dark blue borders (Plate I.). Clasps: 231
clasps in all were granted, of which 55 were for " Boat Service."
An Admiralty memorandum dated June I, 1847, notified the grant
of this award to commemorate the services of the fleet " during the
wars commencing in 1793 and ending in 1815," and this practically
confined the award to those operations for which the Navy Gold
Medal (see ante) had been conferred. Subsequently, however, a
board of admirals was appointed to consider claims, and on their
recommendation an Admiralty memorandum dated June 7, 1848,
extended the grant. Clasps were to be given for: (i) All Gold Medal
actions or operations. (2) All actions in which first lieutenants or
commanders were promoted, as had been customary after important
and meritorious engagements. (3) All " Boat Service " operations
in which the officer conducting the operations was promoted. (4)
For, in co-operation with the land forces, the siege and capture of
Martinique, 1809, Guadaloupe, 1810, Java, 1811, and St Sebastian,
1813, for all of which operations the Army Gold Medal had been
awarded; and (5) The Bombardment of Algiers, 1816; the Battle
of Navarino, 1827; and operations on the coast of Syria, 1840.
Although the medal is purely a naval one, yet it was conferred
on a few soldiers who had done duty in the fleet in actions or opera-
tions, for which the medal was granted. Forty military officers
in all received the Navy G.S. medal, one, Captain Caleb Chute,
69th Foot, with two clasps, viz. " I4th March, 1795 " and " St
yincent." It is very difficult to compile an absolutely accurate
list of all the clasps issued, for in several cases more than one clasp
was given for the same action, and there were moreover nine or ten
clasps allowed for which no claims appear to have been made good.
The combination of the clasps is endless, but it is curious to note
that medals with more than one, or two clasps are rare; with four
or five clasps, very rare; and the highest number of clasps issued
with any one medal is six. Amongst very rare clasps the follow-
ing may be mentioned. One survivor only, Lieut. Baugh, the
officer in command, was alive to claim the clasp " Rapid, 24th April,
1808." Only two claims were proved for "Surly, 24th April, 1810";
six for "Castor, I7th June, 1809" ; seven for "Amazon, I3th January,
I 797"; eight for "Confiance, I4th January, 1809"; and ten for
" Acheron, 3rd February, 1805." Of " Boat Service " clasps only
three were claimed for " 2Oth December, 1799"; four for " 9th
June, 1799"; and eight for " loth July, 1799." (All "Boat
Service " clasps are inscribed " Boat Service " with the day and
month on the left, and the year on the right.) In all nearly thirty
thousand claims were proved for the medal.
12. Army General Service, 1793-1814. Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1847. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China
Medal; under head, 1848. Reverse: Queen Victoria on a da'is
is placing a wreath on the head of the duke of Wellington, who kneels
on his left knee before her, holding in his right hand the baton of a
Field Marshal; at the side of the da'is is a lion dormant. Legend:
TO THE BRITISH ARMY. In exergue: 1793-1814. Ribbon:
Crimson with blue borders (Plate I.). Clasps: EGYPT, MAIDA,
ROLEIA, VIMIERA, SAHAGUN, 1 BENEVENTE, 1 SAHAGUN-
BENEVENTE, 1 CORUNNA, MARTINIQUE, 2 TALAVERA,
GUADALOUPE, 2 BUSACO, BARROSA, FUENTES D'ONOR,
ALBUHERA, JAVA, 2 CIUDAD RODRIGO, BADAJOZ, SALA-
MANCA, FORT DETROIT, CHATEAUGUAY, CHRYSTLER'S
FARM, VITTORIA, PYRENEES, ST SEBASTIAN, 2 NIVELLE,
NIVE, ORTHES, TOULOUSE.
This medal, frequently erroneously termed the " Peninsular War "
medal, was awarded to the survivors of the military forces of the
Crown that had taken part in the Peninsular War, and in contem-
poraneous operations in other parts of the world; it was also given
with the clasp " Java " to the European troops of the Hon. East
India Company; with the clasps " Martinique " and " Guadaloupe "
to certain local West Indian Corps; and with the clasps " Fort
1 Whether in one or both actions, only one clasp awarded.
2 A similar clasp was given with the Navy G.S. medal.
Detroit," " Chateauguay," and " Chrystler's Farm," to some Cana-
dian militia and local levies, as well as to some Indian auxiliaries.
The award of the medal, and all the clasps except " Egypt," bear
date June I, 1847, but the clasp " Egypt " was not granted till
February 12, 1850. Although the medal is supposed to com-
memorate services "during the wars commencing in 1793, and ending
in 1814," the earliest operations for which the medal was awarded
did not take place until 1801. No medal was issued without a clasp,
and as will be seen the medal was awarded only for those actions
or operations for which the Army Gold Medals (including that for
Maida) had been awarded; and in addition for the operations in
Egypt in 1801. The combination of clasps is endless but only
two medals were issued with fifteen clasps, though several survivors
proved their claim to fourteen clasps. In fact medals with seven,
eight or nine clasps are not common, those with ten,, or more, dis-
tinctly rare. For example, taking only medals issued to officers
(including those of the King's German Legion), three were issued
with 14 clasps, three with 13, nine with 12, twelve with II, thirty-six
with 10, fifty-eight with 9, ninety with 8, and one hundred and four-
teen with 7. By far the rarest of all clasps is " Benevente," as
according to the War Office lists only three would appear to have
been issued, viz. to Captain Evelegh, R.H.A., Pte. G. Barrett, loth
Hussars, and Pte. M. Gilmour, i8th Hussars, although a medal with
this clasp having every appearance of being genuine and issued
to Pte. William Lyne, 7th Hussars, was in the collection of Colonel
Murray of Polmaise. Sahagun also is a very rare clasp, as it was
received only by fifteen men of the 1 5th Hussars and a few others.
The three North American clasps are also very rare, especially
Chateauguay. Leaving out awards to Indian warriors, the statistics
regarding the issue of the North American clasps are approximately
as follows. At Chateauguay some 300 men fought, and 132 survivors
proved for the clasp, of which all except three of the Royal Artillery
were Canadians. For Chrystler's Farm, the next rarest clasp, out
of about 800 engaged 176 claims were proved: viz. 79 of the 8gth
Foot, 59 Canadians, 44 of the 49th Foot, and 4 Royal Artillery. At
Fort Detroit, 1330 men were engaged, and those who proved for the
clasp included 210 Canadians, 52 of the 4lst Foot, 5 Royal Artillery,
and one man of the 4ist Foot (who also got the clasp for Chrystler's
Farm). One man proved for all three clasps, another for " Fort
Detroit " and " Chateauguay," a third for " Chateauguay " and
" Chrystler's Farm." The former medal is said to be in the cabinet
of a New York collector. Two " regulars " also proved for the medal
with clasps for " Fort Detroit " and " Chrystler's Farm," the one
belonging to the Royal Artillery, the other to the 49th Foot. The
medal of the former sold at the Greg sale, in 1887, for 25 los.
13. Punjab, 1848-49 (2nd Sikh War). Awarded by Government
of India, 1849. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as in First
China Medal. Reverse: Sikh chiefs delivering up their arms to
Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert, near Rawal Pindi, March 14, 1849. Above,
TO THE ARMY OF THE PUNJAB. In exergue, MDCCCXLIX.
Ribbon: Blue with yellow stripes at side (Plate I.). Clasps:
MOOLTAN, CHILI ANWALA, GOOJERAT.
The award of this medal was first notified by a G.O. of the governor-
general, dated Camp, Ferozepore, April 2, 1849. The medal is one
of special interest, for it establishes the principle that now rules,
viz. that every one participating in a campaign (including for the
first time civilians) was entitled to receive the medal, apart from
those who received the medal together with a clasp for a specific
action. The medal in fact was granted "to every officer and soldier
who has been employed within the Punjab in this campaign to the
date of the occupation of Peshawur." In other words it was granted
to all who had served " during this campaign within the territories
of Maharajah Duleep Sing," irrespective of whether they had qualified
for any of the clasps. A very large number of medals was therefore
issued without clasps. Another interesting point about this award
is that after its grant it was laid down that in future no medals were
to be issued by the Government of India without the consent of the
Crown. As a matter of fact the Government of India was for the
future only concerned in the grant of the two medals that followed,
namely the First and Second India General Service Medals. No
medals were issued with more than two of the three clasps, the com-
bination being either "Mooltan" and "Goojerat" or "Chilianwala"
and " Goojerat." Very rare medals are those of the 24th Foot with
the clasp for " Chilianwala," as in that action they lost more than
half their strength, their casualties amounting to 497, of whom 250
were killed or died of wounds. Another rare medal is that given
without a clasp to the officers and men of the Indian Marine that
manned the Indus Flotilla; and more rare still is the same medal
with the " Mooltan " clasp which was given to a naval brigade landed
from the same flotilla.
14. India, 1799-1826 (ist India G.S., officially styled " India,
1851 "). Awarded by the Government of India, 1851. Obverse:
Head of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse : Victory
seated, in her right hand a laurel branch, in her left a wreath ; on
the ground beside her a lotus flower, and in the left background a
palm tree and trophy of Eastern arms. Above, TO THE ARMY
OF INDIA. In exergue, 1799-1826. Ribbon: Sky blue (Plate I.).
Clasps: ALLIGHUR, BATTLE OF DELHI, ASSYE, AS-
SEERGHUR, LASWARREE, ARGAUM, GAWILGHUR,
DEFENCE OF DELHI, BATTLE OF DEIG, CAPTURE OF
12
MEDAL
DEIG, NEPAUL, KIRKEE, 1 POONA, 1 KIRKEE-POONA, 1
SEETABULDEE, 1 NAGPORE, 1 SEETABULDEE-NAGPORE,
MAHEIDPOOR, CORYGAUM, AVA, BHURTPOOR.
This medal was awarded " to the surviving officers and soldiers
of the Crown and of the East India Company ' who took part in any
one of seventeen specified actions and operations which occurred
in India, Ncpaul and Burma, during the first twenty-five years of
the igth century, " including the officers and seamen of the Royal
Navy and the Company's Marine who took part in the first Burmese
War." The queen's consent to the grant of this medal was an-
nounced in the London Gazette by a Notice of the Court of Directors,
dated March 21, 1851. It was subsequently notified to the British
Army by a Horse Guards G.O., dated March 21, 1851 ; to the Royal
Navy by an Admiralty memorandum of the same date; and to the
Army in India by a governor-general's G.O., dated April 14, 1851.
In this medal again there is a discrepancy in dating, for though it
is dated 1799-1826, the first action for which it was awarded, the
storming of Allighur, took place on September 24, 1803. No medals
were issued without clasps, the largest combination of clasps known
being five. According to the India Office records there were ap-
parently men entitled to as many as seven clasps, but whether any
medal was issued with more than five is very doubtful. That
awarded to the duke of Wellington had three clasps, " Assye,"
" Argaum " and " Gawilghur." With the exception of medals
issued with the Ava and Bhurtpore clasps, this medal is a rare one,
and with a large number of the clasps, all except perhaps those for
Nepaul and Maheidpore, an extremely rare one. The rarest of all
is " Seetabuldee," as only two Europeans and two natives are known
to have received it. " Defence of Delhi " is also a very rare clasp,
as the garrison only comprised two weak battalions of native infantry ;
as is also " Corygaum, which was issued to only two Europeans,
" both officers," and seventy-five natives. The only European
troops present at Corygaum were an officer and twenty-six men of
the Madras Artillery, of whom the officer and twelve men were
killed and eight wounded. As the " Burma " medal had already
been given to the Company's native officers and soldiers for the
First Burmese War, only the European officers and men of the
Company's service received the medal with " Ava " clasp; but as
the " Nepaul " medal had not been given to all the native troops
who actually served " within the hills," the medal with clasp
" Nepaul " was granted to those native troops who had not
received the Nepaul medal, as well as to all the Company's
European officers and men.
15. India, 1852-95 (2nd India G.S., officially styled " India,
1854 "). Awarded by the Government of India as far as the first
two issues with their clasps are concerned, all subsequent issues and
clasps, with the exception of the last two, by Queen Victoria; the
last two issues and clasps by King Edward VII. Obverse: Head
of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse: Victory
standing, crowning a naked warrior sitting. In exergue, a lotus
flower and leaves, symbolizing the connexion of the medal with India.
Ribbon: Red, with two blue stripes, forming five J-inch stripes
(Plate I.). Clasps : PEGU, 2 PERSIA, 2 NORTH-WEST FRONTIER,
UMBEYLA, BHOOTAN, LOOSHAI, PERAK i875~76, 2 JOWAKI
1877-78, NAGA 1870-80, BURMA i88s-87, 2 SIKKIM 1888,
HAZARA 1888, BURMA 1887-89, CHIN-LOOSHAI 1889-90,
SAMANA 1891, HAZARA 1891, N.E. FRONTIER 1891, HUNZA
1891, BURMA 1889-92, LUSHAI i889-92,WAZIRISTAN 1894-95,
CHIN HILLS 1892-93, KACHIN HILLS 1892-93.
The queen's assent to this award, to those of H.M.'s Sea and Land
Forces, as well as those belonging to the East India Company's
Establishment engaged in the Second Burmese War, was first
made known to the Government of India in a letter from the Court
of Directors, April 6, 1853. In a Minute by Lord Dalhousie, the
governor-general, December Q, 1852, it had been suggested " whether
it would not be better for the future, instead of issuing a separate
Medal for each campaign, to have one Medal, such as the ' Indian
Medal ' (i.e. the ' India, 1851 ' Medal), which should be issued once
to each individual entitled: the particular service for which it is
granted being recorded upon a Bar, and every subsequent service
which may be thought to deserve distinction being recorded by an
additional Bar. This plan would avoid the multiplication of Medals,
which has accumulated of late years, which I humbly think is
undesirable." In another letter from the Court of Directors to the
Government of India, March I, 1854, this suggestion is approved,
and it was ordered that after " a suitable design " had been procured
(L. C. Wyon designed the reverse), "the Medal to be now struck
shall be of a general character, the particular service for which it
is now grantea, viz. ' Pegu,' being recorded on a Bar. In the event
of the same soldiers being entitled hereafter to another similar
distinction, the service will be recorded by an additional Bar to the
same Medal." Occasional mistakes have however been made, for,
since the issue with the clasp for the Perak campaign, from which
time it has become customary to date the clasp, many instances
have occurred of men having received two medals with clasps for
different campaigns. The issue to the Persian Expeditionary Force
1 Whether in one or both actions, only one clasp awarded.
2 The Royal Navy or Indian Marine, or both, received the medal
with these clasps.
(1856-1857), with the clasp " Persia," was awarded by the Court of
Directors January 19, 1858, and sanctioned by the queen in the same
month. The first issue of the medal by the Crown was authorized
April 15, 1859, with the clasps " North-West Frontier " and " Um-
beyla," the former covering various expeditions between 1849 and
1863, the latter the hard-fought Umbeyla Campaign of the latter
mentioned year. All subsequent issues of the award were made by
Queen Victoria, with the exception of those that carried with them
the clasps " Chin Hill 1892-93," and " Kachin Hills 1892-93,"
which were only awarded ten years afterwards by King Edward VII., .
and notified in Army Order 9 of January 1903; the medal, which
had meantime been superseded by the Third India G.S. medal
described below, being re-issued with these last two clasps. The
combination of clasps with this medal is very numerous, but medals
with more than two or three clasps are rare. Seven is probably
the greatest number awarded with any one medal, and a medal with
this number, viz. " Umbeyla," " North-West Frontier," " Jowaki
1877-78," "Burma 1885-87," " Hazara 1888," " Samana 1891,"
and Hunza 1891," was granted to Bhanga Singh, Sardar
Bahadur, who retired as Subadar-Maior of No. 4 (Derajat) Mountain
Battery. Sir William Lockhart (q.v. ) had the medal with six clasps.
The rarest of all the clasps is probably " Hunza 1891," as less than
a thousand men were employed, and the majority of these were
Cashmere Imperial Service Troops.- No European troops received
the clasps, " Looshai," " Naga 1879-80," or " Hunza 1891."
" Sikkim 1888 " is also a rare clasp as only some 2000 troops were
employed, the only Europeans being two companies of the 2nd
Derbyshire Regiment. So also is " N.E. Frontier 1891," for in the
Manipur expedition for which this clasp was given about 3000 men
were employed, the only Europeans being four companies of the
King's Royal Rifle Corps. It was with the issue of this medal with
the clasp Burma 1885-87," that the precedent was set of award-
ing the medal and clasp in bronze to " all authorized followers," a
precedent that was followed in all subsequent issues.
16. South Africa, 1834-35, 1846-47, 1850-53. Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1854. (South Africa, 1877-79. Re-issue of first medal.
Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1880.) Obverse: Head of Queen
Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse: A lion crouching be-
hind a sugar bush (Protea mellifera). Above, SOUTH AFRICA.
In exergue, 1853. In the exergue of the re-issued medal, the place
of the date is taken by a trophy of four assegais and a Zulu shield.
Ribbon: Orange watered, with two broad and two narrow blue
stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: 1877-78-79, 1878-79, 1877-78, 1878,
1877, 1879.
The command of the queen that a medal should be awarded to
the survivors of the forces that had been engaged in the first, second
and third Kaffir Wars (1834-35, 1846-47, and 1850-53) was notified by
Viscount Hardinge, the commander-in-chief, in a G.O., dated Horse
Guards, November 22, 1854. No clasps were issued with this medal.
The medal was accorded only to the " regular forces " (including the
Cape Mounted Rifles), so local levies did not receive it. In the third
Kaffir War a small Naval Brigade and a detachment of Royal
Marines took part in the operations, and the survivors received the
medal. The award of the re-issue was notified in a G.O. by the duke
of Cambridge, commander-in-chief, August I, 1880. It was to " be
granted to Her Majesty's Imperial Forces, and to such of Her
Majesty's Colonial Forces, European or Native, as were regularly
organized and disciplined as combatants, whether raised by the
Colonial Government or by the General Officer Commanding." The
operations for which it was given were against the Galekas and Gaikas
1877-78, the Griquas 1878, Basutos 1879, Zulus 1879, and Sekukuni
1878-79. In both the operations against the Galekas and Gaikas,
and in the Zulu War of 1879, the Royal Navy and Royal Marines
took part and received the medal. The clasps issued with this medal
were as noted above and record the year, or years, of service covering
all the operations in which the recipient was engaged. No one
received a medal with more than one clasp. The medal without a
clasp was issued to such troops as were employed in Natal from
January to September 1879, but never crossed the border into
Zululand.
17. Crimea, 1854-56. Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1854.
Obverse : Head of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal ; below,
1854. Reverse: Victory crowning a Roman soldier, who holds a
sword in his right hand, and bears on his left arm a shield on which
is the figure of a lion. On the left, CRIMEA. Ribbon : Light blue,
with narrow yellow borders (Plate I.). Clasps: ALMA, BALA-
KLAVA, INKERMANN, SEBASTOPOL, AZOFF. 3
This medal, awarded to both Services, was first notified by a
commander-in-chief's G.O., dated December 15, 1854. The grant
was limited to all troops landing in the Crimea up to September 9,
1855 the day on which Sevastopol fell " unless they shall have
been engaged after that date in some expedition or operation against
the enemy." This latter proviso applied in the main to the naval
clasp " AZOFF," the period for which award was extended to the
22nd of November. The clasps for this medal are very ornamental,
being in the shape of oak leaves, ornamented with acorns. The
Royal Navy and Royal Marines, besides the " Azoff " clasp, received
the clasps " Balaklava," " Inkermann," " Sebastopol." The
3 Royal Navy and Royal Marines.
MEDAL
largest number of clasps to any one medal is four. Certain non-
combatants received the medal without a clasp.
18. Baltic, 1854-55. Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1856. Ob-
verse: Head of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse:
Britannia seated and holding a trident in her right hand. In the
background forts. Above, BALTIC. In exergue, 1854-1855.
Ribbon: Yellow, with pale blue borders (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
This award, notified by Admiralty Order, June 5, 1856, was
granted " to the officers and crews of Her Majesty's ships, as well
as to such officers and Men of Her Majesty's Army as were employed
in the operations in the Baltic in the years 1854 and 1855." The
medal is, of course, practically a naval one, but two officers and
ninety-nine men of the Royal Engineers were employed in the expedi-
tion, especially at Bomarsund, and received it.
19. Turkish Crimea Medal. Awarded by the Sultan, 1856.
Obverse: A trophy composed of a field piece, a mortar, and an
anchor, the field piece standing on the Russian Imperial Standard,
and having a map of the Crimea spread over the wheel and breech.
Behind are the Turkish, British, French and Sardinian flags. The
flag of the nation to which the recipient belonged is in the front with
that of Turkey, the flags of the other two nationalities behind. In
exergue, " Crimea 1855," " La Crimee 1855," or " La Crimea 1855,"
according as to whether the medal was intended for British, French
or Sardinian recipients. Reverse: The Sultan's cypher, below, in
Turkish, "Crimea," and the year of the Hegira, 1271. Ribbon:
Crimson watered, with bright green edges (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
This medal was distributed to all of the Allied Forces, both naval
and military, which shared in the operations in the Black Sea and
the Crimea. As the ship that conveyed a majority of the English
medals was sunk, the remainder were issued indiscriminately, and a
large number of the British received medals which were originally
intended either for the French or Sardinians. 1
20. Arctic, 1818-1855 (First Arctic). Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1857. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, wearing a tiara.
Legend, VICTORIA REGINA. Reverse: A ship blocked in the
ice, icebergs to right and left, and in foreground a sledging party.
Above, FOR ARCTIC DISCOVERIES. In exergue, 1818-1855.
Ribbon: White (Plate II.). Clasps: Nil.
This award was first notified in an Admiralty Notice dated,
January 30, 1857. It was given to the crews of Her Majesty's
ships employed in Arctic exploration, and also " to the officers of
the French Navy, and to such volunteers as accompanied those
expeditions "; also to those engaged in expeditions " equipped by
the government and citizens of the United States": also to the
" commanders and crews of the several expeditions which originated
in the zeal and humanity of Her Majesty's subjects ": and finally to
those who served " in the several land expeditions, whether equipped
by Her Majesty's government, by the Hudson's Bay Company, or
from private resources." The medal is worn on the left breast and
takes rank as a war medal. It is octagonal in shape, I -3 in., and has
affixed to the upper edge a five-pointed star to which is attached
a ring for suspension. The head of the queen, which is the work
of L. C. Wyon, has never been reproduced on any other medal.
21. Indian Mutiny, 1857-58. Awarded by the Government of
India, 1858. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China
Medal. Reverse: Britannia standing facing left with a lion on her
right side ; her right arm is extended holding out a wreath I on her
left arm is the Union shield, and in her left hand a wreath. Above,
INDIA. In exergue, 1857-1858. Ribbon: White, with two red
stripes, forming five J-inch stripes (Plate I.). Clasps: DELHI
(May 30 to Sep. 14, 1857); DEFENCE OF LUCKNOW (June 29
to Sep. 25, 1857); RELIEF OF LUCKNOW (Nov., 1857); LUCK-
NOW (March 2 to 21, 1858); CENTRAL INDIA (Jan. to June
1858).
The grant of this award was first notified in a despatch from the
Court of Directors to the Government which stated that " the
Queen has been graciously pleased to command that a Medal shall
be granted to the troops in the Service of Her Majesty, and of the
East India Company, who have been, or may be, employed in the
suppression of the Mutiny in India." This is the last medal given
by the Honourable East India Company. The medal without
clasp was awarded to all, including civilians, who had taken part
in operations against the mutineers or rebels, and with the clasps
enumerated above to those who shared in the operations specified.
Some two or three artillery men are known to have received the
medal with the clasps " Delhi," " Relief of Lucknow," " Luck-
now " and " Central India." The medal with three clasps, viz.
" Delhi," " Relief of Lucknow " and " Lucknow " was given only
to the 9th Lancers and the Bengal Horse Artillery, and of course
1 In addition to this award the French emperor sent five hundred
of the French " Military Medal," to be distributed amongst specially
selected non-commissioned officers and men of the army and Royal
Marines, and petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy. Only
two of these medals were given to officers, viz. the duke of Cambridge
and Sir William Codrington, the latter being presented by Pelissier
with his own medal. The king of Sardinia also distributed 450
medals to the British forces, of which 50 were given to the Royal
Navy and Royal Marines, and 243 to officers and 157 to non-com-
missioned officers and privates of the army.
various officers who served on the staff, as, for example, Field
Marshals Earl Roberts and Sir Henry Norman. With regard to
the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, the " Shannon's " brigade,
under Captain Peel, received the medal with one, or both, of the
clasps " Relief of Lucknow," " Lucknow," the " Pearl's " brigade,
under Captain Sotheby received the medal without clasp. This
is the last medal that had on it the beautiful head of Queen Victoria
which was first used for the China Medal of 1842, and of which
W. Wyon, R.A., was the artist.
22. Abyssinia, 1867-68. Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1868.
Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, with diadem and veil; around
an indented border, between the nine points of which are the letters
A.B.Y.S.S.I.N.I.A. Reverse: Within a beaded circle the name of
recipient, his corps, regiment or ship, the whole surrounded with
a wreath of laurel. Ribbon: Red, with broad white borders
Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The sanction of this award is to be found in a letter from Sir
J. S. Pakington, secretary of state for war, to H.R.H. the duke
of Cambridge, field-marshal commanding-in-chief, which notifies
the queen's pleasure " that a medal be granted to all Her Majesty's
Forces and Indian Forces, Naval and Military, employed in the
operations in Abyssinia, which resulted in the capture of Magdala."
In all 20,000 medals were struck. The medal is smaller than the
usual, l\ in. in diameter, and it is surmounted by an Imperial
Crown, and a large silver ring for suspension. It is altogether an
unusual type of medal, and in the use of an indented border it
follows a very old precedent, that of a medal commemorating the
victory of Valens over Procopius, A. D. 365. (See Les Medallions
de I'empire romain, by W. Froehner, Paris, 1878). The artists
responsible for this medal are Joseph S. Wyon and Alfred B. Wyon,
and this bust of the queen is reproduced on only one other medal,
the New Zealand.
3. New Zealand, 1845-47, 1860-66. Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1869. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on Abyssinia
medal, but larger. Legend: VICTORIA D:G:BRITT: REG:F:D:
Reverse: Dated, within a wreath of laurel, according to the period
in which the recipient served. Above, NEW ZEALAND; below,
VIRTUTIS HONOR. Ribbon: Blue, with a broad red stripe
down centre (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil.
The grant of this award to the Army was notified in an Army
Order, dated March I, 1869, and its extension to the Royal Navy
and Royal Marines by an Admiralty Order, dated June 3, 1869.
Owing to incompleteness in the returns many medals were issued
undated. The dates on the reverse, in those issued dated, varied
considerably; for the First Maori War, the medal was issued to the
Army with one, and to the Navy with five different dates; for the
Second Maori War, the medal was issued to the Army with twenty-
one, and to the Navy with five different dates. No medal was
dated 1862, though many of the Army medals bore date of a period
covering that year, although no naval medals did.
24. West Africa, 1873-1900. Awarded (originally as the "Ash-
antee " medal) by Queen Victoria in 1874, with the exception of
the last issue, with clasp " 1900," which was awarded by H.M.
King Edward VII. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, with
diadem, and veil behind, by L. C. Wyon. Legend: VICTORIA
REGINA. Reverse: British soldiers fighting savages in thick
bush, by Sir E. J. Poynter. Ribbon: Yellow, with black borders,
and two narrow black stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: COOMASSIE,
1887-8, 1891-2, 1892, 1893-94; WITU, 1890;' LIWONDI, i893; 2
WITU, August 1893;' JUBA RIVER, 1893;" LAKE NYASSA,
1893;" GAMBIA, I894; 2 BENIN RIVER, 1894;' BRASS RIVER,
i895; 3 MWELE, 1895;' 4 NIGER, 1897; BENIN, 1897;' SIERRA
LEONE, 1898-99; 1896-98, 1897-98, 1898, 1899, 1900.
This medal was first awarded by Army Order 43, dated June I,
1874, to " all of Her Majesty's Forces who have been employed
on the Gold Coast during the operations against the King of
Ashantee," and in addition a clasp, " Coomassie," "in the case of
those who were present at Amoaful and the actions between that
place and Coomassie (including the capture of the capital), and of
those who, during the five days of those actions, were engaged on
the north of the Prah in maintaining and protecting the communi-
cations of the main army." In all, with and without the clasp,
11,000 medals were issued for the Ashantee campaign to both
Services. Over eighteen years later this same medal was re-issued
as a " general service " medal, the award being for operations in
Central Africa, and on the East and West Coasts, during the period
1887-92, which were covered by the dated clasps " 1887-8,"
" 1891-2," and " 1892." As such the issue was continued for
operations down to the year 1900, although the official title " West
1 These clasps were all naval awards, but two companies of the
West India Regiment took part in the operations for which the
clasp " Gambia, 1894," was awarded.
8 Were awarded by the Admiralty to certain local forces which
co-operated with the Naval Brigades.
4 " Mwele, 1895," is not strictly speaking a clasp, as it is engraved
on the edge of the medal. Recipients already in possession of the
medal were entitled to have the action and date engraved thereon.
It corresponds, however, to a clasp in that it commemorates a
particular service, and so has been included.
MEDAL
Africa Medal ' (see Army Order 253, of Dec. 1894) is somewhat
of a misnomer, for very frequently the medal has been granted for
services in Central Africa and in the Hinterland of the East Coast
as for services on the West Coast. In all issues since the original
" Ashantee " medal, the clasp only was given to those who already
had the medal, so subsequent issues do not make it a new award.
As will be seen later, the same medal was subsequently issued with
a different ribbon, and so constituted as an entirely new decoration,
that could be worn in conjunction with the older one. With the
exception of those issued with " Mwele, 1895 " engraved on the
medal, none of these medals have been issued without a clasp
since .the original issue for the campaign of 1873-7*}.; and the
clasp " Coomassie " that accompanied the first issue is the only
one that has been issued to regimental units of the British Army
as apart from the West India Regiment and local troops. The
duke of Edinburgh was married in January of the year in which
this medal was first awarded, and it is said that yellow and black (the
Imperial Russian colours) were chosen as the colours of the ribbon,
in compliment to his consort the grand duchess Marie of Russia.
25. Arctic, 1876 (2nd Arctic Medal). Awarded by Queen Victoria,
1876. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, crowned and with veil
by G. G. Adams. Legend: VICTORIA REGINA; underneath
bust, 1876. Reverse: A ship packed in floe ice; above, an Arctic
sky with fleecy clouds in a clear horizon. Ribbon: White (Plate II.).
Clasps: Nil.
The award of this grant was notified in an Admiralty Order,
dated Nov. 28, 1876, and the award is specified " to all persons,
of every rank and class, who were serving on board Her Majesty's
ships ' Alert ' and ' Discovery ' during the Arctic Expedition of
1875-1876, and on board the yacht ' Pandora," in her voyage to
the Arctic Regions in 1876." The 'Pandora' was owned and sailed
by Commander (Sir Allen) Young, R.N.R., whose officers and crew
rendered valuable services to Her Majesty's ships when in the Polar
seas. Sixty-three medals were given on board the " Alert," fifty-
seven on board the " Discovery. The bust on the obverse of this
medal has not been reproduced on any other. The reverse (by L. C.
Wyon) is copied from a photograph taken during the expedition of
the " Alert " and " Discovery^' under Sir George Nares, K.C.B.
26. Afghanistan, 1878-80 (2nd Afghan). Awarded by Queen
Victoria, 1880. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, crowned and
with veil, by J. E. Boehm. This is the first war medal bearing
the imperial title. Legend: VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERA-
TRIX. Reverse: A column of troops emerging from a mountain-
pass, headed by a heavy battery elephant carrying a gun; behind,
mounted troops. Above, AFGHANISTAN. In exergue, 1878-
-79-80. Ribbon: Green, with crimson borders (Plate I.).
Clasps: ALI MUSJID, PEIWAR KOTAL, CHARASIA, KABUL,
AHMED KHEL, KANDAHAR.
At the conclusion of the first phase of the Second Afghan War,
it was proposed that the (Second) India G.S. Medal should be
issued for this campaign with clasps " Afghanistan," " AH Musjid,"
" Peiwar Kotal," but, after the massacre of Sir P. L. N. Cavagnari
and the members and escort of the Embassy at Kabul, Sep. 3,
1879, and the consequent renewal of the war, it was decided to
grant a separate medal. The first official intimation of the award
is in a telegram from the secretary of state for India to the viceroy,
dated Aug. 7, 1880. The award, with the regulations to govern
the issue, was promulgated in a G.O. by the governor-general,
Dec. 10, 1880, and subsequent G.O.'s. The medal without clasp
was awarded to all who had served across the frontier between
Nov. 22, 1878, and May 26, 1879 (first phase of the war), and be-
tween Sep. 1879, and Aug. 15, 1880 for the Khyber and Kurram
Lines, and Sep. 20, 1880, for Southern Afghanistan (second phase
of the war). The " Kabul " clasp was awarded to all who had
shared in the operations " at and near that place from the loth
to the 23rd Dec., 1879, including the column under the command
of Brigadier-General C. J. S. Gough, C.B., which joined Sir Frederick
Roberts on the 24th Dec., 1879." The clasp for " Kandahar "
did not include the whole garrison of the beleaguered city, but
only the troops that were actually " engaged in the action fought
under Sir Frederick Roberts' command against Sirdar Mahomed
Ayub Khan on the 1st Sep., 1880." The greatest number of
clasps with which the medal was issued was four, and the units
to which such medals were issued are the 72nd Highlanders, 5th
Ghoorkas, 5th Punjab Infantry and 23rd Punjab Pioneers. The
bust of the Queen by Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., has not been re-
produced on other war medals.
27. Kabul to Kandahar, 1880. Awarded by Queen Victoria,
1880. This decoration took the form of a five-pointed star, 1-9 in.
across from point to point, with a ball between the points; between
the two topmost points of the star is an Imperial Crown and ring
for suspension. Obverse: In the centre the imperial monogram
V.R.I., surrounded by a band inscribed KABUL TO KANDAHAR,
1880. Reverse: Plain, with a hollow centre, round which the
recipient s name and regiment are indented in capital letters. The
old rainbow-coloured military ribbon is worn with this star.
The grant of this award, was first notified in a despatch from the
secretary of state for India to the viceroy, dated Nov. 30, 1880.
This awarded the decoration " to the force which marched from
Kabul to Kandahar," and later, Aug. 26, 1881, a G.O. by the
Governor-General extended the grant " to the troops which then
composed the garrison of Kelat-i-Ghilzai, and accompanied the
force under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir F. S. Roberts,
G.C.B., V.C., from that place to Kandahar."
28. Egypt, 1882-1889. Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1882.
Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as in the West African Medal.
Legend: VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERATRIX. Reverse:
A Sphinx; above, EGYPT; below, 1882. Ribbon: Blue, with two
white stripes, forming five J-inch stripes (Plate I.). Clasps: ALEX-
ANDRIA, nth July 1 ; TEL-EL-KEBIR, SUAKIN, 1884; EL-
TEB, TAMAAI, EL-TEB-TAMAAI, 2 THE NILE, 1884-85;
ABU KLEA, KIRBEKAN, SUAKIN, 1885; TOFREK, GEMAI-
ZAH, 1888; TOSKI, 1889.' This medal was first awarded (Admi-
ralty Circular, Oct. 1882; G.O. by the commander-in-chief, Oct. 17,
1882; and G.O. t by governor-general of India, Oct. 27, 1882);
to all the Forces, naval and military, present and serving in Egypt
between July 16, and Sep. 14, 1882. The first two clasps were
also given with this issue. One military officer (Major-General
Sir A. B. Tulloch, then of the Welsh Regiment) received the clasp
" Alexandria, nth July," as he was serving in the fleet as military
adviser to Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour. A second issue was
made in 1884, and with it the next four clasps were given; " Suakin,
1884," for those who landed at Suakin or Trinkitat between Feb. 19
and March 26, 1884, was, however, only given to those with the
1882 medal, those not so possessed receiving the medal without
a clasp. A third issue was made in 1885, the next five clasps
accompanying it. " The Nile, 1884-85," was given to those
who served south of Assouan on or before March 7, 1885 ; " Suakin,
1885," to those who were engaged in the operations at Suakin
between March and May 14, 1885; but the former clasp was only
to go to those already possessed of the medal, others received the
medal only. The medal alone was also given to all on dutv at
recipients of which got also clasp " The Nile, 1884-85." In
1886, the medal without was issued to those who had not previ-
ously received it and had served at, and south of Wady Haifa,
between Nov. 30, 1885 and Jan. n, 1886, but no clasps went with
this issue, although the operations included the battle of Ginnis.
The last issue was made in 1890. The medal with clasp " Gemaizah,
1888," to all who were present at that action near Suakin, Dec. 20,
1888; the medal alone to all employed on the Nile at, and south
of Korosko, on Aug. 3, 1889, and with clasp " Toski, 1889," to all
present at that action, Aug. 3, 1889. Besides those already enumer-
ated who received the medal without clasp, it was given to officers
of hired transports of the mercantile marine, to some civilians,
native and European, to the Australian contingent that landed at
Suakin, and to the Canadian boatmen employed on the Nile. In
fact, not far short of fifty thousand of these medals have been
struck, and the numbers issued have exceeded that of any other
medal with the exception of that given for the South African War.
Seven clasps: " Tel-el-Kebir," " Suakin, 1884 "; " El-Teb-Tamaai "
The Nile, 1884-85"; "Abu Klea "; "Gemaizah, 1888"; and
" Toski, 1889," were awarded to one officer, Major Beech, late 2Oth
Hussars, who also received the Bronze Star with the clasp " Tokar,
1890." The medal with six clasps was earned by four men of the
igth Hussars who were Lord Wolseley's orderlies, and who after
having earned the first five clasps enumerated in Major Beech's
medal, went with Lord Wolseley to Suakin and so got the " Suakin,
1885 " clasp.
29. Egypt Bronze Star, 1882-93. Awarded by the Khedive
1883. This decoration is in the shape of a five-pointed star (1-9 in.
diameter) connected by a small star and crescent to a laureated
bar to which the ribbon is attached. Obverse: A front view of
the Sphinx, with the desert and pyramids in the rear. Around
a double band, upon which are, above, EGYPT, 1882, and below,
in Arabic, " Khedive of Egypt, 1299 " (the Hegira date). In the
second and third issues the dates are respectively altered to 1884
1301 and 1884-86 and 1301-4; the fourth and fifth issues
are dateless. Reverse: A large raised circle inside which is the
Khedivial monogram, T. M. (Tewfik Mahomed), surmounted by
a Crown and Crescent and Star. Ribbon : Dark blue (Plate I )
Clasps: TOKAR, 1890.
This star was awarded for the same operations as was the British
Egyptian medal above described, but, except for a few officers
and men of the Royal Navy, the issue of the clasp TOKAR was
confined to British and native officers and men of the Egyptian
service. (H L S )
30 Canada, 1885. Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1885. Obverse:
Head of Queen Victoria as on the West African ("Ashantee")
Medal Reverse: NORTH WEST CANADA and date, within
a . , ma P'? leaf R'bbon : Blue-grey, with a crimson stripe on each
side (Plate II.). Clasp: SASKATCHEWAN.
This medal, commemorative of services in the Riel Rebellion,
was awarded to Canadian forces only.
1 Issued to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines only.
For combatants present at both actions.
' Only clasp not issued to Royal Navy and Royal Marines.
MEDALS AND DECORATIONS
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31. Canada (General Service). Awarded, 1899. Obverse: Head
of Queen Victoria, as in Third India G. S. Medal. Reverse: Within
a maple wreath, the Dominion flag, above, CANADA. Ribbon:
Red, with white centre (Plate II.). Clasps: FENIAN RAID,
1866; FENIAN RAID, 1870; RED RIVER, 1870. One battalion
of the King's Royal Rifles received this medal with the Red River
Clasp. Otherwise issue confined to Canadian forces.
32. " Queen's " Sudan, 1896-1898. Awarded by Queen Victoria,
1899. Obverse: Half-length effigy of Queen Victoria holding
sceptre, by De Saulles, as in " Uganda " medal described below.
Reverse: A winged Victory, seated, with, on either hand, the
Union Jack and the Egyptian flag. The left hand holds a laurel
wreath, the right a palm branch. On a tablet below, SUDAN,
and below this lotus leaves. Ribbon: Half black, half yellow,
divided by a narrow red stripe (Plate I.). Clasps: none.
Given for the operations under the command of Sir Herbert
(Lord) Kitchener, which led to the reconquest of the Sudan, 1898;
issued in bronze to followers.
33. " Khedive's " Sudan, 1896-1900. Awarded by the khedive
in 1897. Obverse: "Abbas Hilmi II." and date, in Arabic. Re-
verse: A trophy of arms with a shield in the centre, on a tablet
below " Recovery of the Sudan," in Arabic. Ribbon: Yellow,
with blue centre (Plate I.). Clasps: FIRKET, HAFIR, SUDAN,
1897; SUDAN, 1898; ABU HAMED, THE ATBARA, KHAR-
TOUM GEDAREF, 1 SUDAN, 1899;' SUDAN, igoo; 1 CEDID, 1
BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, 1900-1902 j 1 TEROK, 1 NYAM NYAM, 1
TALODI. 1
This medal was awarded to officers and men of the British Navy,
and Army, to the Egyptian Army engaged in the reconquest of
the Sudan and (in bronze without clasps) to followers.
34. Cape Colony General Service, 1900. Awarded by the govern-
ment of Cape Colony. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on the
Volunteer Long Service Medal. Reverse: Arms of Cape Colony.
Ribbon: Dark blue, with yellow centre (Plate II.). Clasps:
BASUTOLAND, TRANSKEI, BECHUANALAND. Issued to
Colonial troops only, for services in various minor campaigns.
35. Matabeleland, 1893 (called the Rhodesia Medal). Awarded
by the British South Africa Company, 1896. Obverse: Bust of
Queen Victoria. Reverse: A fighting lion. Ribbon: Orange,
with three dark blue stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: RHODESIA
and MASHONALAND, with dates.
This is the first war medal issued by a chartered company since
the close of the Company's rule in India. It was awarded to British
officers and men of the British service, to the Cape Mounted Rifles,
Bechuanaland police, and the Chartered Company's own forces,
engaged in the Matabeleland and Mashonaland Campaigns 1893,
1896 and 1897.
36. East and Central Africa, 1891-98. Awarded by Queen
Victoria in 1895. Obverse and Reverse: as in West African (or
original Ashantee) Medal described above. Ribbon: Terra-cotta,
white and black stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: CENTRAL AFRICA,
1894-96; CENTRAL AFRICA, 1899.
This medal only differs from the West African in that it has a
different ribbon. It is suspended by a ring. Practically only the
local forces (and of course their British officers) received this medal.
But a few officers and men of the Indian Army and of the Royal
Navy have also received it.
37. Bastand Central Africa, 1899 (the" Uganda" Medal). Awarded
by Queen Victoria in 1899. Obverse: Half-length effigy of Queen
Victoria, by De Saulles. Reverse : Britannia with lion, gazing over
a desert towards a rising sun. Ribbon: Half red, half yellow
(Plate II.). Clasps: LUBWA'S, UGANDA, 1897-98; UGANDA,
1899; UGANDA, 1900.
This medal was awarded to the local forces and also to officers
and men of the Indian Army and Royal Navy.
38. Ashanti Star, 1896. Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1896.
Obverse: An imperial crown with " Ashanti, 1896 " round it.
Reverse: Inscribed " from the Queen." The star is four-pointed,
and is crossed by a saltire or St Andrew's cross. Ribbon: Yellow
with black stripes (Plate II.).
This medal was issued for the expedition against Prempeh in
1896. As there was no actual fighting, no medal was given, but
sickness claimed many victims, amongst them Prince Henry of
Battenberg. The decoration was issued to officers and men of
the British Army, Royal Navy and local troops.
39. Ashanti Medal, 1900. Awarded by King Edward VII. in
1901. Obverse: Head and bust of King Edward VII. in the uniform
of a field-marshal, by De Saulles. Reverse: a lion standing on a
cliff, in the background the rising sun. Ribbon: Green with black
edges and black central stripe (Plate II.). Clasp: KUMASSI.
This medal was the first which was issued with an effigy of King
Edward VII. It was given only to local forces, and the British
officers employed on the staff or in commands.
40. Africa General Service, 1899- . Awarded by King
Edward VII. in 1902. Obverse: As in Ashanti Medal of 1900.
Reverse: As in "Uganda" Medal above described. Ribbon:
Yellow, with black edges and two narrow green stripes (Plate II.).
Clasps : N. NIGERIA, with various dates ; S. NIGERIA, with various
1 Awarded to Egyptian Army only.
dates; UGANDA, 1900; JUBALAND, GAMBIA, LANGO, 1901 and
1902; JIDBALLI, KISSI, igosjSOMALILAND, 1901 and 1902-04-
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, 1899-1900; ARO, 1901-02.
This medal represents an almost incessant warfare of a minor,
but exacting, nature. In the first eighteen months, eleven clasps
were awarded, some awards being of course retrospective. The
clasp " Jubaland " is chiefly a naval award, but all the rest are
almost exclusively earned by the West African Frontier Force and
the King's African Rifles. It is worthy of remembrance, however,
that a contingent of Boer mounted riflemen took part in the Somali-
land Campaign, within one year of the peace of Vereeiniging, and
received the medal and clasp. The Somaliland, 1902-1904 "
clasp represents indeed a considerable campaign in which contingents
from Great Britain and India took part.
41. " Queen's " South African, 1899-1902. Awarded by King
Edward VII. in 1901 shortly after Queen Victoria's death. Obverse:
Bust of Queen Victoria, by De Saulles. Reverse : Britannia holding
an outstretched laurel wreath towards a body of troops, in the
background a coast line, the sea and war-ships. Ribbon: Centre
orange bordered with blue, outside edges red (Plate II.). Clasps;
see below.
The " Queen's " medal for troops engaged in the South African
War was authorized, shortly after Queen Victoria's death, by
Army Order 94 of 1901. It was given "to all officers, warrant
officers, non-commissioned officers and men, of the British, Indian
and Colonial forces, and to all Nurses and Nursing Sisters, who
actually served in South Africa between nth of October 1899, and
a date to be fixed hereafter " (the war not being concluded) " to all
troops stationed in Cape Colony and Natal at the outbreak of hostili-
ties, and to troops stationed at St Helena between the I4th of April
1900, and a date to be fixed hereafter." The last provision shows
a widening of the signification hitherto attaching to " war service,"
for the troops at St Helena were employed in guarding Boer
prisoners. The A.O. referred to was supplemented by others in
1901 and 1902. Clasps were authorized as follows: BELMONT
(Nov. 23, 1899); MODDER RIVER (Nov. 28, 1899); PAARDE-
BERG (Feb. 17-26, 1900); DREIFONTEIN (March 10, 1900);
WEPENER (April 9-25, 1900); JOHANNESBURG (May 29,
1900); DIAMOND HILL (June 11-12, 1900); BELFAST
(Aug. 26-27, 1900); WITTEBERGEN (July 1-29, 1900); DE-
FENCE OF KIMBERLEY (Oct. 14, 1899, Feb. 15, 1900)-
RELIEF OF KIMBERLEY (Feb. 15, 1900); DEFENCE OF
MAFEKING (Oct. 13, 1899 May 17, 1900); RELIEF OF
MAFEKING (May 17, 1900) ; TALANA (Oct. 20, 1899) ; ELANDS-
LAAGTE (Oct. 21, 1899); DEFENCE OF LADYSMITH
(Nov. 3, 1899 Feb. 28, 1900); TUGELA HEIGHTS (Feb. 14-
27, 1900); RELIEF OF LADYSMITH (Dec. 15, 1899 Feb. 28,
1900); LAING'S NEK (June 2-9, 1900). Clasps: for
CAPE COLONY, NATAL, ORANGE FREE STATE and RHO-
DESIA, were given to troops who served within the limits of the
respective colonies and states named during the war, without
being present at any action, fought inside those limits, for which
a clasp was awarded. Non-enlisted men, of whatever nationality,
who drew military pay, were awarded the medal in bronze instead
of silver and without clasps. Militia units which volunteered and
were sent to Mediterranean stations to release the regulars for
field service were awarded (Feb. 1902) the medal without clasp,
" Mediterranean " being substituted for " South Africa " on the
reverse. This was not, of course, issued to any one entitled to the
Queen's Medal for South Africa.
43. The " King's " South African Medal was awarded by King
Edward VII. in 1902, to be worn in addition to the "Queen's " by
those who completed eighteen months' service in South Africa
during the war. On the obverse of the medal is the effigy of King
Edward, by De Saulles (as on the " Ashanti, 1900," Medal); the
reverse is the same as that of the "Queen's" Medal. Ribbon:
Green, white and orange (Plate II.). The two clasps awarded
were, in accordance with the terms of the award, general in character,
to wit, SOUTH AFRICA, 1901 and SOUTH AFRICA, 1902.
44. China, 1900. Awarded by King Edward VII., 1902. Ob-
verse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on "Queen's" South African
Medal. Reverse: As on first China Medal, but with date altered.
Ribbon: As in first China Medal (Plate I.I. Clasps: DEFENCE
OF LEGATIONS, RELIEF OF PEKIN, TAKU FORTS.
This medal was issued to the Royal Navy (including some Naval
volunteers), British and Indian Armies, and the (Wei-hai-Wei)
Chinese Regiment, for operations during the Boxer rebellion.
This was the last war medal, as the " First China " was the first
to bear Queen Victoria's effigy. Sir E. H. Seymour, the commander
of the Tientsin relieving column, who had taken part in the former
China War, received the new medal as well as the old.
45. India, 1895 (Third India General Service). Awarded by
Queen Victoria in 1896. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, by
T. Brock, R.A. Reverse: A British and Indian soldier supporting
a standard; below, INDIA, 1895. Ribbon: Three red and two
green stripes of equal width (Plate I.). Clasps: DEFENCE OF
CHITRAL, 1895; RELIEF OF CHITRAL, 1895; MALAKAND,
1898; PUNJAB FRONTIER, 1898; TIRAH, 1897; TIRAH,
1898; WAZIRISTAN, 1901-02.
The ribbon of this medal is perhaps more frequently seen than
i6
MEDAL
that of any other British war medal except those for South Africa.
In 1903 the medal was re-issued with the military effigy of King
Edward VII. (as on the Ashanti, 1900, medal) on the obverse,
and the date was omitted from the reverse. The medal is issued
in bronze, without clasps, to followers.
46. Tibet, 1903-04. Awarded by King Edward VII in 1905.
Obverse: Military effigy of the king as on Ashanti, 1900, medal.
Reverse: a representation of the Potala at Lhasa. Ribbon:
Purple-red, edged with green and white stripes (Plate II.). Clasp:
GYANTSE.
47. India, 1908. A new India General Service Medal was
authorized in 1908, to take the place of the medal granted by A.O.
43 of 1903. This was to be issued in silver to officers and
men, and in bronze to non-enlisted men of all sorts. This medal
with clasp bearing the name and date was given to the troops
which took part in the North Western Frontier Expedition of 1908.
The ribbon is dark blue edged with green.
48. Transport Medal. Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1902.
Obverse : Head and bust of the king in naval uniform, by De Saulles.
Reverse; A steamer at sea, and the five continents. Ribbon: red,
with two thin stripes near the edge (Plate II.). Clasps: SOUTH
AFRICA, 1899-1902; CHINA, 1900. This medal is restricted to
officers of the mercantile marine serving in chartered troop-ships.
It is a sort of general service medal, clasps being added as earned.
Up to 1910 only the above clasps had been authorized.
49. Polar Medal (or Antarctic Medal). Awarded by King
Edward VII., 1904. Obverse: Naval effigy of the king as on
Transport Medal. Reverse: In the foreground a sledge and travel-
lers, in the background the steamer " Discovery " (Capt. R. F. Scott's
Expedition, 1904). Ribbon: As for 1st and 2nd Arctic Medals,
white (Plate I.). The medal, like the 1st Arctic Medal, is octagonal.
First awarded to officers and men of the " Discovery," whether
belonging to the Royal Navy or not. It is given with a dated clasp
for Antarctic exploration service.
Other Medals and Decorations. The above forty-nine medals
are given as rewards for participating in the operations they
commemorate, and issued generally to all concerned, irrespective
of individual distinction or bravery. There are other classes
of medals and decorations, civil as well as military, which must
be grouped with them, as being allied in character. These
are either (i.) awards personal to the recipient, being an acknow-
ledgment of or reward for special individual services or good
conduct (these are civil as well as military in respect of awards
for bravery), or (ii.) awards that are simply of a commemorative
kind, though worn as war medals and for the most part given
to officers and soldiers. The more important of these two
classes will be named. Orders given for service are dealt with,
for the most part in the article KNIGHTHOOD; but particulars
are given here of certain distinctively military orders that
have no knighthood rights and duties, and indeed little meaning
apart from the deeds or services which led to the award being
so to speak, records of the past, rather than badges of a present
membership. Individual decorations for services may be
classed as (i.) for gallantry, (ii.) for special merit, and (iii.)
for long service and good conduct.
1. Indian Order of Merit. Awarded by H.E.I. Company and
notified by G.O. of governor-general, April 17, 1837. Obverse:
1st Class A Gold Star, 15 in. diameter; in the centre, in gold on
a ground of dark blue enamel, crossed swords within a circle around
which is the legend, REWARD OF VALOUR, the whole encircled
by a gold laurel wreath. 2nd Class Star similar to that of 1st
Class, but in silver. Wreath and centre as in 1st Class. 3rd Class
Star exactly similar to that of 2nd Class, but the wreath and centre
in silver, and dark blue enamel and silver, respectively. Reverse:
Engraved 1st, 2nd and 3rd Class Order of Merit, respectively, but
the name of the recipient is not engraved on the decoration when
issued. Ribbon: Dark blue, with red edges. This decoration is
to be obtained only by a " conspicuous act of individual gallantry "
in the field or in the attack or defence of fortified places. It is
open to all native officers or soldiers of the Indian Army, " without
distinction of rank or grade." The 3rd Class is bestowed for the
first act of gallantry for which the recipient is recommended. The
2nd Class is given only to those who possess the third, and for a
second act of conspicuous gallantry. The 1st Class is given only
to those who hold the 2nd, and for a third act of bravery. A
recipient of the decoration receives an additional allowance equivalent
in the 3rd Class to one-third, in the 2nd to two-thirds, and in the
1st to the whole of the ordinary pay of his rank, over and above
that pay or his pension. The widow (in the case of plurality of
wives, the first married) receives the pension of the Order for three
years after her husband's death.
2. Victoria Cross. Instituted by Royal Warrant, January 29,
1856. A bronze Maltese Cross, ij in. diameter, with, in the
centre, the Royal Crest (lion and crown), and below it a scroll
inscribed " FOR VALOUR." There is a bronze laureated bar
for suspension, connected with the cross by a V. The reverse is
plain, but the name, rank and corps of the recipient are engraved
on the back of the laureated bar. Ribbon: Red for the army;
blue for the navy. Clasp: For every additional act of bravery
a clasp, bearing the date of such act, may be awarded.
Nothing save " the merit of conspicuous bravery " gives claim
for the decoration, and it must be evinced by " some signal act of
valour or devotion to their country " performed " in the presence
of the enemy." (The regulation italicized was for a short time
abrogated, but soon restored to force.) The original Royal Warrant
has been supplemented by various Royal Warrants (Oct. 1857,
Aug. and Dec. 1858, Jan, 1867, April and Aug. 1881), and now
every grade and rank of all ranks of all branches of His Majesty's
Forces, British and Colonial, are eligible, with the single exception
of native ranks of the Indian army, who have an equivalent decora-
tion in their own Order of Merit. In the case of recipients who
are not of commissioned rank, the Cross carries with it a pension
of 10 a year, and an additional 5 a year for each clasp. A larger
grant is sometimes given to holders of the V.C. who are in need of
monetary help. In all, up to 1904, the Cross was awarded to 521
recipients (including 15 posthumous awards).
3. Distinguished Conduct in the Field (Army). Instituted by
Royal Warrant, September 30, 1862. Obverse: A military trophy,
with, in the centre, the Royal Arms (as in the Long Service and
Good Conduct Medals). Reverse: inscribed "FOR DISTIN-
GUISHED CONDUCT IN THE FIELD." Ribbon: Three stripes
equal width, outside red, centre blue (Plate II.). Clasp: Royal
Warrant, 7th of February 1881, authorized award of clasps for
subsequent acts of gallantry.
" Individual acts of distinguished conduct in the field in any
part of the world " entitle to this medal, and only non-commissioned
officers and men of the British forces are eligible for the award.
Prior to its institution, distinguished gallantry was rewarded by
the " Meritorious Service " medal. Single clasps have been con-
stantly conferred, and there is more than one case of a recipient
having earned two clasps to his medal.
4. Albert Medal (for saving life at sea). Instituted by Royal
Warrant, 7th of March 1866. Gold oval badge, enamelled in dark
blue, with a monogram composed of the letters V and A, inter-
laced with an anchor erect, all in gold, surrounded with a garter
in bronze, inscribed in raised letters of gold " FOR GALLANTRY
IN SAVING LIFE AT SEA," and surmounted by a representation
of the crown of the prince consort, the whole edged with gold.
Ribbon: dark blue, with two white stripes. Clasps are awarded
for any subsequent acts of bravery. By a subsequent Royal
Warrant of the I2th of April 1867, the decoration was re-constituted
in two classes, as follows. 1st Class Badge precisely as already
described. Ribbon: Dark blue, with four white stripes (if in.
wide). Clasps: As authorized in original warrant. 2nd Class
Badge exactly similar to that of the 1st Class, except that it is
entirely worked in bronze, instead of gold and bronze. Ribbon :
Dark blue, with two white stripes. Clasps: As authorized for
1st Class.
The decoration is awarded only to those who " have, in saving
or endeavouring to save the lives of others from shipwreck or other
peril of the sea, endangered their own lives." The 1st Class is
confined " to cases of extreme and heroic daring " ; the 2nd for acts
which, though great courage may be shown, are not sufficiently
distinguished to deserve " the 1st Class of the decoration.
5. New Zealand Cross. Instituted by an Order of the governor
of New Zealand in council, loth of March, 1869. Silver Maltese
Cross with gold star on each of the four limbs and in the centre,
in a circle within a gold laurel wreath, NEW ZEALAND. Above
the Cross a crown in gold, and connected at the top by a V, to a
silver bar ornamented with laurel in gold. The name of recipient
is engraved on reverse. Width of Cross, ij in. Ribbon: Crimson.
Clasps : Authorized for subsequent acts of valour. In authorizing
this decoration Sir G. F. Bowen, the then governor, went outside
his authority, but the queen ratified the colonial order in council,
and intimated " Her gracious desire that the arrangements made
by it may be considered as established from that date by Her
direct authority." It was, however, stipulated that the occasion
was in no way to form a precedent. The award was to be for those
" who may particularly distinguish themselves by their bravery
in action, or devotion to their duty while on service," and only
local " Militia, Volunteers or Armed Constabulary " were to be
eligible. In all only nineteen of these decorations were awarded.
No clasps were awarded.
6. Conspicuous Gallantry (Navy). Instituted by an Order of
the queen in Council, 7th of July, 1874. Obverse: Head of Queen
Victoria, by W. Wyon, R.A. (as on China Medal). 1 Reverse: A
laurel wreath, and within FOR CONSPICUOUS GALLANTRY.
Above, a crown. Ribbon: Three stripes of equal width, outside
blue, centre white (Plate II.). Clasps: none authorized.
To reward " acts of pre-eminent bravery in Action with the
Enemy." Only petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy,
1 Now naval effigy of King Edward VII., as on Transport Service
Medal.
MEDAL
and non-commissioned officers and privates of the Royal Marines,
are eligible for this decoration. Prior to the institution of this
decoration, acts of gallantry by sailors and marines were rewarded
by the same medal as that given to the army before the " medal
for distinguished conduct in the field " was instituted, viz. the
" Meritorious Service " medal. If the holder be a Chief or First
Class Petty Officer, or a Sergeant of Marines, the award carries
with it an annuity of 20 per annum; and if a recipient's service
ends before his reaching one of those ranks, he may receive a
gratuity of 20 on discharge.
7. Albert Medal (for saving life on land). Instituted by Royal
Warrant, 3Oth of April 1877. 1st Class Similar to that of the
1st Class for saving life at sea, but the enamelling is in red
instead of blue, and there is no anchor interlaced with the mono-
gram V.A. Ribbon: Crimson, with four white stripes. Clasps:
for subsequent acts of same character. 2nd Class Badge similar
to that of the 2nd Class for saving life at sea, but the enamelling
is in red instead of blue, and there is no anchor interlaced with the
monogram V.A. Ribbon: Crimson, with two white stripes.
Clasps: As authorized for 1st Class.
The conditions governing the award of this decoration are the
same that govern the award for saving life at sea. Originally the
award was restricted to acts of gallantry performed within British
dominions, but this restriction was removed by Royal Warrant,
5th of June 1905.
8. Distinguished Conduct in the Field (Colonial}. Instituted by
a Royal Warrant, 24th of May 1894, which was later cancelled
and superseded by Royal Warrant, Jlst of May 1895. Obverse:
same as " Distinguished Conduct in the Field " (Army). Reverse:
same as " Army " medal, but with the name of the colony inscribed
above the words " For Distinguished Conduct in the Field."
Ribbon: Crimson, with a line of the colonial colour in the centre.
Clasps: Authorized for subsequent acts of valour. Every colony
or protectorate, having permanently embodied forces, draws up
regulations to govern the issue of these medals as suit its own
particular requirements, but in all essentials these regulations are
modelled on those that govern the award of the Distinguished
Conduct in the Field (Army).
9. Conspicuous Service Cross, Instituted by an Order in Council,
I5th of June 1901. Silver cross, with the reverse side plain; on
the obverse, in the centre, the Imperial and Royal Cypher, E.R.I.,
surmounted by the imperial crown. Ribbon: Three stripes equal
width, outside white, centre blue. Clasps: none authorized.
This award is to recognize " Distinguished Service before the
Enemy." Its grant is confined to " Warrant Officers or Sub-
ordinate Officers " of the Royal Navy. Such, not being of " lower-
deck rating," are not eligible for the " Conspicuous Gallantry "
medal; also, they, " by reason of not holding a commission in the
Royal Navy, are not eligible to any existing Order or Decoration."
10. Edward Medal. Founded in 1907 to reward acts of courage
in saving life in mines, this medal was extended in 1909 (R.VV.
Dec. 3) so as to be awarded " to those who in course of industrial
employment endanger their own lives in saving or endeavouring
to save the lives of others from perils incurred in connexion with
such industrial employment."
Certain important medals and decorations for saving life
are not the gift of the Crown. These are allowed to be worn
in uniform on the right breast. They are the medals of the
Royal Humane Society, those given by the Board of Trade
for gallantry in saving life at sea, the medals of the Royal
National Lifeboat Institution, those of the Shipwrecked Fisher-
men and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society, Lloyd's Honorary
Silver Medal, Liverpool Shipwrecked and Humane Society's
Medals, and the Stanhope Gold Medal.
All these are suspended from a dark blue ribbon with the exception
of the medals of the S.F. and M. Royal Benevolent Society, which
has a light blue ribbon, and the Stanhope Gold Medal which has
a broad dark blue centre, edged with yellow, and black borders.
These medals are usually struck in silver or bronze, but occasionally
gold medals are awarded. The Stanhope Gold Medal is annually
awarded for the most gallant of all the acts of rescue for which
the society have awarded medals during the year. This award has
been frequently earned by officers or men of the Royal Navy. It
is, in fact, the " Victoria Cross " of awards of this character.
The following are decorations for special merit:
I. Order of British India. Instituted by General Order of
Governor-General of India, I7th of April 1837. 1st Class A
gold star of eight points radiated, I fin. in diameter, between
the two top points the crown of England. In the centre, on a
round of light blue enamel, a gold lion statant, within a band of
ark blue enamel, containing in gold letters ORDER OF BRITISH
INDIA, the whole encircled by a gold laurel wreath. The whole
hangs from the ribbon by a gold loop attached by a ring to the top
of the crown, and is worn round the neck, outside the uniform.
Ribbon: originally sky-blue, changed to crimson 1838. and Class
Gold star similar to that of the i st Class, but smaller, I in. diameter,
and without the crown. The centre also is similar to that of the
ist Class star, but the enamelling is all dark blue. Suspended and
worn as in the Ist Class. Ribbon: As in 1st Class.
This, the highest military distinction to which in the ordinary
course native officers of the Indian Army can attain, and confined
to them, is a reward for long, honourable and specially meritorious
service. The Ist Class is composed exclusively of officers of and
above the rank of Subadar in the artillery and infantry, or of
a corresponding rank in the other branches of the service. The
2nd Class is open to all native commissioned officers, irrespective
of their rank. Originally the order was limited to 100 in the
Ist Class and the same number in the 2nd, but it now comprises
215 in the 1st Class and 324 in the 2nd Class. Officers in the
Ist Class are entitled to the title of " Sirdar Bahadur," and receive
a daily allowance of two rupees in addition to the pay, allowances
or pension of their rank, while those of the 2nd Class are styled
" Bahadur," and receive an extra one rupee per diem.
2. Ability and Good Conduct. Instituted in 1842. Obverse:
A paddle-wheel steamship. Reverse: Crown and anchor, and
inscribed, FOR ABILITY AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon:
None authorized.
No official documents as regards the institution of this decoration
are now to be found at the Admiralty, but only engineers were
eligible for the award, and it carried no gratuity or annuity. Only
six were ever awarded. When, in 1847, engineers were raised to
the rank of warrant officers, the issue of this decoration was dis-
continued. It had a ring for suspension, and was probably worn
with the narrow navy blue ribbon of the " Long Service and Good
Conduct " medal of the period.
3. Meritorious Service (Army and Royal Marines). Instituted
by Royal Warrant, igth December 1845, for army only; grant
extended to Royal Marines by Order in Council, 1 5th January
1849. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on China medal. 1
Reverse: FOR MERITORIOUS SERVICE, within a laurel wreath.
Ribbon: ^Crimson for army (Plate II.); navy blue for Royal
Marines. Only non-commissioned officers of or above the rank
of sergeant are eligible for this decoration. It carries with it an
annuity not exceeding 20 per annum ; but, as the total sum avail-
able is strictly limited, the number of these medals that is issued
is small, and a non-commissioned officer who is recommended may
have to wait many years before his turn comes and he receives
the award. The qualification for recommendation is long, efficient
and meritorious service, and need not necessarily, although in many
cases it does, include any special display of personal gallantry in
action. For many years the " meritorious service " medal was
considered to cancel the " long service and good conduct " medal,
but by A.O. 250 of 1902 both medals can be worn together. 2
4. The Distinguished Service Order (see KNIGHTHOOD) is given
only to officers (and naval and military officials of officer rank, not
including Indian native officers) for services in war. Often it is
the reward of actual conspicuous gallantry under fire, but its purpose,
as denned in the Royal Warrant instituting the order, is to reward
" individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in
war; " and the same document declares that only those shall be
eligible who have been mentioned " in despatches for meritorious
or distinguished service in the field, or before the enemy." In the
main, therefore, it is awarded for special services in war, and not
necessarily under fire; and although the services rewarded are as
a fact generally rendered in action, the order is in no sense a sort
of second class of the Victoria Cross. Like the latter, the Dis-
tinguished Service Order is generally referred to by its initials.
5. The Royal Red Cross is also an Order. Membership is re-
stricted to women (not necessarily British subjects), and is given as
a reward for naval or military nursing service. Instituted 1883.
6. The Kaisar-i-Hind Medal is given for public services in India.
7. The Volunteer Officers^' Decoration. Instituted in 1892. An
oval of silver, crossed at intervals with gold, , in the centre the
monogram V.R. and crown in gold. Worn from a ring. Ribbon:
Dark green.
This decoration was instituted in 1892, and is the reward of
twenty years' service in the commissioned ranks of the volunteer
force. It is generally called the " V.D. " Since the conversion of
the Volunteer into the Territorial Force (1908) it has been replaced
by THE TERRITORIAL OFFICERS' DECORATION. Officers
of the Royal Naval Reserve and of the Royal Naval Volunteer
Reserve are eligible for a similar decoration (1910).
8. The Long Service and Good Conduct (Army) Medal was instituted
in 1833. Obverse: A trophy of arms. 3 Reverse: FOR LONG
SERVICE AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon: Crimson, as for
" Meritorious Service " medal (Plate II.).
This is a reward for " long service with irreproachable character
and conduct," the qualifying period of service being 18 years.
1 Now naval effigy of King Edward VII., as on Transport Service
medal.
2 Other " Meritorious " or " Long Service " medals worn with
a crimson ribbon are the former Long Service medal of the H.E.I.
Company's European troops and the Meritorious and Long Service
medals of the Indian Native Army.
3 Now replaced by military effigy of King Edward VII.
i8
MEDEA
9. The Long Service and Good Conduct (Navy) Medal was in-
stituted in 1831. Ribbon: Blue, with white edges (Plate II.).
10. The Volunteer Long Service Medal. Instituted in 1894.
Has a green ribbon. Obverse : Effigy of Queen Victoria. Reverse :
A scroll within a wreath, inscribed FOR LONG SERVICE IN THE
VOLUNTEER FORCE. Replaced by the Territorial Long Service
Medal (1908), of which the ribbon is green with a yellow centre;
and the obverse a bust of the king. The Militia Long Service
Medal (1904) has a light blue ribbon, the Imperial Yeomanry Long
Service Medal a yellow ribbon, the Honourable Artillery Company's
Medal a black, red and yellow ribbon. All these are shown on
Plate II. 1
n. The Medal for the Best Shot in the Army was instituted in
1869 Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria (now effigy of King
Edward VII.). Reverse: A winged Victory crowning a warrior.
Ribbon: Red, with two narrow black stripes on each edge, the
two black stripes being divided by a narrow white one. There is
also a " Best Shot " Medal for the Indian Native Army, which
has an orange ribbon.
12. The Medal for Naval Gunnery was instituted in 1903. Ribbon :
Red centre, flanked by two narrow white stripes, two broad blue
stripes at edges (Plate II.).
Amongst medals of the last class may be mentioned the Jubilee
Medals of 1887 and 1897, the Coronation Medal of 1902, the Royal
Victorian Medal (this, however, is a sort of sixth class of the Royal
Victorian Order, for which see KNIGHTHOOD) and the medals
awarded for Durbars.
United Stales. The war medals and decorations of the
United States, although few in number, are interesting, as
they follow a peculiar system in the colours of the ribbons.
The principal military decoration of the United States is the
" Medal of Honor," which was founded for the reward of unusual
bravery or special good conduct during the Civil War. In its
present form it is a five-pointed star, with a medallion in the
centre bearing a head of Minerva and round it UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA in relief. On each ray of the star is an oak-leaf,
and the points themselves are trefoil shaped. A laurel wreath,
in green enamel, encircles the whole, and this wreath is surmounted
by VALOR, which in turn is surmounted by an eagle that attaches
the decoration to its ribbon. This last is blue, with thirteen white
stars worked on it in silk. Accompanying this decoration there is
a badge or lapel button, hexagonal, and made of blue silk with the
thirteen stars in white.
The original form of the decoration had no encircling wreath;
on the rays, instead of the oak-leaves, were small wreaths of laurel
and oak, and the design in the central medallion was a figure of
Minerva standing, with her left hand resting upon a consul's fasces
and her right warding off with a shield the figure of Discord. The
background was formed by thirty-four stars. The decoration
was surmounted by a trophy of crossed guns, swords, &c., with
eagle above, and the ribbon was designed of the national colours,
as follows: thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and across
the ribbon at the top a broad band of blue (palewise gules and
argent and a chief azure). The ribbon was attached to the coat
by a clasp badge bearing two cornucopias and the arms of the
U.S. The present decoration does not have this badge, but is
suspended from a concealed bar brooch.
Another special decoration is the " Merit " Medal. This bears
on the obverse an eagle, surrounded by the inscription VIRTVTIS
ET AVDACIAE MONVMENTVM ET PRAEMIVM, and on the
reverse the inscription FOR MERIT, surrounded by an oak-leaf
wreath; in the upper part of the exergue is UNITED STATES
ARMY, in the lower thirteen stars. The ribbon is red, white and
blue, in six stripes, two red stripes divided by a fine white line
in the centre, two white on either side of the red and two blue
forming the two outer edges.
We come now to the war medals proper, issued generally to all
those who took part in the events commemorated.
The Civil War Medal bears on the obverse the portrait of Lincoln,
surrounded by an inscription taken from his famous Gettysburg
address WITH MALICE TOWARDS NONE, WITH CHARITY
FOR ALL. On the reverse is the inscription THE CIVIL WAR,
1861-1865 surrounded by a wreath of oak leaves and olive branches.
The ribbon is somewhat similar to that last described; the blue
stripe, however, is in the centre, divided as before by a white line,
and the red stripes form the outer edges.
The " Indian Wars " Medal is interesting from the fact that its
reverse was copied on other medals, this making it, in a sense, a
" general service " medal. On the obverse is a mounted Indian
in war costume bearing a spear, in the upper part of the exergue
INDIAN WARS, in the lower a buffalo's skull with arrow-heads
on either side. What we have called the " general service " design
1 By Royal Warrant of 3ist of May 1895, medals both for
distinguished conduct in the field and for long service were author-
ized to be awarded by the various colonies possessing regular or
volunteer troops, " under regulations similar, as far as circumstances
permit, to those now ranking for Our Regular and Auxiliary Forces."
on the reverse is composed of (a) an eagle perched on a cannon,
supported by five standards (typifying the five great wars of the
United States), rifles, Indian shield, spear and arrows, Filipino
dagger and Cuban machete; (b) below this trophy the words FOR
SERVICE; (c) in exergue, above, UNITED STATES ARMY,
below, thirteen stars.
Ribbon of the Indian Medal, vermilion, with deep red edges.
The " War with Spain " Medal bears on the obverse a castle
with two flanking towers; in exergue, above, WAR WITH SPAIN,
below, the date 1898, with, on one side of it, a branch of the tobacco-
plant, and on the other a sugar-cane. Reverse: As for " Indian
Wars" Medal. Ribbon: Centre golden-yellow, with two red
stripes close to the edges, the edges themselves being narrow stripes
of blue.
The " Philippine Insurrection " Medal bears on the obverse a
coco-nut palm tree, with, on the left of it, a lamp (typifying En-
lightenment), and on the right a balance (representing Justice).
This is encircled by the inscription PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION
1899. The ribbon is blue, with two red stripes near the edges.
Reverse: As in " Indian Wars " Medal.
Another medal connected with the Filipino insurrection is the
so-called " Congressional " Medal, which was designed to commemo-
rate the participation in the war of regulars and volunteers, North-
erners and Southerners, side by side. On the obverse is a colour-
party of infantry with the national flag, the fly of the flag extending
almost to the edge of the medal. Below is the date, 1899, and
above, in a semicircle, PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION. The
reverse has the inscription FOR PATRIOTISM, FORTITUDE
AND LOYALTY, surrounded by a wreath of oak-leaves (typifying
the North) and palm branches (typifying the South). The ribbon
is blue, edged by narrow stripes of the national colours, the blue
being nearest the edge and the red nearest the centre.
The " China Relief " Medal bears on the obverse a Chinese
dragon, surrounded by the inscription CHINA RELIEF EX-
PEDITION, and at bottom, the date 1900-1. Reverse: As for
"Indian Wars" medal. Ribbon: Lemon-yellow, with narrow
blue edges.
It is interesting to note that in the case of two of these medals
the national colours of the enemy (Spain and China) furnish those
of the ribbon. The national colours adopted by the Filipinos were
red and blue, and these also figure, in spite of their similarity to
the U.S. national colours, on the ribbons of the " Filipino " and
" Congressional " Medals. The Indian ribbon is, similarly, of the
colour of the enemy's war paint vermilion. See, for illustrations
and further details of all these medals and decorations, Journal of
the [U.S.] Military Service Institution, May-June 1909. Some of
the badges of membership of associations of veterans, such as the
Loyal Legion, ^ are allowed to be worn as war medals in uniform.
The " Rescue " Medal, in gold or silver, is awarded for bravery in
saving life by land or sea.
Other Countries. As has been mentioned above, foreign
decoral^ons for military service usually take the form of Orders
in many classes. There are, however, numerous long service
decorations, which need not be specified. The most famous
of the European war and service decorations are the Prussian
Iron Cross, the French Medaitte Militaire, and the Russian
St George's Cross; all these are individual decorations.
The Iron Cross is given to officers and soldiers for distinguished
service in war. It was founded, in the enthusiasm of the War of
Liberation movement, on the loth of March 1813, and revived at
the outbreak of the " War for Unity " against France, igth of July
1870. The cross is a Maltese cross of cast iron edged with silver.
The 1813-15 crosses have the initials F. W. (Friedrich Wilhelm)
in the centre, a crown in the upper limb of the cross, and the date
in the lower. Those of 1870 have W. (Wilhelm) in the centre,
crown on the upper and date on the lower limb of the cross. There
are certain distinctions between the Grand Cross, which is worn at
the neck, the 1st Class Cross which is worn as an Order suspended
from a ribbon, and the 2nd Class Cross, which is worn on the breast.
In 1870 war medals were given, bearing on the obverse a Maltese
cross superposed on a many-pointed star, and having in its centre
1870-1871 within a wreath. The reverse has W. and a crown,
with, for combatants the inscription Dem siegreichen Heere, and
for non-combatants Fur Pflichttreue im Kriege, in each case sur-
rounded by the words Gott war mil uns Ihm sei die Ehre. The
award of the Iron Cross to the rank and file carries with it an allow-
ance of 3-6 marks monthly. (H. L. S. ; C. F. A.)
MEDEA (Gr. Mi?5eia), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress,
daughter of Aeetes, king of Colchis. Having been thrown
into prison by her father, who was afraid of being injured by
her witchcraft, she escaped by means of her art and fled to the
temple of Helios the Sun-god, her reputed grandfather. She
fell in love with Jason the Argonaut, who reached Colchis at
this time, and exacted a terrible revenge for his faithlessness
(see ARGONAUTS and JASON). After the murder of Jason's
MEDELLIN MEDFORD
second wife and her own children, she fled from Corinth in her
car drawn by dragons, the gift of Helios, to Athens, where
she married king Aegeus, by whom she had a son, Medus. But
the discovery of an attempt on the life of Theseus, the son of
Aegeus, forced her to leave Athens (Apollodorus i. 9, 28;
Pausanias ii. 3, 6-n; Diod. Sic. iv. 45, 46, 54-56). Accom-
panied by her son, she returned to Colchis, and restored her
father to the throne, of which he had been deprived by his own
brother Perses. Medus was regarded as the eponymous hero
and progenitor of the Medes. Medea was honoured as a goddess
at Corinth, and was said to have become the wife of Achilles
in the Elysian fields. The chief seat of her cult, however, was
Thessaly, which was always regarded as the home of magic.
As time went on her character was less favourably described.
In the case of Jason and the Argonauts, she plays the part of
a kindly, good-natured fairy; Euripides, however, makes her a
barbarous priestess of Hecate, while the Alexandrian writers
depicted her in still darker colours. Some authorities regard
Medea as a lunar divinity, but the ancient conception of her
as a Thessalian sorceress is probably correct. The popularity
of the story of Jason and Medea in antiquity is shown by the
large amount of literature on the subject. The original story
was probably contained in an old epic poem called 'M.ivvfa
iroirjtrts, the authorship of which was ascribed to Prodicus of
Phocaea. It is given at some length in the fourth Pythian ode
of Pindar, and forms the subject of the Argonautica of Apollonius
Rhodius. There is a touching epistle (Medea to Jason) in the
Heroides of Ovid. Medea is the heroine of extant tragedies
of Euripides and Seneca; those of Aeschylus and Ennius (adapted
from Euripides) are lost. Neophron of Sicyon and Melanthius
wrote plays of the same name. Among modern writers on the
same theme may be mentioned T. Corneille, F. Grillparzer
and M. Cherubini (opera).
The death of Glauce and the murder of her children by Medea
was frequently represented in ancient art. In the famous
picture of Tomomachus of Byzantium Medea is deliberating
whether or not she shall kill her children; there are copies of
this painting in the mural decorations of Herculaneum and
Pompeii.
See Lon Mallinger, Medee: etude sur la literature comparee, an
account of Medea in Greek, Roman, middle age and modern literature
(1898); and the articles in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des
antiquites and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.
MEDELLIN, a city of Colombia and capital of the department
of Antioquia, 150 m. N.W. of Bogota, on a plateau of the Central
Cordillera, 4823 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate),
50,000. Medellin, the foundation of which dates from 1674,
stands in the valley of the Force, a tributary of the Cauca, and
is reputed to be one of the healthiest as well as one of the most
attractive cities of the republic. It has a university, national
college, school of mines and other educational institutions,
assaying and refining laboratories, a public library and a mint.
The principal industry of the surrounding country is mining,
and gold and silver are exported in considerable quantities.
Coffee and hides are also exported, but the trade of the city
has been greatly impeded by difficulties of transportation. A
railway from Puerto Berrio, on the Magdalena, was begun many
years before the end of the igth century, but political and
financial difficulties interposed and work was suspended when
only 43 m. were finished. The completion of the remaining
80 m. was part of a larger scheme proposed in 1906 for bring-
ing the Cauca Valley into railway communication with the
national capital.
MEDEMBLIK, a seaport of Holland, on the Zuider Zee, the
terminus of a branch railway from Hoorn, 105 m. S. Pop.
(1903), 3012. Once the capital of West Friesland and a pro-
sperous town, many of its streets and quays are now deserted,
though the docks and basins constructed at the end of the i6th
and beginning of the iyth centuries could still afford excellent
accommodation for many ships. Close to the harbour entrance
stands the castle built by Florens V., count of Holland, in 1285.
It has been restored, and is used as a court of justice. The
West church, formerly called after St Boniface, the apostle of
Germany, was once the richest in Friesland, and belonged from
an early date to the cathedral chapter at Utrecht, where, until
the Reformation, the pastor of Medemblik had a seat in the
cathedral. It contains the tomb of Lord George Murray (q.v.).
Among the public buildings are the town-hall (lyth century),
weigh-house, orphanage, the old almshouse, the house (1613)
of the Water Commissioners, and a large building formerly
belonging to the admiralty and now used as a state lunatic
asylum. There are many interesting brick houses, dating chiefly
from the first half of the I7th century, with curious gables
and picturesque ornamentation, carvings and inscriptions.
MEDFORD, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Mystic river and Lakes,
5 m. N. by W. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 18,244, of whom 4327
were foreign-born; (ipio census) 23,150. The city is served
by the Southern Division and a branch of the Western Division
of the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected with Boston
and neighbouring cities by electric railways. The Mystic
River, a tidewater stream, is navigable for small craft as far
as the centre of the city. There are manufactures of considerable
importance, including bricks and tiles, woollen goods, carriages
and wagons, food products, iron and steel building materials
and machinery. The city covers a land area of about 8 sq. m.,
along the Mystic river, and extending to the hills. The western
portion borders the Upper and Lower Mystic Lakes, which are
centres for boating. In the north-west portion of Medford is
a part of the Middlesex Fells, a heavily wooded reserve belonging
to the extensive Metropolitan Park System maintained by the
state. The broad parkways of this system also skirt the Mystic
Lakes, and here is the greater part (1907, 267 out of 291 acres)
of the Mystic River Reservation of the Metropolitan System.
Among the city parks are Hastings, Brooks, Logan, Tufts and
Magoun. Within the city limits are some of the oldest and
most interesting examples of colonial domestic architecture
in America, including the so-called " Cradock House " (actually
the Peter Tufts house, built in 1677-1680), the " Wellington
House," built in 1657, and the " Royall House." The last was
built originally by Governor John Winthrop for the tenants
of his Ten Hills Farm, and was subsequently enlarged and
occupied by Lieut. -Governor John Usher, and by Isaac Royall 1
(c. 1720-1781) and his son, Isaac Royall, Jun.
Medford has a public library of about 35,200 volumes, housed
in the colonial residence (reconstructed) of Thatcher Magoun.
The city has also a city hall, a high school and manual training
school, an opera house, and one of the handsomest armory
buildings in the country (the home of the Lawrence Light
Guard), presented by General Samuel C. Lawrence (b. 1832),
a liberal benefactor of Medford institutions and the first mayor
of the city (1892-1894). The Salem St. Burying Ground,
dating from 1689, is one of the oldest burial places in America.
The Medford Historical Society maintains a library and museum
in the birthplace of Lydia Maria Child. Medford is the seat
of Tufts College, planned and founded as a Universalist institu-
tion in 1852 by Hosea Ballou, its first president, and others,
and named in honour of Charles Tufts (1781-1876), a successful
manufacturer, who gave the land on which it stands. The
college, which had 1120 students and 217 instructors in 1909,
comprises a college of letters, a divinity school, and a school
of engineering (all in Medford), and medical and dental schools
in Boston; it is now undenominational. Among the twenty
college buildings, the Barnum Museum of Natural History
(1885) founded by Phineas T. Barnum, and the Eaton Memorial
Library (1907), presented by Mrs Andrew Carnegie in memory
of her pastor, are noteworthy. The college endowment amounted
in 1908 to $2,300,000.
Medford was first settled in 1630. A considerable portion
of its area formed the plantation of Matthew Cradock (d. 1641),
first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company, who in 1630
1 A prominent Loyalist, whose estate was seized during the War
of Independence, but was restored to his heirs about 1800. He
endowed the first professorship of law in America at Harvard
College.
20
MEDHANKARA MEDIA
sent out agents to settle his lands. John Winthrop's " Ten
Hills Farm," partly within the present limits of Medford, was
settled soon afterwards. One of the earliest industries was
snip-building, John Winthrop's " Blessing of the Bay," built on
the Mystic in 1631-1632, being one of the first keels laid on the
continent. In 1802 Thatcher Magoun began building sea-going
vessels, and many of the famous privateers of the War of 1812
were constructed here. By 1845 Medford employed fully a
quarter of all the shipwrights of the state. The industry gradually
lost its importance after the introduction of steamships, and
the last keel was laid in 1873. Another early industry was
the distilling of rum; this was carried on for two centuries,
especially by the Hall family and, after about 1830, by the
Lawrence family, but was discontinued in 1905. The manufac-
ture of brick and tile was an important industry in the lyth
century. The Cradock bridge, the first toll-bridge in New
England, was built across the Mystic in 1638; over it for
1 50 years ran the principal thoroughfare, from Boston to Maine
and New Hampshire. The course of Paul Revere's ride lay
through Medford Square and High Street, and within a half-
hour of his passage the Medford minute men were on their way
to Lexington and Concord, where they took part in the engage-
ments with the British. After the Battle of Saratoga many of
Burgoyne's officers were quartered here for the winter. The
Middlesex Canal was opened through Medford in 1803, and
the Boston & Lowell railroad (now the southern division
of the Boston & Maine) in 1831. Medford was chartered as a
city in 1892.
See Charles Brooks, History of the Town of Medford (Boston, 1855 ;
enlarged by J. M. Usher, Boston, 1886); Historical Register of the
Medford Historical Society (1898 et seq.) ; Proceedings of the 2J5th
Anniversary of the Settlement of Medford (Medford, 1905) ; S. A.
Drake, History of Middlesex County (2 yols., Boston, 1880) and
Helen Tilden Wild, Medford in the Revolution (Medford, 1903).
MEDHANKARA, the name of several distinguished members,
in medieval times, of the Buddhist order. The oldest flourished
about A.D. 1 200, and was the author of the Vinaya Artha
Samuccaya, a work in the Sinhalese language on Buddhist
canon law. Next to him came Arafinaka Medhankara, who
presided over the Buddhist council held at Polonnaruwa, then
the capital of Ceylon, in 1250. The third Vanaratana Medhan-
kara, flourished in 1280, and wrote a poem in Pali, Jina Carita,
on the life of the Buddha. He also wrote the Payoga Siddhi.
The fourth was the celebrated scholar to whom King Parakrama
Bahu IV. of Ceylon entrusted in 1307 the translation from Pali
into Sinhalese of the Jdtaka book, the most voluminous extant
work in Sinhalese. The fifth, a Burmese, was called the Sang-
haraja Nava Medhankara, and wrote in Pali a work entitled
the Loka Padipa Sara, on cosmogony and allied subjects.
See the Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1882, p. 126; 1886, pp. 62,
67, 72; 1890, p. 63; 1896, p. 43; Mahavamsa, ch. xl., verse 85.
(T. W. R. D.)
MEDHURST, WALTER HENRY (1796-1857), English Con-
gregationalist missionary to China, was born in London and
educated at St Paul's school. He learned the business of a
printer, and having become interested in Christian missions
he sailed in 1816 for the London Missionary Society's station
at Malacca, which was intended to be a great printing-centre.
He became proficient in Malay, in a knowledge of the written
characters of Chinese, and in the colloquial use of more than
one of its dialects. He was ordained at Malacca in 1819, and
engaged in missionary labours, first at Penang, then at Batavia,
and finally, when peace was concluded with China in 1842,
at Shanghai. There he continued till 1856, laying the foundations
of a successful mission. His principal labour for several years,
as one of a committee of delegates, was in the revision of existing
Chinese versions of the Bible. The result was a version (in High
Wen-li) marvellously correct and faithful to the original. With
John Stronach he also translated the New Testament into the
Mandarin dialect of Nanking. His Chinese-English and English-
Chinese dictionaries (each in 2 vols.) are still valuable, and to
him the British public owed its understanding of the teaching
of Hung-Sew-Tseuen, the leader of the Tai-ping rising (1851-64).
The university of New York conferred upon him in 1843 the
degree of D.D. Medhurst left Shanghai in 1856 in failing
health, and died two days after reaching London, on the 24th
of January 1857. His son, Sir Walter Henry Medhurst (1822-
1885), was British consul at Hankow and afterwards at Shanghai.
MEDIA, the ancient name of the north-western part of Iran,
the country of the Medes, corresponding to the modern provinces
of Azerbaijan, Ardelan, Irak Ajemi, and parts of Kurdistan.
It is separated from Armenia and the lowlands on the Tigris
(Assyria) by the mighty ranges of the Zagros (mountains of
Kurdistan; in its northern parts probably called Choatras,
Plin. v. 98), and in the north by the valley of the Araxes (Aras).
In the east it extends towards the Caspian Sea; but the high
chains of mountains which surround the Caspian Sea (the
Parachoathras of the ancients and the Elburz, separate it from
the coast, and the narrow plains on the border of the sea (Gilan,
the country of the Gelae and Amardi, and Mazandaran, in
ancient times inhabited by the Tapuri) cannot be reckoned
as part of Media proper. The greater part of Media is a mountain-
ous plateau, about 3000-5000 ft. above the sea; but it contains
some fertile plains. The climate is temperate, with cold winters,
in strong contrast to the damp and unwholesome air of the
shores of the Caspian, where the mountains are covered with a
rich vegetation. Media contains only one river, which reaches
the sea, the Sefid Rud (Amardus), which flows into the Caspian;
but a great many streams are exhausted after a short course,
and in the north-west is a large lake, the lake of Urumiah or
Urmia. 1 From the mountains in the west spring some great
tributaries of the Tigris, viz. the Diyala (Gyndes) and the Kerkheh
(Choaspes). Towards the south-east Media passes into the
great central desert of Iran, which eastwards of Rhagae (mod.
Rai, near Teheran), in the region of the " Caspian gates,"
reaches to the foot of the Elburz chain. On a tract of about
150 m. the western part of Iran is connected with the east
(Khorasan, Parthyaea) only by a narrow district (Choarene and
Comisene), where human dwellings and small villages can exist.
The people of the Mada, Medes (the Greek form MrjdoL is
Ionian for Ma5oi) appear in history first in 836 B.C., when
the Assyrian conqueror Shalmaneser II. in his wars against
the tribes of the Zagros received the tribute of the Amadai
(this form, with prosthetic a-, which occurs only here, has many
analogies in the names of Iranian tribes). His successors under-
took many expeditions against the Medes (Madai). Sargon in
715 and 713 subjected them " to the far mountain Bikni," i.e.
the Elburz (Demavend) and the borders of the desert. They
were divided into many districts and towns, under petty local
chieftains; from the names which the Assyrian inscriptions
mention, we learn that they were an Iranian tribe and that
they had already adopted the religion of Zoroaster. In spite
of different attempts of some chieftains to shake off the Assyrian
yoke (cf. the information obtained from prayers to the Sun-god
for oracles against these rebels: Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebete
an den Sonnengott), Media remained tributary to Assyria under
Sargon's successors, Sennacherib, Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-
pal.
Herodotus, i. 101, gives a list of six Median tribes (yevta),
among them the Paraetaceni, the inhabitants of the mountainous
highland of Paraetacene, the district of Isfahan, and the Magoi,
i.e. the Magians, the hereditary caste of the priests, who in
Media took the place of the " fire-kindlers " (athravan) of the
Zoroastrian religion, and who spread from Media to Persia
and to the west. But the Iranian Medes were not the only
inhabitants of the country. The names in the Assyrian inscrip-
tions prove that the tribes in the Zagros and the northern
parts of Media were not Iranians nor Indo-Europeans, but an
aboriginal population, like the early inhabitants of Armenia,
perhaps connected with the numerous tribes of the Caucasus.
1 Anc. Mantiane, Strabo xi. 529; Martiane, Ptol. vi. 2, 5,
probably identical with the name Matiane, Matiene, by which
Herodotus i. 189, 202, iii. 94, v. 49, 52 (in i. 72 and vii. 72 they seem
to be a different people in Asia Minor); Polyb. v. 44, o; Strabo i.
49. 73. xi. 509, 514, 523, 525; Plin vi. 48, designate the northern
part of Me "
ledia.
MEDIA
21
We can see how the Iranian element gradually became dominant:
princes with Iranian names occasionally occur as rulers of these
tribes. But the Gelae, Tapuri, Cadusii, Amardi, Utii and other
tribes in northern Media and on the shores of the Caspian were
not Iranians. With them Ptolybius v. 44, 9, Strabo xi. 507,
508, 514, and Pliny vi. 46, mention the Anariaci, whom they
consider as a particular tribe; but in reality their name, the
" Not-Arians," is the comprehensive designation of all these
small tribes.
In the second half of the 7th century the Medians gained their
independence and were united by a dynasty, which, if we may
trust Herodotus, derived its origin from Deioces (q.v.), a Median
chieftain in the Zagros, who was, with his kinsmen, transported
by Sargon to Hamath (Hamah) in Syria in 715 B.C. The
kings, who created the Median Empire, were Phraortes and his
son Cyaxares. Probably they were chieftains of a nomadic
Median tribe in the desert, the Manda, mentioned by Sargon;
for the Babylonian king Nabonidus designates the Medians
and their kings always as Manda. The origin and history
of the Median Empire is quite obscure, as we possess almost
no contemporary information, and not a single monument
or inscription from Media itself. Our principal source is
Herodotus, who wrongly makes Deioces the first king and
uniter of the whole nation, and dates their independence from
c. 710 i.e. from the time when the Assyrian supremacy was
at its height. But his account contains real historical elements,
whereas the story which Ctesias gave (a list of nine kings, begin-
ning with Arbaces, who is said to have destroyed Nineveh
about 880 B.C., preserved in Diod. ii. 32 sqq. and copied by many
later authors) has no historical value whatever, although some
of his names may be derived from local traditions. According
to Herodotus, the conquests of Cyaxares were interrupted
by an invasion of the Scythians, who founded an empire
in western Asia, which lasted twenty-eight years. From
the Assyrian prayers to the Sun-god, mentioned above, we
learn that the Median dynasts, who tried rebellions against
the Assyrians in the time of Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-pal,
were allied with chieftains of the Cimmerians (who had come
from the northern shore of the Black Sea and invaded Armenia
and Asia Minor), of the Saparda, Ashguza and other tribes; and
from Jeremiah and Zephaniah we know that a great invasion
of Syria and Palestine by northern barbarians really took place
in 626 B.C. With these facts the traditions of Herodotus must
in some way be connected; but at present it is impossible to
regain the history of these times. The only certain facts are that
in 606 Cyaxares succeeded in destroying Nineveh and the other
cities of Assyria (see PHRAORTES and DEIOCES).
From then the Median king ruled over the greatest part of
Iran, Assyria and northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappa-
docia. His power was very dangerous to their neighbours,
and the exiled Jews expected the destruction of Babylonia by
the Medes (Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.; Jerem. 1. li.). When Cyaxares
attacked Lydia, the kings of Cilicia and Babylon intervened and
negotiated a peace in 585, by which the Halys was established
as the boundary. Nebuchadrezzar married a daughter of Cya-
xares, and an equilibrium of the great powers was maintained
till the rise of Cyrus.
About the internal organization of the Median Empire we
know only that the Greeks derive a great part of the ceremonial
of the Persian court, the costume of the king, &c., from Media.
But it is certain that the national union of the Median clans
was the work of their kings; and probably the capital Ecbatana
(q.v.) was created by them.
By the rebellion of Cyrus, king of Persia, against his suzerain
Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, in 553, and his victory in 550,
the Medes were subjected to the Persians. In the new empire
they retained a prominent position; in honour and war they
stood next to the Persians; the ceremonial of their court was
adopted by the new sovereigns who in the summer months
resided in Ecbatana, and many noble Medes were employed
as officials, satraps and generals. After the assassination of the
usurper Smerdis, a Mede Fravartish (Phraortes), who pretended
to be of the race of Cyaxares, tried to restore the Median
kingdom, but was defeated by the Persian generals and executed
in Ecbatana (Darius in the Behistun inscr.). Another rebellion,
in 409, against Darius II. (Xenophon, Hellen. i. 2, 19) was of
short duration. But the non-Aryan tribes of the north, especially
the Cadusians, were always troublesome; many abortive expe-
ditions of the later kings against them are mentioned.
Under the Persian rule the country was divided into two
satrapies. The south, with Ecbatana and Rhagae (Rai),
Media proper, or " Great Media," as it is often called, formed
in Darius' organization the eleventh satrapy (Herodotus iii.
92), together with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians; the
north, the district of Matiane (see above), together with the
mountainous districts of the Zagros and Assyria proper (east
of the Tigris) was united with the Alarodians and Saspirians in
eastern Armenia, and formed the eighteenth satrapy (Herod,
iii. 94; cf. v. 49, 52, vii. 72). When the empire decayed and
the Carduchi and other mountainous tribes made themselves
independent, eastern Armenia became a special satrapy, while
Assyria seems to have been united with Media; therefore
Xenophon in the Anabasis ii. 4, 27; iii. 5, 15; vii. 8, 25; cf. iii.
4, 8 sqq. always designates Assyria by the name of Media.
Alexander occupied Media in the summer of 330; in 328 he
appointed Atropates, a former general of Darius (Arrian iii.
8, 4), as satrap (iv. 18, 3, vi. 29, 3), whose daughter was married
to Perdiccas in 324 (Arrian vii. 4, 5). In the partition of his
empire, southern Media was given to the Macedonian Peithon;
but the north, which lay far off and was of little importance
for the generals who fought for the inheritance of Alexander,
was left to Atropates. While southern Media with Ecbatana
passed to the rule of Antigonus, and afterwards (about 310) to
Seleucus I.; Atropates maintained himself in his satrapy and
succeeded in founding an independent kingdom. Thus the
partition of the country, which the Persian had introduced,
became lasting; the north was named Atropatene (in Plin.
vi. 42, Atrapatene; in Ptolem. vi. 2, 5, Tropatene; in Polyb.
v. 44 and 55 corrupted in TO. aaTpaireia Ka^oiintva), after the
founder of the dynasty, a name which is preserved in the
modern Azerbaijan; cf. Noldeke, " Atropatene," in Zeilschrift
der deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft, 34, 692 sqq. and Marquart,
Eranshahr, p. 108 sqq. The capital was Gazaca in the central
plain, and the strong castle Phraaspa (Dio Cass. xlix. 26; Plut.
Anton. 38; Ptol. vi. 2, 10) or Vera (Strabo xi. 523), probably
identical with the great ruin Takhti Suleiman, with remains
of Sassanid fire-altars and of a later palace. The kings had a
strong and warlike army, especially cavalry (Polyb. v. 55;
Strabo xi. 253). Nevertheless, King Artabazanes was forced
by Antiochus the Great in 220 to conclude a disadvantageous
treaty (Polyb. v. 55), and in later times the rulers became
in turn dependent on the Parthians, on Tigranes of Armenia,
and in the time of Pompey who defeated their king Darius
(Appian, Mithr. 108), on Antonius (who invaded Atropatene)
and on Augustus of Rome. In the time of Strabo (A.D. 17),
the dynasty existed still (p. 523); in later times the country
seems to have become a Parthian province.
Atropatene is that country of western Asia which was least of
all influenced by Hellenism; there exists not even a single coin
of its rulers. But the opinion of modern authors that it had
been a special refuge of Zoroastrianism is based upon a wrong
etymology of the name (which is falsely explained as " country
of fire-worship "), and has no foundation whatever. There can
be no doubt that the kings adhered to the Persian religion;
but it is not probable that it was deeply rooted among their
subjects, especially among the non-Aryan tribes.
Southern Media remained a province of the Seleucid Empire
for a century and a half, and Hellenism was introduced every-
where. " Media is surrounded everywhere by Greek towns, in
pursuance of the plan of Alexander, which protect it against the
neighbouring barbarians," says Polybius (x. 27). Only Ecbatana
retained its old character. But Rhagae became a Greek town,
Europus; and with it Strabo (xi. 524) names Laodicea, Apamea,
Heraclea or Achais (cf. Plin. vi. 48). Most of them were founded
22
MEDIATION MEDIATIZATION
by SeJeucus I. and his son Antiochus I. In 221, the satrap
Molon tried to make himself independent (there exist bronze
coins with his name and the royal title), together with his brother
Alexander, satrap of Persis, but they were defeated and .killed
by Antiochus the Great. In the same way, in 161, the Median
satrap Timarchus took the diadem and conquered Babylonia;
on his coins he calls himself " the great king Timarchus";
but this time again the legitimate king, Demetrius I., succeeded
in subduing the rebellion, and Timarchus was slain. But
with Demetrius I. the dissolution of the Seleucid Empire
begins, which was brought on chiefly by the intrigues of the
Romans, and shortly afterwards, about 150, the Parthian king,
Mithradates I. (<?..), conquered Media (Justin xli. 6). From
this time Media remained subject to the Arsacids, who changed
the name of Rhagae, or Europus, into Arsacia (Strabo xi.
524), and divided the country into five small provinces (Isidorus
Charac.). From the Arsacids or Parthians, it passed in A.D. 226
to the Sassanids, together with Atropatene. By this time
the old tribes of Aryan Iran had lost their character and had
been amalgamated into the one nation of the Iranians. The
revival of Zoroastrianism, which was enforced everywhere
by the Sassanids, completed this development. It was only
then that Atropatene became a principal seat of fire-worship,
with many fire-altars. Rhagae now became the most sacred
city of the empire and the seat of the head of the Zoroastrian
hierarchy; the Sassanid Avesta and the tradition of the Parsees
therefore consider Rhagae as the home of the family of the
Prophet. Henceforth the name of Media is used only as a
geographical term and begins to disappear from the living
language; in Persian traditions it occurs under the modern
form Mah (Armen. Mai; in Syriac the old name Madai is
preserved; cf. Marquart, Eranshahr, 18 seq.).
For Mahommedan history see CALIPHATE; for later history
SELJUKS and PERSIA. (En. M.)
MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle), in the international
sense, the intervention of a third power, on the invitation
or with the consent of two other powers, for the purpose of
arranging differences between the latter without recourse to
war. Mediation may also take place after war has broken
out, with a view to putting an end to it on terms. In either
case the mediating power negotiates on behalf of the parties
who invoke or accept its aid, but does not go farther. Unlike
an arbitrating power the mediator limits his intervention to
suggestion and advice. His action is liable to be arrested at
any time at the will of either party unless otherwise agreed, in
which case to arrest it prematurely would be a breach of good
faith. The difference between mediation and arbitration may
be stated in the words of the Digest (lib. iv. tit. 8, 13):
" Recepisse autem arbitrium videtur, ut ait Pedius, qui judicis
partes suscepit finemque se sua sententia controversiis imposi-
turum pollicetur. Quod si hactenus intervenit ut experiretur
an concilio suo vel auctoritate discuti litem paterentur, non
videtur arbitrium recepisse."
Some writers distinguish mediation from " good offices,"
but the distinction is of little practical value. We may, if we
please, regard " good offices " as inchoate mediation, and
" mediation " as good offices brought to the birth. Thus we
may say that a third power renders " good offices " when it
brings the parties together so as to make diplomatic negotia-
tions between them possible; whilst if it takes an active
part in those negotiations it becomes for the time being a
mediator. The spontaneous yet successful effort made by
President Roosevelt in 1905 to bring together the Russian
and Japanese governments, and to secure then- appointing
delegates to discuss terms of peace, although not strictly
mediation, was closely akin to it.
Of successful mediation in the strict sense there have been
many instances: that of Great Britain, in 1825, between Portugal
and Brazil; of France, in 1840-1850, when differences arose
between Great Britain and Greece ; of the Great Powers, in
1868-1869, when the relations of Greece and Turkey were strained
to breaking-point by reason of the insurrection in Crete; of
Pope Leo XIII., in 1885, between Germany and Spain in the
matter of the Caroline Islands. In these cases mediation averted
war. The Austro- Prussian War of 1866, the war between
Chile and Peru in 1882, and that between Greece and Turkey
in 1897, are instances of wars brought to a close through the
mediation of neutral powers. Mediation has also been occasion-
ally employed where differences have arisen as to the interpreta-
tion of treaties or as to the mode in which they ought to be
carried out: as when Great Britain mediated between France
and the United States with regard to the Treaty of Paris of
the 4th of July 1830. In one case at least mediation has been
successful after a proposal for arbitration had failed. In 1844,
when war between Spain and Morocco was threatened by reason
of the frequent raids by the inhabitants of the Rif on the Spanish
settlement of Ceuta, Spain declined arbitration on the ground
that her rights were too clear for argument. But both she and
Morocco subsequently accepted joint mediation at the hands
of Great Britain and France.
The cause of mediation was considerably advanced by the
Declaration of Paris of 1856. The plenipotentiaries of Great
Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey recorded
in a protocol, at the instance of Lord Clarendon, their joint wish
that " states between which any misunderstanding might arise
should, before appealing to arms, have recourse so far as circum-
stances might allow (en tant que les circomtances I'admettraient)
to the good offices of a friendly power." Article 8 of the Treaty
of Paris, concluded in the same year, stipulated that " if there
should arise between the Sublime Porte and one or more of
the other signing powers any misunderstanding which might
endanger the maintenance of their relations, the Porte and each
of such powers, before having recourse to the use of force, shall
afford the other contracting parties the opportunity of preventing
such as extremity by means of mediation." These precedents
(in which it will be seen that " good offices " and " mediation "
are used interchangeably) were followed in the general act
agreed to at the Conference held at Berlin in 1884-1885 the
object of which was to secure religious and commercial liberty
and to limit warlike operations in the Congo basin.
A special form of mediation was proposed by a delegate
from the United States at the Peace Conference held at the
Hague in 1899, and was approved by the representatives of
the powers there assembled. The clause in which this proposal
was embodied provided in effect that, whenever there is danger
of a rupture between two powers, each of them shall choose a
third power to which these differences shall be referred, and that,
pending such reference, for a period not exceeding thirty days
(unless the time is extended by agreement) the powers at
issue shall cease to negotiate with each other and leave the
dispute entirely in the hands of the mediating powers. The
powers thus appealed to occupy a position analogous to that
of seconds in a duel, who are authorized to arrange an " affair of
honour " between their principals. This novel device has the
advantage of toning down, if not of eliminating, personal and
national prejudices by which controversy is frequently em-
bittered. It also gets over the difficulty, often met with in
arbitration, of choosing a referee satisfactory to both parties.
The closer the relations between states become, the more their
commercial interests are intertwined, the larger the part which
mediation seems destined to play. It is true that states
which have accepted the intervention of a mediator remain
free to adopt or reject any advice he may give, but the advice of
a disinterested power must always add considerable moral weight
to the side towards which it inclines. (M. H. C.)
MEDIATIZATION (Ger. Mediatisierung, from Lat. mediatus,
mediate, middle), the process by which at the beginning of the
I9th century, a number of German princes, hitherto sovereign
as holding immediately of the emperor, were deprived of their
sovereignty and mediatized by being placed under that of other
sovereigns. This was first done on a large scale in 1803, when
by a recess of the imperial diet many of the smaller fiefs were
mediatized, in order to compensate those German princes who
had been forced to cede their territories on the left bank of the
MEDICAL EDUCATION
Rhine to France. In 1806 the formation of the Confederation
of the Rhine involved an extension of this mediatizing process,
though the abolition of the empire itself deprived the word
" mediatization " of its essential meaning. After the downfall
of Napoleon the powers were besieged with petitions from
the mediatized princes for the restoration of their " liberties ";
but the congress of Vienna (1815) further extended the process
of mediatization by deciding that certain houses hitherto
immediate (i.e. Salm, Isenburg, Leyen) should only be represented
mediately in the diet of the new Confederation. On the other
hand, at Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) the powers, in response to the
representations of the aggrieved parties, admonished the German
sovereigns to respect the rights of the mediatized princes subject
to them. Of these rights, which included the hereditary right
to a seat in the estates, the most valued is that of Ebenburtigkeit
(equality of birth), which, for purposes of matrimonial alliance,
ranks the mediatized princes with the royal houses of Europe.
See August Wilhelm Heffter, Die Sonderrechte der Souveranen und
der Mediatisirten, normals reichsstdndischen Hduser Deutschlands
(Berlin, 1871). The mediatized families are included in the Almanack
de Gotha.
MEDICAL EDUCATION. Up to 1858 each University,
Royal College of Physicians or of Surgeons, and Apothecaries'
Great Hall in Great Britain and Ireland laid down its
Britain end O wn regulations for study and examination, and
Ireland. granted its degree or licence without any State
supervision. In that year, pursuant to the Medical Act,
21 & 22 Viet. c. 90, the General Medical Council of Medical
Education and Registration was established, consisting of
twenty-three members, of whom seventeen were appointed
by the various licensing bodies and six by the Crown. This
number was increased by the amended act of 1886 to twenty-
nine, three of the six additional members being elected by the
profession as " direct " representatives. The object of the
act was " to enable persons requiring medical aid to distinguish
qualified from unqualified practitioners." To this end the
" Medical Register " was established, on which no person's
name could be inscribed who did not hold a diploma or licence
from one or more of the licensing bodies after examination.
By the 1886 act a qualifying examination was defined as " an
examination in medicine, surgery, and midwifery," conducted
by universities or by medical corporations, of which one must
be capable of granting a diploma in medicine, and one in surgery.
The Council is authorized to require from the licensing bodies
information as to courses of study and examinations, and
generally as to the requisites for obtaining qualifications; and
to visit and inspect examinations either personally or by
deputy. If the visitors think the course of study and exami-
nation of any licensing body is not sufficient to ensure that
candidates obtaining its qualification possess the requisite
knowledge and skill for the efficient practice of their profession
the Council, on a report being made, may represent the same
to the Privy Council. The Privy Council may, if it sees
fit, deprive the accused body of its power to grant registrable
qualifications. From this statement it will be seen that the
powers of the Council are limited; nevertheless, by their cautious
application, and by the loyal manner in which the licensing
bodies have acted on the recommendations and suggestions
which have from time to time been made, the condition of
medical education has been improved; and although there is
not a uniform standard of examination throughout the United
Kingdom, the Council has ensured that the minimum require-
ments of any licensing body shall be sufficient for the production
of trustworthy practitioners.
One of the first subjects to which the Council applied itself
was the establishment of a system of examinations in general
knowledge. Such examinations have to be passed before
beginning medical study. On presentation of a certificate to
the registrars of the Council, and on evidence being produced
that the candidate is sixteen years of age, his name is inscribed
on the " Students' Register." The subjects of examinations
are: (a) English language, including grammar and composition
(marks not exceeding 5% of the total obtainable in this section
may be assigned to candidates who show a competent knowledge
of shorthand); (6) Latin, including grammar, translation from
specified authors, and translation of easy passages not taken
from such authors; (c) mathematics, comprising arithmetic;
algebra, as far as simple equations inclusive; geometry, the
subject-matter of Euclid, Books I., II. and III., with easy
deductions; (d) one of the following optional subjects Greek,
French, German, Italian or any other modern language.
Certificates are accepted from all the universities of Great
Britain and Ireland, from the leading Indian and colonial
universities, from government examination boards, and from
certain chartered bodies. The German Abiturienten Examen
of the gymnasia and raz/-gymnasia, the French diplomas of
Bachelier es Lettres and Bachelier es Sciences, and corresponding
entrance examinations to other continental universities are
also accepted.
As regards professional education, the Council divided its resolu-
tions into "requirements" and "recommendations"; the former
consisting of demands on the licensing bodies, non-compliance with
which renders them liable to be reported to the Privy Council; the
latter are regarded merely as suggestions for the general conduct
of education and examination. The requirements may be sum-
marized as follows: (a) Registration as a medical student. (6)
Five years of bona-fide study between the date of registration and
the date of the final examination for any diploma entitling the
holder to be registered under the Medical Acts, (c) In every course
of professional study and examination the following subjects must
be contained, the Council offering no opinion as to the manner in
which they should be distributed or combined for the purposes of
teaching or examination, this being left to the discretion of the bodies
or of the student (i.) physics, including the elementary mechanics
of solids and fluids, and the rudiments of heat, light and electricity ;
(ii.) chemistry, including the principles of the science, and the details
which bear on the study of medicine; (iii.) elementary biology; (iv.)
anatomy; (v.) physiology; (vi.) materia medica and pharmacy;
(vii.) pathology; (viii.) therapeutics; (ix.) medicine, including medical
anatomy and clinical medicine; (x.) surgery, including surgical
anatomy and clinical surgery; (xi.) midwifery, including diseases
peculiar to women and to new-born children; (xii.) theory and
practice of vaccination; (xiii.) forensic medicine; (xiv.) hygiene;
(xv.) mental disease, (d) The first of the four years must be passed
at a school or schools of medicine recognized by any of the licensing
bodies; provided that the first year may be passed at a university
or teaching institution where the subjects of physics, chemistry and
biology are taught; and that graduates in arts or science of any
university recognized by the Council, who shall have spent a year
in the study of these subjects, and have passed in them, shall be held
to have completed the first of the five years of medical study, (e)
The study of midwifery practice must consist of three months'
attendance on the indoor practice of a lying-in hospital, or the
student must have been present at not less than twenty labours,
five of which shall have been conducted throughout under the direct
supervision of a registered practitioner.
The fifth year of study is intended to be devoted to clinical work
and may be passed at any one or more public hospitals or dispen-
saries, British or foreign, recognized by the licensing authorities;
six months of this year may be passed as a pupil to a practitioner
possessing such opportunities of imparting practical knowledge as
shall be satisfactory to the medical authorities. This latter method
is rarely employed.
The " recommendations " of the Council contain suggestions
which may or may not be acted on by the bodies. For the most
part they are complied with in connexion with the system of practical
and clinical teaching.
The Council satisfies itself that its requirements are acted on, and
that the examinations are " sufficient," by cycles of inspection about
every five years. The examination of each licensing body is visited
by an inspector, who forwards his report to the Council, which sends
each report to the body for its information and remarks. As yet
it has never been the duty of the Council to report to the Privy
Council that any examination has not been found sufficient.
Most universities exact attendance at more classes than the colleges
and halls; for instance, botany and natural history are taught to
their students, who are also examined in them. But with these
exceptions the system of professional education is fairly uniform.
Since 1875 attendance on " practical " classes has been called for in
all subjects. Under this system the larger classes in which tl
subjects are taught systematically are broken up, and the students
are taught the use of apparatus and the employment of meth
of investigation and observation. Tutorial instruction is super-
imposed on teaching by lecture. Much the same plan is ado
in respect of clinical instruction : not only is the student taugh
the bedside by the lecturer, but he receives, either from the hous
surgeon or house-physician or from a specially appointed clmica
MEDICAL EDUCATION
Germany.
tutor, an insight into methods of examination of diseases, and learns
practically the use of the stethoscope and other aids to diagnosis,
and of surgical and obstetrical instruments. In fact, it may be said
that each subject of instruction is duplicated. If this is taken into
account, it must be evident that the time of the student is fully
occupied, and the belief is rapidly growing that five years is too
short a period of study. As a matter of fact, the average time taken
to obtain a British licence to practise is upwards of six years. The
probability is that the solution of the difficulty will be found in the
inclusion of such subjects as physics, biology and chemistry in a
" preliminary scientific " examination, which may have to be under-
taken before registration as a medical student, thus leaving the
whcJe five years to be devoted to purely professional study.
The German regulations in regard to professional study are
few. They are those for the Staats Examen, for which the
university degree is no longer necessary. The regu-
lations for the admission of candidates to the Staats
Examen are contained in the royal proclamations of the 22nd of
June 1883. They comprise: (a) Certificate of a course of study
at a classical gymnasium of the German Empire. In exceptional
cases, the same from a classical gymnasium outside the German
empire may be considered sufficient. (For details of the course
of study and examinations, see Minutes of the General Medical
Council, vol. xxvii. appendix 3.) (b) Certificate from a univer-
sity, certifying a course of medical study of at least nine half-
years at a university of the German empire, (c) Certificate that
the candidate has passed, entirely at a German university, the
medical Vorprufung, and thereafter has attended for at least
four half-years the medical studies of a university, (d) The
special testimony of the ch'nical directors bearing witness that
the candidate has taken part as Praktikant (clerk or dresser)
during two half-years at the medical, surgical, and gynaeco-
logical clinics; has himself delivered two cases of labour in the
presence of his teachers or assistant physicians ; and has attended
for a half-year as Praktikant the clinic for diseases of the eye.
The medical Vorprufung referred to is necessary alike for the
Staats Examen and the degree of Doctor of Medicine. It takes place
at the end of the second year (fourth semestre), and includes the
subjects of experimental physics, chemistry, botany, zoology,
anatomy and physiology. It is conducted by a board appointed
yearly by the Minister of Education.
No one can practise medicine in France who does not possess
the diploma of Doctor of Medicine of a French university. The
qualification of Ojficier de sante is no longer granted.
Before he can inscribe as a student of medicine the
applicant must have obtained the diplomas of Bachelier es leltres
and Bachelier es sciences. Although the course of professional
study may be completed in four years, a longer time is generally
taken before the student proceeds to the final examination for
the doctor's degree. Each year is divided into four trimestres;
at each trimestre the student must make a new inscription. The
trimestres are (i) November and December, 56 days; (2) January,
February, March, 86 days; (3) April, May, June, 86 days; (4)
July, August, 56 days. Practically there are no regulations
determining the division of the various subjects, or the number
of lectures in each course, or requiring the student to attend the
courses. The medical faculty of each university puts before
the student a scheme recommending a certain order of studies
(Division des etudes) for each of the four years of the medical
course, and, as a matter of fact, this order of study is enforced
by the system of intermediate examinations (Examens du fin
d'annee). All the lecture courses are free, as also are the clinics
and the hospital service, and there is no system of ascertaining
the regularity of attendance at lectures, or of certificate of attend-
ance. If, however, the student fails to pass the Examen du fin
d'annee he is debarred from making the next trimestral inscrip-
tion, and thus loses three months. The lectures are, however,
closely attended. In contrast to the freedom in regard to atten-
dance on systematic lectures, there are strict direction and control
in regard to hospital attendance and practical courses. The
student is required to sign a register ad hoc each time he goes
in and out. From the beginning of the third year, e.g. from the
ninth quarterly inscription, hospital attendance is enforced till
the end of the fourth year. No one can renew his trimestral
inscription without producing a schedule of his last trimestral
France.
stage, showing that during it he had not absented himself more
than five times without explanation. Practical work is obliga-
tory during each of the four years.
Besides systematic courses of lectures, Conferences are held by the
assistant-professors (agreges) in natural history, physiology, general
pathology, internal pathology, external pathology. At the end of
the first year the student is examined in osteology, myology and the
elements of physiology ; at the end of the second year, in anatomy
and physiology in all their branches; at the end of the third year,
in medicine and surgery; at the end of the fourth year, an examina-
tion is held over the whole field of study.
No one is allowed to enter on the study of medicine without
passing the Artium examen of a secondary school. This is the
equivalent of the German Abiturienten Examen of
a classical gymnasium. After study for two semeslres
an examination must be passed in psychology, logic and history.
The special professional examinations consist of (i) preliminary
scientific, in botany, zoology, physics, chemistry; (2) first special
or professional, anatomy (orally and by dissections), physiology,
and pharmacology; (3) second special or professional, written
examinations in medicine, surgery, medical jurisprudence;
practical and oral in operative surgery, in clinical medicine, and
clinical surgery; and oral in pathological anatomy, medicine,
surgery; and midwifery. The completion of the full medical
course takes six years, of which the first two are devoted to the
study of the natural sciences.
AUTHORITIES. The history of the development of medical educa-
tion from the earliest times down to 1894 w ''! be found treated of
generally in Puschmann's Geschichte des medicinischen Unterrichts
(Leipzig, 1889-1905) translated by E. H. Hare (London, 1891).
Those desiring more special information on the subject in regard to
the details of British institutions should consult the annals of
the various universities and colleges of Great Britain and Ireland.
The following works supply much interesting information regarding
the gradual rise and development of teaching and examination:
Annals of the Barber Surgeons, by Sydney Young (1890); History
of the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland, by Cameron (1886);
Early Days of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, by Peel
Ritchie (1899); Historical Sketch of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Edinburgh, by Gairdner (1860) ; Memorials of the Faculty of Physicians
and Surgeons of Glasgow, by Duncan (1896); The Story of the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh, by Sir A. Grant (1884) ; University of Glasgow, by
Stewart (1891). (J. B. T.)
As late as 1880 medical education in the United States was
in a deplorable condition. In the early history of the country,
before and shortly after the beginning of the igth
century, the few medical colleges had shown a dis- states.
position to require a liberal education on the part of
those who entered upon their courses, and some effort was made,
through the agency of state boards, to control the licence to
practise. But as the country increased in population and wealth
preliminary requirements were practically abolished, the length of
the courses given each year was shortened to four or five months
or less, and in the second and final year there was simply a repe-
tition of the courses given during the first year. This is to be
attributed mainly to the fact that there was no general national
or state supervision of medical training. Medical colleges could
obtain incorporation under state laws without difficulty, and
brought considerable advantages in the way of prestige and
increased practice to those concerned. That the existence of a
college depended solely upon the fees of the students encouraged
the tendency to make both entrance and graduation requirements
as easy as possible, especially as there was no state supervision,
and the mere possession of a diploma entitled the holder to
practise. Fortunately, during this period the practical character
of the clinical instruction given in the better colleges fitted the
graduates in some measure for the actual necessities of practice,
while the good traditions of medicine as a learned profession
stimulated those who adopted it as a career, so that in the main
the body of practitioners deserved and held the confidence and
respect of the community. From the middle of the ipth century
there has been constant agitation on the part of the physicians
themselves for an improvement in medical education. The first
notable result was an increase in the time of instruction from
two to three years (Chicago Medical College, 1859; Harvard
Medical School, 1871), the lengthening of each session to. six
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
months or more, and the introduction of graded courses instead
of a repetition of the same lectures every year. The improve-
ment thus begun became marked during the decade 1890-1900,
amounting almost to a revolution in the rapidity with which
the course of instruction was amplified. Many factors co-oper-
ated to produce this result: the general development of scientific
instruction in the colleges and secondary schools, the influence
of the large number of medical graduates who completed their
training by study in European schools, the adoption by many
states of stringent regulations regarding the licence to practise
within their borders, the good examples set by many leading
schools in voluntarily raising their requirements for entrance and
graduation, and, perhaps above all in its general effect, the
agitation continually maintained by several national or state
associations which in a measure have exerted the general
regulating control that in other countries has been enforced by
national legislation. Among the most influential of these
associations are the American Medical Association, the American
Academy of Medicine, the Association of American Medical
Colleges, the Illinois State Board of Health, and the University
of the State of New York.
The different states make their own general regulations as to
the practice of medicine within their borders. Certain states
recognize the medical diplomas granted by other states having
equivalent standards of examination. Such certificates are
generally required to be (a) of graduation from a " reputable
medical school," (6) certificates of moral character, (c) the
applicant must be at least twenty-one years of age. These
enable the candidate to present himself before the state board
for the state examination. In many states the applicant must
satisfy the board not only as to his professional, but as to his
general education. The standing of the various medical schools
is usually left to the state boards, each one determining the
matter for its own state, consequently a school may confer a
degree recognized as reputable in several states but not in
others. Only three or four states regulate the chartering of
institutions. In other states any body of men may secure
articles of incorporation of a college or school by paying the
necessary state fee, without question as to the ability of the
incorporator to furnish an education. So strong, however, has
been the growth of American public opinion that a four-years'
course of medical training has become the standard in medical
schools, and in the majority this is in addition to one or two
years' training in the natural sciences. There are some sixty-
five state boards, and many have adopted strong medical
practice acts.
The standard of preliminary requirements for entrance to the
medical schools is being gradually raised, and a large number of
the states demand a certificate of a high school education, while the
colleges comprising the Association of Medical Colleges, which
numbers more than half the American medical schools, accept as an
entrance standard a certificate of at least one year's study at a high
school. In the report for 1908 of the United States bureau of
education of 71 schools, which report the number of their students
having an arts degree, it is stated that a degree was held by only
!$% of the candidates in medicine. These students were mostly
distributed between the Johns Hopkins Medical School (which from
the date of its foundation in 1893 has only admitted college gradu-
ates, and has in addition stipulated that candidates shall have a
knowledge of French and German and have already completed a
year's training in the natural sciences), Harvard Medical School
and Columbia University, and the medical departments of the
universities of California, Michigan and Chicago (Rush Medical
College) require on entrance the equivalent of a two-years' college
course, which must include French and German, together with
physics, chemistry and biology. This tendency is in accordance
with the recommended standard of medical education suggested by
the Council of Medical Education and adopted by the House of
Delegates of the American Medical Association, of which the following
is a summary : -
1. (a) The preliminary of a four-years' high school education
or an examination such as would admit to a recognized university.
(6) In addition a year of not less than nine months devoted
to chemistry, physics and biology and one language (preferably
French or German) to be taken at a college of the liberal arts.
2. Previous to entering a medical college every student should re-
ceive from the state board a " medical student's entrance certificate "
to be given on the production of credentials of training as above.
25
3. Four years of study in a medical college having a minimum
of a 30-weeks' course each year, with not less than 30 hours' work
per week.
4. Graduation from college to entitle a candidate to present
himself for examination before a state board.
5. A satisfactory examination to be passed before the state
board.
Practically all medical schools admit women, but there are three
separate schools of medicine for women: The Women's Medical
College of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Women's Medical College,
Baltimore, Maryland ; New York Medical College and Hospital for
Women the last being one of the eighteen homoeopathic colleges
of the United States.
AUTHORITIES. J. M. Tower, Contributions to the A nnals of Medical
Progress and Medical Education in the United States, before and during
the War of Independence (Washington Government Printing Office,
1874) ; N. S. Davis, History of Medical Education and Institutions in
the United States (Chicago, 1851); Contributions to the History of
Medical Education and Medical Institutions in the United Slates
(Washington, Government Printing Office, 1877) ; J. B. Beck, An
Historical Sketch of the State of Medicine in the American Colonies
(Albany, 1850); Bulletins of the American Academy of Medicine
(The Chemical Publishing Company, Easton, Pa.); H. L. Taylor,
" Professional Education in the United States," College Department,
University of the State of New York, Bulletin 5, 1899, and Bulletin 8,
/poo; " Courses of Study in Medical Schools," Report of the Com-
missioners of Education (Washington, 1908); F. R. Packard, M.D.,
The History of Medicine in the United States (1901); Journal of
American Medical Association (Aug. 14, 1909) ; A. Flexner, Medical
Education in the U.S. and Canada (1910). (W. H. H. ; H. L. H.)
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, or FORENSIC MEDICINE, that
branch of state medicine which treats of the application of
medical knowledge to certain questions of civil and criminal law.
The term " medical jurisprudence," though sanctioned by long
usage, is not really appropriate, since the subject is strictly a
branch of medicine rather than of jurisprudence; it does not
properly include sanitation or hygiene, both this and medical
jurisprudence proper being distinct branches of state medicine.
The connexion between medicine and the law was perceived long
before medical jurisprudence was recognized, or had obtained a
distinct appellation. It first took its rise in Germany, and more
tardily received recognition in Great Britain. Forensic medicine,
or medical jurisprudence proper as distinguished from hygiene,
embraces all questions which bring the medical man into contact
with the law, and embraces (i) questions affecting the civil rights
of individuals, and (2) injuries to the person.
I. QUESTIONS AFFECTING THE CIVIL OR SOCIAL RIGHTS OF
INDIVIDUALS
i. Development of the Human Frame. The development of
the physical and mental powers of the human being is a factor
of great consequence in determining criminal responsibility,
civil responsibility, or the power of giving validity to civil
contracts, and in determining the personal identity of a living
person or of a corpse. Human life is usually divided into the
five periods of infancy, childhood, youth, manhood and old age.
Some writers increase the number of these unnecessarily to seven
periods.
Infancy is the period from birth till the first or milk set of teeth
begin to be shed usually about the seventh year. During this
period the body increases in size and stature more, relatively, than
at any other period of existence; and the mental faculties undergo
great development. The milk teeth, twenty in number, are evolved
in a definite order, beginning with the central incisors at about six
months, and ending with the second molars about the termination
of the second year. From the size and stature of the body, the
development of the teeth, and the more or less advanced state of
ossification or solidification of the bony skeleton, conclusions may
be drawn as to the probable age of the infant.
Childhood extends from the commencement of the shedding of
the milk teeth to the age of puberty usually from the seventh to
the fourteenth or fifteenth year. During this period the body
expands, as well as the bony structures, without any clearly marked
difference in structure being observable between the sexes except
as regards the genitals, so that it is impossible to distinguish abso-
lutely between the male and the female skeleton during this period.
The milk teeth are shed, and are replaced by the second or per-
manent set, thirty-two in number, though these do not usually
all make their appearance during childhood. Marked differences
between the proclivities of the sexes are noticeable even at an early
period of childhood, and long before the characteristic functions
begin to be developed.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
Youth is marked at its commencement by the changes which occur
at puberty the development of the genitals in both sexes, the
appearance of hair on the genitals, the appearance of a beard in
the male, the development of the breasts in the female, the
appearance of the monthly flow in the female, and the ability
to secrete semen in the male. Marked mental changes now occur,
and the generative functions are perfected. Youth terminates at
the age of legal majority, twenty-one years, or perhaps the period
ought to be extended to twenty-five years of age, as it is with some
nations.
Manhood (or Womanhood) is the period of perfection of all the
bodily and mental powers. It ceases in woman with the cessation
of the monthly flow at about forty-five years of age; but in man it
often extends to a much later period of life.
Old Age begins with the decay of the bodily and mental faculties,
and is characterized by wrinkling of the skin, loss of the teeth,
whitening of the hair, and feebleness of the limbs. In its later stages
decay of the mental faculties, deafness, obscurity or loss of vision,
and bowing of the spine are added.
2. Duration of Human Life. The chances of human life form
an important subject of inquiry, and on deductions from com-
parisons of birth and death rates is founded the system of annui-
ties, insurance against loss in sickness, and the insurance of
lives. Since the establishment of compulsory registration of
deaths, our knowledge of the ordinary and extraordinary chances
of human life has been extended, and surer data are available
for calculations of probabilities of life, of survivorships, and of
the payments which ought to be made in benefit clubs (see
INSURANCE).
3. Personal Identity. Where the identity has to be established
or disproved after long absence, exposure to foreign climates and
hardships, wounds, &c., the problem has often been extremely
difficult. The data for identifying a person are individual
and family likeness, stature, the colour of the eyes, peculiarities
of garb and manner, recollection of antecedent events, but more
especially marks on the persons either congenital or acquired.
Such are naevi or mother's marks, scars, and disunited or badly
united fractures, known to have existed upon the missing person
(see IDENTIFICATION). In the case of the living, identification is
more often a matter for the police officer than for the medical
man. Bertillon and Gallon have each devised methods for the
identification of criminals (see ANTHROPOMETRY, and FINGER-
PRINTS).
4. Marriage. Under this head the medical jurist has to deal
principally with the nubile age, viewed in the light of nature and
according to legislative enactments, and with such physical cir-
cumstances as affect the legality of marriages, or justify divorce.
In Great Britain the age at which the sexes are first capable of
*.: S pe C i es j s later than in more southern climes.
Ordinarily it does not occur before fifteen years of age for the male
and fourteen for the female; exceptionally it occurs at the ages of
thirteen and of twelve (or even less) respectively in the male and
female. By law, nevertheless, parents and guardians may, in England
at all events, forbid the marriage of young people till the age of legal
majority. The only physical circumstances which in Great Britain
form a bar to marriage are physical inability to consummate, and
the insanity of one of the parties at the time of marriage. Both
those circumstances have been pleaded and sustained in the law
courts. In other countries minor physical circumstances, as disease,
are held to invalidate marriage.
5. Impotence and Sterility. These are of importance in con-
nexion with legitimacy, divorce and criminal assaults. Impo-
tence and sterility may arise from organic or from functional
causes, and may be curable or incurable. Impotence (q.v.) is
taken cognisance of by the law courts as a ground of divorce, and
might, of course, be urged as a defence in a case of rape. Sterility
is not a ground of divorce, but might be a question of importance
in cases of legitimacy.
6. Pregnancy. This subject presents one of the widest fields
for medico-legal evidence. The limits of age between which it is
possible, the limits of utero-gestation, and the signs of pregnancy
may all in turn be the subjects of investigation.
The limits'of 'age between which pregnancy is possible are usually
fixed by the appearance and cessation of the monthly flow; and these
ordinarily begin about fourteen and cease at forty-five years of age.
Exceptionally they appear as early as the tenth year, and may not
cease till the end of the fifth decade of life. Cases, however, have
occurred where a woman has conceived before menstruating; and
a few doubtful cases of conception are recorded in women upwards
of fifty or even sixty years of age. The general fact of pregnancy
being limited by the age of puberty on the one hand and the cessation
of the monthly flow or fifty-three or fifty-four years as the extreme
limit of age must be accepted as the safest guide in practice.
The limits of utero-gestation are not in England fixed by legisla-
tion. The French code fixes the extreme limit of three hundred
days. The ordinary period is forty weeks and a half, or two hundred
and eighty-three days from the cessation of the last monthly flux.
The limit of three hundred days, as fixed by the French code, is
perhaps never exceeded, if ever reached. The uncertainty of
females in fixing the exact date of conception has given rise to the
discrepant opinions of physiologists on the subject. It is well
known, however, that among the higher animals the period is not
precise; and impregnation and conception need not necessarily be
coincident.
The signs of pregnancy are of the utmost importance to the
medical jurist. He may be called upon to pronounce upon the virtue
of a female, to sustain or rebut a plea for divorce, to determine
whether a capital sentence shall be carried out, or to determine
whether it is probable that an heir will be born to an estate. Medical
jurists classify the signs of pregnancy as uncertain or certain; it is
the former which are most regarded by the public, but the latter
are alone of probative value to the jurist. The usual and uncertain
signs are the cessation of the monthly flow, nausea, sickness, a
darkening of the areola and the formation of a secondary areola
around the nipple, enlargement of the breasts, increased size of the
abdomen, the formation of a tumour in the womb, quickening, and
the motions of the foetus. Also uncertain are the uterine souffle,
which is a peculiar soft sound heard over the abdomen and syn-
chronous with the maternal pulse and ballottement or the examination
for a floating tumour in the abdomen between the fifth and eighth
months of pregnancy. The certain signs of pregnancy are the
foetal limbs palpated through the abdomen by the physician, the
pulsations of the foetal heart heard by means of the stethoscope,
the pulsations being much quicker and not synchronous with
the maternal pulse. This latter is inapplicable before the fourth
month of gestation.
7. Parturition. The imminence of the process of parturition
is of comparatively little interest to the medical jurist; but the
signs of recent delivery are all-important. These signs are the
bruised, swollen, and lacerated state of the external genitals,
relaxation and dilatation of the vagina and womb, the existence
of a peculiar vaginal discharge known as the lochia, a relaxed and
fissured condition of the abdominal walls, a peculiar aspect of
the countenance, and the distended state of the breasts due to the
secretion of milk. The lochial discharge is the most character-
istic sign. All the signs may disappear within ten days of
delivery, though this is not usual.
Connected with parturition, the question of viability (potentiality
for life) of the child is not unimportant. After the intra-uterine
age of seven months is reached a child is certainly viable. The
period at which the foetus becomes viable cannot be stated with
certainty; but five calendar months, or one hundred and fifty days,
is perhaps the nearest approximation. The viability of a child is
judged by its size and weight, its general state of development; the
state of the skin, hair, and nails; its strength or feebleness,the ability
to cry, and its power of taking maternal nourishment. The question
of viability has important bearings upon the crime of infanticide.
In the case of succession to property the meaning of " born alive "
is different from the meaning of the same expression as used respect-
ing infanticide. In questions of tenancy by the curtesy (q.v.) it has
been decided that any kind of motion of the child, as a twitching
and tremulous motion of the lips, is sufficient evidence of live-birth.
By the French code, however, no child that is born alive can inherit,
unless it is born viable. As regards infanticide, proof of a conclu-
sive separate existence of the child is demanded before live-birth is
admitted.
The subject of superfoetation and super fecundation, or the possibility
of two conceptions having occurred resulting in the birth of twins
with a considerable intervening interval, is obscure and has given
rise to much controversy. There is much, however (e.g. the existence
of a double or bifid uterus), to countenance the view that a double
conception is possible.
8. Monsters and Hermaphrodites. To destroy any living
human birth, however unlike a human creature it may be, is to
commit a crime. Blackstone states that a monster which hath
not the shape of mankind hath no inheritable blood ; but the law
has not defined a monster, nor what constitutes a human form.
The same author states that if, in spite of deformity, the product
of birth has human shape, it may be an heir. Hermaphrodites
are beings with malformations of the sexual organs, simulating
a double sex. Physiologists do not admit, however, the existence
of true hermaphrodites with double perfect organs, capable of
performing the functions of both sexes.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
9. Paternity and Affiliation. These are often matters of great
doubt. A considerable time may elapse between the absence or
death of a father and the birth of his reputed child. As has
already been said, three hundred days is the utmost limit to
which physiologists would extend the period of utero-gestation.
This subject involves questions respecting children born during
a second marriage of the mother, posthumous children, bastardy,
and alleged cases of posthumous children.
10. Presumption of Survivorship. When two or more persons
perish by a common accident, when a mother and her new-born
child are found dead, and in a few analogous cases, important
civil rights may depend upon the question which lived the longest ;
and great ingenuity has been displayed in elucidating the disputes
which have arisen in the law courts in such cases.
11. Maladies exempting from Discharge of Public Duties
frequently demand the attention of the medical man. He may
be called upon to decide whether a man is able to undertake
military or naval service, to act as a juryman without serious risk
to life or health, or to attend as a witness at a trial.
12. Feigned and Simulated Diseases often require much skill
and caution in order to detect the imposture.
13. The Signs of Death. The determination of the actual
existence of death assumes a certain importance in tropical
countries, where the necessity for speedy interment may involve
a risk of burial alive. Such an accident cannot well occur where
a medical man confirms the existence of death, and in the United
Kingdom, where burial rarely takes place before the lapse of
forty-eight hours, such changes usually occur in the body as to
render any error practically impossible. Within a varying
period, usually not more than twelve hours, the body becomes
rigid, owing to the development of rigor mortis or post mortem
rigidity. The blood, which during life is equally distributed
throughout the body, gravitates to the most dependent parts
and develops a discoloration of the skin which is known as
post mortem lividity or post mortem staining. At a variable
period of time, dependent on the cause of death, also the tempera-
ture and moisture of the air to which the body is exposed, de-
composition or putrefaction sets in. These changes after death
are of great importance, not only as affording certain proof
of death, but also because they furnish valuable information
as to the probable time at which it occurred, and from the
fact that they may alter or destroy evidence as to the cause of
death.
14. Insanity or Mental Alienation. A medical man may be
required to give evidence in any of the law courts, civil, criminal
or ecclesiastical, before commissions de lunatico inquirendo, or
before a magistrate, as to the sanity or insanity of an individual;
and he may have to sign certificates of unsoundness of mind with
the view of providing for the safe custody and proper treatment
of a lunatic. Hence he must be familiar with the chief forms
of insanity (see INSANITY), and be able to distinguish and treat
each of these. He will also be required to detect feigned insanity,
and to examine persons charged with crime with the view of
preventing real lunatics from being treated as criminals.
II. INJURIES TO THE PERSON
1. Defloration. The signs of defloration are obscure and
uncertain; and it is rather by the coexistence of several of the
usual marks than the existence of any one sign, that any just
conclusion can be arrived at.
2. Rape. This crime consists in the carnal knowledge of a
woman forcibly and against her will. The proofs of rape apart
from the consistency of the woman's story, mainly depend on the
presence of marks of violence, stains, &c. In all charges of rape,
the woman and her assailant should be examined as soon as
possible by a medical man, but such examination, it is important
to remember, can only be carried out with the free consent of the
party to be examined. It is to be noted that according to English
law the slightest degree of penetration is sufficient to constitute
the crime of rape.
3. Mutilation. This may consist in the cutting or maiming of
any member; castration is the most important, and perhaps but
27
rarely effected as a crime. Self-mutilation, giving rise to false
accusations, is occasionally resorted to.
4. Criminal Abortion. This crime consists in unlawfully
procuring the expulsion of the contents of the gravid uterus at
any period short of full term. It must be noted that while this
definition may be held to recognize the induction of premature
labour by medical men in certain circumstances, yet, when the
operation is necessary, a medical man should always protect
himself from possible misconstruction of his action (i.e. criminal
intent) by having a consultation with another practitioner. The
means employed in criminal abortion to procure the desired
result may be classed under three heads: (i) general violence to
the body, (2) administration of drugs supposed to have aborti-
facient qualities, (3) instrumental interference with the contents
of the uterus. Among the drugs frequently employed for the
purpose, although by no means always successfully, are ergot,
strong purgatives, iron, rue, pennyroyal, savin.
5. Homicide. The legal sense of the term homicide excludes
such injuries as are the result of either accident or of suicide. It
embraces murder or wilful homicide, manslaughter or culpable
homicide, casual homicide, and justifiable homicide.
Ordinary homicide may be accomplished by several modes
that may sometimes be ascertained by examination of the body,
e.g. poison.
As a preliminary in all cases of homicide, it is the duty of the
medical jurist in the first place to ascertain the fact of death, and
to distinguish between real and apparent death; and then to
determine, if possible, the period at which death took place.
Infanticide, or child murder, is by the British law treated with
the same severity as the murder of an adult. Indeed infanticide
as a crime distinct from murder has no legal recognition. Practi-
cally this severity defeats itself, and hence an alternative charge
of concealment of birth in England, or concealment of pregnancy
in Scotland, is usually preferred in such cases.
The iniquity of the old law which threw the onus of proof of still-
birth on the mother now no longer exists, and the law demands
strict proof of live-birth at the hands of the prosecution. Hence
the subject involves nice points of forensic medicine. The child
must be proved to have arrived at the period when there was a
probability of its living (proof of viability) ; and as the establishment
of respiration is necessary to prove live-birth the evidences of this
act must be carefully investigated. The size and position of the
lungs, and the state of the vessels concerned in foetal circulation,
must be carefully noted. The foetal lungs are dark, dense and liver-
like in appearance and consistence, and sink when immersed in
water; whilst the fully respired lungs are rosy, marbled, and soft
and crepitant when handled. Minor degrees of respiration are
recognized by the appearance of little groups of dilated air- vesicles,
and by the fact that, although the lungs as a whole may sink in water,
certain portions of them, into which respired air has penetrated,
float in water even after subjection to firm pressure in the hand.
Care must be taken, nevertheless, to exclude buoyancy of the lung
due to putrefaction ; in this case the air may be expelled by gentle
pressure, and the previously buoyant portion of lung now sinks in
water. It is impossible, however, to distinguish certainly between
a lung naturally inflated and one artificially insufflated.
It must be borne in mind that, although live-birth cannot be
affirmed in the absence of signs of respiration, the presence of these
signs is not proof of live-birth in the legal sense of the term. The
law demands for live-birth a separate existence of the child after
delivery ; and breathing may take place whilst the child is still either
wholly or partially within the maternal passages, and in some special
cases whilst still within the uterus itself.
When proofs of respiration it may be to such an extent as to
leave no doubt as to live-birth have been found, the cause of death
is then to be investigated. Wounds, and other forms of injury,
must be sought for. There may be signs of strangulation, suffoca-
tion, puncture of the fontanelles and consequent injury to the brain,
the administration of a poison, or other means of procuring death.
It must be borne in mind that some of these causes may be brought
about by omission, or even by accident. Thus strangulation may
arise from natural and unrelieved pressure of the navel-string on
the neck of the child; suffocation from immersion of the face of the
child in the maternal discharges, or by pressure of clothes on the
mouth. Death may result from haemorrhage through neglect to
tie the navel-string, or the infant may perish from exposure to cold.
In the case of exposed infants it is important to ascertain the real
mother. As such exposure usually takes place soon after birth,
comparison of the age of the infant with the signs of recent
delivery in the suspected mother is the best method of proving the
relation.
28
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
Death from Asphyxia. Among the forms of violent death due
to this cause are drowning, hanging, strangulation, garotting,
smothering, suffocation from choking, mechanical interference
with the expansion of the chest walls, as when persons are crushed
together during a panic in a fire, breathing poisonous gases, such
as carbonic acid or carbonic oxide. Suicide and accidental
death from these causes are still more common.
Drowning is thought to produce death occasionally by the sudden-
ness of the shock causing suspension of the functions of circulation
and respiration by shock without a struggle. The usual mode ol
death appears, however, to be by the circulation of unoxygenated
blood through the brain acting as a poison upon that organ; and
this is attended with all the phenomena of asphyxia, as in suffocation.
The phenomena attending asphyxia are as follows. As soon as the
oxygen in the arterial blood, through exclusion of air, sinks below
the normal, the respiratory movements grow deeper and at the
same time more frequent; both the inspiratory and expiratory
phases are exaggerated, the supplementary respiratory muscles are
brought into play, and the breathing becomes hurried. As the
blood becomes more and more venous, the respiratory movements
continue to increase both in force and frequency. Very soon the
expiratory movements become more marked than the inspiratory,
and every muscle which can in any way assist in expiration is brought
into play. The orderly expiratory movements culminate in ex-
piratory convulsions; these violent efforts speedily exhaust the
nervous system, and the convulsions suddenly cease and are followed
by a period of calm. The calm is one of exhaustion ; all expiratory
active movements have ceased, and all the muscles of the body are
flaccid and quiet. But at long intervals lengthened deep inspiratory
movements take place ; then these movements become less frequent ;
the rhythm becomes irregular, so that each breath becomes a more
and more prolonged gasp, which becomes at last a convulsive stretch-
ing of the whole body ; and with extended limbs and a straightened
trunk, with the head thrown back, the mouth widely open, the face
drawn and the nostrils dilated, the last breath is taken. The above
phenomena are not all observed except in cases of sudden and entire
exclusion of air from the lungs. In slow asphyxia, where the supply
of air is gradually diminished (e.g. in drowning), the phenomena
are fundamentally the same, but with minor differences. The
appearances of the body after death from drowning are various.
There may be pallor of the countenance, or this may be livid and
swollen. The air passages are filled with frothy mucus, and there
may be water in the stomach. The ends of the fingers are often
excoriated from grasping at objects; and weeds, &c., are sometimes
found grasped in the hands. The distinction between murder and
suicide by drowning can rarely be made out by examination of the
body alone, and is usually decided from collateral circumstances
or marks of a struggle. Attention must also be paid to the existence
of wounds on the body, marks of strangulation on the neck, and the
like.
Hanging may result in death from asphyxia, or, as is more particu-
larly the case in judicial hanging, some injury is inflicted on the upper
portion of the spinal cord, resulting in instant death. The ordinary
appearances of death from asphyxia may be found : dark fluid blood,
congestion of the brain, intensely congested lungs, the right cavities
of the heart full, and the left comparatively empty of blood, and
general engorgement of the viscera. Ecchymosis may be found
beneath the site of the cord, or a mere parchmenty appearance.
There may even be no mark of the cord visible. The mark, when
present, usually follows an oblique course, and is high up the neck.
The fact that a body may be suspended after death, and that if this
be done speedily whilst the body is still warm there may be a post-
mortem mark undistinguishable from the mark observed in death
from hanging, must not be forgotten.
Suffocation may occur from the impaction of any substance in the
glottis, or by covering up the mouth and nose. It is frequently of
accidental origin, as when substances become accidentally impacted
in the throat, and when infants are overlaid. The phenomena are
those of pure asphyxia, which have already been detailed. On
post-mortem examination the surface of the lungs is found covered
with minute extravasations of blood, known as punctated ecchymosis.
Strangulation may be accomplished by drawing a cord tightly
round the neck, or by forcibly compressing the windpipe (throttling).
Hence there may be either a circular mark round the neck, not so
oblique as after hanging, or the marks of the fingers may be found
about the region of the larynx. The cartilaginous structures of the
larynx and windpipe may be broken. The mark of the ligature is
often low down in the neck. The signs of asphyxia are present in
a marked degree.
Mephitism.ln the United Kingdom this last form of death
usually results accidentally from an escape of lighting gas, the danger
has been much increased in many towns owing to the addition of
carburetted water-gas to the ordinary supply. Carbonic oxide
gas is contained in ordinary lighting gas to the extent of about
6 to 8 %, and is extremely fatal when inhaled. Carburetted water-
gas contains about 28 %, and when mixed with ordinary lighting
gas the percentage of carbonic oxide is thus very much increased.
As a mode of assassination it is seldom employed, but is frequently
resorted to on the continent of Europe by suicides, charcoal fumes
being commonly used for the purpose.
6. Death from Starvation. Cases occur in which it is important
to distinguish this from other modes of death. In such cases the
skin becomes harsh and dry, and may acquire a peculiar odour;
the subcutaneous fat disappears; the gums shrink away from the
teeth; the tongue and mouth become dark-coloured and dry;
the eyes are bloodshot; the intestines become thin and their
coats translucent; the gall-bladder is distended. The period of
total abstinence from food required to kill an adult is unknown,
and greatly depends upon whether there be access to liquid. In
some cases persons have been able to subsist on little or no
nourishment for long periods, the body being in a state of
quasi-hibernation.
7. Death from Extremes of Temperature. (i) Death from cold
is not often observed in the British Isles. A portion only of the
body, as the extremity of a limb, may perish from extreme cold.
After the first sensation of tingling experienced on exposure to
severe cold, loss of sensation supervenes, with languor and an
irresistible propensity to sleep. The tendency to this forms an
extreme danger in such cases. (2) Death from extreme heat
usually occurs in the form of burning and scalding, attended with
destruction of a large portion of the cutaneous structures. Here
the cause of death is obvious. The human body is capable of
exposure to very hot air as is seen in Turkish baths for a
considerable period with impunity. Sunstroke is a cerebral
affection brought on by too great exposure to a hot atmosphere,
especially whilst undergoing fatigue.
8. Death by Lightning. Lightning or an electric current may
cause instant death. No visible marks of the effects of the
electric current may be left, or the body may be singed or
discoloured, or the skin may be perforated at one or two spots.
9. Injuries or Wounds. These include in a medico-legal sense
not only those characterized as incised, punctured, contused,
lacerated, stab wounds, but also burns, injuries produced by
firearms, fractures, dislocations, &c. One of the chief questions
which have to be decided in all forms of violent death is whether
it was the result of accident, suicide or murder. In cases of
fatal wounding, among the points to be noted, which will help to
decide the question, are the situation, direction and extent of the
wound, the position in which the body and any weapon may be
found, together with the presence and distribution of any blood
marks and the signs of a struggle. In wounds caused by fire-
arms the injury, if suicidal, is usually situated in a vital and acces-
sible part of the body, the temple, mouth, and chest being the
favourite situations; but such an injury also presents, as a rule,
the characteristic appearances resulting from the discharge of
the weapon close to the body, viz. besides the wound of entrance
of the bullet, there are singeing of the cuticle and hair, and
blackening of the area immediately surrounding the wound, from
particles of unconsumed powder being driven into the skin and
from the smoke of the discharge. These effects are naturally
not produced when the weapon is discharged at a distance exceed-
ing 2 or 3 ft., as usually happens in cases of homicidal shooting.
They may also be wanting in undoubted suicidal wounds
produced by revolvers and cartridges filled with amberite or
other smokeless powders. Death from burning is generally
accidental, very rarely suicidal, and when homicidal is usually
employed to conceal traces of other violence inflicted upon the
body. In large conflagrations death is not always due to burning.
Charred bodies may be found presenting various injuries due
to the fall of beams, crushing, the trampling of others trying to
escape, &c., or fractures and lacerations may be due simply to
the action of the heat. Death may result from such injuries, or
from suffocation by the gases of combustion, before the victim
is affected by the actual fire. Spontaneous combustion of the
body has been stated to occur, but the evidence upon which the
cases rest is not well authenticated.
Punctured wounds or stabs require minute attention; for there
nave been instances in which death has been produced by an instru-
ment so small as a pin thrust into a vital part. Wounds of the head
are always dangerous, especially if the blow has been severe. The
person so wounded may die without division of the skin, or fracture
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
of the bones, as happens in what is known as concussion of the brain.
Contusions which do not divide the skin may fracture the skull;
or the inner table of the skull may be fractured without the outer
being broken or depressed. Even wounds of the scalp may prove
fatal, from inflammation extending towards the brain. Punctured
wounds of the head are more dangerous than cuts, as more likely
to excite fatal inflammation. When the brain and its membranes
are injured, all such wounds are generally fatal. Wounds of the
face or organs of sense are often dangerous, always disfiguring, and
productive of serious inconvenience. Wounds of the neck are always
serious whenever more than the skin is divided. The danger of
opening large blood-vessels, or wounding important nerves, is
imminent ; even the division of a large vein in the neck has proved
immediately fatal, from the entrance of air into the vessel, and its
speedy conveyance to the heart. A blow on the neck has instantly
proved fatal, from injury to an important nerve, generally the
pneumogastric or the sympathetic. Dislocations and fractures of
the bones of the neck prove instantly fatal. Wounds of the chest
are always serious when the cavity is penetrated, though persons
may recover from wounds of the lungs, and have even survived
for some time considerable wounds of the heart. This last is an
important fact ; because we are not always to consider the spot where
the body of a person killed by a wound of the heart, and apparently
remaining where he fell, is found as that in which the fatal wound
was inflicted. Instances have occurred of persons surviving severe
wounds of the heart for several days. Broken ribs are never without
danger; and the same may be said of severe contusions of the chest,
from the chance of inflammation extending inwards. Wounds
penetrating both sides of the chest are generally considered as fatal ;
but possibly there may be recovery from such. Wounds of the
abdomen, when they do not completely penetrate, may be considered
as simple wounds, unless when inflicted with great force, so as to
bruise the contents of the abdominal cavity; in that case they may
produce death without breach of surface, from rupture of some viscus,
as sometimes happens from blows or kicks upon the belly. Wounds
injuring the peritoneum are highly perilous, from the risk of severe
inflammation. Wounds of the stomach or intestines, or of the gall-
bladder, generally prove mortal, from the effusion of their contents
into the peritoneal cavity producing fatal inflammation. Wounds
of the liver, spleen or kidneys are generally soon mortal, from the
great vascularity of those organs. Wounds of the extremities, when
fatal, may generally be considered so from excessive haemorrhage,
from the consequences of inflammation and gangrene, or from the
shock to the system when large portions of the limb are forcibly
removed, as in accidents from machinery, and in wounds from
firearms.
Blood Stains. The examination of blood stains is a frequent
and important operation in criminal charges. Blood stains when
fresh and abundant can be recognized without difficulty, but
when old, or after being acted upon by certain substances, their
identity is not readily determined.
The tests which may be applied to a suspected stain consist of:
(i) The microscopic test. A portion of the stain is soaked in a drop
of some fluid which will soften and cause separation of the dried
blood corpuscles without altering their characteristic appearance.
Such fluids are solutions of glycerine and water of a specific gravity
of 1028 or 30 % caustic potash. The recognition of blood corpuscles
affords evidence of the nature of the stain. (2) Chemical tests, (a)
Heat applied to a solution obtained by soaking some of the stained
fabric in cold water. A blood solution is red, and loses its red colour
on application of heat, while at the same time a buff-coloured pre-
cipitate is formed. (V) On applying a drop of freshly prepared
tincture of guaiacum and then some ozonic ether or peroxide of
hydrogen to the stain, a blue colour is obtained if blood be present.
Many other substances, however, give the same reaction, (c) If,
even to the smallest particle of dried blood, a fragment of common
salt and some glacial acetic acid be added, and the latter is then
heated to ebullition and allowed to evaporate away, small brown
rhomboid crystals haemin crystals will be found to have formed,
and they can be recognized under the microscope. (3) Spectroscopic
test. A solution of blood obtained from a stain will show a spectrum
having two dark bands between Fraunhofer's lines D and E (oxy-
haemoglobin). On adding ammonium sulphide to the solution
the haemoglobin is reduced and only one broad dark band is seen
(reduced haemoglobin). On adding caustic potash to a solution
of blood, alkaline haematin is formed, and this again is transformed
on the further addition of ammonium sulphide into reduced haematin
or haemochromogen, which gives a very characteristic spectrum
of two dark bands situated in the yellow part of the spectrum.
The production of these three different spectra from a red-coloured
solution is characteristic of blood. Old blood stains are insoluble
in water, whereas recent stains are readily soluble in cold water,
yielding a red solution. The application of hot water or washing
with soap tends to fix or render blood stains insoluble. Vegetable
dyes may likewise give red solutions, but they may be distinguished
from blood by the addition of ammonia, which alters the colour of
the former, but rather intensifies the red colour of a blood solution.
The differentiation between human blood stains and those pro-
29
duced by the blood of other animals, more especially domestic
animals, is a matter of great importance to the medical jurist.
When the blood stain is fresh, measurement of the corpuscles may
decide the question, but in the case of dry and old stains it is im-
possible to make the distinction. A method has been discovered,
however, which enables the distinction to be made not only between
human blood and that of other animals (with the exception of
Simiidae), but also between the bloods of different animals. The
method depends upon the fact that if an animal (A), such as a dog
or rabbit, is inoculated with the blood or serum of another animal
(B), then the blood or serum of A is found to produce a specific
reaction (namely, the production of a cloudiness or precipitate)
when added to a solution of the blood of a similar animal to B, and
that species of animal only. If, therefore, human blood serum is
injected into an animal, its blood after a time affords an " anti-
serum " which produces the specific reaction only in human blood
solutions and not in those formed from the blood of other animals.
10. Poisoning. There is no exact definition of a poison (q.v.).
Popularly, substances which destroy or endanger life when
swallowed in small quantity are called poisons, but a scientific
definition would also include many substances which are injurious
to health in large doses or only after repeated administration,
and which act not only when swallowed, but also when taken into
the system through other channels, e.g. the skin or the lungs.
The branch of science which relates to poisons, their nature,
methods of detection, the symptoms produced by them, and
treatment of poisoning, is called Toxicology, and is one of the
most important subjects included under the term Medical
Jurisprudence.
The medical evidence in cases of poisoning rests upon (i)
the symptoms produced during life; (2) the post mortem appear-
ances; (3) the chemical analysis and detection of the substance
in the body, or in the excretions and vomited matters, or in
articles of food; (4) experiments on animals in the case of certain
poisons where other conclusive evidence is difficult to obtain.
The treatment of cases of poisoning will vary according to the
substance taken, but the general principles which should be
followed are: (a) to get rid of the poison by means of the stomach-
pump, or by washing out the stomach with water through a
soft rubber tube, or by giving an emetic such as mustard, sulphate
of zinc, ipecacuanha; (b) to neutralize the poison by giving a
substance which will form with it an innocuous compound (e.g.
in the case of the strong acids by administering magnesia or
common whiting) , or which has an opposite physiological action
(e.g. atropine in opium poisoning) ; (c) to promote the elimination
from the body of the poison which has been already absorbed;
(d) general treatment of any dangerous symptoms which
appear, as by stimulation in collapse or artificial respiration in
asphyxia.
Food Poisoning (see also ADULTERATION). Foods may prove
noxious from a variety of causes: (i) The presence of metallic
poisons, as in peas artificially coloured with copper salts, in
tinned foods from dissolved tin salts, &c. (2) The contami-
nation of any food with the specific germs of disease, as for
example, milk infected with the germ of enteric fever. (3) The
presence in meat of parasites, such as the Trichina spiralis, or
of disease in animals, capable of transmission to man, such as
tuberculosis, or the presence of poison in the flesh of animals
which have fed on substances harmless to them but poisonous to
human beings. Grain may be infected with parasitic fungi of a
poisonous character, as for example Claviceps purpurea, causing
epidemics of ergotism. (4) Foods of various kinds may contain
saprophytic bacteria which elaborate certain poisons, either
before or after the food is taken. It is chiefly in relation to food-
poisoning from the last-mentioned cause that our knowledge has
been increased in recent years.
Many cases of food-poisoning, previously of mysterious origin,
can now be explained by the action of bacteria and the products
which they give rise to tox-albumoses, ptomaines, toxins by
splitting up proteid substances. It is not necessary that the food
should show evident signs of putrefaction. It may not do so, and
yet on being eaten produce violent symptoms of gastro-intestinal
irritation almost immediately, followed by various nervous symp-
toms. In such cases a chemical poison, developed by putrefactive
bacteria before the food was eaten, quickly acts upon the system.
On the other hand, symptoms may not appear for many hours after
ingestion of the food, and then come on suddenly and with great
30
severity there has been a period of incubation. In such cases the
food when swallowed has contained the bacteria, but the poisonous
toxin has been elaborated by them afterwards in the system during
the period preceding the onset of symptoms. In both varieties
of poisoning the symptoms are similar, consisting of gastro-intestinal
irritation vomiting, purging and pain in the abdomen together
with great prostration, fever, muscular twitchings, disturbances
of vision, delirium and coma. The varieties of meat which have
most frequently given rise to poisoning (Botulismus) are pork, ham,
veal, sausages, brawn, various kinds of meat pies and potted meats.
Pig flesh appears to be specially liable to become infected. A point
of considerable interest, which has sometimes given rise to doubt
as to the poisonous character of meat in certain instances, is, that
the same food may be poisonous at one time and not at another.
Thus it may be harmless when freshly prepared, cause fatal effects
if eaten a day or two afterwards, and shortly after that again prove
perfectly innocuous. This is explained by the fact that the toxic
substances take some time to develop, and after development are still
further split up by the bacteria into other bodies of a harmless nature.
In some fish e.g. Trachinus draco, or sea weaver the poison is a
physiological product of certain glands. In others the poison is not
known, as in the family Scombridae, to which the disease Kakke has
been attributed. In the United Kingdom the poisonous effects pro-
duced by fish are due to bacterial agency after death, and instances
have occurred from the eating of herrings, mackerel, dried salt
codfish, caviare, tinned salmon and tinned sardines. Shellfish
may produce poisonous effects from putrefactive changes or from
the development in them (oysters and mussels) of ptomaines.
Brieger discovered a ptomaine in poisonous mussels to which he
gave the name mytilotoxin. It is now fully proved that oysters
and mussels may become contaminated with the organism of typhoid
fever if placed in specifically polluted water, and thus transmit the
disease to human beings. Milk, as already stated, may be contami-
nated and convey the infection of scarlet fever and other diseases.
It may also contain substances of bacterial origin, which are possibly
the cause of infantile diarrhoea, and others, having a fatal effect upon
adults. Cheese has frequently caused poisoning. Vaughan dis-
covered a toxic substance in milk and cheese tyrotoxicon but
there are other toxic substances of bacterial origin sometimes present
in cheese to which poisonous effects have probably been due. Mush-
room-poisoning results from the eating of poisonous fungi in mistake
for the edible mushroom. The poisonous element in most cases is
either muscarin contained in the fungus Amanita muscaria, or phallin
in Amanita phalloides.
HISTORY OF FORENSIC MEDICINE
The true origin of medical jurisprudence is of comparatively
recent date, although traces of its principles may be perceived
in remote times. Among the ancient Greeks the principles of
medical science appear only to have been applied to legislation
in certain questions relating to legitimacy. In the writings of
Galen we find, however, remarks on the differences between the
foetal and the adult lungs; he also treats of the legitimacy of
seven months' children, and discusses feigned diseases. Turning
to Rome, we find that the laws of the Twelve Tables fix three
hundred days as the extreme duration of utero-gestation. It
is doubtful whether the Roman law authorized medical inspec-
tions of dead bodies. In the code of Justinian we find De
statu hominum; De poenis el manumissis; De sicariis; De
inspiciendo venire cuslodiendoque partu; De muliere quae
peperil undecimo mense; De impotentia; De hermaphroditis
titles which show obvious traces of a recognized connexion
between medicine and law. It was not, however, by the
testimony of living medical witnesses that such questions were
to be settled, but on the authority of Hippocrates.
Medical jurisprudence, as a science, dates only from the i6th
century. In 1507 the bishop of Bamberg introduced a penal
code in which the necessity of medical evidence in certain cases
was recognized; and in 1532 the emperor Charles V. persuaded
the Diet of Ratisbon to adopt a uniform code of German penal
jurisprudence, in which the civil magistrate was enjoined in all
cases of doubt or difficulty to obtain the evidence of medical
witnesses, as in cases of personal injuries, infanticide, pretended
pregnancy, simulated diseases, and poisoning. The true dawn
of forensic medicine dates, however, from the publication in
T 553 f the Constitulio criminalis Carolina in Germany. A few
years later Weiher, a physician, having undertaken to prove
that witches and demoniacs are, in fact, persons subject to
hypochondriasis and hysteria, and should not be punished,
aroused popular indignation, and was with difficulty rescued from
the flames by his patron, William duke of Cleves.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE
At the close of the i6th century Ambrose Pare wrote on
monsters, on simulated diseases, and on the art of drawing up
medico-legal reports; Pineau also published his treatise on vir-
ginity and defloration. About the same time as these stimuli to
the study of forensic medicine were being made known in Paris,
the first systematic treatise on the science appeared in Sicily in the
form of a treatise De relalionibus medicorum by Fidele. Paulo
Zacchia, the illustrious Roman medical jurist, moreover, published
from 1621 to 1635 a work entitled Quaestiones medico-legales,
which marks a new era in the history of the science a work
which displays an immense amount of learning and sagacity in
an age when chemistry was in its infancy, and physiology very
imperfectly understood. The discovery of the circulation of
the blood by Harvey soon followed, and gave a new impetus
to the study of those branches of forensic medicine having direct
relations to physiology; and to Harvey we owe the idea how to
apply Galen's observations on the differences between the foetal
and the adult lungs to the elucidation of cases of supposed
infanticide. About this time, too, Sebiz published two treatises,
on the signs of virginity and on the examination of wounds
respectively. In the former he contended that the hymen was
the real mark of virginity; but this was denied by Augenio and
Gassendi. In 1663 Thomas Bartholin investigated the period
of human uterine gestation, a subject which had engaged the
attention of Aristotle. He also proposed the " hydrostatic
test " for the determination of live-birth a test still in use, and
applied by observing whether the lungs of an infant float or sink
in water. J. Swammerdam explained the rationale of the process
in 1677; but it was not till 1682 that it was first practically
applied by Jan Schreyer.
Germany, ever the leader in questions of forensic medicine,
introduced the first public lectures on medical jurisprudence.
Michaelis gave the first course about the middle of the i7th
century in the university of Leipzig; and these were followed
by the lectures of Bohn, who also published De renunciatione
oulnerum; cui accesserunl dissertationes binae de partu enecato,
et an quis vims mortuusve aquis submersus, strangulatus, out
oulneratus fuerit, and De officiis medici duplicis, clinici et
forensis. Welsch and Amman wrote on the fatality of wounds,
and Licetus on monsters.
From the time of Ambrose Par6 the mode of conducting investi-
gations in forensic medicine had attracted attention in France;
and in 1603 Henry IV. authorized his physician to appoint
persons skilled in medicine and surgery to make medico-legal
inspections and reports in all cities and royal jurisdictions; in
1692, difficulties having arisen, Louis XIV. created hereditary
royal physicians and surgeons for the performance of like duties.
These, having become a corrupt and venal body, were suppressed
in 1790. The only works on forensic medicine which appeared
in France during the i7th century, however, were Gendry's
Sur les moyens de bien rapporter a justice and Blegny's Doctrine
des rapports en chirurgie. At the beginning of the i8th century
the latter was superseded as a text-book by Devaux's L'Arl de
faire des rapports en chirurgie. Valentini followed with two
works, which were finally incorporated in his Corpus juris medico-
legale which appeared in 1722. This work is a vast storehouse
of medico-legal information, and a summary of the knowledge of
the time.
Professorships for teaching the subject were founded in the
German universities early in the i8th century, and numerous
treatises on forensic medicine were published. Teichmeyer's
Institutions medicinae legalis long formed the text-book of the
subject; and Alberti, professor of legal medicine at Halle, in his
Systema gave to the world a most complete and laborious treatise
on the science. His industrious collection of facts renders his
works a precious mine of information. Indeed towards the close
of the i8th century the Germans were almost the only cultivators
of legal medicine. But in France the celebrated case of Ville-
blanche attracted attention to the subject, and called forth
Louis, who in a memoir on utero-gestation attacked with power-
ful arguments the pretended instances of protracted pregnancy,
and paved the way for the adoption in the Code Napoleon of
MEDICI (FAMILY)
three hundred days as the limit of utero-gestation, a period in
precise accordance with the ancient Roman law of the Twelve
Tables. Louis also wrote on death from hanging, and pointed
out the mode by which we may distinguish murder from suicide
under such circumstances. It is he who is credited with having
been the first in France to publicly teach the just application
of medical knowledge to jurisprudence. Fodere's celebrated
Traiti de medecine legale appeared in 1798, and marks a new era
in the annals of legal medicine.
No British author wrote systematically on forensic medicine
till 1788, when Dr Samuel Farr published a short treatise on the
Elements of Medical Jurisprudence; but this was merely an
abridgment of an earlier work of Fazelius. Previous writers
as Mead, Munro, Denman, Percival and the two Hunters had,
however, dealt with fragments of the subject; nevertheless the
science as a whole was little appreciated or recognized in this
country during the i8th century.
In the ipth century France took the lead; and the institution
of three professorships of forensic medicine at the end of the i8th
century produced excellent fruits. In 1814 Orfila, a Spaniard by
birth, but naturalized in France, published his Toxicologie, a work
which revolutionized this branch of medical jurisprudence, and
first placed the knowledge of poisons upon a scientific basis.
Since the time of Orfila, France has never ceased to have one or
more living medical jurists, among the most recent of whom we
must enumerate Tardieu, whose treatises on abortion, on poisons,
on wounds, &c., are justly celebrated. Germany too industri-
ously pursued the subject, and Casper's great work on forensic
medicine will ever remain a classic in the science. In Russia
Dragendorff greatly contributed to our knowledge of poisons.
Though forensic medicine may be said to have been entirely
neglected in England till the beginning of the igth century, its
progress has since been by no means slow or unimportant; and the
subject now forms a recognized and obligatory portion of medical
study. The first lectures delivered in Great Britain were given in
the university of Edinburgh in 1801 by the elder Dr Duncan; and
the first professorship was held t by his son in '1803. Dr Alfred
Swaine Taylor gave the first course of lectures delivered in England,
at Guy's Hospital in 1831; and in 1863 the university of London
made forensic medicine a separate subject for examination and
honours for medical graduates. In 1822 there was not in the
English language any treatise of authority either on medical juris-
prudence or on any important division of the subject ; for it was not
till the following year that the useful compendium of Paris and
Fonblanque was published; and even in the middle of the igth
century medical jurisprudence may be said to have been almost in
its infancy as compared with what it is now. From 1829 Great
Britain produced an abundant crop of literature on forensic medicine.
Sir Robert Christison's admirable treatise on Toxicology, Dr A. S.
Taylor's Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprudence (1905
edition, by F. J. Smith), the same author's Elements of Medical
Jurisprudence, Dr Guy's Forensic Medicine, and Ogston's Lectures
on Medical Jurisprudence have become well-known and widely circu-
lated works. The separate memoirs of Taylor, Christison, Guy and
others are also storehouses of facts and deductions in the science.
America, too, has not been behindhand in the race. F. Wharton and
M. Still6's Manual, Wormley's Toxicology, and the works of Beck
and Reese have furthered the study of the science.
See also Dixon Mann, Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (London,
1902) ; Wynter Blyth, Poisons: their Effects and Detection (London,
1895) ; Allbutt and Rolleston, A System of Medicine, vol. ii. " Intoxi-
cations " (London, 1909); Vaughan, Twentieth Century Practice of
Medicine, vol. xiii. article " Ptomaines, Toxins and Leucomaines "
(London, 1898); Maschka, Handbuch der gerichtlichen Medicin
(Tubingen, 1881-1882); Hofmann, Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen
Medicin (Wien, 1898); Strassmann, Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen
Medicin (Stuttgart, 1895); Kunkel, Handbuch der Toxikologie
(Jena, 1899); Brouardel, L Infanticide, La Pendaison, &c. (Paris,
1897). (H. H. L.;T. A. I.)
MEDICI, the name of a family renowned in Italian history for
the extraordinary number of statesmen to whom it gave birth,
and for its magnificent patronage of letters and art. They
emerged from private life and rose to power by means of a very
subtle policy that was persistently pursued from generation to
generation. The origin of the family is buried in obscurity.
Some court historians indeed declare it to have been founded
by Perseus, and assert that Benvenuto Cellini's bronze Perseus
holding on high the head of Medusa was executed and placed in
the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence to symbolize the victory of the
Medici over the republic. But this only proves that the real
origin of the family is unknown, and equally unknown is the
precise signification of the Medicean arms six red balls on a
field of gold.
The name appears in Florentine chronicles as early as the close
of the 1 2th century, although only casually mentioned in con-
nexion with various offices of the republic. The
first of the family to be a distinct figure in history ^arty
c. , , . T, , , . . , . Bearers of
was balvestro dei Medici, who, in 1378, took an active the Name.
part in the revolt of the Ciompi so called because it
was led by a wool-carder (ciompo), one Michele di Lando, and
because the chief share in it was taken by the populace, who held
the reins of government for some time, and sought to obtain
extended political rights. Although Michele di Lando was the
nominal chief of the revolt, Salvestro dei Medici was its real
leader. The latter, although a member of the greater gilds,
had joined the lesser and sought to be at their head, in order to
lay the foundation of his own power and that of his kindred by
attacking the Albizzi, who were the leading men of
the greater gilds. The victory of the Ciompi, '
however, was brief, for the excesses of the lower classes brought
about a reaction, in which they were crushed, and Michele di
Lando sent into banishment. Nevertheless the lesser gilds had
gained some ground by this riot, and Salvestro dei Medici the
great popularity at which he had aimed. His policy during
that period had traced the sole possible road to power in
liberty-loving Florence. This was the road henceforth pursued
by the Medici.
On Salvestro's death in 1388 the Albizzi repossessed them-
selves of the government, and conducted the wars of the republic.
Vieri dei Medici, who seems to have been the next
head of the family, understanding the temper of
the times, abstained from becoming a popular leader, and left
it to his successors to prosecute the task under easier conditions.
Then, in the person of Giovanni, son of Averardo Bicci dei Medici
(1360-1429), another branch of the family arose, and became
its representative branch. Indeed this Giovanni may be con-
sidered the actual founder of Medicean greatness. He took little
part in political affairs, but realized an immense fortune by trade
establishing banks in Italy and abroad, which in his successor's
hands became the most efficient engines of political power. The
Council of Constance (1414-1418) enabled Giovanni dei Medici
to realize enormous profits. Besides, like his ancestor Salvestro,
he was a constant supporter of the lesser gilds in Florence.
Historians record his frequent resistance to the Albizzi when
they sought to oppress the people with heavier taxation, and his
endeavours to cause the chief weight to fall upon the richer
classes. For this reason he was in favour of the so-called law of
catasto, which, by assessing the property of every citizen,
prevented those in power from arbitrarily imposing taxes that
unjustly burdened the people. In this way, and by liberal loans
of money to all who were in need of it, he gained a reputation
that was practically the foundation-stone of the grand family
edifice. Giovanni dei Medici died in 1429 leaving two sons,
Cosimo (1380-1464) and Lorenzo (1395-1*440). From the former
proceeded the branch that held absolute sway for many genera-
tions over the nominal republic of Florence, and gave to Italy
popes like Leo X. and Clement VII. On the extinction of this
elder line in the i6th century, the younger branch derived from
Lorenzo, Cosimo's brother, seemed to acquire new life, and for
two centuries supplied grand-dukes to Tuscany.
Cosimo, surnamed Cosimo the Elder, to distinguish him from
the many others bearing the same name, and honoured after his
death by the title of pater patriae, first succeeded Coslmo the
in solving the strange problem of becoming absolute Elder.
ruler of a republic keenly jealous of its liberty, with-
out holding any fixed office, without suppressing any
previous form of government, and always preserving the
appearance and demeanour of a private citizen. Born in 1389,
he had reached the age of forty at the time of his father's death.
He had a certain amount of literary culture, and throughout
his life showed much taste and an earnest love both for letters
32
and art. But his father had mainly trained him to commerce,
for which he had a special liking and aptitude. He was devoted
to business to the day of his death, and like his forefathers
derived pecuniary advantage from his friendly relations with the
papal court. He accompanied Pope John XXIII. to the Council
of Constance, transacted a vast amount of business in that city,
and made very large gains. He then travelled in Germany, and
after his return to Florence discharged several ambassadorial
missions. At the death of his father he was possessed of a vast
fortune and an extended experience, and inherited the leadership
of the opposition to the then dominant party of the greater gilds
headed by Rinaldo degli Albizzi, Palla Strozzi and Niccolo da
Uzzano. Of gentle and kindly manners, generous in lending and
even in giving money whenever he could gain popularity by
that means, at critical moments he frequently came to the
succour of the government itself. He was very dexterous in
turning his private liberalities to account for the increase of his
political prestige, and showed no less acumen and still fewer
scruples in making use of his political prestige for purposes of
pecuniary profit. Indeed, whenever his own interests were at
stake, he showed himself capable of positive villainy, although
this was always tempered by calculation. Cosimo proved his
skill in these knavish arts during the war between Florence and
Lucca. He had joined the Albizzi in urging on this war, and
many writers assert that he turned it to much pecuniary advan-
tage by means of loans to the government and other banking
operations. When, however, military affairs went badly, Cosimo
joined the discontented populace in invectives against the war
and those who had conducted it. This won him an enormous
increase of popularity, but the hatred of the Albizzi and their
friends augmented in equal degree, and a conflict became
inevitable. The Albizzi, who were far more impetuous and im-
patient than Cosimo, were now bent upon revenge. In 1433
one of their friends, Bernardo Guadagni, was elected gonfalonier,
and thereupon Cosimo dei Medici was called to the palace and
summarily imprisoned in the tower. A general assembly of the
people was convoked and a balla chosen, which changed the
government and sent Cosimo into exile. Undoubtedly the
Albizzi party would have preferred a heavier sentence, but they
did not dare to attempt their enemy's life, being well aware of the
great number of his adherents. Cosimo had some apprehension
that he might be poisoned in prison, but Federigo dei Malavolti,
captain of the palace guard, showed him the utmost kindness,
and, to soothe his fears, voluntarily shared his meals. On the
3rd of October the prisoner was sent to Padua, his allotted
place of exile.
The Albizzi speedily saw that they had done either too much
or too little. While seeking to keep the government entirely
in their own hands, they beheld the continual growth of the
Medici party. When it was necessary to make a campaign in
Romagna against the mercenary captains commanding the
forces of the duke of Milan, it was plainly seen that in banishing
Cosimo the republic had lost the only citizen banker in a position
to assist it with considerable loans. The Florentines were
defeated by Piccinino in 1434, and this event greatly increased
the public exasperation against the Albizzi. Meanwhile Cosimo,
who had gone to Padua as a private individual, was entertained
there like a prince. Then, being permitted to transfer his resi-
dence to Venice, he entered on a course of lavish expenditure.
He was overwhelmed with letters and appeals from Florence.
Finally, on the ist of September 1434, a signory was elected
composed of his friends, and his recall was decreed. Rinaldo
degli Albizzi determined to oppose it by force, and rushed to the
Piazza with a band of armed men; but his attempt failed, and
he left the country to return no more. The Medici were now
reinstated in all their former dignities and honours, and Cosimo,
on the evening of the 6th of September, rode past the deserted
mansions of the Albizzi and re-entered his own dwelling after an
exile of a year. For three centuries, dating from that moment,
the whole history of Florence was connected with that of the
house of Medici.
Cosimo's first thought was to secure himself against all future
MEDICI (FAMILY)
risk of removal from Florence, and accordingly he drove the
most powerful citizens into exile to all parts of Italy. Nor did
he spare even his former political adversary, Palla
Strozzi, although the latter had been favourable to " n J f era ~
him during the recent changes. His rigour in this Florence.
particular case was universally censured, but Cosimo
would tolerate no rivals in the city, and was resolved to abase the
great families and establish his power by the support of the lower
classes. He was accustomed to say that states could not be
ruled by paternosters. Still, when cruelty seemed requisite,
he always contrived that the chief odium of it should fall upon
others. When Neri Capponi, the valiant soldier and able
diplomatist, gained great public favour by his military prowess,
and his influence was further increased by the friendship of
Baldaccio d'Anghiari, captain of the infantry, Cosimo resolved to
weaken his position by indirect means. Accordingly, when in
1441 a partisan of the Medici was elected gonfalonier, Baldaccio
was instantly summoned to the palace, imprisoned, murdered,
and his body hurled from the window. No one could actually
fix this crime upon Cosimo, but the majority believed that he
had thus contrived to rid himself of one enemy and cripple
another without showing his hand. It was impossible for Cosimo
openly to assume the position of tyrant of Florence, nor was
it worth his while to become gonfalonier, since the term of office
only lasted two months. It was necessary to discover some other
way without resorting to violence; he accordingly employed what
were then designated " civil methods." He managed to attain
his object by means of the balls. These magistracies, which
were generally renewed every five years, placed in the ballot-
bags the names of the candidates from whom the signory and
other chief magistrates were to be chosen. As soon as a balia
favourable to Cosimo was formed, he was assured for five years
of having the government in the hands of men devoted to his
interests. He had comprehended that the art of politics depended
rather upon individuals than institutions, and that he who ruled
men could also dictate laws. His foreign policy was no less
astute. His great wealth enabled him to supply money not
only to private individuals, but even to foreign potentates.
Philippe de Comities tells us that Cosimo frequently furnished
Edward IV. of England with sums amounting to many hundred
thousand florins. When Tommaso Parentucelli was still a
cardinal, and in needy circumstances, Cosimo made him consider-
able loans without demanding guarantees of payment. On the
cardinal's accession to the tiara as Nicholas V. he was naturally
very well disposed towards Cosimo, and employed the Medici
bank in Rome in all the affairs of the curia. At the time when
Francesco Sforza was striving for the lordship of Milan, Cosimo
foresaw his approaching triumph, showed him great friendship,
and aided him with large sums of money. Accordingly, when
Sforza became lord of Milan, Cosimo's power was doubled.
Without the title of prince, this merchant showed royal
generosity in his expenditure for the promotion of letters and
the fine arts. Besides his palace in the city, he constructed noble
villas at Careggi, Fiesole and other places. He
built the basilica of Fiesole, and that of St Lorenzo p^,J s e
in Florence, and enlarged the church and monastery //trt.
of St Mark. Even in distant Jerusalem he endowed
a hospice for the use of pilgrims. The artists of the day
comprised men like Donatello, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Luca
della Robbia, and many others, and Cosimo's magnificent com-
missions not only developed their powers but stimulated other
men of wealth to the patronage of art. Without being a scholar,
Cosimo had a genuine taste for letters. He purchased many
Greek and Latin manuscripts; he opened the first public library
at St Mark's at his own expense, and founded another in the
abbey of Fiesole. The Greek refugees from Constantinople
found a constant welcome in his palace. During the Council of
Florence (1439-1442), Gemistus Pletho spoke to him with enthusi-
asm of the Platonic philosophy. Cosimo was so deeply attracted
by the theme that he decided to have the young Marsilio Ficino
trained in philosophy and Greek learning in order to make a
Latin translation of the complete works of Plato. And thus a
MEDICI (FAMILY)
Hero the
Qouty.
version was produced that is still considered one of the best
extant, and that Platonic academy was founded which led to
such important results in the history of Italian philosophy and
letters. On the ist of August 1464 Cosimo breathed his last, at
the age of seventy-five, while engaged in listening to one of
Plato's dialogues.
The concluding years of his life had been years of little happi-
ness for Florence. Being old and infirm, he had left the govern-
ment to the management of his friends, among whom Luca Pitti
was one of the most powerful, and they had ruled with disorder,
corruption and cruelty. The lordship of Florence accordingly
did not pass without some difficulty and danger into the hands of
Piero, surnamed the Gouty, Cosimo's only surviving
legitimate son. Afflicted by gout, and so terribly
crippled that he was often only able to use his
tongue, the new ruler soon discovered that a plot was on foot
to overthrow his power. However, showing far more courage
than he was supposed to possess, he had himself borne on a
litter from his villa to Florence, defeated his enemies' designs,
and firmly re-established his authority. But his success may
be mainly attributed to the enormous prestige bequeathed
by Cosimo to his posterity. Piero died at the end of five years'
reign, on the 3rd of December 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo
(1440-1492) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The younger, the
gentler and less ambitious of the pair, was quickly removed
from the world. Lorenzo, on the contrary, at once seized
the reins of state with a firm grasp, and was, chronologically,
the second of the great men bestowed upon Italy by the
house of Medici. In literary talent he was immensely
superior to Cosimo, but greatly his inferior in the conduct
of the commercial affairs of the house. In politics he had
nobler conceptions and higher ambitions, but he was more
easily carried away by his passions, less prudent in .his revenge,
and more disposed to tyranny. He had studied letters from his
earliest years under the guidance of Ficino and other leading
litterati of the day. At the age of eighteen he visited the different
courts of Italy. At his father's death he was only twenty-one
years old, but instantly showed his determination
Lorenzo. J ^ .
to govern Florence with greater despotism than his
father or grandfather. He speedily resorted to the system of the
balie, and was very dexterous in causing the first to be chosen
to suit his purpose. He then proceeded to humiliate the great
families and exalt those of little account, and this was the policy
he constantly pursued. His younger brother Giuliano, being of
a mild and yielding disposition, had only a nominal share in the
government.
Lorenzo's policy, although prosecuted with less caution, was
still the old astute and fortunate policy initiated by Cosimo.
But the grandson bestowed no care upon his commercial interests,
although squandering his fortune with far greater lavishness.
Accordingly he was sometimes driven to help himself from the
public purse without ever being able to assist it as Cosimo had
done. All this excited blame and enmity against him, while
his greed in the matter of the alum mines of Volterra. and the
subsequent sack of that unhappy city, were crimes for which
there was no excuse. Among his worst enemies were the Pazzi,
and, as they formed a very powerful clan, he sought their ruin
by competing with them even in business transactions. They
were on the point of inheriting the large property of Giovanni
Borromeo when Lorenzo hurriedly caused a law to be passed
that altered the right of succession. The hatred of the Pazzi
was thereby exasperated to fury. And in addition to these
things there ensued a desperate quarrel with Pope Sixtus IV.,
a man of very impetuous temper, who, on endeavouring to erect
a state on the frontiers of the Florentine republic for the benefit
of his nephews, found a determined and successful opponent in
Lorenzo. Consequently the Pazzi and Archbishop Salviati,
another enemy of Lorenzo, aided by the nephews of the pontiff,
who was himself acquainted with the whole matter, determined
to put an end to the family. On the 26th of April 1478, while
Giuliano and Lorenzo were attending high mass in the cathedral
of Florence, the former was mortally stabbed by conspirators,
XVIII. 2
33
but the latter was able to beat back his assailants and escape
into the sacristy. His life preserved, and no longer having to
share the government with a brother, Lorenzo profited by the
opportunity to wreak cruel vengeance upon his foes. Several
of the Pazzi and their followers were hanged from the palace
windows; others were hacked to pieces, dragged through the
streets, and cast into the Arno, while a great many more were
condemned to death or sent into exile. Lorenzo seemed willing
and able to become a tyrant. But he stopped short of this
point. He knew the temper of the city, and had also to look
to fresh dangers threatening him from without. The pope had
excommunicated him, put Florence under an interdict, and,
being seconded by the Neapolitan king, made furious war
against the republic. The Florentines began to tire of submitting
to so many hardships in order to support the yoke of a fellow-
citizen. Lorenzo's hold over Florence seemed endangered.
But he rose superior to the difficulties by which he was encom-
passed. He boldly journeyed to Naples, to the court of King
Ferdinand of Aragon, who was reputed to be as treacherous as
he was cruel, and succeeded in obtaining from him an honourable
peace, that soon led to a reconciliation with Sixtus. Thus at
last Lorenzo found himself complete master of Florence. But, as
the balie changed every five years, it was always requisite,
in order to retain his supremacy, that he should be prepared
to renew the usual manoeuvre at the close of that term and have
another elected equally favourable to his aims. This was often
a difficult achievement, and Lorenzo showed much dexterity in
overcoming all obstacles. In 1480 he compassed the institution
of a new council of seventy, which was practically a permanent
balia with extended powers, inasmuch as it not only elected
the chief magistrates, but had also the administration of numer-
ous state affairs. This permanent council of devoted adherents
once formed, his security was firmly established. By this
means, the chroniclers tell us, " liberty was buried," but the chief
affairs of the state were always conducted by intelligent and
experienced men, who promoted the public prosperity. Florence
was still called a republic; the old institutions were still preserved,
if only in name. Lorenzo was absolute lord of all, and virtually
a tyrant. His immorality was scandalous; he kept an army of
spies; he frequently meddled in the citizens' most private affairs,
and exalted men of the lowest condition to important offices of
the state. Yet, as Guicciardini remarks, " if Florence was to
have a tyrant, she could never have found a better or more
pleasant one." In fact all industry, commerce and public
works made enormous progress. The civil equality of modern
states, which was quite unknown to the middle ages, was more
developed in Florence than in any other city of the world.
Even the condition of the peasantry was far more prosperous
than elsewhere. Lorenzo's authority was not confined to Tus-
cany, but was also very great throughout the whole of Italy.
He was on the friendliest terms with Pope Innocent VIII., from
whom he obtained the exaltation of his son Giovanni to the
cardinalate at the age of fourteen. This boy-cardinal was after-
wards Pope Leo X. From the moment of the decease of
Sixtus IV., the union of Florence and Rome became the basis of
Lorenzo's foreign policy. By its means he was able to
prevent the hatreds and jealousies of the Sforzas of Milan and
the Aragonese of Naples from bursting into the open conflict
that long threatened, and after his death actually caused, the
beginning of new and irreparable calamities. Hence Lorenzo
was styled the needle of the Italian compass.
But the events we have narrated cannot suffice for the full
comprehension of this complex character, unless we add the
record of his deeds as a patron of letters and his achievements as
a writer. His palace was the school and resort of illustrious men.
Within its walls were trained the two young Medici afterwards
known to the world as Leo X. and Clement VII. Ficino,
Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola and all members of the Platonic
academy were its constant habitues. It was here that Pulci
gave readings of his Morgante, and Michelangelo essayed the
first strokes of his chisel. Lorenzo's intellectual powers were
of exceptional strength and versatility. He could speak with
34
equal fluency on painting, sculpture, music, philosophy and
poetry. But his crowning superiority over every other Maecenas
known to history lay in his active participation in the intellectual
labours that he promoted. Indeed at certain moments he was
Lorenzo as positively the leading spirit among the litterati of his
a Hanoi time. He was an elegant prose writer, and was
Letters. likewise a poet of real originality. At that period
Italians were forsaking erudition in order to forward the revival
of the national literature by recurring to the primitive sources
of the spoken tongue and popular verse. It is Lorenzo's lasting
glory to have been the initiator of this movement. Without
being as some have maintained a poet of genius, he was
certainly a writer of much finish and eloquence, and one of the
first to raise popular poetry to the dignity of art. In his Ambra,
his Caccia del falcone and his Nencia da Barberino, he gives
descriptions of nature and of the rural life that he loved, with the
graphic power of an acute and tasteful observer, joined to an
ease of style that occasionally sins by excess of homeliness.
Both in his art and in his politics he leant upon the people.
The more oppressive his government, the more did he seek in his
verses to incite 'the public to festivities and lull it to slumber by
sensual enjoyments. In his Ballate, or songs for dancing, and
more especially in his carnival songs, a kind of verse invented by
himself, Lorenzo displayed all the best qualities and worst defects
of his muse. Marvellously and spontaneously elegant, very
truthful and fresh in style, fertile in fancy and rich in colour, they
are often of a most revolting indecency. And these compositions
of one filling a princely station in the city were often sung by
their author in the public streets, in the midst of the populace.
Lorenzo left three sons Pietro (1471-1503), Giovanni
(1475-1521) and Giuliano (1470-1516). He was succeeded by
Pietro, whose rule lasted but for two years. During this brief
term he performed no good deeds, and only displayed inordinate
vanity and frivolity. His conduct greatly helped to foment the
hatred between Lodovico Sforza and Ferdinand of Naples,
which hastened the coming of the French under Charles VIII.,
and the renewal of foreign invasions. No sooner did the French
approach the frontiers of Tuscany than Pietro, crazed with fear,
pletro hastened to meet them, and, basely yielding to every
demand, accepted terms equally humiliating to him-
self and the state. But, returning to Florence, he found that
the enraged citizens had already decreed his deposition, in order
to reconstitute the republic, and was therefore compelled to
escape to Venice. His various plots to reinstate himself in
Florence were all unsuccessful. At last he went to the south of
Italy with the French, was drowned at the passage of the
Garigliano in 1503, and was buried in the cloister of Monte
Cassino.
The ensuing period was adverse to the Medici, for a republican
government was maintained in Florence from 1404 to 1512, and
the city remained faithful to its alliance with the French, who
were all-powerful in Italy. Cardinal Giovanni, the head of the
family, resided in Rome, playing the patron to a circle of litterati,
artists and friends, seeking to increase his popularity, and calmly
waiting for better days. The battle of Ravenna wrought the
downfall of the fortunes of France in Italy, and led to the rise
of those of Spain, whose troops entered Florence to destroy the
republic and reinstate the Medici. Pietro had now been dead
for some time, leaving a young son, Lorenzo (1492-1519), who
was afterwards duke of Urbino. The following year (1513)
Cardinal Giovanni was elected pope, and assumed the name of
Cardinal ^ e ^" ^ e accor dingly removed to Rome, leaving
Giovanni his brother Giuliano with his nephew Lorenzo in
(LeoX.), Florence, and accompanied by his cousin Giulio,
i'*re"o' W ^ was a natura ' son f t ^ ie Giuliano murdered
in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, and was soon destined
to be a cardinal and ultimately a pope. Meanwhile his kinsmen
in Florence continued to govern that city by means of a
bolia. And thus, being masters of the whole of central Italy,
the Medici enjoyed great authority throughout the country
and their ambition plumed itself for still higher flights. This
was the moment when Niccolo Machiavelli, in his treatise The
MEDICI (FAMILY)
Prince, counselled them to accomplish the unity of Italy by
arming the whole nation, and expelling its foreign invaders.
Leo X., who is only indirectly connected with the history of
Florence, gave his name to the age in which he lived in conse-
quence of his magnificent patronage of art and letters in Rome.
But he was merely a clever amateur, and had not the literary
gifts of his father Lorenzo. He surrounded himself with versi-
fiers and inferior writers, who enlivened his board and accom-
panied him wherever he went. He liked to lead a gay and
untroubled life, was fond of theatrical performances, satires and
other intellectual diversions. His patronage of the fine arts, his
genuine affection for Raphael, and the numerous works he caused
to be executed by him and other artists, have served to confer
an exaggerated glory on his name. He had not the remotest
idea of the grave importance of the Reformation, which indeed
he unconsciously promoted by his reckless and shameless salf
of indulgences. The whole policy of Pope Leo X. consisted in
oscillating between France and Spain, in always playing fast and
loose, and deceiving both powers in turn. Yet the evil results
of this contemptible policy never seemed to disturb his mind.
He finally joined the side of the emperor Charles V., and in 1521,
at the time of the defeat of the French by the Spanish troops
on the river Adda, he ceased to breathe at his favourite villa of
Magliana.
Giuliano dei Medici had died during Leo's reign, in 1516,
without having ever done anything worthy of record. He was the
husband of Philiberta of Savoy, was duke of Nemours, and left a
natural son, Ippolito dei Medici (1511-1535), who afterwards
became a cardinal. Lorenzo, being of more ambitious temper,
was by no means content to remain at the head of the Florence
government hampered by many restrictions imposed by republi-
can institutions, and subject to the incessant control of the pope.
In his eagerness to aggrandize his kinsmen, the latter had further
decided to give Lorenzo the duchy of Urbino, and formally
invested him in its rights, after expelling on false pretences its
legitimate lord, Francesco Maria della Rovere. This prince,
however, soon returned to Urbino, where he was joyously
welcomed by his subjects, and Lorenzo regained possession only
by a war of several months, in which he was wounded. In 1519
he also died, worn out by disease and excess. By his marriage
with Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, he had one daughter,
Caterina dei Medici (1519-1589), married in 1533 to Henry,
duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France. She played a long
and sinister part in the history of that country. Lorenzo also
left a natural son named Alessandro, inheriting the frizzled hair
and projecting lips of the negro or mulatto slave who had given
him birth. His miserable death will be presently related. Thus
the only three surviving representatives of the chief branch of
the Medici, Cardinal Giulio, Ippolito and Alessandro were all of
illegitimate birth, and left no legitimate heirs.
Cardinal Giulio, who had laboured successfully for the rein-
statement of his family in Florence in 1512, had been long
attached to the person of Leo X. as his trusted factotum and com-
panion. He had been generally regarded as the mentor of the
pope, who had no liking for hard work. But in fact, his frivolity
notwithstanding, Leo X. always followed his own inclinations.
He had much aptitude for command, and pursued his shuffling
policy without any mental anxiety. Giulio, on the contrary,
shrank from all responsibility, muddled his brains in weighing
the reasons for and against every possible decision, and was
therefore a better tool of government in others' hands than he
was fit to govern on his own account. When Giuliano and
Lorenzo died, the pope appointed the cardinal to the government
of Florence. In that post, restricted within the limits imposed
by republican institutions, and acting under the continual
direction of Rome, he performed his duties fairly well. He
caressed the citizens with hopes of extended liberties, cardinal
which, although never destined to be fulfilled, long aiuiio
served to keep men's minds in a pleasant flutter of (Clement
expectation; and when the more impatient spirits
attempted to raise a rebellion he speedily quenched it in blood.
When, after the death of Leo X. and the very brief pontificate
MEDICI (FAMILY)
of Adrian VI., he was elected pope (1523) under the name of
Clement VII., he entrusted the government of Florence to
Cardinal Silvio Passerini conjointly with Alessandro and Ippo-
lito, who were still too young to do much on their own account.
The pontificate of Leo X. had been a time of felicity to himself
if of disaster to Italy and the Church. The reign of Clement,
on the contrary, was fatal to himself as well. His policy, like
that of Leo X., consisted in perpetual oscillation between France
and Spain. By his endeavours to trick all the world, he fre-
quently ended in being tricked himself. In 1525 he was the
ally of the French, who then suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia,
where their king Francis I. was taken prisoner. The armies of
Charles V. triumphantly advanced, without Clement being able
to oppose any effectual resistance. Both Rome and Florence
were threatened with a fearful catastrophe.
Thus far we have had no occasion to speak of the younger
branch of the Medici, descended from Lorenzo, brother to Cosimo
the elder. Always in obscurity, and hitherto held in check by
the elder line, it first entered the arena of history when the other
was on the point of extinction. In fact the most valiant captain
of the papal forces was Giovanni dei Medici, afterwards known
by the name of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. His father was
Giovanni, son of Pier Francesco, who was the son of Lorenzo,
the brother of Cosimo dei Medici. History has little to tell of
the elder Giovanni; but his wife Caterina Sforza, of whom he was
the third husband, was a woman of more than masculine vigour.
Giovanni dei Medici married her in 1497 but died in 1498,
leaving her with one son who was christened Lodovico, but after-
wards took his father's name of Giovanni (1498-
I S 26 )- Tra J ned to arms from nis earliest years, this
Nere. youth inherited all the energy of his mother, whose
Sforza blood seemed to infuse new life into the
younger branch of the Medici. Notwithstanding his extreme
youth, he had already achieved the title of the best captain in
Italy. He had always fought with immense dash and daring,
and was devotedly loved and obeyed by his soldiery. He was
the only leader who opposed a determined resistance to the
imperial forces. He was seriously wounded at Pavia when
fighting on the French side. On his recovery he joined the army
of the League, and was much enraged by finding that the duke
of Urbino, commander of the Venetian and papal forces, would
never decide on attacking. When the imperial troops were
struggling through the marshes of Mantua, surrounded on every
side, and without stores or ammunition, Giovanni could not
resign himself to inactivity like his colleagues in command.
He was ignorant that the imperialists had just received supplies
and artillery from the duke of Ferrara, and therefore daringly
attacked them with a small body of men without taking any
precautions for defence. One of the first shots fired by the
enemy injured him so fatally that he died a few days after.
He was married to Maria Salviati, by whom he had one son,
Cosimo (1519-1574), who became the first grand duke of
Tuscany, and indeed the founder of the grand duchy and the
new dynasty.
Meanwhile the imperial army pursued its march upon Rome,
captured the Eternal City after a few hours' combat, and cruelly
sacked it during many days (1527). Thanks to his perpetual
shuffling and excessive avarice, the pope found himself utterly
forsaken, and was obliged to seek refuge in the castle of St
Angelo, whence he only effected his escape after some months.
He then signed a treaty of alliance with the emperor (1529),
who sent an army to besiege Florence and restore the Medici,
whom the people had expelled in 1527 on the re-establishment
of the republic. After an heroic defence, the city was forced
to surrender (1530); and, although it was expressly stipulated
that the ancient liberties of Florence should be respected, every
one foresaw that the conditions would be violated. In fact,
pope and emperor immediately began to dispute as to which
should be the new lord of the city. Clement VII. had inherited
the traditional family dislike for the younger branch of his kin,
and so the choice lay between the two bastards Ippolito and
Alessandro. The former being a cardinal, the latter was chosen.
35
Alessandro, who already bore the title of duke of Citta di Penna,
came to Florence in 1531, and by imperial patent was nominated
head of the republic. According to the terms of this
patent, the former liberty enjoyed under the Medicean
rule was to remain intact. But no previous ruler
of the city had enjoyed hereditary power confirmed by
imperial patent, and such power was incompatible with the
existence of a republic. Moreover, Clement VII. showed dis-
satisfaction with the uncertainty of the power conferred upon
his kinsman, and finally succeeded in obtaining additional
privileges. On the 4th of April 1532 a parliament was convoked
for the last time in Florence, and, as usual, approved every
measure proposed for acceptance. Accordingly a new council
was formed of two hundred citizens elected for life, forty-eight
of which number were to constitute a senate. Alessandro, as
duke of the republic, filled the post of gonfalonier, and carried
on the government with the assistance of three senators, changed
every three months, who took the place of the suppressed
signory.
The duke's chief advisers, and the contrivers of all these
arrangements were Baccio Valori, Francesco Vettori and above
all Francesco Guicciardini men, especially the latter two, of
lofty political gifts and extensive influence. The mind and
character of Duke Alessandro were as yet comparatively un-
known. At first he seemed disposed to rule with justice and
prudence. But encountering difficulties that he was unable to
overcome, he began to neglect the business of the state, and
acted as if the sole function of government consisted in lulling
the people by festivities and corrupting it by the dissolute life
of which he set the example. The question of the moment was
the transformation of the old republican regime into a princedom;
as an unavoidable result of this change it followed that Florence
was no longer to be the ruling city to whose inhabitants alone
belonged the monopoly of political office. When the leading
Florentine families realized not only that the republic was
destroyed, but that they were reduced to equality with those
whom they had hitherto regarded as their inferiors and subjects,
their rage was indescribable, and hardly a day passed without
the departure of influential citizens who were resolved to achieve
the overthrow of their new ruler. They found a leader in Cardi-
nal Ippolito dei Medici, who was then in Rome,
embittered by the preference given to Alessandro,
and anxious to become his successor with the least
possible delay. Under the pressure of terror the duke at once
became a tyrant. He garrisoned the different cities, and began
the erection in Florence of the Fortezza da Basso, built chiefly
at the expense of Filippo Strozzi, who afterwards met his death
within its walls.
In 1534 Clement VII. died, and the election fell on Paul III.,
from whom Cardinal Ippolito hoped to obtain assistance.
Accordingly the principal Florentine exiles were despatched to
Charles V. with complaints of Alessandro's tyranny and his
shameless violation of the terms upon which the city had surren-
dered. Cardinal Ippoloto also represented his own willingness
to carry on the government of Florence in a more equitable
manner, and promised the emperor a large sum of money.
Reply being delayed by the emperor's absence, he became so
impatient that he set out to meet Charles in Tunis, but on the
loth of August 1535 died suddenly at Itri, poisoned by order
of Alessandro. Such at least was the general belief, and it was
confirmed by the same fate befalling other enemies of the duke
about the same time. On the emperor's return from Africa,
the exiles presented themselves to him in Naples, and the verier-
able patriot Jacopo Nardi pleaded their cause. Duke Alessan-
dro, being cited to appear, came to Naples accompanied by
Francesco Guicciardini, who by speaking in his defence rendered
himself odious to all friends of liberty, and irretrievably tarnished
his illustrious name. The cardinal being dead, it was hard to
find a successor to Alessandro. On this account, and perhaps
to some extent through the emperor's personal liking for the
duke, the latter rose higher than before in the imperial favour,
married Margaret of Austria, the natural daughter of Charles,
MEDICI (FAMILY)
and returned to Florence with increased power. And now
Alessandro indulged unchecked in the lowest excesses of tyranny,
and although so recently a bridegroom gave way to increased
libertinism. His whole time was passed in vicious haunts and
in scandalous adventures. In order to conceal the obscurity of
his birth, he left his mother to starve, and it was even asserted
that he finally got rid of her by poison.
His constant associate in this disgraceful routine was his
distant kinsman Lorenzo, generally known as Lorenzino dei
Medici. Of the younger branch of the Medici, the
latter was second cousin of the Cosimo already
mentioned as the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere.
He had much culture and literary talent, but led an irregular
life, sometimes acting like a madman and sometimes like a
villain. He was a writer of considerable elegance, the author of
several plays, one of which, the Aridosio, was held to be among
the best of his age, and he was a worshipper of antiquity. Not-
withstanding these tastes, when in Rome he knocked off the
heads of some of the finest statues of the age of Adrian, an act
by which Clement VII. was so incensed that he threatened to
have him hanged. Thereupon Lorenzino fled to Florence,
where he became the friend of Duke Alessandro, and his partner
in the most licentious excesses. They went together to houses
of ill-fame, and violated private dwellings and convents. They
often showed themselves in public mounted on the same horse.
All Florence eyed them with disgust, but no one foresaw the
tragedy that was soon to take place.
On the evening of the sth of January 1537, after a day passed
in the usual excesses, Lorenzino led the duke to his own lodging,
and left him there, promising shortly to return with
t ' ie w ^ e ^ Le nar do Ginori. Alessandro, worn out
the exertions of the day, fell asleep on the couch
while awaiting Lorenzino's return. Before long the
latter came accompanied by a desperado known as the Scoron-
concolo, who aided him in falling on the sleeper. Roused by
their first thrusts, the duke fought for his life, and was only
despatched after a violent struggle. The murderers then lifted
the body into a bed, hid it beneath the clothes, and, Lorenzino
having attached a paper to it bearing the words vincit amor
palriae, laudumque immensa cupido, they both fled to Venice.
In that city Lorenzino was assassinated some ten years later, in
1548, at the age of thirty-two, by order of Alessandro 's successor.
He wrote an Apologia, in which he defended himself with great
skill and eloquence, saying that he had been urged to the deed
solely by love of liberty. For this reason alone he had followed
the example of Brutus and played the part of friend and courtier.
The tone of this Apologia is so straightforward, sometimes even
so eloquent and lofty, that we should be tempted to give it
credence were it possible to beKeve the assertions of one who not
only by his crime but by the infamy of his previous and subse-
quent career completely gave the lie to his vaunted nobility of
purpose. By Alessandro's death the elder branch of the Medici
became extinct, and thus the appearance of the younger line
was heralded by a bloody crime.
When the duke's absence from his own palace was discovered
on the morning of the 6th of January he was at first supposed to
Cosimo I nave s P ent tne right with one of his mistresses; but
soon, some alarm being felt, search was made, and
Cardinal Cybo was the first to discover the murder. Enjoining
the strictest secrecy, he kept the corpse concealed for three days,
and then had it interred in the sacristy of San Lorenzo. Mean-
while he had hastily summoned Alessandro Vitelli and the other
captains, so that, by the time Alessandro's death was made
public, the city was already filled with troops. The cardinal
then convoked the council of forty-eight to decide upon a suc-
cessor. Alessandro's only issue was a natural son named Giulio,
aged five. The cardinal favoured his election, in the hope of
keeping the real sovereignty in his own hands. But he speedily
saw the impossibility of carrying out a design that was ridiculed
by all. Guicciardini, Vettori and others of the leading citizens
favoured the choice of Cosimo, the son of Giovanni delle Bande
Nere. He was already in Florence, was aged seventeen, was
keen-witted and aspiring, strong and handsome in person, heir
to the enormous wealth of the Medici, and, by the terms of the
imperial patent, was Alessandro's lawful successor. Charles V.
approved the nomination of Cosimo, who without delay seized
the reins of government with a firm grasp. Like Alessandro, he
was named head of the republic; and Guicciardini and others who
had worked hardest in his cause hoped to direct him and keep
him under their control. But Cosimo soon proved that, his
youth notwithstanding, he was resolved to rule unshackled by
republican forms and unhampered by advisers disposed to act
as mentors. The Florentines had now an absolute prince who
was likewise a statesman of eminent ability.
On learning the death of Alessandro and the election of
Cosimo, the exiles appreciated the necessity for prompt action,
as delay would be fatal to the overthrow of the Medicean rule.
They had received money and promises from France; they were
strengthened by the adhesion of Filippo Strozzi and Baccio
Valori, who had both become hostile to the Medici through the
infamous conduct and mad tyranny of Alessandro; and Strozzi
brought them the help of his enormous fortune and the prowess
of that very distinguished captain, his son Piero. The exiles
assembled their forces at Mirandola. They had about four
thousand infantry and three hundred horse; among them were
members of all the principal Florentine families; and their
leaders were Bernardo Salviati and Piero Strozzi. They
marched rapidly, and entered Tuscany towards the end of July
1537. Cosimo on this occasion displayed signal capacity and
presence of mind. Informed of the exiles' movements by his
spies, he no sooner learned their approach than he ordered
Alessandro Vitelli to collect the best German, Spanish and Italian
infantry at his disposal, and advance against the enemy without
delay. On the evening of the 3 ist of July Vitelli marched towards
Prato with seven hundred picked infantry and a band of one
hundred horse, and on the way fell in with other Spanish foot
soldiers who joined the expedition. At early dawn the following
morning he made a sudden attack on the exiles' advanced guard
close to Montemurlo, an old fortress converted into a villa be-
longing to the Nerli. Having utterly routed them, he proceeded
to storm Montemurlo, where Filippo Strozzi and a few of his
young comrades had taken refuge. They made a desperate
resistance for some hours, and then, overwhelmed by superior
numbers, were obliged to yield themselves prisoners. The main
body of the army was still at some distance, having been detained
in the mountains by heavy rains and difficult passes, and, on
learning the defeat at Montemurlo, its leader turned back by the
way he had come. Alessandro Vitelli re-entered Florence with
his victorious army and his fettered captives. Cosimo had
achieved his first triumph.
All the prisoners, who were members of great families, were
brought before Cosimo, and were received by him with courteous
coldness. Soon, however, a scaffold was erected in the Piazza,
and on four mornings in succession four of the prisoners were
beheaded. Then the duke saw fit to stay the executions.
Baccio Valori, however, and his son and nephew were beheaded
on the 20th of August in the courtyard of the Bargello. Filippo
Strozzi still survived, confined in the Fortezza da Basso, that had
been built at his expense. His family was illustrious, he had
numerous adherents, and he enjoyed the protection of t the
French king. Nevertheless Cosimo only awaited some plausible
pretext to rid himself of this dreaded enemy. He brought him
to trial and had him put to the question. But this cruelty led
to nothing, for Strozzi denied every accusation and bore the
torture with much fortitude. On the i8th of December he was
found dead in his prison, with a blood-stained sword by his side,
and a slip of paper bearing these words: cxoriare aliquis noslris
ex ossibus ultor. It was believed that, having renounced all
hope of his life being spared, Strozzi had preferred suicide to
death at the hands of the executioner. Some, however, thought
that Cosimo had caused him to be murdered, and adopted this
mode of concealing the crime. The young prince's cold-blooded
massacre of his captives cast an enduring shadow upon his reign
and dynasty. But it was henceforward plain to all that he was
MEDICI (FAMILY)
a man of stern resolve, who went straight to his end without
scruples or half-measures. Before long he was regarded by many
as the incarnation of Machiavelli's Prince, " inasmuch as he
joined daring to talent and prudence, was capable of great
cruelty, and yet could practise mercy in due season." Guicciar-
dini, who still pretended to act as mentor, and who on account
of his many services had a certain influence over him, was obliged
to withdraw from public life and busy himself with writing his
History at his villa of Arcetri. He died in this retreat in 1540,
and it was immediately rumoured that the duke had caused him
to be poisoned. This shows the estimation in which Cosimo
was now held. He punished with death all who dared to resist
his will. By 1 540 sentence of death had been pronounced against
four hundred and thirty contumacious fugitives, and during his
reign one hundred and forty men and six women actually
ascended the scaffold, without counting those who perished in
foreign lands by the daggers of his assassins. He reduced the
old republican institutions to empty forms, by making the magis-
trates mere creatures of his will. He issued the sternest edicts
against the rebels, particularly by the law known as the " Pol-
verina," from the name of its proposer Jacopo Polverini. This
law decreed not only the confiscation of the property of exiles,
but likewise that of their heirs, even if personally acquired by
the latter. Cosimo ruled like the independent sovereign of a
great state, and always showed the capacity, firmness and
courage demanded by that station. Only, his state being small
and weak, he was forced to rely chiefly upon his personal talent
and wealth. It was necessary for him to make heavy loans to
the different European sovereigns, especially to Charles V., the
most rapacious of them all, and to give enormous bribes to their
ambassadors. Besides, he had to carry on wars for the exten-
sion of his dominions; and neither his inherited wealth nor the
large sums gained by confiscating the estates of rebellious
subjects sufficed for all this outlay. He was accordingly com-
pelled to burden the people with taxes, and thus begin at once to
diminish its strength.
Cosimo bore a special grudge against the neighbouring
republics of Siena and .Lucca. Although the latter was
small and weak, and the former garrisoned by
Siena seized. Spaniards, yet the spectacle of free institutions at
the frontiers of his own state served as a continual
incitement to subjects disaffected to the new regime. In fact
Francesco Burlamacchi, a zealous Lucchese patriot, had con-
ceived the design of re-establishing republican government in
all the cities of Tuscany. Cosimo, with the emperor's help,
succeeded in having him put to death. Lucca, however, was
an insignificant state making no pretence of rivalry, whereas
Siena was an old and formidable foe to Florence, and had always
given protection to the Florentine exiles. It was now very
reluctantly submitting to the presence of a Spanish garrison,
and, being stimulated by promises of prompt and efficacious
assistance from France, rose in rebellion and expelled the Span-
iards in 1552. Cosimo instantly wrote to the emperor in terms
that appealed to his pride, asked leave to attack Siena, and
begged for troops to ensure the success of his enterprise. As no
immediate answer arrived, he feigned to begin negotiations with
Henry II. of France, and, by thus arousing the imperial jealousy,
obtained a contingent of German and Spanish infantry. Siena
was besieged for fifteen months, and its inhabitants, aided by the
valour of Piero Strozzi, who fought under the French flag, made
a most heroic resistance, even women and children helping on
the walls. But fortune was against them. Piero Strozzi sus-
tained several defeats, and finally the Sienese, having exhausted
their ammunition and being decimated by famine and the sword,
were obliged to capitulate on honourable terms that were shame-
lessly violated. By the varied disasters of the siege and the
number of fugitives the population was reduced from forty to
eight thousand inhabitants. The republicans, still eager to
resist, withdrew to Montalcino. Cosimo now ruled the city and
territory of Siena in the name of Charles V., who always refused
him its absolute possession. After the emperor's abdication,
and the succession of Philip II. to the Spanish throne, Cosimo
37
at last obtained Siena and Porto Ferraio by giving up his claim
to a sum of 200,000 ducats that he was to have received from
Charles V.
In 1559 Cosimo also captured Montalcino, and thus formed the
grand-duchy of Tuscany, but he continued to govern the new
state i.e. Siena and its territories separately from
the old. His rule was intelligent, skilful and des- Onaa-Ducby
potic; but his enormous expenses drove him to raise
large sums of money by special contrivances unsuited
to the country and the people. Hence, notwithstanding the
genius of its founder, the grand-duchy held from the first the
elements of its future decay. Cosimo preferred to confer office
upon men of humble origin in order to have pliable tools, but he
also liked to be surrounded by a courtier aristocracy on the
Spanish and French pattern. As no Tuscan aristocracy any
longer existed, he created new nobles, and tempted foreign ones
to come by the concession of various feudal privileges; and, to
turn this artificial aristocracy to some account, he founded the
knightly order of St Stephen, charged with the defence of the
coast against pirates, which in course of time won much honour
by its prowess. He also established a small standing army for
the protection of his frontiers; but he generally employed German
and Spanish troops for his wars, and always had a foreign body-
guard. At the commencement of his reign he opposed the popes
in order to maintain the independence of his own state; but later,
to obtain help, he truckled to them in many ways, even to the
extent of giving up to the Inquisition his own confidant, Piero
Carnesecchi, who, being accused of heresy, was beheaded and
burnt in 1567. In reward for these acts of submission, the popes
showed him friendship, and Pius V. granted him the title of
grand-duke, conferring the patent and crown upon him in Rome,
although the emperor had always withheld his consent. The
measure most injurious to Tuscany was the fiscal system of
taxes, of which the sole aim was to extort the greatest possible
amount of money. The consequent damage to industry, com-
merce and agriculture was immense, and, added to the devasta-
tions caused by the Sienese War, led to their utter ruin. Other-
wise Cosimo did not neglect useful measures for the interior
prosperity of his state. He was no Maecenas; nevertheless he
restored the Pisan university, enlarged that of Siena, had the
public records classified, and also executed public works like
the Santa Trinita bridge. During the great inundations of 1557
he turned his whole energy to the relief of the sufferers.
In 1539 he had espoused Eleonora of Toledo, daughter of the
viceroy of Naples, by whom he had several children. Two died
in 1562, and their mother soon followed them to the grave. It
was said that one of these boys, Don Garcia, had murdered the
other, and then been killed by the enraged father. Indeed,
Cosimo was further accused of having put his own wife to death;
but neither rumour had any foundation. He now showed signs
of illness and failure of strength. He was not old, but worn by
the cares of state and self-indulgence. Accordingly in 1 564 he
resigned the government to his eldest son, who was to act as his
lieutenant, since he wished to have power to resume the sceptre
on any emergency. In 1570, by the advice of Pope Pius V., he
married Camilla Martelli, a young lady of whom he had been
long enamoured. In 1574 he died, at the age of fifty-four
years and ten months, after a reign of thirty-seven years,
leaving three sons and one daughter besides natural children.
These sons were Francesco, his successor, who was already at
the head of the government, Cardinal Ferdinand, and Piero.
Francesco I., born in 1541, began to govern as his father's
lieutenant in 1564, and was married in 1565 to the archduchess
Giovanna of Austria. On beginning to reign on his Fnacesco /.
own account in 1574, he speedily manifested his real
character. His training in the hands of a Spanish mother had
made him suspicious, false and despotic. Holding every one
aloof, he carried on the government with the assistance of a few
devoted ministers. He compelled his step-mother to retire to a
convent, and kept his brothers at a distance from Florence. He
loved the privileges of power without its burdens. Cosimo had
known how to maintain his independence, but Francesco cast
MEDICI (FAMILY)
himself like a vassal at Austria's feet. He reaped his reward by
obtaining from Maximilian II. the title of grand-duke, for which
Cosimo had never been able to win the imperial sanction, but
he forfeited all independence. Towards Philip II. he showed
even greater submissiveness, supplying him with large sums of
money wrung from his overtaxed people. He held entirely
aloof from France, in order not to awake the suspicions of his
protectors. He traded on his own account, thus creating a
monopoly that was ruinous to the country. He raised the tax
upon corn to so high a rate that few continued to find any profit
in growing it, and thus the Maremme, already partly devastated
during the war with Siena, were converted into a desert. Even
industry declined under this system of government; and,
although Francesco founded porcelain manufactories and pietra
dura works, they did not rise to any prosperity until after his
death. His love of science and letters was the only Medicean
virtue that he possessed. He had an absolute passion for
chemistry, and passed much of his time in his laboratory. Some-
times indeed he gave audience to his secretaries of state standing
before a furnace, bellows in hand. He took some useful measures
to promote the rise of a new city at Leghorn, which at that time
had only a natural and ill-sheltered harbour. The improvement
of Leghorn had been first projected by Cosimo I., and was
carried on by all the succeeding Medici. Francesco was a slave
to his passions, and was led by them to scandalous excesses and
deeds of bloodshed. His example and neglect of the affairs of
the state soon caused a vast increase of crime even among the
people, and, during the first eighteen months of his reign, there
occurred no fewer than one hundred and sixty-eight murders.
In default of public events, the historians of this period enlarge
upon private incidents, generally of a scandalous or sanguinary
.kind. In 1575 Orazio Pucci, wishing to avenge his father, whom
Cosimo had hanged, determined to get up a conspiracy, but,
soon recognizing how firmly the Medicean rule had taken root
in the country, desisted from the attempt. But the grand-duke,
on hearing of the already abandoned plot, immediately caused
Pucci to be hanged from the same window of the Palazzo
Vecchio, and even from the same iron stanchion, from which his
father before him had hung. His companions, who had fled
to France and England, were pursued and murdered by the ducal
emissaries. Their possessions were confiscated, and the " Pol-
verina " law applied, so that the conspirators' heirs were reduced
to penury, and the grand-duke gained more than 300,000
ducats.
Next year Isabella dei Medici, Francesco's sister, was strangled
in her nuptial bed by her husband, Paolo Giordano Orsini, whom
she had betrayed. Piero dei Medici, Francesco's brother,
murdered his wife Eleonora of Toledo from the same motive.
Still louder scandal was caused by the duke's own conduct.
He was already a married man, when, passing one day through
the Piazza of St Mark in Florence, he saw an exceedingly beautiful
woman at the window of a mean dwelling, and at once conceived
a passion for her. She was the famous Bianca Cappello, a
Venetian of noble birth, who had eloped with a young Florentine
named Pietro Buonaventuri, to whom she was married at the
time that she attracted the duke's gaze. He made her acquaint-
ance, and, in order to see her frequently, nominated her husband
to a post at court. Upon this, Buonaventuri behaved with so
much insolence, even to the nobility, that one evening he was
found murdered in the street. Thus the grand-duke, who was
thought to have sanctioned the crime, was able to indulge his
passion unchecked. On the death of the grand-duchess in 1578
he was privately united to Bianca, and afterwards married her
publicly. But she had no children, and this served to poison
her happiness, since the next in succession was her bitter enemy,
the cardinal Ferdinand. The latter came to Florence in 1587,
and was ostentatiously welcomed by Bianca, who was most
anxious to conciliate him. On the i8th of October of the same
year the grand-duke died at his villa of Poggio a Caiano, of a
fever caught on a shooting excursion in the Maremme, and the
next day Bianca also expired, having ruined her health by drugs
taken to cure her sterility. But rumour asserted that she had
prepared a poisoned tart for the cardinal, and that, when he
suspiciously insisted on the grand-duke tasting it first, Bianca
desperately swallowed a slice and followed her husband to the
tomb.
Such was the life of Francesco dei Medici, and all that can be
said in his praise is that he gave liberal encouragement to a few
artists, including de Giovanni Bologna (<?..). He was the
founder of the Uffizi gallery, of the Medici theatre, and the villa
of Pratolino; and during his reign the Delia Cruscan academy
was instituted.
Ferdinand I. was thirty-eight years (jf age when, in 1587, he
succeeded his brother on the throne. A cardinal from the age
of fourteen, he had never taken holy orders. He _
. * . Ferdinand I.
showed much tact and experience in the manage-
ment of ecclesiastical affairs. He was the founder of the Villa
Medici at Rome, and the purchaser of many priceless works of .
art, such as the Niobe group and many other statues afterwards
transported by him to Florence. After his accession he retained
the cardinal's purple until the time of his marriage. He was
in all respects his brother's opposite. Affable in his manners
and generous with his purse, he chose a crest typical of the
proposed mildness of his rule a swarm of bees with the motto
Majestate tantum. He instantly pardoned all who had opposed
him, and left his kinsmen at liberty to choose their own place
of residence. Occasionally, for political reasons, he committed
acts unworthy of his character; but he re-established the adminis-
tration of justice, and sedulously attended to the business of the
state and the welfare of his subjects. Accordingly Tuscany
revived under his rule and regained the independence and
political dignity that his brother had sacrificed to love of ease
and personal indulgence. He favoured commerce, and effectually
ensured the prosperity of Leghorn, by an edict enjoining tolera-
tion towards Jews and heretics, which led to the settlement
of many foreigners in that city. He also improved the harbour
and facilitated communication with Pisa by means of the
Naviglio, a canal into which a portion of the water of the Arno
was turned. He nevertheless retained the reprehensible custom
of trading on his own account, keeping banks in many cities
of Europe. He successfully accomplished the draining of the
Val di Chiana, cultivated the plains of Pisa, Fucecchio and
Val di Nievole, and executed other works of public utility at
Siena and Pisa. But his best energies were devoted to the
foreign policy by which he sought to emancipate himself from
subjection to Spain. On the assassination (1589) of Henry III.
of France Ferdinand supported the claims of the king of Navarre,
undeterred by the opposition of Spain and the Catholic League,
who were dismayed by the prospect of a Huguenot succeeding to
the throne of France. He lent money to Henry IV., and strongly
urged his conversion to Catholicism; he helped to persuade the
pope to accept Henry's abjuration, and pursued this policy with
marvellous persistence until his efforts were crowned with
success. Henry IV. showed faint gratitude for the benefits
conferred upon him, and paid no attention to the expostulations
of the grand-duke, who then began to slacken his relations with
France, and showed that he could guard his independence by
other alliances. He gave liberal assistance to Philip III. for
the campaign in Algiers, and to the emperor for the war with the
Turks. Hence he was compelled to burden his subjects with
enormous taxes, forgetting that while guaranteeing the inde-
pendence of Tuscany by his loans to foreign powers he was
increasingly sapping the strength of future generations. He
at last succeeded in obtaining the formal investiture of Siena,
which Spain had always considered a fief of her own.
During this grand-duke's reign the Tuscan navy was notably
increased, and did itself much honour on the Mediterranean.
The war-galleys of the knights of St Stephen were despatched
to the coast of Barbary to attack Bona, the headquarters of
the corsairs, and they captured the town with much dash and
bravery. In the following year (1608) the same galleys achieved
their most brilliant victory in the archipelago over the stronger
fleet of the Turks, by taking nine of their vessels, seven hundred
prisoners, and jewels of the value of 2,000,000 ducats.
MEDICI (FAMILY)
39
Cosimo II.
Ferdinand I. died in 1609, leaving four sons, of whom the
eldest, Cosimo II., succeeded to the throne at the age of nineteen.
was at ^ rst assisted in the government by his
mother and a council of regency. He had a good
disposition, and the fortune to reign during a period when
Europe was at peace and Tuscany blessed with abundant
harvests. Of his rule there is little to relate. His chief care
was given to the galleys of St Stephen, and he sent them to assist
the Druses against the Porte. On one occasion he was involved
in a quarrel with France. Concino Concini, the Marshal d'Ancre,
being assassinated in 1617, Louis XIII. claimed the right of
transferring the property of the murdered man to De Luynes.
Cosimo, refusing to recognize the confiscation decreed by the
French tribunals, demanded that Concini's son should be allowed
to inherit. Hence followed much ill-feeling and mutual reprisals
between the two countries, finally brought to an end by the
intervention of the duke of Lorraine.
Like his predecessors, Cosimo II. studied to promote the
prosperity of Leghorn, and he deserves honour for abandoning
all commerce on his own account. But it was no praiseworthy
act to pass a law depriving women of almost all rights of inheri-
tance. By this means many daughters of the nobility were
driven into convents against their will. He gave scanty atten-
tion to the general affairs of the state. He was fond of luxury,
spent freely on public festivities and detested trouble. Tuscany
was apparently tranquil and prosperous; but the decay of
which the seeds were sown under Cosimo I. and Ferdinand I.
was rapidly spreading, and became before long patent to all and
beyond all hope of remedy. The best deed done by Cosimo II.
was the protection accorded by him to Galileo Galilei, who
had removed to Padua, and there made some of his grandest
discoveries. The grand duke recalled him to Florence in 1610,
and nominated him court mathematician and philosopher.
Cosimo died in February 1621. Feeling his end draw near,
when he was only aged thirty and all his sons were still in their
childhood, he hastened to arrange his family affairs. His
mother, Cristina of Lorraine, and his wife, Maddalena of Austria,
were nominated regents and guardians to his eldest son Ferdinand
II., a boy of ten, and a council of four appointed, whose functions
were regulated by law. After Cosimo's death, the young Ferdi-
nand was sent to Rome and Vienna to complete his education,
and the government of Tuscany remained in the hands of
two jealous and quarrelsome women. Thus the administration
of justice and finance speedily went to ruin. Out of sub-
missiveness to the pope, the regents did not dare to maintain
their legitimate right to inherit the duchy of Urbino. They
conferred exaggerated privileges on the new Tuscan nobility,
which became increasingly insolent and worthless. They
resumed the practice of trading on their own account, and,
without reaping much benefit thereby, did the utmost damage
to private enterprise.
In 1627 Ferdinand II., then aged seventeen, returned to Italy
and assumed the reins of government; but, being of a very gentle
Ferdinand II. disposition, he decided on sharing his power with
the regents and his brothers, and arranged matters in
such wise that each was almost independent of the other. He
gained the love of his subjects by his great goodness; and, when
Florence and Tuscany were ravaged by the plague in 1630,
he showed admirable courage and carried out many useful
measures. But he was totally incapable of energy as a states-
man. When the pope made bitter complaints because the
board of health had dared to subject certain monks and priests
to the necessary quarantine, the grand-duke insisted on his
officers asking pardon on their knees for having done their duty.
On the death in 1631 of the last duke of Urbino, the pope was
allowed to seize the duchy without the slighest opposition on
the part of Tuscany. As a natural consequence the pretensions
of the Roman curia became increasingly exorbitant; ecclesiastics
usurped the functions of the state; and the ancient laws of the
republic, together with the regulations decreed by Cosimo I. as
a check upon similar abuses, were allowed to become obsolete.
On the extinction of the line of the Gonzagas at Mantua in 1627,
war broke out between France on the one side and Spain,
Germany and Savoy on the other. The grand duke, uncertain
of his policy, trimmed his sails according to events. Fortunately
peace was re-established in 1631. Mantua and Monferrato fell
to the duke of Nevers, as France had always desired. But
Europe was again in arms for the Thirty Years' War, and Italy
was not at peace. Urban VIII. wished to aggrandize his nephews,
the Barberini, by wresting Castro and Ronciglione from Odoardo
Farnese, duke of Parma and brother-in-law to Ferdinand.
Farnese marched his army through Tuscany into the territories
of the pope, who was greatly alarmed by the attack. The grand-
duke was drawn into the war to defend his own state and his
kinsman. His military operations, however, were of the feeblest
and often the most laughable character. At last, by means of the
French intervention, peace was made in 1644. But, although
the pope was forced to yield, he resigned none of his ecclesiastical
pretensions in Tuscany. It was during Ferdinand's reign that
the septuagenarian Galileo was obliged to appear before the
Inquisition in Rome, which treated him with infamous cruelty.
On the death of this great and unfortunate man, the grand-duke
wished to erect a monument to him, but was withheld by fear
of the opposition of the clergy. The dynasty as well as the
country now seemed on the brink of decay. Two of the grand-
duke's brothers had already died childless, and Ippolito, the sole
survivor, was a cardinal. The only remaining heir was his son
Cosimo, born in 1642.
Like nearly all his predecessors, Ferdinand II. gave liberal
patronage to science and letters, greatly aided therein by his
brother Leopold, who had been trained by Galileo Galilei, and
who joined with men of learning in founding the celebrated
academy Del Cimento, of which he was named president. This
academy took for its motto the words Provando e riprovando,
and followed the experimental method of Galileo. Formed in
1657, it was dissolved in 1667 in consequence of the jealousies
and dissensions of its members, but during its brief existence
won renown by the number and importance of its works.
Cosimo III. succeeded his father in 1670. He was weak, vain,
bigoted and hypocritical. In 1661 he had espoused Louise of
Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., who, being enamoured Cosimo III
of duke Charles of Lorraine, was very reluctant to
come to Italy, and speedily detested both her husband and his
country, of which she refused to learn the language. She had
two sons and one daughter, but after the birth of her third child,
Giovan Gastone, her hatred for her husband increased almost
to madness. She first withdrew to Poggio a Caiano, and then,
being unable to get her marriage annulled, returned to France,
where, although supposed to live in conventual seclusion, she
passed the greater part of her time as a welcome visitor at court.
Even her testamentary dispositions attested the violence of her
dislike to her husband.
Cosimo's hypocritical zeal for religion compelled his subjects
to multiply services and processions that greatly infringed upon
their working hours. He wasted enormous sums in pensioning
converts even those from other countries and in giving rich
endowments to sanctuaries. Meanwhile funds often failed for
the payment of government clerks and soldiers. His court
was composed of bigots and parasites; he ransacked the world
for dainties for his table, adorned his palace with costly foreign
hangings, had foreign servants, and filled his gardens with exotic
plants. He purchased from the emperor the title of " Highness " in
order to be the equal of the duke of Savoy. He remained neutral
during the Franco-Spanish War, and submitted to every humilia-
tion and requisition exacted by the emperor. He had vague
notions of promoting agriculture, but accomplished no results.
At one time he caused eight hundred families to be brought over
from the Morea for the cultivation of the Maremme, where all
of them died of fever. But when, after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes, French Huguenots offered to apply their labour
and capital to the same purpose, the grand duke's religious
scruples refused them refuge. So ruin fell upon Tuscany.
Crime and misery increased, and the poor, who only asked for
work, were given alms and sent oftener to church. This period
40
witnessed the rise of many charitable institutions of a religious
character under the patronage of the grand-duke, as for instance
the congregation of San Giovanni Battista. But these could
not remedy the general decay.
Cosimo's dominant anxiety regarded the succession to the
throne. His eldest son Ferdinand died childless in 1713. The
pleasure-loving Giovan Gastone was married to Anna Maria of
Saxe-Lauenburg, widow of a German prince, a wealthy, coarse
woman wholly immersed in domestic occupations. After living
with her for some time in a Bohemian village, Giovan Gastone
yielded to his dislike to his wife and her country, withdrew to
France, and ruined his health by his excesses. After a brief
return to Bohemia he finally separated from his wife, by whom he
had no family. Thus the dynasty was doomed to extinction.
MEDICI (FAMILY)
thought on ascending it was to regain strength enough to pass
the remainder of his days in enjoyment. He dismissed the spies,
parasites and bigots that had formed his father's court, abolished
the pensions given to converts, suppressed several taxes, and pro-
hibited the organized espionage established in the family circle.
He wished to live and let live, and liked the people to be amused.
Everything in fact bore a freer and gayer aspect under his reign,
and the Tuscans seemed to feel renewed attachment for the
dynasty as the moment of its extinction drew near. But the
grand-duke was too feeble and incapable to accomplish any real
improvement. Surrounded by gay and dissipated young men,
he entrusted all the cares of government to a certain Giuliano
Dami, who drove a profitable trade by the sale of offices and
privileges. In this way all things were in the hands of corrupt
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE MEDICI
Giovanni d'Averardo, known as Giovanni di Bicci, 1360-1429
'Piccarda Bueri.
Cosimo the Elder, 1389-1464 Contessina de' Bardi. Lorenzo, 1395-1440
I =Ginevra Cavalcanti.
Piero, 1416-1469 Giovanni, 1424-1463 Pier Francesco, t 1467
-Lucrezia Toroabuoni, 1 1482 -Ginevra degli Alessandri. = Laudomia Acciaiuoli.
Lorenzo il Giuliano, Bianca Nannina Maria (nat.)
Magnifico, 1453-1478. -Guglielmo -Bernardo =Lionetto Giovanni, 1467-1498 Lorenzo,
1440-1492 | deiPazzi. Rucellai. de' Rossi. -Caterma Sforza Rjano, 1 1503
- Clarice Orsini, Giulio (Clement 1 1509. -Semiramde Appiam.
VII.), 1478-1534. Giovanni delle Bande Nere, Pier Francesco, t if*S
Pietro, Giovanni Giuliano, Lucrezia
1471-1503 (LeoX.), duke of = Giacomo =
= Alfonsina 1475-1521. Nemours, Salviati.
Orsini, 1470-1516
tisao. -Philiberta
| of Savoy.
Maddalena Contessina -Maria Salviati,
Franrfr-hrm Pifro T 1543.
Cybo. Ridolfi. 1 1 , 1 .
| Cosmo I., 1510-1574, Laudomia. Maddalena Giuliano
Niccold i. Eleonora of Toledo, t* = Piero Roberto bishop of
Ridolfi t'S 6 *- Strozzi. Strozzi. Beziers.
cardinal 2 . Camilla Martelli.
JC|
Cop
Lorenzo, Clarice, Ippolito
duke of t 1 ? 28 (nat.),
Urbino. FiUppo cardinal,
1492-1519 Strozzi. 1511-1535.
FRANCESCO, &O O FERDINAND I., Pietro, Isabella, O Virginia,
de la Tour
d'Auvergne, Giovanni Maria Elena
11519- Salviati, -Giovanni -Jacopo 1
cardinal, delle Bande Appiani.
1 Nere.
I I
1541-1587 g o 1549-1609 1554-1604 1542-1576 3 =Cesare
i. Joanna-""? g' Cristina of Eleonora Paolo d'Este,
j of Austria, -t- g Lorraine, of Toledo, Giordano <>g duke of
t '578; 5 " M 1 1637. t 1576. Orsini. - ff Modena.
2. Bianca ?B ON
Cappello, 7 | ^
Aleiandro Caterina. I 1 ' 1 T M 8 7 " III
S: .825*. '-SKF- "SBST %.<* fife "Sfr 1 -1 -A -t ^ ?**
IBS : -& Sr n if if * W
France. f 1631. f TJrbino:
IE 2. Leopold of
Austrian
FERDINAND II., Francesco,
1610-1670 t 1634.
Vittoriadella
Rovere, 1 1694.
\ III Tyrol.
Mattia, Leopoldo, Giovanni Anna Margherita
t 1667. cardinal, Carlo, -Ferdinand -Odoardo Vittoria
1 1675. cardinal, of Austrian Farnese, della Rovere.
1 1663. Tyrol. duke of
Parma.
COSIMO III., 1642-1723
Marguerite Louise of Orleans, 1 1721-
Francesco Maria, 1660-1711 (cardinal until 1709)
Eleonora Gonzaga.
Ferdinand, 1663-1713
= Violante of Bavaria, t 1731.
GIOVAN GASTONE, 1671-1737
= Anna Maria of Saxe-Lauenburg, 1 1741.
Anna Maria Luisa, 1667-1743
= John William of the Palatinate.
Cosimo had a passing idea of reconstituting the Florentine
republic, but, this design being discountenanced by the Euro-
pean powers, he determined to transfer the succession, after
the death of Giovan Gastone, to his sister Anna Maria Louisa,
who in fact survived him. For this purpose he proposed to
annul the patent of Charles V., but the powers objected to this
arrangement also, and by the treaty of (1718 the quadruple
alliance of Germany, France, England and Holland decided that
Parma and Tuscany should descend to the Spanish Infante Don
Carlos. The grand-duke made energetic but fruitless protests.
Cosimo III. had passed his eightieth year at the time of his
decease in October 1723, and was succeeded by his son Giovan
Gastone, then aged fifty-three. The new sovereign
was in bad health, worn out by dissipation, and had
neither ambition nor aptitude for rule. His throne
was already at the disposal of foreign powers, and his only
Oloraa
Casloae.
individuals; while the grand-duke, compelled to pass the greater
part of his time in bed, vainly sought diversion in the company
of buffoons, and was only tormented by perceiving that all the
world disposed of his throne without even asking his advice.
And when, after prolonged opposition, he had resigned himself
to accept Don Carlos as his successor, the latter led a Spanish
army to the conquest of Naples, an event afterwards leading
to the peace of 1735, by which the Tuscan succession was trans-
ferred to Francesco II., duke of Lorraine, and husband of Maria
Theresa. Giovan Gastone was finally obliged to submit even to
this. Spain withdrew her garrisons from Tuscany, and Austrian
soldiers took their place and swore fealty" to the grand-duke on
the 5th of February 1737. He expired on the pth of July of
the same year. Such was the end of the younger branch of the
Medici, which had found Tuscany a prosperous country, where
art, letters, commerce, industry and agriculture flourished,
MEDICI, G. MEDICINE
and left her poor and decayed in all ways, drained by taxation,
and oppressed by laws contrary to every principle of sound
economy, downtrodden by the clergy, and burdened by a weak
and vicious aristocracy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Capponi, Storia delta republica di Firenze
(Florence, 1875); F. T. Perrens, Histoire de Florence depuis la
domination des Medicis jusqu'd la chute de la republique (Paris, 1888,
&c.); W. Roscoe, Life of Lorenzo de Medici (new ed., London, 1872)
and Life of Leo X. (London, 1846) ; A. von Reumont, Geschichte
Toscanas seit der Ende des florent. Freistaates (2 yols., Gotha, 1876)
and Lorenzo de' Medici (Leipzig, 1874) ; A. Fabroni, Laurentii Medicei
magnifici vita (2 vols., Pisa, 1784) and Magni Cosimi Medicei vita
(2 vols., Pisa, 1789); Buser, Lorenzo de' Medici als italienischer
Staatsmann (Leipzig, 1879) and Die Beziehungen der Mediceer zu
Frankreich (Leipzig, 1879); E. Armstrong, Lorenzo de' Medici
(London, 1896) ; P. Villari, La Storia di Girolamo Savonarola (Florence,
1887) and Machiavelli (Florence, 1878-1883, several subsequent
editions) ; Galluzzi, Storia del granducato di Toscana sotto il governo
di casa Medici (5 vols., Florence, 1787); E. Robiony, Gli ultimi
Medici (Florence, 1905) ; E. L. S. Horsburgh, Lorenzo the Magnificent
and Florence in her Golden Age (1908); and Janet Ross, Lives of the
Medici from their Letters (1910). See also under FLORENCE and
TUSCANY. (P. V.)
MEDICI, GIACOMO (1817-1882), Italian patriot and soldier,
was born at Milan in January 1817. Exiled in 1836, he fought
in Spain against the Carlists between 1836 and 1840, and in
1846 joined Garibaldi at Montevideo. Returning to Italy with
Garibaldi in 1848, he raised a company of volunteers to fight
against Austria, and commanded the volunteer vanguard in
Lombardy, proceeding thence to Rome, where he gained dis-
tinction by defending the " Vascello," a position near the Porta
San Pancrazio, against the French. During the siege of Rome
he himself was wounded. In the war of 1859 he commanded
a volunteer regiment, and was sent by Cavour into Tirol. In 1860
he tried in vain to dissuade Garibaldi from the Marsala expedi-
tion, but, after his chief's departure, he sailed for Sicily with the
second expedition, taking part in the whole campaign, during
which he forced Messina to capitulate after an eight days' siege.
Joining the regular army, he was appointed military com-
mandant of Palermo, in which capacity he facilitated the abortive
campaign of Garibaldi in 1862. In 1866 he commanded the
division which invaded Tirol, but the effect of his victories
was neutralized by the conclusion of peace. Returning to
Palermo he did good work in restoring order in Sicily. He
became a senator in 1870, and marquis of the " Vascello " and
first aide-de-camp to the king in 1876. He died on the 9th of
March 1882.
MEDICINE. The science of medicine, as we understand it,
has for its province the treatment of disease. The word
" medicine " (Lat. medicina: sc. ars, art of healing, from mederi,
to heal) may be used very widely, to include Pathology (q.v.),
the theory of the causation of disease, or, very narrowly, to
mean only the drug or form of remedy prescribed by the
physician this being more properly the subject of Therapeutics
(q.v.) and Pharmacology (q.v.). But it is necessary in practice, for
historical comprehensiveness, to keep the wider meaning in view.
Disease (see PATHOLOGY) is the correlative of health, and the
word is not capable of a more penetrating definition. From
the time of Galen, however, it has been usual to speak of the
life of the body either as proceeding in accordance with nature
(Kara <j>v<nv, secundum naturam) or as overstepping the bounds
of nature (irapa <t>vcriv, praeter naturam). Taking disease to
be a deflexion from the line of health, the first requisite of
medicine is an extensive and intimate acquaintance with the
norm of the body. The structure and functions of the body
form the subject of Anatomy (q.v.) and Physiology (q.v.).
The medical art (ars medendi) divides itself into departments
and subdepartments. The most fundamental division is into
internal and external medicine, or into medicine proper and
surgery (q.v.). The treatment of wounds, injuries and de-
formities, with operative interference in general, is the special
department of surgical practice (the corresponding parts of
pathology, including inflammation, repair, and removable
tumours, are sometimes grouped together as surgical pathology) ;
and where the work of the profession is highly subdivided,
surgery becomes the exclusive province of the surgeon, while
internal medicine remains to the physician. A third great
department of practice is formed by obstetric medicine or
midwifery (see OBSTETRICS); and dentistry (q.v.), or dental
surgery, is given up to a distinct branch of the profession.
A state of war, actual or contingent, gives occasion to special
developments of medical and surgical practice (military hygiene
and military surgery). Wounds caused by projectiles, sabres,
&c., are the special subject of naval and military surgery; while
,under the head of military hygiene we may include the general
subject of ambulances, the sanitary arrangements of camps,
and the various forms of epidemic camp sickness.
The administration of the civil and criminal law involves
frequent relations with medicine, and the professional subjects
most likely to arise in that connexion, together with a summary
of ca^^ses celebres, are formed into the department of MEDICAL
JURISPRUDENCE (q.v.).
Ill preserving the public health, the medical profession is
again brought into direct relation with the state, through the
public medical officers.
HISTORY OF MEDICINE
Medicine as Portrayed in the Homeric Poems. In the state
of society pictured by Homer it is clear that medicine has already
had a history. We find a distinct and organized profession; we
find a system of treatment, especially in regard to injuries,
which it must have been the work of long experience to frame;
we meet with a nomenclature of parts of the body substantially
the same (according to Daremberg) as that employed long
afterwards in the writings of Hippocrates; in short, we find a
science and an organization which, however imperfect as com-
pared with those of later tunes, are yet very far from being in
their beginning. The Homeric heroes themselves are repre-
sented as having considerable skill hi surgery, and as able to
attend to ordinary wounds and injuries, but there is also a
professional class, represented by Machaon and Podalirius, the
two sons of Asclepius, who are treated with great respect. It
would appear, too, from the Aethiopis of Archinus (quoted by
Welcker and Haser) that the duties of these two were not
precisely the same. Machaon's task was more especially to
heal injuries, while Podalirius had received from his father the
gift of "recognizing what was not visible to the eye, and tending
what could not be healed." In other words, a rough indication
is seen of the separation of medicine and surgery. Asclepius ap-
pears in Homer as a Thessalian king, not as a god, though in later
tunes divine honours were paid to him. There is no sign in the
Homeric poems of the subordination of medicine to religion which
is seen in ancient Egypt and India, nor are priests charged, as they
were In those countries, with medical functions all circumstances
which throw grave doubts on the commonly received opinion that
medicine derived its origin in all countries from religious observances.
Although the actual organization of medicine among the Homeric
Greeks was thus quite distinct from religion, the worship of Asclepius
(or Aesculapius) as the god of healing demands some notice. This
cult spread very widely among the Greeks; it had great civil im-
portance, and lasted even into Christian times; but there is no reason
to attribute to it any special connexion with the development of
the science or profession of medicine. Sick persons repaired, or
were conveyed, to the temples of Asclepius in order to be healed,
just as in modern times relief is sought by a devotional pilgrimage
or from the waters of some sacred spring, and then as now the healing
influence was sometimes sought by deputy. The sick person, or his
representative, after ablution, prayer and sacrifice, was made to
sleep on the hide of the sacrificed animal, or at the feet of the statue
of the god, while sacred rites were performed. In his sleep (incubatio,
fyKol/j.7j<ra) the appropriate remedy was indicated by a dream.
Moral or dietetic remedies were more often prescribed than drugs.
The record of the cure was inscribed on the columns or walls of the
temple; and it has been thought that in this way was introduced
the custom of "recording cases," and that the physicians of the
Hippocratic school thus leamt to accumulate clinical experience.
But the priests of Asclepius were not physicians. Although the
latter were often called Asclepiads, this was in the first place to
indicate their real or supposed descent from Asclepius, and in the
second place as a complimentary title. No medical writing of
antiquity speaks of the worship of Asclepius ID such a way as to
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
imply any connexion with the ordinary art of healing. The two
systems appear to have existed side by side, but to have been distinct,
and if they were ever united it must have been before the times of
which we have any record. The theory of a development of Greek
medicine from the rites of Asclepius, though defended by eminent
names, must accordingly be rejected.
Development of Medicine in Greece. It is only from non-
medical writers that anything is known of the development of
medicine in Greece before the age of Hippocrates. The elaborate
collections made by Daremberg of medical notices in the poets
and historians illustrate the relations of the profession to society,
but do little to prepare us for the Hippocratic period. Nor is
much importance to be attached to the influence of the philo-
sophical sects on medicine except as regards the school of
Pythagoras. That philosopher and several of his successors
were physicians, but we do not know in what relation they stood
to later medical schools. We must therefore hasten onward to
the age of Pericles, in which Hippocrates, already called " the
Great," was in medicine as complete a representative of the
highest efforts of the Greek intellect as were his contemporaries
the great philosophers, orators and tragedians. The medical
art as we now practise it, the character of the physician as we
now understand it, both date for us from Hippocrates. The
justification of this statement is found in the literary collection
of writings known by his name. Of these certainly many are
falsely ascribed to the historical Hippocrates of Cos; others are
almost as certainly rightly so ascribed; others again are clearly
works of his school, whether from his hand or not. But which
are to be regarded as the " genuine works " is still uncertain,
and authorities are conflicting. There are clearly two schools
represented in the collection that of Cnidus in a small pro-
portion, and that of Cos in far the larger number of the works. The
latter was that to which Hippocrates belonged, and where he
gave instruction; and accordingly it may be taken that works
of this school, when not obviously of a different date, are
Hippocratic in doctrine if not in actual authorship.
Hippocratic Medicine. The first grand characteristic of Hippo-
cratic medicine is the high conception of the duties and status of
the physician, shown in the celebrated " Oath of Hippocrates " and
elsewhere equally free from the mysticism of a priesthood and
the vulgar pretensions of a mercenary craft. So matured a pro-
fessional sentiment may perhaps have been more the growth of time
and organization than the work of an individual genius, but certainly
corresponds with the character universally attributed to Hippocrates
himself. The second great quality is the singular artistic skill and
balance with which the Hippocratic physician used such materials
and tools as he possessed. Here we recognize the true Greek aw<j>poirfivri.
But this artistic completeness was closely connected with the third
cardinal virtue of Hippocratic medicine the clear recognition of
disease as being equally with life a process governed by what we
should now call natural laws, which could be known by observation,
and which indicated the spontaneous and normal direction of
recovery, by following which alone could the physician succeed. In
the fourth place, these views of the " natural history of disease "
(in modern language) led to habits of minute observation and accu-
rate interpretation of symptoms, in which the Hippocratic school
was unrivalled in antiquity, and has been the model for all succeeding
ages, so that even in these days, with our enormous advances in
knowledge, the true method of clinical medicine may be said to be
the method of Hippocrates.
The actual science of the Hippocratic school was of course very
limited. In anatomy and physiology little advance had been made,
and so of pathology in the sense of an explanation of morbid processes
or knowledge of diseased structures there could be very little. The
most valuable intellectual possession was a large mass of recorded
observations in individual cases and epidemics of disease. Whether
these observations were systematic or individual, and how they were
recorded, are points of which we are quite ignorant, as the theory
that the votive tablets in the temples supplied such materials must
be abandoned.
Though the Hippocratic medicine was so largely founded on
observation, it would be an error to suppose that dogma or theory
had no place. The dominating theory of disease was the humoral,
which has never since ceased to influence medical thought and
practice. According to this celebrated theory, the body contains
four humours blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, a right
proportion and mixture of which constitute health; improper
proportions or irregular distribution, disease. It is doubtful whether
the treatise in which this theory is fully expounded (irepi jAaust
iatip&irov) is as old as Hippocrates himself ; but it was regarded as
a Hippocratic doctrine, and, when taken up and expanded by Galen,
its terms not only became the common property of the profession,
but passed into general literature and common language. Another
Hippocratic doctrine, the influence of which is not even yet exhausted,
is that of the healing power of nature. Not that Hippocrates taught,
as he was afterwards reproached with teaching, that nature is
sufficient for the cure of diseases; for he held strongly the efficacy
of art. But he recognized, at least in acute diseases, a natural
process which the humours went through being first of all crude,
then passing through coction or digestion, and finally being expelled
by resolution or crisis through one of the natural channels of the
body. The duty of the physician was to foresee these changes,
" to assist or not to hinder them," so that " the sick man might
conquer the disease with the help of the physician." The times at
which crises were to be expected were naturally looked for with
anxiety; and it was a cardinal point in the Hippocratic system to
foretell them with precision. Hippocrates, influenced as is thought
by the Pythagorean doctrines of number, taught that they were to
be expected on days fixed by certain numerical rules, in some cases
on odd, in others on even numbers the celebrated doctrine of
" critical days." This false precision can have had no practical
value, but may have enforced habits of minute observation. It
follows from what has been said that prognosis, or the art of fore-
telling the course and event of the disease, was a strong point with
the Hippocratic physicians. In this they have perhaps never been
excelled. Diagnosis, or recognition of the disease, must have
been necessarily imperfect, when no scientific nosology or system
of disease existed, and the knowledge of anatomy was quite in-
adequate to allow of a precise determination of the seat of disease;
but symptoms were no doubt observed and interpreted skilfully.
The pulse is not spoken of in any of the works now attributed to
Hippocrates himself, though it is mentioned in other works of the
collection.
In the treatment of disease, the Hippocratic school attached great
importance to diet, the variations necessary in different diseases
being minutely defined. Medicines were regarded as of secondary
importance, but not neglected, two hundred and sixty-five drugs
being mentioned at different places in the Hippocratic works.
Blood-letting was known, but not greatly practised. The highest
importance was attached to applying all remedies at the right
moment, and the general principle enforced of making all influences
internal and external co-operate for the relief of the patient.
The principles of treatment just mentioned apply more especially
to the cure of acute diseases; but they are the most salient character-
istics of the Hippocratic school. In chronic cases diet, exercise and
natural methods were chiefly relied upon.
The school of Cnidus, as distinguished from that of Cos, of which
Hippocrates is the representative, appears to have differed in attach-
ing more importance to the differences of special diseases, and to
have made more use of drugs. A treatise on the diseases of women,
contained in the Hippocratic collection, and of remarkable practical
value, is attributed to this school.
The above sketch of Hippocratic medicine will make it less
necessary to dwell upon the details relating to subsequent medical
schools or sects in ancient times. The general conception of the
physician's aim and task remained the same, though, as knowledge
increased, there was much divergence both in theory and practice
even opposing schools were found to be developing some part of the
Hippocratic system. Direct opponents or repudiators of the autho-
rity of Hippocrates were rare, all generally appealing to his authority.
But, insensibly, the least valuable part of the Hippocratic work,
the theory, was made permanent; the most valuable, the practical,
neglected.
Post-Hippocratic Medicine. After Hippocrates the progress of
medicine in Greece does not call for any special remark in such a
sketch as this, but mention must be made of one great name. Though
none of Aristotle's writings are strictly medical, he has by his
researches in anatomy and physiology contributed greatly to the
progress of medicine. It should also be remembered that he was
of an Asclepiad family, and received that partly medical education
which was traditional in such families, and also himself is said to
have practised medicine as an amateur. Moreover, his works on
natural history doubtless furthered the progress among the Greeks
of sciences tributary to medicine, though the only specimens, of
such works which have come down to us from the Peripatetic
school are those of Theophrastus, who may be considered the
founder of the scientific study of botany. Among his encyclopaedic
writings were some on medical subjects, of which fragments only
have been preserved. The Peripatetic school may have been more
favourable to the development of medicine, as of other departments
of natural knowledge, than any other ; but there is no evidence that
any of the philosophical schools had important influence on the
progress of medicine. The fruit of Aristotle's teaching and example
was seen later on in the schools of Alexandria.
The century after the death of Hippocrates is a time almost blank
in medical annals. It is probable that the science, like others,
shared in the general intellectual decline of Greece after the Mace-
donian supremacy; but the works of physicians of the period are
almost entirely lost, and were so even in the time of Galen. Galen
classes them all as of the dogmatic school ; but, whatever may have
been their characteristics, they are of no importance in the history
of the science.
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
43
Alexandrian School of Medicine. The dispersion of Greek
science and intellectual activity through the world by the
conquests of Alexander and his successors led to the formation
of more than one learned centre, in which medicine among other
sciences was represented. Pergamum was early distinguished
for its medical school; but in this as in other respects its repu-
tation was ultimately effaced by the more brilliant fame of
Alexandria. It is here that the real continuation and develop-
ment of Hippocratic medicine can be traced.
In one department the Alexandrian school rapidly surpassed
its Greek original namely, in the study of anatomy. The
dissection of the human body, of which some doubtful traces or
hints only are found in Greek times, was assiduously carried out,
being favoured or even suggested perhaps by the Egyptian
custom of disembowelling and embalming the bodies of the
dead. There is no doubt that the organs were also examined
by opening the bodies of living persons criminals condemned
to death being given over to the anatomists for this purpose.
Two eminent names stand in the first rank as leaders of the
two earliest schools of medicine which arose in Alexandria,
Herophilus and Erasistratus.
Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) was a Greek of Chalcedon, a pupil of the
schools both of Cos and of Cnidus. He was especially noted for
his profound researches in anatomy (see i. 802), and in the know-
ledge and practice of medicine he appears to have been equally
renowned. He professed himself a close adherent of Hippocrates,
and adopted his theory of the humours. He also made extensive
use of drugs and of bleeding. The reputation of Herophilus is
attested by the fact that four considerable physicians wrote works
about him and his writings, and he is further spoken of with
the highest respect by Galen and Celsus. By the general voice
of the medical world of antiquity he was placed only second to
Hippocrates.
Erasistratus (d. 280 B.C.) was the contemporary and rival of
Herophilus. Little is known of his life, except that he spent some
time at the court of Seleucus Nicator at Antioch before coming to
Alexandria, and that he cultivated anatomy late in life, after he
had taken up his abode in the latter city. His numerous works
are also almost entirely lost, fragments only being preserved by
Galen and others. Erasistratus, instead of following Hippocrates
as Herophilus did, depreciated him, and seems to have been rather
aggressive and independent in his views. He appears to have leaned
to mechanical explanations of the symptoms of disease, as was
especially the case with inflammation, of which he gave the first
rational, though necessarily inadequate, theory.
The two schools composed of the followers of Herophilus and
Erasistratus respectively long divided between them the medical
world of Alexandria. The names of many prominent members of
both sects have been preserved, but it would be useless to repeat
them. The Herophilists still reverenced the memory of Hippocrates,
and wrote numerous commentaries on his works. They produced
many eminent anatomists, but in the end seem to have become lost
in theoretical subtleties, and to have maintained too high a standard
of literary cultivation. The school of Erasistratus was less distin-
guished in anatomy than that of Herophilus, but paid more attention
to the special symptoms of diseases, and employed a great variety
of drugs. It was longer-lived than that of Herophilus, for it still
numbered many adherents in the 2nd century after Christ, a century
after the latter had become extinct.
The Erasistrateans paved the way for what was in some respects
the most important school which Alexandria produced, that known
as the empiric, which, though it recognized no master by name, may
be considered to have been founded by Philinus of Cos (280 B.C.), a
pupil of Herophilus; but Serapion, a great name in antiquity, and
Glaucias of Tarentum, who traced the empirical doctrine back to
the writings of Hippocrates, are also named among its founders.
The most striking peculiarity of the empirics was that they rejected
anatomy, regarding it as useless to inquire into the causes of things,
and thus, as they contended, being the more minute in their observa-
tion of the actual phenomena of disease. They professed that their
whole practice was based upon experience, to which word they gave
a special meaning. Three sources, and three only, could experience
draw from: observation, history (i.e. recorded observation), and
judgment by analogy. These three bases of knowledge were known
as the " tripod " of the empirics. It should not, however, be for-
gotten that the empirics T read and industriously commented on the
works of Hippocrates. They were extremely successful in practical
matters, especially in surgery and in the use of drugs, and a large
part of the routine knowledge of diseases and remedies which became
traditional in the times of the Roman empire is believed to have
been derived from them. In the 2nd century the school became
closely connected with the philosophical sect of the Sceptics, whose
leader, Sextus (200 B.C.), was an empirical physician. It lived and
flourished far beyond this time, when transplanted to Rome, not
less than in its native Alexandria, and appears to be recognizable
even up to the beginning of the middle ages.
If we look at the work of the Alexandrian schools in medicine
as a whole, we must admit that the progress made was great
and permanent. The greatest service rendered to medicine
was undoubtedly the systematic study of anatomy. It is clear
that the knowledge of function (physiology) did not by any
means keep pace with the knowledge of structure, and this
was probably the reason why the important sect of the empirics
were able entirely to dispense with anatomical knowledge. The
doctrines of Hippocrates, though lightly thought of by the
Erasistrateans, still were no doubt very widely accepted, but
the practice of the Hippocratic school had been greatly improved
in almost every department surgery and obstetrics being
probably those in which the Alexandrian practitioners could
compare most favourably with those of modern times. We
have now to trace the fortunes of this body of medical doctrine
and practice when transplanted to Rome, and ultimately to
the whole Roman world.
Roman Medicine. The Romans cannot be said to have at
any time originated or possessed an independent school of
medicine. They had from early times a very complicated
system of superstitious medicine, or religion, related to disease
and the cure of disease, borrowed, as is thought, from the
Etruscans; and, though the saying of Pliny that the Roman
people got on for six hundred years without doctors was
doubtless an exaggeration, and not, literally speaking, exact,
it must be accepted for the broad truth which it contains.
When a medical profession appears, it is, so far as we are able
to trace it, as an importation from Greece.
The first Greek physician whose name is preserved as having
migrated to Rome was Archagathus, who came over from the
Peloponnesus in 218 B.C.; but there were probably others before
him. When Greece was made a Roman province, the number of
such physicians who sought their fortunes m Rome must have been
very large. The bitter words of M. Porcius Cato, who disliked them
as he did other representatives of Greek culture, are evidence of
this. The most eminent of these earlier Greek physicians at Rome
was Asclepiades, the friend of Cicero (born 124 B.C. at Prusa in
Bithynia). He came to Rome as a young man, and soon became
distinguished both for his medical skill and his oratorical power.
He introduced a system which, so far as we know, was his own,
though founded upon the Epicurean philosophical creed; on the
practical side it. conformed pretty closely to the Stoic rule of life,
thus adapting itself to the leanings of the better stamp of Romans
in the later times of the republic. According to Asclepiades all
diseases depended upon alterations in the size, number, arrangement
or movement of the " atoms," of which, according to the doctrine
of Epicurus, the body consisted. These atoms were united into
passages (jrdpoi) through which the juices of the body wereconveyed.
This doctrine, of which the developments need not further be followed,
was important chiefly in so far that it was perfectly distinct from,
and opposed to, the humoral pathology of Hippocrates. In the
treatment of disease Asclepiades attached most importance to diet,
exercise, passive movements or frictions, and the external use of cold
water in short, to a modified athletic training. He rejected the
vis medicatrix naturae, pointing out that nature in many cases not
only did not help but marred the cure. His knowledge of disease
and surgical skill were, as appears from the accounts given by
Celsus and Caelius Aurelianus, very considerable. Asclepiades had
many pupils who adhered more or less closely to his doctrines, but
it was especially one of them, Themison, who gave permanence to
the teachings of his master by framing out of them, with some
modifications, a new system of medical doctrine, and founding on
this basis a school which lasted for some centuries in successful
rivalry with the Hippocratic tradition, which, as we have seen, was
up to that time the prevailing influence in medicine.
This system was known as methodism, its adherents as the
methodici or methodists. Its main principles were that it was
useless to consider the causes of a disease, or even the organ affected
by the disease, and that it was sufficient to know what was common
to all diseases, viz. their common qualities (communitates,<coii'AT77T).
Of these there were three possible forms (i) relaxation, (2) con-
traction of the minute passages or -n-6poi, and (3) a mixed state, partly
lax, partly constricted. The signs of these morbid states were to
be found in the general constitution of the body, especially in the
excretions. Besides this it was important only to consider whether
the disease was acute or chronic, whether it was increasing, declining
or stationary. Treatment of disease was directed not to any special
organ, nor to producing the crises and critical discharges of the
Hippocratic school, but to correcting the morbid common condition
or ' r community," relaxing the body if it was constricted, causing
44
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
contraction if it was too lax, and in the "mixed state" acting accord-
ing to the predominant condition. This simple rule of treatment
was the system or "method" from which the school took its name.
The methodists agreed with the empirics in one point, in their con-
tempt for anatomy; but, strictly speaking, they were dogmatists,
though with a dogma different from that of the Hippocratic school.
Besides Themison, its systematic founder, the school boasted many
physicians eminent in their day, among whom Thessalus of Tralles, a half-
educated and boastful pretender, was one of the most popular. He re-
versed the Hippocratic maxim " art is long," promising his scholars to teach
them the whole of medicine in six months, and had inscribed upon his
tomb iarpovlKiif, as being superior to all living and bygone physicians.
In the 2nd century a much greater name appears among the
methodists, that of Soranus of Ephesus, a physician mentioned with
praise even by Tertullian and Augustine, who practised at Rome
in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Soranus is known by a work,
still extant in the Greek original, on the diseases of women, and also
by the Latin work of Caelius Aurelianus, three centuries later, on
acute and chronic diseases, which is based upon, if not, as some think,
an actual translation of, the chief work of Soranus, and which is the
principal source of our knowledge of the methodic school. The
work on diseases of women is the only complete work on that subject
which has come down to us from antiquity, and shows remarkable
fullness of practical knowledge in relation to its subject. It is
notable that an important instrument of research, the speculum,
which has been reinvented in modern times, was used by Soranus;
and specimens of still earlier date, showing great mechanical perfec-
tion, have been found among the ruins of Pompeii. The work on
acute and chronic diseases is also full of practical knowledge, but
penetrated with the theories of the methodists.
The methodic school lasted certainly for some centuries, and
influenced the revival of medical science in the middle ages, though
overshadowed by the greater reputation of Galen. It was the first
definite product of Greek medicine on Roman soil, but was destined
to be followed by others, which kept up a more or less successful
rivalry with it, and with the Hippocratic tradition.
The so-called pneumatic school was founded by Athenaeus, in the
st century after Christ. According to its doctrines the normal as well
as diseased actions of the body were to be referred to the operation of the
pneuma or universal soul. This doctrine, crudely transferred from
philosophical speculation, was intended to reconcile the humoral (or
Hippocratic) and solidist (or methodic) schools; but the methodists
seem to have claimed Athenaeus as one of themselves.
The conflicts of the opposing schools, and the obvious deficiencies
of each, led many physicians to try and combine the valuable parts
of each system, and to call themselves eclectics. Among these were
found many of the most eminent physicians of Graeco-Roman times.
It may be sufficient to name Rufus or Ephesus (2nd century A.D),
and Archigenes (fl. A.D. go), who is mentioned by Juvenal.
Although no system or important doctrine of medicine was
originated by the Roman intellect, and though the practice of
the profession was probably almost entirely in the hands of the
Greeks, the most complete picture which we have of medical
thought and activity in Roman times is due to a Latin pen,
and to one who was, in all probability, not a physician.
A. Cornelius Celsus, a Roman patrician, who lived probably hi
the ist century, appears to have studied medicine as a branch
of general knowledge. Whether he was a practising physician or
not has been a matter of controversy. The conclusion supported
by most evidence seems to be that he practised on his friends
and dependants, but not as a remunerative profession. His
well-known work, De medicina, was one of a series of treatises
intended to embrace all knowledge proper for a man of the world.
It was not meant for the physicians, and was certainly little
read by them, as Celsus is quoted by no medical writer, and
when referred to by Pliny, is spoken of as an author not a
physician. There is no doubt that his work is chiefly a com-
pilation; and Daremberg, with other scholars, has traced a
large number of passages of the Latin text to the Greek originals
from which they were translated. In the description of surgica
operations the vagueness of the language seems sometimes to
show that the author had not performed such himself; but in
other parts, and especially in his historical introduction, he
speaks with more confidence; and everywhere he compares
and criticizes with learning and judgment. The whole body ol
medical literature belonging to the Hippocratic and Alexandrian
times is ably summarized, and a knowledge of the state 01
medical science up to and during the tunes of the author is
thus conveyed to us which can be obtained from no other source
The work of Celsus is thus for us only second in importance to
the Hippocratic writings and the works of Galen; but it is
valuable rather as a part of the history of medicine than as the
subject of that history. It forms no link in the general chain
of medical tradition, for the simple reason that the influence
of Celsus (putting aside a few scanty allusions in medieval
times) commenced in the isth century, when his works were
first discovered in manuscript or committed to the press. Since
then, however, he has been almost up to our own times the most
popular and widely read of all medical classics, partly for the
qualities already indicated, partly because he was one of the
few of those classics accessible to readers of Latin, and partly
also because of the purity and classical perfection of his language.
Of Pliny, another encyclopaedic writer, a few words must be
said, though he was not a physician. In his Natural History
we find as complete a summary of the popular medicine of his
time as Celsus gives of the scientific medicine. Pliny disliked
doctors, and lost no opportunity of depreciating regular medicine;
nevertheless he has left many quotations from, and many details
about, medical authors which are of the highest value. He is
useful to us for what he wrote about the history of medicine,
not for what he contributed. Like Celsus, he had little influence
on succeeding medical literature or practice.
We now come to the writer who, above all others, gathered
up into himself the divergent and scattered threads of ancient
medicine, and out of whom again the greater part of modern
European medicine has flowed. Galen was a man furnished
with all the anatomical, medical and philosophical knowledge
of his time; he had studied all kinds of natural curiosities, and
had stood in near relation to important political events; he
possessed enormous industry, great practical sagacity and
unbounded literary fluency. He had, in fact, every quality
necessary for an encyclopaedic writer, or even for a literary and
professional autocrat. He found the medical profession of his
time split up into a number of sects, medical science confounded
under a multitude of dogmatic systems, the social status and
moral integrity of physicians degraded. He appears- to have
made it his object to reform these evils, to reconcile scientific
acquirements and practical skill, to bring back the unity of
medicine as it had been understood by Hippocrates, and at the
same time to raise the dignity of medical practitioners.
Galen was as devoted to anatomical and, so far as then understood,
physiological research as to practical medicine. He worked enthusi-
astically at dissection, though, the liberty of the Alexandrian schools
no longer existing, he could dissect only animals, not the human
body. In his anatomical studies Galen had a twofold object a
philosophical, to show the wisdom of the Creator in making every-
thing fit to serve its purpose; and a practical, to aid the diagnosis,
or recognition, of disease. The first led him into a teleological
system so minute and overstrained as to defeat its own end; the
second was successfully attained by giving greater precision and
certainty to medical and surgical practice in difficult cases. His
general physiology was essentially founded upon the Hippocratic
theory of the four elements, with which he combined the notion of
spirit (pneuma) penetrating all parts, and mingled with the humours
in different proportions. It was on this field that he most vehe-
mently attacked the prevailing atomistic and materialistic views
of the methodic school, and his conception of the pneuma became
in some respects half metaphysical. His own researches in special
branches of physiology were important, but do not strictly belong
to our present subject.
The application of physiology to the explanation of diseases, and
thus to practice, was chiefly by the theory of the temperaments or
mixtures which Galen founded upon the Hippocratic doctrine of
humours, but developed with marvellous and fatal ingenuity. The
normal condition or temperament of the body depended upon a
proper mixture or proportion of the four elements hot, cold, wet
and dry. From faulty proportions of the same arose the intemperies
(" distempers "), which, though not diseases, were the occasions
of disease. Equal importance attached to faulty mixtures or
dyscrasiae of the blood. By a combination of these morbid pre-
dispositions with the action of deleterious influences from without
all diseases were produced. Galen showed extreme ingenuity in
explaining all symptoms and all diseases on his system. No pheno-
menon was without a name, no problem without a solution. And,
though it was precisely in his fine-spun subtlety that he departed
furthest from scientific method and practical utility, it was this very
quality which seems in the end to have secured his popularity and
established his pre-eminence in the medical world.
Galen's use of drugs was influenced largely by the same theories.
In drugs were to be recognized the same elementary qualities hot,
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
45
cold, moist, dry, &c. as in the human body; and, on the principle
of curing by contraries, the use of one or other was indicated. The
writings of Galen contain less of simple objective observations than
those of several other ancient physicians, all being swept into the
current of dogmatic exposition. But there is enough to show the
thoroughness and extent of his practical knowledge. Unfortunately
it was neither this nor his zeal for research that chiefly won him
followers, but the completeness of his theoretical explanations,
which fell in with the mental habits of succeeding centuries, and
were such as have flattered the intellectual indolence of all ages.
But the reputation of Galen grew slowly; he does not appear to have
enjoyed any pre-eminence over other physicians of his time, to most
of whom he was strongly opposed in opinion. In the next generation
he began to be esteemed only as a philosopher ; gradually his system
was implicitly accepted, and it enjoyed a great though not exclusive
predominance till the fall of Roman civilization. When the
Arabs possessed themselves of the scattered remains of Greek
culture, the works of Galen were more highly esteemed than any
others except those of Aristotle. Through the Arabs the Galenical
system found its way back again to western Europe. Even when
Arabian medicine gave way before the direct teaching of the Greek
authors rescued from neglect, the authority of Galen was increased
instead of being diminished ; and he assumed a position of autocracy
in medical science which was only slowly undermined by the growth
of modern science in the I7th and i8th centuries.
The history of medicine in Roman times is by no means the
same thing as the history of the fate of the works of Galen. For
some centuries the methodic school was popular at Rome, and
produced one physician, Caelius Aurelianus, who must be pro-
nounced, next to Celsus, the most considerable of the Latin
medical writers. His date was in all probability the end of the
4th or the beginning of the 5th century. The works bearing
his name are, as has been said, entirely based upon the Greek
of Soranus, but are important both because their Greek originals
are lost, and because they are evidence of the state of medical
practice in his own time. The popularity of Caelius is evidenced
by the fact that in the 6th century an abridgment of his larger
work was recommended by Cassiodorus to the Benedictine monks
for the study of medicine.
Before quitting this period the name of Aretaeus of Cappadocia
must be mentioned. So little is known about him that even
his date cannot be fixed more closely than as being between
the second half of the ist century and the beginning of the 3rd.
His works have been much admired for the purity of the Greek
style, and his accurate descriptions of disease; but, as he quotes
no medical author, and is quoted by none before Alexander of
Aphrodisias at the beginning of the 3rd century, it is clear that
he belonged to no school and founded none, and thus his position
in the chain of medical tradition is quite uncertain. Alexander
of Aphrodisias, who lived and wrote at Athens in the time of
Septimius Severus, is best known by his commentaries on
Aristotle, but also wrote a treatise on fevers, still extant.
Ancient Medicine after Galen. The Byzantine school of medicine,
which closely corresponds to the Byzantine literary and historical
schools, followed closely in Galen's footsteps, and its writers were
chiefly compilers and encyclopaedists. The earliest is Oribasius
(326-403), whose date and position are fixed by his being the friend
and court physician of Julian the Apostate. He was a Greek of
Pergamum, educated in Alexandria, and long resident in Byzantium.
His great work 'Zvvaywyai larpucai, of which only about one-third
has been preserved, was a medical encyclopaedia founded on extracts
from Hippocrates, Galen, Dioscorides (fl. A.D. 50) and certain
Greek writers who are otherwise very imperfectly known. The
work is thus one of great historical value but of no originality.
The next name which requires to be mentioned is that of Aetius
(A.D. 550), a compiler who closely followed Oribasius, but with
inferior powers, and whose work also has an historical but no original
value. A higher rank among medical writers is assigned to Alexander
of Tralles (525-605), whose doctrine was that of an eclectic. His
practical and therapeutical rules are evidently the fruit of his own
experience, though it would be difficult to attribute to him any
decided advance in medical knowledge. But the most prominent
figure in Byzantine medicine is that of Paul of Aegina (Paulus
Aegineta), who lived probably in the early part of the 7th century.
His skill, especially in surgery, must have been considerable, and
his 'larpucd gives a very complete picture of the achievements of
the Greeks in this department. Another work, on obstetrics, now
lost, was equally famous, and procured lor him, among the Arabs,
the name of " the Obstetrician." His reputation lasted through
the middle ages, and was not less in the Arabian schools than in the
West. In this respect Paulus is a most important influence in the
development of medicine. His great work on surgery was early
translated into Arabic, and became the foundation of the surgery
of Abulcasis, which in turn (to anticipate) was one of the chief
sources of surgical knowledge to Europe in the middle ages. The
succeeding period of Byzantine history was so little favourable to
science that no name worthy of note occurs again (though many
medical works of this period are still extant) till the I3th century,
when we meet with a group of writers: Demetrius Pepagomenus,
Nicolaus Myrepsus and Johannes, called Actuarius, who nourished
under the protection of the Palaeologi. The work of the last has
some independent merit ; but all are interesting as showing a fusion
of Greek and Arabian medicine, the latter having begun to exercise
even in the I ith century a reflex influence on the schools of By-
zantium. Something was borrowed even from the school of Salerno,
and thus the close of Byzantine medicine is brought into connexion
with the dawn of science in modern Europe.
In the West the period after Galen affords little evidence of any-
thing but a gradual though unvarying decline in Roman medicine.
Caelius Aurelianus, already referred to as the follower of Soranus,
must be mentioned as showing the persistence of the methodic
school. An abridgment of one of his writings, with the title of
Aurelius, became the most popular of all Latin medical works. As
a writer he was worthy of a better period of medical literature.
Little else was produced in these times but compilations, of the most
meagre kind, chiefly of the nature of herbals, or domestic receipt-
books; among the authors of which it may be sufficient to name
Serenus Sammonicus (3rd century), Gargilius Martialis (3rd century)
and Marcellus Empiricus (sth century). Certain compilations still
extant bear the falsely-assumed names of eminent writers, such as
Pliny and Hippocrates. A writer with the (perhaps assumed) name
of Apuleius Platonicus produced a herbal which held its ground
till the isth century at least, and was in the gth translated into
Anglo-Saxon. These poor compilations, together with Latin
translations of certain works of Galen and Hippocrates, formed a
medical literature, meagre and unprogressive indeed, but of which
a great part survived through the middle ages till the discovery of
printing and revival of learning. It is important to remember that
this obscure stream of tradition flowed on, only partially affected
by the influx of Arabian, or even the early revival of purer classical
learning.
Arabian Medicine. The rise of the Mahommedan Empire,
which influenced Europe so deeply both politically and intel-
lectually, made its mark also in the history of medicine. As in
the parallel case of the Roman conquest of Greece, the superior
culture of the conquered race asserted its supremacy over their
Arab conquerors. After the Mahommedan conquests became
consolidated, and learning began to flourish, schools of medicine,
often connected with hospitals and schools of pharmacy, arose
in all the chief seats of Moslem power. At Damascus Greek
medicine was zealously cultivated with the aid of Jewish and
Christian teachers. In Bagdad, under the rule of Harun el
Rashid and his successors, a still more flourishing school arose,
where numerous translations of Greek medical works were made.
The names of Mesua, or Yahya ibn Masawaih (d. A.D. 857-858),
celebrated for his knowledge of drugs, and Honein ibn Ishaq el
'Ibadi (d. 873) or Joannitius, the translator and commentator of
Hippocrates and Galen, belong to this period. Certain writings
of Joannitius, translated into Latin, were popular in the middle
ages in Europe, and were printed in the i6th century. At the
same time the Arabs became acquainted with Indian medicine,
and Indian physicians lived at the court of Bagdad. The
Islamite rulers in Spain were not long behind those of the
East in encouraging learning and medical science, and developed
culture to a still higher degree of perfection. In that country
much was due to the Jews, who had already established schools
in places which were afterwards the seats of Moslem dominion.
From the loth to the i3th century was the brilliant period of
Arabian medicine in Spain. 1
The classical period of Arabian medicine begins with Rhazes (Abu
Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya el-Razi, A.D. 925-^926), a native of
Rai in the province of Dailam (Persia), who practised with distinc-
tion at Bagdad ; he followed the doctrines of Galen, but learnt much
from Hippocrates. He was the first of the Arabs to treat medicine
jn a comprehensive and encyclopaedic manner, surpassing probably
in voluminousness Galen himself, though but a small proportion
of his works are extant. Rhazes is deservedly remembered as having
first described small-pox and measles in an accurate manner. Hah,
i.e. 'Ali ibn el-'Abbas, a Persian, wrote a medical textbook,
known as the " Royal Book," which was the standard authority
among the Arabs up to the time of Avicenna (A.D. 9^80-1037) and
was more than once translated into Latin and printed. Other
1 See Dozy, Cat. Cod. Or. Lug. Bat. ii. 296.
4 6
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
writers of this century need not be mentioned here; but the next,
the nth century, is given as the probable though uncertain date
of a writer who had a great influence on European medicine, Mesua
the younger of Damascus, whose personality is obscure, and of whose
very existence some historians have doubted, thinking that the
name was assumed by some medieval Latin writer. The work De
simplicibus, which bears his name, was for centuries a standard
authority on what would now be called materia medica, was printed
in twenty-six editions in the isth century and later, and was used
in the formation of the first London pharmacopoeia, issued by the
College of Physicians in the reign of James I. Either to the loth
or the nth century must be referred the name of another Arabian
physician who has also attained the position of a classic, Abu'l
Qasim or Abulcasis, of El-Zahra, near Cordova, in Spain. His
great work, Altafrif, a medical encyclopaedia, is chiefly valued for
its surgical portion (already mentioned), which was translated into
Latin in the i6th century, and was for some centuries a standard
if not the standard authority on surgery in Europe. Among his
own countrymen the fame and position of Abulcasis were soon
eclipsed by the greater name of Avicenna.
Avicenna has always been regarded as the chief representative of
Arabian medicine. He wrote on philosophy also, and in both
subjects . acquired the highest reputation through the whole of
eastern Islam. In Mahommedan Spain he was less regarded, but
in Europe his works even eclipsed and superseded those of Hippo-
crates and Galen. His style and expository power are highly praised,
but the subject-matter shows little originality. The work by which
he is chiefly known, the celebrated " canon," is an encyclopaedia
of medical and surgical knowledge, founded upon Galen, Aristotle,
the later Greek physicians, and the earlier Arabian writers, singularly
complete and systematic, but is thought not to show the practical
experience of its author. As in the case of Galen, the formal and
encyclopaedic character of Avicenna's works was the chief cause
of his popularity and ascendancy, though in modern times these
very qualities in a scientific or medical writer would rather cause
him to become more speedily antiquated.
In the long list of Arabian medical writers none can here be
mentioned except the great names of the Hispano-Moorish school,
a school both philosophically and medically antagonistic to that
of Avicenna. Of these the earliest is AVENZOAR or Abumeron, that
is, Abu Merwan "Abd al-Malik Ibn Zuhr (beginning of I2th century),
a member of a family which gave several distinguished members to
the medical profession. His chief work, Al-Teysir (facilitatio), is
thought to show more practical experience than the writings of
Avicenna, and to be less based upon dialectical subtleties. It was
translated into Latin, and more than once printed, as were some of
his lesser works, which thus formed a part of the contribution made
by the Arabians to European medicine. His friend and pupil
AVER ROES of Cordova (q.v.), so well known for his philosophical
writings, was also an author in medical subjects, and as such widely
read in Latin. The famous Rabbi MAIMONIDES (A.D. 1135-1204)
(q.v.) closes for us the roll of medical writers of the Arabian school.
His works exist chiefly in the original Arabic or in Hebrew transla-
tions; only some smaller treatises have been translated into Latin,
so that no definite opinion can be formed as to their medical value.
But, so far as is known, the independent and rationalistic spirit
which the two last-named writers showed in philosophy did not lead
them to take any original point of view in medicine.
The works of the Arabian medical writers who have now been
mentioned form a very small fraction of the existing literature.
Three hundred medical writers in Arabic are enumerated by Ferdi-
nand Wiistenfeld (1808-1899), and other historians have enlarged the
list (Haser), but only three have been printed in the original; a
certain number more are known through old Latin translations, and
the great majority still exist in manuscript. It is thus evident that
the circumstance of having been translated (which may have been
in some cases almost an accident) is what has chiefly determined
the influence of particular writers on Western medicine. But it is
improbable that further research will alter the general estimate of
the value of Arabian medicine. There can be no doubt that it
was in the main Greek medicine, modified to suit other climates,
habits and national tastes, and with some important additions
from Oriental sources. The greater part is taken from Hippocrates,
Galen, Dioscorides and later Greek writers. The Latin medical
writers were necessarily unknown to the Arabs; and this was partly
the cause that even in Europe Galenic medicine assumed such a
preponderance, the methodic school and Celsus being forgotten or
neglected. In anatomy and physiology the Arabians distinctly
went back; in surgery they showed no advance upon the Greeks;
in practical medicine nothing new can be traced, except the descrip-
tion of certain diseases (e.g. small-pox and measles) unknown or
imperfectly known to the Greeks; the only real advance was in
pharmacy and the therapeutical use of drugs. By their relations
with the farther East, the Arabs became acquainted with valuable
new remedies which have held their ground till modern times; and
their skill in chemistry enabled them to prepare new chemical
remedies, and form many combinations of those already in use.
They produced the first pharmacopoeia, and established the first
apothecaries' shops. Many of the names and many forms of medi-
cines now used, and in fact the general outline of modern pharmacy,
except so far as modified by modern chemistry, started with the
Arabs. Thus does Arabian medicine appear as judged from a
modern standpoint; but to medieval Europe, when little but a
tradition remained of the great ancient schools, it was invested with
a far higher degree of originality and importance.
It is now necessary to consider what was the state of medicine
in Europe after the fall of the Western Empire and before the
influence of Arabian science and literature began to be felt.
This we may call the pre- Arabian or Salernitan period.
Medicine in the Early Middle Ages: School of Salerno. In
medical as in civil history there is no real break. A continuous
thread of learning and practice must have connected the last
period of Roman medicine already mentioned with the dawn of
science in the middle ages. But the intellectual thread is
naturally traced with greater difficulty than that which is the
theme of civil history; and in periods such as that from the
5th to the loth century in Europe it is almost lost. The chief
homes of medical as of other learning in these disturbed times
were the monasteries. Though the science was certainly not
advanced by their labours, it was saved from total oblivion, and
many ancient medical works were preserved either in Latin or
vernacular versions. The Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms 1 of the nth
century, published in the Rolls series of medieval chronicles
and memorials, admirably illustrate the mixture of magic and
superstition with the relics of ancient science which constituted
monastic medicine. Similar works, in Latin or other languages,
exist in manuscript in all the great European libraries. It was
among the Benedictines that the monastic study of medicine first
received a new direction, and aimed at a higher standard. The
study of Hippocrates, Galen, and other classics was recommended
by Cassiodorus (6th century), and in the original mother-abbey of
Monte Cassino medicine was studied; but there was not there
what could be called a medical school; nor had this foundation
any connexion (as has been supposed) with the famous school
of Salerno.
The origin of this, the most important source of medical know-
ledge in Europe in the early middle ages, is involved in obscurity.
It is known that Salerno, a Roman colony, in a situation noted
in ancient times for its salubrity, was in the 6th century at least
the seat of a bishopric, and at the end of the 7th century of a
Benedictine monastery, and that some of the prelates and higher
clergy were distinguished for learning, and even for medical
acquirements. But it has by recent researches been clearly
established that the celebrated Schola salernitana was a purely
secular institution. All that can with certainty be said is that
a school or collection of schools gradually grew up in which
especially medicine, but also, in a subordinate degree, law and
philosophy were taught. In the gth century Salernitan physicians
were already spoken of, and the city was known as Civitas
hippocralica. A little later we find great and royal personages
resorting to Salerno for the restoration of their health, among
whom was William of Normandy, afterwards the Conqueror.
The number of students of medicine must at one time have been
considerable, and in a corresponding degree the number of
teachers. Among the latter many were married, and their wives
and daughters appear also in the lists of professors. The most
noted female professor was the celebrated Trotula in the nth
century. The Jewish element appears to have been important
among the students, and possibly among the professors. The
reputation of the school was great till the izth or i3th century,
when the introduction of the Arab medicine was gradually fatal
to it. The foundation of the university of Naples, and the rise
of Montpellier, also contributed to its decline.
The teachings of the Salernitan doctors are pretty well known
through existing works, some of which have only recently been
discovered and published. The best-known is the rhyming Latin
poem on health by Joannes de Meditano, Regimen sanitatis Salerni,
professedly written for the use of the " king of England," supposed
to mean _ William the Conqueror; it had an immense reputation
in the middle ages, and was afterwards many times printed, and
translated into most European languages. This was a popular
work intended for the laity ; but there are others strictly professional.
1 Derived from the Anglo-Saxon laece, a physician, and dom, a law.
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
47
Among the writers it may be sufficient to mention here Gariopontus;
Copho, who wrote the Anatome porci, a well-known medieval book;
Joannes Platearius, first of a family of physicians bearing the same
name, whose Practica, or medical compendium, was afterwards
several times printed; and Trotula, believed to be the wife of the
last-named. All of these fall into the first period before the advent
of Arabian medicine. In the transitional period, when the Arabian
school began to influence European medicine, but before the Salerni-
tans were superseded, comes Nicolaus Praepositus, who wrote the
Antidotarium, a collection of formulae for compound medicines,
which became the standard work on the subject, and the foundation
of many later compilations. An equally popular writer was Gilles
de Corbeil (Aegidius Corboliensis), at one time a teacher at Salerno,
afterwards court physician to Philip Augustus of France, who com-
posed several poems in Latin hexameters on medical subjects.
Two of them, on the urine and the pulse respectively, attained the
position of medical classics.
None of these Salernitan works rise much above the rank of
compilations, being founded on Hippocrates, Galen and later Greek
writers, with an unmistakable mixture of the doctrines of the
methodists. But they often show much practical experience, and
exhibit the naturalistic method of the Hippocratic school. The
general plan of treatment is dietetic rather than pharmaceutical,
though the art of preparing drugs had reached a high degree of
Complexity at Salerno. Anatomy was as little regarded as it was
in the later ancient schools, the empiric and methodic, but demon-
strations of the parts of the body were given on swine. Although
it cannot be said that the science of medicine was advanced at
Salerno, still its decline was arrested at a time when every other
branch of learning was rapidly falling into decay; and there can be
no doubt that the observation of patients in hospitals, and probably
clinical instruction, were made use of in learning and teaching. The
school of Salerno thus forms a bridge between the ancient and the
modern medicine, more direct though less conspicuous than that
circuitous route, through Byzantium, Bagdad and Cordova, by
which Hippocrates and Galen, in Arabian dress, again entered
the European world. Though the glory of Salerno had departed,
the school actually existed till it was finally dissolved by an edict of
the emperor Napoleon I. in the year 1811.
Introduction of Arabian Medicine: The Scholastic Period.
About the middle of the nth century the Arabian medical
writers began to be known by Latin translations in the Western
world. Constantinus Africanus, a monk, was the author of
the earliest of such versions (A.D. 1050) ; his labours were directed
chiefly to the less important and less bulky Arabian authors, of
whom Haly was the most noted; the real classics were not
introduced till later. For some time the Salernitan medicine
held its ground, and it was not till the conquest of Toledo by
Alphonso of Castile that any large number of Western scholars
came in contact with the learning of the Spanish Moors, and
systematic efforts were made to translate their philosophical
and medical works. Jewish scholars, often under the patronage
of Christian bishops, were especially active in the work. In
Sicily also the Oriental tendencies of Frederick Barbarossa
and Frederick II. worked in the same direction. Gerard of
Cremona, a physician of Toledo (1114-1187), made translations,
it is said by command of Barbarossa, from Avicenna and others.
It is needless to point out the influence of the crusades in making
Eastern ideas known in the Western world. The influence of
Arabian medicine soon began to be felt even in the Hippocratic
city of Salerno, and in the i3th century is said to have held an
even balance with the older medicine. After this time the
foreign influence predominated; and by the time that the Aristo-
telian dialectic, in the introduction of which the Arabs had so
large a share, prevailed in the schools of Europe, the Arabian
version of Greek medicine reigned supreme in the medical world.
That this movement coincided with the establishment of some of
the older European universities is well known. The history of
medicine in the period now opening is closely combined with the
history of scholastic philosophy. Both were infected with the
same dialectical subtlety, which was, from the nature of the
subject, especially injurious to medicine.
At the same time, through the rise of the universities, medical
learning was much more widely diffused, and the first definite
forward movement was seen in the school of Montpellier, where
a medical faculty existed early in the I2th century, afterwards
united with faculties of law and philosophy. The medical school
owed its foundation largely to Jewish teachers, themselves
educated in the Moorish schools of Spain, and imbued with the
intellectual independence of the Averroists. Its rising prosperity
coincided with the decline of the school of Salerno. Montpellier
became distinguished for the practical and empirical spirit of
its medicine, as contrasted with the dogmatic and scholastic
teaching of Paris and other universities. In Italy, Bologna
and Padua were earliest distinguished for medical studies the
former preserving more of the Galenical tradition, the latter
being more progressive and Averroist. The northern univer-
sities contributed little the reputation even of Paris being of
later growth.
The supremacy of Arabian medicine lasted till the revival of
learning, when the study of the medical classics in their original
language worked another revolution. The medical writers of
this period, who chiefly drew from Arabian sources, have been
called Arabists (though it is difficult to give any clear meaning
to this term), and were afterwards known as the neoterics.
The medical literature of this period is extremely voluminous,
but essentially second-hand, consisting mainly of commentaries on
Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna and others, or of compilations and
compendia still less original than commentaries. Among these may
be mentioned Lhe Conciliator of Peter of Abano (1250-1315), the
Aggregator of Jacob de Dondi (1298-1359), both of the school of
Padua, and the Pandectae medicinae of the Salernitan Matthaeus
Sylvaticus (d. 1342), a sort of medical glossary and dictionary. But
for us the most interesting fact is the first appearance of Englishmen
as authors of medical works having a European reputation, dis-
tinguished, according to the testimony of Haser, by a practical
tendency characteristic of the British race, and fostered in the school
of Montpellier.
The first of these works is the Compendium medicinae, also called
Laurea or Rosa anglicana, of Gilbert (Gilbertus Anglicus, about
1290), said to contain good observations on leprosy. A more im-
portant work, the Practica sen lilium medicinae, of Bernard Gordon,
a Scottish professor at Montpellier (written in the year 1307), was
more widely spread, being translated into French and Hebrew, and
printed in several editions. Of these two physicians the first pro-
bably, the latter certainly, was educated and practised abroad, but
John Gaddesden (i28o?-i36i), the author of Rosa anglica seu
practica medicinae (between 1305 and 1317), was a graduate in
medicine of Merton College, Oxford, and court physician. His
compendium is entirely wanting in originality, and perhaps unusually
destitute of common sense, but it became so popular as to be re-
printed up to the end of the l6th century. Works of this kind
became still more abundant in the I4th and in the first half of the
1 5th century, till the wider distribution of the medical classics in
the original put them out of fashion.
In surgery this period was far more productive than in medicine,
especially in Italy and France, but the limits of our subject only
permit us to mention Gulielmus de Saliceto of Piacenza (about 1275),
Lanfranchi of Milan (died about 1306), the French surgeon, Guy de
Chauliac (about 1350) and the Englishman, John Ardern (about
'SS )- In anatomy also the beginning of a new epoch was made
by Mondino de Liucci or Mundinus (1275-1326), and his followers.
The medical writings of Arnald de Villanova (c. 1235-1313) (if the
Breviarium practicae be rightly ascribed to him) rise above the rank
of compilations. Finally, in the I3th and especially the I4th century
we find, under the name of consilia, the first medieval reports of
medical cases which are preserved in such a form as to be intelligible.
Collections of consilia were published, among others, by Gentilis
Fulgineus before 1348, by Bartolomeo Montagnana (d. 1470), and
by Baverius de Baveriis of Imola (about 1450). The last-named
contains much that is interesting and readable.
Period of the Revival of Learning. The impulse which all
departments of intellectual activity received from the revival
of Greek literature in Europe was felt by medicine among the
rest. Not that the spirit of the science, or of its corresponding
practice, was at once changed. The basis of medicine through
the middle ages had been literary and dogmatic, and it was
literary and dogmatic still; but the medical literature now
brought to light including as it did the more important works
of Hippocrates and Galen, many of them hitherto unknown,
and in addition the forgotten element of Latin medicine,
especially the work of Celsus was in itself far superior to the
second-hand compilations and incorrect versions which had
formerly been accepted as standards. The classical works,
though still regarded with unreasoning reverence, were found
to have a germinative and vivifying power that carried the
mind out of the region of dogma, and prepared the way for the
scientific movement which has been growing in strength up to
our own day.
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
Two of the most important results of the revival of learning
were indeed such as are excluded from the scope of this brief
sketch namely, the reawakening of anatomy, which to a large
extent grew out of the study of the works of Galen, and the
investigation of medicinal plants, to which a fresh impulse
was given by the revival of Dioscorides (A.D. 50) and other
ancient naturalists. The former brought with it necessarily
a more accurate conception of physiology, and thus led up
to the great discovery of Harvey, which was the turning-
point in modern medicine. The latter gave rise, on the one
hand, to the modern science of botany, on the other to a more
rational knowledge of drugs and their uses. At the same time,
the discovery of America, and increased intercourse with the
East, by introducing a variety of new plants, greatly accelerated
the progress both of botany and pharmacology.
But it was not in these directions that improvement was
first looked for. It was at first very naturally imagined that
the simple revival of classical and especially of Greek literature
would at once produce the same brilliant results in medicine
as in literature and philosophy. The movement of reform
started, of necessity, with scholars rather than practising
physicians more precisely with a group of learned men,
whom we may be permitted, for the sake of a narne, to call
the medical humanists, equally enthusiastic in the cause of
letters and of medicine. From both fields they hoped to expel
the evils which were summed up in the word barbarism. Nearly
all medieval medical literature was condemned under this name;
and for it the humanists proposed to substitute the originals of
Hippocrates and Galen, thus leading back medicine to its
fountain-head. Since a knowledge of Greek was still confined
to a small body of scholars, and a still smaller proportion of
physicians, the first task was to translate the Greek classics
into Latin. To this work several learned physicians, chiefly
Italians, applied themselves with great ardour. Among the
earliest were Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza (1428-1524),
Giovanni de Monte or Montanus (1498-1552), and many others
in Italy. In northern Europe should be mentioned Gulielmus
Copus (1471-1532) and Gunther of Andernach (1487-1584),
better known as Guinterius Andernacensis, both for a time
professors at Paris; and, among the greatest, Thomas Linacre
(about 1460-1524; see LINACRE). A little later Janus Cornarius
or Hagenbut (1500-1558) and Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566) in
Germany, and John Kaye of Caius (1510-1572) in England,
carried on the work. Symphorien Champier (Champerius
or Campegius) of Lyons (1472-1539), a contemporary of Rabelais,
and the patron of Servetus, wrote with fantastic enthusiasm
on the superiority of the Greek to the Arabian physicians, and
possibly did something to enlist in the same cause the two
far greater men just mentioned. Rabelais not only lectured
on Galen and Hippocrates, but edited some works of the latter;
and Michael Servetus (1511-1553), in a little tract Syruporum
universa ratio, defended the practice of Galen as compared
with that of the Arabians. The great Aldine Press made an
important contribution to the work, by editiones principes of
Hippocrates and Galen in the original. Thus was the campaign
opened against the medieval and Arabian writers, till finally
Greek medicine assumed a predominant position, and Galen took
the place of Avicenna. The result was recorded in a formal
manner by the Florentine Academy, sometime shortly before
1535: " Quae, excusso. Arabicae et barbarae servitutis medicae
jugo, ex professo se Galenicam appellavit et profligate barbaro-
rum exercitu unum totum et solum Galenum, ut optimum
artis medicae authorem, in omnibus se sequuturam pollicita
est." Janus Cornarius, from whom this is quoted, laments,
however, that the Arabians still reigned in most of the schools
of medicine, and that the Italian and French authors of works
called Practica were still in high repute. The triumph of Galen-
ism was therefore not complete by the middle of the i6th century.
It was probably most so, and earliest, in the schools of Italy
and in those of England, where the London College of Physicians
might be regarded as an offshoot of the Italian schools. Paris
was the stronghold of conservatism, and Germany was stirred
by the teachings of one who must be considered apart from all
schools Paracelsus. The nature of the struggle between the
rival systems may be well illustrated by a formidable contro-
versy about the rules for bleeding in acute diseases. This
operation, according to the Arabian practice, was always
performed on a vein at a distance from the organ affected.
The Hippocratic and also Galenic rule, to let blood from, or
near to, the diseased organ, was revived by Pierre Brissot
(1470-1522), a professor in the university of Paris. His attempt
at reform, which was taken to be, as in effect it was, a revolt
against the authority of the Arabian masters, led to his expulsion
from Paris, and the formal prohibition by the parliament of
his method. Upon this apparently trifling question arose
a controversy which lasted many years, occupied several uni-
versities, and led to the interposition of personages no less
important than the pope and the emperor, but which is thought
to have largely contributed to the final downfall of the Arabian
medicine.
Paracelsus and Chemical Medicine. Contemporary with
the school of medical humanists, but little influenced by them,
lived in Germany a man of strange genius, of whose character
and importance the most opposite opinions have been expressed.
The first noticeable quality in Paracelsus (c. 1490-1541) is
his revolutionary independence of thought, which was supported
by his immense personal arrogance. Himself well trained
in the learning and medical science of the day, he despised
and trampled upon all traditional and authoritative teachings.
He began his lectures at Basel by burning the books of Avicenna
and others; he afterwards boasted of having read no books
for ten years; he protested that his shoe-buckles were more
learned than Galen and Avicenna. On the other hand, he
spoke with respect of Hippocrates, and wrote a commentary
on his Aphorisms. In this we see a spirit very different from
the enthusiasm of the humanists for a purer and nobler philo-
sophy than the scholastic and Arabian versions of Greek thought.
There is no record of Paracelsus' knowledge of Greek, and as,
at least in his student days, the most important works of Greek
medicine were very imperfectly known, it is probable he had
little first hand acquaintance with .Galen or Hippocrates, while
his breach with the humanists is the more conspicuous from
his lecturing and writing chiefly in his native German.
Having thus made a clean sweep of nearly the whole of
the dogmatic medicine, what did Paracelsus put in its place?
Certainly not pure empiricism, or habits of objective observation.
He had a dogma of his own one founded, according to his
German expositors, on the views of the Neoplatonists, of which
a few disjointed specimens must here suffice. The human body
was a " microcosm " which corresponded to the " macrocosm,"
and contained in itself all parts of visible nature, sun, moon,
stars and the poles of heaven. To know the nature of man
and how to deal with it, the physician should study, not anatomy,
which Paracelsus utterly rejected, but all parts of external
nature. Life was a perpetual germinative process controlled
by the indwelling spirit or Archeus; and diseases, according
to the mystical conception of Paracelsus, were not natural
but spiritual. Nature was sufficient for the cure of most
diseases; art had only to interfere when the internal physician,
the man himself, was tired or incapable. Then some remedy
had to be introduced which should be antagonistic, not to the
disease in a physical sense, but to the spiritual seed of the disease.
These remedies were arcana, a word corresponding partly
to what we now call specific remedies, but implying a mysterious
connexion between the remedy and the " essence " of the
disease. Arcana were often shown to be such by their physical
properties, not only by such as heat, cold, &c., but by fortuitous
resemblances to certain parts of the body; thus arose the famous
doctrine of " signatures," or signs indicating the virtues and
uses of natural objects, which was afterwards developed into
great complexity. Great importance was also attached to
chemically prepared remedies as containing the essence or
spiritual quality of the material from which they were derived.
The actual therapeutical resources of Paracelsus included a
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
49
large number of metallic preparations, in the introduction
of some of which he did good service, and, among vegetable
preparations, the tincture of opium, still known by the name
he gave it, laudanum. In this doubtless he derived much
advantage from his knowledge of chemistry, though the science
was as yet not disentangled from the secret traditions of alchemy,
and was often mixed up with imposture.
German historians of medicine attach great importance to the
revolt of Paracelsus against the prevailing systems, and trace in
his writings anticipations of many scientific truths of later times.
That his personality was influential, and his intrepid originality of
great value as an example in his own country, is undeniable. As a
national _ reformer he has been not inaptly compared to Luther.
But his importance in the universal history of medicine we cannot
estimate so highly. The chief immediate result we can trace is the
introduction of certain mineral remedies, especially antimony, the
use of which became a kind of badge of the disciples of Paracelsus.
The use of these remedies was not, however, necessarily connected
with a belief in his system, which seems to have spread little beyond
his own country. Of the followers of Paracelsus some became mere
mystical quacks and impostors. Others, of more learning and better
repute, were distinguished from the regular physicians chiefly by
their use of chemical remedies. In France the introduction of
antimony gave rise to a bitter controversy which lasted into the
I7th century, and led to the expulsion of some men of mark from
the_ Paris faculty. In England chemical medicine " is first heard
of in the reign of Elizabeth, and was in like manner contemned and
assailed by the College of Physicians and the Society of Apothecaries.
But it should be remembered that all the chemical physicians did
not call Paracelsus master. The most notorious of that school in
England, Francis Anthony (1550-1623), never quotes Paracelsus,
but relies upon Arnald de Villanpva and Raimon Lull. From this
time, however, it is always possible to trace a school of chemical
practitioners, who, though condemned by the orthodox Galenists,
held their ground, till in the I7th century a successor of Paracelsus
arose in the celebrated J. B. Van Helmont.
Consequences of the Revival of Ancient Medicine. The revival
of Galenic and Hippocratic medicine, though ultimately it
conferred the greatest benefits on medical sciences, did not
immediately produce any important or salutary reform in
practical medicine. The standard of excellence in the ancient
writers was indeed far above the level of the i6th century; but
the fatal habit of taking at second hand what should have been
acquired by direct observation retarded progress more than the
possession of better models assisted it, so that the fundamental
faults of medieval science remained unconnected.
Nevertheless some progress has to be recorded, even if not
due directly to the study of ancient medicine. In the first
place the isth and i6th centuries were notable for the outbreak
of certain epidemic diseases, which were unknown to the old
physicians. Of these the chief was the " sweating sickness "
or " English sweat," especially prevalent in, though not confined
to, the country whence it is named. Among many descriptions
of this disease, that by John Kaye or Caius, already referred
to, was one of the best, and of great importance as showing
that the works of Galen did not comprise all that could be
known in medicine. The spread of syphilis, a disease equally
unknown to the ancients, and the failure of Galen's remedies
to cure it, had a similar effect.
In another direction the foundations of modern medicine
were being laid during the i6th century namely, by the intro-
duction of clinical instruction in hospitals. In this Italy,
and especially the renowned school of Padua, took the first
step, where Giovanni De Monte (Montanus), (1498-1552),
already mentioned as a humanist, gave clinical lectures on the
patients in the hospital of St Francis, which may still be read
with interest. Pupils flocked to him from all European coun-
tries; Germans are especially mentioned; a Polish student
reported and published some of his lectures; and the English-
man Kaye was a zealous disciple, who does not, however,
seem to have done anything towards transplanting this
method of instruction to his own country. Inspections of
the dead, to ascertain the nature of the disease, were made,
though not without difficulty, and thus the modern period
of the science of morbid anatomy was ushered in.
Medicine in the ijth Century. The medicine of the early
1 7th century presents no features to distinguish it from that
of the preceding century. The practice and theory of medicine
were mainly founded upon Hippocrates and Galen, with ever-
increasing additions from the chemical school. But the develop-
ment of mathematical and physical science soon introduced
a fundamental change in the habits of thought with respect
to medical doctrine.
These discoveries not only weakened or destroyed the respect
for authority in matters of science, but brought about a marked
tendency to mechanical explanations of life and disease. When
William Harvey by his discovery of the circulation furnished
an explanation of many vital processes which was reconcilable
with the ordinary laws of mechanics, the efforts of medical
theorists were naturally directed to bringing all the departments
of medicine under similar laws. It is often assumed that the
writings and influence of Bacon did much towards introducing
a more scientific method into medicine and physiology. But,
without discussing the general philosophical position or historical
importance of Bacon, it may safely be said that his direct
influence can be little traced in medical writings of the first
half of the i?th century. Harvey, as is well known, spoke
slightingly of the great chancellor, and it is not till the rapid
development of physical science in England and Holland in the
latter part of the century, that we find Baconian principles
explicitly recognized.
The dominant factors in the 17th-century medicine were
the discovery of the circulation by William Harvey (published
in 1628), the mechanical philosophy of Descartes and the
contemporary progress of physics, the teaching of Van Helmont
and the introduction of chemical explanations of morbid pro-
cesses, and finally, combined of all these, and inspiring them,
the rise of the spirit of inquiry and innovation, which may be
called the scientific movement. Before speaking in detail of
these, we may note that by other influences quite independent
of theories, important additions were made to practical medicine.
The method of clinical instruction in hospitals, commenced
by the Italians, was introduced into Holland, where it was
greatly developed, especially at Leiden, in the hands of Francis
de la Boe, called Sylvius (1641-1672). It is noteworthy that
concurrently with the rise of clinical study the works of Hippo-
crates were more and more valued, while Galen began to sink
into the background.
At the same time the discovery of new diseases, unknown
to the ancients, and the keener attention which the great
epidemics of plague caused to be paid to those already known,
led to more minute study of the natural history of disease.
The most important disease hitherto undescribed was rickets,
first made known by Arnold de Boot, a Frisian who practised
in Ireland, in 1649, and afterwards more fully in the celebrated
work of Francis Glisson (1597-1677) in 1651. The plague
was carefully studied by Isbrand de Diemerbroek, in his De
Peste (1646), and others. Nathaniel Hodges of London (1629-
1688) in 1665 seems to have been the first who had the courage
to make a post mortem inspection of a plague patient. Chris-
topher Bennet (1617-1655) wrote an important work on con-
sumption in 1654. During the same period many new remedies
were introduced, the most important being cinchona-bark,
brought to Spain in the year 1640. The progress of pharmacy
was shown by the publication of Dispensatories or Pharma-
copoeias such as that of the Royal College of Physicians of
London in 1618. This, like the earlier German works of the
same kind (on which it was partly founded), contains both
the traditional (Galenical) and the modern or chemical remedies.
Van Helmont. The medicine of the I7th century was especially
distinguished by the rise of sy terns; and we must first speak of an
eccentric genius who endeavoured to construct a system for himself,
as original and opposed to tradition as that of Paracelsus. J. B.
Van Helmont (1578-1644) was a man of noble family in Brussels,
who, after mastering all other branches of learning as then under-
stood, devoted himself with enthusiasm to medicine and chemistry.
By education and position a little out of the regular lines of the
profession, he took up in medicine an independent attitude. Well ac-
quainted with the doctrines of Galen, he rejected them as thoroughly
as Paracelsus did, and borrowed from the latter some definite ideas
as well as his revolutionary spirit. The archeus of Paracelsus
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
appears again, but with still further complications the whole body
being controlled by the archeus influus, and the organ of the soul
and its various parts by the archei insiti, which are subject to the
central archeus. Many of the symptoms of diseases were caused
by the passions and perturbations of the archeus, and medicines
acted by modifying the ideas of the same archeus. These and other
notions cannot be here stated at sufficient length to be intelligible.
It is enough to say that on this fantastic basis Helmont constructed
a medical system which had some practical merits, that his thera-
peutical methods were mild and in many respects happy, and that
he did service by applying newer chemical methods to the prepara-
tion of drugs. He thus had some share, though a share not generally
recognized, in the foundation of the iatro-chemical school, now to
be spoken of. But his avowed followers formed a small and dis-
credited sect, which, in England at least, can be clearly traced in
the latter part of the century.
Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood. The influence of Harvey's
discovery began to be felt before the middle of the century. Its
merits were recognized by Descartes, among the first, nine years
after its publication. For the history of the discovery, and its
consequences in anatomy and physiology, we must refer to the article
HARVEY. In respect of practical medicine, much less effect was at
first noticeable. But this example, combined with the Cartesian
principles, set many active and ingenious spirits to work to recon-
struct the whole of medicine on a physiological or even a mechanical
basis to endeavour to form what we should now call physiological
or scientific medicine. The result of this was not to eliminate dogma
from medicine, though it weakened the authority of the old dogma.
The movement led rather to the formation of schools or systems
of thought, which under various names lasted on into the i8th
century, while the belief in the utility or necessity of schools and
systems lasted much longer. The most important of these were
the so-called iatro-physical or mechanical and the iatro-chemical
schools.
latro-Physical School. The iatro-physical school of medicine
Sew out of physiological theories. Its founder is held to have been
. A. Borelli (1608-1679), whose treatise De motu animalium,
published in 1680, is regarded as marking an epoch in physiology.
The tendency of the school was to explain the actions and functions
of the body on physical, and especially on mechanical, principles.
The movements of bones and muscles were referred to the theory
of levers; the process of digestion was regarded as essentially a
process of trituration; nutrition and secretion were shown to be
dependent upon the tension of the vessels, and so forth. The
developments of this school belong rather to the history of physiology,
where they appear, seen in the light of modern science, as excellent
though premature endeavours in a scientific direction. But the
influence of these theories on practical medicine was not great.
The more judicious of the mechanical or physical school refrained,
as a judicious modern physiologist does, from too immediate
an application of their principles to daily practice. Mechanical
theories were introduced into pathology, in explanation of the
processes of fever and the like, but had little or no influence on
therapeutics. The most important men in this school after Borelli
were Nicolaus Stensen (Steno), (1638-1686), Giorgio Baglivi (1669-
1707) and Lorenzo Bellini (1643-1704). An English physician, William
Cole (1635-1716), is also usually ranked with them. One of the
most elaborate developments of the system was that of Archibald
Pitcairne (1652-1713), a Scottish physician who became professor
at Leiden, to be spoken of hereafter.
latro-Chemical School. The so-called iatro-chemical school stood
in a much closer relation to practical medicine than the iatro-
physical. The principle which mainly distinguished it was not
merely the use of chemical medicines in addition to the traditional,
or, as they were called in distinction, " Galenical " remedies, but
a theory of pathology or causation of disease entirely different from
the prevailing " humoral " pathology. Its chief aim was to reconcile
the new views in physiology and chemistry with practical medicine.
In some theoretical views, and in the use of certain remedies, the
school owed something to Van Helmont and Paracelsus, but took
in the main an independent position. The founder of the iatro-
chemical school was Sylvius (1614-1672), who belonged to a French
family settled in Holland, and was for fourteen years professor of
medicine at Leiden, where he attracted students from all quarters
of Europe. He made a resolute attempt to reconstruct medicine
on the two bases of the doctrine of the circulation of the blood and
the new views of chemistry. Fermentation, which was supposed
to take place in the stomach, played an important part in the vital
processes. Chemical disturbances of these processes, called acridities,
&c., were the cause of fevers and other diseases. Sometimes acid
sometimes alkaline properties predominated in the juices and
secretions of the body, and produced corresponding disturbances.
In nervous diseases disturbances of the vital " spirits " were most
important. Still in some parts of his system Sylvius shows an
anxiety to base his pathology on anatomical changes. The remedies
he employed were partly galenical, partly chemical. He was very
moderate in the use of bleeding.
The doctrines of Sylvius became widely spread in Holland and
Germany; less so in France and Italy. In England they were not
generally accepted till adopted with some modifications by Thomas
Willis the great anatomist (1621-1675), who is the chief English
representative of the chemical school. Willis was as thorough-going
a chemist as Sylvius. He regarded all bodies, organic and inorganic,
as composed of the three elements spirit, sulphur and salt, the
first being only found abundantly in animal bodies. The " intestine
movement of particles " in every body, or fermentation, was the
explanation of many of the processes of life and disease. The sen-
sible properties and physical alterations of animal fluids and solids
depended upon different proportions, movements and combinations
of these particles. The elaborate work Pharmaceutice ralionalis
(1674), based on these materials, had much influence in its time,
though it was soon forgotten. But some parts of Willis's works,
such as his descriptions of nervous diseases, and his account
(the earliest) of diabetes, are classical contributions to scientific
medicine. In the application of chemistry to the examination of
secretions Willis made some important steps. The chemical school
met with violent opposition, partly from the adherents of the ancient
medicine, partly from the iatro-mechanical school. Towards the
end of the I7th century appeared an English medical reformer who
sided with none of these schools, but may be said in some respects
to have surpassed and dispensed with them.
Sydenham and Locke. Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689) was
educated at Oxford and at Montpellier. He was well acquainted
with the works of the ancient physicians, and probably fairly so
with chemistry. Of his knowledge of anatomy nothing definite
can be said, as he seldom refers to it. His main avowed principle
was to do without hypothesis, and study the actual diseases in an
unbiassed manner. As his model in medical methods, Sydenham
repeatedly and pointedly refers to Hippocrates, and he has not
unfairly been called the English Hippocrates. He resembled his
Greek master in the high value he set on the study of the " natural
history of disease "; in the importance he attached to " epidemic
constitution " that is, to the influence of weather and other natural
causes in modifying disease; and further in his conception of the
healing power of nature in disease, a doctrine which he even
expanded beyond the teaching of Hippocrates. According to Syden-
ham, a disease is nothing more than an effort of nature to restore
the health of the patient by the elimination of the morbific matter.
The extent to which his practice was influenced by this and other
a priori conceptions prevents us from classing Sydenham as a pure
empiric ; but he had the rare merit of never permitting himself to be
enslaved even by his own theories. Still less was his mind warped
by either of the two great systems, the classical and the chemical,
which then divided the medical world. Sydenham's influence on
European medicine was very great. His principles were welcomed
as a return to nature by those who were weary of theoretical disputes.
He introduced a milder and better way of treating feyers especially
small-pox, and gave strong support to the use of specific medicines
especially Peruvian bark. He was an advocate of bleeding, and
often carried it to excess. Another important point in Sydenham's
doctrine is his clear recognition of many diseases as being what
would be now called specific, and not due merely to an alteration
in the primary qualities or humours of the older schools. From
this springs his high appreciation of specific medicines.
One name should always be mentioned along with Sydenham
that of his friend John Locke. The great sensational philosopher
was a thoroughly trained physician, and practised privately. He
shared and defended many of Sydenham's principles, and in the few
medical observations he has left shows himself to be even more
thorough-going than the " English Hippocrates." It is deeply to
be regretted in the interests of medicine that he did not write more.
It is, however, reasonable to suppose that his commanding intellect
often makes itself felt in the words of Sydenham. One sentence
of Locke's, in a letter to William Molyneux, sums up the practical
side of Sydenham's teaching:
" You cannot imagine how far a little observation carefully made
by a .man not tied up to the four humours [Galen], or sal, sulphur
and mercury [Paracelsus], or to acid and alcali [Sylvius and Willis]
which has of late prevailed, will carry a man in the curing of diseases
though very stubborn and dangerous ; and that with very little and
common things, and almost no medicine at all."
We thus see that, while the great anatomists, physicists and
chemists men of the type of Willis, Borelli and Boyle were laying
foundations which were later on built up into the fabric of scientific
medicine, little good was done by the premature application of their
half-understood principles to practice. The reform of practical
medicine was effected by men who aimed at, and partly succeeded
in, rejecting all hypothesis and returning to the unbiassed study of
natural processes, as shown in health and disease.
Sydenham showed that these processes might be profitably studied
and dealt with without explaining them; and, by turning men's
minds away from explanations and fixing them on facts, he enriched
medicine with a method more fruitful than any discoveries in detail.
From this time forth the reign of canonical authority in medicine
was at an end, though the dogmatic spirit long survived.
The i8lh Century. The medicine of the i8th century is
notable, like that of the latter part of the I7th, for the striving
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
after complete theoretical systems. The influence of the
iatro-physical school was by no means exhausted; and in
England, especially through the indirect influence of Sir Isaac
Newton's (1642-1727) great astronomical generalizations, it
took on a mathematical aspect, and is sometimes known as
iatro-mathematical. This phase is most clearly developed in
Archibald Pitcairne (1652-1713), who, though a determined
opponent of metaphysical explanations, and of the chemical
doctrines, gave to his own rude mechanical explanations of life
and disease almost the dogmatic completeness of a theological
system. His countryman and pupil, George Cheyne (1671-
1743), who lived some years at Bath, published a new theory of
fevers on the mechanical system, which had a great reputation.
Their English contemporaries and successors, John Freind,
William Cole, and Richard Mead, leaned also to mechanical
explanations, but with a distrust of systematic theoretical
completeness, which was perhaps partly a national characteristic,
partly the result of the teaching of Sydenham and Locke.
Freind (1675-1728) in his Emmenologia gave a mechanical
explanation of the phenomena of menstruation. He is also
one of the most distinguished writers on the history of medicine.
Cole (1635-1716) (see above) published mechanical hypotheses
concerning the causation of fevers which closely agree with those
of the Italian iatro-mechanical school. More distinguished
in his own day than any of these was Mead (1673-1754), one
of the most accomplished and socially successful physicians
of modern times. Mead was the pupil of the equally popular
and successful John Radcliffe (1650-1714), who had acquired
from Sydenham a contempt for book-learning, and belonged
to no school in medicine but the school of common sense. Rad-
cliffe left, however, no work requiring mention in a history of
medicine. Mead, a man of great learning and intellectual
activity, was an ardent advocate of the mathematical doctrines.
" It is very evident," he says, " that all other means of improving
medicine have been found ineffectual, by the stand it was
at for two thousand years, and that, since mathematicians
have set themselves to the study of it, men already begin to
talk so intelligibly and comprehensibly, even about abstruse
matters, that it is to be hoped that mathematical learning
will be the distinguishing mark of a physician and a quack."
His Mechanical Account of Poisons, in the first edition (1702),
gave an explanation of the effects of poisons, as acting only
on the blood. Afterwards he modified his hypothesis, and
referred the disturbances produced to the " nervous liquor,"
which he supposed to be a quantity of the " universal elastic
matter " diffused through the universe, by which Newton
explained the phenomena of light i.e. what was afterwards
called the luminiferous ether. Mead's treatise on The Power
of the Sun and Moon over Human Bodies (1704), equally inspired
by Newton's discoveries, was a premature attempt to assign
the influence of atmospheric pressure and other cosmical causes
in producing disease. His works contain, however, many
original experiments, and excellent practical observations.
James Keill (1673-1719) applied Newtonian and mechanical
principles to the explanation of bodily functions with still
greater accuracy and completeness; but his researches have more
importance for physiology than for practical medicine.
Boerhaave. None of these men founded a school a result due
in part to their intellectual character, in part to the absence in
England of medical schools equivalent in position and importance
to the universities of the Continent. An important academical
position was, on the other hand, one of the reasons why a physician
not very different in his way of thinking from the English physicians
of the age of Queen Anne was able to take a far more predominant
position in the medical world. Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738)
was emphatically a great teacher. He was for many years professor
of medicine at Leiden, where he lectured five hours a day, and
excelled in influence and reputation not only his greatest fore-
runners, Montanus of Padua and Sylvius of Leiden, but probably
every subsequent teacher. The hospital of Leiden, though with
only twelve beds available for teaching, became the centre of
medical influence in Europe. Many of the leading English physicians
of the 1 8th century studied there; Gerard Van Swieten (1700-
1772), a pupil of Boerhaave, transplanted the latter's method of
teaching to Vienna, and founded the noted Vienna school of medicine.
As the organizer, and almost the constructor, of the modern method
of clinical instruction, the services of Boerhaave to the progress of
medicine were immense, and can hardly be overrated. In his teach-
ing, as in his practice, he avowedly followed the method of Hippo-
crates and Sydenham, both of whom he enthusiastically admired.
In his medical doctrines he must be pronounced an eclectic, though
taking his stand mainly on the iatro-mechanical school. The best-
known parts of Boerhaave's system are his doctrines of inflamma-
tion, obstruction and " plethora. ' By the last named especially
he was long remembered. His object was to make all the anatomicaf
and physiological acquisitions of his age, even microscopical ana-
tomy, which he diligently studied, available for use in the practice
of medicine. He thus differed from Sydenham, who took almost
as little account of modern science as of ancient dogma. Boerhaave
may be in some respects compared to Galen, but again differed
from him in that he always abstained from attempting to reduce
his knowledge to a uniform and coherent system. Boerhaave
attached great importance to the study of the medical classics,
but rather treated them historically than quoted them as canonical
authorities. It almost follows from the nature of the case that the
great task of Boerhaave's life, a synthesis of ancient and modern
medicine, and the work in which this is chiefly contained, his
celebrated Institutions, could not have any great permanent value.
Nearly the same thing is true even of the Aphorisms, in which,
following the example of Hippocrates, he endeavoured to sum up
the results of his long experience.
Hoffmann and Stahl. We have now to speak of two writers in
whom the systematic tendency of the 1 8th century showed itself
most completely.
Friedrich Hoffmann (1660-1742), like Boerhaave, owed his
influence, and perhaps partly his intellectual characteristics, to
his academical position. He was in 1693 appointed the first pro-
fessor of medicine in the university of Halle, then just founded by
the elector Frederick III. Here he became, as did his contemporary
and rival Stahl, a popular and influential teacher, though their
university^had not the European importance of Leiden. Hoffmann's
" system " was apparently intended to reconcile the opposing
" spiritual " and " materialistic " views of nature, and is thought
to have been much influenced by the philosophy of Leibnitz. His
medical theories rest upon a complete theory of the universe. Life
depended upon a universally diffused ether, which animals breathe
in from the atmosphere, and which is contained in all parts of the
body. It accumulates in the brain, and there generates the " nervous
fluid " or pneuma a theory closely resembling that of Mead on the
" nervous liquor," unless indeed Mead borrowed it from Hoffmann.
On this system are explained all the phenomena of life and disease.
Health depends on the maintenance of a proper " tone " in the
body some diseases being produced by excess of tone, or " spasm ";
others by " atony," or want of tone. But it is impossible here to
follow its further developments. Independently of his system,
which has long ceased to exert any influence, Hoffmann made some
contributions to practical medicine; and his great knowledge of
chemistry enabled him to investigate the subject of mineral waters.
He was equally skilful in pharmacy, but lowered his position by
the practice, which would be unpardonable in a modern physician,
of trafficking in secret remedies.
George Ernest Stahl (1660-1734) was for more than twenty
years professor of medicine at Halle, and thus a colleague of Hoff-
mann, whom he resembled in constructing a complete theoretical
system, though their systems had little or nothing in common.
Stahl's chief aim was to oppose materialism. For mechanical
conceptions he substituted the theory of " animism " attributing
to the soul the functions of ordinary animal life in man, while the
life of other creatures was left to mechanical laws. The symptoms
of disease were explained as efforts of the soul to rid itself from
morbid influences, the soul acting reasonably with respect to the
end of self-preservation. The anima thus corresponds partly to
the " nature " of Sydenham, while in other respects it resembles
the archeus of Van Helmont. Animism in its completeness met
with little acceptance during the lifetime of its author, but influ-
enced some of the iatro-physical school. Stahl was the author of
the theory of " phlogiston ' in chemistry, which in its day had
great importance.
Holler and Morgagni. From the subtleties of rival systems it is
a satisfaction to turn to two movements in the medicine of the
1 8th century which, though they did not extinguish the spirit of
system-making, opened up paths of investigation by which the
systems were ultimately superseded. These are physiology in the
modern sense, as dating from Haller, and pathological anatomy,
as dating from Morgagni.
Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) was a man of even more encyclo-
paedic attainments than Boerhaave. He advanced chemistry,
botany, anatomy, as well as physiology, and was incessantly
occupied in endeavouring to apply his scientific studies to practical
medicine, thus continuing the work of his great teacher Boerhaave.
Besides all this he was probably more profoundly acquainted with
the literature and bibliography of medicine than any one before
or since. Haller occupied in the new university of Gottingen
(founded 1737) a position corresponding to that of Boerhaave at
Leiden, and in like manner influenced a very large circle of pupils.
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
The appreciation of his work in physiology belongs to the history
of that science; we are only concerned here with its influence on
medicine. Haller's definition of irritability as a property of muscular
tissue, and its distinction from sensibility as a property of nerves,
struck at the root of the prevailing hypothesis respecting animal
activity. It was no longer necessary to suppose that a half-
conscious " anima " was directing every movement. Moreover,
Haller's views did not rest on a priori speculation, but on numerous
experiments. He was among the first to investigate the action of
medicines on healthy persons. Unfortunately the lesson which
his contemporaries learnt was not the importance of experiment,
but only the need of contriving ether " systems " less open to objec-
tion ; and thus the influence of Haller led directly to the theoretical
subtleties of William Cullen and John Brown, and only indirectly
and later on to the general anatomy of M. F. X. Bichat. The great
name of Haller does not therefore occupy a very prominent place
in the history of practical medicine.
The work of Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771) had and
still preserves a permanent importance beyond that of all the
contemporary theorists. In a series of letters, De sedibus et causis
morborum per anatomen indagatis, published when he was in his
eightieth year, he describes the appearances met with at the post
mortem examination as well as the symptoms during life in a
number of cases of various diseases. It was not the first work of
the kind. The Swiss physician, Theophile Bonet (1620-1689)
had published his Sepulcretum in 1679; and observations of post
mortem appearances had been made by Montanus, P. Tulp,
Raymond Vieussens, A.M. Valsalva, G. M. Lancisi, Haller and
others. But never before was so large a collection of cases brought
together, described with such accuracy, or illustrated with equal
anatomical and medical knowledge. Morgagni's work at once
made an epoch in the science. Morbid anatomy now became a
recognized branch of medical research, and the movement was
started which has lasted till our own day.
The contribution of Morgagni to medical science must be regarded
as in some respects the counterpart of Sydenham's. The latter
had, in neglecting anatomy, neglected the most solid basis for
studying the natural history of disease; though perhaps it was less
from choice than because his practice, as he was not attached to a
hospital, gave him no opportunities. But it is on the combination of
the two methods that of Sydenhamand of Morgagni that modern
medicine rests; and it is through these that it has been able to make
steady progress in its own field, independently of the advance of
physiology or other sciences.
The method of Morgagni found many imitators, both in his own
country and in others. In England the first important name in
this field is at the same time that of the first writer of a systematic
work in any language on morbid anatomy, Matthew Baillie (1761-
1823), a nephew of John and William Hunter, who published his
treatise in 1795.
Cullen and Brown. It remains to speak of two systematic
writers on medicine in the l8th century, whose great reputation
prevents them from being passed over, though their real contribu-
tion to the progress of medicine was not great Cullen and Brown.
William Cullen (1710-1790) was a most eminent and popular
professor of medicine at Edinburgh. The same academical influ-
ences as surrounded the Dutch and German founders of systems
were doubtless partly concerned in leading him to form the plan
of a comprehensive system of medicine. Cullen's system was
largely based on the new physiological doctrine of irritability, but
is especially noticeable for the importance attached to nervous
action. Thus even gout was regarded as a " neurosis." These
pathological principles of Cullen are contained in his First Lines of
the Practice of Physic, an extremely popular book, often reprinted
and translated. More importance is to be attached to his Nosology
or Classification of Diseases. The attempt to classify diseases on
a natural-history plan was not new, having been commenced by
Sauvages and others, and is perhaps not a task of the highest
importance. Cullen drew out a classification of great and needless
complexity, the chief part of which is now forgotten, but several
of his main divisions are still preserved.
It is difficult to form a clear estimate of the importance of the
last systematizer of medicine John Brown (17351788) for, though
in England he has been but little regarded, the wide though short-
lived popularity of his system on the Continent shows that it must
have contained some elements of brilliancy, if not originality.
His theory of medicine professed to explain the processes of life
and disease, and the methods of cure, upon one simple principle
that of the property of " excitability, in virtue of which the
" exciting powers," defined as being (i) external forces and (2) the
functions of the system itself, call forth the vital phenomena " sense,
motion, mental function and passion." All exciting powers are
stimulant, the apparent debilitating or sedative effect of some
being due to a deficiency in the degree of stimulus; so that the
final conclusion is that the whole phenomena of life, health as
well as disease, consist in stimulus and nothing else." Brown
recognized some diseases as sthenic, others as asthenic, the latter
requiring stimulating treatment, the former the reverse; but his
practical conclusion was that 97 % of all diseases required a " stimu-
lating " treatment. In this he claimed to have made the most
salutary reform because all physicians from Hippocrates had
treated diseases by depletion and debilitating measures with the
object of curing by elimination. It would be unprofitable to
attempt a complete analysis of the Brunonian system; and it is
difficult now to understand why it attracted so much attention in
its day. To us at the present time it seems merely a dialectical
construction, having its beginning and end in definitions : the words
power, stimulus, &c., being used in such a way as not to correspond
to any precise physical conceptions, still less to definite material
objects or forces. One recommendation of the system was that
it favoured a milder system of treatment than was at that time in
vogue; Brown may be said to have been the first advocate of the
modern stimulant or feeding treatment of fevers. He advocated
the use of " animal soups " or beef-tea. Further, he had the
discernment to see that certain symptoms such as convulsions
and delirium, which were then commonly held always to indicate
inflammation were often really signs of weakness.
The fortunes of Brown's system (called, from having been origin-
ally written in Latin, the Brunonian) form one of the strangest
chapters in the history of medicine. In Scotland, Brown so far
won the sympathy of the students that riotous conflicts took place
between his partisans and opponents. In England his system
took little root. In Italy, on the other hand, it received enthusiastic
support, and, naturally, a corresponding degree of opposition.
The most important adherent to Brown's system was J. Rasori
(1763-1837), who taught it as professor at Pavia, but afterwards
substituted his own system of centra-stimulus. The theoretical
differences between this and the " stimulus " theory need not be
expounded. The practical difference in the corresponding treat-
ment was very great, as Rasori advocated a copious use of bleeding
and of depressing remedies, such as antimony. Joseph Frank
(1774-1841), a German professor at Pavia, afterwards of Vienna,
the author of an encyclopaedic work on medicine now forgotten,
embraced the Brunonian system, though he afterwards introduced
some modifications, and transplanted it to Vienna. Many names
are quoted as partisans or opponents of the Brunonian system in
Italy, but scarcely one of them has any other claim to be remem-
bered. In Germany the new system called forth, a little later,
no less enthusiasm and controversial heat. C. Girtanner (1760-
1800) first began to spread the new ideas (though giving them
out as his own), but Weikard was the first avowed advocate of
the system. Roschlaub (1768-1835) modified Brown's system into
the theory of excitement (Erregungstheorie), which for a time was
extremely popular in Germany. The enthusiasm of the younger
Brunonians in Germany was as great as in Edinburgh or in Italy,
and led to serious riots in the university of Gottingen. In America
the system was enthusiastically adopted by a noted physician,
Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), of Philadelphia, who was followed
by a considerable school. France was not more influenced by the
new school than England. In both countries the tendency towards
positive science and progress by objective investigation was too
marked for any theoretical system to have more than a passing
influence. In France, however, the influence of Brown's theories
is very clearly seen in the writings of Francois J. V. Broussais,
who, though not rightly classed with the system-makers, since his
conclusions were partly based upon anatomical investigation,
resembled them in his attempt to unite theory and practice in one
comprehensive synthesis. The explanation of the meteoric splen-
dour of the Brunonian system in other countries seems to be as
follows. In Italy the period of intellectual decadence had set in,
and no serious scientific ardour remained to withstand the novelties
of abstract theory. In Germany the case was somewhat different.
Intellectual activity was not wanting, but the great achievements
of the 1 8th century in philosophy and the moral sciences had
fostered a love of abstract speculation; and some sort of cosmical
or general system was thought indispensable in every department
of special science. Hence another generation had to pass away
before Germany found herself on the level, in scientific investigation,
of France and England.
Before the theoretic tendency of the 1 8th century was quite
exhausted, it displayed itself in a system which, though in some
respects isolated in the history of medicine, stands nearest to that
of Brown that, namely, of Hahnemann (see HOMOEOPATHY).
S. C. F. Hahnemann (1753-1844) was in conception as revolutionary
a reformer of medicine as Paracelsus. He professed to base medicine
entirely on a knowledge of symptoms, regarding all investigation
of the causes of symptoms as useless. While thus rejecting all the
lessons of morbid anatomy and pathology, he put forward views
respecting the causes of disease which hardly bear to be seriously
stated. All chronic maladies result either from three diseases
psora (the itch), syphilis or sycosis (a skin disease), or else are
maladies produced by medicines. Seven-eighths of all chronic
diseases are produced by itch driven inwards. 1 (It is fair to say
that these views were published in one of his later works.) In
treatment of disease Hahnemann rejected entirely the notion of
a vis medicatrix naturae, and was guided by his well-known principle
1 The itch (scabies) is really an affection produced by the presence
in the skin of a species of mite (Acarus scabiei), and when this is
destroyed or removed the disease is at an end.
HISTORY]
MEDICINE
53
" similia similibus curantur," which he explained as depending on
the law that in order to get rid of a disease some remedy must be
given which should substitute for the disease an action dynamically
similar, but weaker. The original malady being thus got rid of,
the vital force would easily be able to cope with and extinguish
the slighter disturbance caused by the remedy. Something very
similar was held by Brown, who taught that " indirect debility
was to be cured by a lesser degree of the same stimulus as had
caused the original disturbance. Generally, however, Hahnemann's
views contradict those of Brown, though moving somewhat in the
same plane. In order to select remedies which should fulfil the
indication of producing symptoms like those of the disease, Hahne-
mann made many observations of the action of drugs on healthy
persons. He did not originate this line of research, for it had been
pursued, if not originated, by Haller, and cultivated systematically
by Tommasini, an Italian " contra-stimulist " ; but he carried it
out with much elaboration. His results, nevertheless, were vitiated
by being obtained in the interest of a theory, and by singular want
of discrimination. In his second period he developed the theory
of " potentiality " or dynamization namely, that medicines gained
in strength by being diluted, if the dilution was accompanied by
shaking or pounding, which was supposed to " potentialize " or
increase the potency of the medicine. On this principle Hahnemann
ordered his original tinctures to be reduced in strength to one-
fiftieth ; these first dilutions again to one-fiftieth ; and so on, even
till the thirtieth dilution, which he himself used by preference, and
to which he ascribed the highest " potentiality." From a theoretical
point of view Hahnemann's is one of the abstract systems, pretend-
ing to universality, which modern medicine neither accepts nor
finds it worth while to controvert. In the treatment of disease his
practical innovations came at a fortunate time, when the excesses
of the depletory system had only partially been superseded by the
equally injurious opposite extreme of Brown's stimulant treatment.
Hahnemann's use of mild and often quite inert remedies contrasted
favourably with both of these. Further, he did good by insisting
upon simplicity in prescribing, when it was the custom to give a
number of drugs, often heterogeneous and inconsistent, in the same
prescription. But these indirect benefits were quite independent
of the truth or falsity of his theoretical system.
Positive Progress in the i8th Century. In looking back on
the repeated attempts in the i8th century to construct a uni-
versal system of medicine, it is impossible not to regret the waste
of brilliant gifts and profound acquirements which they involved.
It was fortunate, however, that the accumulation of positive
knowledge in medicine did not cease. While Germany and
Scotland, as the chief homes of abstract speculation, gave
birth to most of the theories, progress in objective science
was most marked in other countries in Italy first, and after-
wards in England and France. We must retrace our steps a
little to enumerate several distinguished names which, from the
nature of the case, hardly admit of classification.
In Italy the tradition of the great anatomists and physiolo-
gists of the 1 7th century produced a series of accurate observers
and practitioners. Among the first of these were Antonio
Maria Valsalva (1666-1723), still better known as an anatomist;
Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654-1720), also an anatomist, the
author of a classical work on the diseases of the heart and
aneurisms; and Ippolito Francisco Albertini (1662-1738),
whose researches on the same class of diseases were no less
important.
In France, Jean Baptiste Senac (1693-1770) wrote also an
important work on the affections of the heart. Sauvages,
otherwise F. B. de Lacroix (1706-1767), gave, under the title
Nosologia methodica, a natural-history classification of diseases:
Jean Astruc (1684-1766) contributed to the knowledge of
general diseases. But the state of medicine in that country
till the end of the i8th century was unsatisfactory as compared
with some other parts of Europe.
In England the brilliancy of the early part of the century
in practical medicine was hardly maintained to the end, and
presented, indeed, a certain contrast with the remarkable and
unflagging progress of surgery in the same period. The roll
of the College of Physicians does not furnish many distinguished
names. Among these should be mentioned John Fothergill
(1712-1780), who investigated the "putrid sore throat"
now called diphtheria, and the form of neuralgia popularly
known as tic douloureux. A physician of Plymouth, John
Huxham (1694-1768), made researches on epidemic fevers,
in the spirit of Sydenham and Hippocrates, which are of the
highest importance. William Heberden (1710-1801), a London
physician, called by Samuel Johnson ultimus Romanorum,
" the last of our learned physicians," left a rich legacy of practical
observations in the Commentaries published after his death.
More important in their results than any of these works were
the discoveries of EDWARD JENNER (q.v.), respecting the preven-
tion of small-pox by vaccination, in which he superseded the
partially useful but dangerous practice of inoculation, which
had been introduced into England in 1721. The history of
this discovery need not be told here, but it may be pointed out
that, apart from its practical importance, it has had great
influence on the scientific study of infectious diseases. The name
of John Pringle (1707-1782) should also be mentioned as one of
the first to study epidemics of fevers occurring in prisons and
camps. His work, entitled Observations on the Diseases of an
Army, was translated into many European languages and
became the standard authority on the subject.
In Germany the only important school of practical medicine was
that of Vienna, as revived by Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772),
a pupil of Boerhaave, under the patronage of Maria Theresa.
Van Swieten's commentaries on the aphorisms of Boerhaave are
thought more valuable than the original text. Other eminent
names of the same school are Anton de Haen (1704-1776),
Anton Storck (1731-1803), Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), and
John Peter Frank (1745-1821), father of Joseph Frank, before
mentioned as an adherent of the Brownian system, and like
his son carried away for a time by the new doctrines. This,
the old " Vienna School," was not distinguished for any notable
discoveries, but for success in clinical teaching, and for its
sound method of studying the actual facts of disease during
life and after death, which largely contributed to the establish-
ment of the " positive medicine " of the igth century.
One novelty, however, of the first importance is due to a
Vienna physician of the period, Leopold Auenbrugger (1722-
1809), the inventor of the method of recognizing diseases of
the chest by percussion. Auenbrugger's method was that
of direct percussion with the tips of the fingers, not that which
is now used, of mediate percussion with the intervention of a
finger or plessimeter; but the results of his method were the
same and its value nearly as great. Auenbrugger's great
work, the Inventum novum, was published in 1761. The new
practice was received at first with contempt and even ridicule,
and afterwards by Stoll and Peter Frank with only grudging
approval. It did not receive due recognition till 1808, when
J. N. Corvisart translated the Inventum novum into French,
and Auenbrugger's method rapidly attained a European repu-
tation. Surpassed, but not eclipsed, by the still more important
art of auscultation introduced by R. T. H. Laennec, it is hardly
too much to say that this simple and purely mechanical invention
has had more influence on the development of modern medicine
than all the " systems " evolved by the most brilliant intellects
of the i 8th century. i
Rise of the Positive School in France. The reform of medicine
in France must be dated from the great intellectual awakening
caused by the Revolution, but more definitely starts with the
researches in anatomy and physiology of Marie Francois Xavier
Bichat (1771-1802). The importance in science of Bichat's
classical works, especially of the Anatomie generate, cannot be
estimated here; we can only point out their value as supplying
a new basis for pathology or the science of disease. Among
the most ardent of his followers was Francois Joseph Victor
Broussais (1772-1838), whose theoretical views, partly founded
on those of Brown and partly on the so-called vitalist school
of Theophile Bordeu (1722-1776) and Paul Joseph Barthez
(1734-1806), differed from these essentially in being avowedly
based on anatomical observations. Broussais's chief aim was
to find an anatomical basis for all diseases, but he is especially
known for his attempt to explain all fevers as a consequence
of irritation or inflammation of the intestinal canal (gastro-
enterite). A number of other maladies, especially general
diseases and those commonly regarded as nervous, were attri-
buted to the same cause. It would be impossible now to trace
54
MEDICINE
[HISTORY
the steps which led to this wild and long since exploded theory.
It led, among other consequences, to an enormous misuse of
bleeding. Leeches were his favourite instruments, and so much
so that he is said to have used 100,000 in his own hospital
wards during one year. He was equalled if not surpassed
in this excess by his follower Jean Bouillaud (1796-1881), known
for his important work on heart diseases. Broussais's system,
to which he gave the name of " Medecine physiologique,"
did much indirect good, in fixing attention upon morbid changes
in the organs, and thus led to the rise of the strongly opposed
anatomical and pathological school of Corvisart, Laennec
and Bayle.
Jean Nicolas Corvisart (1755-1821) has already been mentioned
as the translator and introducer into France of Auenbrugger's work
on percussion. He introduced some improvements in the method,
but the only real advance was the introduction of mediate percus-
sion by Pierre Adolphe Piorry (1794-1879) in 1828. The discovery
had, however, yet to be completed by that of auscultation, or
listening to sounds produced in the chest by breathing, the move-
ments of the heart, &c. The combination of these methods con-
stitutes what is now known as physical diagnosis. Ren6 Th6ophile
Hyacinthe Laennec (1781-1826) was the inventor of this most
important perhaps of all methods of medical research. Except for
some trifling notices of sounds heard in certain diseases, this method
was entirely new. It was definitely expounded in an almost
complete form in his work De V auscultation mediate, published in
1819. Laennec attached undue importance to the use of the
stethoscope, and laid too much weight on specific signs of specific
diseases; otherwise his method in its main features has remained
unchanged. The result of his discovery was an entire revolution
in the knowledge of diseases of the chest ; but it would be a mistake
to forget that an essential factor in this revolution was the simul-
taneous study of the condition of the diseased organs as seen after
death. Without the latter, it is difficult to see how the information
conveyed by sounds could ever have been verified. This increase
of knowledge is therefore due, not to auscultation alone, but to
auscultation combined with morbid anatomy. In the case of
Laennec himself this qualification takes nothing from his fame,
for he studied so minutely the relations of post-mortem appearances
to symptoms during life that, had he not discovered auscultation,
his researches in morbid anatomy would have made him famous.
The pathologico-anatomical method was also followed with great
zeal and success by Gaspard Laurent Bayle (1774-1816), whose
researches on tubercle, and the changes of the lungs and other organs
in consumption, are the foundation of most that has been done
since his time. It was of course antecedent to the discovery of
auscultation. Starting from these men arose a school of physicians
who endeavoured to give to the study of symptoms the same pre-
cision as belonged to anatomical observations, and by the combina-
tion of both methods made a new era in clinical medicine. Among
these were Auguste Francois Chomel (1788-1858), Pierre Charles
Alexandra Louis (1787-1872), Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874) and
Gabriel Andral (1797-1876). Louis, by his researches on pulmo-
nary consumption and typhoid fever, had the chief merit of refuting
the doctrines of Broussais. In another respect also he aided in
establishing an exact science of medicine by the introduction of
the numerical or statistical method. By this method only can the
fallacies which are attendant on drawing conclusions from isolated
cases be avoided; and thus the chief objection which has been
made to regarding medicine as an inductive science has been re-
moved. Louis's method was improved and systematized by
Louis Denis Jules Gavarret (1809-1890); and its utility is now
universally recognized. During this brilliant period of French
medicine the superiority of the school of Paris could hardly be
contested. We can only mention the names of Pierre Bretonneau
(1771-1862), Louis L6on Rpstan (1790-1866), Jean Louis D'Alibert
(1766-1837), Pierre Francois Olive Rayer (1793-1867) and Armand
Trousseau (1801-1866), the eloquent and popular teacher.
English Medicine from 1800 to 1840. The progress of medicine
in England during this period displays the same characteristics
as at other times, viz. a gradual and uninterrupted development,
without startling changes such as are caused by the sudden
rise or fall of a new school. Hardly any theoretical system is
of English birth; Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), the grand-
father of the great Charles Darwin, alone makes an exception.
In his Zoonomia (1794) he expounded a theory of life and
disease which had some resemblance to that of Brown, though
arrived at (he says) by a different chain of reasoning.
Darwin's work shows, however, the tendency to connect
medicine with physical science, which was an immediate con-
sequence of the scientific discoveries of the end of the i8th
century, when Priestley and Cavendish in England exercised
the same influence as Lavoisier in France. The English school
of medicine was also profoundly stirred by the teachings of
the two brothers William and John Hunter, especially the
latter who must therefore be briefly mentioned, though
their own researches were chiefly concerned with subjects
lying a little outside the limits of this sketch. William Hunter
(1718-1783) was known in London as a brilliant teacher of
anatomy and successful obstetric physician; his younger brother
and pupil, John Hunter (1728-1793), was also a teacher of
anatomy, and practised as a surgeon. His immense contribu-
tions to anatomy and pathology cannot be estimated here,
but his services in stimulating research and training investi-
gators belong to the history of general medicine. They are
sufficiently evidenced by the fact that Edward Jenner and
Matthew Baillie were his pupils.
The same scientific bent is seen in the greater attention
paid to morbid anatomy (which dates from Baillie) and the
more scientific method of studying diseases. An instance
of the latter is the work of Robert Willan (1757-1812) on diseases
of the skin a department of medicine in which abstract and
hypothetical views had been especially injurious. Willan,
by following the natural-history method of Sydenham, at
once put the study on a sound basis; and his work has been
the starting-point of the most important modern researches.
About the same time William Charles Wells (1757-1817), a
scientific investigator of remarkable power, and the author
of a celebrated essay on dew, published observations on altera-
tions in the urine, which, though little noticed at the time,
were of great value as assisting in the important discovery made
some years afterwards by Richard Bright.
These observers, and others who cannot be mentioned here,
belong to the period when English medicine was still little
influenced by the French school. Shortly after 1815, however,
when the continent of Europe was again open to English travel-
lers, many English doctors studied in Paris, and the discoveries
of their great French contemporaries began to be known.
The method of auscultation was soon introduced into England
by pupils of Laennec. John Forbes (1787-1861) in 1824, and
William Stokes .(1804-1878) of Dublin in 1825, published
treatises on the use of the stethoscope. Forbes also translated
the works of Laennec and Auenbrugger, and an entire revolution
was soon effected in the knowledge of diseases of the chest.
James Hope (1801-1841) and Peter Mere Latham (1789-1875)
further developed this subject, and the former was also known
for his researches in morbid anatomy. The combination of
clinical and anatomical research led, as in the hands of the
great French physicians, to important discoveries by English
investigators. The discovery by Richard Bright (1789-1858)
of the disease of the kidneys known by his name proved to be
one of the most momentous of the century. It was published
in Reports of Medical Cases 1827-1831. Thomas Addison (1793-
1860) takes, somewhat later, a scarcely inferior place. The
remarkable physiological discoveries of Sir Charles Bell (1774-
1842) and Marshall Hall (1790-1857) for the first time rendered
possible the discrimination of diseases of the spinal cord.
Several of these physicians were also eminent for their clinical
teaching an art in which Englishmen had up till then been
greatly deficient.
Although many names of scarcely less note might be mentioned
among the London physicians of the early part of the century, we
must pass them over to consider the progress of medicine in Scotland
and Ireland. In Edinburgh the admirable teaching of Cullen had
raised the medical faculty to a height of prosperity of which his
successor, James Gregory (1758-1821), was not unworthy. His
nephew, William Pulteney Alison (1790^1859), was even more
widely known. These great teachers maintained in the northern
university a continuous tradition of successful teaching, which the
difference in academical and other circumstances rendered hardly
possible in London. Nor was the northern school wanting in special
investigators, such as John Abercrombie (1780-1844), known for
his work on diseases of the brain and spinal cord, published in 1828,
and many others. Turning to Ireland, it should be said that the
Dublin school in this period produced two physicians of the highest
distinction. Robert James Graves (1796-1853) was a most eminent
clinical teacher and observer, whose lectures are regarded as the
MODERN PROGRESS]
MEDICINE
55
model of clinical teaching, and indeed served as such to the most
popular teacher of the Paris school in the middle of this century,
Trousseau. William Stokes (1804-1878) was especially known for
his works on diseases of the chest and of the heart, and for his
clinical teaching.
German Medicine from 1800 to 1840. Of the other countries
of Europe, it is now only necessary to mention Germany. Here
the chief home of positive medicine was still for a long time
Vienna, where the " new Vienna school " continued and sur-
passed the glory of the old. Joseph Skoda (1805-1881) extended,
and in some respects corrected, the art of auscultation as left
by Laennec. Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878), by his colossal
labours, placed the science of morbid anatomy on a permanent
basis, and enriched it by numerous discoveries of detail. Most
of the ardent cultivators of this science in Germany in the next
generation were his pupils. In the other German schools,
though some great names might be found, as Moritz Heinrich
Romberg (1795-1873), the founder of the modern era in the
study of nervous diseases, the general spirit was scholastic
and the result barren till the teaching of one man, whom the
modern German physicians generally regard as the regenerator
of scientific medicine in their country, made itself felt. Johann
Lucas Schonlein (1793-1864) was first professor at Wurzburg,
afterwards at Zurich, and for twenty years at Berlin (from
1839-1859). Schonlein's positive contributions to medical
science were not large; but he made in 1839 one discovery,
apparently small, but in reality most suggestive, namely,
that the contagious disease of the head called favus is produced
by the growth in the hair of a parasitic fungus. In this may
be found the germ of the startling modern discoveries in parasitic
diseases. His systematic doctrines founded the so-called
" natural history school " ; but his real merit was that of the
founder or introducer of a method. In the words of H. Haser:
" Schonlein has the incontestable merit of having been the first
to establish in Germany the exact method of the French and
the English, and to impregnate this method with the vivifying
spirit of German research." (J. F. P.)
Modern Progress. In recent times the positive bent of modern
knowledge and methods in other spheres of science and thought,
and especially in biology, has influenced medicine profoundly.
Minuter accuracy of observation was inculcated by the labours
and teaching of the great anatomists of the I7th century;
and, for modern times, experimental physiology was instituted
by Harvey, anatomy having done little to interpret life in its
dynamic aspects. For medicine in England Harvey did what
William Gilbert did for physics and Robert Boyle for chemistry:
he insisted upon direct interrogation of natural processes,
and thereby annihilated the ascendancy of mere authority,
which, while nations were in the making, was an essential
principle in the welding together of heterogeneous and turbulent
peoples. The degradation of medicine between Galen and
Harvey, if in part it consisted in the blind following of the
authority of the former physician, was primarily due to other
causes; and its new development was not due to the discovery
of the experimental method alone: social and political causes
also are concerned in the advance even of the exact sciences.
Among such contributory causes is the more familiar intercourse
of settled nations which we enjoy in our own day; the ideas
of one nation rapidly permeate neighbouring nations, and by
the means of printed books penetrate into remoter provinces
and into distant lands. Hence the description of the advance
of medicine in western Europe and America may for the latest
stage be taken as a whole, without that separate treatment,
nation by nation, which in the history of earlier times was
necessary. Italy lost the leading place she had taken in the
new development of science. The several influences of modern
Germany, France and America became of the first importance
to English medicine; but these tides, instead of pursuing their
courses as independent streams, have become confluent. The
work of Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), Johannes Miiller (1809-
1875), Rudolph Virchow and Karl Ludwig (1816-1895) in
Germany, of R. T. H. Laennec and Claude Bernard in France,
was accepted in England, as that of Matthew Baillie, Charles
Bell, Bright, Graves and others of the British school, quickly
made itself felt abroad.
The character of modern medicine cannot be summed in
a word, as, with more or less aptness, that of some previous
periods may be. Modern medicine, like modern Expert-
science, is as boldly speculative as it has been in mental
any age, and yet it is as observant as in any natural- Method
istic period; its success lies in the addition to these rec x alze<l -
qualities of the method of verification; the fault of previous
times being not the activity of the speculative faculty, without
which no science can be fertile, but the lack of methodical
reference of all and sundry propositions, and parts of proposi-
tions, to the test of experiment. In no department is the
experimental method more continually justified than in that
of the natural history of disease, which at first sight would
seem to have a certain independence of it and a somewhat exclu-
sive value of its own. Hippocrates had no opportunity of
verification by necropsy, and Sydenham ignored pathology;
yet the clinical features of many but recently described diseases,
such, for example, as that named after Graves, and myxoedema,
both associated with perversions of the thyroid gland, lay
as open to the eye of physicians in the past as to our own.
Again, to the naturalist the symptoms of tabes dorsalis were
distinctive enough, had he noted them. No aid to the trained
eye was necessary for such observations, and for many other
such; yet, if we take Sir Thomas Watson (1792-1882) as a
modern Sydenham, we may find in his lectures no suspicion
that there may be a palsy of muscular co-ordination apart from
deprivation of strength. Indeed, it does not seem to have
occurred to any one to compare the muscular strength in the
various kinds of paraplegia. Thus it was, partly because
the habit of acceptance of authority, waning but far from
extirpated, dictated to the clinical observer what he should
see; partly because the eye of the clinical observer lacked that
special training which the habit and influence of experimental
verification alone can give, that physicians, even acute and
practised physicians, failed to see many and many a sympto-
matic series which went through its evolutions conspicuously
enough, and needed for its appreciation no unknown aids
or methods of research, nor any further advances of patho-
logy. We see now that the practice of the experimental method
endows with a new vision both the experimenter himself and,
through his influence, those who are associated with him in
medical science, even if these be not themselves actually
engaged in experiment; a new discipline is imposed upon old
faculties, as is seen as well in other sciences as in those
on which medicine more directly depends. And it is not
only the perceptions of eye or ear which tell, but also the
association of concepts behind these adits of the mind. It
was the concepts derived from the experimental methods of
Harvey, Lavoisier, Liebig, Claude Bernard, Helmholtz, Darwin,
Pasteur, Lister and others which, directly or indirectly, trained
the eyes of clinicians to observe more closely and accurately;
and not of clinicians only, but also of pathologists, such as
Matthew Baillie, Cruveilhier, Rokitansky, Bright, Virchow
to name but a few of those who, with (as must be admitted)
new facilities for necropsies, began to pile upon us discoveries
in morbid anatomy and histology. If at first in the i8th century,
and in the earlier igth, the discoveries in this branch of medical
knowledge had a certain isolation, due perhaps to the pre-
possessions of the school of Sydenham, they soon became the
property of the physician, and were brought into co-ordination
with the clinical phenomena of disease. The great Morgagni,
the founder of morbid anatomy, himself set the example of
carrying on this study parallel with clinical observation; and
always insisted that the clinical story of the case should be
brought side by side with the revelations of the necropsy. In
pathology, indeed, Virchow's (1821-1902) influence in the
transfiguration of this branch of science may almost be compared
to that of Darwin and Pasteur in their respective domains.
In the last quarter of the igth century the conception grew
clearer that morbid anatomy for the most part demonstrates
MEDICINE
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disease in its static aspects only, and also for the most part
in the particular aspect of final demolition; and it became
manifest as pathology and clinical medicine became more and
more thoroughly integrated, that the processes which initiate
and are concerned in this dissolution were not revealed by the
scalpel.
Again, the physician as naturalist, though stimulated by
the pathologist to delineate disease in its fuller manifestations,
yet was hampered in a measure by the didactic method of
constructing " types " which should command the attention
of the disciple and rivet themselves on his memory; thus too
often those incipient and transitory phases which initiate the
paths of dissolution were missed. Not only so, but the physician,
thus fascinated by " types," and impressed by the silent monu-
mentsof the pathological museum, was led to localize disease too
much, to isolate the acts of nature, and to forget not only the
continuity of the phases which lead up to the exemplary forms,
or link them together, but to forget also that even between
the types themselves relations of affinity must exist and these
oftentimes none the less intimate for apparent diversities of
form, for types of widely different form may be, and indeed
often are, more closely allied than types which have more
superficial resemblance and to forget, moreover, how largely
negative is the process of abstraction by which types are
imagined. Upon this too static a view, both of clinical type
and of post-mortem-room pathology, came a despairing spirit,
almost of fatalism, which in the contemplation of organic ruins
lost the hope of cure of organic diseases. So prognosis became
pessimistic, and the therapeutics of the abler men negative,
until fresh hopes arose of stemming the tides of evil at their
earliest flow.
Such was medicine, statically ordered in pathology, statically
ordered in its clinical concepts, when, on the 24th of November
1859, the Origin of Species was published. It is no
Durw/a?" exaggeration to say that this epoch-making work
brought to birth a world of conceptions as new as
the work of Copernicus. For the natural philosopher the whole
point of view of things was changed; in biology not only had the
anthropocentric point of view been banished, but the ancient
concept of perpetual flux was brought home to ordinary men, and
entered for good into the framework of thought. The study
of comparative pathology, yet in an inchoate stage, and of
embryology, illuminated and enlarged biological conceptions,
both normal and abnormal; and the ens reale subsistens in cor pore
disappeared for ever at any rate from physiology and medicine.
Before Darwin if the name of Darwin may be used to signify
the transformation of thought of which he was the chief artificer
natural objects were regarded, not in medicine and pathology
only, as a set of hidebound events; and natural operations as
moving in fixed grooves, after a fashion which it is now difficult
for us to realize. With the melting of the ice the more daring
spirits dashed into the new current with such ardour that for
them all traditions, all institutions, were thrown into hotchpot;
even elderly and sober physicians took enough of the infection to
liberate their minds, and, in the field of the several diseases and
in that of post-mortem pathology, the hollowness of classification
by superficial resemblance, the transitoriness of forms, and the
flow of processes, broke upon the view. Thus it came about
not only that classifications of disease based on superficial like-
ness such as jaundice, dropsy, inflammation were broken up,
and their parts redistributed, but also that even more set dis-
eases began to lose their settlements, and were recognized as
terms of series, as transitory or culminating phases of perturba-
tions which might be traced to their origins, and in their earlier
stages perhaps withstood.
The doctrine of heredity in disease thus took a larger aspect ;
the view of morbid series was no longer bounded even by the
life of the individual; and the propagation of taints, and of mor-
bid varieties of man, from generation to generation proved to be
no mere repetition of fixed features but, even more frequently,
to be modes of development or of dissolution betraying them-
selves often in widely dissimilar forms, in series often extending
over many lives, the terms of which at first sight had seemed
wholly disparate. Thus, for example, as generations succeed
one another, nervous disorders appear in various guise; epilepsy,
megrim, insanity, asthma, hysteria, neurasthenia, a motley
array at first sight, seemed to reveal themselves as terms of
a morbid series; not only so, but certain disorders of other
systems also might be members of the series, such as certain
diseases of the skin, and even peculiar susceptibilities or immuni-
ties in respect of infections from without. On the other hand,
not a few disorders proved to be alien to classes to which nar-
rower views of causation had referred them; of such are tabes
dorsalis, neuritis, infantile palsy or tetanus, now removed from
the category of primary nervous diseases and placed in one or
other of the class of infections; or, conversely, certain forms of
disease of the joints are now regarded with some certainty as
members of more than one series of diseases chiefly manifest in
the nervous system. In the effects of simpler poisons the recog-
nition of unity in diversity, as in the affiliation of a peripheral
neuritis to arsenic, illustrated more definitely this serial or
etiological method of classifying diseases. On the other hand,
inheritance was dismissed, or survived only as a " suscepti-
bility," in the cases of tubercle, leprosy and some other maladies
now recognized as infectious; while in others, as in syphilis, it
was seen to consist in a translation of the infectious element
from parent to offspring. These new conceptions of the multi-
plicity in unity of disease, and of the fluidity and continuity of
morbid processes, might have led to vagueness and over-boldness
in speculation and reconstruction, bad not the experimental
method been at hand with clues and tests for the several series.
Of this method the rise and wonderful extension of the science of
bacteriology also furnished no inconsiderable part.
In the disease of the scalp called favus, Schonlein had dis-
covered a minute mycelial fungus; a remarkable discovery, for
it was the first conspicuous step in the attribution
of diseases to the action of minute parasites. Schon-
lein thus did something to introduce new and positive
conceptions and exacter methods into Germany; but unfortu-
nately his own mind retained the abstract habit of his country,
and his abilities were dissipated in the mere speculations of
Schelling. Similarly Karl Hoffmann of Wiirzburg wasted his
appreciations of the newer schools of developmental biology in
fanciful notions of human diseases as reversions to normal stages
of lower animals; scrofula being for him a reversion to the insect,
rickets to the mollusc, epilepsy to the oscillaria, and so forth.
Even that distinguished physiologist Johannes Miiller remained
a staunch vitalist. Fortunately Germany, which at the begin-
ning of the century was delivered over to Brownism and vitalism
and was deaf to Bichat, was rescued from this sort of barrenness
by the brilliant experimental work of Claude Bernard and Pas-
teur in France work which, as regards the attenuated virus,
was a development of that of Edward Jenner, and indeed of
Schwann, Robert Koch worthily following Pasteur with his work
on the bacillus of anthrax and with his discovery of that of tuber-
culosis; and by the cellular doctrine and abundant labours in
pathology of Virchow. Ludwig Brieger then discovered the
toxins of certain infections; and Emil A. von Behring completed
the sphere of the new study by his discovery of the antitoxins of
diphtheria and tetanus. In practical medicine the subsequent
results of Behring and his followers have in diphtheria attained
a signal therapeutical success. If the striking conceptions of
Paul Ehrlich and Emil Fischer continue to prove as fertile in
inspiring and directing research as at present they seem to be,
another wide sphere of conceptions will be opened out, not in
bacteriology only, but also in biological chemistry and in
molecular physics. Again, besides giving us the clue to the
nature of many diseases and to the continuity of many morbid
series, by bacteriology certain diseases, such as actinomycosis,
have been recognized for the first time.
As the prevalence of the conceptions signified and inspired
by the word " phlogiston " kept alive ontological notions of
disease, so the dissipation of vitalistic conceptions in the field
of physics prepared men's minds in pathology for the new
MODERN PROGRESS]
MEDICINE
57
views opened by the discoveries of Pasteur on the side
of pathogeny, and of J. F. Cohnheim (1830-1884) and of
Iliya Metchnikoff on the dynamical side of his-
tology. Of the older ontological notions of disease
the strongest were those of the essence of fever and
of the essence of inflammation. Broussais had done
much to destroy the notion of fever as an entity, but by extrava-
gances in other directions he had discredited the value of his
main propositions. Yet, although, as Andral and other French
physicians proved, it was extravagant to say that all fevers
take their origin from some local inflammation, it was true and
most useful to insist, as Broussais vehemently insisted, that
" fever " is no substance, but a generalization drawn from sym-
ptoms common to many and various diseases springing from many
various and often local causes; from causes agreeing perhaps
only in the factor of elevation of the temperature of the body.
To the establishment of this new conception the improvement
and general use of the clinical thermometer gave invaluable ad-
vantages. This instrument, now indispensable in our daily work
at the bedside, had indeed long been known both to physiolo-
gists (Haller) and to clinicians. In the i8th century A. de Haen,
and, in the United Kingdom, George Cleghorn (1716-1789) of
Dublin and James Currie (1756-1805), carried on the use of the
thermometer in fevers; and on the continent of Europe in later
years F. G. F. von Barensprung (1822-1865) an< l Ludwig Traube
(1818-1876) did the same service; but it is to the work of Karl
August Wunderlich (1815-1877) that we owe the establishment
of this means of precision as a method of regular observation
both in pathology and in clinical medicine. By his almost
exhaustive comparison of febrile movements as symptomatic
processes Wunderlich dealt the last blow to the expiring doctrine
of the "entity" of " fever "; while on the clinical side Breton-
neau and Louis, in 1862-1872, by their careful clinical and patho-
logical studies of forms of fever, relieved the new doctrine
of the extravagances of Broussais, and prepared the way for
the important distinction of enteric from typhus fever by
A. P. Stewart (1813-1883), William Jenner, William Budd
(1811-1880), Charles Murchison (1830-1879), J. H. F.
Autenrieth (1772-1835), Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802-1870),
Huss and others. By the learned and accomplished Armand
Trousseau British and German influences were carried into
France.
Meanwhile Cohnheim and Metchnikoff were engaged in
destroying the ontological conception not of fever only, but also
of inflammation, of which, as a local event, an ontological con-
ception was no less strongly implanted. By his researches on
the migration of the white corpuscles of the blood Cohnheim,
on the bases laid by Virchow, brought the processes of inflam-
mation within the scope of the normal, seeing in them but a modi-
fication of normal processes under perturbations of relatively
external incidence; even the formation of abscess was thus
brought by him within the limits of perversion of processes not
differing essentially from those of health; and " new formations,"
" plastic exudations," and other discontinuous origins of an
" essential " pathology, fell into oblivion. And it is not alien
from the present point of view to turn for a moment to the light
thrown on the cardio-arterial pulse and the measurement of its
motions by the more intimate researches into the phenomena of
the circulation by many observers, among whom in the igth
century James Hope, E. J. Marey (1830-1904) and C. F. W.
Ludwig will always take a leading place. By them the demon-
stration of Harvey that the circulation of the blood is in large
part a mechanical process, and nowhere independent of mechani-
cal laws, was considerably enlarged and extended. In particular
the fluctuations of the pulse in fevers and inflammations were
better understood, and accurately registered; and we can scarcely
realize now that before Harvey the time of the pulse seems
not to have been counted by the watch. Discovery in these
various directions then led physicians to regard fever and inflam-
mation not as separable entities, but as fluctuating symptom-
groups, due to swervings of function from the normal balance
under contingent forces.
As to such reforms in our conceptions of disease the advances
of bacteriology profoundly contributed, so under the stress of
consequent discoveries, almost prodigious in their
extent and revolutionary effect, the conceptions of the
etiology of disease underwent no less a transforma-
tion than the conceptions of disease itself. It is
proper to point out here how intimately a pathology thus
regenerated modified current conceptions of disease, in the
linking of disease to oscillations of health, and the regarding
many diseases as modifications of the normal set up by the
impingement of external causes ; not a few of which indeed may
be generated within the body itself " autogenetic poisoning."
The appreciation of such modifications, and of the working of
such causes, has been facilitated greatly by the light thrown
upon normal processes by advances in physiology ; so dependent
is each branch of knowledge upon the advances of contiguous and
incident studies. To biological chemistry we have been deeply
indebted during the latter half of the igth century. In 1872,
Hoppe-Seyler (1825-1895) gave a new beginning to our know-
ledge of the chemistry of secretion and of excretion; and later
students have increased the range of physiological and patho-
logical chemistry by investigations not only into the several
stages of albuminoid material and the transitions which all food-
stuffs undergo in digestion, but even into the structure of proto-
plasm itself. Digestion, regarded not long ago as little more
than a trituration and " coction " of ingesta to fit them for
absorption and transfer them to the tissues, now appears as an
elaboration of peptones and kindred intermediate products
which, so far from being always bland, and mere bricks and
mortar for repair or fuel for combustion, pass through phases of
change during which they become so unfit for assimilation as to
be positively poisonous. The formation of prussic acid at a
certain period of the vital processes of certain plants may be given
as an example of such phases; and poisons akin to muscarin
seem to arise frequently in development or regression, both in
animals and plants. Thus the digestive function, in its largest
sense, is now seen to consist, not only in preparation and supply,
but in no small measure also of protective and antidotal conver-
sions of the matters submitted to it; coincidently with agents of
digestion proper are found in the circuit of normal digestion
" anti-substances " which neutralize or convert peptones in
their poisonous phases; an autochthonous ferment, such as
rennet for instance, calling forth an anti- rennet, and so on.
Now as our own bodies thus manipulate substances poisonous
and antidotal, if in every hour of health we are averting self-
intoxication, so likewise are we concerned with the various
intruding organisms, whose processes of digestion are as danger-
ous as our own; if these destructive agents, which no doubt are
incessantly gaining admission to our bodies, do not meet within
us each its appropriate compensatory defensive agent, dissolution
will begin. Thus, much of infection and immunity are proving
to be but special cases of digestion, and Ideological conceptions
of protective processes are modified.
Under the name of chemotaxis (W. Pfeffer) are designated
certain of the regulative adaptations by which such ends are
attained. By chemical warnings the defensive
processes seem to be awakened, or summoned; and n es i s ta a cc.
when we think of the infinite variety of such possible
phases, and of the multitude of corresponding defensive agents,
we may form some dim notion of the complexity of the animal
blood and tissues, and within them of the organic molecules.
Even in normal circumstances their play and counterplay,
attractive and repellent, must be manifold almost beyond con-
ception; for the body may be regarded as a collective organiza-
tion consisting of a huge colony of micro-organisms become
capable of a common life by common and mutual arrangement
and differentiation of function, and by toleration and utilization
of each other's peculiar products; some organs, such as the liver,
for example, being credited with a special power of neutralizing
poisons, whether generated under normal conditions or under
abnormal, which gain entrance from the intestinal tract. As a
part of these discoveries has arisen another but kindred doctrine
MEDICINE
[MODERN PROGRESS
that of hormones (Starling), juices prepared, not for excretion, not
even for partial excretion, but for the fulfilment of physiological
equilibrium. Thus the reciprocity of the various organs, main-
tained throughout the divisions of physiological labour, is not
merely a mechanical stability; it is also a mutual equilibration in
functions incessantly at work on chemical levels, and on those
levels of still higher complexity which seem to rise as far beyond
chemistry as chemistry beyond physics. Not only are the
secreted juices of specialized cells thus set one against another
in the body, whereby the various organs of the body maintain
a mutual play, but the blood itself also in its cellular and fluid
parts contains elements potent in the destruction of bacteria
and of their secretions. Thus endowed, the blood, unless over-
whelmed by extraordinary invasions, does not fail in stability
and self-purification. So various are the conditions of self-
regulation in various animals, both in respect of their peculiar
and several modes of assimilating different foods, and of protect-
ing themselves against particular dangers from without, that,
as we might have expected, the bloods taken from different
species, or even perhaps from different individuals, are found to
be so divergent that the healthy serum of one species may be,
and often is, poisonous to another; not so much in respect of
adventitious substances, as because the phases of physiological
change in different species do not harmonize; each by its peculiar
needs has been modified until, in their several conditions of
life, they vary so much about the mean as to have become
almost if not quite alien one to another.
In the preservation of immunity then, in its various degrees
and kinds, not only is the chemistry of the blood to be studied,
but also its histology. By his eminent labours in cellular
pathology, Virchow, and Metchnikoff later, gave the last blow
to the mere humoral pathology which, after an almost unchal-
lenged prevalence for some two thousand years, now finds a
resting-place only in our nurseries. Now the cellular pathology
of the blood, investigated by the aid of modern staining methods,
is as important as that of the solid organs; no clinical investigator
indeed, apart from research, no practitioner at this day can
dispense with examination of the blood for purposes of diagnosis;
its coagulability and the kinds and the variations of the cells it
contains being evidence of many definitely morbid states of the
body. Again, not only in certain diseases may strange cells be
found in the blood (e.g. in myelogenic leucaemia), but parasites
also, both in man, as those of malaria, of sleeping sickness, of
kala-azar, and in animals, as redwater, Texas fever, n'gana, have
been discovered, to the great advantage of preventive medicine.
For some of these, as redwater (pyrosoma) , antidotes are already
found; for others, as for Texas fever of which the parasite is
unknown, but the mode of its transmission, by the mosquito,
discovered (Finlay-Reed) preventive measures are reducing the
prevalence.
It is obvious that the results of such advances prescribe for
the clinical physician methods which cannot be pursued without
s claiism ex P ert assistance; a physician engaged in busy prac-
"' tice cannot himself undertake even the verifications
required in the conduct of individual cases. Skill in modern
laboratory work is as far out of the reach of the untaught as
performance on a musical instrument. In spite, therefore, of
the encyclopaedic tradition which has persisted from Aristotle
through the Arab and medieval schools down to Herbert Spencer,
it is forced upon us in our own day that in a pursuit so many-
sided as medicine, whether in its scientific or in its practical
aspect, we have to submit more and more to that division of
labour which has been a condition of advance in all other walks
of life. It is now fully recognized that diseases of infants and
children, of the insane, of the generative organs of women, of
the larynx, of the eye, have been brought successively into the
light of modern knowledge by " specialists," and by them dis-
tributed to the profession; and that in no other way could this
end have been attained. That the division of labour, which may
seem to disintegrate the calling of the physician, really unites
it, is well seen in the clinical laboratories which were initiated
in the later igth century, and which are destined to a great
future. By the approach of skilled pathologists to the clinical
wards, a link is forged between practitioners and the men of
science who pursue pathology disinterestedly. The first clinical
laboratory seems to have been that of Von Ziemssen (1820-1902)
at Munich, founded in 1885; and, although his example has not
yet been followed as it ought to have been, 'enough has been done
in this way, at Johns Hopkins University and elsewhere, to
prove the vital importance of the system to the progress of
modern medicine. At the same time provision must be made
for the integration of knowledge as well as for the winning of it
by several adits. A conspicuous example of the incalculable
evil wrought by lack of integration is well seen in the radical
divorce of surgery from medicine, which is one of the most
mischievous legacies of the middle ages one whose mischief is
scarcely yet fully recognized, and yet which is so deeply rooted
in. our institutions, in the United Kingdom at any rate, as to be
hard to obliterate. That the methods and the subject-matter
of surgery and of medicine are substantially the same, and that
the advance of one is the advance of the other, the division being
purely artificial and founded merely on accidents of personal
bent and skill, must be insisted upon at this time of our history.
The distinction was never a scientific one, even in the sense in
which the word science can be used of the middle ages; it origi-
nated in social conceits and in the contempt for mechanical arts
which came of the cultivation of " ideas " as opposed to converse
with " matter," and which, in the dawn of modern methods, led
to the derision of Boyle by Oxford humanists as one given up to
" base and mechanical pursuits." Had physicians been brought
into contact with facts as hard as those faced by the surgeons of
the 1 6th century (cf. Ambrose Pare), their art would not have
lain so long in degradation. It is under this closer occupation
with mechanical conditions that surgery to-day is said not
without excuse, but with no more than superficial truth to
have made more progress than medicine. Medicine and surgery
are but two aspects of one art; Pasteur shed light on both surgery
and medicine, and when Lister, his disciple, penetrated into
the secrets of wound fevers and septicaemia, he illuminated
surgery and medicine alike, and, in the one sphere as in the other,
co-operated in the destruction of the idea of " essential fevers "
and of inflammation as an "entity." Together, then, with the
necessary multiplication of specialism, one of the chief lessons
of the latter moiety of the igth century was the unity of medicine
in all its branches a unity strengthened rather than weakened
by special researches, such as those into " medical " and " sur-
gical " pathology, which are daily making more manifest the
absurdity of the distinction. Surgeons, physicians, oculists,
laryngologists, gynaecologists, neurologists and the rest, all are
working in allotments of the same field, and combining to a
common harvest.
While pathology then, which is especially the " science of
medicine," was winning territory on one side from physiology,
of which in a sense it is but an aspect, and on another
by making ground of its own in the post mortem room Training
and museum of morbid anatomy, and was fusing
these gains in the laboratory so as to claim for itself, as a special
branch of science by virtue of peculiar concepts, its due place
and provision provision in the establishment of chairs and of
special laboratories for its chemical and biological subdivisions
clinical medicine, by the formal provision of disciplinary classes,
was illustrating the truth of the experience that teaching and
research must go hand-in-hand, the one reinforcing the other:
that no teacher can be efficient unless he be engaged in research
also; nay, that for the most part even the investigator needs the
encouragement of disciples. Yet it was scarcely until the last
quarter of the igih century that the apprenticeship system,
which was a mere initiation into the art and mystery of a craft,
was recognized as antiquated and, in its virtual exclusion of
academic study, even mischievous. In place of it, systematic
clinical classes have become part of the scheme of every efficient
school of medicine. A condition of this reform was the need of
a preliminary training of the mind of the pupil in pure science,
even in physics and chemistry ; that is to say, before introduction
MODERN PROGRESS]
MEDICINE
59
into his professional studies. The founding of new teaching
universities, in which England, and even France, had been at
some disadvantage as compared with Scotland and Germany,
strengthened the movement in favour of enlarging and liberal-
izing technical training, and of anticipating technical instruction
by some broader scientific discipline; though, as in all times of
transition, something was lost temporarily by a departure from
the old discipline of the grammar school before a new scheme of
training the mind in scientific habits and conceptions was estab-
lished or fully apprehended. Yet on the whole, even from the
beginning, the revolt was useful in that it shook the position of
the " learned physician," who took a literary, fastidious and
meditative rather than an experimental interest in his profession,
and, as in great part a descendant of the humanists, was never
in full sympathy with experimental science. At the risk no
doubt of some defects of culture, the newer education cleared the
way for a more positive temper, awoke a new sense of accuracy
and of verification, and created a sceptical attitude towards all
conventions, whether of argument or of practice. Among the
drawbacks of this temper, which on the whole made for progress,
was the rise of a school of excessive scepticism, which, forgetting
the value of the accumulated stores of empiricism, despised
those degrees of moral certainty that, in so complex a study and
so tentative a practice as medicine, must be our portion for the
present, and even for a long future, however great the triumphs
of medicine may become. This scepticism took form in the
school, most active between 1860 and 1880, known as the
school of " Expectant Medicine." These teachers, genuinely
touched with a sense of the scantiness of our knowledge, of our
confidence in abstract terms, ,of the insecurity of our alleged
" facts," case-histories and observations, alienated from tradi-
tional dogmatisms and disgusted by meddlesome polypharmacy
enlightened, moreover, by the issue of cases treated by means
such as the homoeopathic, which were practically " expectant "
urged that the only course open to the physician, duly
conscious of his own ignorance and of the mystery of nature,
is to put his patient under diet and nursing, and, relying on the
tendency of all equilibriums to recover themselves under
perturbation, to await events (Vis medicalrix naturae). Those
physicians who had occupied themselves in the study of the
exacter sciences, or more closely or more exclusively of the
wreckage of the post mortem room, were the strongest men of
this school, whether in England or abroad.
But to sit down helpless before human suffering is an un-
endurable attitude. Moreover, the insight into origins, into
initial morbid processes revealed by the pathologists,
peutics. awoke more and more the hope of dealing with the
elements of disease, with its first beginnings; and in
the field of therapeutics, chemical and biological experiment, as in
the case of digitalis, mercury and the iodides, was rapidly sim-
plifying remedies and defining their virtues, so that these agents
could be used at the bedside with more precision. Furthermore,
the aversion from drugging had the advantage of directing men's
minds to remedies taken from the region of the physical forces,
of electricity (G. B. Duchenne, 1806-1875), of gymnastics (Ling,
1776-1839), of hydropathy (V. Priessnitz), of massage (Weir
Mitchell), of climate (James Clarke), of diet (R. B. Todd, King
Chambers, &c.), and even of hypnotism (James Braid 1795?-
1860), while with the improvement of the means of locomotion
came the renewal of the old faith and the establishment of new
methods in the use of mineral springs. These and such means,
often in combination, took much of the place formerly given to
the use of drugs.
Again, a like spirit dictated the use of the physical or " natu-
. ral " methods on a larger scale in the field of prevention.
H flea From the new regard given by physiologists and
pathologists to the study of origins, and in the new
hopes of thus dealing with disease at its springs, not in indivi-
duals only but in cities and nations, issued the great school
of Preventive Medicine, initiated in England E. A. Parkes
(1819-1876), J. Simon, Sir B. W. Richardson (1828-1896), Sir
H. W. Acland (1815-1900), Sir G. Buchanan (1831-1895), and
forwarded in Germany by Max von Pettenkofer (1818-1901).
Hygiene became for pathology what " milieu " is for physiology.
By the modification of physical conditions on a national scale a
prodigious advance was made in the art of preventing disease.
The ghastly roll of infantile mortality was quickly purged of its
darkest features (Ballard and others); aided by bacteriology,
sanitary measures attained some considerable degree of exact-
ness; public medicine gained such an ascendancy that special
training and diplomas were offered at universities; and in 1875
a consolidated act was passed for the United Kingdom establish-
ing medical officers of health, and responsible lay sanitary
authorities, with no inconsiderable powers of enforcing the
means of public health in rural, urban, port and other jurisdic-
tions, with summary methods of procedure. A department of
public health was formed within the precincts of the Local
Government Board; government laboratories were established,
and machinery was devised for the notification of infectious
diseases. The enormous growth of towns during the second
half of the igth century was thus attended with comparative
safety to these great aggregates of mankind; and the death-rates,
so far from being increased, relatively decreased in substantial
proportions. In 1878 an act was passed giving like powers in
the case of the infectious diseases of animals. The establishment
in England of the Register of qualified practitioners and of the
General Medical Council (in 1858) did something, however
imperfectly, to give unity to the profession, unhappily bisected
by " the two colleges "; and did much to organize, to strengthen
and to purify medical education and qualification. In 1876
women were admitted to the Register kept by the Council.
In 1871 the Anatomical Act of 1832 was amended; and in 1876
the Vivisection Act was passed, a measure which investigators
engaged in the medical sciences of physiology and pathology
resented as likely to prevent in England the advance of know-
ledge of living function, both in its normal balance and in its
aberrancies, and moreover to slacken that habit of incessant
reference of propositions to verification which is as necessary to
the clinical observer as to the experimentalist. However the
opinion of later generations may stand in respect of the Vivisec-
tion Act, it will surely appear to them that the other acts, largely
based upon the results of experimental methods, strengthening
and consolidating the medical profession, and fortifying the
advance of medical education, led directly to a fundamental
change in the circumstances of the people in respect of health.
The intelligent classes have become far better educated in the
laws of health, and less disposed to quackery; the less intelligent
are better cared for and protected by municipal and central
authority. Thus the housing of the poor has been improved,
though this difficult problem is yet far from solution; not the
large towns only, but the larger villages also, are cleansed and
drained; food has been submitted to inspection by skilled officers;
water supplies have been undertaken on a vast scale; personal
cleanliness has been encouraged, and with wonderful success
efforts have been made to bring civilized Europe back from the
effects of a long wave of Oriental asceticism, which in its neglect
and contempt of the body led men to regard filth even as a
virtue, to its pristine cleanliness under the Greeks and Romans.
During the latter half of the igth century the death-rate of many
towns was reduced by something like 50%. Some plagues,
such as typhus fever, have been dispelled; others, such as enteric
fever, have been almost banished from large areas; and there is
much reason to hope that cholera and plague, if introduced,
could not get a footing in western Europe, or in any case could be
combated on scientific principles, and greatly reduced. Tem-
perance in the use of alcohol has followed the demonstration not
only of its unimportance as a food or tonic, but also of its harm-
fulness, save in very small quantities. In the earlier part of the
igth century, and in remoter districts even in its later years, the
use of alcohol was regarded not as a mere indulgence, but as
essential to health; the example of teetotallers, as seen in private
life and in the returns of the insurance offices, has undermined
this prepossession. From the time of Plato medicine has been
accused of ministering to the survival of unfit persons, and to
6o
MEDICINE
[MODERN PROGRESS
their propagation of children. But bodily defect is largely a
result of evil circumstances, in the prevention of which the
physician is not unsuccessfully engaged, and the growth of
sympathy means a stronger cement of the social structure. At
any rate the mean standard of health will be raised, perhaps
enormously.
In the tropics, as well as in Europe, such methods and such
researches threw new light upon the causes and paths of the
terrible infections of these climates. In 1880, two years before
Koch discovered the bacillus of tubercle, C. L. A. Laveran
(b. 1845) discovered the parasite of malaria, and truly conceived
its relations to the disease; thus within two years were made two
discoveries either of which was sufficient to make the honour of a
century. Before the end of the igth century this discovery of
the blood parasite of malaria was crowned by the hypothesis of
Patrick Manson, proved by Ronald Ross, that malaria is propa-
gated by a certain genus of gnat, which acts as an intermediate
host of the parasite. Cholera (Haffkine) and yellow fever
are yielding up their secrets, and falling under some control.
The aoth century, by means of this illumination of one of the
darkest regions of disease, may diminish human suffering enor-
mously, and may make habitable rich and beautiful regions of
the earth's surface now, so far as man's work is concerned, con-
demned to sterility. Moreover, freedom of trade and of travel
has been promoted by a reform of the antiquated, cumbrous,
and too often futile methods of quarantine a reform as yet very
far from complete, but founded upon a better understanding of
the nature and propagation of disease.
Special Departments. Hitherto we have presented a survey
of the progress of the science and practice of medicine on general
infections ^ nes ! * l remains to give some indication of the
advance of these subjects of study and practice in
particular departments. As regards infections, it is not to 'be
supposed that our knowledge of these maladies has been ad-
vanced by pathology and bacteriology only. In the clinical
field also it has received a great enlargement. Diphtheria, long
no doubt a plague among mankind, was not carefully described
until by Pierre Bretonneau in 1826; and since his time our con-
ception of this disease has been extended by the study of later,
secondary and incidental phases of it, such as neuritis, which had
always formed part of the diphtheritic series, though the con-
nexion had not been detected. Influenza, again, was well known
to us in 1836-1840, yet clinical observers had not traced out those
sequels which, in the form of neuritis and mental disorder, have
impressed upon our minds the persistent virulence of this infec-
tion, and the manifold forms of its activity. By the discovery
of the bacillus of tubercle, the physician has been enabled to
piece together a long and varied list of maladies under several
names, such as scrofula and lupus, many of them long suspected
to be tuberculous, but now known to belong to the series. It is
on clinical grounds that beriberi, scarlet fever, measles, &c., are
recognized as belonging to the same class, and evolving in phases
which differ not in intimate nature but in the more superficial
and inessential characters of time, rate and polymorphism; and
the impression is gaining strength that acute rheumatism belongs
to the group of the infections, certain sore throats, chorea and
other apparently distinct maladies being terms of this series.
Thus the field of disease arising not from essential defect in the
body, but from external contingencies, is vastly enlarging;
while on the other hand the great variability of individuals in
susceptibility explains the very variable results of such extrinsic
causes. Coincidently therewith, the hope of neutralizing infec-
tions by fortifying individual immunity has grown brighter,
for it appears that immunity is not a very radical character,
but one which, as in the case of vaccination, admits of modifica-
tion and accurate adjustment in the individual, in no long time
and by no very tedious methods. Evidence is accumulating
which may end in the explanation and perhaps in the prevention
of the direst of human woes cancer itself, though at present
inquiry is being directed rather to intrinsic than to extrinsic
causes.
When, leaving the infections, we look for evidence of progress
in our knowledge of more or less local diseases, we may begin with
the nervous system. It is in this department, from its abstruse-
ness and complexity, that we should expect the .
, . i . Neurology.
advance of anatomy and physiology normal and
morbid to be most delayed. If we consult the medical works
even of the middle of the ipth century we shall find that, in the
light of the present time, accurate knowledge in this sphere,
whether clinical, pathological or therapeutical, could scarcely
be said to exist. Even in the hands of J. A. Lockhart Clarke
(1817-1880), one of the earliest investigators of nervous
pathology, the improvement of the compound microscope had
not attained the achromatism, the penetration and the magnifi-
cation which have since enabled J. L. C. Schroeder-van der Kolk
(1797-1862), Albert von Kolliker, Santiago Ramon y Cajal,
C. Golgi (b. 1844) and others to reveal the minute anatomy of
the nervous centres; while the discrimination of tissues and mor-
bid products by stains, as in the silver and osmic acid methods,
and in those known by the names of Carl Weigert or Marchi,
had scarcely begun. In England the Hospital for the Paralysed
and Epileptic was founded in 1859, where Charles E. Brown-
Sequard (1817-1894), J. Hughlings-Jackson, Thomas Buzzard,
Henry C. Bastian (b. 1837), Sir W. R. Cowers and David Ferrier
(b. 1843) found an adequate field for the clinical and patho-
logical parts of their work. In France, in the wards of the H6tel
Dieu, Guillaume Benjamin Duchenne (1806-1875), i n association
with Trousseau and in his private clinic, pursued his memorable
clinical and therapeutical researches into the diseases of the
nervous system; and Jean M. Charcot (1825-1893) in that great
asylum for the wreckage of humanity the Salptriere dis-
covered an unworked mine of chronic nervous disease. M. H.
Romberg (1795-1873) and Theodor Meynert (1833-1892) also
were pioneers in the study of nervous diseases, but it was not
till later in the century that Germany took a high place in this
department of medicine. The discoveries of the separate paths
of sensory and motor impulses in the spinal cord, and conse-
quently of the laws of reflex action, by Charles Bell and Marshall
Hall respectively, in their illumination of the phenomena of
nervous function, may be compared with the discovery in the
region of the vascular system of the circulation of the blood; for
therein a key to large classes of normal and aberrant functions
and a fertile principle of interpretation were obtained. Nor
was the theory of reflex action confined to the more " mechan-
ical " functions. By G. H. Lewes and others the doctrine of
" cerebral reflex " was suggested, whereby actions, at first
achieved only by incessant attention, became organized as
conscious or subconscious habits; as for instance in the playing
on musical or other instruments, when acts even of a very
elaborate kind may directly follow the impulses of sensations,
conscious adaptation and the deliberate choice of means being
thus economized. This law has important ethical and political
bearings; but in the province of disease this advance of what may
be compared to the interlocking of points and signals has had
wide influence not only in altering our conceptions of disease,
but also in enlarging our views of all perturbations of function.
The grouping of reflex " units," and the paths wherein impulses
travel and become associated, have been made out by the physio-
logist (Sherrington and others) working on the healthy animal,
as well as by the record of disease; and not of spontaneous disease
alone, for the artificial institution of morbid processes in animals
has led to many of these discoveries, as in the method of A. V.
Waller (1816-1870), who tracked the line of nervous strands by
experimental sections, and showed that when particular strands
are cut off from their nutritive centres the consequent degenera-
tion follows the line of the separated strands. By similar
methods nature, unassisted, betrays herself but too often; in
many instances probably originating primarily in the nervous
tissues themselves the course of disease is observed to follow
certain paths with remarkable consistency, as for instance in
diseases of particular tracts of the spinal cord. In such cases the
paths of degeneration are so neatly defined that, when the tissues
are prepared after death by modern methods, they are plainly
to be seen running along certain columns, the subdivisions
MODERN PROGRESS]
MEDICINE
6r
of which in the normal state may hardly be distinguishable one
from another: some run in strips along the periphery of the
spinal cord, at its anterior, middle or posterior segments, as the
case may be; in other cases such strips occur within its substance,
whether along columns of cells or of white matter. It is needless
to point out how such paths of disease, in their association with
characteristic symptoms, have illuminated the clinical features
of disease as well as the processes of normal function.
Not, however, all diseases of the nervous system conduct them-
selves on these definite paths, for some of them pay no attention
to the geography of structure, but, as one may say, blunder
indiscriminately among the several parts; others, again, pick
out particular parts definitely enough, but not parts immediately
continuous, or even contiguous. Diseases of the latter kind are
especially interesting, as in them we see that parts of the
nervous structure, separated in space, may nevertheless be asso-
ciated in function; for instance, wasting of a group of muscles
associated in function may depend on a set of central degenera-
tions concurring in parts whose connexion, in spite of dissociation
in space, we thus perceive. The undiscriminating diseases, on
the other hand, we suspect not to be primarily of nervous
origin, but to depend rather on the agency of other constituent
tissues of this system, as of the blood-vessels or the connective
elements. Thus, arguing inversely, we may learn something of
the respective natures of these influences and of the way in
which the nervous system is affected secondarily.
Yet even the distribution of toxic matters by the blood is not
necessarily followed by general and indiscriminate injury to the
nervous elements. In infantile palsy, for example,
Anchorage am j ; n ta bes dorsalis, there is good reason to believe
Molecules. that, definitely as the traces of the disease are
found in certain physiologically distinct nervous
elements, they are due nevertheless to toxic agents arriving
by way of the blood. Here we enter upon one of the most
interesting chapters of disorders and modes of disorder of this
and of other systems. It has come out more and more clearly
of late years that poisons do not betray even an approximately
indifferent affinity for all tissues, which indeed a little reflection
would tell us to be a priori improbable, but that each tends
to fix itself to this cell group or to that, picking out parts
for which they severally have affinities. Chemical, physio-
logical and pathological research is exploring the secret of
these more refined kinds of " anchorage " of molecules. In
1868 Drs A. Crum Brown and T. R. Eraser proved that by
substitution of molecules in certain compounds a stimu-
lant could be converted into a sedative action; thus by
the addition of the methyl group CHj to the molecule
of strychnine, thebaine or brucine, the tetanizing action
of these drugs is converted into a paralysing action. The
number of these instances, and the variety of them, are now
known to be very large; and it is supposed that what is true of
these simpler agents is true also of far more elaborate phases
of vital metabolism. Now, what is remarkable in these and
many other reactions is not only that effects apparently very
opposite may result from minute differences of molecular con-
struction, but also that, whatever the construction, agents, not
wholly indifferent to the body or part, tend to anchor themselves
to organic molecules in some way akin to them. Highly com-
plex as are all animal tissues, or nearly all, yet in this category
of high complexity are degrees higher and higher again of which
we can form little conception, so elaborate they are, so peculiar
in their respective properties, and probably so fugitive. It is
this wide range of dynamic peculiarities above the common
range of known physical and chemical molecules which excites
our wonder; and a reflection of these peculiar properties is seen
in their affinities for this or that toxic or constructive agent,
whereby the peculiarity, for example, of a particular kind of
nerve cell may be altered,- antagonized, reinforced or converted.
On the other hand, the reagents by which such modifications
are apt to be produced are not necessarily simple; many of them
likewise are known to be of very high degrees of complexity,
approaching perhaps in complexity the molecules to which they
are akin. Of such probably are the toxins and antitoxins of
certain infections, which, anchoring themselves not by any means
indiscriminately, but to particular and concerted molecules, by
such anchorage antagonize them or turn them to favourable
or unfavourable issues. Toxins may thus become so closely
keyed into their corresponding atom gr6ups, as for instance in
tetanus, that they are no longer free to combine with the anti-
toxin; or, again, an antitoxin injected before a toxin may antici-
pate it and, preventing its mischievous adhesion, dismiss it for
excretion. In the mutual behaviour of such cells, toxins, and
antitoxins, and again of microbes themselves, we may demon-
strate even on the field of the microscope some of the modes
of such actions, which seem to partake in great measure at any
rate of a chemical quality (agglutinins, coagulins, chemotaxis).
It is convenient here to add that such reactions and modifica-
tions, if more conspicuous in the nervous system, are of course
not confined to it, but are concerned in their degree in all the
processes of metabolism, being most readily traced by us in the
blood.
Many other diseases formerly regarded as primarily diseases
of the nervous system are not such; but, by means of agents
either introduced into the body or modified there, establish
themselves after the affinities of these in contiguous associated
parts of the structure, as in vascular, membranous or connective
elements, or again in distant and peripheral parts; the perturba-
tions of nervous function being secondary and consequential.
Of such are tetanus and diphtheria, now known to be due to-
the establishment from without of a local microbic infection,
from which focus a toxin is diffused to the nervous matter;
The terrible nervous sequels of some forms of inflammation
of the membranes of the brain, again, are due primarily to
microbic invasion rather of the membranes than of their
nervous contents; and many other diseases may be added to
this list. The grave palsies in such diseases as influenza,
diphtheria, beriberi, or ensuing on the absorption of lead, are
in the main not central, but due to a symmetrical peripheral
neuritis.
Among diseases not primarily nervous, but exhibited in certain
phenomena of nervous disorder, are diseases of the blood-vessels.
Much light has been thrown upon the variations of
arterial and venous blood pressures by Karl Ludwig p^ vl ^f
(1816-1895) and his many followers: by them not Disease.
only the diseases of the circulatory system itself are
elucidated, but also those of other systems the nervous, for
instance which depend intimately on the mechanical integrity
of the circulation of the blood as well as on the chemical integrity
of the blood itself. With changes of the pressures of the blood
in arteries, veins or capillaries, and in the heart itself and its
respective chambers, static changes are apt to follow in these
parts; such as degeneration of the coats of the arteries, due
either to the silent tooth of time, to persistent high blood pres-
sures, or to the action of poisons such as lead or syphilis. Syphi-
litic lesion of the arteries, and likewise of other fibrous tissues,
often involves grave consequential damage to nervous structures
fed or supported by such parts. Some of the most successful
of the advances of medicine as a healing art have followed the
detection of syphilitic disease of the vessels, or of the supporting
tissues of nervous centres and of the peripheral nerves; so that,
by specific medication, the treatment of paralytic, convulsive,
and other terrible manifestations of nervous disease thus second-
arily induced is now undertaken in early stages with definite
prospect of cure.
Not of less importance in this respect, and in other disorders
many of them of grave incidence, is the knowledge of the pheno-
mena of embolism and of thrombosis, also gained during the latter
half of the igth century W. S. Kirkes (1823-1864), R. Virchow.
By embolism is meant the more or less sudden stoppage of a
vessel by a plug of solid matter carried thither by the current
of the blood; be it a little clot from the heart or, what is far
more pernicious, an infective fragment from some focus of
infection in the body, by which messengers new foci of infection
may be scattered about the body. Thrombosis is an accident
MEDICINE
[MODERN PROGRESS
of not dissimilar character, whereby a vessel is blocked not by a
travelling particle, but by a clotting of the blood in situ, probably
on the occasion of some harm to the epithelial lining of the vessel.
Such injuries are apt to occur in syphilitic endarteritis, or senile
arterial decay, whereby an artery may be blocked permanently,
as if with an embolus, and the area supplied by it, in so far as it
was dependent upon this vessel, deprived of nutrition. These
events, although far more mischievous in the brain, the functions
of which are far-reaching, and the collateral circulation of which
is ill-provided, are seen very commonly in other parts.
It is in the structure of the brain itself that modern research
has attained the most remarkable success. In 1861 an alleged
" centre " of speech was detected, by a combination of clinical
and pathological researches, by Paul Broca (1824-1880). By
these means also, in the hands of Hughlings- Jackson, and more
conclusively by experimental research initiated by G. T.
Fritsch (b. 1838) and T. E. Hitzig (b. 1838), but pursued inde-
pendently and far more systematically and thoroughly by
David Ferrier (b. 1843) and his disciples, it was proved that the
cerebrum is occupied by many such centres or exchanges, which
preside over the formulation of sensations into purposive groups
of motions kinaesthesis of H. Charlton Bastian (b. 1837). The
results of these experimental researches by many inquirers into
the constitution of the brain have transformed our conceptions of
cerebral physiology, and thrown a flood of light on the diseases
of the brain. Not only so, but this mapping of the brain in
areas of function now often enables the clinical physician to
determine the position of disease; in a certain few cases of
tumour or abscess, so precisely that he may be enabled to open
the skull above the part affected and to extirpate it opera-
tions which are surely a triumph of science and technical skill
(Lister, W. MacEwen, V. Horsley).
The remarkable discovery of the dual nature of the nervous
system, of its duplex development as a lower and upper system of
" neurons," has shed much light upon the problems of practical
medicine, but this construction is described under BRAIN;
NEUROPATHOLOGY; MUSCLE AND NERVE, &c.
In mental diseases little of first-rate importance has been done.
The chief work has been the detection of chronic changes in the
cortex of the brain, by staining and other histological methods,
in degenerative affections of this organ Theodor Meynert
(1833-1892), W. Griesinger (1817-1868), Bevan Lewis and
in the separation from insanity due to primary disease or defect
of nerve elements of such diseases as general paralysis of the
insane, which probably arise, as we have said, by the action of
poisons on contiguous structures such as blood-vessels and
connective elements and invade the nervous matter second-
arily. Some infections, however, seem to attack the mental
fabric directly; intrinsic toxic processes which may be suspected
on the detection of neurin and cholin in the fluids of the brain
(F. W. Mott). Truer conceptions of normal psychology have
transformed for us those of the morbid P. Pinel (1745-1826),
Griesinger, Henry Maudsley (b. 1835), Mercier, Krapelin, Rivers
and indicated more truly the relations of sanity to insanity.
In the treatment of insanity little has been done but to com-
plete the non-restraint system which in principle belongs to
the earlier part of the ipth century (Pinel, Tuke, R. G. Hill,
J. Conolly). An enormous accumulation of lunatics of all
sorts and degrees seems to have paralysed public authorities,
who, at vast expense in buildings, mass them more or less indis-
criminately in barracks, and expect that their sundry and difficult
disorders can be properly studied and treated by a medical
superintendent charged with the whole domestic establishment,
with a few young assistants under him. The life of these insane
patients is as bright, and the treatment as humane, as a barrack
life can be; but of science, whether in pathology or medicine,
there can be little. A considerable step in advance is the estab-
lishment by the London County Council of a central laboratory
for its asylums, with an eminent pathologist at its head: from
this laboratory valuable reports are in course of issue. Provision
for the reception and treatment of insanity in its earliest and more
curable stages can scarcely be said to exist. Sufferers from
mental disease are still regarded too much as troublesome
persons to be hidden away in humane keeping, rather than as
cases of manifold and obscure disease, to be studied and treated
by the undivided attention of physicians of the highest skill.
The care and education of idiots, initiated by Guggenbuhl and
others, is making way in England, and if as yet insufficient, is
good of its kind.
By the genius of Ren6 Theophile Laennec (1781-1826),
diseases of the lungs and heart were laid on a foundation so broad
that his successors have been occupied in detail and refinement
rather than in reconstruction. In heart disease the chief work
of the latter half of the igth century was, in the first quarter,
such clinical work as that of William Stokes and Peter Mere
Latham (1789-1875); and hi the second quarter the fuller com-
prehension of the vascular system, central and peripheral, with
its cycles and variations of blood pressure, venous and arterial.
Moreover, the intricacies of structure and f unction within the heart
itself have been more fully discriminated (W. H. Gaskell, Aschoff,
A. Keith, Wenkebach, J. Mackenzie). By the greater thorough-
ness of our knowledge of the physics of the circulation Etienne
Marey (b. 1830), Karl Ludwig (1816-1895), Leonard Hill we
have attained to a better conception of such events as arterial
disease, apoplexy, " shock," and so forth; and pharmacologists
have defined more precisely the virtues of curative drugs. To
the discovery of the parts played in disease by thrombosis and
embolism we have referred above. With this broader and more
accurate knowledge of the conditions of the health of the
circulation a corresponding efficiency has been gained in the
manipulation of certain remedies and new methods of treatment
of heart diseases, especially by baths and exercises.
As regards pulmonary disease, pneumonia has passed more and
more definitely into the category of the infections: the modes of
invasion of the lungs and pleura by tuberculosis has been more
and more accurately followed; and the treatment of these
diseases, in the spheres both of prevention and of cure, has under-
gone a radical change. Instead of the close protection from the
outer air, the respirators, and the fancy diets of our fathers, the
modern poitrinaire camps out in the open air in all weathers, is
fed with solid food, and in his exercise and otherwise is ruled with
minute particularity according to the indications of the clinical
thermometer and other symptoms. The almost reckless reliance
on climate, which, at Davos for instance, marked the transition
from the older to the modern methods, has of late been sobered,
and supplemented by more systematic attention to all that con-
cerns the mode of life of the invalid. The result is that, both in
physicians and in the public, a more hopeful attitude in respect
of the cure of phthisis has led to a more earnest grappling with
the infection in its earliest stages and in every phase, with a cor-
respondingly large improvement in prevention and treatment.
Indeed, in such early stages, and in patients who are enabled to
command the means of an expensive method of cure, phthisis is
no longer regarded as desperate; while steps are being taken to
provide for those who of their own means are unable to obtain
these advantages, by the erection of special sanatoriums on a
more or less charitable basis. Perhaps no advance in medicine
has done so much as the study of tuberculosis to educate the
public in the methods and value of research m medical subjects,
for the results, and even the methods, of such labours have been
brought home not only to patients and their friends, but also to
the farmer, the dairyman, the butcher, the public carrier, and,
indeed, to every home in the land.
It was in the management of pleurisies that the aid of surgical
means first became eminent in inward disease. In the treatment
of effusions into the pleura and, though with less advantage, of
pericardial effusions, direct mechanical interference was practised
by one physician and another, till these means of attaining rapid
and complete cure took their places as indispensable, and were
extended from thoracic diseases to those of the abdominal and
other inner parts formerly beyond the reach of direct therapeutics.
Lord Lister's discoveries brought these new methods to bear with
a certainty and a celerity previously undreamed of; and many
visceral maladies, such as visceral ulcers, disease of the pancreas,
MODERN PROGRESS]
MEDICINE
stone of the kidney or gall-bladder, perityphlitis, ovarian dropsy,
which in the earlier part of the ipth century were either fatal or
crippling, are now taken promptly and safely in hand, and dealt
with successfully. Even for internal cancer cure or substantial
relief is not infrequently obtained. We have said that this
advance is often quoted, not very wisely, to signify that in
modern progress " medicine " has fallen behind surgery as if
the art of the physician were not one and indivisible. That
certain Fellows of the College of Physicians (especially in gynae-
cology) have personally taken operative procedures in hand
is some good omen that in time the unreal and mischievous
schism between medicine and surgery may be bridged over.
In the department of abdominal disease progress has been
made, not only in this enormous extension of means of cure by
operative methods, but also in the verification of diagnosis. The
first recognition of a disease may be at a necropsy, but then
usually by irresponsible pathologists; it is another matter when
the physician himself comes under rebuke for failing to seize a
way to cure, while the chance remained to him, by section of the
abdomen during life. The abdomen is still " full of surprises " ;
and he who has most experience of this deceptive region will have
least confidence in expressing positive opinions in particular
cases of disease without operative investigation. Besides the
attainments mentioned above, in respect of operative progress,
many important revisions of older rule-of-thumb knowledge have
come about, and not a few other substantial discoveries. Among
the revisions may be adduced some addition to our knowledge
of dyspepsia, attained by analytic investigations into the
contents of the stomach at various stages of digestion, and by
examining the passage of opaque substances through the primae
viae by the Rontgen rays. Thus the defects, whether of this
secretion or of that, and again of motor activity, the state of the
valvular junctions, the volume of the cavities, and their position
in the abdomen, may be ascertained, and dealt with as far as may
be; so that, although the fluctuations of chemical digestion are
still very obscure, the application of remedies after a mere tradi-
tional routine is no longer excusable. In our conceptions of the
later stages of assimilation and of excretion, with the generation
of poisons (auto-intoxication) in the intestinal tract, there is still
much obscurity and much guess-work; yet in some directions
positive knowledge has been gained, partly by the physiologist,
partly by the physician himself. Of such are the better under-
standing of the functions of the liver in normal catabolism, in the
neutralization of poisons absorbed from the intestines or else-
where, in the causation of jaundice, and in diabetes [Bernhardt
Naunyn (b. 1839) and F. W. Pavy]. Nor must we forget the
unfolding of a new chapter of disease, in the nosology of the
pancreas. In diabetes this organ seems to play a part which
is not yet precisely determined; and one fell disease at least has
been traced to a violent access of inflammation of this organ,
caused perhaps by entry of foreign matters into its duct. The
part of the pancreas in digestion also is better understood. The
part of the spleen in the motley group of dyspepsias and anaemias,
conspicuous as it often is, still remains very enigmatic.
The peritoneum is no longer regarded with awe as inviolable;
by modern methods, if not as manageable as other lymphatic
sacs, it is at any rate accessible enough without considerable risk
to life. Not only in its bacteriological relations are the conditions
of peritonitis recognized in its various kinds, but also the state
known as " shock " turns out to be quasi-mechanical, and
avoidable by measures belonging in considerable part to this
category. Thus, by the avoidance both of toxaemia and of shock,
peritonitis and other dangers of the abdomen, such as strangu-
lations or intussusceptions of the bowels, formerly desperate,
can in many cases be dealt with safely and effectively.
Our knowledge of diseases of the kidneys has made no great
advance since the time of Richard Bright. In the sphere of
physiology and in the interpretation of associated arterial
diseases much obscurity still remains; as, for instance, concerning
the nature of the toxic substances which produce those bilateral
changes in the kidneys which we call Bright's disease, and bring
about the " uraemia " which-is characteristic of it. Lardaceous
disease, however, here and in other regions, now appears to be
due to the specific toxins of pyogenetic micro-organisms. In
stone of the kidney a great advance has been made in treatment
by operative means, and the formation of these stones seems
to recent observers to depend less upon constitutional bent
(gout) than upon unhealthy local conditions of the passages,
which in their turn again may be due to the action of micro-
organisms.
To Thomas Addison's descriptions of certain anaemias, and
of the disease of the suprarenal capsules which bears his name,
something has been added; and W. Hunter's researches on
the severer anaemias are doing much to elucidate these subtle
maladies. And on the influence of these inconspicuous bodies
and of the pituitary body in sustaining arterial blood pressures
physiologists have thrown some important light.
The secret of the terrible puerperal septicaemia was read by
J. P. Semmelweiss (q.v.), wherein he proved himself to be the
greatest of Lister's forerunners (see LISTER).
The diseases peculiar to women (see GYNAECOLOGY) have
received attention from early times, but little progress had been
made in their interpretation till the igth century. In the
middle part of the century, by a natural exaggeration of the
importance of newly-discovered local changes in the pelvic
organs, much harm was done to women by too narrow an atten-
tion to the site, characters and treatment of these; the meddle-
someness of the physician becoming in the temperament of woman
a morbid obsession. To James Matthews Duncan (1826-1890)
we chiefly owe a saner and broader comprehension of the
relative importance of the local and the general conditions
which enter into the causation of uterine and ovarian disorders.
In operations for diseases of the pelvis, ovarian dropsy, cancer
of the uterus, and other grave diseases of the region, success has
been stupendous.
In the subject of diseases of the skin much has been done, in
the minuter observation of their forms, in the description of
forms previously unrecognized, and in respect of bacterial and
other causation and of treatment. The comparison of observa-
tions in various climates and peoples has had some weight;
while in the better knowledge of their causes their treatment has
found permanent advantage. Not only is the influence of bacteria
in the causation of many of them newly revealed, but it is now
recognized also that, even in skin diseases not initiated by micro-
bic action, microbes play a considerable and often a determining
part in their perpetuation; and that the rules of modern aseptic
surgery are applicable with no little success to skin therapeutics.
We have learned that " constitutional " causes play a smaller
part in them than was supposed, that a large number of diseases
of the skin, even if initiated by general disorder, are or soon
become local diseases, being, if not initiated by local infection
yet perpetuated thereby, so that, generally speaking, they are to
be cured by local means.
The diseases of children have not lacked the renewed attention,
the successful investigation, and the valuable new lights which
have been given to other departments of medicine. That infan-
tile paralysis is an infection, and that its unhappy sequels are
now treated with more hope of restoration, has been indicated
already. Infantile diarrhoea has also been recognized as a
common infection (Ballard), and the means of its avoidance and
cure ascertained. The conditions of diet and digestion in children
are now far better understood, and many of their maladies,
formerly regarded as organic or incomprehensible, are cured or
prevented by dietetic rules. Rickets, scurvy and " marasmus "
may be instanced as diet diseases in children. Acute inflamma-
tion of the ear, with its alarming extensions to the cerebral
cavity, is now dealt with successfully by surgical means, and
infected sinuses or even encephalic abscesses are reached and
cleansed. The origins, kinds and processes of meningitis are
more clearly distinguished, and referred each to its proper cause
for the most part bacterial.
As by the discovery of stethoscopy by Laennec a new field of
medical science and art was opened up, so, more recently,
inventions of other new methods of investigation in medicine
6 4
MEDINA, J. T. MEDINA
Diagnosis.
have opened to us other fields of little less interest and im-
portance. Of such is the ophthalmoscope, invented by H.
von Helmholtz in 1851. By the revelations of this
instrument not only have the diseases of the eye been
illuminated, but much light has been thrown also upon the part of
the eye in more general maladies; as, for instance, in syphilis,
in diabetes, in kidney diseases, and in diseases of the brain
F. C. Bonders (1818-1889), Alfred von Grafe (1830-1899) and
others. A remarkable help to the cure of headaches and
wider nervous disorders has come out of the better appreciation
and correction of errors of refraction in the eye. Radiography
has done great things for surgery; for medicine its services are
already appreciable, and may prove more and more valuable
hereafter. In 1879 the use of the spectroscope in medicine
was pointed out by Dr Charles A. MacMunn (b. 1852).
By E. du Bois-Reymond, Robert Remak (1815-1865), Carlo
Matteucci (1811-1868), Guillaume Duchenne (1806-1875), the
value of electricity in medicine, greater in diagnosis perhaps than
in therapeutics, was demonstrated. By the sphygmograph (E. J.
Marey, 1863) attention was drawn to the physical features of
the circulation, to the signs of degeneration of the arterial tree,
and less definitely to the fluctuations of blood pressure; but
as we have said under the consideration of diseases of the heart,
the kymographs of Ludwig and his pupils brought out these
fluctuations far more accurately and completely. By these, and
other instruments of precision, such as the thermometer, of which
we have already spoken, the eminently scientific discipline of the
measurement of functional movements, so difficult in the complex
science of biology, has been cultivated. By the laryngoscope,
invented about 1850 by Manuel Garcia the celebrated singing-
master, and perfected by Johann Czermak (1828-1873) and
others, the diseases of the larynx also have been brought into the
general light which has been shed on all fields of disease; and
many of them, previously known more or less empirically,
submitted to precise definition and cure. Of such we may cite
tuberculosis of the larynx, formerly as incurable as distressing;
and " adenoids " a disease revealed by intrascopic methods
which used grievously to thwart and stifle the growth both of
.mind and body in children, are now promptly removed, to the
infinite advantage of the rising generation. To the value of
stains in clinical diagnosis, especially in investigation of perver-
sions of the blood in many maladies, we have already made
some reference. The discovery of the Rontgen rays has also
extended the physician's power of vision, as in cases of aortic
aneurysm, and other thoracic diseases.
By photography and diagrammatic records the clinical work
of hospital wards has been brought into some better definition,
and teaching made more accurate and more impressive. The
separation of the alkaloids belongs rather to the earlier part of
the igth century, but the administration of these more accurate
medications by means of hypodermic injection (see THERA-
PEUTICS) belongs to the latter. The ancient practice of trans-
fusion has been placed on a more intelligible footing, and by the
method of saline injections made more manageable as a means
of relief or even of cure. Finally, calculation by statistics
(William Farr, Karl Pearson, and others) has been brought into
line with other scientific methods: the method is a difficult one,
and one full of pitfalls for the unwary, yet when by co-operation
of physician and mathematician its applications have been
perfected its services will appear more and more indispensable.
Among the achievements of the medicine of the igth century
the growth of the medical press must not be forgotten. In
England, by the boldness of the Lancet (founded in 1823), the
fyranny of prescription, inveterate custom, and privilege abused
was defied and broken down; freedom of learning was regained,
and promotion thrown open to the competent, independently
of family, gild and professional status. For the record and
diffusion of rapidly growing knowledge, learned societies, univer-
sities and laboratories, greatly increased in number and activity,
issue their transactions in various fields; and by means of year-
books and central news-sheets the accumulation of knowledge is
organized and made accessible.
It is interesting to find that, with all this activity in the present
reformed methods of research and verification are not confined to
the work of the passing day; in the brilliant achievements of
modern research and reconstruction the maxim that " Truth is
the daughter of Time " has not been forgotten. In the field of
the History of Medicine the work of scholars such as Francis
Adams of Banchory (1796-1861), William A. Greenhill (1814-
1894) and C. Creighton in England, Maximilien P. Littre (1801-
1881) and Charles V. Daremberg (1817-1872) in France, and
Heinrich Haser (1811-1888) and August Hirsch, Diels, Welt-
mann and Julius Pagel in Germany, will prove to our children
that tradition was as safe in our hands as progress itself.
(T. C. A.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Osier and McCrae, Modern Medicine; F. T.
Roberts, The Practice of Medicine (1909); Hermann Nothnagel,
Internationale Beitrdge zur inneren Medicin (1902); Ed. Brovardel,
Traite de medecine (1895-1902); T. D. Savill, Clinical Medicine
(1909); W. Osier, The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1909);
Allbutt and Rolleston, A System of Medicine (1906-1910) ; Sir
Patrick Manson, Tropical Medicine (1907); Frederick Taylor, A
Manual of the Practice of Medicine (1908).
MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- ), Chilean bibliographer,
was born at Santiago, and was educated for the bar. His first
publication, when a very young man, was a metrical translation
of Longfellow's Evangeline. When twenty-two he was appointed
secretary to the legation at Luna. After his return he published
a history of Chilean literature (1878), and a work upon the
aboriginal tribes (1884). In this latter year he was appointed
secretary of legation in Spain, and availed himself of the oppor-
tunity of examining the treasures of the old Spanish libraries.
These researches, repeated on subsequent visits to Spain, and
also to France and England, enriched him with a mass of historical
and bibliographical material. Among his publications may be
mentioned the Biblioteca hispano-americana, a catalogue of all
books and pamphlets relating to Spanish America printed in
Spain; the Biblioteca hispano-chilena, a similar work, com-
menced in 1897; the standard and magnificent history of printing
in the La Plata countries (1892); comprehensive works on the
Inquisition in Chile, Peru and the Philippines; and the standard
treatise on South American medals (1899). In addition, Senor
Medina produced the fullest bibliographies yet attainable of
books printed at Lima, Mexico and Manila, and a number of
memoirs and other minor writings. No other man had rendered
anything like the same amount of service to the literary history
and bibliography of the Spanish colonies.
MEDINA, or rather AL-MEDINA (the city), or MEDINAT RASUL
ALLAH (the city of the apostle of God), a town of the Hejaz in
Arabia, about 820 m. by rail S.S.E. of Damascus, in 25 N.,
40 E., 1 the refuge of Mahomet on his emigration from Mecca,
and a renowned place of Moslem pilgrimage, consecrated by the
possession of his tomb. The name Medina goes back to the
Koran (sur. xxxiii. 60) ; the old name was Yathrib, the Lathrippa
of Ptolemy and lathrippa of Stephanus Byzantius.
Medina stands in a basin at the northern extremity of an
elevated plain, on the western skirt of the mountain range which
divides the Red Sea coast-lands from the central plateau of
Arabia. At an hour's distance to the north it is dominated by
Mount Ohod, an outlying spur of the great mountains, the scene
of the well-known battle (see MAHOMET), and the site of the
tomb and mosque of the Prophet's uncle Hamza. To the east
the plain is bounded by a long line of hills eight or ten hours
distant, over which the Nejd road runs. A number of torrent
courses (of which Wadi Kanat to the north, at the foot of Mount
Ohod, and W. Akik, some miles to the south, are the most
important) descend from the mountains, and converge in the
neighbourhood of the town to unite farther west at a place called
Zaghaba, whence they descend to the sea through the " mountains
of the Tehama " the rough country between Medina and its
1 This is a very rough estimate. The road from Yambu on the
Red Sea, which runs somewhat north of east, is by Burton's estimate
132 m. From Medina to Mecca by the inland or high road he
makes 248 m. The usual road near the coast by Rabigh and
Khulesa and thence to W. Fatima cannot be very different in
length. Caravans traverse it in about ten or eleven days.
MEDINA
port of Yambu under the name of W. Idam. Southwards from
Medina the plain extends unbroken, but with a slight rise, as
far as the eye can reach. The convergence of torrent-courses
in the neighbourhood of Medina makes this one of the best-
watered spots in northern Arabia. The city lies close to one of
the great volcanic centres of the peninsula, which was in violent
eruption as late as A.D. 1266, when the lava stream approached
within an hour's distance of the walls, and dammed up W. Kanat.
The result of this and older prehistoric eruptions has been to
confine the underground water, so important in Arabian tillage,
which can be reached at any point of the oasis by sinking deep
wells. Many of the wells are brackish, and the natural fertility
of the volcanic soil is in many places impaired by the salt with
which it is impregnated; but the date-palm grows well every-
where, and the groves, interspersed with gardens and cornfields,
which surround the city on all sides except the west, have been
famous from the time of the Prophet. Thus situated, Medina
was originally a city of agriculturists, not like Mecca a city of
merchants; nor, apart from the indispensable trade in provisions,
has it ever acquired commercial importance like that which
Mecca owes to the pilgrimage. 1 Landowners and cultivators
are still a chief element in the population of the city and suburbs.
The latter, who are called Nakhawila, and more or less openly
profess the Shi'a opinions, marry only among themselves. The
townsmen proper, on the other hand, are a very motley race. 2
New settlers remain behind 'with each pilgrimage; attracted by
the many offices of profit connected with the mosque, the stipends
paid by the sultan to every inhabitant, and the gains to be derived
by pilgrim-cicerones (Muzawwirs) or by those who make it a
business to say prayers at the Prophet's mosque for persons who
send a fee from a distance, as well as the alms which the citizens
are accustomed to collect when they go abroad, especially in
Turkey. The population of the city and suburbs may be from
16,000 to 20,000.
The city proper is surrounded by a solid stone wall, 3 with
towers and four massive gateways of good architecture, forming
an irregular oval running to a kind of angle at the north-west,
where stands the castle, held by a Turkish garrison. The houses
are good stone buildings similar in style to those of Mecca; the
streets are narrow but clean, and in part paved. 4 There is a
copious supply of water conducted from a tepid source (ez-
Zarka) at the village of Kuba, 2 m. south, and distributed in under-
ground cisterns in each quarter. 6 The glory of Medina, and the
only important building, is the mosque of the Prophet, in the
eastern part of the city, a spacious enclosed court between 400
and 500 ft. in length from north to south, and two-thirds as much
in breadth. The minarets and the lofty dome above the sacred
graves are imposing features; but the circuit is hemmed in by
houses or narrow lanes, and is not remarkable except for the
principal gate (Bab al-Salam) at the southern end of the west
front, facing the sacred graves, which is richly inlaid with marbles
and fine tiles, and adorned with golden inscriptions. This gate
leads into a deep portico, with ten rows of pillars, running along
the southern wall. Near the farther end of the portico, but not
1 The pilgrimage to Medina, though highly meritorious, is not
obligatory, and it is not tied to a single season: so that there is no
general concourse at one time, and no fair like that of Mecca.
2 A small number of families in Medina still claim to represent
the ancient Ansar, the " defenders " of Mahomet ; there are also
some Siddiqiyah, claiming descent from Abu Bekr. But in fact
the old population emigrated en masse after the sack of Medina by
Moslim in 683, and passed into Spain in the armies of Musa. In
the 1 3th century one old man of the Khazraj and one old woman
of the Aus tribe were all that remained of the old stock in Medina
(Maqqari, i. 187; Dozy, Mus. d'Espagne, i. ill). The aristocratic
family of the Beni Hosain, who claim descent from the martyr of
Kerbela, and so from the Prophet, have apparently a better estab-
lished pedigree.
3 According to Ibn Khallikan (Slane's_trans. iii. 927) the walls
are of the I2th century, the work of Jamal ud-DIn al-Ispahani.
4 The Balat or great paved street of Medina, a very unusual
feature in an Eastern town, dates from the 1st century of Islam.
(See Wiistenfeld's abstract of Samhudi, p. 115.)
6 Kuba is famous as the place where the Prophet lived before he
entered Medina, and the site of the first mosque in which he prayed.
It lies amidst orchards in the richest part of the oasis.
Xvill. ^
adjoining the walls, is a sort of doorless house or chamber hung
with rich curtains, which is supposed to contain the graves of
Mahomet, Abu Bekr and Omar. To the north of this is a smaller
chamber of the same kind, draped in black, which is said to
represent the tomb of Fatima. Both are enclosed with an
iron railing, so closely interwoven with brass wire-work that
a glimpse of the so-called tombs can only be got through
certain apertures, where intercessory prayer is addressed to
the prophet, and pious salutations are paid to the other
saints. 6 The portico in front of the railing is not ineffective,
at least by nightlight. It is paved with marble, and in the
eastern part with mosaic, laid with rich carpets; the southern
wall is clothed with marble pierced with windows of good stained
glass, and the great railing has a striking aspect; but an air of
tawdriness is imparted by the vulgar painting of the columns,
especially in the space between the tomb and the pulpit, which
has received, in accordance with a tradition of the Prophet, the
name of the Garden (rauda), and is decorated with barbaric
attempts to carry out this idea in colour. 7 The throng of visitors
passing along the south wall from the Bab al-Salam to salute
the tombs is separated from the Garden by an iron railing. The
other three sides of the interior court have porticoes of less depth
and mean aspect, with three or four rows of pillars. Within the
court are the well of the Prophet, and some palm-trees said to
have been planted by Fatima; this " grove " is separated from
the rest of the court by a wooden partition.
The original mosque was a low building of brick, roofed with
palm-branches, and much smaller than the present structure.
The wooden pulpit from which Mahomet preached appears to
have stood on the same place with the present pulpit in the
middle of the south portico. The dwelling of the Prophet and
the huts of his women adjoined the mosque. Mahomet died in
the hut of Ayesha and was buried where he died; Abu Bekr and
Omar were afterwards buried beside him. In A.D. 711 the mosque,
which had previously been enlarged by Omar and Othman,
was entirely reconstructed on a grander scale and in Byzantine
style by Greek and Coptic artificers at the command of the caliph
Walid and under the direction of Omar Ibn Abd-al-Aziz. The
enlarged plan included the huts above named, which were pulled
down. Thus the place of the Prophet's burial was brought
within the mosque; but the recorded discontent of the city at this
step shows that the feeling which regards the tomb as the great
glory of the mosque, and the pilgrimage to it as the most meri-
torious that can be undertaken except that to Mecca, was still
quite unknown. It is not even certain what was done at this
time to mark off the graves. Ibn *Abd Rabbih, in the beginning
of the loth century ('Ifcd, Cairo ed., iii. 366), describes the
enclosure as a hexagonal wall, rising within three cubits of the
ceiling of the portico, clothed in marble for more than a man's
height, 'and above that height daubed with the unguent called
khaluk. This may be supplemented from Istakhri, who calls
it a lofty house without a door. That there are no gravestones
or visible tombs within is certain from what is recorded of
occasions when the place was opened up for repairs. Ibn Jubair
(p. 193 seq.) and Samhudi speak of a small casket adorned with
silver, fixed in the eastern wall, which was supposed to be opposite
the head of the Prophet, while a silver nail in the south wall
indicated the point to which the corpse faced, and from which
the salutation of worshippers was to be addressed (Burton
misquotes). The European fable (mentioned and refuted, e.g. in
Histoire des Arabes par I' abbe de Marigny, t. i. p. 46, Paris, 1750)
of the coffin suspended by magnets is totally unknown to Moslem
tradition. The smaller chamber of Fatima is comparatively
modern. In the time of Ibn Jubair and of Ibn Batuta (unless
6 The space between the railing and the tomb is seldom entered
except by the servants of the mosque. It contains the treasures
of the mosque in jewels and plate, which were once very consider-
able, but have been repeatedly plundered, last of all by the Wahhabls
in the beginning of the igth century.
7 The word rauda also means a mausoleum, and is applied by
Ibn Jubair to the tomb itself. Thus the tradition that the space
between the pulpit and the tomb was called by the Prophet one of
the gardens of Paradise probably arose from a mistake.
5
66
MEDINA MEDINA SIDONIA, DUKE OF
the latter, as is so often the case, is merely copying his prede-
cessor) there was only a small marble trough north of the rauda
(or grave) which " is said to be the house of Fatima or her
grave, but God only knows." It is more probable that Fatima
was buried in the BakI, where her tomb was also shown in the
I2th century (Ibn Jubair, pp. 198 seq.).
The mosque was again extended by the caliph Mahdi (A.D. 781)
and was burned down in 1256. Of its appearance before the fire
we have two authentic accounts by Ibn 'Abd Rabbih early in
the loth century, and by Ibn Jubair, who visited it in 1 184. The
old mosque had a much finer and more regular appearance than
the present one; the interior walls were richly adorned with marble
and mosaic arabesques of trees and the like, and the outer walls
with stone marquetry; the pillars of the south portico (seventeen
in each row) were in white plaster with gilt capitals, the other
pillars were of marble. Ibn "Abd Rabbih speaks of eighteen
gates, of which in Ibn Jubair's time, as at present, all but four
were walled up. There were then three minarets. After the
fire which took place just at the time of the fall of the caliphate,
the mosque long lay in a miserable condition. Its repair was
chiefly due to the Egyptian sultans, especially to Kail Bey,
whose restoration after a second fire in 1481 amounted almost to
a complete reconstruction. Of the old building nothing seems
to have remained but some of the columns and part of the
walls. The minarets have also been rebuilt and two new ones
added. The great dome above the tomb, the railing round it,
and the pulpit, all date from Iait Bey's restoration.
The suburbs, which occupy as much space as the city proper,
and are partly walled in, lie south-west of the town, from which
they are separated by an open space, the halting-place of cara-
vans. Through the suburbs runs the watercourse called Wadi
Buthan, a tributary of W. Kanat, which the Yanbu' road crosses
by a stone bridge. The suburbs are the quarter of the peasants.
Thirty or forty families with their cattle occupy a single court-
yard (hash), and form a kind of community often at feud with
its neighbours. The several clans of Medina must have lived
in much the same way at the time of the Prophet. The famous
cemetery called BakI' el-Gharkad, the resting-place of a multi-
tude of the " companions " of the Prophet, lies immediately to
the west of the city. It once contained many monuments, the
chief of which are described by Ibn Jubair. Burckhardt in 1815
found it a mere waste, but some of the mosques have since been
rebuilt.
History. The story of the Amalekites inYathrib and of their
conquest by the Hebrews in the time of Moses is purely fabulous
(see Noldeke, Uberdie Amalekiler, 1864, p. 36). The oasis, when
it first comes into the light of history, was held by Jews, among
whom emigrants from Yemen afterwards settled. From the
time of the emigration of Mahomet (A.D. 622) till the Omayyads
removed the seat of empire from Medina to Damascus, the town
springs into historic prominence as the capital of the new power
that so rapidly changed the fate of the East. Its fall was not
less rapid and complete, and since the battle of Harra and the
sack of the city in 683 it has never regained political importance
(see CALIPHATE, B. i, 2, &c.). Mahomet invested the country
round Medina with an inviolable character like that of the Haram
round Mecca; but this provision has never been observed with
strictness. After the fall of the caliphs, who maintained a
governor in Medina, the native amirs enjoyed a fluctuating
measure of independence, interrupted by the aggressions of the
sherifs of Mecca, or controlled by an intermittent Egyptian
protectorate. The Turks after the conquest of Egypt held
Medina for a time with a firmer hand; but their rule grew weak,
and was almost nominal long before the Wahhabis took the city
in 1804. A Turko-Egyptian force retook it in 1812, and the
Turks now maintain a pasha with a military establishment, while
the cadi and chief agha of the mosque (a eunuch) are sent from
Constantinople. In late years the influence of the Turkish
government has been much strengthened, an important factor in
its consideration being the construction of the railway from Syria
to the Hejaz. Railway communication between Damascus and
Medina was effected in 1908.
AUTHORITIES. Medina has been described from personal observa-
tion by Burckhardt, who visited it in 1815, and Burton, who made
the pilgrimage in 1853. Sadlier on his journey from Katif to Yambu
(1819) was not allowed to enter the holy city. Burckhardt was
prevented by ill-health from examining the city and country with
his usual thoroughness. Little is added to our information by the
report of 'Abd el-Razzaq, who performed the pilgrimage in 1878,
on a medical commission from the English government. The
chief Arabic authority besides Ibn 'Abd Rabbih and Ibn Jubair
is Samhudl, of whose history Wiistenfeld published an abstract
in the Gottingen Abhandlungen, vol. ix. (1861). It goes down to
the end of the 1 5th century. The topography of the country about
Medina is interesting both historically and geographically; Bakri,
Yaqut and other Arabic geographers, supply much material on this
topic. Some good information concerning Medina is contained
in the 2nd volume of Doughty's Travels in Arabia Deserta.
(W. R. S.)
MEDINA, a village of Orleans county, in north-west New York,
U.S.A., about 40 m. N.E. of Buffalo, and on Oak Orchard Creek.
Pop. (1900), 4716, (857 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5114;
(1910) 5683. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson
River railroad, by the Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester (inter-
urban) railway, and by the Erie Canal. On Oak Orchard Creek
and near the city are electric power plants, at the Medina Falls
and at a large storage dam (60 ft. high ) for water power, built in
1902. In the neighbourhood are extensive apple, peach and pear
orchards; and vegetables, especially beans, are grown. There
are valuable quarries of Medina sandstone, a good building-,
paving- and flag-stone, varying in colour from light grey to
brownish red, readily shaped and split, and less likely than
limestone to crack or than granite to wear slippery; it was
first found at Medina in 1837. There was a saw-mill on the
creek near here in 1805, but the place was little settled before
1824, and its growth was due to the Erie Canal. It was incor-
porated in 1832.
MEDINA SIDONIA, DON ALONSO PEREZ DE GUZMAN EL
BUENO, 7TH DUKE OF (155(5-1615), the commander-in-chief of
the Spanish Armada, was born on the loth of September 1550.
He was the son of Don Juan Claros de Guzman, eldest son of
the 6th duke, and of his wife Dona Leonor Manrique de Zuniga y
Sotomayor. His father died in 1555, and Don Alonso became
duke, and master of one of the greatest fortunes in Europe, on
the death of his grandfather in 1539. The family of Guzman
was originally lords of Abiados, on the southern slope of the
Picos de Europa in the hill country of Leon. The name is
believed to be a contraction or corruption of Gundamaris, i.e.
son of Gundamar. An early family tradition represents them
as having come from Britain, and they may have descended from
one of the Scandinavian invaders who attacked the north coast
of Spain in the toth century. It is in the icth century that they
first appear, and they grew great by the reconquest of the
country from the Mahommedans. The branch to which the
dukes of Medina Sidonia belonged was founded by Alonso Perez
de Guzman (1256-1309), surnamed El Bueno, the good, in the
sense of good at need, or stout-hearted. In 1296 he defended
the town of Tarifa on behalf of Sancho IV., and when the be-
siegers threatened to murder one of his sons whom they held as
a prisoner if he did not surrender, he allowed the boy to be killed.
He was rewarded by great grants of crown land. The duchy of
Medina Sidonia, the oldest in Spain, was conferred by John II.
in 1445 on ne of his descendants, Juan Alonzo de Guzman,
count of Niebla. The addition " El Bueno " to the family name
of Guzman was used by several of the house, which included
many statesmen, generals and colonial viceroys. 1 The 7th
duke was betrothed in 1565 to Ana de Silva y Mendoza, who was
then four years of age, the daughter of the prince of Eboli. In
1572 when the duchess was a little more than ten years of age,
the pope granted a dispensation for the consummation of the
marriage. The scandal of the time, for which there appears to
be no foundation, accused Philip II. of a love intrigue with the
princess of Eboli. The unvarying and unmerited favour he
showed the duke has been accounted for on the ground that he
1 The titles and grandeeship passed, in accordance with Castilian
law, by marriage of a daughter and heiress in 1777, to the marquess
of Villafranca, and have since remained in that house.
MEDINA SIDONIA MEDITERRANEAN SEA
67
took a paternal interest in the duchess. Don Alonso, though he
bore the name of El Bueno, was a man of mean spirit. He made
no serious effort to save his mother-in-law from the persecution
she suffered at the hands of Philip II. His correspondence is
full of whining complaints of poverty, and appeals to the king
for pecuniary favours. In 1581 he was created a knight of the
Golden Fleece, and was named captain-general of Lombardy.
By pressing supplications to the king he got himself exempted
on the ground of poverty and poor health. Yet when the
marquess of Santa Cruz (q.v.) died, on the pth of February 1588,
Philip insisted on appointing him to the command of the Armada.
He was chosen even before Santa Cruz was actually dead, and
was forced to go in spite of his piteous declarations that he had
neither experience nor capacity, and was always sick at sea. His
conduct of the Armada justified his plea. He was even accused
of showing want of personal courage, and was completely broken
by the sufferings of the campaign, which turned his hair grey.
The duke retained his posts of " admiral of the ocean " and
captain-general of Andalusia in spite of the contempt openly
expressed for him by the whole nation. When an English and
Dutch armament assailed Cadiz in 1596 his sloth and timidity
were largely responsible for the loss of the place. He was held
up to ridicule by Cervantes in a sonnet. Yet the royal favour
continued unabated even under the successor of Philip II. In
1606 the obstinacy and folly of the duke caused the loss of a
squadron which was destroyed near Gibraltar by the Dutch.
He died in 1615.
See Cesario Duro, La Armada invincible (Madrid, 1884), which
gives numerous references to authorities.
MEDINA SIDONIA, or MEDINASIDONIA, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 21 m. by road E.S.E. of Cadiz.
Pop. (1900), 11,040. Medina Sidonia is built on an isolated
hill surrounded by a cultivated plain. It contains a fine Gothic
church, several convents, and the ancestral palace of the dukes of
Medina Sidonia. It has a small agricultural trade, chiefly in
wheat, olives and oats.
Medina Sidonia has been identified by some with the Asido
of Pliny, but this is uncertain. Under the Visigoths the place
was erected into' a bishopric (Assidonia), and attained some
importance; in the beginning of the 8th century it was taken by
Tariq. In the time of Idrisi (i2th century) the province of
Shaduna or Shidona included, among other towns, Seville and
Carmona ; later Arab geographers place Shaduna in the province
of Seville.
MEDIOLANUM, or MEDIOLANIUM (mod. Milan, q.v.), an ancient
city of Italy, and the most important in Gallia Transpadana.
Livy attributes its foundation to the Galli Insubres under
Bellovesus after their defeat of the Etruscans, in the time of the
older Tarquin. According to other authorities, the Etruscan
city of Melpum which preceded it was destroyed in 396 B.C.
Objects of the Bronze age have been found outside the city on
the south. The name itself is Celtic. The Romans defeated the
Insubres in 225-222 B.C., and stormed Mediolanum itself in the
latter year. Its inhabitants rebelled some twenty years later in
the Hannibalic War, but were defeated and finally reduced to
obedience in 196 B.C. They probably acquired Latin rights in
89, and full civic rights in 49 B.C., as did those of the other towns
of Gallia Transpadana. It appears later on (but not before the
2nd century A.D.) to have become a colony. It acquired a
certain amount of literary eminence, for we hear of youths going
from Comum to Mediolanum to study. In Strabo's time it was
on an equality with Verona, but smaller than Patavium, but in
the later times of the empire its importance increased. At the
end of the 3rd century it became the seat of the governor of
Aemilia and Liguria (which then included Gallia Transpadana
also, thus consisting of the gth and nth regions of Augustus),
and at the end of the 4th, of the governor of Liguria only,
Aemilia having one of its own thenceforth. From Diocletian's
time onwards the praefectus praetorio and the imperial vicar of
Italy also had their seat here: and it became one of the principal
mints of the empire. The emperors of the West resided at
Mediolanum during the 4th century, until Honorius preferred
Ravenna, and in 402 transferred his court there. Its importance,
described in the poems of Ausonius, is demonstrated by its
many inscriptions, and the interest and variety of their contents.
In these the rarity of the mention of its chief magistrates is
surprising: and it is not impossible that owing to its very impor-
tance the right of appointing them had been taken from it (as
Mommsen thinks). The case of Ravenna is not dissimilar.
The inscriptions indicate a strong Celtic character in the popula-
tion. Procopius speaks of it as the first city of the West, after
Rome, and says that when it was captured by the Goths in 539,
300,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It was an important
centre of traffic, from which roads radiated in several directions
as railways do to-day to Comum, to the foot of the Lacus
Verbanus (Lago Maggiore) , to Novaria and Vercellae, to Ticinum,
to Laus Pompeia and thence to Placentia and Cremona, and to
Bergomum. None of these roads had an individual name, so
far as we know. To its secular power corresponds the indepen-
dent position which its Church took in the time of St Ambrose
(q.v.), bishop of Milan in 374-397, who founded the church
which bears his name, and here baptized St Augustine in A.D.
387, and whose rite is still in use throughout the diocese. Theo-
dosius indeed did penance here at Ambrose's bidding for his
slaughter of the people of Thessalonica. After his death the
period of invasions begins; and Milan felt the power of the Huns
under Attila (452), of the Heruli under Odoacer (476) and of the
Goths under Theodoric (493). When Belisarius was sent by
Justinian to recover Italy, Datius, the archbishop of Milan,
joined him, and the Goths were expelled from the city. But
Uraia, nephew of Vitigis the Gothic king, subsequently assaulted
and retook the town, after a brave resistance. Uraia destroyed,
the whole of Milan in 539; and hence it is that this city, once so
important a centre of Roman civilization, possesses so few
remains of antiquity. Narses, in his campaigns against the
Goths, had invited the Lombards to his aid. They came in a
body under Alboin, their king, in 568, and were soon masters of
north Italy. They entered Milan in the next year, but Pavia
became the Lombard capital.
Of Roman remains little is to be seen above ground, but
a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns near S. Lorenzo,
which may belong to the baths of Hercules, mentioned by
Ausonius, or to the palace of Maximian. Close to the Torre
del Carrobio remains of an ancient bridge and (possibly)
of the walls of Maximian were found: and many remains
of ancient buildings, including a theatre, have been dis-
covered below ground-level. The objects found are preserved
in the archaeological museum in the Castello Sforzesco. (See
MILAN.)
See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscript. Latin. (Berlin, 1883), v. 617
sqq. (with full bibliography) ; Notizie degli Scavi, passim.
(T. As.)
MEDITERRANEAN SEA. The Mediterranean is all that
remains of a great ocean which at an early geological epoch,
before the formation of the Atlantic, encircled half the globe
along a line of latitude. This ocean, already diminished in
area, retreated after Oligocene times from the Iranian plateau,
Turkestan, Asia Minor and the region of the north-west Alps.
Next the plains of eastern Europe were lost, then the Aralo-
Caspian region, southern Russia and finally the valley of the
Danube. The " Mediterranean region," as a geographical
unit, includes all this area; the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora
are within its submerged portion, and the climate of the whole
is controlled by the oceanic influences of the Mediterranean
Sea. Professor Suess, to whom the above description is due,
finds that the Mediterranean forms no exception to the rule in
affording no evidence of elevation or depression within historic
times; but it is noteworthy that its present basin is remarkable
in Europe for its volcanic and seismic activity. Submarine
earthquakes are in some parts sufficiently frequent and violent
as seriously to interfere with the working of telegraph cables.
Suess divides the Mediterranean basin into four physical regions,
which afford probably the best means of description : (i) The
western Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to Malta and Sicily,
68
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
enclosed by the Apennines, the mountains of northern Africa,
and of southern and south-eastern Spain (Cordillere belique).
(2) The Adriatic, occupying the space between the Apennines
and the Dinaric group (Suess compares the Adriatic to the valley
of the Brahmaputra). (3) A part surrounded by the fragments
of the Dinaro-Taurus arch, especially by Crete and Cyprus.
This includes the Aegean and the Black Sea, and its margin
skirts the south coast of Asia Minor. These three parts belong
strictly to Eurasia. (4) Part of the coastal region of Indo-
Africa, terraced downwards in successive horizontal planes
from the Shot, reaching the sea in the Little Syrte, and con-
tinuing to the southern depressions of Syria. Malta and
Gozo are the only islands of the Mediterranean which can be
associated with this section, and, per contra, the mountain
chain of north-west Africa belongs to Eurasia. Murray
(1888) estimates the total area of the Mediterranean at
813,000 sq. m. Karstens (1894) breaks it up into parts as
follows:
Western Mediterranean . . 841,593 sq. km.
Sicilian- Ionian basin . . . 767,658
Greece and Levant basin . . 769,652
Adriatic Sea .... 130,656
Total
2,509,559
A more recent calculation by Krummel gives the total area
as 2,967,570 sq. km. or 1,145,830 sq. m. (See OCEAN.) Murray
estimates the total surface of the Mediterranean drainage area,
with which must be included the Black Sea, at 2,934,500 sq. m.,
of which 1,420,800 are Eurasian and 1,513,800 are African.
The principal rivers entering the Mediterranean directly are
the Nile from Africa, and the Po, Rhone and Ebro from
Europe.
The physical divisions of the Mediterranean given above hold
good in describing the form of the sea-bed. The western
Mediterranean is cut off by a bank crossing the narrow strait
between Sicily and Cape Bon, usually known as the Adventure
Bank, on which the depth is nowhere 200 fathoms. The mean
depth of the western basin is estimated at 88 1 fathoms, and
the deepest sounding recorded is 2040 fathoms. In the eastern
Mediterranean the mean depth is nearly the same as in the
western basin. The Sicilian-Ionian basin has a mean depth of
885 fathoms, and the Levant basin, 793 fathoms. Deep water
is found close up to the coast of Sicily, Greece, Crete and the edge
of the African plateau. The steepest slope observed occurs off
the island of Sapienza, near Navarino, where 1720 fathoms has
been obtained only 10 miles from land. In 1897 the ship
" Washington " obtained depths of 2220 fathoms in the middle
of the eastern Mediterranean; and the Austrian expeditions in
the " Pola " discovered in the " Pola Deep " (35 44' N., 21 45'
E.), south-west of Cape Matapan, a maximum depth of 2046
fathoms. Between these two deep areas a ridge runs in a
north-westerly direction 550 fathoms from the surface possibly
a projection from the African plateau. Another bank noo
fathoms from the surface runs south from the east end of Crete,
separating the Pola Deep from the depths of the Levant basin,
in which a depth of 1960 fathoms was recorded near Makri on
the coast of Asia Minor. The later expedition of the "Pola"
discovered the " Rhodes Deep " (36 5' N., 28 36' E.), with a
maximum depth of 2110 fathoms: this deep is closed to the
south-east by a ridge running south-east, over which the depth
is 1050 fathoms. Off the coast of Syria the " Pola " obtained
four soundings of more than 1 100 fathoms, and between Cyprus
and the coast of Asia Minor only two over 550 fathoms. Murray
gives the following figures for the areas and volumes of the
Mediterranean at different depths:
Depth. Area.
Fathoms. Sq. Miles.
o- 100 201,300
100- 500
500-1000
1000-2000
Over 2000
251,650
81,300
263,250
15.500
813,000
Volume.
Cub. Miles.
80,950
220,850
189,200
217,050
709,800
which gives a mean depth over all of 768 fathoms. The following
table is due to Karstens:
Volume. Mean Depth.
Cub. Km. Fathoms.
1,356,512 88 1
Western Mediterranean
Sicilian-Ionian basin
Levant
Adriatic Sea
1,242,549
1,116,599
3L844
885
793
133
Krummel gives the total volume of the basin as 4,249,020 cubic
kilometres or 1,019,400 cubic statute miles, and the mean depth
as 782 fathoms. (See OCEAN.)
Meteorology. As already stated, the " Mediterranean region "
forms a distinct climatic unit, chiefly due to the form and position
of the Mediterranean Sea. The prevailing winds in this region,
which the sea traverses longitudinally, are westerly, but the sea
itself causes the formation of bands of low barometric pressure
during the winter season, within which cyclonic disturbances
frequently develop, while in summer the region comes under the
influence of the polar margin of the tropical high pressure belt.
Hence the Mediterranean region is characteristically one of winter
rains, the distinctive feature becoming less sharply defined from
south to north, and the amount of total annual fall increasing in
the same direction. The climate becomes more continental in type
from west to east, but there are great local irregularities the ele-
vated plateaus of Algeria and Spain cause a rise of pressure in winter
and delay the rainy seasons: the rains set in earlier in the west
than in the east, and the total fall is greater. Temperature varies
greatly, the annual mean varying from 56 F. to 77 F. In the
west the Atlantic influence limits the mean annual range to about
io 12 F., but in the east this increases to 36 and even 40.
Autumn is warmer than spring, especially in the coastal regions,
and this is exaggerated in the eastern region by local land winds,
which replace the cool sea-breezes of summer: overcoats are ordi-
narily worn in Spain and Italy till July, and are then put aside till
October. Local winds form an important feature in nearly all
the coast climates of the Mediterranean, especially in winter, where
they are primarily caused by the rapid change of temperature
from the sea to the snow-clad hinterlands. Cold dry winds, often
of great violence, occur in the Rhone valley (the Mistral), in Istria,
and Dalmatia (the Bora), and in the western Caucasus. In summer
a north-west " trade " wind, the Maestro, occurs in the Adriatic.
The Sirocco is a cyclonic wind characteristic of the winter rainy
season; in the Adriatic it is usually accompanied by cloud and
moisture, often by rain. In Sicily and southern Italy the Sirocco
occurs at all seasons; it is a dry, dusty wind from south-east or
south-west. The dust is chiefly of local origin, but partly comes
from the Sahara. Similar winds are met with in Spain (the Leveche),
but they reach their greatest development in the Simooms of Algeria
and Syria, and the Khamsin of Egypt.
Temperature. The mean surface temperature of the waters of
the Mediterranean falls from south-east, where it is over 70 F., to
north-west, the average at the coast of the Gulf of Lyons being 60.
The isothermal of 65 runs from Gibraltar to the north of Sardinia,
and thence by the Strait of Messina to the Gulf of Corinth. A
similar distribution is found 100 fathoms from the surface, tempera-
ture falling from 60 in the Levant to 55 east of Gibraltar. At
200 fathoms temperature falls in the same way from 58 to 55,
but below 250 fathoms temperatures are practically uniform to the
bottom, 55-5 in the western basin and 56-5 in the eastern. The
bottom temperature observed in the Pola Deep was 56-3.
Salinity. In the extreme west the salinity of the surface water
is about 36-3 per mille, and it increases eastwards to 37-6 east of
Sardinia and 39-0 and upwards in the Levant. Observations of
salinity in the depths of the western Mediterranean are very deficient,
but the average is probably between 38-0 and 38-5. In the eastern
basin the " Pola " expedition observed salinities of 38-7 to 39-0 to the
east of a line joining Cape Matapan with Alexandria, and 38-2 to
38-7 to the west of it. The salter waters apparently tend to make
their way westwards close to the African coast, and at the bottom
the highest salinities have been observed south of Crete. Evnitzki
states that the saltest water of the whole basin occurs in the Aegean
Sea.
Circulation. There is little definite circulation of water within
the Mediterranean itself. In the straits joining it with the Atlantic
and the Black Sea the fresher surface waters of these seas flow
inwards to assist in making good the loss by evaporation at the
surface of the Mediterranean, and in both cases dense water makes
its way outwards along the bottom of the channels, the outflowing
currents being less in volume and delivery than the inflowing.
Elsewhere local surface currents are developed, either drifts due
to the direct action of the winds, or streams produced by wind
action heaping water up against the land ; but these nowhere rise to
the dignity of a distinct current system, although they are often
sufficient to obliterate the feeble tidal action characteristic of the
Mediterranean. Dr Natterer, the chemist of the " Pola " expeditions,
has expressed the opinion that the poverty of the pelagic fauna
is solely due to the want of circulation in the depths.
MEDIUM MEDLAR
69
Deposits. A great part of the bottom of the Mediterranean is
covered with blue muds, frequently with a yellow upper layer
containing a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, chiefly
shells of pelagic Foramimfera. In many parts, particularly in
the eastern basin, a calcareous or siliceous crust, from half an inch
to three inches in thickness, is met with; and Natterer suggested
that the formation of this crust may be due to the production of
carbonate of ammonium where deposits containing organic matter
are undergoing oxidation, and the consequent precipitation of
carbonate of lime and other substances from the waters nearer
the surface. This view, however, has not met with general
acceptance. (H. N. D.)
MEDIUM, primarily a person through whom, as an inter-
mediate, communication is deemed to be carried on between
living men and spirits of the departed, according to the spiritistic
hypothesis; such a person is better termed sensitive or auto-
matist. The phenomena of mediumship fall into two classes,
(i) " physical phenomena " (q.v.) and (2) trance and automatic
phenomena (utterances, script, &c.); both these may be mani-
fested by the same person, as in the case of D. D. Home and
Stainton Moses, but are often independent.
I. No sufficient mass of observations is to hand to enable us
to distinguish between the results of trickery or hallucination
on the one hand, and genuine supernormal phenomena on the
other; but the evidence for raps and lights is good; competent
observers have witnessed supposed materializations and there
is respectable evidence for movements of objects.
Mediumship in the modern sense of the term may be said to
have originated with the Rochester rappings of 1848 (see
SPIRITUALISM); but similar phenomena had been reported by
such authors as Apollonius of Tyana; they figure frequently in
the lives of the saints; and the magician in the lower stages of
culture is in many respects a counterpart of the white medium.
Among physical mediums who have attained celebrity may be
mentioned D. D. Home (q.v.), Stainton Moses and Eusapia
Palladino; the last has admittedly been fraudulent at times,
but no deceit was ever proved of Home; Stainton Moses sat in a
private circle and no suspicion of his good faith was ever aroused.
W. Stainton Moses (1830-1892) was a man of university educa-
tion, a clergyman and a schoolmaster. In 1872 he became
interested in spiritualism and soon began to manifest medium-
istic phenomena,which continued for some ten years. These
included, besides trance communications, raps, telekinesis,
levitation, production of lights, perfumes and musical sounds,
apports and materialized hands. But the conditions under
which the experiments were tried were not sufficiently rigid to
exclude the possibility of normal causes being at work; for no
amount of evidence that the normal life is marked by no lapse
from rectitude affords a presumption that uprightness will
characterize states of secondary personality.
Eusapia Palladino has been observed by Sir O. Lodge, Pro-
fessor Richet, F. W. H. Myers, and other eminent investigators;
the first named reported that none of the phenomena in his
presence went beyond what could be accomplished in a normal
manner by a free and uncontrolled person; but he was convinced
that movements were produced without apparent contact.
Among other phenomena asserted to characterize the medium-
ship of Eusapia are the production of temporary prolongations
from the medium's body; these have been seen in a good light
by competent witnesses. It was shown in some sittings held
at Cambridge in 1895 that Eusapia produced phenomena by
fraudulent means: but though the evidence of this is conclusive
it has not been shown that her mediumship is entirely fraudulent.
Automatic records of seances can alone solve the problems
raised by physical mediumship. It has been shown in the Davey-
Hodgson experiments that continuous observation, even for a
short period, is impossible, and that in the process of recording
the observations many omissions and errors are inevitable.
Even were it otherwise, no care could provide against the
possibility of hallucination.
II. The genuineness of trance mediumship can no longer be
called in question. The problem for solution is the source of
the information. The best observed case is that of Mrs Piper
of Boston; at the outset of her career, in 1884, she did not differ
from the ordinary American trance medium. In 1885 the
attention of Professor William James of Harvard was attracted
to her; and for twenty years she remained under the supervision
of the Society for Psychical Research. During that period three
phases may be distinguished: (i) 1884-1891, trance utterances
of a " control " calling himself Dr Phinuit, a French physician,
of whose existence in the body no trace can be found; (2)
1892-1896, automatic writing by a " control " known as " George
Pelham," the pseudonym of a young American author; (3)
1896 onwards, supervision by " controls " purporting to be
identical with those associated with Stainton Moses. There is
no evidence for regarding Mrs Piper as anything but absolutely
honest. Much of the Piper material remains unpublished,
partly on account of its intimate character. Many of those to
whom the communications were made have been convinced
that the " controls " are none other than discarnate spirits.
Probably no absolute proof of identity can be given, though the
reading of sealed letters would come near it ; these have been left
by more than one prominent psychical researcher, but so far
the " controls " who claim to be the writers of them have failed
to give their contents, even approximately.
Professor Flournoy has investigated a medium of very differ-
ent type, known as Helene Smith; against her good faith nothing
can be urged, but her phenomena trance utterance and glosso-
lalia have undoubtedly been produced by her own mind.
These represent her to be the reincarnation of a Hindu princess,
and of Marie Antoinette among others, but no evidence of
identity has been produced. The most striking phenomenon
of her trance was the so-called Martian language, eventually
shown by analysis to be a derivative of French, comparable
to the languages invented by children in the nursery, but more
elaborate.
AUTHORITIES. F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality; F. Podmore,
Modern Spiritualism; the Proceedings and Journal of the Society
for Psychical Research, passim; for a convenient survey of the
Piper case, see F. Sage, Madame Piper; J. Maxwell, Les PM-
nomenes psychiques (1903; Eng. trans. 1905); Th. Flournoy, Des
Indes a la planete Mars. For fraudulent methods, see Confessions
of a Medium (London, 1882); Truesdell, Bottom Facts of Spiritualism,
and works cited by Myers, II., 502-503. (N. W. T.)
MEDJIDIE, or MEJIDIE, the name of a military and knightly
order of the Turkish Empire, and also of a silver Turkish coin,
worth twenty piastres. The coin was first struck in 1844, and
the order was instituted in 1852 by the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid,
whose name was therefore given to them. (See KNIGHTHOOD
AND CHIVALRY: Orders of Knighthood.)
MEDLAR, Mespilus germanica, a tree of the tribe Pomeae of
the order Rosaceae, closely allied to the genus Pyrus, in which it
is sometimes included; it is a native of European woods, &c.,
from Holland southwards, and of western Asia. It occurs in
hedges, &c., in middle and south England, as a small, much-
branched, deciduous, spinous tree, but is not indigenous. The
medlar was well known to the ancients. Pickering (Chron. Hist.
PI. p. 201) identifies it with a tree mentioned in a Siao-ya ode
(She-King, ii. i, 2), 827 B.C. It is the fieairfari of Theophrastus
and Mespilus of Pliny. The Latin mespilus or mespilum became
in Old French mesle or medle, " the fruit," meslier, medlier, " the
tree." The modern French nefle is from a corruption nespilum of
the Latin. The German Mispel preserves the original more closely.
The well-known fruit is globular, but depressed above, with
leafy persistent sepals, and contains stones of a hemispherical
shape. It is not fit to eat until it begins to decay and becomes
" bletted," when it has an agreeable acid and somewhat astrin-
gent flavour. Several varieties are known in cultivation. The
large Dutch medlar, which is very widely cultivated, has a
naturally crooked growth; the large, much-flattened fruit is
inferior in quality to the Nottingham, which is a tree of upright
habit with fruits of about i in. diameter, superior to any other
variety. There is also a stoneless variety with still smaller
fruits, but the quality is not so good.
The medlar is propagated by budding or grafting upon the
white-thorn, which is most suitable if the soil is dry and sandy,
or on the quince if the soil is moist ; the pear stock also succeeds
MEDOC MEDUSA
well on ordinary soils. It produces the best fruit in rich, loamy,
somewhat moist ground. The tree may be grown as a standard,
and chiefly requires pruning to prevent the branches from rub-
bing each other. The fruit should be gathered in November,
on a dry day, and laid out upon shelves. It becomes " bletted "
and fit for use in two or three weeks. The Japanese medlar is
Eriobotrya japonica (see LOQUAT), a genus of the same tribe of
Rosaceae.
M&DOC, a district in France adjoining the left bank of the
Gironde from Blanquefort (N. of Bordeaux) to the mouth of
the Gironde. Its length is about 50 m., its breadth averages
between 6 and 7 m. It is formed by a number of low hills,
which separate the Landes from the Gironde, and is traversed
Only by small streams; the Gironde itself is muddy, and often
enveloped in fog, and the region as a whole is far from
picturesque. Large areas of its soil are occupied by vineyards,
the products of which form the finest growths of Bordeaux.
(See WINE.)
MEDUSA, the name given by zoologists to the familiar marine
animals known popularly as jelly-fishes; or, to be more accurate,
to those jelly-fishes l in which the form of the body resembles
that of an umbrella, bell or parachute. The name medusa is
suggested by the tentacles, usually long and often numerous,
implanted on the edge of the umbrella and bear the stinging
organs of which sea-bathers are often disagreeably aware. The
tentacles serve for the capture of prey and are very contractile,
being often protruded to a great length or, on the other hand,
retracted and forming corkscrew-like curls. Hence the animals
have suggested to vivid imaginations the head of the fabled
Gorgon or Medusa with her chevelure of writhing snakes.
The medusa occurs as one type of individual in the class
Hydrozoa (q.v.), the other type being the polyp (q.v.). In a
typical medusa we can distinguish the following parts. The
umbrella-like body bears a circle of tentacles at the edge, whereby
the body can be divided into a convex exumbrella or exumbral
surface and a concave subumbrella or subumbral surface. The
vast majority of jelly-fish float in the sea, with the exumbrella
upwards, the subumbrella downwards. A few species, however,
attach themselves temporarily or permanently to some firm
object by the exumbral surface of the body, and then the sub-
umbral surface is directed upwards. From the centre of the
subumbral surface hangs down the manubrium, like the handle
of an umbrella or the clapper of a bell, bearing the mouth at its
extremity. In addition to the tentacles, the margin of the
umbrella bears sense-organs, which may be of several kinds
and may attain a high degree of complexity.
Medusae capture their prey, consisting of small organisms of
various kinds, especially Crustacea, by means of the tentacles
which hang out like fishing-lines in all directions. When the
prey comes into contact with the tentacles it is paralysed, and
at the same time held firmly, by the barbed threads shot out
from the stinging organs or nematocysts. Then by contraction
of the tentacles the prey is drawn into the mouth. Medusae
thus form an important constituent of the plankton or floating
fauna of the ocean, and compete with fish and other animals for
the food-supply furnished by minuter forms of life.
A medusa has a layer of muscles, more or less strongly
developed, running in a circular direction on the surface of the
subumbrella, the contractions of which are antagonized by the
elasticity of the gelatinous substance of the body. By the con-
traction of the subumbral circular muscles the concavity of the
subumbrella is increased, and as water is thereby forced out of
the subumbral cavity the animal is jerked upwards. In this
way jelly-fish progress feebly by the pumping movements of
the umbrella. Besides the circular subumbral muscles, there
may be others running in a radial direction, chiefly developed
as the longitudinal retractor muscles of the manubrium. In
some cases the circular subumbral muscles form a rim known as
the velum (v., see fig. i), projecting into the subumbral cavity just
within the ring of marginal tentacles. The two principal
'The gooseberry-like or band-shaped jelly-fishes belong to the
class Ctenophora (q.v.).
divisions of the medusae are characterized by the presence or
absence of a velum.
Correlated with the well-developed muscular system and
sense-organs of the medusa, we find also a distinct nervous
system, either, when there is no velum, in the form of concentra-
tions of nervous matter in the vicinity of each sense-organ, or,
when a velum is present, as two continuous rings running round
the margin of the umbrella, one external to the velum (exumbral
nerve-ring, n.r 1 , see fig. i), the other internal to it (subumbral
nerve-ring, n.r*.). The exumbral nerve-ring is the larger and
supplies the tentacles; the subumbral ring supplies the velum.
Every possible variety of body-form compatible with the fore-
going description may be exhibited by different species of medusae.
The body may show modifications of form which can be compared
to a shallow saucer, a cup, a bell or a thimbje. The marginal
tentacles may be very numerous or may be few in number or even
absent altogether; and they may be simple filaments, or branched
in a complicated manner. The manubrium may be excessively
long or very short, and in rare cases absent, the mouth then being
flush with the subumbral surface. The mouth may be circular or
four-cornered, and in the latter case the manubrium at the angles
of the mouth may become drawn out into four lappets, the oral
arms, each with a groove on its inner side continuous with the corner
I.R.
FIG. i.
Diagram of the structure of a medusa ; the ectoderm is left clear,
the endoderm is dotted, the mesogloea is shaded black; a-b,
principal axis (see HYDROZOA) ; to the left of this line the section
is supposed to pass through an inter-radius (I.R.); to the right
through a radius (R). The exumbral surface is uppermost, the
subumbral surface, with the manubrium and mouth, is facing
downwards.
St. Stomach.
r.c. Radial canal.
ex. Circular or ring-canal.
e.l. Endoderm-lamella.
v. Velum.
G. Gonads.
n.r. 1 Exumbral (so-called
upper) nerve-ring.
n.r. 1 Subumbral (so-called
lower) nerve-ring.
(For other figures of medusae see HYDROZOA.)
of the mouth. The oral arms are the starting-point of a further
series of variations; they may be simple flaps, crinkled and folded
in various ways, or they may be subdivided, and then the branches
may simulate tentacles in appearance. In the genus Rhizostoma,
common on the British coasts and conspicuous on account of its
large size, the oral arms, originally distinct and four in number,
undergo concrescence, so that the entrance to the mouth is reduced
to numerous fine pores and canals. 2
Like the external structure, the internal anatomy of the medusa
shows a complete radial symmetry, and is simple in plan but often
complicated m detail (see fig. i). As in all Hydrozoa (?..) the body
wall is composed of two cell-layers, the ectoderm and endoderm.
between which is a structureless gelatinous secreted layer, the
mesogloea. As the name jelly-fish implies, the mesogloea is greatly
developed and abundant in quantity. It may be traversed by
processes of the cells of the ectoderm and endoderm, or it may
contain cells which have migrated into it from these two layers.
The ectoderm covers the whole external surface of the animal,
while the endoderm lines the coelenteron or gastrovascular space;
the two layers meet each other, and become continuous, at the edge
of the mouth.
The mouth leads at once jnto the true digestive cavity, divisible
into an oesophageal region in he manubrium and a more dilated
cavity, the stomach (.), occupying the centre of the umbrella.
From the stomach, canals arise termed the radiaj canals (r.c.);
typically four in number, they run in a radial direction to the edge
1 For other variations of the medusa, often of importance for
systematic classification, see HYDROMEDUSAE and SCYPHOMEDUSAE.
MEDWAY MEEK
of the umbrella. There the radial canals are joined by a ring-
canal (c.c.) which runs round the margin of the umbrella. From
the ring-canal are given off tentacle-canals which run down the
axis of each tentacle; in many cases, however, the cavity of the
tentacle is obliterated and instead of a canal the tentacle contains
a solid core of endoderm. Oesophagus, stomach, radial canals,
ring-canal and tentacle-canals, constitute together the gastro-
vascular system and are lined throughout by endoderm, which
forms also a flat sheet of cells connecting the radial canals and
ring canal together like a web ; this is the so-called endoderm-lamella
(e.l.), a most important feature of medusan morphology, the nature
of which will be apparent when the development is described. As
a general rule the mouth is the only aperture of the gastrovascular
system; in a few cases, however, excretory pores are found on the
ring-canal, but there is never any anal opening.
The sense-organs of medusae are of two classes: (i) pigment
spots, sensitive to light, termed ocelli, which may become elaborated
into eye-like structures with lens, retina and vitreous body;
(2) organs of the sense of balance or orientation, commonly termed
otocySts or statocysts. The sense-organs are always situated at the
margin of the unbrella and may be distinguished from the morpho-
logical point of view into two categories, according as they are, or
are not, derived from modifications of tentacles ; in the former case
they are termed tentaculocysts. (For fuller information upon the
sense-organs see HYDROMEDUSAE.)
Medusae are nearly always of separate sexes, and instances of
hermaphroditism are rare. The gonads or generative organs may
be produced either in the ectoderm or the endoderm. When the
gonads are endodermal, they are formed on the floor of the stomach ;
when ectodermal (G, see fig. i), they are formed on the subumbral
surface, either on the manubrium or under the stomach or under
the radial canals, or in more than one of these regions. Medusae
often have the power of budding, and the buds are formed either
on the manubrium, or at the margin of the umbrella, or on an out-
growth or " stolon " produced from the exumbral surface.
The internal anatomy of the medusa is as variable as its external
features. The mouth may lead directly into the stomach, without
any oesophagus. The stomach may be situated in the disk, or
may be drawn out into the base of the manubrium, so that the
disk is occupied only by the radial canals. On the other hand the
stomach may have lobes extending to the ring-canal, so that radial
canals may be very short or absent. The radial canals may be
four, rarely six, or a multiple of these numbers, and may be very
numerous. They may be simple or branched. (For other ana-
tomical variations see HYDROMEDUSAE and SCYPHOMEDUSAE.)
In development the medusa can be derived easily by a process
of differential growth, combined with concrescence of cell-layers,
from the actinula-larva. (For figures see HYDROZOA.) The actinula
is polyp-like, with a sack-like or rounded body ; a crown of tentacles
surrounds a wide peristome, in the centre of which is the mouth,
usually raised on a conical process termed the hypostome. To
produce a medusa the actinula grows greatly along a plane at right
angles to the vertical axis of the body, whereby the aboral surface
of the actinula becomes the exumbrella, and the peristome becomes
the subumbrella. The crown of tentacles thus comes to form
a fringe to the margin of the body, and the hypostome becomes
the manubrium. As a result of this change of form the gastric
cavity or coelenteron becomes of compressed lenticular form, and
the endoderm lining it can be distinguished as an upper or exumbral
layer and a lower or subumbral layer. The next event is a great
growth in thickness of the gelatinous mesogloea, especially on the
exumbral side; as a result the flattened coelenteron is still further
compressed so that in certain spots its cavity is obliterated, and its
exumbral and subumbral layers of endoderm come into contact
and undergo concrescence. As a rule four such areas of concrescence
or cathammata (E. Haeckel) are formed. The cathammal areas
may remain very small, mere wedge-shaped partitions dividing
up the coelenteron into a four-lobed stomach, the lobes of which
communicate at the periphery of the body by a spacious ring-canal.
More usually each cathamma is a wide triangular area, reducing
the peripheral portion of the coelenteron to the four narrow radial
canals and the ring-canal above described. The two apposed
layers of endoderm in the cathammal area undergo complete fusion
to form a single layer of epithelium, the endoderm-lamella of the
adult medusa.
Medusae, when they reproduce themselves by budding, always
produce medusae, but when they reproduce by the sexual _method
the embryos produced from the egg grow into medusae in some
cases, in other cases into polyps which bud medusae in their turn.
In this way complicated cycles of alternating generations arise,
which are described fully in HYDROMEDUSAE and SCYPHOMEDUSAE.
Medusae are exclusively aquatic animals and for the most part
marine, but at least two fresh-water species are known. 1 _ Limno-
codium sowerbyi was first discovered swimming in the tank in which
the water-lily, Victoria regia, is cultivated in Kew Gardens, and
1 C. L. Boulenger (Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1907, p. 516)
recorded the discovery of a third species by himself and W. A.
Cunnington, in the brackish water of lake Birket el Kerun in the
Egyptian Fayum.
has since been found sporadically in a similar situation in other
botanical gardens, its most recent appearance being at Lille.
These jelly-fishes are probably budded from a minute polyp-stock
introduced with the roots of the lily. Another fresh-water form is
Limnocnida tanganyicae, discovered first in lake Tanganyika, and
now known to occur also in the Victoria Nyanza and in the Niger.
A medusa with a remarkable habit of life is Mnestra parasites,
which is parasitic on the pelagic mollusc Phyttirrhoe, attaching itself
to the host by its subumbral surface ; its tentacles, no longer required
for obtaining food, have become rudimentary. A parasitic mode of
life is also seen in medusae of the genus Cunina during the larval
condition, but the habit is abandoned, in this case, when the medusae
become adult.
For figures of medusae see (i) E. Haeckel, " Das System der
Medusen," Denkschriften med-natwiss. Ges. Jena (1879, 2 vols.);
(2) Id., " Deep-Sea Medusae," Challenger Reports, Zoology, IV.
Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids," Ray.
Soc. (1871-1872). (E. A. M.)
MEDWAY, a river in the south-east of England. It rises
in the Forest Ridges, S.W. of East Grinstead in Sussex, and,
increased by many feeders from these picturesque hills, has an
easterly course to the county boundary, which it forms, turning
northward for a short distance. Entering Kent near Ashurst,
its course becomes north-easterly, and this direction is generally
maintained to the mouth. The river passes Tonbridge, receiving
the Eden from the west, and later the Teise and Beult from the
south and east, all these streams watering the rich Weald (q.v.)
to the south of the North Downs. These hills are breached by
the Medway in a beautiful valley, in which lies Maidstone,
generally much narrower than the upper valley. The charac-
teristic structure of this part of the valley is considered under the
heading DOWNS. Below Maidstone the valley forms a perfect
basin, the hills descending upon it closely above Rochester.
Below this city the river enters a broad, winding estuary, passing
Chatham, and at Sheerness joining that of the Thames, so that
the Medway may be considered a tributary, and its drainage area
of 680 sq. m. reckoned as part of that of the greater river.
The length of the Medway is about 60 m., excluding its many
lesser windings. The estuary is navigable for sea-going vessels
drawing 24 ft. up to Rochester Bridge. A considerable traffic
is carried on by small vessels up to Maidstone, and by barges up to
Tonbridge, the total length of the navigation being 43 m. The
marshy lowlands along the course of the river have yielded exten-
sive remains of Roman pottery, a plain ware of dark slate-colour.
MEEANEE, or MIANI, a village in Sind, India, on the Indus
6 m. N. of Hyderabad. Pop. (1901), 962. It is famous as the
scene of the battle in which Sir Charles Napier, with only
2800 men, broke the power of the mirs of Sind on the i7th of
February 1843. The result of this victory was the conquest
and annexation of Sind.
MEEK, FIELDING BRADFORD (1817-1876), American
geologist and palaeontologist, the son of a lawyer, was born at
Madison, Indiana, on the xoth of December 1817. In early
life he was in business as a merchant, but his leisure hours were
devoted to collecting fossils and studying the rocks of the neigh-
bourhood of Madison. Being unsuccessful in business he turned
his whole attention to science, and in 1848 he gained employ-
ment on the U.S. Geological Survey in Iowa, and subsequently in
Wisconsin and Minnesota. In 1852 he became assistant tp Pro-
fessor James Hall at Albany, and worked at palaeontology with
him until 1858. Meanwhile in 1853 he accompanied Dr F. V.
Hayden in an exploration of the " Bad Lands " of Dakota, and
brought back valuable collections of fossils. In 1858 he went
to Washington, where he devoted his time to the palaeontological
work of the United States geological and geographical surveys,
his work bearing " the stamp of the most faithful and con-
scientious research," and raising him to the highest rank as a
palaeontologist. Besides many separate contributions to science,
he prepared with W. M. Gabb (1839-1878), two volumes on
the palaeontology of California (1864-1869); and also a Repert
on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper
Missouri Country (1876). He died at Washington, on the 22nd
of December 1876.
MEER MEERSCHAUM
MEER, JAN VAN DER (1632-1675), more often called
Vermeer of Delft not to be confounded with the elder (1628-
1691) or younger (1656-1705) Van der Meer of Haarlem, or with
Van der Meer of Utrecht is one of the excellent Dutch painters
about whom the Dutch biographers give us little information. 1
Van der Meer, or Vermeer, was born in Delft, and was a pupil
of Carel Fabritius, whose junior he was by only eight years.
The works by Fabritius are few, but his contemporaries speak
of him as a man of remarkable power, and the paintings now
ascertained to be from his hand, and formerly ascribed to Rem-
brandt, prove him to have been deeply imbued with the spirit
and manner of that master. Whether Van der Meer had ever
any closer relation to Rembrandt than through companionship
with Fabritius remains uncertain. In 1653 he married Catherine
Bolenes, and in the same year he entered the gild of St Luke of
Delft, becoming one of the heads of the gild in 1662 and again
in 1670. He died at Delft in 1675, leaving a widow and eight
children. His circumstances cannot have been flourishing, for
at his death he left twenty-six pictures undisposed of, and his
widow had to apply to the court of insolvency to be placed under
a curator, who was Leeuwenhoek, the naturalist.
For more than two centuries Van der Meer was almost com-
pletely forgotten, and his pictures were sold under the names
and forged signatures of the more popular De Hooch, Metsu,
Ter Borch, and even of Rembrandt. The attention of the art-
world was first recalled to this most original painter by Thore,
'an exiled Frenchman, who described his then known works in
Musees de la Hollande (1858-1860), published under the assumed
name of W. Burger. The result of his researches, continued in
his Galerie Suermondt and Galerie d'Arenberg, was afterwards
given by him in a charming, though incomplete, monograph
(Gazette des beaux-arts, 1866, pp. 297, 458, 542). The task was
prosecuted with success by Havard (Les Artistes hollandais),
and by Obreen (Nederlandsche Kunslgeschiedenis, Dl. iv.), and
we are now in a position to refer to Van der Meer's works. His
pictures are rarely dated, but one of the most important, in
the Dresden Gallery, bears the date 1656, and thus gives us a
key to his styles. With the exception of the " Christ with
Martha and Mary " in the Coats collection at Glasgow, it is
perhaps the only one, hitherto recognized, that has figures of
life size, though his authorship is claimed for several others.
The Dresden picture of a " Woman and Soldier," with other
two figures, is painted with remarkable power and boldness,
with great command over the resources of colour, and with
wonderful expression of life. For strength and colour it more than
holds its own beside the neighbouring Rembrandts. To this early
period of his career belong, from internal evidence, the "Reading
Girl " of the same gallery, the luminous and masterly " View of
Delft " in the museum of the Hague, the " Milk-Woman " and
the small street view, both identified with the Six collection at
Amsterdam, the former now in the Rijksmuseum; the magnifi-
cent "The Letter" also at Amsterdam, "Diana and the Nymphs"
(formerly ascribed to Vermeer of Utrecht) at the Hague Gallery,
and others. In all these we find the same brilliant style and
vigorous work, a solid impasto, and a crisp, sparkling touch. His
first manner seems to have been influenced by the pleiad of
painters circling round Rembrandt, a school which lost favour
in Holland in the last quarter of the century. During the final
ten or twelve years of his life Van der Meer adopted a second
manner. We now find his painting smooth and thin, and his
colours paler and softer. Instead of masculine vigour we have
refined delicacy and subtlety, but in both styles beauty of tone
and perfect harmony are conspicuous. Through all his work
1 This undeserved neglect seems to have fallen on him at an
early period, for Houbraken (Groote Schouburgh, 1718), writing little
more than forty years after his death, does not even mention him
The only definite information we have from a contemporary is
given by Bleyswijck (Beschrijving der Stad Delft, 1687), who tells
us that he was born in 1632, and that he worked with Care! Fabritius
an able disciple of Rembrandt, who lost his life by an explosion
of a powder magazine in Delft in 1654. It is to the patient researche
of W. Burger (Th. Thor), Havard, Obreen, Soutendam, and others
that we owe our knowledge of the main facts of his life, discovere<
in the archives of his native town.
may be traced his love of lemon-yellow and of blue of all shades.
)f his second style typical examples are to be seen in " The
Coquette" of the Brunswick Gallery, in the "Woman Reading"
n the Van der Hoop collection now at the Rijksmuseum at
Amsterdam, in the " Lady at a Casement " belonging to Lord
Powerscourt (exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1878) and in
he " Music Master and Pupil " belonging to the King (exhibited
at the Royal Academy, 1876).
Van der Meer's authentic pictures in public and private
collections amount to about thirty. There is but one in the
xmvre, the "Lace Maker"; Dresden has the two afore-
mentioned, while Berlin has three, all acquired in the Suermondt
collection, and the Czernin Gallery of Vienna is fortunate in
assessing a fine picture, believed to represent th artist in his
studio. In the Arenberg Gallery at Brussels there is a remark-
able head of a girl, half the size of life, which seems to be inter-
mediate between his two styles. Several of his paintings are
n private foreign collections. In all his work there is a singular
completeness and charm. His tone is usually silvery with
jearly shadows, and the lighting of his interiors is equal and
latural. In all cases his figures seem to move in light and air,
and in this respect he resembles greatly his fellow-worker De
Hooch. It is curious to read that, at one of the auctions in
Amsterdam about the middle of the i8th century, a De Hooch
s praised as being " nearly equal to the famous Van der Meer of
Delft."
See also Havard, Van der Meer (Paris, 1888); Vanzype, Vermeer
de Delft (Brussels, 1908), and Hofstede de Groot, Jan Vermeer von
Delft (Leipzig, 1909).
MEERANE, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, 9 m. N. of
Zwickau and 37 S. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1905) , 26,005. It con-
tains a fine medieval church (Evangelical). It is one of the most
important industrial centres of Germany for the manufacture
of woollen and mixed cloths, and in these products has a large
export trade, especially to America and the Far East. There
are also extensive dyeworks, tanneries and machine factories.
See Leopold, Chronik und Beschreibung der Fabrik- und Handel-
stadt Meerane (1863).
MEERSCHAUM, a German word designating a soft whitt,
mineral sometimes found floating on the Black Sea, and rathei
suggestive of sea-foam (Meerschaum), whence also the French
name for the same substance, ecume de mer. It was termed
by E. F. Glocker sepiolite, in allusion to its remote resemblance
to the " bone " of the sepia or cuttle-fish. Meerschaum is
an opaque mineral of white, grey or cream colour, breaking
with a conchoidal or fine earthy fracture, and occasionally
though rarely, fibrous in texture. It can be readily scratched
with the nail, its hardness being about 2. The specific gravity
varies from 0-988 to 1-279, but the porosity of the mineral may
lead to error. Meerschaum is a hydrous magnesium silicate,
with the formula HiMgsSisOio, or MgjSi 3 O8-2H 2 O.
Most of the meerschaum of commerce is obtained from Asia
Minor, chiefly from the plain of Eski-Shehr, on the Haidar
Pasha-Angora railway, where it occurs in irregular nodular
masses, in alluvial deposits, which are extensively worked for
its extraction. It is said that in this district there are 4000
shafts leading to horizontal galleries for extraction of the
meerschaum. The principal workings are at Sepetdji-Odjaghi
and Kemikdji-Odjaghi, about 20 m. S.E. of Eski-Shehr. The
mineral is associated with magnesite (magnesium carbonate),
the primitive source of both minerals being a serpentine. When
first extracted the meerschaum is soft, but it hardens on exposure
to solar heat or when dried in a warm room. Meerschaum
is found also, though less abundantly, in Greece, as at Thebes,
and in the islands of Euboea and Samos; it occurs also in
serpentine at Hrubschitz near Kromau in Moravia. It is found
to a limited extent at certain localities in France and Spain,
and is known in Morocco. In the United States it occurs in
serpentine in Pennsylvania (as at Nottingham, Chester county)
and in South Carolina and Utah.
Meerschaum has occasionally been used as a substitute for
soap and fuller's earth, and it is said also as a building material;
but its chief use is for tobacco-pipes and cigar-holders. The
MEERUT MEETING
73
natural nodules are first scraped to remove the red earthy
matrix, then dried, again scraped and polished with wax.
The rudely shaped masses thus prepared are sent from the
East to Vienna and other manufacturing centres, where they
are turned and carved, smoothed with glass-paper and Dutch
rushes, heated in wax or stearine, and finally polished with
bone-ash, &c. Imitations are made in plaster of Paris and
other preparations.
The soft, white, earthy mineral from Langbanshyttan, in
Vermland, Sweden, known as aphrodite (a<t>pfc, foam), is
closely related to meerschaum. It may be noted that meer-
schaum has sometimes been called magnesite (?..).
MEERUT, a city, district and division of British India,
in the United Provinces. The city is half-way between the
Ganges and the Jumna, and has two stations on the North-
Western railway, 37 m. N.E. from Delhi. Pop. (1901),
118,129. The city proper lies south of the cantonments, and
although dating back to the days of the Buddhist emperor Asoka
(c. 250 B.C.) Meerut owes its modern importance to its selection
by the British government as the site of a great military station.
In 1805 it is mentioned as " a ruined, depopulated town."
The cantonment was established in 1806, and the population
rose to 29,014 in 1847, and 82,035 in 1853. The town is an
important centre of the cotton-trade. It is the headquarters
of the 7th division of the northern army, with accommodation
for horse and field artillery, British and native cavalry and
infantry. It was here that the first outbreak of the Mutiny
of 1857 took place. (See INDIAN MUTINY.)
The DISTRICT OF MEERUT forms part of the upper Doab,
or tract between the Ganges and the Jumna, extending from
river to river. Area, 2354 sq. m. Though well wooded in
places and abundantly supplied with mango groves, it has but
few patches of jungle or waste land. Sandy ridges run along
the low watersheds which separate the minor channels, but
with this exception the whole district is one continuous expanse
of careful and prosperous tillage. Its fertility is largely due
to the system of irrigation canals. The Eastern Jumna canal
runs through the whole length of the district, and supplies
the rich tract between the Jumna and the Hindan with a network
of distributary streams. The main branch of the Ganges canal
passes .across the centre of the plateau in a sweeping curve
and waters the midland tract. The Anupshahr branch supplies
irrigation to the Ganges slope, and the Agra canal passes through
the southern corner of Loni pargana from the Hindan to the
Jumna. Besides these natural and artificial channels, the
country is everywhere cut up by small water-courses. The Burh
Ganga, or ancient bed of the Ganges, lies at some distance from
the modern stream; and on its bank stood the abandoned city
of Hastinapur, the legendary capital of the Pandavas at the
period of the Mahdbltdrata, said to have been deserted many
centuries before the Christian era, owing to the encroachments
of the river.
The comparatively high latitude and elevated position of
Meerut make it one of the healthiest districts in the plains of
India. The average temperature varies from 57 F. in January
to 87 in June. The rainfall is small, less than 30 in. annually.
The only endemic disease in the district is malarial fever; but
small-pox and cholera occasionally visit it as epidemics. The
population in 1901 was 1,540,175, showing an increase of
10-6% in the decade. The principal crops .are wheat, pulse,
millet, sugar-cane, cotton and indigo, but this last crop has
declined of late years almost to extinction. The district is
traversed by the North-Western railway, and also contains
Ghaziabad, the terminus of the East Indian system, whence a
branch runs to Delhi, while a branch of the Oudh & Rohil-
khand railway from Moradabad to Ghaziabad was opened in
1900.
The authentic history of the district begins with the Moslem in-
vasions. The first undoubted Mahommedan invasion was that
of Kutbeddin in 1191, when Meerut town was taken and all the
Hindu temples turned into mosques. In 1398 Timur captured
the fort of Loni after a desperate resistance, and put all his Hindu
prisoners to death. He then proceeded to Delhi, and after
his memorable sack of that city returned to Meerut, captured
the town, razed all the fortifications and houses of the Hindus,
and put the male inhabitants to the sword. The establishment
of the great Mogul dynasty in the i6th century, under Baber
and his successors, gave Meerut a period of internal tranquillity
and royal favour. After the death of Aurangzeb, however,
it was exposed to alternate Sikh and Mahratta invasions.
From 1707 till 1775 the country was the scene of perpetual
strife, and was only rescued from anarchy by the exertions
of the military adventurer Walter Reinhardt, afterwards the
husband of the celebrated Begum Samru, who established
himself at Sardhana in the north, and ruled a large estate.
The southern tract, however, remained in its anarchic condition
under Mahratta exactions until the fall of Delhi in 1803, when
the whole of the country between the Jumna and the Ganges
was ceded by Sindhia to the British. It was formed into a
separate district in 1818. In the British period it has become
memorable for its connexion with the Mutiny of 1857.
The DIVISION OF MEERUT comprises the northern portion
of the Doab. It consists of the six districts of Dehra Dun,
Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr and Aligarh.
Area, 11,302 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 5,979,711, showing an increase
of 1 2 -3% in the decade.
See Meerut District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1904).
MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble,
O. Eng. metan ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth, gamoljan, &c.,
derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. mot,
moot, an assembly of the people; cf. ivitanagemot) , a gathering
together of persons for the purpose of discussion or for the
transaction of business. Public meetings may be either those
of statutory bodies or assemblies of persons called together
for social, political or other purposes. In the case of statutory
bodies, by-laws usually fix the quorum necessary to constitute
a legal meeting. That of limited companies may be either
by reference to the capital held, or by a fixed quorum or one
in proportion to the number of shareholders. It has been
held that in the case of a company it takes at least two persons
to constitute a meeting (Sharp v. Daws, 1886, 2 Q.B.D. 26). In
the case of public meetings for social, political or other purposes
no quorum is necessary. They may be held, if they are for a lawful
purpose, in any place, on any day and at any hour, provided they
satisfy certain statutory provisions or by-laws made under the
authority of a statute for the safety of persons attending
such meetings. If, however, a meeting is held in the street
and it causes an obstruction those convening the meeting may
be proceeded against for obstructing the highway. The control
of a meeting and the subjects to be discussed are entirely within
the discretion of those convening it, and whether the meeting
is open to the public without payment, or subject to a charge or
to membership of a specified body or society, those present are
there merely by virtue of a licence of the conveners, which
licence may be revoked at any time. The person whose licence
is revoked may be requested to withdraw from the meeting,
and on his refusal may be ejected with such force as is necessary.
If he employs violence to those removing him he commits a
breach of the peace for which he may be given into custody.
An important English act has dealt for the first time with the
disturbance of a public meeting. The Public Meeting Act 1908
enacted that any person who at a lawful public meeting acts in
a disorderly manner for the purpose of preventing the trans-
action of the business for which the meeting was called together
shall be guilty of an offence, and if the offence is committed at a
political meeting held in any parliamentary constituency
between the issue and return of a writ, the offence is made
an illegal practice within the meaning of the Corrupt and Illegal
Practices Prevention Act 1883. Any person who incites another
to commit the offence is equally guilty. A public meeting is
usually controlled by a chairman, who may be appointed by
the conveners or elected by the meeting itself. On the chairman
falls the duty of preserving order, of calling on persons to speak,
deciding points of order, of putting questions to the meeting
74
MEGALOPOLIS
for decision, and declaring the result and other incidental
matters.
In England it is illegal, by a statute of George III. (Seditious
Meetings Act 1817), to hold a public meeting in the open
air within i m. of Westminster Hall during the sitting of
Parliament.
See C. P. Blackwell's Law of Meetings (1910).
MEGALOPOLIS, an ancient city of Arcadia, Greece, situated
in a plain about 20 m. S.W. of Tegea, on both banks of the
Helisson, about 2^ m. above its junction with the Alpheus. Like
Messene, it owed its origin to the Theban general Epaminondas,
and was founded in 370 B.C., the year after the battle of
Leuctra, as a bulwark for the southern Arcadians against Sparta,
and as the seat of the Arcadian Federal Diet, which consisted
of ten thousand men. The builders were protected by a Theban
force, and directed by ten native oecists (official " founders "),
an attempt to reduce Megalopolis; but the Thebans sent
assistance and the city was rescued. Not sure of this assist-
ance, the Megalopolitans had appealed to Athens, an appeal
which gave occasion to the oration of Demosthenes, Elept
MeyaXoTToXtTwi'. The Spartans were now obliged to conclude
peace with Megalopolis and acknowledge her autonomy.
Nevertheless their feeling of hostility did not cease, and
Megalopolis consequently entered into friendly relations with
Philip of Macedon. Twenty years later, when the Spartans
and their allies rebelled against the power of Macedon,
Megalopolis remained firm in its allegiance, and was
subjected to a long siege. After the death of Alexander,
Megalopolis was governed by native tyrants. In the war
between Cassander and Polyperchon it took part with the
former and was besieged by the latter. On this occasion it
was able to send into the field an army of fifteen thousand.
By permission from plan* by R.W.Schultr St
W.Loring in "Excavations at Megalopolis."
[Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.)
who likewise attended to the peopling of the new city, which
apparently drew inhabitants from all parts of Arcadia, but
especially from the neighbouring districts of Maenalia and
Parrhasia. Forty townships are mentioned by Pausanias
(viii. 27, 3-5) as having been incorporated in it. It was
50 stadia in circumference, and was surrounded with strong
walls. Its territory was the largest in Arcadia, extending
northward 24 rn. The city was built on a magnificent scale,
and adorned with many handsome buildings, both public and
private. Its temples contained many ancient statues brought
from the towns incorporated in it. After the departure of
Epaminondas, Lycomedes of Mantineia succeeded in drawing
the Arcadian federation away from its alliance with Thebes,
and it was consequently obliged to make common cause with
Athens. An attempt on the part of the federation to use the
treasures of the temple of Zeus at Olympia led to internal
dissensions, so that in the battle of Mantineia (362) one half of
the Arcadians fought on the side of the Spartans, the other
on that of the Thebans. After this battle many of the
inhabitants of Megalopolis sought to return to their former
homes, and it was only by the assistance of three thousand
Thebans under Pammenes that the authorities were able to
prevent them from doing so. In 353, when Thebes had her
hands full with the so-called Sacred War, the Spartans made
In 234 B.C. Lydiades, the last tyrant of Megalopolis, voluntarily
resigned his power, and the city joined the Achaean League.
In consequence of this it was again exposed to the hatred of
Sparta. In 222 Cleomenes plundered it and killed or dispersed
its inhabitants, but in the year following it was restored and its
inhabitants reinstated by Philopoemen, a native of the city.
After this, however, it gradually sank into insignificance. The
only great men whom it produced were Philopoemen and
Polybius the historian. Lycortas, the father of the latter,
may be accounted a third. In the time of Pausanias the
city was mostly in ruins.
The site of Megalopolis was excavated by members of the
British School at Athens in the years 1890-1892. The description
of Pausanias is so clear that it enabled Curtius, in his Pelopon-
nesos, to give a conjectural plan that was found to tally in most
respects with the reality. The town was divided into two
approximately equal parts by the river Helisson, which flows
through it from east to west. The line of the walls may be
traced, partly by remains, partly by the contours it must have
followed, and confirms the estimate of Polybius that they had
a circuit of 50 stades, or about si m - It is difficult to see
how the river bed, now a broad and shingly waste, was dealt
with in ancient times; it must have been embanked in some way,
but there are no remains to show whether the fortification wall
MEGANUCLEUS MEGAPODE
75
was carried across the river at either end or along the parallel
embankments so as to make two separate enclosures. There
must have been, in all probability, a bridge to connect the
two halves of the city, but the foundations seen by Leake and
others, and commonly supposed to belong to such a bridge,
proved to be only the substructures of the precinct of Zeus Soter.
The buildings north of the river were municipal and were
grouped round the square agora. One, of which the complete
plan has been recovered, is the portico of Philip, a splendid
building, which bounded the agora on the north; it was 300 ft.
long, with three rows of columns running its whole length,
three in the outer line to each one in the two inner lines; it had
a slightly projecting wing at either end. At the south-west
of the agora was found the precinct of Zeus Soter: it consists
of a square court surrounded by a double colonnade, and faced
on the west side by a small temple; on the east side was an
entrance or propylaeum approached by a ramp. In the midst
of the court was a substructure which has been variously
interpreted as an altar or as the base of the great group of
Zeus and Megalopolis, which is recorded to have stood here.
North of this was the Stoa Myropolis, forming the east boundary
of the agora, and, between this and the Stoa of Philip, the
Archeia or municipal offices. These buildings were of various
dates, but seem all to fit into an harmonious plan. The buildings
on the south and west of the agora have been almost entirely
destroyed by the Helisson and a tributary brook. On the
south bank of the river were the chief federal buildings, the
theatre (noted by Pausanias as the largest in Greece), and the
Thersilion or parliament hall of the ten thousand Arcadians.
These two buildings form part of a common design, the great
portico of the Thersilion facing the orchestra of the theatre.
As a consequence of this arrangement, the plan of the theatre
is abnormal. The auditorium has as its lowest row of seats
a set of " thrones " or ornamental benches, which, as well as
the gutter in front, were dedicated by a certain Antiochus; the
orchestra is about 100 ft. in diameter; and in place of the
western parados is a closed room called the Scanotheca. The
chief peculiarity, however, lies in the great portico already
mentioned, which has its base about 4 ft. 6 in. above the
level of the orchestra. It was much too lofty to serve as a
proscenium; yet, if a proscenium of the ordinary Greek type
were erected in front, it would hide the lower part of the columns.
Such a proscenium was actually erected in later times; and
beneath it were the foundations for an earlier wooden proscenium,
which was probably erected only when required. In later times
steps were added, leading from the base of the portico to the
level of the orchestra. The theatre was probably used, like
the theatre at Athens, for political assemblies; but the adjoining
Thersilion provided covered accommodation for the Arcadian
ten thousand in wet weather. It is a building unique in plan,
sloping up from the centre towards all sides like a theatre.
The roof was supported by columns that were placed in lines
radiating from the centre, so as to obscure as little as possible
the view of an orator in this position from all parts of the
building; there were two entrances in each side.
See Excavations at Megalopolis (E. A. Gardner, W. Loring, G. C.
Richards, W. J. Woodhouse; Architecture, by R. W. Schultz) ;
Supplementary Paper issued by the Society for the Promotion of
Hellenic Studies, 1892; Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. 328,
A. G. Bather; p. 319, E. F. Benson ("Thersilion"); 1898, p. 15,
J. B. Bury (" Double City ") ; W. Dorpfeld (" Das griechische
Theater ") ; O. Puchstein, " Griechische Buhne " (Theatre).
(E. GR.)
MEGANUCLEUS (also called MACRONUCLETJS), in Infusoria
(q.ii.)., the large nucleus which undergoes direct (amitotic)
division in fission, and is lost during conjugation, to be
replaced by a nucleus, the result of the karyogamy of the
micronuclei.
MEGAPODE (Gr. ju7as, great and irofe, foot), the name given
generally to a small but remarkable family of birds, characteristic
of some parts of the Australian region, to which it is almost
peculiar. The Megapodiidae, with the Cracidae and Phasianidae,
form that division of the sub-order Galli named by Huxley
Peristeropodes (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1868, p. 296). Their most
remarkable habit is that of leaving their eggs to be hatched
without incubation, burying them in the ground (as many
reptiles do), or in a mound of earth, leaves and rotten wood
which they scratch up. This habit attracted attention nearly
four hundred years ago, 1 but the accounts given of it by various
travellers were generally discredited, and as examples of the
birds, probably from their unattractive plumage, appear not
to have been brought to Europe, no one of them was seen by
any ornithologist or scientifically described until near the end
of the first quarter of the igth century. The first member
of the family to receive authoritative recognition was one of
the largest, inhabiting the continent of Australia, where it is
known as the brush-turkey, and was originally described by J.
Latham in 1821 under the misleading name of the New Holland
vulture. It is the Catheturus lathami of modern ornithologists,
and is nearly the size of a hen turkey. This East Austrah'an
bird is of a sooty-brown colour, relieved beneath by the lighter
edging of some of the feathers, but the head and neck are nearly
bare, beset with fine bristles, the skin being of a deep pinkish-
red, passing above the breast into a large wattle of bright yellow.
The tail is commonly carried upright and partly folded, some-
thing like that of a domestic fowl. Allied to it are three or
four species of Talegallus, from New Guinea and adjacent
islands.
Another form, an inhabitant of South and West Australia,
commonly known in England as the mallee-bird, but to the
colonists as the " native pheasant " the Lipoa ocellata, as
described by J. Gould in the Proc. Zool. Soc. (1840), p. 126,
has much shorter tarsi and toes, the head entirely clothed,
and the tail expanded. Its plumage presents a combination
of greys and browns of various tints, interspersed with black,
white and buff, the wing-coverts and feathers of the back
bearing each near the tip an oval or subcircular patch, whence
the scientific name of the bird is given, while a stripe of black
feathers with a median line of white extends down the front of
the throat from the chin to the breast. There is but one species
of this genus known, as is also the case with the next to be
mentioned, a bird long known to inhabit Celebes, but not fully
1 Antonio Pigafetta, one of the survivors of Magellan's voyage,
records in his journal, under date of April 1521, among the peculia-
rities of the Philippine Islands, then first discovered by Europeans,
the existence of a bird there, about the size of a fowl, which laid its
eggs, as big as a duck's, in the sand, and left them to be hatched
by the heat of the sun (Premier voyage autour du monde, ed. Amor-
etti, Paris, A.R. ix. 88). More than a hundred years later the
Jesuit Nieremberg, in his Historia naturae, published at Antwerp
in 1635, described (p. 207) a bird called " Daie," and by the natives
named " Tapun," not larger than a dove, which, with its tail (!)
and feet excavated a nest in sandy places and laid therein eggs bigger
than those of a goose. The publication at Rome in 1651 of Hernan-
dez's Hist, avium novae Hispaniae shows that his papers must have
been accessible to Nieremberg, who took from them the passage just
mentioned, but, as not unusual with him, misprinted the names which
stand in Hernandez's work (p. 56, cap. 220) " Daic " and " Tapum "
respectively, and omitted his predecessor's important addition
" Viuit in Philippicis." Not long after, the Dominican Navarrete,
a missionary to China, made a considerable stay in the Philippines,
and returning to Europe in 1673 wrote an account of the Chinese
empire, of which Churchill (Collection of Voyages and Travels,
vol. i.) gave an English translation in 1704. It is therein stated
(p. 45) that in many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago " there
is a very singular bird call'd Tabon," and that " What I and many
more admire is, that it being no bigger in body than an ordinary
chicken, tho' long legg'd, yet it lays an egg larger than a gooses,
so that the egg is bigger than the bird itself. ... In order to lay
its eggs, it digs in the sand above a yard in depth; after laying, it
fills up the hole and makes it even with the rest; there the eggs
hatch with the heat of the sun and sand." Gemelli Careri, who
travelled from 1663 to 1699, and in the latter year published an
account of his voyage round the world, gives similar evidence
respecting this bird, which he calls " tavon," in the Philippine
Islands (Voy. du tour du monde, ed. Paris, 1727, v. 157, 158).
The megapode of Luzon is fairly described by Camel or Camelli
in his observations on the birds of the Philippines communicated by
Petiver to the Royal Society in 1703 (Phil. Trans, xxiii. 1398).
In 1726 Valentyn published his elaborate work on the East Indies,
wherein (deel iii. bk. v. p. 320) he correctly describes the megapode
of Amboina under the name of " malleloe," and also a larger kind
found in Celebes.
7 6
MEGARA MEGARA HYBLAEA
described until 1846,' when it received from Salomon Miiller
(Arch. f. Naturgeschichte, xii. pt. i, p. 116) the name of
Macrocephalon maleo, but, being shortly afterwards figured by
Gray and Mitchell (Gen. Birds, iii. pi. 123) under the generic
term of Megacephalon, has since commonly borne the latter
appellation. This bird bears a helmet-like protuberance on
the back of its head, all of which, as well as the neck, is bare
and of a bright red colour; the plumage of the body is glossy
black above, and beneath roseate-white.
Of the megapodes proper, constituting the genus Megapodius,
about fifteen species are admitted. The birds of this genus
range from the Samoa Islands in the east, through the Tonga
group, to the New Hebrides, the northern part of Australia,
New Guinea and its neighbouring islands, Celebes, the Pelew
Islands and the Ladrones, and have also outliers in detached
portions of the Indian Region, as the Philippines (where indeed
they were first discovered by Europeans), Labuan, and even the
Nicobars though none is known from the intervening islands
of Borneo, Java or Sumatra. Within what may be deemed
their proper area they are found, says A. R. Wallace (Geogr.
Distr. Animals, ii. 341), " on the smallest islands and sandbanks,
and can evidently pass over a few miles of sea with ease."
Indeed, proof of their roaming disposition is afforded by the
fact that the bird described by Lesson (Voy. Coquille: Zoologie,
p. 703) as Alecthelia urvillii, but now considered to be the
young of Megapodius freycineti, flew on board his ship when
more than 2 m. from the nearest land (Guebe), in an exhausted
state, it is true, but that may be attributed to its youth. The
species of Megapodius are about the size of small fowls, the
head generally crested, the tail very short, the feet enormous,
and, with the exception of M. wallacii (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1860, Aves, pi. 171), from the Moluccas, all have a sombre
plumage.
Megapodes are shy terrestrial birds, of heavy flight, and
omnivorous diet. In some islands they are semi-domesticated,
although the flesh is dark and generally unpalatable. (A. N.)
MEGARA, an ancient Greek town on the road from Attica
to Corinth. The country which belonged to the city was
called Meyapis or 17 MeyapiK^; it occupied the broader part
of the isthmus between Attica, Boeotia, Corinth, and the two
gulfs, and its whole area is estimated by Clinton at 143 sq. m.
The range of Mount Geraneia extends across the country from
east to west, forming a barrier between continental Greece
and the Peloponnesus. The shortest road across this range
passes along the eastern side of the mountains, and the most
difficult part is the celebrated Scironian rocks, the mythic
home of the robber Sciron. The only plain in the rugged
little country was the White Plain, in which was situated the
only important town, Megara. The modern town of Megara
is situated on two low hills which formed part of the ancient
site; it is the chief town of the eparchy of Megaris; pop. about
6400. It contains few remains of antiquity, except of the
aqueduct and basin, said to have been made by the architect
Eupalinus for the tyrant Theagenes. (E. GR.)
From the somewhat conflicting evidence of mythology it
may be gathered that in prehistoric days Megara had maritime
intercourse with the southern Aegean. The early inhabitants,
whose race is unknown, were extirpated or absorbed in the Dorian
migration, for in historic times the city had a homogeneous
Dorian population. Favoured by its proximity to two great
waterways and by its two ports, Nisaea on the Saronic and Pegae
on the Corinthian Gulf, Megara took a prominent part in the
commercial expansion of Greece from the 8th century onwards,
and for two hundred years enjoyed prosperity out of proportion
to the slight resources of its narrow territory. Its trade was
mainly directed towards Sicily, where Megarian colonies were
established at Hybla (Megara Hyblaea) and Selinus, and towards
the Black Sea, in which region the Megarians were probably
'As we have seen, it was mentioned in 1726 by Valentyn, and
a young example] was in 1830 described and figured by Quoy
and Gaimard (Voy. de V Astrolabe: Oiseaux, p. 239, pi. 25) as the
Megapodius rubripes of Temminck, a wholly different bird.
pioneers of Greek commerce. In the Sea of Marmora they
had to face the competition of the Samians, with whom they
waged a war concerning the town of Perinthus, and of Miletus;
but on the Bosporus they established themselves by means of
settlements at Chalcedon and, above all, Byzantium (founded,
according to tradition, 675 and 658 respectively). In the
Black Sea they exploited the shores of Pontus and Scythia,
whose products they exchanged for textiles spun from the
wool of their own country. Their chief colonies in this sea
were Astacus and Heraclea in Bithynia, and another Heraclea
in the Crimea. In the later 7th century this current of trade
dwindled in face of the great commercial and colonizing activity
of Miletus; it probably received further injury through the
subsequent interference of Athens on the Hellespont. Simul-
taneously Megarian commerce in Sicily began to be supplanted
by Corinth and Corcyra.
Megara's economic development entailed a change in the dis-
tribution of wealth, and consequently of political power, which is
commented upon in the elegies of Theognis (q.v.). The original
land-holding aristocracy, which had probably initiated and for
a time monopolized commerce, was partly supplanted by prosperous
upstarts, and with the general increase of prosperity began to lose
its hold upon the community of artisans. In the ensuing party
struggles the city passed under a tyrant, Theagenes (about 640),
whose rule was too brief to produce great changes. The power of
the nobles would seem to have been more effectively broken in a
war with Athens, in which Megara ultimately lost the island of
Salamis (about 570, see SOLON), for shortly afterwards the con-
stitution was changed to a democracy, and eventually was fixed
as an oligarchy of a moderate type.
During the Persian wars the state, which had recently joined
the Peloponnesian League, could still muster 3000 hoplites. But
the subsequent expansion of Athens ruined the commerce of Megara,
and the town itself was threatened with absorption by some powerful
neighbour. In 459 an attack by Corinth, which had always coveted
Megara's territory, induced the people to summon the aid of the
Athenians, who secured Megara in battle and by the construction
of long walls between the capital and its port Nisaea. In 445 a
revulsion of feeling led the Megarians to massacre their Athenian
garrison. The Athenians retaliated by placing an embargo upon
Megarian trade throughout their empire (432), and in the Pelopon-
nesian War, which the Megarians had consequently striven to
hasten on, reduced their neighbours to misery by blockade and
devastations. In 424 they nearly captured Megara, in collusion
with a democratic party within the town, and succeeded in securing
Nisaea, which they held till 410. In the 4th century Megara re-
covered some measure of prosperity, but played an insignificant
part in politics, its only notable move being the participation in
the final conflict against Philip II. of Macedon (338). During the
Macedonian supremacy the town passed in turn from Cassander
and Demetrius Poliorcetes to Antigonus Gonatas, and finally was
incorporated in the Achaean League. Megara suffered severely
during the Civil War of 48 B.C., but seems at some later period to
have received new settlers. It maintained itself as a place of some
size in subsequent centuries, but was depopulated by the Venetians
in A.D. 1500. The inhabitants of the modern village are mostly
of Albanian origin.
In literature Megara figures as the reputed home of the comedian
Susarion, and in the 4th century gave its name to a school of philo-
sophy founded by Euclid.
See Strabo ix. 391-395; Theognis; Thucydides i.-iv.; Aristo-
phanes, Acharnians, 729-835; F. Cauer, Parteien und Politiker in
Megara und Athen (Stuttgart, 1890), pp. 1-44; B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 329-330; R. Delbruck and K. G.
Vollmoller, " Das Brunnenhaus des Theagenes," in Mitteil. d.
deutsch. Inst. Athen. XXV. (1900). (M. O. B. C.)
MEGARA HYBLAEA (perhaps identical with HYBLA MAJOR),
an ancient city of Sicily, on the E. coast, 12 m. N.N.W. of
Syracuse, founded in 728 B.C. by Megarean colonists, who had
previously settled successively at Trotilon, Leontini and
Thapsus. A hundred years later it founded Selinus, apparently
because it had no room for development. It never seems to
have been a town of great importance, and had no advantages
of position. It was destroyed by Gelon about 481 B.C., and its
walls seem to have been razed to the ground. In the Athenian
expedition against Syracuse (415-413) Lamachus proposed
(it being then deserted) to make it the Athenian base of opera-
tions; but his advice was not taken, and in the next spring
the Syracusans fortified it. In 309 it was still fortified; but,
after Marcellus captured it, in 214, we hear little more of it.
Excavations carried on in 1891 led to the discovery of the
MEGARIAN SCHOOL MEGATHERIUM
77
northern portion of the western town wall, which in one section
served at the same time as an embankment against floods
(it was apparently more conspicuous in the time of P. Cluver,
Sicilia, p. 133), of an extensive necropolis, about 1000 tombs
of which have been explored, and of a deposit of votive objects
from a temple. The harbour lay to the north of the town.
See P. Orsi in Monumenti dei Lincei (1891), i. 689-950; and Atti
del congresso delle scienze storiche, v. 181 (Rome, 1904). (T. As.)
MEGARIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY. This school was
founded by Euclides of Megara, one of
the pupils of Socrates. Two main ele-
ments went to make up the Megarian
doctrine. Like the Cynics and the
Cyrenaics, Euclides started from the
Socratic principle that virtue is know-
ledge. But into combination with this
he brought the Eleatic doctrine of Unity.
Perceiving the difficulty of the Socratic
dictum he endeavoured to give to the
word " knowledge " a definite content by
divorcing it absolutely from the sphere
of sense and experience, and confining it
to a sort of transcendental dialectic or
logic. The Eleatic unity is Goodness,
and is beyond the sphere of sensible
apprehension. This goodness, therefore,
alone exists; matter, motion, growth
and decay are figments of the senses;
they have no existence for Reason.
" Whatever is, is ! " Knowledge is of
ideas and is in conformity with the
necessary laws of thought. Hence Plato
in the Sophist describes the Megarians
as " the friends of ideas." Yet the
Megarians were by no means in agreement with the Platonic
idealism. For they held that ideas, though eternal and im-
movable, have neither life nor action nor movement.
This dialectic, initiated by Euclides, became more and more
opposed to the testimony of experience ; in the hands of Eubulides
and Alexinus it degenerated into hairsplitting, mainly in the
form of the reductio ad absurdum. The strength of these men
lay in destructive criticism rather than in construction: as
dialecticians they were successful, but they contributed little
to ethical speculation. They spent their energy in attacking
Plato and Aristotle, and hence earned the opprobrious epithet
of Eristic. They used their dialectic subtlety to disprove
the possibility of motion and decay; unity is the negation of
change, increase and decrease, birth and death. None the less,
in ancient times they received great respect owing to their
intellectual pre-eminence. Cicero (Academics, ii. 42) describes
their doctrine as a " nobilis disciplina," and identifies them
closely with Parmenides and Zeno. But their most immediate in-
fluence was upon the Stoics (q.v.), whose founder, Zeno, studied
under Stilpo. This philosopher, a man of striking and attractive
personality, succeeded in fusing the Megarian dialectic with
Cynic naturalism. The result of the combination was in fact
a juxtaposition rather than a compound; it is manifestly impos-
sible to find an organic connexion between a practical code
like Cynicism and the transcendental logic of the Megarians.
But it served as a powerful stimulus to Zeno, who by descent
was imbued with oriental mysticism.
been found at Tiryns and Mycenae, and references are made
to it in the Iliad and the Odyssey.
MEGATHERIUM (properly Megalotherium), a huge extinct
edentate mammal from the Pleistocene deposits of Buenos
Aires, typifying the family Megatheriidae (or Megalolheriidae),
and by far the largest representative of the Edentata. Except,
indeed, for its relatively shorter limbs Megatherium americanum
rivalled an elephant in bulk, the total length of the skeleton
being 18 feet, five of which are taken up by the tail. The
Megatheriidae, which include a number of genera, are collectively
For bibliographical information about the Megarians, see
EUCLIDES; EUBULIDES; DIODORUS CRONUS; STILPO. See also
ELEATIC SCHOOL; CYNICS; STOICS; and, for the connexion between
the Megarians and the Eretrians, MENEDEMUS and PHAEDO. Also
Zeller, Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Dyeck, De Megaricorum
doctrina (Bonn, 1827); Mallet, Histoire de I'ecole de Megare (Paris,
1845); Ritter, Uber die Philosophic der 'meg. Schule; Prantl,
Geschichte der Logik, i. 32; Henne, L'ecole de Megare (Paris, 1843);
Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans. 1905), ii. 170 seq.
MEGARON, the principal hall of the ancient Greek palace,
situated in the andron or men's quarter. Examples have
FIG. I. Skeleton of the Megatherium, from the specimen in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons of England. (X^.)
known as ground-sloths, and occupy a position intermediate
between the sloths and the ant-eater: their skulls being of the
type of the former, while their limbs and vertebrae conform in
structure to those of the latter. As in the other typical South
American edentates, there are no teeth in the front of the jaws,
while those of the cheek-series usually comprise five pairs in the
upper and four in the lower. In nearly all the other Pleistocene
forms these teeth were subcylindrical in shape, with the summit
of the crown (except sometimes in the first pair) forming a
cup-like depression; enamel being in all
cases absent. From all these Mega-
therium differs in the form and struc-
ture of the teeth.
In form, as shown in fig. 2, the teeth
are quadrangular prisms, each of which is
surmounted by a pair of transverse ridges.
They grew apparently throughout life,
and were implanted to a great depth in
the jaws, being 7 or 8 in. in length, with
a cross-section of at least an inch and a
half. The ridges on the crown are due
to the arrangement of the vertical layers
of hard dentine (fig. 3, d), softer vaso-
dentine (v) and cement (c). The skull
is relatively small, with the lower jaw
very deep in its central portion, and pro-
duced in part into a long snout-like
symphysis for the reception, doubtless,
of a large and fleshy tongue (fig. 2).
Unlike sloths, the megatherium has seven
cervical vertebrae ; and the spines of all
the trunk-vertebrae incline backwards.
The pelvis and hind-limbs are much
more powerful than the fore-quarters;
thereby enafting these animals, in all
probability, to rear themselves on their
hind-quarters, and thus pull down the
branches of trees : if not, indeed, in some
cases to bodily uproot the trees them-
selves. Large chevron-bones are sus-
pended to the vertebrae of the tail,
which was massive, and probably afforded a support when the
monster was sitting up. The humerus has no foramen, and the
(From Owen.)
FIG. 2. Lower -Jaw and
Teeth of Megatherium.
7 8
MEGHNA MEHEMET ALI
whole fore-limb was very mobile. The first front toe was rudimen-
tary, having no phalanges, but the fifth was rather less aborted, al-
though clawless; the other three carried enormous claws, protected
by reflected sheaths. The hind-foot is remarkable for the great back-
ward projection of the calcaneum, and likewise for the peculiar shape
of the astragalus; the middle toe alone carries a claw, this being
of huge size, and ensheathed like those of the fore foot. No trace
(From Owen.)
FIG. 3. Section of Upper Molar Teeth of Megatherium. (XiO
of a bony armour in the skin has been detected; but, from the
evidence of other genera, it may be assumed that the body was
clothed in a coat of long, coarse hair. Although similar teeth
occur in the phosphorite beds of South Carolina, which may have
been transported from elsewhere, no undoubted remains of Mega-
therium are known from North America.
The typical species ranged from Argentina and Chili to Brazil.
For certain small ground-sloths from Patagonia with Megatherium-
like teeth, see MYLODON. (R. L.*)
MEGHNA, a river of India. It forms, in the lower part of its
course, the great estuary of the Bengal delta, which conveys to
the sea the main body of the waters of the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra, which unite at Goalanda in Faridpur district.
The united waters, turbid and of great depth, are sometimes split
into half a dozen channels by sand-banks, sometimes spread into
a wide sheet of water. The river enters the sea by four principal
mouths, enclosing the three large islands of Dakshin Shahbazpur,
Hatia and Sandwip. It is navigable by native boats and river
steamers all the year; but the navigation is difficult and some-
times dangerous on account of shifting sand-banks and snags,
and boisterous weather when the monsoon is blowing. The most
favourable season is between November and February. Alluvion
and diluvion are constantly taking place, especially along the
seaboard, and in Noakhali district the land is said to have made
rapid advance on the sea; while the islands fringing the mouth
are annually being cut away and redeposited in fresh shapes.
The regular rise of the tide is from 10 to 18 ft., and at springs
the sea rushes up in a dangerous bore. It is greatest at the time
of the biennial equinoxes, when navigation is sometimes impeded
for days together. The tidal wave advances like a wall topped
with foam of the height of nearly 20 ft., and at the rate of ism.
an hour; in a few minutes it is past, and the river has changed
from ebb to flood tide. A still greater danger is the " storm
wave " which occasionally sweeps up the Meghna under a
cyclone.
MEHADIA, a market town of Hungary, in the county of
Krasso-Szoreny, 287 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),
2492. The town is the site of the ancient Roman colony Ad
Medium, near which passed the Roman road fromithe Danube
to Dacia. It contains the ruins of a fortress, and other Roman
remains. In its neighbourhood are the famous Hercules baths
(Hungarian, Herkulesfurdo). These are situated in a narrow
rocky ravine in the valley of the Cserna, where there are 22 hot
springs, of which nine are in use, the most powerful being the
Hercules spring. The springs are all strongly impregnated with
salts of sulphur, iodine, bromine and chlorine, and their average
temperature is 70 to 145 F. They were famous in the Roman
period under the name of Thermae Herculis or Ponies Herculis.
Their popularity is attested by numerous inscriptions and relics.
After the fall of the Roman Empire they fell into disuse until 1 735,
but in modern times they have been much frequented.
MEHEMET ALI (1769-1849), pasha and afterwards viceroy of
Egypt, was born at Kavala, a small seaport on the frontier of
Thrace and Macedonia. His father, an Albanian, was an aga, a
small yeoman farmer, and he himself lived in his native town for
many years as a petty official and trader in tobacco. In 1798
he became second in command of a regiment of bashi-bazouks, or
volunteers, recruited in his neighbourhood to serve against
Napoleon in Egypt. He took part in the battle of Aboukir
(July 25, 1799), was driven into the sea with the routed Turks,
and was saved from drowning by the gig of the British admiral,
Sir Sidney Smith. In 1801 he returned to Egypt, in command
of his regiment, and on the gth of May distinguished himself
by heading a bold cavalry charge at the battle of Rahmanieh.
In the troubled years that followed, Mehemet Ali, leader of a
compact body of Albanian clansmen, was in the best position to-
draw advantage from the struggle for power between the Mame-
lukes and the representatives of the Porte. In 1803 he cast in
his lot with the former; in 1804 he turned against them and
proclaimed his loyalty to the sultan; in 1805 the sheiks of Cairo,
in the hope of putting a stop to the intolerable anarchy, elected
him pasha, and a year later an imperial firman confirmed their
choice. The disastrous British expedition of 1807 followed;
and while at Constantinople the prestige of the sultan was being
undermined by the series of revolutions which in 1808 brought
Mahmud II. to the throne, that of Mehemet Ali was enhanced by
the exhibition at Cairo of British prisoners and an avenue of
stakes decorated with the heads of British slain.
The situation revealed to the astute Albanian boundless
possibilities for gratifying his ambition. In spite of his chance
victories, he was too shrewd an observer not to recognize the
superiority of European methods of warfare; and as the first step
towards the empire of which he dreamed he determined to create
an army and a fleet on the European model. In 1808 the build-
ing and organization of the navy was begun with the aid of French
officers and engineers. In 1811 the massacre of the Mamelukes
left Mehemet Ali without a rival in Egypt, while the foundations
of his empire beyond were laid by the war against the Wahhabis
and the conquest of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The
Wahhabi War, indeed, dragged on till 1818, when Ibrahim (q.v.),
the pasha's son, who in 1816 had driven the remnant of the
Mamelukes into Nubia, brought it to an end. This done, the
pasha turned his attention southward to the vast country
watered by the Upper Nile. In 1820 the oasis of Siwa was.
subdued by his arms; in 1823 he laid the foundations of
Khartum.
By this time Mehemet Ali was the possessor of a powerful fleet
and of an army of veterans disciplined and drilled by European
officers. To obtain these money had been necessary; and to
raise money the pasha had instituted those internal " reforms "
the bizarre system of state monopolies and the showy experi-
ments in new native industries which are described in the article
Egypt (q.v.). The inherent viciousncss of these expedients had,
however, not as yet been revealed by their inevitable results,
and Mehemet Ali in the eyes of the world was at once the
most enlightened and the most powerful of the sultan's valis. To-
Mahmud II., whose whole policy was directed to strengthening
the authority of the central power, this fact would have sufficed
to make him distrust the pasha and desire his overthrow; and
it was sorely against his will that, in 1822, the ill-success of
his arms against the insurgent Greeks forced him to summon
Mehemet Ali to his aid. The immediate price was the pashalik
of Crete; in the event of the victory of the Egyptian arms the
pashaliks of Syria and Damascus were to fall to Mehemet Ali,
that of the Morea to his son Ibrahim. /The part played by Mehe-
met Ali in the Greek War is described elsewhere (see TURKEY:
History; GREECE: History; GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR or-
MEHEMET ALI
79
IBRAHIM). The intervention of the powers, culminating in the
shattering of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino (<?..), robbed him
of his reward so far as Greece was concerned; the failure of his
arms in face of this intervention gave Sultan Mahmud the excuse
he desired for withholding the rest of the stipulated price of his
assistance.
This disappointment of his ambition would not perhaps in
itself have sufficed to stir Mehemet Ali to revolt against his
master; but it was ominous of perils to come, which the astute
pasha thought it wise to forestall. The sultan's policy had been
consistently directed to crushing the overgrown power of his
vassals; in the spring of 1831 two rebellious pashas, Hussein of
Bosnia and Mustafa of Scutari, had succumbed to his arms;
and, since he was surrounded and counselled by the personal
enemies of the pasha of Egypt, it was likely that, so soon as he
should feel himself strong enough, he would deal in like manner
with Mehemet Ali. It was to anticipate this peril that Mehemet
Ali determined himself to open the struggle: on the ist of Novem-
ber 1831 a force of 9000 Egyptian infantry and 2000 cavalry
crossed the frontier into Syria and met at Jaffa the fleet which
brought Ibrahim as commander-in-chief. The combined forces
at once laid siege to St Jean d'Acre.
The stubborn resistance of the garrison delayed Ibrahim's
progress; and, meanwhile, wild rumours went abroad as to Mehe-
met Ali's intentions. He was master of the holy cities, and the
official Moniteur Ottoman denounced his supposed plan of aiming
at the caliphate in collusion with the sherif of Mecca. As for
the pasha himself, he loudly disclaimed any such disloyal pre-
tensions; his aim was to chastise Abdulla, pasha of Acre, who had
harboured refugees from his " reforms "; to overthrow Khusrev,
who had encouraged him in his refusal to surrender them; to
secure the fulfilment of the sultan's promise with regard to Syria
and Damascus. Mahmud, on the other hand, was torn between
hatred of the pasha and hatred of the Christian powers which
had forced him to make concessions to the Greeks. Voices urged
him to come to terms with Mehemet Ali, secure peace in Islam,
and turn a united face of defiance against Europe; and for a while
he harboured the idea. He was conscious of his own intense
unpopularity, the outcome of his efforts at reform; he knew
that in popular opinion Mehemet Ali was the champion of Islam
against the infidel caliph, and that the issue of a struggle with him
was more than doubtful. He was hampered by the unpaid debt
to Russia; by unrest in Bosnia and Albania; above all, by the
revolt of the Greek Islands, which had left his navy, deprived
of its best sailors, in no condition to dispute the Egyptian com-
mand of the sea. In the end, however, his pride prevailed; in
April 1833 the Turkish commander-in-chief Hussein Pasha left
Constantinople for the front; and in the third week in May the
ban of outlawry was launched against Mehemet Ali.
Meanwhile, Ibrahim had occupied Gaza and Jerusalem as well
as Jaffa; on the 27th of May, a few days after the publication
of the ban, Acre was stormed; on the isth of June the Egyptians
occupied Damascus. Ibrahim pressed on with characteristic
rapidity, his rapid advance being favoured by the friendly
attitude of the various sections of the Syrian population, whom
he had been at pains to conciliate. He defeated the Ottoman
advance-guard at Horns on the gth of July and at Hamah on
the nth, entered Aleppo on the i7th, and on the 2gth inflicted
a crushing defeat on the main Turkish army under Hussein
Pasha at the pass of Beilan. All Syria was lost to the sultan,
and the Egyptian advance-guard passed the mountain defiles
into Adana in Asia Minor.
Mahmud, in desperation, now turned for help to the powers.
Russian aid, though promptly offered, was too double-edged a
weapon to be used save at the last extremity. Austrian diplo-
macy was, for the moment, that of Russia. France had broken
her long tradition of friendship for Turkey by the occupation
of Algiers. Great Britain, prodigal of protestations of goodwill,
alone remained ; and to her Mahmud turned v/ith a definite offer
of an offensive and defensive alliance. Stratford Canning, who
was at Constantinople for the purpose of superintending the
negotiations for the delimitation of the frontiers of Greece, wrote
home urging the government to accept, and suggesting a settle-
ment of the Egyptian question which foreshadowed that of 1841.
Palmerston, however, did not share Canning's belief in the
possible regeneration of Turkey; he held that an isolated inter-
vention of Great Britain would mortally offend not only Russia
but France, and that Mehemet Ah', disappointed of his ambitions,
would find in France a support that would make him doubly
dangerous. 1
In the autumn Sultan Mahmud, as a last independent effort,
despatched against Ibrahim the army which, under Reshid
Pasha, had been engaged in pacifying Albania. The result was
the crowning victory of the Egyptians at Konia (Dec. 21). The
news reached Constantinople at the same time as Count Muraviev
arrived on a special mission from the tsar. The Russian offers
were at once renewed of a squadron of battleships and of a land
force for the protection of the capital. Efforts were made to
escape the necessity of accepting the perilous aid. Ottoman
agents, backed by letters from the French charge d'affaires, were
sent to Mehemet Ali and to Ibrahim, to point out the imminence
of Russian intervention and to offer modified terms. Muraviev
himself went to Alexandria, where, backed by the Austrian agent,
Count Prokesch-Osten, he announced to the pasha the tsar's
immutable hatred of rebels. Mehemet Ali merely protested the
complete loyalty of his intentions; Ibrahim, declaring that as a
soldier he had no choice but to obey his father's orders, advanced
to Afium-Karahissar and Kutaiah, whence he wrote to the sultan
asking his gracious permission to advance to Brusa. He was at
the head of 100,000 men, well organized and flushed with victory;
the Ottoman army survived only as demoralized rabble. Panic
seized the Seraglio; and at the beginning of February the assis-
tance of Russia was formally demanded. The representatives
of France and Great Britain made every effort to secure a
reversal of this fatal step; but, while they were threatening
and promising, Russia was acting, and on the 2oth of February
a Russian squadron entered the Bosporus.
In view of this it became necessary for the objecting powers to
take a new line. The new French ambassador, Admiral Roussin,
had arrived on the I7th; he now, with the full concurrence of
Mandeville, the British charge d'affaires, persuaded the Porte to
invite the Russians to withdraw, undertaking that France would
secure the acceptance by Mehemet Ali of the sultan's terms.
A period of suspense followed. The Russian squadron was
detained by contrary winds, and before it could sail peremptory
orders arrived from the tsar for it to remain until Ibrahim should
have repassed the Taurus mountains. Meanwhile, Mehemet Ali
had scornfully rejected the offers of the Porte; he would be con-
tent with nothing but the concession of his full demands Syria,
Icheli, Aleppo, Damascus and Adana. France and Great Britain
now urged the sultan to yield, and in March a Turkish agent
was sent to Ibrahim to offer the pashaliks of Syria, Aleppo and
Damascus. The crisis was precipitated by the arrival on the 5th
of April of a second division of the Russian fleet in the Bosporus,
and of a Russian force of 6000 men, which landed on the Asiatic
shore. The Porte now tried once more to modify its terms; but
the Western powers were now intent on getting rid of the Russians
at all costs, and as a result of the pressure they brought to bear
on both parties the preliminary convention of Kutaiah, conced-
ing all the Egyptian demands, was signed on the 8th of April, and
Ibrahim began his withdrawal. The convention stipulated for
the bestowal of the pashalik of Adana on Ibrahim ; but when on
the 1 6th he received the official list of appointments, he found
that Adana had been expressly reserved by the sultan. He at
once arrested his march; but the pressure of famine in the capital,
caused by the cutting off of supplies from Asia and the presence
of the large Russian force, compelled Mahmud to yield, and on the
3rd of May a firman ceded Adana to Ibrahim under the pretext of
appointing him muhassil, or collector of the revenue.
When Lord Ponsonby, the new British ambassador, arrived at
1 Canning's original memorandum is in the Foreign Office Records
in the volume marked P.O., Turkey: From Sir Stratford Canning
(August to December, 1832). It bears elaborate pencil notes in
Palmerston's handwriting, in part already obliterated.
8o
MEHEMET ALI
Constantinople on the ist of May he found Russia practically in
possession. Sultan Mahmud was to the last degree embittered
against the powers which, with lively protestations of friendship,
had forced him to humiliate himself before his hated vassal.
Russia had given him deeds, not words; and to Russia he com
mitted himself. A further contingent of six or seven thousand
Russians had arrived on the 22nd of April; Russian engineers
were busy with the fortifications along the Straits; Russian
agents alone were admitted to the sultan's presence. " It is
manifest," wrote Lord Ponsonby, " that the Porte stands in the
relation of vassal to the Russian government." 1 The relation
was soon to be yet more manifest. Before, on the pth of July,
the Russian fleet, with the Russian troops on board, weighed
anchor for the Black Sea, there was signed at the palace of
Unkiar Skelassi the famous treaty (July 8, 1833) which, under
the guise of an offensive and defensive alliance, practically
made Russia the custodian of the gates of the Black Sea. (See
TURKEY: History.)
Mehemet Ali had triumphed, but he was well aware that he
held the fruits of his victory by a precarious tenure. He was
still but a vali among the rest, holding his many pashaliks
nominally by the sultan's will and subject to annual re-
appointment; and he knew that both his power and his life
would be forfeit so soon as the sultan should be strong
enough to deprive him of them. To achieve this one end
had, indeed, become the overmastering passion of Mahmud's
life, to defeat it the object of all Mehemet Ali's policy. So
early as 1834 it seemed as though the struggle would be
renewed; for Mehemet Ali had extended to his new pashaliks
his system of monopolies and conscription, and the Syrians,
finding that they had exchanged Turkish whips for Egyptian
scorpions, rose in a passion of revolt. It needed the inter-
vention of Mehemet Ali in person before, in the following year,
they were finally subdued. Meanwhile it had needed all the
diplomatic armoury of the powers to prevent Mahmud hastening
to the assistance of his " oppressed subjects." The threats of
Great Britain and France, the failure of Russia to back him up,
induced him to refrain; but sooner or later a renewal of the war
was inevitable; for the sultan, with but one end in view, was
reorganizing his army, and Mehemet Ali, who in the autumn of
1834 had assumed the style of viceroy and sounded the powers
as to their attitude in the event of his declaring his complete
independence, refused to continue to pay tribute which he knew
would be used against himself.
The crisis came in 1838. In March the Egyptians were severely
defeated by the revolted Arabs of the Hauran; and the Porte,
though diplomatic pressure kept it quiet, hurried on prepara-
tions for war. Mehemet Ali, too, had small reason for post-
poning the conflict. The work of Moltke, who with other
German officers who had been engaged in organizing the Turkish
army, threatened to destroy his superiority in the field; the
commercial treaty signed by the Ottoman government with
Great Britain (Aug. 16), which applied equally to all the
territories under his rule, threatened to destroy at a blow the
lucrative monopolies which supplied him with the sinews of war.
Months of suspense followed; for the powers had threatened to
cast their weight into the scale against whichever side should
prove the aggressor, and Mehemet Ali was too astute to make
the first move. In the end Mahmud's passion played into his
hands. The old sultan thirsted to crush his rebellious vassal,
at any cost; and on the 2ist of April 1839 the Ottoman army,
stationed at Bir on the Euphrates, crossed the stream and invaded
Syria. On the 23rd of June it was attacked and utterly routed
by Ibrahim at Nezib. On the ist of July the old sultan died,
unconscious of the fatal news, leaving his throne to Abd-
ul-Mejid, a lad of sixteen. To complete the desperateness of
the situation the news reached the capital that Ahmed Pasha,
the Ottoman admiral-in-chief, had sailed to Alexandria and
surrendered his fleet to Mehemet Ali, on the pretext that the
sultan's advisers were sold to the Russians.
So far as the forces of the Ottoman Empire were concerned,
1 From Lord Ponsonby, P.O., Turkey, May 22, 1833.
Mehemet Ali was now absolute master of the situation. The
grand vizier, in the sultan's name, wrote beseeching him to
avoid the further shedding of Mussulman blood, offering him a
free pardon, the highest honours of the state, the hereditary
pashalik of Egypt for himself, and Syria for Ibrahim until he
should succeed his father in Egypt. Mehemet Ali replied diplo-
matically; for, though these offers fell far short of his ambitions,
a studious moderation was essential in view of the doubtful
attitude of the European powers.
On the 27th of July the ambassadors of the five powers pre-
sented to the Porte a joint note, in which they declared that an
agreement on the Eastern Question had been reached by the five
Great Powers, and urged it " to suspend all definite decision made
without their concurrence, pending the effect of their interest in
its welfare." The necessity for showing a united front justified
the diplomatic inexactitude; but the powers were agreed on
little except the need for agreement. Especially was this need
realized by the British government, which feared that Russia
would seize the occasion for an isolated intervention under the
treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. On the ist of August Palmers ton
wrote to Ponsonby impressing upon him that the representatives
of the powers, in their communications with the Porte, " should
act not only simultaneously in point of time, but identically in
point of manner " a principle important in view of later develop-
ments. Yet it was a task all but impossible to preserve this
appearance of unanimity in view of the divergent views within
the concert. France and Great Britain had hitherto acted
together through common opposition to the supposed designs of
Russia. Austria, too, now that the revolutionary spectres of
1830 had been laid, was reverting to her traditional opposition
to Russia in the affairs of the Near East, and Metternich sup-
ported Palmerston's proposal of an international conference at
Vienna. Everything depended on the attitude of the emperor
Nicholas. This was ultimately determined by his growing dis-
trust of Austria and his perennial hatred of the democratic regime
of France. The first caused him to reject the idea of a conference
of which the activities would have been primarily directed against
Russia; the second led him to drive a wedge into the Anglo-
French entente by making direct overtures to Great Britain.
Palmerston listened to the tsar's proposals, conveyed through
Baron Brunnow, " with surprise and admiration." The emperor
Nicholas was prepared to accept the views of Great Britain on the
Turco-Egyptian question; to allow the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi
to lapse; to act henceforth in the Ottoman Empire only in concert
with the other powers, in return for an agreement closing the
Dardanelles to the war-ships of all nations and to extend the same
principle to the Bosporus. Finally, Brunnow was empowered
to arrange a coalition of the great powers with a view to the
settlement of the Egyptian question; and in this coalition the
tsar was willing, for political reasons, that France should be
included, though he stated his personal preference for her
exclusion.
To these views Austria and, as a natural consequence, Prussia
acceded without difficulty. The attitude of France was a more
doubtful quantity. In France Mehemet Ali had become a
popular hero; under him French civilization had gained a foothold
in Egypt; he was regarded as invincible; and it was hoped that
in alliance with him French influence in the Mediterranean would
be supreme. Palmerston, on the other hand, believed that the
Ottoman empire would never be secure until " the desert had
been placed between " the pasha of Egypt and the sultan; and
the view that the coalition should be directed against Mehemet
Ali was shared by the other powers. In the circumstances
France should either have loyally accepted the decision of the
majority of the concert, to which she had committed herself by
signing the joint note of the 27th of July, or should have frankly
stated her intention of taking up a position outside. The fact
that she did neither led to a crisis that for a moment threatened
to plunge Europe into war.
For nearly a year the diplomatic pourparlers continued without
an agreement being reached; France insisted on Mehemet -Ali's
receiving the hereditary pashalik of Syria as well as that of
MEHEMET ALI
81
Egypt, a proposition to which Palmerston, though sincerely
anxious to preserve the Anglo-French entente, refused to agree.
The tension of the situation was increased when, on the 2oth of
February 1840, Thiers came into power. The diplomacy of
Guizot, backed now by Austria and Prussia, had succeeded in
persuading Palmerston to concede the principle of allowing
Mehemet Ah' to receive, besides Egypt, the pashalik of Acre as
far as the frontiers of Tripoli and Damascus (May 7). Thiers,
however, refused to listen to any suggestion for depriving him
of any part of Syria; but, instead of breaking off the corre-
spondence and leaving the concert, he continued the negotiations,
and before long circumstances came to the knowledge of the
British government which seemed to prove that he was only
doing so with a view to gaining time in order to secure a separate
settlement in accordance with French views.
>The opportunity for this arose from a change in the situation
at Constantinople, where the dismissal of Khusrev Pasha had, in
Mehemet Ali's view, removed the main obstacle to his reconcilia-
tion with the sultan. He proposed to the French consul-general
at Alexandria to make advances to the Porte, and suggested
sending back the Ottoman fleet as an earnest of his good inten-
tions, a course which, it was hoped, " would lead to a direct and
amicable arrangement of the Turco-Egyptian question." On
the 2ist of June his envoy, Sami Bey, actually arrived at Con-
stantinople, ostensibly to congratulate the sultan on the birth of a
daughter, really to make use of the French influence now supreme
at the Porte in order to effect a settlement. In the circumstances
the proper course for Thiers to have pursued would have been to
have communicated to the powers, to whom he was bound by
the moral engagement of the 27th of July 1839, the new conditions
arising out of Mehemet Ali's offer. Instead he wrote to Guizot,
on the 30th of June, saying that the situation argued strongly
in favour of postponing any decision in London, adding: " I
have written to Alexandria and Constantinople to counsel
moderation on both sides; but I have been careful to forbid the
agents to enter on their own account, and as a French under-
taking, on a negotiation of which the avowed aim is a direct
arrangement. If such an enterprise is imputed to us, you will be
in a position to deny it."
The discovery of what seemed an underhand intrigue on the
part of France produced upon the powers exactly the effect that
Thiers had foreseen and deprecated. They regarded it as an
attempt to ruin the work of the concert and to secure for France
a " complete individual triumph " at Alexandria and Constanti-
nople; and their countermove was to sign at London on the isth
of July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with
the Porte for the settlement of the affairs of the Levant. By this
instrument it was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet
Ali having been concerted with the Porte, the signatory powers
would unite their forces in order to compel the pasha to accept
the settlement. As to the terms to be offered, it was arranged
that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yielding within ten days, he
should receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt and the admini-
stration for life of southern Syria, with the title of Pasha of Acre
and the possession of the fortress of St Jean d'Acre. At the end
of ten days, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria and
Acre would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days
he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at liberty to
withdraw the whole offer and to take such measures as his own
interests and the counsels of his allies might suggest to him.
The news of this " mortal affront " to the honour of France
caused immense excitement in Paris. The whole press was
clamorous for war; Thiers declared that the alliance with Great
Britain was shattered, and pressed on warlike preparations;
even Louis Philippe was carried away by the fever. The
immediate effect was that Mehemet Ali, confident of French
assistance, maintained a defiant attitude. The situation,
however, was rapidly changed by the unexpected results of the
armed intervention of the Allies. The appearance of the com-
bined British, Austrian and Russian fleets, under Sir Charles
Napier, off Beirut (Aug. n) was the signal for a general rising
of the Syrians against Ibrahim's tyranny. On the nth of
September, Suleiman Pasha not having obeyed the summons
to evacuate the town, the bombardment was begun, and Otto-
man troops were landed to co-operate with the rebels. On the
3rd of October Beirut fell; and Ibrahim, cut off from his com-
munications by sea, and surrounded by a hostile population,
began a hurried retreat southward. On the 3rd of November
Acre surrendered to the allied fleet. Mehemet Ali's power in
Syria had collapsed like a pricked bubble; and with it had gone
for ever the myth of his humane and enlightened rule. The sole
question now was whether he should be allowed to retain
Egypt itself.
On the 1 5th of September the sultan, who had broken off all
negotiations with Mehemet Ali on receipt of the news of the
Syrian revolt, acting on the advice of Lord Ponsonby, declared
the pasha deposed, on the ground that the term allowed by the
Convention of London had expired, and nominated his successor.
Mehemet Ah' received the news with his accustomed sang-froid,
observing to the consuls of the four powers, who had come to
notify their own removal, that " such denunciations were nothing
new to him; that this was the fourth, and that he hoped to get
over it as well as he had done the other three, with the help of
God and the Prophet." In the end his confidence proved to be
justified. The news of the events in Syria and especially of the
deprivation of Mehemet Ali had produced in France what
appeared to be an exceedingly dangerous temper; the French
government declared that it regarded the maintenance of Mehe-
met Ali in Egypt as essential to the European balance of power;
and Louis Philippe sought to make it clear to the British govern-
ment, through the king of the Belgians, that, whatever might
be his own desire to maintain peace, in certain events to do so
would be to risk his throne. Palmerston, indeed, who did not
believe that under the Bourgeois Monarchy France would trans-
late her brave words into action, was in favour of settling the
Turco-Egyptian question once for all by depriving Mehemet Ali
of Egypt as well. The influences against him, however, were too
powerful. Metternich protested against a course which would
result, in his opinion, either in a war or a revolution in France;
King Leopold enlarged on the wickedness and absurdity of
risking a European war for the sake of putting an end to the
power of an old man who could have but few years to live;
Queen Victoria urged her ministers to come to terms with France
and relieve the embarrassments of the " dear King "; and Lord
Melbourne, with the majority of the cabinet, was in favour of
compromise. When therefore, on the 8th of October, Guizot,
in an interview with Palmerston, presented what was practically
an ultimatum on the part of France, " it was determined that this
intimation should be met in a friendly spirit, and that Lord
Palmerston should see the Ministers of the other powers and agree
with them to acquaint the French that they with England would
use their good offices to induce the Porte not to insist on the
deprivation of Mehemet Ali so far as Egypt is concerned." In
accordance with this Palmerston instructed Ponsonby to press
upon the sultan, in the event of Mehemet Ah' 's speedy submission,
not only to withdraw the sentence of deprivation but to confer
upon him the hereditary pashalik of Egypt.
For a while it seemed that even this would not avert a Euro-
pean war. Thiers still maintained his warlike tone, and the
king's speech prepared by him for the opening of the Chambers
on the 28th of October was in effect a declaration of defiance to
Europe. Louis Philippe himself, however, was not prepared
to use this language; whereupon Thiers resigned, and a new
cabinet was formed under Marshal Soult, with Guizot as foreign
secretary. The equivocal tone of the new speech from the Throne
raised a storm of protest in the Chambers and the country. It
was, however, soon clear that Palmerston's diagnosis of the
temper of the French bourgeois was correct; the clamour for war
subsided; on the 4th of December the address on the Egyptian
Question proposed by the government was carried, and peace was
assured. Nine days earlier Sir Charles Napier had appeared with a
British squadron off Alexandria and, partly by persuasion, partly
by threats, had induced Mehemet Ali to submit to the sultan
and to send back the Ottoman fleet, in return for a guarantee
MEHIDPUR MEIKTILA
of the hereditary pashalik of Egypt. This arrangement was
ratified by Palmerston; and all four powers now combined to
press it on the reluctant Porte, pointing out, in a joint note of the
3oth of January 1841, that " they were not conscious of advising
a course out of harmony with the sovereignty and legitimate
rights of the sultan, or contrary to the duties imposed on the
Pasha of Egypt as a subject appointed by His Highness to govern
a province of the Ottoman Empire." This principle was elabor-
ated in the firman, issued on the I3th of February, by which the
sultan conferred on Mehemet Ali and his heirs by direct descent
the pashalik of Egypt, the greatest care being taken not to bestow
any rank and authority greater than that enjoyed by other
viziers of the empire. By a second firman of the same date
Mehemet Ali was invested with the government of Nubia, Darf ur,
Khordofan and Sennaar, with their dependencies. On the loth
of June the firman was solemnly promulgated at Alexandria.
Thus ended the phase of the Egyptian Question with which
the name of Mehemet Ali is specially bound up. The threatened
European conflict had been averted, and presently the wounded
susceptibilities of France were healed by the invitation extended
to her to take part in the Straits Convention. As for Mehemet
Ali himself, he now passes off the stage of history. He was an
old man; his mind was soon to give way; and for some time
before his death on the and of August 1849 the reins of power were
held by his son and successor Ibrahim.
Probably no Oriental ruler, not even excepting Ali of lannina,
has ever stirred up so much interest among his contemporaries
as Mehemet Ali. The spectacle of an Eastern despot apparently
advancing on the lines of European progress was in itself as
astonishing as new. Men thought they were witnessing the
dawn of a new era in the East; Mehemet Ali was hailed as the
most beneficent and enlightened of princes; and political philo-
sophers like Jeremy Bentham, who sent him elaborate letters
of good advice, thought to find in him the means for developing
their theories in virgin soil. In fact the pasha was an illiterate
barbarian, of the same type as his countryman Ali of lannina,
courageous, cruel, astute, full of wiles, avaricious and boundlessly
ambitious. He never learned to read or write, though late in life
he mastered colloquial Arabic; yet those Europeans who were
brought into contact with him praised alike the dignity and
charm of his address, his ready wit, and the astonishing
perspicacity which enabled him to read the motives of men
and of governments and to deal effectively with each situation
as it arose.
The latest account of Mehemet Ali and the European crisis
arising out of his revolt is that by W. Alison Phillips in vol. x.
ch. xvii. of the Cambridge Modern History (1907). The biblio-
graphy attached to this chapter (p. 852) gives a list of all the principal
published documents and works, together with some analysis
of the unpublished Foreign Office records bearing on the subject.
Of the works mentioned C. de Freycinet's La Question d'Agypte
(Paris, 1905) gives the most authoritative account of the diplomatic
developments. (W. A. P.)
MEHIDPUR, or MAHIDPUR, a town of India, in Indore
state of Central India, on the right bank of the Sipra, 1543 ft.
above the sea, and 24 m. N. of Ujjain. Pop. (1901), 6681.
Though of some antiquity and frequented by Hindu pilgrims,
it is best known for the battle fought in the neighbourhood
on the 2oth of December 1817, in which Sir John Malcolm
defeated the army of Holkar. The result was the Treaty of
Mandasor and the pacification of Malwa. Mehidpur was
again the scene of some sharp fighting during the Mutiny.
The British cantonment, placed here in 1817, was removed
in 1882.
MEHUL, ETIENNE HENRI (or ETIENNE NICOLAS) (1763-
1817), French composer, was born at Givet in Ardennes, on
the 24th of June 1763. His father being too poor to give him
a regular musical education, his first ideas of art were derived
from a poor blind organist of Givet; yet such was his aptitude
that, when ten years old, he was appointed organist of the con-
vent of the Recollets. In ,1775 an able German musician and
organist, Wilhelm Hauser, was engaged for the monastery
of Lavaldieu, a few miles from Givet, and Mehul became his
occasional pupil. In 1778 he was taken to Paris by a military
officer, and placed himself under Edelmann, a good musician and
harpsichord player. His first attempts at instrumental com-
position in 1781 did not succeed, and he therefore turned his
attention to sacred and dramatic music. Gluck gave him advice
in his studies. After various disappointments during his
efforts for six years to obtain, at the Grand Opera, a representa-
tion of his Cora et Alonzo, he offered to the Opera Comique
his Euphrosine et Coradin, which, being accepted and performed
in 1790, at once fixed his reputation. His opera of Sir atonies.
was also received with enthusiasm in 1792. After several
unsuccessful operas, his Adrien appeared, and added much
to his fame, which was further increased by his three best
works, Le Jeune Henri, Uthal and Joseph, the finest of the
series. Uthal was written for an orchestra without violins.
Mehul held a post as one of the four inspectors of the Paris
Conservatoire, but this office made him feel continually the
insufficiency of his early studies, a want which he endeavoured
to remedy by incessant application. Timoleon, Ariodanl
and Bion followed. Epicure was composed by Mehul and
Cherubini jointly; but the superiority of the latter was evident.
Mehul's next opera, L'Irato, failed. After writing forty-two
operas, besides a number of songs for the festivals of the republic,
cantatas, and orchestral pieces of various kinds, his health
gave way, from an affection of the chest, and he died on the
1 8th of October 1817 in Paris.
See Lives by Pougin (1889), Viellard (1859), and Quatremere de
Quincey (1818).
MEIBOM, HEINRICH (1555-1625), German historian and
poet, was born at Lemgo on the 4th of December 1555, and
died on the 2oth of September 1625, at Helmstedt, where he
had held the chair of history and poetry since 1583. He was
a writer of Latin verses (Parodiarum horatianarum libri III.
et syharum libri II., 1588); and his talents in this direction
were recognized by the emperor Rudolph II., who ennobled him;
but his claim to be remembered rests on his services in elucidat-
ing the medieval history of Germany.
His Opuscttla historica ad res germanicas spectantia was edited
and published in 1660 by his grandson, Heinrich Meibom (1638-
1700), who was professor of medicine and then of history and poetry
at Helmstedt, and incorporated his grandfather's work with his
own Rerum germanicarum scriptores (1688).
MEIDERICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, 2^ m. by rail N.E. of Ruhrort, whose river harbour
is in great part within its confines. Pop. (1905), 40,822. Iron
and steel works, coal-mines, saw-mills, brickworks, and machine-
shops furnish the principal occupations of the inhabitants.
Meiderich, which is first mentioned in 874, was united with
Duisburg in 1905.
See Graeber, Tausendjdhrige Geschichte von Meiderich (1893).
MEIKTILA, a district and division in Upper Burma. The
district is the most easterly of the districts in the dry zone,
and has an area of 2183 sq. m. It lies between Kyaukse,
Myingyan, Yamethin, and on the east touches the Shan States.
It is a slightly undulating plain, the gentle slopes of which are
composed of black " cotton " soil and are somewhat arid. The
only hills above 300 ft. are on the slopes of the Shan hills.
The lake is the chief feature of the district. It is artificial,
and according to Burmese legend was begun 2400 years ago
by the grandfather of Gautama Buddha. It is 7 m. long,
averages half a mile broad, and covers an area of 3^ sq. m.
With the Minhla and other connected lakes it irrigates a large
extent of country.
There are small forest reserves, chiefly of cutch. Large
numbers of cattle are bred. The chief agricultural products
are rice, sesamum, cotton, peas, maize, millet and gram. Pop.
(1901), 252,305. Famines in 1891, 1895 and 1896 led to con-
siderable emigration. The climate is healthy except in the
submontane townships. The temperature rises to 100 F.
and over between the months of March and June, and the
mean minimum in January is about 61. The rainfall is uncer-
tain (36-79 in. in 1893, 25-59 in 1891). The vast majority
MEILHAC MEIR OF ROTHENBURG
of the population are Buddhists. The headquarters town,
MEIKTILA, stands on the banks of the lake, which supplies
good drinking water. Pop. (1901), 7203. A wing of a British
regiment is stationed here. A branch railway connects it
at Thazi station with the Rangoon-Mandalay line, and continues
westward to its terminus on the Irrawaddy at Myingyan.
The division includes the districts of Meiktila, Kyaukse,
Yamethin and Myingyan, with a total area of 10,852 sq. m.,
and a population (1901) of 992,807, showing an increase of
10-2% in the preceding decade, and giving a density of 91
inhabitants to the square mile. All but a small portion of the
division lies in the dry zone, and cultivation is mainly dependent
on irrigation.
MEILHAC, HENRI (1831-1897), French dramatist, was
born in Paris on the 2ist of February 1831, and while a young
man began writing fanciful articles for the newspapers and
vaudevilles for the theatres, in a vivacious boulevardier spirit
which brought him to the front. About 1860 he met Ludovic
Halevy, and the two began a collaboration in writing for the
stage which lasted for twenty years. An account of their
work is given under HALEVY. Meilhac wrote a few pieces
with lesser collaborators. In 1888 he was elected to the
Academy. He died at Paris in 1897.
MEINBERG, a village and watering-place of Germany, in
the principality of Lippe Detmold, situated in a pleasant valley
under the Teutoburger Wald, 12 m.' S.E. from Detmold by the
railway to Altenbeken. Pop. (1905), 1300. The waters of
Meinberg, which attract annually about 1200 visitors, are
sulphur springs, and are used for drinking, bathing and inhala-
tion. They became known in the i8th century.
See Gilbert and Meissner, Bad Meinberg und seine Kurmittel
(Berlin, 1902).
MEINEKE, JOHANN ALBRECHT FRIEDRICH AUGUST
(1790-1870), German classical scholar, was born at Soest in
Westphalia on the 8th of December 1790. After holding
educational posts at Jenkau and Danzig, he was director of
the Joachimsthal gymnasium in Berlin from 1826 to 1856.
He died at Berlin on the I2th of December 1870. He was
distinguished in conjectural criticism, the comic writers and
Alexandrine poets being his favourite authors.
His most important works are : Graecorum comicorum fragmenta
(1839-1857, the first volume of which contains an essay on the
development of Greek comedy and an account of its chief repre-
sentatives); Aristophanes (1860); Analecta alexandrina (1843,
containing the fragments of Rhianus, Euphorion, Alexander of
Aetolia, and Parthenius) ; Callimachus (1861); Theocritus, Bion,
Moschus (jrdj ed., 1856); Alciphron (1853); Strabo (2nd ed., 1866)
and Vindinae strabonianae (1852) ; Stobaeus (1855-1863) ; Athenaeus
(1858-1867). See monographs by F. Ranke (1871), H. Sauppe (1872),
and E. Forstemann in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, XXI. (1885) ;
also Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 117.
MEININGEN, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of
Saxe-Meiningen, romantically situated in forests on the right
bank of the Werra, 40 m. S. of Eisenach by rail. Pop. (1905),
15,989. It consists of an old town and several handsome
suburbs, but much of the former has been rebuilt since a fire
in 1874. The chief building is the Elisabethenburg, or the
old ducal palace, containing several collections; it was built
mainly about 1680, although part of it is much older. Other
buildings are the Henneberger Haus with a collection of antiqui-
ties, and the town church, with twin towers, built by the emperor
Henry II. in the nth century. The theatre enjoyed for many
years (1875-1890) a European reputation for its actors and
scenic effects. The English garden, a beautiful public park,
contains the ducal mortuary chapel and several monuments,
including busts of Brahms and Jean Paul Richter.
Meiningen, which was subject to the bishops of Wurzburg
(1000-1542), came into the possession of the duke of Saxony
in 1583, having in the meantime belonged to the counts of
Henneberg. At the partition of 1660 it fell to the share of
Saxe-Altenburg, and in 1680 became the capital of Saxe-
Meiningen.
See E. Dobner, Bausteine zu einer Geschichte der Stadt Meiningen
(Meiningen, 1902).
MEIR, Jewish rabbi of the 2nd century, was born in Asia
Minor and according to legend was a descendant of the family
of Nero. He was the most notable of the disciples of Aqiba
(q.v.), and after the Hadrianic repressions of A.D. 135 was
instrumental in refounding the Palestinian schools at Usha.
Among his teachers was also Elisha ben Abuya (q.v.), and
Meir continued his devotion to Elisha after the latter's apostasy.
He is said to have visited Rome to rescue his wife's sister.
His wife, Beruriah, is often cited in the Talmud as an exemplar
of generosity and faith. She was a daughter of the martyr
IJananiah ben Teradion. On one occasion Meir, who had
been frequently troubled by his ungodly neighbours, uttered
a prayer for their extinction. " Nay," said Beruriah, " it is
written (Ps. civ. 35) let sins be blotted out, not sinners ";
whereupon Meir prayed for the evildoers' conversion. But
she is best known for her conduct at the sudden death of her
two sons. It was the Sabbath, and Meir returned home towards
sunset. He repeatedly asked for the children, and Beruriah,
after parrying his question, said: " Some time ago a precious
thing was left with me on trust, and now the owner demands
its return. Must I give it back ? " " How can you question
it? " rejoined her husband. Beruriah then led him to the bed
whereon were stretched the bodies of the children. Meir burst
into tears. But the wife explained that this was the treasure
of which she had spoken, adding the text from Job: " The
Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name
of the Lord." Meir himself was the author of many famous
sayings: " Look not to the flask, but to its contents. Many
a new vessel contains old wine, but there are old casks which
do not contain even new wine." " Condole not with a mourner
while his dead is laid out before him." " Man cometh into
the world with closed hands as though claiming the ownership
of all things; but he departeth hence with hands open and
limp, as if to show that he taketh naught with him." '.' What
God does is well done." " The tree itself supplies the handle
of the axe which cuts it down." His wisdom was proverbial,
and to him was in particular assigned an intimate acquaintance
with fables, and he is reported to have known 300 Fox- Fables.
" With the death of Rabbi Meir," says the Mishnah (Sola ix. 15),
" Fabulists ceased to be."
Meir's wide sympathies were shown in his inclusion of all
mankind in the hopes of salvation (Sifra to Leviticus xviii.
5). He was certainly on friendly terms with heathen scholars.
Meir contributed largely to the material from which finally
emerged the Mishnah. His dialectic skill was excessive, and
it was said jestingly of him that he could give 150 reasons to
prove a thing clean, and as many more to prove it unclean.
His balanced judgment fitted him to carry on Aqiba's work,
sifting and arranging the oral traditions, and thus preparing
the ground for the Mishnaic Code.
Meir left Palestine some time before his death, owing to
disagreements between him and the Patriarch. He died in
Asia Minor, but his love for the Holy Land remained dominant
to the last. " Bury me," he said, " by the shore, so that the
sea which washes the land of my fathers may touch also my
bones." The tomb shown as that of Meir at Tiberias is
inauthentic.
See Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten, vol. 1 1. ch. i. ; Graetz, History of
the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. 11. ch. xvi.; Jewish Encyclopedia (whence
some of the above cited sayings are quoted), viii. 432-435. On
Meir's place in the history of the fable, see J. Jacobs, The Fables of
Aesop, i. ill, &c. (see Index s.v.). (LA.)
MEIR OF ROTHENBURG (c. 1215-1293), German rabbi and
poet, was born in Worms c. 1215. He played a great part in
organizing the Jewish communal life of the middle ages. In
1286 for some unknown reason he was thrown into prison in
Alsace, where he remained until his death in 1293. His friends
offered to find a ransom, but he declined the suggestion, fearing
that the precedent would lead to extortion in other cases.
He wrote glosses to the Talmud (tosaphot) and many Responsa
of the utmost value for historical research. Through his disciples
Asher ben Yehiel and Mordecai ben Hillel, Meir exercised much
8 4
MEIRINGEN MEISSEN
influence on subsequent developments of Judaism. He was
also a liturgical poet of considerable merit. One of his finest
elegies is translated into English in Nina Davis's Songs of Exile.
See L. Ginzberg, Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 437-440. (I. A.)
MEIRINGEN, the principal village on the Hasle (or the upper
Aar) valley in the Swiss canton of Bern. It is built at a height
of 1969 ft. on the right bank of the Aar and on the level floor of
the valley, but is much exposed to the south wind (or Fohri),
and has several times been in great part destroyed by fire (1632,
1879 and 1891). It has 3077 inhabitants, all German-speaking
and Protestants. The parish church is ancient, and above
it are the ruins of the medieval castle of Resti. Meiringen
is frequented by travellers in summer, as it is the meeting-point
of many routes: from Interlaken by the lake of Brienz and
Brienz, from Lucerne by the BrUnig railway (28 m.), from
Engelberg by the Joch Pass (7267 ft.), from the upper Valais
by the Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.), and from Grindelwald by the
Great Scheidegg Pass (6434 ft.). Many waterfalls descend
the hill-sides, the best known being the Reichenbach and the
Alpbach, while the great gorge pierced by the Aar through
the limestone barrier of the Kirchet is remarkable. The village
and valley belonged of old to the emperor, who in 1234 gave
the advowson to the Knights of St Lazarus, by whom it was
sold in 1272 to the Austin Canons of Interlaken, on the sup-
pression of whom in 1528 it passed to the state. In 1310 the
emperor mortgaged the valley to the lords of Weissenburg,
who sold it in 1334 to the town of Bern. (W. A. B. C.)
MEISSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on both banks of the Elbe, 15 m. N.W. from Dresden, on the
railway to Leipzig via Dobeln. Pop. (1905), 32,336- The old
town lies on the left bank of the river, between the streams
Meisse and Triebisch, and its irregular hilly site and numerous
fine old buildings make it picturesque. Most of its streets
are narrow and uneven. The cathedral, one of the finest early
Gothic buildings in Germany, stands on the Schlossberg, 160 ft.
above the town. It is said to have been founded by the emperor
Otto the Great, but the present building was begun in the i3th
century and was completed about 1450. Here are tombs of
several rulers and princes of Saxony, including those of Albert
and Ernest, the founders of the two existing branches of the
Saxon house. The cathedral also contains works by Peter
Vischer and Lucas Cranach and several other interesting monu-
ments. A restoration, including the rebuilding of the two
towers, was carried out in 1903-1908. Adjoining the cathedral
is the castle, dating from 1471-1483, but restored and named
the Albrechtsburg about 1676. Another restoration was
undertaken after 1860, when a series of historical frescoes was
painted upon its walls. A stone building of the i3th century
connects the Schlossberg with the Afraberg, which owes its
name to the old convent of St Afra. The convent was suppressed
by Duke Maurice in 1543, and was by him converted into
a school (the Fiirsten Schule), one of the most renowned
classical schools in Germany, which counts Lessing and
Gellert among its former pupils. Other public buildings of
interest are the town-hall, built' in 1479 and restored in
1875; the fine town church, called the Frauenkirche or
Marienkirche; the Nikolaikirche and the Afrakirche. The
Franciscan church is now used as a museum of objects
connected with the history of Meissen. Since 1710 Meissen
has been the seat of the manufacture of Dresden china. Til]
1860 the royal porcelain factory was in the Albrechtsburg,
but in that year it was transferred to a large new building in
the Triebischtal, near the town. Meissen also contains iron
foundries, factories for making earthenware stoves and pottery,
sugar refineries, breweries and tanneries. A considerable trade
is carried on in the wine produced in the surrounding vineyards
and other industries are spinning and weaving.
Meissen was founded about 920 by Henry the Fowler (see
MEISSEN, Margraviate). From 968 to 1581 Meissen was the
seat of a line of bishops, who ranked as princes of the empire
During the isth century the town suffered greatly from the
Hussites, and it was captured by the imperial troops during
..he war of the league of Schmalkalden, and again in the Thirty
Years' War. In 1637 it suffered much from the Swedes, and
n 1745 it fell into the hands of the Prussians. The bridge over
the Elbe was destroyed by the French in 1813, and again by
the Saxons in June 1866 in order to impede the march of the
Prussians on Dresden. Colin on the right bank of the Elbe
was incorporated with Meissen in 1901.
See Reinhard, Die Stadt Meissen, ihre Merkwurdigkeiten (Meissen,
1829); Loose, Alt-Meissen in Bildern (Meissen, 1889); Jaschke,
Meissen und seine Kirchen (Leipzig, 1902) ; and Gersdorf, Urkunden-
buch der Stadt Meissen (Leipzig, 1873).
MEISSEN, a German margraviate now merged in the kingdom
of Saxony. The mark of Meissen was originally a district
centring round the castle of Meissen or Misnia on the Middle
Elbe, which was built about 920 by the German king Henry I.,
;he Fowler, as a defence against the Slavs. After the death
of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, in 965, his territory
was divided into five marks, one of which was called Meissen.
In 985 the emperor Otto III. bestowed the office of margrave
upon Ekkard I., margrave of Merseburg, and the district com-
prising the marks of Meissen, Merseburg and Zeitz was generally
known as the mark of Meissen. In 1002 Ekkard was succeeded
by his brother Gunzelin, and then by his sons Hermann I. and
Ekkard II. Under these margraves the area of the mark
was further increased, but when Ekkard II. died in 1046 it
was divided, and Meissen proper was given successively to
William and Otto, counts of Weimar, and Egbert II., count of
Brunswick. Egbert was a rival of the emperor Henry IV.
and died under the imperial ban in 1089, when Meissen was
bestowed upon Henry I., count of Wettin, whose mother was
a sister of the margrave Ekkard II. Henry, who already ruled
lower Lusatia and the new and smaller Saxon east mark, was
succeeded in 1103 by his cousin Thimo, and in 1104 by his son
Henry II., whose claim on the mark was contested by Thimo's
son Conrad. When Henry died without issue in 1123 Meissen
was given by the emperor Henry V. to Hermann II., count
of Wintzenburg; but, renewing his claim, Conrad won the
support of Lothair, duke of Saxony, afterwards the emperor
Lothair II., and obtained possession in 1130. Conrad, called
the Great, extended the boundaries of Meissen before abdicating
in 1156 in favour of his son Otto, known as the Rich. Otto
appointed his younger son Dietrich as his successor and was
attacked and taken prisoner by his elder son Albert; but,
after obtaining his release by order of the emperor Frederick I.,
he had only just renewed the war when he died in 1 190. During
his reign silver mines were opened in the Harz Mountains,
towns were founded, roads were made, and the general condition
of the country was improved. Otto was succeeded by his
son Albert, called the Proud, who was engaged in warfare
with his brother Dietrich until his death in 1195. As Albert
left no children, Meissen was seized by the emperor Henry VI.
as a vacant fief of the empire; but Dietrich, called the Oppressed,
secured the mark after Henry's death in 1197. Dietrich married
Jutta, daughter of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, and
was succeeded in 1221 by his infant son Henry, surnamed
the Illustrious; who on arriving at maturity obtained as
reward for supporting the emperor Frederick II. against the
pope a promise to succeed his uncle, Henry Raspe IV., as land-
grave of Thuringia. In 1 243 Henry's son Albert was betrothed
to Margaret, daughter of Frederick II.; and Pleissnerland,
a district west of Meissen, was added to his possessions. Having
gained Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate on his uncle's death
in 1247, he granted sections of his lands to his three sons in
1265, but retained Meissen. A series of family feuds followed.
His second son Dietrich died in 1285, and on Henry's own
death in 1288 Meissen was divided between his two remaining
sons, Albert (called the Degenerate) and Frederick, and his
grandson Frederick Tutta, the son of Dietrich. Albert was
engaged in struggles with his three sons, who took him prisoner
in 1288; but he was released the following year by order of the
German king Rudolph I. About this time he sold his portion
of Meissen to his nephew Frederick Tutta, who held the title
MEISSONIER, J. L. E.
of margrave and ruled the greater part of the mark until his
death in 1291. Albert's two remaining sons, Frederick and
Dietrich or Diezmann, then claimed Meissen; but it was seized
by King Adolph of Nassau as a vacant fief of the empire,
and was for some time retained by him and his successor King
Albert I. In the course of constant efforts to secure the mark
the brothers Frederick and Dietrich defeated the troops of
King Albert at Lucka in May 1307 and secured partial possession
of their lands. In this year Dietrich died and Frederick became
reconciled with his father, who, after renouncing his claim on
Meissen for a yearly payment, died in 1314. Having obtained
possession of the greater part of the mark, Frederick was invested
with it by the German king Henry VII. in 1310. During these
years the part of Meissen around Dresden had been in the
possession of Frederick, youngest son of the margrave Henry the
Illustrious, and when he died in 1316 it came to his nephew
Frederick. About 1312 Frederick, who had become involved
in a dispute with Waldemar, margrave of Brandenburg, over
the possession of lower Lusatia, was taken prisoner. Sur-
rendering lower Lusatia he was released, but it was only
after Waldemar's death in 1319 that he obtained undisputed
possession of Meissen. Frederick, who was surnamed the
Peaceful, died in 1323 and was followed as margrave by his
son Frederick II., called the Grave, who added several counties
to his inheritance. From this latter Frederick's death in 1349
until 1381 the lands of the family were ruled by his three sons
jointly; but after the death of his eldest son Frederick III.
in 1381 a division was made by which Meissen fell to his youngest
son William I. In 1407 William was succeeded by his nephew
Frederick, called the Warlike, who in 1423 received from the
emperor Sigismund the electoral duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg.
The mark then became merged in the duchy of Saxony, and
at the partition of 1485 fell to the Albertine line. As Meissen
was relieved from the attacks of the Slavs by the movement
of the German boundary to the east, its prosperity increased.
Many towns were founded, among which were Dresden, Leipzig
and Freiburg; Chemnitz began its textile industry; and although
the condition of the peasants was wretched, that of the townsmen
was improving. The discoveries of silver brought great wealth
to the margraves, but they resorted at times to bedes, which
were contributions from the nobles and ecclesiastics who met
in a kind of diet. During this period the mark of Meissen
lay on both banks of the Elbe, and stretched from Bohemia
to the duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, embracing an area of about
3000 sq. m.
See O. Posse, Die Markgrafen von Meissen und das Haus Wettin
(Leipzig, 1881) ; F. W. Tittmann, Geschichte Heinrichs des erlauchten
Markgrafen zu Meissen (Dresden, 1845-1846); C. F. von Posern-
Klett, Zur Geschichte der Verfassung der Markgrafschaft Meissen im
ij. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1863). See also Urkunden der Markgrafen
von Meissen und Landgrafen von Thuringen, edited by E. G. Gersdorf
(Leipzig, 1864); and H. B. Meyer, Hof- und Zentralverwaltung der
We.ttiner (Leipzig, 1902).
MEISSONIER, JEAN LOUIS ERNEST (1815-1891), French
painter, was born at Lyons on the 2ist of February 1815. From
his schooldays he showed a taste for painting, to which some early
sketches, dated 1823, bear witness. After being placed with
a druggist, he obtained leave from his parents to become an
artist, and, owing to the recommendation of a painter named
Potier, himself a second class Prix de Rome, he was admitted
to Leon Cogniet's studio. He paid short visits to Rome and
to Switzerland, and exhibited in the Salon of 1831 a picture
then called " Les Bourgeois Flamands " (" Dutch Burghers "),
but also known as " The Visit to the Burgomaster," subsequently
purchased by Sir Richard Wallace, in whose collection (at
Hertford House, London) it is, with fifteen other examples
of this painter. It was the first attempt in France in the
particular genre which was destined to make Meissonier famous:
microscopic painting miniature in oils. Working hard for
daily bread at illustrations for the publishers Curmer, Hetzel
and Dubocher he also exhibited at the Salon of 1836 the
" Chess Player " and the " Errand Boy." After some not very
happy attempts at religious painting, he returned, under the
influence of Chenavard, to the class of work he was born to
excel in, and exhibited with much success the " Game of Chess "
(1841), the " Young Man playing the 'Cello " (1842), " The
Painter in his Studio " (1843), " The Guard Room," the " Young
Man looking at Drawings," the " Game of Piquet " (1845),
and the " Game of Bowls " works which show the finish and
certainty of his technique, and assured his success. After
his " Soldiers " (1848) he began " A Day in June," which was
never finished, and exhibited " A Smoker " (1849) and " Bravos"
(" Les Bravi," 1852). In 1855 he touched the highest mark
of his achievement with " The Gamblers " and " The Quarrel "
(" La Rixe"), which was presented by Napoleon III. to the
English Court. His triumph was sustained at the Salon of
1857, when he exhibited nine pictures, and drawings; among
them the " Young Man of the Time of the Regency," " The
Painter," "The Shoeing Smith," "The Musician," and "A
Reading at Diderot's." To the Salon of 1861 he sent " The
Emperor at Solferino," " A Shoeing Smith," " A Musician,"
" A Painter," and " M. Louis Fould "; to that of 1864 another
version of " The Emperor at Solferino," and " 1814." He
subsequently exhibited " A Gamblers' Quarrel " (1865), and
" Desaix and the Army of the Rhine " (1867). Meissonier
worked with elaborate care and a scrupulous observation of
nature. Some of his works, as for instance his " 1807," remained
ten years in course of execution. To the great Exhibition
of 1878 he contributed sixteen pictures: the portrait of
Alexandra Dumas which had been seen at the Salon of 1877,
" Cuirassiers of 1805," " A Venetian Painter," " Moreau and his
Staff before Hohenlinden," a " Portrait of a Lady," the " Road
to La Salice," " The Two Friends," " The Outpost of the Grand
Guard," " A Scout," and " Dictating his Memoirs." Thence-
forward he exhibited less in the Salons, and sent his work to
smaller exhibitions. Being chosen president of the Great
National Exhibition in 1883, he was represented there by such
works as " The Pioneer," " The Army of the Rhine," " The
Arrival of the Guests," and " Saint Mark." On the 24th of- May
1884 an exhibition was opened at the Petit Gallery of Meissonier's
collected works, including 146 examples. As president of the
jury on painting at the Exhibition of 1889 he contributed some
new pictures. In the following year the New Salon was formed
(the National Society of Fine Arts), and Meissonier was president.
He exhibited there in 1890 his picture " 1807 "; and in 1891,
shortly after his death, his " Barricade " was displayed there.
A less well-known class of work than his painting is a series
of etchings: "The Last Supper," "The Skill of Vuillaume
the Lute Player," " The Little Smoker," " The Old Smoker,"
the " Preparations for a Duel," " Anglers," " Troopers,"
" The Reporting Sergeant," and " Polichinelle," in the Hertford
House collection. He also tried lithography, but the prints
are now scarcely to be found. Of all the painters of the century,
Meissonier was one of the most fortunate in the matter of
payments. His " Cuirassiers," now in the late due d'Aumale's
collection at Chantilly, was bought from the artist for 10,000,
sold at Brussels for 11,000, and finally resold for 16,000.
Besides his genre portraits, he painted some others: those
of "Doctor Lefevre," of "Chenavard," of " Vanderbilt,"
of " Doctor Guyon," and of " Stanford." He also collaborated
with the painter Francpais in a picture of " The Park at St Cloud."
In 1838 Meissonier married the sister of M. Steinheil, a painter.
Meissonier was attached by Napoleon III. to the imperial
staff, and accompanied him during the campaign in Italy and
at the beginning of the war in 1870. During the siege of Paris
in 1871 he was colonel of a marching regiment. In 1840 he
was awarded a third-class medal, a second-class medal in 1841,
first-class medals in 1843 and 1844 and medals of honour at
the great exhibitions. In 1846 he was appointed knight of
the Legion of Honour and promoted to the higher grades in
1856, 1867 (June 29), and 1880 (July 12), receiving the
Grand Cross in 1889 (Oct. 29). He nevertheless cherished
certain ambitions which remained unfulfilled. He hoped to
become a professor at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, but the appoint-
ment he desired was never given to him. On various occasions,
86
MEISSONIER, J. A. MEKONG
too he aspired to be chosen deputy or made senator, but he
was not elected. In 1861 he succeeded Abel de Pujol as member
of the Academy of Fine Arts. On the occasion of the centenary
festival in honour of Michelangelo in 1875 he was the delegate
of the Institute of France to Florence, and spoke as its represen-
tative. Meissonier was an admirable draughtsman upon wood,
his illustrations to Les Conies Remois (engraved by Lavoignat),
to Lamartine's Fall of an Angel, to Paul and Virginia, and to
The French Painted by Themselves being among the best known.
The leading engravers and etchers of France have been engaged
upon plates from the works of Meissonier, and many of these
plates command the highest esteem of collectors. Meissonier
died in Paris on the aist of January 1891. His son, Jean
Charles Meissonier, also a painter, was his father's pupil, and
was admitted to the Legion of Honour in 1889.
See Alexandre, Histoire. de la peinture mUitaire en France ^ ri . s '
1801); Laurens, Notice sur Meissonier (Paris, 1892); Greard, Meis-
sonier (Paris and London, 1897) ; T. G. Dumas, Maitres modernes
(Paris 1884)- Ch. Formentin, Meissonier, sa me son ceuvre (Fans,
IQOI)- J. W. Mollett, Illustrated Biographies of Modern Artists:
Meissonier (London, 1882).
MEISSONIER, JUSTE AURELE (1695-1750), French gold-
smith, sculptor, painter, architect, and furniture designer,
was born at Turin, but became known as a worker in Paris,
where he died. His Italian origin and training were probably
responsible for the extravagance of his decorative style. He
shared, and perhaps distanced, the meretricious triumphs
of Oppenard and Germain, since he dealt with the Baroque
in its most daring and flamboyant developments. Rarely
does he leave a foot or two of undecorated space; the effect
of the whole is futile and fatiguing. It was because Meissonier
carried the style of his day to its extreme that he acquired
so vast a popularity. Like the English brothers Adam at
a later day he not only as architect built houses, but
as painter and decorator covered their internal walls; he
designed the furniture and the candlesticks, the silver and
the decanters for the table; he was as ready to produce a
snuff-box as a watch case or a sword hilt. Not only in
France, but for the nobility of Poland, Portugal and other
countries who took their fashions and their taste from Paris,
he made designs, which did nothing to improve European
taste. Yet his achievement was not wholly without merit.
His work in gold and silver-plate was often graceful and some-
times bold and original. He was least successful in furniture,
where his twirls and convolutions, his floral and rocaille motives
were conspicuously offensive. He was appointed by Louis XV.
Dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet du roi; the post of
designer pour les pompes funebres et galantes was also held along
with that of Orfevre du roi.
For our knowledge of his work we are considerably indebted
to his own books of design: Lime d'ornements en trente pieces;
Lime d'orfevrerie d'eglise en six pieces, and Ornements de la carte
chronologique.
MEISTERSINGER (Ger. for " master-singer "), the name
given to the German lyric poets of the I4th, isth and i6th
centuries, who carried on and developed the traditions of the
medieval Minnesingers (q.v.). These singers, who, for the most
part, belonged to the artisan and trading classes of the German
towns, regarded as their masters and the founders of their
gild twelve poets of the Middle High German period, among
whom were Wolfram von Eschenbach, Konrad von Wurzburg,
Reinmar von Zweter and Frauenlob. The last mentioned
of these, Frauenlob, is said to have established the earliest
Meistersinger school at Mainz, early in the I4th century. This
is only a tradition, but the institution of such schools originated
undoubtedly in the upper Rhine district. In the i4th century
there were schools at Mainz, Strassburg, Frankfort, Wurzburg,
Zurich and Prague; in the isth at Augsburg and Nuremberg,
the last becoming in the following century, under Hans Sachs,
the most famous of all. By this time the Meistersinger schools
had spread all over south and central Germany; and isolated
gilds were to be found farther north, at Magdeburg, Breslau,
Gorlitz and Danzig.
Each gild numbered various classes of members, ranging
from beginners, or Schuler (corresponding to trade-apprentices),
and Schulfreunde (who were equivalent to Gesellen or journey-
men), to Meister, a Meisler being a poet who was not merely
able to write new verses to existing melodies but had himself
invented a new melody. The poem was technically known as
a Bar or Gesetz, the melody as a Ton or Weis. The songs
were all sung in the schools without accompaniment. The
rules of the art were set down in the so-called Tabulatur or
law-book of the gild. The meetings took place either m the
Rathaus, or town hall, or, when they were held as was usually
the case on Sunday, in the church; and three times a year,
at Easter, Whitsuntide and Christmas, special festivals and
singing competitions were instituted. At such competitions
or Schulsingen judges were appointed, the so-called Merker,
whose duty it was to criticize the competitors and note their
offences against the rules of the Tabulatur.
The literary value of the Meistersinger poetry was hardly
in proportion to the large part it played in the life of the German
towns of the isth and i6th centuries. As the medieval lyric
decayed, more and more attention was given to the externals
of poetic composition, the form, the number of syllables, the
melody; and it was such externals that attracted the interest
of these burgher-poets. Poetry was to them a mechanical
art that could be learned by diligent application, and the
prizes they had to bestow were the rewards of ingenuity, not
of genius or inspiration. Consequently we find an extraordinary
development of strophic forms corresponding to the many new
" tones " which every Meistersinger regarded it as his duty to
invent tones which bore the most remarkable and often ridi-
culous names, such as Gestreiftsafranblumleimveis, Fettdachsu-eis,
Vieljrassweis, geblumte Paradiesweis, &c. The verses were
adapted, to the musical strophes by a merely mechanical
counting of syllables, regardless of rhythm or sense. The mean-
ing, the sentiment, the thought, were the last things to which
the Meistersingers gave heed. At the same time there was
a certain healthy aspect in the cultivation of the Meistergesang
among the German middle classes of the i sth and i6th centuries;
the Meistersinger poetry, if not great or even real poetry, had
especially in the hands of a poet like Hans Sachs many
germs of promise for the future. It reflected without exaggera-
tion or literary veneer the faith of the German burgher, his
blunt good sense and honesty of purpose. In this respect it
was an important factor in the rise of that middle-class literature
which found its most virile expression in the period of the
Reformation. The Meistergesang reached its highest point
in the i6th century; and it can hardly be said to have outlived
that epoch, although the traditions of the Meistersinger schools
lingered in south German towns even as late as the igth century.
Specimens of Meistersinger poetry will be found in various
collections, such as J. J. Gorres, Altdeutsche Volks- und Meisterlieder
(1817); K. Bartsch, Meisterlieder der Kolmarer Handschrift (Publ.
of the Stuttgart Literarischer Verein, vol. Ixviii. ; 1862). Of the older
sources of information about the Meistersinger the most important
are Adam Puschmann, Grundlicher Bericht des deutschen Meister-
gesangs zusamt der Tabulatur (1571; reprinted in W. Braune's
Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrh., 73, 1888),
and J. C. Wagenseil, De civitate Noribergensi (1697). See further
J. Grimm, Vber den altdeutschen Meistergesang (1811); F. Schnorr
von Carolsfeld, Zur Geschichte des deutschen Meister gesangs (1872);
R. von Liliencron, Vber den Inhalt der allgemeinen Bildung in der
Zeit der Scholastik (1876); G. Jacobsthal, " Die musikalische Bildung
der Meistersinger " (Zeitschrinfur deut. Altertum, xx., 1876) ; O. Lyon,
Minne- und Meistergesang (1882); K. Mey, Der Meistergesang in
Geschichte und Kunst (1892). The art of the Meistersingers has been
immortalized by Richard Wagner in his music drama, Die Meister-
singer (1868). (J- G. R.)
MEKONG, or ME NAM KONG (pronounced Kawng), sometimes
known as the Cambodia River, the great river of Indo-China,
having its origin in the Tibetan highlands. It is the third or
fourth longest river in Asia and the seventh or eighth in the
world. It is about 2800 m. in length, of which 1 200 flow through
portions of the Chinese Empire and Tibet and 1600 through
French territory. Its sources are not definitely settled, but it
is supposed to rise on the slopes of Dza-Nag-Lung-Mung in about
MELA MELAMPUS
33 N., 93 E., at an altitude of 16,700 ft. above sea-level.
Throughout the greater part of its course in Tibet, where it is
called the Dza-Chu, it flows south-eastwards to Chiamdo, on the
great east and west caravan route from China to Lhasa. At
this point it is about 10,000 ft. above sea-level. From here
it flows southwards through little-known mountain wastes.
Below Dayul in lat. 29 it is known by the Chinese name of
Lantsan Kiang. For the next 300 m. of its course the Lantsan
Kiang, or, as it soon becomes known among the Thai peoples
inhabiting its rugged valley, the Mekong, is very little known to
us. The river flows beneath bare and rocky walls. A few scat-
tered villages of Lusus and Mossos exist in this region; there is
no trade from north to south. In 25 18' N. the Tali-Bhamo
caravan route, described by Colborne Baker, crosses the river
by one of those iron suspension bridges which are a feature of
Yun-nan, at a height of 4700 ft. above sea-level. From this
point to Chieng or Keng Hung, the head of the old confederacy
of the Sibsawng Punna or Twelve States, it is little known; the
fact that it falls some 900 ft. for each degree of latitude indi-
cates the character of the river. Under the provisions of the
Anglo-French agreement of January 1896, from the Chinese
frontier southwards to the mouth of the Nam Hok the Mekong
forms the frontier between the British Shan States on the west
and the territories acquired from Siam by France in 1893. By
the treaty of 1 893, from that point south wards to about 13 30' N.
it is also the frontier between French Indo-China and Siam,
and a zone extended 25 kilometres inland from the right bank,
within which the Siamese government agreed not to construct
any fortified port or maintain any armed force. This 25 kilo-
metre neutral zone was abolished in 1905 when France surren-
dered Chantabun to the Siamese, who in their turn ceded the
port of Krat and the provinces of Melupre and Bassac, together
with various trading concessions to France on the right bank
of the Mekong. Below the Siamese Shan town of Chieng Sen
the river takes its first great easterly bend to Luang Prabang,
being joined by some important tributaries. This portion is
obstructed by rapids. The country is mountainous, and the
vegetation of the lower heights begins to assume a tropical
aspect. From Luang Prabang the river cuts its way southwards
for two degrees through a lonely jungle country among receding
hills of low elevation. From Chieng Khan the river again turns
eastwards along the i8th parallel, forcing its way through its
most serious rapid-barrier, and receiving some important tribu-
taries from the highlands of Tung Chieng Kum and Chieng
Kwang, the finest country in Indo-China. In 104 E. the river
resumes a southerly course through a country thinly peopled.
At Kemarat (16 N.) the fourth serious rapid-barrier occurs,
some 60 m. in length, and the last at Khong in 14 N. From
here to its outfall in the China Sea the river winds for some
400 m. through the French territories of Cambodia and Cochin
China, and to its annual overflow these countries owe their
extraordinary fertility. The French have done much to render
the river navigable. Steamers ply regularly from Saigon through
Mytho to Pnompenh, and launches proceed from this place,
the capital of Cambodia, to the Preapatano rapids, and beyond
this a considerable portion of the distance to Luang Prabang, the
journey being finished in native boats. (J. G. Sc.)
MELA, POMPONIUS (ft. c. A.D. 43), the earliest Roman
geographer. His little work (De situ orbis libri III.) is a mere
compendium, occupying less than one hundred pages of ordinary
print, dry in style and deficient in method, but of pure Latinity,
and occasionally relieved by pleasing word-pictures. Except-
ing the geographical parts of Pliny's Historia naturalis (where
Mela is cited as an important authority) the De situ orbis is the
only formal treatise on the subject in classical Latin. Nothing
is known of the author except his name and birthplace the
small town of Tingentera or Cingentera in southern Spain, on
Algeciras Bay (Mela ii. 6, 96; but the text is here corrupt).
The date of his writing may be approximately fixed by his
allusion (iii. 6 49) to a proposed British expedition of the
reigning emperor, almost certainly that of Claudius in A.D. 43.
That this passage cannot refer to Julius Caesar is proved by
several references to events of Augustus's reign, especially to
certain new names given to Spanish towns. Mela has been
without probability identified by some with L. Annaeus Mela of
Corduba, son of Seneca the rhetorician, and brother of the great
Seneca.
The general views of the De situ orbis mainly agree with those
current among Greek writers from Eratosthenes to Strabo; the
latter was probably unknown to Mela. But Pomponius is unique
among ancient geographers in that, after dividing the earth into
five zones, of which two only were habitable, he asserts the existence
of antichthones, inhabiting the southern temperate zone inaccessible
to the folk of the northern temperate regions from the unbearable
heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and bound-
aries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats Eratosthenes; like all
classical geographers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy)
he regards the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean,
corresponding to the Persian and Arabian (Red Sea) gulfs on the
south. His Indian conceptions are inferior to those of some earlier
Greek writers; he follows Eratosthenes in supposing that country
to occupy the south-eastern angle of Asia, whence the coast trended
northwards to Scythia, and then swept round westward to the
Caspian Sea. As usual, he places the Rhipaean Mountains and the
Hyperboreans near the Scythian Ocean. In western Europe his
knowledge (as was natural in a Spanish subject of Imperial Rome)
was somewhat in advance of the Greek geographers. He defines
the western coast-line of Spain and Gaul and its indentation by the
Bay of Biscay more accurately than Eratosthenes or Strabo, his
ideas of the British Isles and their position are also clearer than
his predecessors'. He is the first to name the Orcades or Orkneys,
which he defines and locates pretty correctly. Of northern Europe
his knowledge was imperfect, but he speaks vaguely of a great bay
(" Codanus sinus ") to the north of Germany, among whose many
islands was one, " Codanovia," of pre-eminent size; this name
reappears in Pliny as " Scandinavia. Mela's descriptive method
is peculiar and inconvenient. Instead of treating each continent
separately he begins at the Straits of Gibraltar, and describes the
countries adjoining the south coast of the Mediterranean; then he
moves round by Syria and Asia Minor to the Black Sea, and so
returns to Spain along the north shore of the Euxine, Propontis, &c.
After treating the Mediterranean islands, he next takes the ocean
littoral to west, north, east and south successively from Spain
and Gaul round to India, from India to Persia, Arabia and Ethiopia ;
and so again works back to Spain round South Africa. Like most
classical geographers he conceives the Dark Continent as surrounded
by sea and not extending very far south.
The first edition of Mela was published at Milan in 1471 ; the first
good edition was by Vadianus (Basel, 1522), superseded by those
of Voss (1658), J. Gronovius (1685 and 1696), A. Gronovius (1722
and 1728), and Tzschucke (1806-1807), in seven parts (Leipzig;
the most elaborate of all); G. Parthey's (Berlin, 1867), gives the
best text. The English trans, by Arthur Golding (1585), is famous;
see also E. H. Bunbury, Ancient Geography, ii. 352-368, and
D. Detlefsen, Quellen und Forschungen zur alien Gesch. und Geog.
(1908). (E. H. B.;C. R. B.)
MELACONITE, a mineral consisting of cupric oxide, CuO,
and known also as black copper ore. In appearance it is
strikingly different from cuprite (q.v.) or red copper ore, which is
cuprous oxide. Crystals are rare; they belong to the mono-
clinic, or possibly to the anorthic system, and have' the form of
thin triangular or hexagonal scales with a steel-grey colour and
brilliant metallic lustre. More often the mineral is massive,
earthy or pulverulent, and has a dull iron-black colour. Hence
the name melaconite, from the Greek /Xas, black and /cows,
dust, which was originally given by F. S. Beudant in 1832 in
the form melaconise. The crystallized Vesuvian mineral was
later named tenorite, a name commonly adopted for the species.
The hardness of the crystals is 3-4, but the earthy and powdery
forms readily soil the fingers; the spec. grav. is 5-9. Crystals
have been found only at Mt Vesuvius, where they encrust lava,
and in Cornwall. The other forms of the mineral, however,
are common in copper mines, and have resulted by the alteration
of chalcocite, chalcopyrite and other copper ores, on which
they often form a superficial coating. (L. J. S.)
MELAMPUS, in Greek legend, a celebrated seer and physician,
son of Amythaon and Eidomene, brother of Bias, mythical
eponymous hero of the family of the Melampodidae. Two
young serpents, whose life he had saved, licked his ears while he
slept, and from that time he understood the language of birds
and beasts. In the art of divination he received instruction
from Apollo himself. To gain the consent of Neleus, king of
Pylos, to the marriage of his daughter Pero with Bias, Melampus
88
MELANCHLAENI MELANCHTHON
undertook to obtain possession of the oxen of the Thessalian
prince Iphiclus. As Melampus had foretold, he was caught and
imprisoned, but was released by Phylacus (the father of Iphiclus)
on giving proof of his powers of divination, and was finally
presented with the oxen as a reward for having restored the
virility of the son. Melampus subsequently obtained a share in
the kingdom of Argos in return for having cured the daughters
of its king Proetus, who had been driven mad for offering resis-
tance to the worship of Dionysus or for stealing the gold from
the statue of Hera. At Aegosthena in Megara there was a
sanctuary of Melampus, and an annual festival was held in his
honour. According to Herodotus, he introduced the cult of
Dionysus into Greece from Egypt, and his name (" black foot ")
is probably " a symbolical expression of his character as a
Bacchic propitiatory priest and seer " (Preller). According to
the traditional explanation, he was so called from his foot
having been tanned by exposure to the sun when a boy. In his
character of physician, he was the reputed discoverer of the herb
melampodium, a kind of hellebore. Melampus and Bias are
symbolical representatives of cunning and force.
See Apollpdorus i. 9, n, 12; ii. 2, 2; Odyssey, xv. 225-240;
Diod. Sic. iv. 68; Herodotus ii. 40.; ix. 34; Pausanias ii. 18, 4;
iv. 36, 3; scholiast on Theocritus iii. 43; Ovid, Metant. xv. 325;
C. Eckermann, Melampus und sein Geschlecht (1840).
Melampus is also the name of the a uthor of a short extant treatise
of little value on Divination by means of Palpitation (na\n>i>)
and Birthmarks ('EXmuv). It probably dates from the time of
Ptolemy Philadelphus (3rd cent. B.C.). Edition by J. G. Franz in
Scriplores physiognomiae veteres (1780).
MELANCHLAENI (from Gr. /^Xoj, and xX<""a, "Black-
cloaks "), an ancient tribe to the north of Scythia, probably
about the modern Ryazan and Tambov (Herodotus iv. 106).
They have been identified with the Finnish tribes Merja
(now extinct) and Cheremis, now driven north-east on to the
middle Volga. These, till recently, wore black. There has
been confusion between this tribe and another of the same
name mentioned by Pliny (N. H. vi. 15), and Ptolemy in the
Caucasus. (E. H. M.)
MELANCHOLY (Gr. MeXtryxoXta, from jutXas, black, and xoXi?,
bile), originally a condition of the mind or body due to a supposed
excess of black bile, also this black bile itself, one of the chief
" humours " of the body, which were, according to medieval
physiology, blood, phlegm, choler and melancholy (see HUMOUR) ;
now a vague term for desponding grief. From the i 7th century
the name was used of the mental disease now known as
" melancholia " (see INSANITY), but without any reference to
the supposed cause of it.
MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP (1497-1560), German theologian
and reformer, was born at Bretten in Baden on the i6th of
February 1497. His father, George Schwartzerd, was an
armourer under the Palatinate princes. His mother, Barbara
Reuter, a niece of Johann Reuchlin, was shrewd, thrifty and
affectionate. 1 Her father, Johann Reuter, long burgomaster
of Bretten, supervised the education of Philipp, who was taught
first by Johannes Hungarus and then by Georg Simler at the
academy of Pfortzheim. Reuchlin took an interest in him,
and, following a contemporary custom, named him Melanchthon
(the Greek form of Schwartzerd, black earth). In October
1509 he went to Heidelberg, where he took the B.A. degree,
afterwards proceeding M.A. at Tubingen. The only other
academic distinction he accepted was the B.D. of Wittenberg
(1519). He would never consent to become a "doctor," be-
cause he thought the title carried with it responsibilities to which
he felt himself unequal. At Tubingen he lived as student and
teacher for six years, until on Reuchlin's advice, the elector of
Saxony called him to Wittenberg as professor of Greek in 1518.
1 Her character is evidenced by the familiar proverb
Wer mehr will verzehren
Denn sein Pflug kann erehren,
Der muss zuletzt verderben
Und vielleicht am Galgen sterben
of which Melanchthon said to his students " Didici hoc a mea
matre, vos etiam observate." (For Melanchthon's Latin version
of the saying see Corpus reformatorum, x. 469.)
This appointment marked an epoch in German university
education; Wittenberg became the school of the nation; the
scholastic methods of instruction were set aside, and in a Dis-
course on Reforming the Studies of Youth Melanchthon gave
proof, not only that he had caught the Renaissance spirit, but
that he was fitted to become one of its foremost leaders. He
began to lecture on Homer and the Epistle to Titus, and in con-
nexion with the former he announced that, like Solomon, he
sought Tynan brass and gems for the adornment of God's Temple.
Luther received a fresh impulse towards the study of Greek,
and his translation of the Scriptures, begun as early as 1517,
now made rapid progress, Melanchthon helping to collate the
Greek versions and revising Luther's translation. Melanchthon
felt the spell of Luther's personality and spiritual depth, and
seems to have been prepared on his first arrival at Wittenberg
to accept the new theology, which as yet existed mainly in sub-
jective form in the person of Luther. To reduce it to an
objective system, to exhibit it dialectically, the calmer mind of
Melanchthon was requisite.
Melanchthon was first drawn into the arena of the Reforma-
tion controversy through the Leipzig Disputation (June 2 7- July
8, 1519), at which he was present. He had been reproved by
Johann Eck for giving aid to Carlstadt (" Tace tu, Philippe, ac
tua studia cura nee me perturba "), and he was shortly after-
wards himself attacked by the great papal champion. Melanch-
thon replied in a brief and moderately worded treatise, setting
forth Luther's first principle of the supreme authority of Scrip-
ture in opposition to the patristic writings on which Eck relied.
His marriage in 1520 to Catharine Krapp of Wittenberg gave a
domestic centre to the Reformation. In 1521, during Luther's
confinement in the Wartburg, Melanchthon was leader of the
Reformation cause at the university. He defended the action
of Carlstadt, when he dispensed the Eucharist in an " evangelical
fashion." 2
With the arrival of the Anabaptist enthusiasts of Zwickau,
he had a more difficult task, and appears to have been irresolute.
Their attacks on infant baptism seemed to him not altogether
irrational, and in regard to their claim to personal inspiration
he said " Luther alone can decide; on the one hand let us beware
of quenching the Spirit of God, and on the other of being led
astray by the spirit of Satan." In the same year, 1521, he
published his Loci communes rerum theologicarum, the first
systematized presentation of the reformed theology. From
1522 to 1524 he was busy with the translation of the Bible and in
publishing commentaries. In 1 524 he went for reasons of health
into southern Germany and was urged by the papal legate
Campegio to renounce the new doctrines. He refused, and
maintained his refusal by publishing his Summa doctrinae
Lutheri.
After the first Diet of Spires (1526), where a precarious peace
was patched up for the reformed faith, Melanchthon was deputed
as one of twenty-eight commissioners to visit the reformed states
and regulate the constitution of churches, he having just
published a famous treatise called the Libellus visitatorius, a
directory for the use of the commissioners. At the Marburg con-
ference (1529) between the German and Swiss reformers, Luther
was pitted against Oecolampadius and Melanchthon against
Zwingli in the discussion regarding the real presence in the sacra-
ment. How far the normally conciliatory spirit of Melanchthon
was here biased by Luther's intolerance is evident from the
exaggerated accounts of the conference written by the former
to the elector of Saxony. He was at this time even more embit-
tered than Luther against the Zwinglians. At the Diet of Augs-
burg (1530) Melanchthon was the leading representative of the
reformation, and it was he who prepared for that diet the seven-
teen articles of the Evangelical faith, which are known as the
"Augsburg Confession." He held conferences with Roman
divines appointed to adjust differences, and afterwards wrote
an Apology for the Augsburg Confession. After the Augsburg
2 He read the usual service, but omitted everything that taught
K PP' tlator y sacrifice; he did not elevate the Host, and he gave
both the bread and the cup into the hands of every communicant.
MELANESIA
89
conference further attempts were made to settle the Reformation
controversy by a compromise, and Melanchthon, from his concili-
atory spirit and facility of access, appeared to the defenders of
the old faith the fittest of the reformers to deal with. His
historical instinct led him ever to revert to the original unity of
the church, and to regard subsequent errors as excrescences
rather than proofs of an essentially anti-Christian system. He
was weary of the rabies Iheologorum, and dreamed that the evan-
gelical leaven, if tolerated, would purify the church's life and
doctrine. In 1537, when the Protestant divines signed the
Lutheran Articles of Schmalkalden, Melanchthon appended to
his signature the reservation that he would admit of a pope
provided he allowed the gospel and did not claim to rule by
divine right.
The year after Luther's death, when the battle of Miihlberg
(1547) had given a seemingly crushing blow to the Protestant
cause, an attempt was made to weld together the evangelical
and the papal doctrines, which resulted in the compilation by
Pflug, Sidonius and Agricola of the Augsburg " Interim." This
was proposed to the two parties in Germany as a provisional
ground of agreement till the decision of the Council of Trent.
Melanchthon, on being referred to, declared that, though the
Interim was inadmissible, yet so far as matters of indifference
(adiaphora) were concerned it might be received. Hence arose
that " adiaphoristic " controversy in connexion with which he has
been misrepresented as holding among matters of indifference
such cardinal doctrines as justification by faith, the number of
the sacraments, as well as the dominion of the pope, feast-days,
and so on. The fact is that Melanchthon sought, not to minimize
differences, but to veil them under an intentional obscurity of
expression. Thus he allowed the necessity of good works to
salvation, but not in the old sense; proposed to allow the seven
sacraments, but only as rites which had no inherent efficacy to
salvation, and so on. He afterwards retracted his compliance
with the adiaphora, and never really swerved from the views
set forth in the Loci communes; but he regarded the surrender
of more perfect for less perfect forms of truth or of expression as
a painful sacrifice rendered to the weakness of erring brethren.
Luther, though he had probably uttered in private certain
expressions of dissatisfaction with Melanchthon, maintained
unbroken friendship with him; but after Luther's death certain
smaller men formed a party emphasizing the extremest points
of his doctrine. 1 Hence the later years of Melanchthon were
occupied with controversies within the Evangelical church, and
fruitless conferences with his Romanist adversaries. He died
in his sixty-third year, on the igth of April 1560, and his body
was laid beside that of Martin Luther in the Schlosskirche at
Wittenberg.
His ready pen, clear thought and elegant style, made him the
scribe of the Reformation, most public documents on that side
being drawn up by him. He never attained entire independence
of Luther, though he gradually modified some of his positions
from those of the pure Lutherism with which he set out. His
development is chiefly noteworthy in regard to these two leading
points the relation of the evangelium or doctrine of free grace
(l) to free will and moral ability, and (2) to the law and poenitentia
or the good works connected with repentance. At first Luther's
cardinal doctrine of grace appeared to Melanchthon inconsistent
with any view of free will; and, following Luther, he renounced
Aristotle and philosophy in general, since " philosophers attribute
everything to human power, while the sacred writings represent
all moral power as lost by the fall." In the first edition of the
Loci (1521) he held, to the length of fatalism, the Augustinian
doctrine of irresistible grace, working according to God's immutable
decrees, and denied freedom of will in matters civil and religious
alike. In the Augsburg Confession (1530), which was largely due
to him, freedom is claimed for the will in non-religious matters,
and in the Loci of 1533 he calls the denial of freedom Stoicism,
and holds that in justification there is a certain causality, though
not worthiness, in the recipient, subordinate to the Divine causality.
J n 1535. combating Laurentius Valla, he did not deny the spiritual
incapacity of the will per se, but held that this is strengthened by
the word of God, to which it can cleave. The will co-operates
with .the word and the Holy Spirit. Finally, in 1543, he says that
the cause of the difference of final destiny among men lies in the
1 It must be admitted, however, that Matthias Flacius saved
the Reformation.
different method of treating grace which is possible to believers as
to others. Man may pray for help and reject grace. This he calls
free will, as the power of laying hold of grace. Melanchthon's
doctrine of the three concurrent causes in conversion, viz. the
Holy Spirit, the word, and the human will, suggested the semi-
Pelagian position called Synergism, which was held by some of his
immediate followers.
In regard to the relation of grace to repentance and good works,
Luther was disposed to make faith itself the principle of sanctifi-
cation. Melanchthon, however, for whom ethics possessed a special
interest, laid more stress on the law. He began to do this in 1527
in the Libellus msilalorim , which urges pastors to instruct their
people in the necessity of repentance, and to bring the threatenings
of the law to bear upon men in order to faith. This brought down
upon him the opposition of the Antinomian Johannes Agricola.
In the Loci of 1535 Melanchthon sought to put the fact of the
co-existence of justification and good works in the believer on a
secure basis by declaring the latter necessary to eternal life, though
the believer's destiny thereto is already fully guaranteed in his
justification. In the Loci of 1543 he did not retain the doctrine
of the necessity of good works in order to salvation, and to this he
added, in the Leipzig Interim, " that this in no way countenances
the error that eternal life is merited by the worthiness of our own
works." Melanchthon was led to lay more and more stress upon
the law and moral ideas; but the basis of the relation of faith and
good works was never clearly brought out by him, and he at length
fell back on his original position, that we have justification and
inheritance of bliss in and by Christ alone, and that good works
are necessary by reason of immutable Divine command.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal works of Melanchthon, with the
bulk of his correspondence, are contained in the Corpus reforma-
lorunt (vols. i.-xxviii.; Halle, 1834-1850), edited by Bretschneider
and Bindseil, to which must be added Bindseif's Supplement,
(Halle, 1874). Melanchthon's earliest and best biographer was
his friend Joachim Camerarius (1566), a new annotated edition of
which is much needed. The best modern life is that by Georg
Ellinger (Berlin, 1902); next is that of Karl Schmidt (Elberfeld,
1 86 1 ) . The celebration in 1 897 of the 4Ooth anniversary of Melanch-
thon's birth produced many short biographies and Festreden, among
them works by J. W. Richard (New York and London, 1898);
George Wilson (London, 1897); Karl Sell (Halle, 1897); Ferdinand
Cohrs (Halle, 1897); Beyschlag and Harnack (1897). Richard
Rothe's Festrede (1860) also is good. The most learned of modern
Melanchthon scholars was probably Karl Hartfelder, who wrote
Philipp Melanchthon als Praeceptor Germaniae (Berlin, 1899);
Melanchthoniana paedagogica (Leipzig, 1892), giving in the first
named two full bibliographies, one of all works written on Melanch-
thon, the other of all works written by him (in chronological order).
Hartfelder believed that a good deal of unpublished material is
still left in German and foreign libraries. Thus three long unknown
letters are published in the Quellen und Forschungen of the Konigl.
Preuss. Inst. Hist, at Rome, vol. ii. Two are to the Cardinal of
Augsburg and one to Lazarus von Schwendi. Melanchthon was
on his way to the Council of Trent as delegate of the elector of
Saxony and the cardinal had offered to meet him at Dillingen. He
writes " ingeminating peace," deploring that the council was not
a national synod, which would have been a better means of arriving
at the truth.
MELANESIA, one of the three great divisions of the oceanic
islands in the central and western Pacific. It embraces the
Bismarck Archipelago, N.E. of New Guinea, the Louisiade,
Solomon, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides and Loyalty islands, New
Caledonia, Fiji and intervening small groups. The name (Gr.
/itXas, black, and vrjaos, island) is derived from the black
colour of the prevailing native race, the Papuan and its allied
tribes. Many of these differ widely from the parent race, but
all the Melanesian peoples have certain common characteristics
which distinguish them sharply from the inhabitants of Poly-
nesia and Micronesia. Their civilization is lower. The Melan-
esians are mostly " negroid," nearly black, with crisp, curly hair
elaborately dressed; their women hold a much lower position
than among the Polynesians; their institutions, social, political
and religious, are simpler, their manners ruder; they have few
or no traditions; cannibalism, in different degrees, is almost
universal; but their artistic skill and taste, as with some
of the lower African negroes, are remarkable, and they are
amenable to discipline and fair treatment. Their languages,
which exhibit considerable difference among themselves, have
features which mark them off clearly from the Polynesian,
notwithstanding certain fundamental relations with the latter.
See R. H. Codrington, The Melanesian Languages (Oxford, 1885)
and The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); the articles -PAPUANS and
PACIFIC OCEAN ; also those on the several island-groups, &c.
9 o
MELANTHIUS MELBOURNE
MELANTHIUS, a noted Greek painter of the 4th century B.C.
He belonged to the school of Sicyon, which was noted for fine
drawing.
HELBA [NELLIE PORTER ARMSTRONG] (1850- ), British
operatic soprano, nee Nellie Porter Mitchell, was born at Burnley,
near Melbourne, Australia, her father being a contractor, of
Scottish blood. She sang at a local concert when six years old,
and was given a good musical education. In 1882 she married
Captain Charles Armstrong, and in 1886 went to study singing
in Paris under the famous teacher, Madame Mathilde Marches!,
whose daughter, Madame Blanche Marches!, also a famous singer,
was associated with her. In 1887 she made her debut in opera
at Brussels, taking the stage-name of Madame Melba from her
connexion with Melbourne. In the next year she sang the part
of Lucia, which remained one of her famous r61es, at Covent
Garden, London; and, though critics complained of her cold-
ness as an actress, her liquid voice and brilliant execution hence-
forth made her famous as the greatest successor to Patti, in
pure vocalization, on the operatic stage. She maintained this
position for over twenty years, her triumphs being celebrated in
every country.
See the " authorized " biography by Agnes G. Murphy (1909).
MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB, 2ND VISCOUNT (1770-1848),
English statesman, second son of the ist Viscount Melbourne,
by his marriage with the daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke, bart.,
was born on the isth of March 1779. His father, Peniston Lamb
(1748-1829), was the son of Sir Matthew Lamb, bart. (d. 1768),
who made a large fortune out of the law, and married Miss
Coke of Melbourne Hall; in 1770 he was made baron and in
1781 Viscount Melbourne in the Irish peerage, and in 1815 was
created an English peer. After completing his course at Trinity
College, Cambridge, William Lamb studied law at the university
of Glasgow, and was called to the bar in 1804. In 1805 he married
Lady Caroline Ponsonby (1785-1828), daughter of the 3rd earl
of Bessborough. She was, however, separated from him in
1825. Lady Caroline Lamb acquired some fame as a novelist
by her romance of Glenanion, which was published anonymously
in 1816 and was afterwards (1865) re-issued under the title of
The Fatal Passion. On entering parliament in 1806 the Hon.
William Lamb (as Lord Melbourne then was) joined the opposi-
tion under Fox, of whom he was an ardent admirer; but his
Liberal tendencies were never decided, and he not infrequently
supported Lord Liverpool during that statesman's long tenure
of office. During the short ministry of Canning in 1827 he was
chief secretary for Ireland, but he afterwards for a time adhered
to the small remnant of the party who supported the duke of
Wellington. The influence of Melbourne as a politician dates
from his succeeding to the peerage in 1829. Disagreeing with
the duke of Wellington on the question of parliamentary reform,
he entered the ministry of Grey as home secretary in 1830.
For the duties of this office at such a critical time he was deficient
in insight and energy, but his political success was independent
of his official capacity; and when the ministry of Grey was
wrecked on the Irish question in July 1834 Melbourne was
chosen to succeed him as prime minister. In November follow-
ing he had to give place to a Conservative ministry under Peel;
but he resumed office in April 1835, and remained prime minister
till 1841. He died at Melbourne House, Derbyshire, on the
24th of November 1848.
Lord Melbourne was without the qualification of attention to
details, and he never displayed those brilliant talents which
often form a substitute for more solid acquirements. Though
he possessed a fine and flexible voice, his manner as a speaker
was ineffective, and his speeches were generally ill-arranged and
destitute of oratorical point. His political advancement was
due to his personal popularity. He had a thorough knowledge of
the private and indirect motives which influence politicians,
and his genial attractive manner, easy temper and vivacious, if
occasionally coarse, wit helped to confer on him a social distinc-
tion which led many to take for granted his eminence as a
statesman. His favourite dictum in politics was, " Why not
leave it alone?" His relations with women gave opportunity
for criticism though not open scandal; but the action brought
against him in 1836 by Mr George Chappie Norton in regard to
the famous Mrs Caroline Norton (q.v.) was deservedly unsuccess-
ful. The most notable and estimable feature of his political
conduct was his relation to Queen Victoria (q.v.), whom he initi-
ated into the duties of sovereign with the most delicate tact and
the most paternal and conscientious care.
Melbourne was succeeded as 3rd viscount by his brother,
Frederick James Lamb (1782-1853), who was British ambas-
sador to Vienna from 1831 to 1841. On the 3rd viscount's death
the titles became extinct, but the estates passed to his sister
Emily Mary (1787-1869), the wife of Lord Palmerston.
See W. McC. Torrens, Memoirs of Lord Melbourne (1878);
Lloyd Sanders, Lord Melbourne's Papers (1889); A. Hayward's
essay (from the Quarterly Review, 1878) in " Eminent Statesmen "
(1880).
MELBOURNE, the capital of Victoria, and the most populous
city in Australia. It is situated on Hobson's Bay, a northern
bend of the great harbour of Port Phillip, in Bourke county,
about 5,00 m. S.W. of Sydney. The suburbs extend along the
shores of the bay for more than 10 m., but the part distinct-
ively known as the " city " occupies a site about 3 m. inland
on the north bank of the Yarra river. The appearance of
Melbourne from the sea is by no means picturesque. The busy
shipping suburbs of Port Melbourne and Williamstown occupy
the flat alluvial land at the mouth of the Yarra. But the city
itself has a different aspect; its situation is relieved by numerous
gentle hills, which show up its fine public buildings to great
advantage; its main streets are wide and well kept, and it has an
air of prosperity, activity and comfort. The part especially
known as the " city " occupies two hills, and along the valley
between them runs the thoroughfare of Elizabeth Street. Parallel
to this is Swanston Street, and at right angles to these,
parallel to the river, are Bourke Street, Collins Street and
Flinders Street the first being the busiest in Melbourne, the
second the most fashionable with the best shops, and the third,
which faces the river, given up to the maritime trade. These
streets are an eighth of a mile apart, and between each is a
narrower street bearing the name of the wider, with the prefix
" Little." The original plan seems to have been to construct
these narrow streets to give access to the great business houses
which, it was foreseen, would be built on the frontage of the main
streets. This plan, however, miscarried, for space grew so
valuable that large warehouses and business establishments
have been erected in these lanes. Little Flinders Street, in
which the great importers' warehouses are mainly situated, is
locally known as " the Lane." In the centre of the city some of
the office buildings are ten, twelve or even fourteen storeys
high. The main streets are 99 ft. wide, and the lanes somewhat
less than half that width. Round the city lies a circle of popu-
lous suburbs to the north-east Fitzroy (pop. 31,687) and
Collingwood (32,749), to the east Richmond (37,824), to the
south-east Prahran (40,441), to the south South Melbourne
(40,619), to the south-west Port Melbourne (12,176), and to the
north-west North Melbourne (18,120). All these suburbs lie
within 3 m. of the general post office in Elizabeth Street; but
outside them and within the 5 m. radius is another circle to
the east Kew (9469) and Hawthorne (21,430), to the south-east
St Kilda (20,542) and Brighton (10,047), to the south-west
Williamstown (14,052) and Footscray (18,318), to the north-west
Essenden (17,426), and Flemington and Kensington (10,946),
and to the north Brunswick (24^41). Numerous small suburbs
fill the space between the two circles, the chief being Northcote,
Preston, Camberwell, Toorak, Caulfield, Elsternwick and Coburg.
Some of these suburbs are independent cities, others separate
municipalities. In spite of the value of land, Melbourne is not
a crowded city.
The Parliament House, standing on the crown of the eastern
hill, is a massive square brick building with a pillared freestone
facade approached by a broad flight of steps. The interior is
lavishly decorated and contains, besides the legislative chambers,
a magnificent library of over 52,000 volumes. At the top of
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Collins Street a building in brown freestone is occupied by the
Treasury, behind which and fronting the Treasury Park another
palatial building houses the government offices. A little further
on is St Patrick's Roman Catholic cathedral, the seat of the
archbishop of Melbourne, a building of somewhat sombre blue-
stone. Two striking churches face each other in Collins Street,
the Scots church, a Gothic edifice with a lofty spire, and the
Independent church, a fine Saracenic building with a massive
campanile. The seat of the Anglican bishop, St Paul's cathe-
dral, has an elegant exterior and a wealth of elaborate workman-
ship within, but stands low and is obscured by surrounding
warehouses. On the western hill are the law courts, a fine block
of buildings in classic style surmounted by a central dome. In
Swanston Street there is a large building where under one roof
are found the public library of over 100,000 volumes, the museum
of sculpture, the art gallery, and the museums of ethnology and
technology. In connexion with the art gallery there is a travel-
ling scholarship for art students, endowed by the state. The
Exhibition Buildings are situated on a hill in Carlton Gardens;
they consist of a large cruciform hall surmounted by a dome and
flanked by two annexes. Here on the gih of May 1901 the first
federal parliament of the Australian commonwealth was opened
by King George V. (as duke of Cornwall and York). The
Trades Hall at Carlton is the meeting-place of the trades-union
societies of Victoria, and is the focus of much political influence.
The Melbourne town hall contains a central chamber capable of
accommodating 3000 people. The suburban cities and towns
have each a town hall. The residence of the governor of the
colony is in South Melbourne, and is surrounded by an extensive
domain. The university is a picturesque mass of buildings in
large grounds about a mile from the heart of the city. It com-
prises the university buildings proper, the medical school, the
natural history museum, the Wilson Hall, a magnificent building
in the Perpendicular style, and the three affiliated colleges,
Trinity College (Anglican), Ormond College (Presbyterian) and
Queen's College (Wesleyan). The university, established in 1855,
is undenominational, and grants degrees in the faculties of arts,
law, medicine, science, civil engineering and music; instruction in
theology is left to the affiliated colleges. Melbourne has numer-
ous state schools, and ample provision is made for secondary
education by the various denominations and by private enter-
prise. Of theatres, the Princess and the Theatre Royal are the
most important. Other public buildings include the mint,
the observatory, the Victoria markets, the Melbourne hospital,
the general post office, the homoeopathic hospital, the custom
house and the Alfred hospital. Many of the commercial
buildings are of architectural merit, notably the banks, of which
the bank of Australasia, a massive edifice of the Doric order,
and the Gothic Australian bank are the finest examples.
The public gardens and parks of Melbourne are extensive.
Within the city proper the Fitzroy Gardens are a network
of avenues bordered with oak, elm and plane, with a " fern-
tree gully " in the centre; they are ornamented with casts of
famous statues, and ponds, fountains and classic temples. The
Treasury, Flagstaff and Carlton Gardens are of the same class.
Around the city lie five great parks-^Royal Park, in which are
excellent zoological gardens; Yarra Park, which contains the
leading cricket grounds; the Botanical Gardens, sloping down to
the banks of the river; Albert Park, in which is situated a lake
much used for boating; and Studley Park on the Yarra river,
a favourite resort which has been left in a natural state. Besides
these parks, each suburb, has its public gardens, and at Fleming-
ton there is a fine race-course, on which the Melbourne cup races
are run every November, an event which brings in a large influx
of visitors from all parts of Australia. Melbourne has a complete
tramway system; all the chief suburbs are connected with the
city by cable trams. The tramways are controlled by a trust,
representing twelve of the metropolitan municipalities. The
chief monuments and statues of the city are the statue of Queen
Victoria in the vestibule of the Houses of Parliament, and a
colossal group commemorating the explorers Robert O'Hara
Bourke (b. 1820) and William John Wills (b. 1834), who died of
starvation in 1861 on an expedition for the crossing of Australia
from south to north. There are also the statue to Sir Redmond
Barry, first chancellor of the university, outside the public
library, the Gordon statue in Spring Street, a replica of that in
Trafalgar Square, London, and a statue of Daniel O'Connell,
outside St Patrick's cathedral.
Port Melbourne, originally called Sandridge, is about 2\ m.
distant from the city, with which it is connected by rail and
tramway. It has two large piers, alongside of which vessels of
almost any tonnage can lie. One of these piers is served by the
railway, and here most of the great liners are berthed. Vessels
drawing 22 ft. of water can ascend the river Yarra to the heart
of the city. There are 2 m. of wharves along each bank of
the river, with two large dry-docks and ship-repairing yards and
foundries. Below Queen's Bridge is an expansion of the river
known as the Pool, in which the largest ships using the river
can turn with ease. Leading from a point opposite the docks is
the Coode canal, by means of which the journey from the city
to the mouth of the river is shortened by over a mile. As a
port Melbourne takes the first place in Australia as regards
tonnage. It is also a great manufacturing centre, and both
city and suburbs have their distinctive industries. The chief
are tanning, fellmongery, wool-washing, bacon-curing, flour
milling, brewing, iron-founding, brick-making, soap-boiling, the
manufacture of pottery, candles, cheese, cigars, snuff, jams,
biscuits, jewelry, furniture, boots, clothing and leather and
woollen goods.
The climate of Melbourne is exceptionally fine; occasionally
hot winds blow from the north for two or three days at a time,
but the proportion of days when the sky is clear and the air dry
and mild is large. Snow is unknown, and the average annual
rainfall is 25-58 in. The mean annual temperature is
57-3 F., corresponding to that of Washington in the United
States, and to Lisbon and Messina in Europe. The city is
supplied with water from the Yan Yean works, an artificial
lake at the foot of the Plenty Range, nearly 19 m. distant.
The little settlement of the year 1835, out of which Melbourne
grew, at first bore the native name of Dootigala, but it was
presently renamed after Viscount Melbourne, premier of Great
Britain at the tune of its foundation. In June 1836 it consisted
of only thirteen buildings, eight of which were turf huts. For
two years after that date a constant stream of squatters with their
sheep flowed in from around Sydney and Tasmania to settle in
the Port Phillip district, and by 1841 the population of the town
had grown to 11,000. The discovery of gold at Ballarat in 1851
brought another influx of population to the district, and the
town grew from 30,000 to 100,000 in the course of two or three
years. In 1842 Melbourne was incorporated and first sent
members to the New South Wales parliament. A strong
popular agitation caused the Port Phillip district to be separated
from New South Wales in 1851, and a new colony was formed
with the name of Victoria, Melbourne becoming its capital. In
1901 Melbourne became the temporary capital of the Australian
commonwealth pending the selection of the permanent capital
in New South Wales. The population of the city proper in
1901 was 68,374, and that of " greater Melbourne " was 496,079.
MELBOURNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of Derby, on the
Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 3580. It lies in an undulating
district on a small southern tributary of the Trent, from whick
it is about 2 m. distant. The church of St Michael is a fine
example of Norman work, with certain late details, having
clerestoried nave, chancel and aisles, with central and two
western towers. Melbourne Hall, a building of the time of
William III., surrounded by formal Dutch gardens, stands in
a domain owned at an early date by the bishops of Carlisle,
whose tithe barn remains near the church. They obtained the
manor in 1133. In 1311 Robert de Holland fortified a mansion
here, and in 1327 this castle belonged to Henry, earl of Lancaster;
but it was dismantled in 1460, and little more than the site is
now traceable. The title of Viscount Melbourne was taken from
this town. There are manufactures of silk, and boots and shoes.
MELCHERS MELEAGER
MELCHERS, (JULIUS) GARI (1860- ), American artist,
was born at Detroit, Michigan, on the nth of August 1860.
The son of a sculptor, at seventeen he was sent to Dusseldorf to
study art under von Gebhardt, and after three years went to
Paris, where he worked at the Academic Julien and the ficole
des Beaux Arts. Attracted by the pictorial side of Holland, he
settled at Egmond. His first important Dutch picture, " The
Sermon," brought him honourable mention at the Paris Salon
of 1886. He became a member of the National Academy of
Design, New York; the Royal Academy of Berlin; Soci6te
Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris; International Society of
Painters, Sculptors and Engravers, London, and the Secession
Society, Munich; and, besides receiving a number of medals, his
decorations include the Legion of Honour, France; the order
of the Red Eagle, Germany; and knight of the Order of St
Michael, Bavaria. Besides portraits, his chief works are:
" The Supper at Emmaus," in the Krupp collection at Essen;
" The Family," National Gallery, Berlin; " Mother and Child,"
Luxembourg; and the decoration, at the Congressional Library,
Washington, " Peace and War."
MELCHIADES, or MILTIADES (other forms of the name being
Meltiades, Melciades, Milciades and Miltides), pope from the
2nd of July 310, to the nth January 314. He appears to
have been an African by birth, but of his personal history
nothing is known. The toleration edicts of Galerius and of
Constantine and Licinius were published during his pontificate,
which was also marked by the holding of the Lateran synod in
Rome (313) at which Caecilianus, bishop of Carthage, was
acquitted of the charges brought against him and Donatus
condemned. Melchiades was preceded and followed by
Eusebius and Silvester I. respectively.
MELCHITES (lit. Royalists, from Syriac melcha, a king),
the name given in the 5th century to those Christians who
adhered to the creed supported by the authority of the Byzantine
emperor. The Melchites therefore are those who accept the
decrees of Ephesus and Chalcedon as distinguished from the
Nestorians and Jacobite Church (qq.v.). They follow the
Orthodox Eastern liturgy, ceremonial and calendar, but acknow-
ledge the papal and doctrinal authority of Rome. They number
about 80,000, are found in Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and are
under the immediate rule of the patriarch of Damascus and
twelve bishops.
MELCHIZEDEK (Heb. for "king of righteousness"; or,
since Sedek is probably the name of a god, " Sedek is my king"), 1
king of Salem and priest of "supreme El " (El 'elyon), in the
Bible. He brought forth bread and wine to Abraham on his
return from the expedition against Chedorlaomer, and blessed
him in the name of the supreme God, possessor (or maker) of
heaven and earth; and Abraham gave him tithes of all his booty
(Gen. xiv. 18-20). Biblical tradition tells us nothing more
about Melchizedek (cf. Heb. vii. 3); but the majestic figure of
the king-priest, prior to the priesthood of the law, to whom
even the father of all Israel paid tithes (cf. Jacob at Bethel, Gen.
xxviii. 22), suggested a figurative or typical application, first in
Psalm ex. to the vicegerent of Yahweh, seated on the throne of
Zion, the king of Israel who is also priest after the order of
Melchizedek, and then, after the Gospel had ensured the
Messianic interpretation of the Psalm (Matt. xxii. 42 seq.), to
the kingly priesthood of Jesus, as that idea is worked out at
length in the Epistle to the Hebrews.
The theological interest which attaches to the idea of the pre-
Aaronic king-priest in these typical applications is practically
independent of the historical questions suggested by the narrative
of Gen. xiv. The episode of Melchizedek, though connected with
the main narrative by the epithets given to Yahweh in Gen. xiv. 22,
breaks the natural connexion of verses 17 and 21, and may perhaps
have come originally from a separate source. As the narrative
now ^stands Salem must be sought in the vicinity of " the king's
dale," which from 2 Sam. xviii. 18, probably, but not necessarily,
lay near Jerusalem. That Salem is Jerusalem, as in Psalm Ixxvi. 2,
1 It is to be noted also that the name is of the same form as
Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem (Josh. x. i), and that the un-
Hebraic Araunah of 2 Sam. xxiv. 16 is probably a corruption
of the similar compound Adonijah (so Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 290).
is the ancient and common view; but even in the 1 5th century B.C.
Jerusalem was known as Uru-salim. Jerome and others have
identified Salim with one or other of the various places which bear
that name, e.g. the SaXeiM of John iii. 23, 8 m. south of Beth-
shean. In a genuine record of extreme antiquity the union of
king and priest in one person, the worship of El as the supreme
deity by a Canaanite, 2 and the widespread practice of the consecra-
tion of a tithe of booty can present no difficulty ; but, if the historical
character of the narrative is denied, the date of the conception
must be placed as late as the rise of the temporal authority of the
high priests after the exile. So far no evidence has been found in
the cuneiform inscriptions or elsewhere in support either of the
genuineness of the episode in its present form, or of the antiquity
which is attributed to it (see further, J. Skinner, Genesis, pp. 269 sqq.).
An ancient legend identifies Melchizedek with Shem (Palestinian
Targum, Jerome on Isa. xli., Ephraem Syrus in loco).
See further the literature on Gen. xiv., and the articles ABRAHAM
GENESIS. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)
MELCOMBE, GEORGE BUBB DODDINGTON, BARON (1691-
1762), English politician. His father's name was Bubb, but
the son took the name of Doddington on inheriting a large
property by the death of an uncle of that name (1720). He
was educated at Oxford. In 1715 he was returned to parliament
as member for Winchelsea, and was sent as envoy extraordinary
to Spain. He carried on a scandalous traffic in the five or six
parliamentary votes which he controlled, his tergiversation
and venality furnishing food for the political satirists and
caricaturists of the day. His most estimable political action
was his defence of Admiral Byng in the House of Commons
(1757). From 1722 to 1754 he sat in parliament for Bridge-
water; from 1724 to 1740 was a lord of the treasury; and, in
1744, became treasurer of the navy under Henry Pelham, and,
again in 1755, under Newcastle and Fox. In April 1761 he was
raised to the peerage as Baron Melcombe of Melcombe Regis in
Dorsetshire. He died at La Trappe, his Hammersmith house,
on the 28th of July 1762. His wife, acknowledged only after
the death of another lady to whom he had given a bond that he
would marry no one else, died without issue. He was a wit and
a friend of wits, a good scholar, and something of a Maecenas;
Thomson's " Summer " was dedicated to him, Fielding addressed
to him an epistle and Edward Young a satire. He was a leading
spirit of the ".Hell-fire " Club, whose members, called " Fran-
ciscans," from their founder Sir Francis Dashwood (d. 1781),
held their revels in the ruined Cistercian abbey of Medmenham,
Bucks.
His diary, published in 1784, reveals him in his character of
place-hunter and throws a curious light on the political methods
of the time.
MELEAGER (Gk. MtXea-ypos), in Greek legend, the son of
Oeneus, king of Calydon, and Althaea. His father having
neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, she sent a wild boar to ravage
the land, which was eventually slain by Meleager. A war broke
out between the Calydonians and Curetes (led by Althaea's
brothers) about the disposal of the head and skin, which Meleager
awarded as a prize to Atalanta, who had inflicted the first
wound; the brothers of Althaea lay in wait for Atalanta and
robbed her of the spoils, but were slain by Meleager. When
Althaea heard this, she cursed Meleager, who withdrew, and
refused to fight until the Curetes were on the point of capturing
the city of Calydon. Then, yielding to his wife's entreaties,
he sallied forth and defeated the enemy, but was never seen
again, having been carried off by the Erinyes, who had heard his
mother's curse (or he was slain by Apollo in battle). According
to a later tradition, not known to Homer, the Moerae appeared
to Althaea when Meleager was seven days old, and announced
that the child would only live as long as the log blazing on the
hearth remained unconsumed. Althaea thereupon seized the
log, extinguished the flames, and hid it in a box. But, after her
brothers' death, she relighted the log, and let it burn away until
Meleager died. 3 Then, horrified at what she had done, she
hanged herself, or died of grief. The sisters of Meleager were
2 The god 'EXiow was also Phoenician; see Driver, Genesis.
p. 165; Lagrange, Religions Semitiques, Index, s.v.
3 On the torch as representing the light of life, see E. Kuhnert
in Rheimsches Museum, xlix., 1894, and J. Grimm, Teutonic Mytho-
logy (Eng. trans, by J. Stallybrass, 1880), ii. 853.
MELEDA MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH
93
changed by Artemis out of compassion into guinea fowls and
removed to the island of Leros, where they mourned part of the
year for their brother. The life and adventures of Meleager
were a favourite subject in ancient literature and art. Meleager
is represented as a tall, vigorous youth with curly hair, holding
a javelin or a boar's head, and accompanied by a dog.
See R. Kekule', De fabula meleagrea disserlatio (1861); Surber,
Die Meleager sage (Zurich, 1880); articles on "Meleager" and
" Meleagrides " in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller,
Griechische Mythologie; Apollodorus i. 8; Homer, Iliad, ix. 527;
Diod. Sic. iv. 34; Dio Chrysostom, Or. 67; Hyginus, Fab. 171;
Ovid, Metam. viii. 260-545. In the article GREEK ART (fig. 41)
the hunting of the Calydonian boar is represented on a fragment
of a frieze from a heroum.
MELEDA (Serbo-Croatian, Mljet; Lat. Melita}, the most
southerly and easterly of the larger Adriatic islands of the
Austrian province of Dalmatia. Pop. (1900), 1617. Meleda
lies south of the Sabioncello promontory, from which it is divided
by the Meleda Channel. Its length is 23 m.; its average breadth
2 m. It is of volcanic origin, with numerous chasms and gorges,
of which the longest, the Babinopolje, connects the north and
south of the island. Port Palazzo, the principal harbour, on
the north, is a port of call for tourist steamers. Meleda has
been regarded as the Melita on which St Paul was shipwrecked,
this view being first expounded, in the loth century, by Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus. As at Malta, a " St Paul's Bay " is
still shown.
MELEGNANO (formerly Marigna.no), a town of Lombardy,
Italy, in the province of Milan, n m. S.E. of that city by the
railway to Piacenza, 289 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6782.
There are remains of a castle of the Visconti. Its military
importance is due to its position at the crossing of the river
Lambro. It was a stronghold of Milan in her great struggle
against Lodi, and is famous for the victory of Francis I. of
France over the Swiss in 1515, known as the battle of Marignan,
and for the action between the French and Austrians in 1859.
MELENDEZ VALDfo, JUAN (1754-1817), Spanish poet, was
bom at Ribera del Fresno, Badajoz, on the nth of March 1754.
Destined by his parents for the priesthood, he graduated in
law at Salamanca, where he became indoctrinated with the
ideas of the French philosophical school. In 1780 with Batilo,
a pastoral in the manner of Garcilaso de la Vega, he won a
prize offered by the Spanish academy; next year he was intro-
duced to Jovellanos, through whose influence he was appointed
to a professorship at Salamanca in 1783. The pastoral scenes
in Las Bodas de Camacho (1784) do not compensate for its
undramatic nature, but it gained a prize from the municipality
of Madrid. A volume of verses, lyrical and pastoral, published
in 1785, caused Melendez Valdes to be hailed as the first Spanish
poet of his time. This success induced him to resign his chair
at Salamanca, and try his fortune in politics. Once more the
friendship of Jovellanos obtained for him in 1789 a judgeship
at Saragossa, whence he was transferred two years later to a
post in the chancery court at Valladolid. In 1797 he dedicated
to Godoy an enlarged edition of his poems, the new matter
consisting principally of unsuccessful imitations of Milton and
Thomson; but the poet was rewarded by promotion to a high
post in the treasury at Madrid. On the fall of Jovellanos in
1798 Melendez Valdes was dismissed and exiled from the capital;
he returned in 1808 and accepted office under Joseph Bonaparte.
He had previously denounced the French usurper in his verses.
He now outraged the feelings of his countrymen by the grossest
flattery of his foreign master, and in 1813 he fled to Alais. Four
years later he died in poverty at Montpellier. His remains
were removed to Spain in 1900. In natural talent and in
acquired accomplishment Melendez Valdes was not surpassed by
any contemporary Spaniard; he failed from want of character,
and his profound insincerity affects his poems. Yet he has fine
moments in various veins, and his imitation of Je.an Second's
Basia is notable.
MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH (d. 381), Catholic bishop and saint,
was born at Melitene in Lesser Armenia of wealthy and noble
parents. He first appears (c. 357) as a supporter of Acacius,
bishop of Caesarea, the leader of that party in the episcopate
which supported the Homoean formula by which the emperor
Constantius sought to effect a compromise between the Homoe-
usians and the Homousians. Meletius thus makes his debut as
an ecclesiastic of the court party, and as such became bishop
of Sebaste in succession to Eustathius, deposed as an Homousian
heretic by the synod of Melitene. The appointment was
resented by the Homoeusian clergy, and Meletius retired to
Beroea. According to Socrates he attended the synod of
Seleucia in the autumn of 359, and then subscribed the
Acacian formula. Early in 360 he became bishop of Antioch,
in succession to Eudoxius, who had been raised to the see of
Constantinople. Early in the following year he was in exile.
According to an old tradition, supported by evidence drawn
from Epiphanius and Chrysostom, this was due to a sermon
preached before the emperor Constantius, in which he revealed
Homousian views. This explanation, however, is rejected by
Loofs; the sermon contains nothing inconsistent with the
Acacian position favoured by the court party; on the other
hand, there is evidence of conflicts with the clergy, quite apart
from any questions of orthodoxy, which may have led to the
bishop's deposition.
The successor of Meletius was Euzoeus, who had fallen with
Arius under the ban of Athanasius; and Loofs explains the
subitafidei mutatio which St Jerome (arm. Abr. 2376) ascribes
to Meletius to the dogmatic opposition of the deposed bishop
to his successor. In Antioch itself Meletius continued to have
adherents, who held separate services in the " Apostolic "
church in the old town. The Meletian schism was complicated,
moreover, by the presence in the city of another anti-Arian sect,
stricter adherents of the Homousian formula, maintaining the
tradition of the deposed bishop Eustathius and governed at
this time by the presbyter Paulinus. The synod of Alexandria
sent deputies to attempt an arrangement between the two
anti-Arian Churches; but before they arrived Paulinus had been
consecrated bishop by Lucifer of Calaris, and when Meletius
free to return in consequence of the emperor Julian's contemp-
tuous policy reached the city, he found himself _one of three
rival bishops. Meletius was now between two stools. The
orthodox Nicene party, notably Athanasius himself, held
communion with Paulinus only; twice, in 365 and 371 or 372,
Meletius was exiled by decree of the Arian emperor Valens. A
further complication was added when, in 375, Vitalius, one of
Meletius's presbyters, was consecrated bishop by the heretical
bishop Apollinaris of Laodicea.
Meanwhile, under the influence of his situation, Meletius
had been more and more approximating to the views of the
newer school of Nicene orthodoxy. Basil of Caesarea, throwing
over the cause of Eustathius, championed that of Meletius who,
when after the death of Valens he returned in triumph to
Antioch, was hailed as the leader of Eastern orthodoxy. As such
he presided, in October 379, over the great synod of Antioch,
in which the dogmatic agreement of East and West was estab-
lished; it was he who helped Gregory of Nazianzus to the see
of Constantinople and consecrated him; it was he who presided
over the second oecumenical council at Constantinople in 381.
He died soon after the opening of the council, and the emperor
Theodosius, who had received him with especial distinction,
caused his body to be carried to Antioch and buried with the
honours of a saint. The Meletian schism, however, did not end
with his death. In spite of the advice of Gregory of Nazianzus
and of the Western Church, the recognition of Paulinus's sole
episcopate was refused, Flavian being consecrated as Meletius's
successor. The Eustathians, on the other hand, elected Evagrius
as bishop on Paulinus's death, and it was not till 415 that
Flavian succeeded in re-uniting them to the Church.
Meletius was a holy man, whose ascetic life was all the
more remarkable in view of his great private wealth. He was
also a man of learning and culture, and widely esteemed for
his honourable, kindly and straightforward character. He is
venerated as a saint and confessor in both the Roman Catholic
and Orthodox Eastern Churches.
MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS MELINGUE
94
See the article G. F. Loofs in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie
(ed. 1897, Leipzig), xii. 552, and authorities there cited.
MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS (4th century), founder of the
sect known after him as the " Meletians," or as the " Church
of the Martyrs," in the district of Thebes in Egypt. With
Peter, archbishop of Alexandria, he was thrown into prison
during the persecution under Diocletian. His importance is
due to his refusal to receive, at least until the persecution had
ceased, those Christians who during the persecutions had
renounced their faith, and then repented. This refusal led to
a breach with Peter, and other Egyptian bishops who were
willing to grant absolution to those who were willing to do
penance for their infidelity. Meletius, after regaining his
freedom, held his ground and drew around him many supporters,
extending his influence even so far away as Palestine. He
ordained 29 bishops and encroached upon Peter's jurisdiction.
The Council of Nicaea in 325 upheld the bishops, but Meletius
was allowed to remain bishop of Lycopolis though with merely
nominal authority. His death followed soon after. His
followers, however, took part with the Arians in the controversy
with Athanasius and existed as a separate sect till the 5th
century.
See Achelis in Herzog-Hauck, ReaUncyk. xii. (1903) 558, with the
authorities there quoted, and works on Church History.
MELFI, a city and episcopal see of Basilicata, Italy, in the
province of Potenza, 30 m. by rail N. of the town of that name.
Melfi is picturesquely situated on the lower slopes of Monte
Vulture, 1591 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), i4,S47- The
castle was originally erected by Robert Guiscard, but as it now
stands it is mainly the work of the Doria family, who have
possessed it since the time of Charles V.; and the noble cathedral
which was founded in 1153 by Robert's son and successor,
Roger, has had a modern restoration (though it retains its
campaniles) in consequence of the earthquake of 1851, when
the town was ruined, over one thousand of the inhabitants
perishing. It is the centre of an agricultural district which
produces oil and wine. In the town hall is a fine Roman
sarcophagus found 6 m. W. of Venosa.
Melfi does not seem to occupy an ancient site, and its origin is
uncertain. By the Normans it was made the capital of Apulia in
1041, and fortified. The council held by Nicholas I. in 1059, that
of Urban II. in 1089, the rebellion against Roger in 1133 and the
subsequent punishment, the plunder of the town by Barbarossa
in 1167, the attack by Richard, count of Acerra in 1190, and the
parliament of 1223, in which Frederick II. established the constitu-
tion of the kingdom of Naples, form the principal points of interest
in the annals of Melfi. In 1348 Joanna I. of Naples bestowed the
city on Niccolo Acciajuoli; but it was shortly afterwards captured,
after a six months' siege, by the king of Hungary, who transferred
it to Conrad the Wolf. In 1392 Goffredo Marzano was made
count of Melfi ; but Joanna II. granted the lordship to the Caracciolo
family, and they retained it for one hundred and seven years till
the time of Charles V. An obstinate resistance was offered by the
city to Lautrec de Foix in 1528; and his entrance within its walls
was followed by the massacre, it is said, of 18,000 of its citizens.
See G. de Lorenzo, Venosa e la regione del Vulture (Bergamo,
1906).
MELICERTES, in Greek legend, the son of the Boeotian
prince Athamas and Ino, daughter of Cadmus. Ino, pursued by
her husband, who had been driven mad by Hera because Ino
had brought up the infant Dionysus, threw herself and Melicertes
into the sea from a high rock between Megara and Corinth.
Both were changed into marine deities Ino as Leucothea,
Melicertes as Palaemon. The body of the latter was carried
by a dolphin to the Isthmus of Corinth and deposited under
a pine tree. Here it was found by his uncle Sisyphus, who had
it removed to Corinth, and by command of the Nereids instituted
the Isthmian games and sacrifices in his honour. There seems
little doubt that the cult of Melicertes was of foreign, probably
Phoenician, origin, and introduced by Phoenician navigators
on the coasts and islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean.
He is a native of Boeotia, where Phoenician influences were
strong; at Tenedos he was propitiated by the sacrifice of children,
which seems to point to his identity with Melkart. The
premature death of the child in the Greek form of the legend is
probably an allusion to this.
The Romans identified Palaemon with Portunus (the harbour
god). No satisfactory origin of the name Palaemon has been
riven. It has been suggested that it means the " wrestler " or
struggler " (iraXaiu) and is an epithet of Heracles, who is often
identified with Melkart, but there does not appear to be any
traditional connexion between Heracles and Palaemon. Meli-
certes being Phoenician, Palaemon also has been explained as the
" burning lord " (Baal-haman), but there seems little in common
between a god of the sea and a god of fire.
See Apollodorus iii. 4, 3; Ovid, Metam. iv. 416-542, Fasti,
vi. 485 ; Hyginus, Fab. 2 ; Pausanias i. 44, ii. I ; Philostratus,
Icones, ii. 16; articles by Toutain in Daremberg and Saglio's Diction-
naire des antiquites and by Stoll in Roscher's Lexikon der Mylhologie ;
L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie; R. Brown, Semitic Influence in
Hellenic Mythology (1898).
MELILLA, a Spanish fortified station and penal settlement
on the north coast of Morocco, south of Cape Tres Forcas and
135 m. E.S.E. of Ceuta. Pop. about 9000. The town is built
on a huge rock connected with the mainland by a rocky isthmus.
There is a harbour, only accessible to small vessels; the roadstead
outside is safe and has deep water a mile to the east of the
fortress. From the landing-place, where a mole is cut out of
the rock, there is a steep asqent to the upper town, charac-
teristically Spanish in appearance. The town is walled, and
the isthmus protected by a chain of small forts. A Moorish
custom-house is placed on the Spanish border beyond the fort
of Santa Isabel, and is the only authorized centre of trade on
the Riff coast between Tetuan and the Algerian frontier. It
thus forms the entrep&t for the commerce of the Riff district
and its hinterland. Goat skins, eggs and beeswax are the
principal exports, cotton goods, tea, sugar and candles being
the chief imports. For the period 1900-1905 the annual value
of the trade was about 200,000. Melilla, the first place captured
by Spain on the African mainland, was seized from the Moors
in 1490. The Spaniards have had much trouble with the
neighbouring tribes turbulent Riffians, hardly subject to the
sultan of Morocco. The limits of the Spanish territory round
the fortress were fixed by treaties with Morocco in 1859, 1860,
1 86 1 and 1894. In 1893 the Riffians besieged Melilla and
25,000 men had to be despatched against them. In 1908 two
companies, under the protection of El Roghi, a chieftain then
ruling the Riff region, started mining lead and iron some 15 m.
from Melilla and a railway to the mines was begun. In October
of that year the Riffians revolted from the Roghi and raided the
mines, which remained closed until June 1909. On the 9th of
July the workmen were again attacked and several of them
killed. Severe fighting between the Spaniards and the tribesmen
followed. The Riffians having submitted, the Spaniards, in
1910, restarted the mines and undertook harbour works at
Mar Chica.
See Budgett Meakin, The Land of the Moors (London, 1901),
ch. xix., and the authorities there cited; P. Barre, " Melilla et
les presides espagnols," Rev. fran$aise (1908).
MELINE, FELIX JULES (1838- ), French statesman, was
born at Remiremont on the 2oth of May 1838. Having adopted
the law as his profession, he was chosen a deputy in 1872, and
in 1879 he was for a short time under-secretary to the minister
of the interior. In 1880 he came to the front as the leading
spokesman of the party which favoured the protection of French
industries, and he had a considerable share in fashioning the
protectionist legislation of the years 1890-1902. From 1883
to 1885 M61ine was minister for agriculture, and in 1888-1889
he was president of the Chamber of Deputies. In 1896 he
became premier (president du conseil) and minister for agriculture,
offices which he vacated in 1898. At one time he edited La
Republique franqaise, and after his retirement from public life he
wrote Le Retour A la terre et la surproduction industrielle, tout
enfaveur de I' agriculture (1905).
MELINGUE, ETIENNE MARIN (1808-1875), French actor
and sculptor, was born in Caen, the son of a volunteer of 1792.
He early went to Paris and obtained work as a sculptor on the
church of the Madeleine, but his passion for the stage soon led
him to join a strolling company of comedians. Finally chance
gave him an opportunity to show his talents, and at the Porte
Saint Martin he became the popular interpreter of romantic
MELIORISM MELLITIC ACID
95
drama of the Alexandra Dumas type. One of his greatest
successes was as Benvenuto Cellini, in which he displayed his
ability both as an actor and as a sculptor, really modelling
before the eyes of the audience a statue of Hebe. He sent a
number of statuettes to the various exhibitions, notably one
of Gilbert Louis Duprez as William Tell. Melingue's wife,
Theodorine Thiesset (1813-1886), was the actress selected by
Victor Hugo to create the part of Guanhumara in Burgraves at
the Comedie Franchise, where she remained ten years.
See Dumas, Une Vie d'artiste (1854).
MELIORISM (Lat. melior, better), in philosophy, a term given
to that view of the world which believes that at present the sum
of good exceeds the sum of evil and that, in the future, good will
continually gain upon evil. The term is said to have been
invented by George Eliot to express a theory mediating between
optimism and pessimism. The pragmatic movement in philo-
sophy which puts stress upon the duty and value of effort is
naturally favourable to the melioristic view: the best things
that have been said recently in favour of it are found in books
such as William James's Pragmatism.
MELISSUS OF SAMOS, Greek philosopher of the Eleatic
School (?.i>.), was born probably not later than 470 B.C. Accord-
ing to Diogenes Laertius, ix. 24, he was not only a thinker,
but also a political leader in his native town, and was in command
of the fleet which defeated the Athenians in 442. The same
authority says he was a pupil of Parmenides and of Heraclitus,
but the statement is improbable, owing to discrepancy in dates.
His works, fragments of which are preserved by Simplicius
and attested by the evidence of Aristotle, are devoted to the
defence of Parmenides' doctrine. They were written in Ionic
and consist of long series of argument. Being, he says, is
eternal. It cannot have had a beginning because it cannot have
begun from not-being (cf. ex nihilo nihil), nor from being (w;
yap av ofrrw /ecu ov ytvoLTo). It cannot suffer destruction;
it is impossible for being to become not being, and if it became
another being, there would be no destruction. According to
Simplicius (Physica, L 22b), he differed here from Parmenides
in distinguishing being and absolute being (r6 cwrXtos &>v). He
goes on to show that eternal being must also be unlimited in
magnitude, and, therefore, one and unchangeable. Any change
whether from internal or external source, he says, is unthinkable;
the One is unvarying in quantity and in kind. There can be
no division inside this unity, for any such division implies
space or void; but void is nothing, and, therefore, is not. It
follows further that being is incorporeal, inasmuch as all body
has size and parts. The fundamental difficulty underlying this
logic is the paradox more clearly expressed by Zeno and to a
large extent represented in almost all modern discussion, namely
that the evidence of the senses contradicts the intellect. Abstract
argument has shown that change in the unity is impossible;
yet the senses tell us that hot becomes cold, hard becomes soft,
the living dies, and so on. From a comparison of Melissus with
Zeno of Elea, it appears that the spirit of dialectic was already
tentatively at work, though it was not conscious of its own
power. Neither Melissus nor Zeno seems to have observed that
the application of these destructive methods struck at the root
not only of multiplicity but also of the One whose existence they
maintained. The weapons which they forged in the interests
of Parmenides were to be used with equal effect against them-
selves.
See Ritter and Preller, 159-166; Brandis, Commentalionum
eleaticarum, pt. I, p. 185; Mullach, Aristotelis de Mehsso, Xenophane,
Gorgia; Pabst, De Melissi samii fragments (Bonn, 1889), and histories
of philosophy.
MELITO, bishop of Sardis, a Christian writer of the 2nd
century, mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. Red. iv. 21) along with
Hegesippus, Dionysius of Corinth, Apollinaris of Hierapolis,
Irenaeus, and others, his contemporaries, as a champion oi
orthodoxy and upholder of apostolic tradition. Of his personal
history nothing is known, and of his numerous works (which
are enumerated with quotations by Eusebius) only a few
fragments are extant. They included an Apologia addressed to
Antoninus some time between A.D. 169 and 180, two books
relating to the paschal controversy, and a work entitled 'ExXo-yoi
'selections from the Old Testament), which contained the first
Christian list of " the books of the Old Covenant." It excludes
Esther, Nehemiah and the Apocrypha. The fragments have
jeen edited with valuable notes by Routh (Reliquiae sacrae,
vol. i., 1814). These are sufficient to show that Melito was an
mportant figure in Asia Minor and took much part in the
jaschal, Marcionite and Montanist controversies.
It seems more than doubtful whether the Apologia of Melito
' the Philosopher," discovered in a Syriac translation by Henry
Tattam (1789-1868), and subsequently edited by W. Cureton and
Dy Pitra-Renan, ought to be attributed to this writer and not to
another of the same name. The KXas (clavis), edited by Pitra-
Renan, is a much later Latin collection of mystical explanations
of Scripture.
See A. Harnack, Texte und Untersuchungen, i. 240-278 (Leipzig,
1882); Erwin Preuschen, s.v. "Melito" in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopadie, xii., 1903, giving full list of works and bibliography.
MELKSHAM, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, 95! m. W. of London by the
Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2450.
[t lies in a valley sheltered by steep chalk hills on the east,
its old-fashioned stone houses lining a single broad street, which
crosses the Upper Avon by a bridge of four arches. The church
preserves some remnants of Norman work and a Perpendicular
south chapel of rare beauty. Melksham possesses cloth-mills
where coco-nut fibre and hair cloth are woven, flour-mills and
dye-works. On the discovery of a saline spring in 1816, baths
and a pump-room were opened, but although two other springs
were found later, the attempt to create a fashionable health
resort failed. The surrounding deer-forest was often visited by
Edward I. Lacock Abbey, 3 m. distant, was founded in 1232
for Austin canonesses, and dissolved in 1539. Portions of the
monastic buildings remain as picturesque fragments in and
near the modern mansion called Lacock Abbey.
MELLE, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Deux-Sevres, on the left bank of the
Beronne, 21 m. E.S.E. of Niort by rail. Pop. (1906), 2231.
Melle has two churches in the Romanesque style of Poitou,
St Pierre and St Hilaire, the latter ornamented with sculptured
arcading. The hospital has a richly carved doorway of the
1 7th century. The church of St Savinien (nth century) serves
as a prison. The town has trade in farm-produce, mules and
other live stock; distilling is carried on. Melle (Metallum)
derives its name from the lead mine worked here during the
Roman occupation and in the early middle ages. At the latter
period it had a mint. In later times it was a possession of the
counts of Maine.
MELLITIC ACID (benzene hexacarboxylic acid), C 6 (COOH) 6 ,
was first discovered in 1799 by M. H. Klaproth in the mineral
honeystone, which is the aluminium salt of the acid. The
acid may be prepared by warming honeystone with ammonium
carbonate, boiling off the excess of the ammonium salt and
adding ammonia to the solution. The precipitated alumina is
filtered off, the filtrate evaporated and the ammonium salt of the
acid purified by recrystallization. The ammonium salt is then
converted into the lead salt by precipitation with lead acetate
and the lead salt decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen.
The acid may also be prepared by the oxidation of pure carbon,
or of hexamethyl benzene, in the cold, by alkaline potassium
permanganate (F. Schulze.Ber., 1871, 4, p. 802; C.Friedel and J.M.
Crafts, Ann. chim. phys., 1884 [6], i, p. 470). It crystallizes in fine
silky needles and is soluble in water and alcohol. It is a very stable
compound, chlorine, concentrated nitric acid and hydriodic acid
having no action upon it. It is decomposed, on dry distillation,
into carbon dioxide and pyromellitic acid, CioH 6 O 8 ; when distilled
with lime it gives carbon dioxide and benzene. Long digestion of
the acid with excess of phosphorus pentachloride results in the
formation of the acid chloride, C 6 (COC1) 6 , which crystallizes in
needles, melting at 190 C. By heating the ammonium salt of the
acid to 150-160 C. as long as ammonia is evolved, a mixture of
paramide (mellimide), C 6 ( co > NHJ 3 , and ammonium euchroate is
obtained. The mixture may be separated by dissolving out the
ammonium euchroate with water. Paramide is a white amorphous
powder, insoluble in water and alcohol.
9 6
MELLITUS MELODY
MELLITUS (d. 624), bishop of London and archbishop of
Canterbury, was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great in
601. He was consecrated by St Augustine before 604, and a
church was built for him in London by Aethelberht, king of
Kent; this church was dedicated to St Paul, and Mellitus became
first bishop of London. About ten years later the East Saxons
reverted to heathenism and the bishop was driven from
his see. He took refuge in Kent and then in Gaul, but
soon returned to England, and in 619 became archbishop of
Canterbury in succession to Laurentius. He died on the 24th
of April 624.
MELLONI, MACEDONIO (1798-1854), Italian physicist, was
born at Parma on the nth of April 1798. From 1824 to 1831
he was professor at Parma, but in the latter year he was compelled
to escape to France, having taken part in the revolution. In
1839 he went to Naples and was soon appointed director of the
Vesuvius observatory, a post which he held until 1848. Melloni
received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1834.
In 1835 ne was elected correspondent of the Paris Academy, and
in 1839 a foreign member of the Royal Society. He died at
Portici near Naples of cholera on the nth of August 1854.
Melloni's reputation as a physicist rests especially on his dis-
coveries in radiant heat, made with the aid of the thermo-
multiplier or combination of thermopile and galvanometer,
which, soon after the discovery of thermoelectricity by T. J.
Seebeck, was employed by him jointly with L. Nobili in 1831.
His experiments were especially concerned with the power of
transmitting dark heat possessed by various substances and with
the changes produced in the heat rays by passage through
different materials. Substances which were comparatively
transparent to heat he designated by the adjective " diather-
mane," the property being " diathermaneite," while for the heat-
tint or heat-coloration produced by passage through different
materials he coined the word " diathermansie." In English,
however, the terms were not well understood, and " diather-
mancy," was generally used as the equivalent of " diatherma-
neite." In consequence Melloni about 1841 began to use
" diathermique " in place of " diathermane," " diathermasie "
in place of "diathermaneite," and " thermocrose " for " diather-
mansie." His most important book, La thermocrose ou la
coloration calorifique (vol. i., Naples, 1850), was unfinished at
his death. He studied the reflection and polarization of radiant
heat, the magnetism of rocks, electrostatic induction, daguer-
rotypy, &c.
MELODRAMA (a coined word from Gr. jueXos, music, and
opS/xa, action), the name of several species of dramatic com-
position. As the word implies, " melodrama " is properly a
dramatic mixture of music and action, and was first applied
to a form of dramatic musical composition in which music
accompanied the spoken words and the action, but in which
there was no singing. The first example of such a work has
generally been taken to be the Pygmalion of J. J. Rousseau,
produced in 1775. This is the source of romantic dramas
depending on sensational incident with exaggerated appeals to
conventional sentiment rather than on play of character, and
in which dramatis personae follow conventional types the
villain, the hero wrongfully charged with crime, the persecuted
heroine, the adventuress, &c. At first the music was of some
importance, forming practically a running accompaniment
suitable to the situations but this has gradually disappeared,
and, if it remains, is used mainly to emphasize particularly strong
situations, or to bring on or off the stage the various principal
characters. Such plays first became popular in France at the
beginning of the ipth century. One of the most prolific writers
of melodramas at that period was R. C. G. de Pixericourt
( I 773-i844). The titles of some of his plays give a sufficient
indication of their character; e.g. Victor, ou I'enfant de la forel
(1797); Carlina, oil I'enfant du mystere (1801); Le Monaslere
abandonne, ou la malediction paternelle (1816). Another form
of melodrama came from the same source, but developed on
lines which laid more emphasis on the music, and is of some
importance in the history of opera. Probably the first of this
type is to be found in Georg Benda's Ariadne auf Naios (1774).
The most familiar of such melodramas is Gay's Beggar's Opera.
In these the dialogue is entirely spoken. In true opera the
spoken dialogue was replaced by recitative. It may be noticed
that the speaking of some parts of the dialogue is not sufficient
to class an opera as a " melodrama " in this sense, as is proved
by the spoken grave-digging scene, accompanied by music, in
Fidelio, and the incantation scene in Der Freischiitz. To this the
English term " declamation " is usually applied; the Germans
use Melodram. But see OPERA.
MELODY (Gr. ^e\o>5ia, a choral song, from jieXos, tune,
and <j!6ij, song). In musical philosophy and history the word
" melody " must be used in a very abstract sense, as that aspect
of music which is concerned only with the pitch of successive
notes. Thus a " melodic scale " is a scale of a kind of music
that is not based on an harmonic system; and thus we call
ancient Greek music " melodic." The popular conception of
melody is that of " air " or " tune," and this is so far from being
a primitive conception that there are few instances of such
melody in recorded music before the i7th century; and even folk-
songs, unless they are of recent origin, deviate markedly from
the criteria of tunefulness. The modern conception of melody
is based on the interaction of every musical category. For us
a melody is the surface of a series of harmonies; and an unac-
companied melody so far implies harmony that if it so behaves
that simple harmonies expressing clear key-relationships would
be difficult to find for it, we feel it to be strange and vague.
Again, we do not feel music as melodious unless its rhythm is
symmetrical; and this, taken together with the harmonic
rationality of modern melody, brings about an equally intimate
connexion between melody on a large scale and form on a small
scale. In the article on SONATA FORMS it is shown that there
are gradations between the form of some kinds of single melody
like " Barbara Allen " (see Ex. i) and the larger dance forms of
the suite, and then, again, gradations between these and the
true sonata forms with their immense range of expression and
development. Lastly, the element that appears at first sight
most strictly melodic, namely, the rise and fall of the pitch, is
intimately connected by origin with the nature of the human
voice, and in later forms is enlarged fully as much by the char-
acteristics of instruments as by parallel developments in rhythm,
harmony and form. Thus modern melody is the musical
surface of rhythm, harmony, form and instrumentation; and, if
we take Wagnerian Leitmotif into account, we may as well
add drama to the list. In short, melody is the surface of music.
We may here define a few technicalities which may be said to
come more definitely under the head of melody than any other;
but see also HARMONY and RHYTHM.
1. A theme is a melody, not necessarily or even usually complete,
except when designed for a set of variations (q.v.), but of sufficient
independent coherence to be, so to speak, an intelligible musical
sentence. Thus a fugue-subject is a theme, and the first and
second subjects in sonata form are more or less complex groups
of themes.
2. A figure is the smallest fragment of a theme that can be
recognized when transformed or detached from its surroundings.
The grouping of figures into new melodies is the most obvious
resource of " development " or " working-out " in the sonata-forms
(see Ex. 2-7), besides being the main resource by which fugues are
carried on at those moments in which the subjects and counter-
subjects are not present as wholes. In 16th-century polyphony
rrelody consists mainly of figures thus broken off from a canto
fermo (see CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS).
3. Polyphony is simultaneous multiple melody. In 16th-century
music and in fugue-writing every part is as melodious as every
other. The popular cry for melody as an antidote to polyphony
is thus really a curious perversion of the complaint that one may
have too much of a good thing. Several well-known classical
melodies are polyphonically composite, being formed by an inner
melody appearing as it were through transparent places in the
outer melody, which it thus completes. This is especially common
in music for the pianoforte, where the tone of long notes rapidly
fades; and the works of Chopin are full of examples. In Bach's
works for keyed instruments figures frequently have a double mean-
ing on this principle, as, for instance, in the peculiar kind of counter-
subject in the isth fugue of the 2nd book of the Wohltemperirtes
Klavier. A good familiar example of a simple melody which, as
written by the composer, would need two voices to sing it, is that
MELODY
97
whkh begins the second subject of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata
(Op. 53, first movement, bars 35-42, where at the third bar of the
melody a lower voice enters and finishes the phrase).
4 (a) Conjunct movement is the movement of melody along
adjacent degrees of the scale. A large proportion of Beethoven's
melodies are conjunct (see Ex. 2, fig. B).
4 (b) Disjunct movement, the opposite of conjunct, tends, though
by no means always, to produce arpeggio types of melody, i.e.
melodies which move up and down the notes of a chord. Certain
types of such melody are highly characteristic of Brahms; and
Ex. i. "Barbara Allen" (showing the germ of binary form in the balance between A 1 on the dominant and A 2 on the tonic).
Wagner, whose melodies are almost always of instrumental origin,
is generally disjunct in diatonic melody and conjunct in chromatic
(Ex. 2, fig. C, is a disjunct figure not forming an arpeggio).
For various other melodic devices, such as inversion, augmenta-
tion and diminution, see CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS.
We subjoin some musical illustrations showing the treatment
of figures in melody as a means of symmetry (Ex. l), and develop-
ment ( Ex. 2-7), and (Ex. 8-13) some modern melodic transforma-
tions, differing from earlier methods in being immediate instead of
gradual.
(D. F. T.)
Ex.2. Main theme of the first movement of Beethoven's Trio in B'[>, Op. 97.
f- r: -- -f-
Ex. 3. Figure A of above developed in a new polyphonic 4-bar phrase. Ex. 4. Further sequential developments of A.
Ex. 5. Development of C with B.
f -
Ex. 6. Further development of B by diminution, in combination with the trills derived from C.
C* tr tr
I ir
li '
B diminished.
Ex. 7. Further development of B by diminution and contrary motion
(inversion).
Ex. 9. A and B 2 diminished.
Ex. 8. BRAHMS, Quintet, Op. 34.
EX.IO.
B
Ex. 12. The Nibelung's Talisman.
Ex. ii. The Rheindaughter's Toy. Wagner, Das Rhetngold.
. .
9 8
MELON MELORIA
Transverse section of the
fruit of the melon (Cucumis
me/0),showingthe placentas (pi),
with the seeds attached to them.
The three carpels forming the
pepo are separated by partitions
(ct). From the centre, processes
(s) go to circumference(i), ending
in curved placentaries bearing
the ovules.
MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr.
a kind of gourd; nr)\ov, apple, and Trtiruv, ripe), Cucumis melo,
a polymorphic species of the order Cucurbitaceae, including
numerous varieties. 1 The melon is an annual trailing herb
with palmately-lobed leaves, and bears tendrils by means of
which it is readily trained over trellises, &c. It is monoecious,
?Z having male and female flowers
on the same plant; the flowers
have deeply five-lobed campanu-
late corollas and three stamens.
Naudin observed that in some
varieties (e.g. of Cantaloups)
fertile stamens sometimes occur
in the female flowers. It is a
native of south Asia " from the
foot of the Himalayas to Cape
Comorin," 2 where it grows spon-
taneously, but is cultivated in
the temperate and warm regions
of the whole world. It is vari-
able both in diversity of foliage
and habit, but much more so in
the fruit, which in some varieties
is no larger than an olive, while
in others it rivals the gourd
(Cucurbila maxima). The fruit is
globular, ovoid, spindle-shaped,
or serpent-like, netted or smooth-skinned, ribbed or furrowed,
variously coloured externally, with white, green, or orange flesh
when ripe, scented or scentless, sweet or insipid, bitter or even
nauseous, &c. Like the gourd, the melon undergoes strange meta-
morphoses by crossing its varieties, though the latter preserve
their characters when alone. The offspring of all crossings are
fertile. As remarkable cases of sudden changes produced by
artificially crossing races, M. Naudin records that in 1859 the
offspring of the wild melons m. sauvage de I'lnde (C. melo agrestis)
and m. s. d'Afrique, le petit m. de Figari bore different fruits
from their parents, the former being ten to twelve times their
size, ovoid, white-skinned, more or less scented, and with reddish
flesh; though another individual bore fruits no larger than a nut.
The offspring of m. de Figari after being crossed bore fruits of the
serpent-melon. On the other hand, the serpent-melon was made
to bear ovoid and reticulated fruit.
Naudin thinks it is probable that the culture of the melon in
Asia is as ancient as that of all other alimentary vegetables. The
Egyptians grew it, or at least inferior races of melon, which were
either indigenous or introduced from Asia. The Romans and
doubtless the Greeks were familiar with it, though some forms
may have been described as cucumbers. Columella seems to
refer to the serpent-melon in the phrase ut coluber . . . venire
cubat flexp. Pliny describes them as pepones (xix. 23 to xx. 6)
and Columella as melones (xi. 2, 53). The melon began to be
extensively cultivated in France in 1629, according to Olivier de
Serres. Gerard (Herball, 772) figured and described in 1597
several kinds of melons or pompions, but he has included gourds
under the same name.
The origin of some of the chief modern races, such as " Canta-
loups," " Dudaim," and probably the netted sorts, is due to
Persia and the neighbouring Caucasian regions. The first of
these was brought to Rome from Armenia in the i6th century,
and supplies the chief sorts grown for the French markets; but
many others are doubtless artificial productions of west Europe.
The water-melon (Citrullus vulgaris) is a member of a different
genus of the same order. It has been cultivated for its cool
refreshing fruit since the earliest times in Egypt and the Orient,
and was known before the Christian era in southern Europe and
Asia.
The melon requires artificial heat to grow it to perfection, the
1 For a full account of the species of Cucumis and of the varieties
of melon by Charles Naudin, see Annales des sciences naturelles,
er 4, vol. xi. p. 34 (1859).
2 Naudin, loc. cit. pp. 39, 76.
rock and cantaloup varieties succeeding with a bottom heat of 70
and an atmospheric temperature of 75, rising with sun heat
to 80, and the Persian varieties requiring a bottom heat of 75,
gradually increasing to 80, and an atmospheric temperature
ranging from 75 to 80 when the fruit is swelling, as much sun
heat as the plants can bear being allowed at all times. The melon
grows best in rich turfy loam, somewhat heavy, with which a little
well-rotted dung, especially that of pigeons or fowls, should be
used, in the proportion of one-fifth mixed in the compost of loam.
Melons are grown on hotbeds of fermenting manure, when the soil
should be about a foot in thickness, or in pits heated either by hot
water or fermenting matter, or in houses heated by hot water, in
which case the soil bed should be 15 or 1 8 in. thick. The fer-
menting materials should be well prepared, and, since the heat has
to be kept up by linings, it is a good plan to introduce one or two
layers of faggots in building up the bed. A mixture of dung and
leaves gives a more subdued but more durable heat.
For all ordinary purposes February is early enough for sowing the
first crop, as well-flavoured fruits can scarcely be looked for before
May. The seeds may be sown singly in 3-in. pots in a mixture of
leaf-mould with a little loam, the pots being plunged in a bottom
heat of 75 to 80, and as near the glass as possible, in order that the
young plants may not be drawn up. The hill or ridge of soil should
be about a foot in thickness, the rest of the surface being afterwards
made up nearly to the same level. If the fruiting-bed is not ready
when the roots have nearly filled the pots, they must be shifted
into 4-inch pots, for they must not get starved or pot-bound. Two
or three plants are usually planted in a mound or ridge of soil
placed in the centre of each light, and the rest of the surface is
covered over to a similar depth as soon as the roots have made
their way through the mound.
The melon being one of those plants which produce distinct
male and female flowers, it is necessary to its fertility that both
should be produced, and that the pollen of the male flower should,
either naturally by insect agency, or artificially by the cultivator's
manipulation, be conveyed to the stigma of the female flower;
this setting of the fruit is often done by stripping a male flower of
its corolla, and inverting it in the centre of the fruit-bearing flower.
After the fruit has set and has grown to the size of an egg, it should
be preserved from contact with the soil by placing it on a piece of
tile or slate; or if grown on a trellis by a little swinging wooden
shelf, just large enough to hold it. In either case the material used
should be tilted a little to one side, so as to permit water to drain
away. Before the process of ripening commences, the roots should
have a sufficient supply of moisture, so that none may be required
from that time until the fruit is cut.
When the melon is grown in a house there should be a good depth
of drainage over the tank or other source of bottom heat, and
on this should be placed turfs, grass side downwards, below the
soil, which should not be less than 15 and need not be more than
18 in. in thickness. The compost should be made moderately
firm, and only half the bed should be made up at first, the rest being
added as the roots require it. The melon may also be grown in
large pots, supplied with artificial manure or manure water. The
stems may be trained up the trellis in the usual way, or the rafters
of a pine stove may be utilized for the purpose. If the trellis is
constructed in panels about the width of the lights, it can be taken
down and conveniently stowed away when not in use.
The presence of too much moisture either in the atmosphere or
in the soil is apt to cause the plants to damp off at the neck, but the
evil may be checked by applying a little fresh-slaked lime round
the stem of the plant.
Melons are liable to the attack of red spider, which are best
removed by syringing with rain-water, and prevented by keeping
a fairly humid atmosphere; green or black fly should also be watched
for and removed by fumigation with tobacco smoke or by
" vaporizing."
The varieties of melon are continually receiving additions, and
as newer varieties spring into favour, so the older ones drop out
of cultivation. A great deal depends on getting the varieties true
to name, as they are very liable to get cross-fertilized by insect
agency. Some of the best at present are :
Scarlet-fleshed. Blenheim Orange, Frogmore Orange, Invincible,
Button's Scarlet, and Triumph.
White-fleshed. Golden Orange, Hero of Lockinge, Longleat
Perfection, Royal Favourite.
Green-fleshed. British Queen, Epicure, Exquisite, Monarch,
Ringleader.
The market-gardeners round Paris and other parts of France
chiefly cultivate varieties of Cantaloup melon known as the Prescott
hatif a chassis and Prescott fond blanc both excellent in flavour.
The plants are grown in frames on hotbeds, and only one large
fruit is allowed to mature on each plant. If secured early in the
season say in June from 25 to 35 francs can be obtained for each
fruit in the Paris markets; later fruits, however, drop down to 2
francs each, or even less when there is a glut (see J. Weathers,
French Market-Gardening).
MELORIA, a rocky islet, surrounded by a shoal, almost
opposite Leghorn. It was the scene of two naval battles of the
MELOS MELOZZO DA FORLI
99
middle ages. The first, on the 3rd of May 1241, was fought
between the fleet of the emperor Frederick II. Hohenstaufen,
surnamed Stupor Mundi, in alliance with Pisa, against a Genoese
squadron bringing a number of English, French and Spanish
prelates to attend the council summoned to meet at the Lateran
by Gregory IX. Three Genoese galleys were sunk and twenty-
two taken. Several of the prelates perished, and many were
carried prisoners to the camp of the emperor. The second,
fought on Sunday the 6th of August 1284, was of higher historical
importance. It was a typical medieval sea-fight, and accom-
plished the ruin of Pisa as a naval power. The long rivalry of
that city and of Genoa had broken out for the last time in 1282,
the immediate cause being the incompatible claims of the two
cities to sovereignty over the islands of Sardinia and Corsica.
The earlier conflicts of the war in 1282, 1283 and the spring of
1284, had been unfavourable to Pisa. Though the city was
united with the Catalans and with Venice in hostility to Genoa,
and though it had chosen a Venetian, Alberto Morosini, as its
Podesta, it received no help from either. The Genoese, who had
the larger and more efficient fleet, sent their whole power against
their enemy. When the Genoese appeared off Meloria the
Pisans were lying in the river Arno at the mouth of which lay
Porto Pisano the port of the city. The Pisan fleet represented
the whole power of the city, and carried members of every family
of mark and most of the great officers of state. The Genoese,
desiring to draw their enemy out to battle, and to make the
action decisive, arranged their fleet in two lines abreast. The
first was composed according to Agostino Giustiniani of fifty-
eight galleys, and eight panfili, a class of light galleys of eastern
origin named after the provrnce of Pamphylia. Uberto Doria,
the Genoese admiral, was stationed in the centre and in advance
of his line. To the right were the galleys of the Spinola family,
and of four of the eight " companies " into which Genoa was
divided Castello, Piazzalunga, Macagnana and Son Lorenzo.
To the left were the galleys of the Dorias, and of the other four
companies, Porta, Soziglia, Porta Nuova and II Borgo. The
second line of twenty galleys, under the command of Benedetto
Giacaria (or Zaccharie), was placed so far behind the first that
the Pisans could not see whether it was made up of war-vessels
or of small craft meant to act as tenders to the others. Yet it
was near enough to strike in and decide the battle when the action
had begun. The Pisans, commanded by the Podesta Morosini
and his lieutenants Ugolino della Gherardescha and Andreotto
Saraceno, came out in a single body. It is said that while the
archbishop was blessing the fleet the silver cross of his archi-
episcopal staff fell off, but that the omen was disregarded by ,the
irreverence of the Pisans, who declared that if they had the
wind they could do without divine help. They advanced in line
abreast to meet the first line of the Genoese, fighting according
to the medieval custom to ram and board. The victory was
decided for Genoa by the squadron of Giacaria which fell on the
flank of the Pisans. Their fleet was nearly annihilated, the
Podesta was taken, and Ugolino fled with a few vessels. As
Pisa was also attacked by Florence and Lucca it could never
recover the disaster. Two years later Genoa took Porto Pisano,
and filled up the harbour. The count Ugolino was afterwards
starved to death with several of his sons and grandsons in the
manner made familiar by the 32nd canto of Dante's Inferno.
See Annali delta republic/1 di Geneva, by Agostino Giustiniani
(ed. Canepa, Genoa, 1854). (D. H.)
MELOS (mod. Mild), an island of the Aegean Sea (Cyclades
group), at the S.W. corner of the archipelago, 75 m. due E. from
the coast of Laconia. From E. to W. it measures about 14 m.,
from N. to S. 8 m., and its area is estimated at 52 sq. m. The
greater portion is rugged and hilly, culminating in Mount Elias
in the west (2538 ft.). Like the rest of the cluster, the island
is of volcanic origin, with tuff, trachyte and obsidian among its
ordinary rocks. The natural harbour, which, with a depth
diminishing from 70 to 30 fathoms, strikes in from the north-
west so as to cut the island into two fairly equal portions, with
an isthmus not more than ij m. broad, is the hollow of the prin-
cipal crater. In one of the caves on the south coast the heat is
still great, and on the eastern shore of the harbour there are hot
sulphurous springs. Sulphur is found in abundance on the top
of Mount Kalamo and elsewhere. In ancient times the alum of
Melos was reckoned next to that of Egypt (Pliny xxxv. 15 [52]),
and millstones, salt (from a marsh at the east end of the harbour),
and gypsum are still exported. The Melian earth (yij MiyXids)
was employed as a pigment by ancient artists. Orange, olive,
cypress and arbutus trees grow throughout the island, which,
however, is too dry to have any profusion of vegetation. The
vine, the cotton plant and barley are the main objects of culti-
vation. Pop. (1907), 4864 (commune), 12,774 (province).
The harbour town is Adamanta; from this there is an ascent
to the plateau above the harbour, on which are situated Plaka,
the chief town, and Kastro, rising on a hill above it, and other
villages. The ancient town of Melos was nearer to the entrance
of the harbour than Adamanta, and occupied the slope between
the village of Trypete and the landing-place at Klima. Here is a
theatre of Roman date and some remains of town walls and othei
buildings, one with a fine mosaic excavated by the British school
at Athens in 1896. Numerous fine works of art have been found
on this site, notably the Aphrodite of Melos in the Louvre, the
Asclepius in the British Museum, and the Poseidon and an
archaic Apollo in Athens. The position of Melos, between
Greece and Crete, and its possession of obsidian, made it an
important centre of early Aegean civilization. At this time
the chief settlement was at the place now called Phylakopi,
on the north-east coast. Here the excavations of the British
school cleared many houses, including a palace of " Mycenaean ''
type; there is also a town wall. Part of the site has been washed
away by the sea. The antiquities found were of three main
periods, all preceding the Mycenean age of Greece. Much
pottery was found, including examples of a peculiar style, with
decorative designs, mostly floral, and also considerable deposits
of obsidian. There are some traditions of a Phoenician occupa-
tion_of Melos. In historical times the island was occupied by
Dorians from Laconia. In the 6th century it again produced
a remarkable series of vases, of large size, with mythological
subjects and orientalizing ornamentation (see GREEK ART, fig. 9),
and also a series of terra-cotta reliefs.
Though Melos inhabitants sent a contingent to the Greek fleet
at Salamis, it held aloof from the Attic league, and sought to
remain neutral during the Peloponnesian War. But in 416 B.C.
the Athenians, having attacked the island and compelled the
Melians to surrender, slew all the men capable of bearing arms,
made slaves of the women and children, and introduced
SGO Athenian colonists. Lysander restored the island to its
Dorian possessors, but it never recovered its former prosperity.
There were many Jewish settlers in Melos in the beginning of the
Christian era, and Christianity was early introduced. During
the " Prankish " period the island formed part of the duchy
of Naxos, except for the few years (1341-1383) when it was a
separate lordship under Marco Sanudo and his daughter.
Antimelos or Antimilo, s| m. north-west of Milo, is an un-
inhabited mass of trachyte, often called Eremomilo or Desert
Melos. Kimolos, or Ar gentler a, less than i m. to the north-east,
was famous in antiquity for its figs and fuller's earth (Kt^uXia
7?)), and contained a considerable city, the remains of which
cover the cliff of St Andrews. Polinos, Polybos or Polivo (anc.
Polyaegos) lies rather more than a mile south-east of Kimolos.
It was the subject of dispute between the Melians and Kimolians.
It has long been almost uninhabited.
See Leycester, " The Volcanic Group of Milo, Anti-Milo, &c.,"
in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1852) ; Tournefort, Voyage; Leake, Northern
Greece, iii. ; Prokesch von Osten, Denkwiirdigkeiten, &c. ; Bursian,
Geog. von Griechenland, ii. ; Journ. Hell. Stud, xvi., xvii., xviii. ;
Excavations at Phylakopi; Inscr. graec. xii. iii. 197 sqq.; on coins
found in 1909, see Jameson in Rev. Num. 1909, 188 sqq. (E. GR.)
MELOZZO DA FORLl (c. 1438-1494), Italian painter, the first
who practised foreshortening with much success, was born at
Forli about 1438; he came, it is supposed, of a wealthy family
named Ambrosi. In all probability, Melozzo studied painting
under Piero de' Franceschi, of Borgo St Sepolcro; he seems also
to have been well acquainted with Giovanni Santi, the father of
IOO
MELROSE
Raphael. It has been said that he became a journeyman and
colour-grinder to some of the best masters, in order to prosecute
his studies; this lacks confirmation. Only three works are
extant which can safely be assigned to Melozzo: those in the
Louvre, the National Gallery, London, and the Barberini Palace,
Rome, are disputable, (i) He painted in 1472 the vault of the
chief chapel in the church of the Apostoli in Rome, his subject
being the " Ascension of Christ " ; the figure of Christ is so boldly
and effectively foreshortened that it seems to " burst through
the vaulting "; this fresco was taken down in 171 1, and the figure
of Christ is now in the Quirinal Palace, not worthy of special
admiration save in its perspective quality; while some of the
other portions, almost Raphaelesque in merit, are in the sacristy
of St Peter's. (2) Between 1475 and 1480 he executed a fresco,
now transferred to canvas, and placed in the Vatican picture-
gallery, representing the appointment of Platina by Pope Sixtus
IV. as librarian of the restored Vatican library. (3) In the
Collegio at Forli is a fresco by Melozzo, termed the " Pestapepe,"
or Pepper-grinder, originally painted as a grocer's sign; it is an
energetic specimen of rather coarse realism, now much damaged.
Melozzo also painted the cupola of the Capuchin church at Forli,
destroyed in 1651; and it has been said that he executed at
Urbino some of the portraits of great men (Plato, Dante, Sixtus
IV., &c.) which are now divided between the Barberini Palace
and the Campana collection in Paris; this, however, is doubtful,
and it is even questionable whether Melozzo was ever at Urbino.
In Rome he was one of the original members of the academy of
St Luke, founded by Sixtus IV. He returned to Forli, probably
towards 1480, and died in November 1494. He contributed
sensibly to the progress of pictorial art; and, without being re-
markable as a colourist, gave well graded lights, with general
care and finish, and fine dignified figures. His works bear a
certain resemblance to those of his contemporary Mantegna.
Marco Palmezzano was his pupil; and the signature " Marcus de
Melotius " on some of Palmezzano's works, along withj the general
affinity of style, has led to their being ascribed to Melozzo, who
has hence been incorrectly called " Marco Melozzo."
MELROSE, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
about 7 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 8519; (1900), 12,962, of
whom 2924 were foreign-born and 130 were negroes; (1916 cen-
sus) 15,715. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad,
and by inter-urban electric railways. The city covers 4-8 sq. m.
of broken, hilly country, in which is a part of the state park of
Middlesex Fells; it includes the villages of Melrose, Melrose High-
lands, Wyoming and Fells. In 1905 the total factory product
was valued at $9,450,929 (an increase of 176-6% over the value
of the factory product in 1900). The principal products are
rubber shoes (at the village of Fells), skirts (at the village of
Wyoming), and leather and silverware (at Melrose Highlands).
The water supply of Melrose, like that of Stoneham and of Med-
ford, is derived from the metropolitan reservoir called Spot Pond
in Stoneham, immediately west of Melrose. The city was the
home of Samuel Adams Drake (1833-1905), American historian,
whose History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880; vol. 2, " Mel-
rose," by E. H. Goss) should be consulted; and of William
Frederick Poole (1821-1894), the librarian and the originator of
indexes of periodical literature. Melrose was settled about 1633,
and was a part of Charlestown until 1649, and of Maiden until
1850. The eastern part of Stoneham was annexed to it in 1853.
In 1899 it was chartered as a city; the charter came into effect in
1900. The name is said to be due to a resemblance of the scenery
to that of Melrose, Scotland.
MELROSE, a police burgh of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901), 2195. It lies on the right bank of the Tweed, 37^ m.
S.E. of Edinburgh, and 19 m. N.W. of Jedburgh, via St
Boswells and Roxburgh, by the North British railway. The
name which Bede (730) wrote Mailros and Simeon of Durham
(i 130) Melros is derived from the Celtic maol ros, " bare moor,"
and the town figures in Sir Walter Scott's Abbot and Monastery
as " Kennaquhair." In consequence of the beauty of its situa-
tion between the Eildons and the Tweed, the literary and
historical associations of the district, and the famous ruin of
Melrose Abbey, the town has become residential and a holiday
resort. There is a hydropathic establishment on Skirmish Hill,
the name commemorating the faction fight on the 25th of July
1526, in which the Scotts defeated the Douglases and Kers.
Trade is almost wholly agricultural. The main streets run from
the angles of the triangular market-place, in which stands the
market cross, dated 1642, but probably much older. Across
the river are Gattonside, with numerous orchards, and Allerly,
the home of Sir David Brewster from 1827 till his death in
1868.
The original Columban monastery was founded in the 7th
century at Old Melrose, about i.\ m. to the east, in the loop of a
great bend of the Tweed. It was colonized from Lindisfarne,
Eata, a disciple of Aidan, being the first abbot (651), and Boisil
and Cuthbert being priors here. It was burned by Kenneth
Macalpine in 839 during the wars between Scot and Saxon, and,
though rebuilt, was deserted in the middle of the nth century.
The chapel, dedicated to St Cuthbert, continued for a period to
attract many pilgrims, but this usage gradually declined and the
building was finally destroyed by English invaders. Meanwhile
in 1136 David I. and founded an abbey dedicated to the Virgin,
a little higher up the Tweed, the first Cistercian settlement in
Scotland, with monks from Rievaulx in Yorkshire. Lying in the
direct road from England, the abbey was frequently assaulted and
in 1322 was destroyed by Edward II. Rebuilt, largely by means
of a gift of Robert Bruce, it was nearly burned down in 1385 by
Richard II. Erected once more, it was reduced to ruin by the
earl of Hertford (afterwards the Protector Somerset) in 1545.
Later the Reformers dismantled much of what was left. The
adaptation of part of the nave to the purposes of a parish church
and the use of the building as a quarry did further damage.
The ruins, however, now the property of the duke of Buccleuch,
are carefully preserved. Of the conventual buildings apart
from the church nothing has survived but a fragment of the
cloister with a richly-carved round-headed doorway and some
fine arcading. The abbey, cruciform, is in the Decorated and Per-
pendicular styles, with pronounced French influence, due probably
to the master mason John Morow, or Morreau, who, according
to an inscription on the south transept wall, was born in Paris.
The south front is still beautiful. The west front and a large
portion of the north half of the nave and aisle have perished, but
the remains include the rest of the nave, the two transepts, the
chancel and choir, the two western piers of the tower and the
sculptured roof of the east end. From east to west it measured
258 ft., the nave is 69 ft. wide and the width of the transepts from
north to south is 115! ft. The nave had an aisle on each side,
the north noticeably the narrower, the south furnished with
eight chapels, one in each bay. Both transepts contained an
eastern aisle, and the chancel a square chapel at its west end on
each side. Over the south transept aisle, which was the chapel
of St Bridget, is the clerestory passage, which ran all round the
church. The choir extended westwards for three bays beyond
the tower and terminated in a stone rood-screen. Sir Walter
Scott has immortalized the east window, in The Lay of the Last
Minstrel, but the south window with its flowing tracery is even
finer. In the carving of windows, aisles, cloister, capitals, bosses
and doorheads no design is repeated. The heart of Robert
Bruce was buried at the high altar, and in the chancel are the
tombs of Sir William Douglas, the Knight of Liddesdale (1300-
I 3S3) James 2nd earl of Douglas (1358-1388), the victor of
Otterburn; Alexander II.; and Michael Scot "the Wizard"
(1175-1234) though some authorities say that this is the tomb
of Sir Brian Layton, who fell in the battle of Ancrum Moor ( 1 544).
At the door leading from the north transept to the sacristy is the
grave of Joanna (d. 1 238), queen of Alexander II.
The muniments of the abbacy, preserved in the archives of the
earl of Morton, were edited by Cosmo Innes for the Bannatyne
Club and published in 1837 under the title of Liber sancte
Marie de Melros. Among the documents is one of the earliest
specimens of the Scots dialect. The Chronica de Mailros, preserved
among the Cotton MSS., was printed at Oxford in 1684 by William
Fulman and by the Bannatyne Club in 1835 under the editorship
of John Stevenson.
MELTON MOWBRAY MELVILLE, ANDREW
101
MELTON MOWBRAY, a market town in the Melton parlia-
mentary division of Leicestershire, England, pleasantly situated
in a fertile vale, at the confluence of the Wreake and the Eye.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 7454. It is 105 m. N.N.W. from
London by the Midland railway, and is served by a joint branch
of the London & North Western and Great Northern railways.
The church of St Mary, a fine cruciform structure, Early English
and later, with a lofty and richly ornamented central tower, was
enlarged in the reign of Elizabeth. Melton is the centre of a
celebrated hunting district, in connexion with which there are
large stables in the town. It is known for its pork pies, and has
a trade in Stilton cheese. There are breweries and tanneries and
an important cattle market. There are blast furnaces in the
neighbouring parish of Asfordby for the smelting of the abun-
dant supply of iron ore in the district. During the Civil War
Melton was in February 1644 the scene of a defeat of the parlia-
mentary forces by the royalists. It is the birthplace of John
Henley the orator (1692-1759).
MELUN, a town of northern France, capital of the department
of Seine-et-Marne, situated north of the forest of Fontainebleau,
28 m. S.S.E. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 11,219. The town
is divided into three parts by the Seine. The principal portion
lies on the slope of a hill on the right bank; on the left bank is the
most modern quarter, while the old Roman town occupies an
island in the river. On the island stands the Romanesque
church of Notre-Dame (nth and i2th centuries), formerly part
of a nunnery, the site of which is occupied by a prison. The
other public buildings are on the right bank of the river. Of
these, the most striking is the church of St Aspais, an irregularly
shaped structure of the isth and i6th centuries, on the apse of
which may be seen a modern medalh'on in bronze, the work of
the sculptor H. Chapu, representing Joan of Arc as the liberator
of Melun. The hotel-de-ville ( 1 847) in the construction of which
an old mansion .and turret have been utilized and the tower
of St Bartholomew of the i6th and i8th centuries are also of
interest. In the courtyard of the former there is a monument to
Jacques Amyot, the translator of Plutarch, who was born at
Melun in 1513. Among the rich estates in the neighbourhood
the most remarkable is the magnificent chateau of Vaux-le-
Vicomte, which belonged to Nicholas Fouquet, intendant of
finances under Louis XIV. Melun is a market for grain and farm
produce, and its industries include brewing, tanning, distilling,
sawing and the manufacture of agricultural implements, clogs,
fur garments, lime, cement and plaster.
In Caesar's Gallic wars Melun (Melodunum) was taken by his
lieutenant Labienus, in order to facilitate the attack of Lutetia
by the right bank of the Seine. It was pillaged by the Normans,
and afterwards became the favourite residence of the first kings of
the race of Capet; Robert and Philip I. both died here. In 1359
Melun was given up by Jeanne of Navarre to her brother, Charles
the Bad, but was retaken by the dauphin Charles and Bertrand
Duguesclin. In 1420 it made an heroic defence against Henry V.
of England and his ally the duke of Burgundy. Ten years later
the people of Melun, with the help of Joan of Arc, drove out the
English. It was occupied by the League in 1589, and retaken by
Henry IV. in the following year.
MELUSINE, the tutelary fairy of the house of Lusignan, was
the eldest daughter of the fairy Pressine, to avenge whose wrongs
she shut up her father in a mountain in Northumberland. For
this she was condemned to be metamorphosed every Saturday
into a woman-serpent that is, to be a serpent from the hips
downwards. She might, however, be eventually saved from this
punishment if she could find a husband who would never see
her on a Saturday. Such a husband was found in Raymond,
nephew of the count of Poitiers, who became rich and powerful
through the machinations of his wife. She built the castle of
Lusignan and many other of the family fortresses. When at
length her husband gave way to his curiosity, and saw her taking
the bath of purification on a Saturday she flew from the castle
in the form of a serpent. Thenceforward the death of a member
of the house of Lusignan was heralded by the cries of the fairy
serpent. " Pousser des cris de Melusine " is still a popular
saying.
This history is related at length, with the adventures of
Melusine's numerous progeny, by Jean d'Arras, in his Chronique de
la princesse, written in 1387 at the desire of John, duke of Berry,
for the amusement of the duke and of his sister Marie of France,
duchess of Bar. It is one of the most charming of the old prose
romances in manner and style, and is natural in spite of the free
use of the marvellous. An attempt has been made by Jules
Baudot in Les Princesses Yolande el les dues de .Barx Paris, 1 900) to
make it a roman A de and to identify the personages. Melusine,
Mellusine or Merlusine is, however, simply the spirit of the
fountain of Lusignan, and the local Poitevin myth is attached to
the origin of the noble house. The etymology of the word has
been variously and fancifully given. Some writers have supposed
Merlusine to be a corruption of mere Lucine (mater Lucina), the
deity invoked in child-birth. She has been identified with
Melisende, widow of a king of Jerusalem, and with Mervant, wife
of Geoffroi de Lusignan.
The Melusine of Jean d'Arras was printed by Adam Steinschaber
at Geneva in 1478, and was reprinted many times in the i^th
and l6th centuries. It has been translated into Spanish, English,
German and Flemish. Modern editions are by J. C. Brunei (Paris,
1854), and by E. Lecesne for the Academy of Arras (Arras, 1888).
The English translation was edited from a unique MS. in the
British Museum by A. K. Donald for the E.E.T.S. (1895). The tale
was versified in the I4th century by a poet called Couldrette,
whose poem was published in 1854 by Francisque Michel. See
further J. C. Dunlop, Hist, of Fiction, ii. 491-493 (new ed., 1888);
S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 470 seq.
(new ed., 1881) ; and J. C. Brunei, Manuel du libraire (vol. iii., 1862,
s.v. Jean d'Arras).
MELVILLE, ANDREW (1545-1622), Scottish scholar, theo-
logian and religious reformer, was the youngest son of Richard
Melville (brother to Melville of Dysart), proprietor of Baldovy
near Montrose, at which place Andrew was born on the ist of
August 1545. His father fell at the battle of Pinkie (1547),
fighting in the van of the Scottish army, and, his wife having died
soon after, the orphan was cared for by his eldest brother
Richard (1522-1575). At an early age Melville began to show a
taste for learning, and his brother did everything in his power
to give him the best education. The rudiments of Latin he
obtained at the grammar school of Montrose, after leaving which
he learned Greek for two years under Pierre de Marsilliers, a
Frenchman whom John Erskine of Dun had induced to settle
at Montrose; and such was Melville's proficiency that on going
to the university of St Andrews he excited the astonishment of
the professors by using the Greek text of Aristotle, which no one
else there understood. On completing his course, Melville left
St Andrews with the reputation of " the best poet, philosopher,
and Grecian of any young master in the land." He then, in
1564, being nineteen years of age, set out for France to perfect
his education at the university of Paris. He there applied
himself to Oriental languages, but also attended the last course
of lectures delivered by Turnebus in the Greek chair, as well as
those of Peter Ramus, whose philosophical method and plan of
teaching he afterwards introduced into the universities of Scot'
land. From Paris he proceeded to Poitiers (1566) to study civil
law, and though only twenty-one he was apparently at once made
a regent in the college of St Marceon. After a residence of three
years, however, political troubles compelled him to leave France,
and he went to Geneva, where he was welcomed by Theodore
Beza, at whose instigation he was appointed to the chair of
humanity in the academy of Geneva. In addition to his teaching,
however, he also applied himself to studies in Oriental literature,
and in particular acquired from Cornelius Bertram, one of his
brother professors, a knowledge of Syriac. While he resided at
Geneva the massacre of St Bartholomew in 1572 drove an
immense number of Protestant refugees to that city, including
several of the most distinguished French men of letters of the
time. Among these were several men learned in civil law and
political science, and their society increased Melville's knowledge
of the world and enlarged his ideas of civil and ecclesiastical
liberty. In 1574 Melville returned to Scotland, and almost
immediately received the appointment of principal of Glasgow
University, which had fallen into an almost ruinous state, the
college having been shut and the students dispersed. Melville,
IO2
MELVILLE, ARTHUR MELVILLE, H.
however, set himself to establish a good educational system. He
enlarged the curriculum at the college, and established chairs
in languages, science, philosophy and divinity, which were
confirmed by charter in 1577. "His fame spread through the
kingdom, and students flocked from all parts of Scotland and
even beyond, till the class-rooms could not contain those who
came for admission. He assisted in the reconstruction of
Aberdeen University in 1575, and in order that he might do for
St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed
principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. His duties
there comprehended the teaching, not only of theology, but of
the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac and Rabbinical languages. The
ability of his lectures was universally acknowledged, and he
created a taste for the study of Greek literature. The reforms,
however, which his new modes of teaching involved, and even
some of his new doctrines, such as the non-infallibility of Aristotle,
brought him into collision with other teachers in the university.
He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1582, and took
part in the organization of the Church and the Presbyterian
method. Troubles arose from the attempts of the court to force
a system of Episcopacy upon the Church of Scotland (see SCOT-
LAND, CHURCH OF), and Melville prosecuted one of the " tulchan "
bishops (Robert Montgomery, d. 1609). In consequence of this
he was summoned before the Privy Council in February 1584,
and had to flee into England in order to escape an absurd charge
of treason which threatened imprisonment and not improbably
his life. After an absence of twenty months he returned to
Scotland in November 1585, and in March 1586 resumed his
lectures in St Andrews, where he continued for twenty years;
he became rector of the university in 1590. During the whole
time he protected the liberties of the Scottish Church against
all encroachments of the government. That in the main he and
his coadjutors were fighting for the constitutionally guaranteed
rights of the Church is admitted by all candid inquirers (see in
particular The History of England from 1603 to 1616, by S. R.
Gardiner, vol. i. chap. ix.). The chief charge against Melville
is that his fervour often led him to forget the reverence due to an
" anointed monarch." Of this, however, it is not easy to judge.
Manners at that time were rougher than at present. When the
king acted in an arbitrary and illegal manner he needed the
reminder that though he was king over men he was only " God's
silly vassal." Melville's rudeness (if it is to be called so) was the
outburst of just indignation from a man zealous for the purity
of religion and regardless of consequences to himself. In 1599
he was deprived of the rectorship, but was made dean of the
faculty of theology. The close of Melville's career in Scotland
was at length brought about by James in characteristic fashion.
In 1606 Melville and seven other clergymen of the Church of
Scotland were summoned to London in order " that his majesty
might treat with them of such things as would tend to settle the
peace of the Church." The contention of the whole of these
faithful men was that the only way to accomplish that purpose
was a free Assembly. Melville delivered his opinion to that
effect in two long speeches with his accustomed freedom, and,
having shortly afterwards written a sarcastic Latin epigram on
some of the ritual practised in the chapel of Hampton Court, and
some eavesdropper having conveyed the lines to the king, he
was committed to the tower, and detained there for four years.
On regaining his liberty, and being refused permission to return
to his own country, he was invited to fill a professor's chair in the
university of Sedan, and there he spent the last eleven years of his
life. He died at Sedan in 1622, at the age of seventy-seven.
See McCries, Andrew Melville (ed. 1819); Andrew Lang, History
of Scotland (1902). (D. M N .)
MELVILLE, ARTHUR (1858-1904), British painter, was born
in Scotland, in a village of Haddingtonshire. He took up paint-
ing at an early age, and though he attended a night-school and
studied afterwards in Paris and Grez, he learnt more from
practice and personal observation than from school training.
The remarkable colour-sense which is so notable a feature of his
work, whether in oils or in water-colour, came to him during his
travels in Persia, Egypt and India. Melville, though compara-
tively little known during his lifetime, was one of the most
powerful influences in contemporary art, especially in his broad
decorative treatment with water-colour. Though his vivid
impressions of colour and movement are apparently recorded
with feverish haste, they are the result of careful deliberation
and selection. He was at his best in his water-colours of Eastern
life and colour and his Venetian scenes, but he also painted several
striking portraits in oils and a powerful colossal composition of
" The Return from the Crucifixion " which remained unfinished
at his death in 1904. At the Victoria and Albert Museum is one
of his water-colours, " The Little Bull-Fight Bravo, Toro! " and
another, " An Oriental Goatherd," is in the Weimar Museum.
But the majority of his pictures have been absorbed by private
collectors.
A comprehensive memorial exhibition of Melville's works was
held at the Royal Institute Galleries in London in 1906.
MELVILLE, HENRY DUNDAS, IST VISCOUNT (1742-1811),
British statesman, fourth son of Robert Dundas (1685-1753),
lord president of the Scottish court of session, was born at
Edinburgh in 1742, and was educated at the high school and
university there. Becoming a member of the faculty of advo-
cates in 1763, he soon acquired a leading position at the bar;
and he had the advantage of the success of his half-brother
Robert (1713-1787), who had become lord president of the court
of session in 1760. He became solicitor-general to Scotland in
1766; but after his appointment as lord-advocate in 1775, he
gradually relinquished his legal practice to devote his attention
more exclusively to public business. In 1774 he was returned to
parliament for Midlothian, and joined the party of Lord North;
and notwithstanding his provincial dialect and ungraceful manner,
he soon distinguished himself by his clear and argumentative
speeches. After holding subordinate offices under the marquess
of Lansdowne and Pitt, he entered the cabinet in 1791 as home
secretary. From 1794 to 1801 he was secretary at war under
Pitt, who conceived for him a special friendship. In 1802 he
was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Melville and Baron
Dunira. Under Pitt in 1804 he again entered office as first lord
of the admiralty, when he introduced numerous improvements
in the details of the department. Suspicion had arisen, however,
as to the financial management of the admiralty, of which
Dundas had been treasurer between 1782 and 1800; in 1802 a
commission of inquiry was appointed, which reported in 1805.
The result was the impeachment of Lord Melville in 1806, on
the initiative of Samuel Whitbread, for the misappropriation of
public money; and though it ended in an acquittal, and nothing
more than formal negligence lay against him, he never again held
office. An earldom was offered in 1809 but declined; and he died
on the 28th of May 1811.
His son ROBERT, and Viscount Melville (1771-1851), filled
various political offices and was first lord of the admiralty from
1812 to 1827 and from 1828 to 1830; his name is perpetuated
by that of Melville Sound, because of his interest In Arctic
exploration. His eldest son, HENRY DUNDAS, 3rd Viscount
(1801-1876), a general in the army, played a distinguished part
in the second Sikh War.
See Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army, vol. iv.
(1907).
MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891), American author, was
born in New York City on the ist of August 1819. He shipped
as a cabin-boy at the age of eighteen, thus being enabled to make
his first visit to England, and at twenty-two sailed for a long
whaling cruise in the Pacific. After a year and a half he deserted
his ship at the Marquesas Islands, on account of the cruelty of the
captain; was captured by cannibals on the island of Nukahiva,
and detained, without hardship, four months; was rescued by
the crew of an Australian vessel, which he joined, and two years
later reached New York. Thereafter, with the exception of a
passenger voyage around the world in 1860, Melville remained
in the United States, devoting himself to literature though for a
considerable period (1866-1885) he held a post in the New York
custom-house and being perhaps Hawthorne's most intimate
MELVILLE, JAMES MEMBRANELLE
103
friend among the literary men of America. His writings are
numerous, and of varying merit; his verse, patriotic and other,
is forgotten; and his works of fiction and of travel are of irregular
execution. Nevertheless, few authors have been enabled so
freely to introduce romantic personal experiences into their
books: in his first work, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life, or
Four Months' Residence in a Valley of the Marquesas (1846), he
described his escape from the cannibals; while in Omoo, a Narra-
tive of Adventures in the South Seas (1847), White Jacket, or The
World in a Man-of-War (1850), and especially Moby Dick, or The
Whale (1851), he portrayed seafaring life and character with
vigour and originality, and from a personal knowledge equal to
that of Cooper, Marryat or Clark Russell. But these records of
adventure were followed by other tales so turgid, eccentric,
opinionative, and loosely written as to seem the work of another
author. Melville was the product of a period in American
literature when the fiction written by writers below Irving, Poe
and Hawthorne was measured by humble artistic standards. He
died in New York on the 28th of September 1891.
MELVILLE, JAMES (1556-1614), Scottish reformer, nephew
of Andrew Melville (q.v.), was born on the 26th of July 1556. He
was educated at Montrose and St Leonard's College, St Andrews.
In 1574 he proceeded to the university of Glasgow, of which his
uncle was principal, and within a year became one of the regents.
When his uncle was appointed, in 1580, principal of the New
(later, St Mary's) College, St Andrews, he was transferred to the
chair of Oriental languages there. For three and a half years
he lectured in the university, chiefly on Hebrew, but he had to
flee to Berwick in May 1584 (a few months after his uncle's exile)
to escape the attacks of his ecclesiastical enemy, Bishop Adam-
son. After a short stay there and at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
again at Berwick, he proceeded to London, where he joined some
of the leaders of the Scottish Presbyterian party. The taking
of Stirling Castle in 1585 having changed the political and
ecclesiastical positions in the north, he returned to Scotland
in November of that year, and was restored to his office at St
Andrews. From 1586 to his death he took an active part in
Church controversy. In 1589 he was moderator of the General
Assembly and on several occasions represented his party in
conferences with the court. Despite his antagonism to James's
episcopal schemes, he appears to have won the king's respect.
He answered, with his uncle, a royal summons to London in
1606 for the discussion of Church policy. The uncompromising
attitude of the kinsmen, though it was made the excuse for send-
ing the elder to the Tower, brought no further punishment to
James than easy detention within ten miles of Newcastle-on-
Tyne. During his residence there it was made clear to him by
the king's agents that he would receive high reward if he sup-
ported the royal plans. In 1613 negotiations were begun for his
return to Scotland, but his health was broken, and he died at
Berwick in January 1614.
Melville has left ample materials for the history of his time from
the Presbyterian standpoint, in (a) correspondence with his uncle
Andrew Melville (MS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh),
and (b) a diary (MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh). The
latter is written in a vigorous, fresh style, and is especially direct in
its descriptions of contemporaries. His sketch of John Knox at
St Andrews is one of his best passages.
As a writer of verse he compares unfavourably with his uncle. All
his pieces, with the exception of a " libellus supplex " to King James,
are written in Scots. He translated a portion of the Zodiacus
vitae of Palingenius, and adapted some passages from Scaliger
under the title of Description of the Spainyarts naturall. His
Spiritual Propine of a Pastour to his People (1598), The Black Bastill,
a lamentation for the kirk (1611), Thrie may keip Counsell, give
Twa be away, The Beliefe of the Singing Soul, David's Tragique
Fall, and a number of Sonnets show no originality and indifferent
technical ability.
The Diary was printed by the Bannatyne Club in 1829, and
by the Wodrow Society in 1842. Large portions of it are incorpor-
ated in David Calderwood's (1575-1650) History of the Kirk of
Scotland (first printed in 1678). For the life and times, see Thomas
M'Crie's Life of Andrew Melville.
MELVILLE, SIR JAMES (1535-1617), Scottish diplomatist
and memoir writer, was the third son of Sir John Melville, laird
of Raith in the county of Fife, who was executed for treason in
1548. One of his brothers was Robert, ist Baron Melville of
Monimail (1527-1621). James Melville in 1549 went to
France to become page to Mary Queen of Scots. Serving on the
French side at the battle of St Quentin in 1557 Melville was
wounded and taken prisoner. He subsequently carried out a
number of diplomatic missions for Henry II. of France. On
Mary's return to Scotland in 1561 she gave Melville a pension
and an appointment in her household, and she employed him as
special emissary to reconcile Queen Elizabeth to her marriage
with Darnley. After the murder of Darnley in February 1567,
Melville joined Lord Herries in boldly warning Mary of the danger
and disgrace of her projected marriage with Bothwell, and was
only saved from the latter's vengeance in consequence by the
courageous resolution of the queen. During the troubled times
following Mary's imprisonment and abdication Melville con-
ducted several diplomatic missions of importance, and won the
confidence of James VI. when the king took the government into
his own hands. Having been adopted as his heir by the reformer
Henry Balnaves, he inherited from him, at his death in 1579, the
estate of Halhill in Fife; and he retired thither in 1603, refusing
the request of James to accompany him to London on his acces-
sion to the English throne. At Halhill Melville wrote the
Memoirs of my own Life, a valuable authority for the history of
the period, first published by his grandson, George Scott, in 1683.
Sir James Melville died at Halhill on the i3th of November 1617.
By his wife, Christina Boswell, he had one son and two daughters;
the elder of these, Elizabeth, who married John Colville, de jure
3rd Baron Colville of Culross, has been identified with the
authoress of a poem published in 1603, entitled A ne Godlie
Dreame.
See the Memoirs mentioned above, of which the most modern
edition is that prepared by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club
(Edinburgh, 1827).
MELVILL VAN CARNBEE, PIETER, BARON (1816-1856),
Dutch geographer, was born at the Hague on the 2oth of May
1816. He traced his descent from an old Scottish family,
originally, it is said, of Hungarian extraction. Destined for the
navy, in which his grandfather Pieter Melvill van Carnbee
(1743-1810) had been admiral, he imbibed a taste for hydro-
graphy and cartography as a student in the college of Medemblik,
and he showed his capacity as a surveyor on his first voyage to
the Dutch Indies (1835). In 1839 he was again in the East,
and was attached to the hydrographical bureau at Batavia.
With the assistance of documents collected by the old East
India Company, he completed a map of Java in five sheets,
accompanied by sailing directions (Amsterdam, 1842). He
remained in the East till 1845 collecting materials for a chart of
the waters between Sumatra and Borneo (two sheets, 1845 and
1846). On his return to Holland he was attached to the naval
department with the charge of studying the history of the
hydrography of the Dutch East Indies. He also undertook,
in connexion with P. F. von Siebold, the publication of the
Moniteur des Indes, a valuable series of scientific papers, mainly
from his own pen, on the foreign possessions of Holland, which
was continued for three years. In 1850 Melvill returned to
India as lieutenant of the first class and adjutant to Vice-Admiral
van den Bosch; and after the premature death of this commander
he was again appointed keeper of the charts at Batavia. In
1853 he obtained exemption from active naval service that he
might devote himself to a general atlas of the Dutch Indies. But
in 1856 he fell a victim to climate, dying at Batavia on the 24th
of October. In spite of delays in engraving, twenty-five sheets
of the atlas were already finished, but it was not till 1862 that
the whole plan, embracing sixty sheets, was completed by
Lieut.-Colonel W. F. Versteeg. In 1843 Melvill received the
decoration of the Netherlands Lion, in 1849 that of the Legion
of Honour.
MEMBRANELLE, an organ in Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.), a flat-
tened assemblage of adherent cilia, like the plates of Ctenophora
(q.v.): such are arranged in a series in the adoral wreath of the
Heterothrichaceae Oligotrichaceae and Hypotrichaceae and
constitute the posterior girdle of Peritricha.
IO4
MEMEL MEMLINC
MEMEL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, the
most northerly town of the German empire, 91 m. by rail N.E.
of Konigsberg, at the mouth of the Dange, and on the bank of a
sound, called the Memeler Tief, which connects the Kurische
Haff with the Baltic. Pop. (1905), 20,687. On the side next the
sea the town is defended by a citadel and other fortifications,
and the entrance to the harbour is protected by a lighthouse.
Memel has been largely rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1854.
It possesses iron-foundries, shipbuilding yards, breweries,
distilleries, and manufactories of chemicals, soap and amber
wares. By far the most important interest of the town, however,
is its transit trade in timber and the grain and other agri-
cultural products of Lithuania, and also herrings and other
kinds of fish. The timber is brought by river from the forests of
Russia, and is prepared for export in numerous saw-mills. The
annual value of timber exported is above 1,000,000. A Prussian
national memorial was unveiled here in the presence of the
emperor William II. in September 1907.
Memel was founded in 1252 by Poppo von Osterna, grand master
of the Teutonic order, and was at first called New Dortmund and
afterwards Memelburg. It soon acquired a considerable trade, and
joined the Hanseatic League. During the I3th, I4th and isth
centuries it was repeatedly burned by its hostile neighbours, the
Lithuanians and Poles, and in the 1 7th century it remained for
some time in the possession of Sweden. In 1757, and again in 1813,
it was occupied by Russian troops. After the battle of Jena, King
Frederick William III. retired to Memel; and here, in 1807, a treaty
was concluded between England and Prussia. The poet Simon
Dach was a native of Memel.
See J. Sembritzki, Geschichte der koniglich preussischen See- und
Handelsstadt Memel (Memel, 1900); and Memel in 19 Jahrhundert
(Memel, 1902).
MEMEL, or NIEMEN, a river of Russia and Prussia, rising in
the middle of the Russian government of Minsk at an altitude of
580 ft. and flowing generally west as far as Grodno. Thence it
runs north to Kovno, separating Poland from Russia, and at
Kovno it turns west again, still dividing Poland from Russia,
until it enters the Prussian province of East Prussia, through
which it flows west and north-west past Tilsit for a distance of
70 m. and finally enters the Kurisches Haff by several arms.
Of these, those principally used for navigation are the Russ, and
its chief branch the Atmat. The Russ is connected with the
outlet of the Kurisches Haff at Memel by a canal, while another
canal links the Gilge arm southward with the Pregel. Consider-
able quantities of timber are floated down the Memel, and large
amounts of corn shipped down it and its navigable tributary
the Viliya. The lowlands of Tilsit are protected against inun-
dation by dikes. Total length of the river, 490 m. ; area of its
basin, 34,950 sq. m. It is navigable for large vessels as far as
Grodno.
See H. Keller, Memel, Pregel und Weichselstrom (2 vols., Berlin,
1900) ; and Schickert, Wasserwege und Deichwesen in der Memel-
niederung (Konigsberg, 1901).
MEMLINC, HANS (c. 1430-1494), Flemish painter, whose art
gave lustre to Bruges in the period of its political and commercial
decline. Though much has been written respecting the rise and
fall of the school which made this city famous, it remains a moot
question whether that school ever truly existed. Like Rome or
Naples, Bruges absorbed the talents which were formed and
developed in humbler centres. Jan Van Eyck first gained repute
at Ghent and the Hague before he acquired a domicile elsewhere,
and Memlinc, we have reason to think, was a skilled artist
before he settled at Bruges. The annals of the city are silent
as to the birth and education of a painter whose name was in-
accurately spelt by different authors, and whose identity was lost
under the various appellations of Hans and Hausse, or Hemling,
Memling, and Memlinc. But W. H. J. Weale mentions a con-
temporary document discovered in 1889, according to which
Memlinc " drew his origin from the ecclesiastical principality of
Mayence," and died at Bruges on the nth of August 1494. He
probably served his apprenticeship at Mayence or Cologne, and
later worked under Rogier van der Weyden. He did not come
to Bruges until about 1467, and certainly not as a wounded
fugitive from the field of Nancy. The story is fiction, as is also
the report that he was sheltered and cured by the Hospitallers
at Bruges, and, to show his gratitude, refused payment for a
picture he had painted. Memlinc did indeed paint for the
Hospitallers, but he painted not one but many pictures, and he
did so in 1479 and 1480, being probably known to his patrons of
St John by many masterpieces even before the battle of Nancy.
Memlinc is only connected with military operations in a
mediate and distant sense. His name appears on a list of sub-
scribers to the loan which was raised by Maximilian of Austria to
push hostilities against France in the year 1480. In 1477, when
he is falsely said to have fallen, and when Charles the Bold was
killed, he was under contract to furnish an altarpiece for the gild-
chapel of the booksellers of Bruges; and this altarpiece, now
preserved, under the name of the " Seven Griefs of Mary," in the
gallery of Turin, is one of the fine creations of his riper age, and
not inferior in any way to those of 1479 in the hospital of St John,
which for their part are hardly less interesting as illustrative of
the master's power than the " Last Judgment " in the cathedral
of Danzig. Critical opinion has been unanimous in assigning
the altarpiece of Danzig to Memlinc; and by this it affirms that
Memlinc was a resident and a skilled artist at Bruges in 1473; for
there is no doubt that the " Last Judgment " was painted and
sold to a merchant at Bruges, who shipped it there on board of a
vessel bound to the Mediterranean, which was captured by a
Danzig privateer in that very year. But, in order that Memlinc's
repute should be so fair as to make his pictures purchasable, as
this had been, by an agent of the Medici at Bruges, it is incum-
bent on us to acknowledge that he had furnished sufficient proofs
before that time of the skill which excited the wonder of such
highly cultivated patrons.
It is characteristic that the oldest allusions to pictures con-
nected with Memlinc's name are those which point to relations
with the Burgundian court. The inventories of Margaret of
Austria, drawn up in 1524, allude to a triptych of the " God of
Pity " by Rogier van der Weyden, of which the wings containing
angels were by " Master Hans." But this entry is less impor-
tant as affording testimony in favour of the preservation of
Memlinc's work than as showing his connexion with an older
Flemish craftsman. For ages Rogier van der Weyden was ac-
knowledged as an artist of the school of Bruges, until records of
undisputed authenticity demonstrated that he was bred at Tour-
nai and settled at Brussels. Nothing seems more natural than the
conjunction of his name with that of Memlinc as the author of an
altarpiece, since, though Memlinc's youth remains obscure, it is
clear from the style of his manhood that he was taught in the
painting-room of Van der Weyden. Nor is it beyond the limits
of probability that it was Van der Weyden who received com-
missions at a distance from Brussels, and first took his pupil to
Bruges, where he afterwards dwelt. The clearest evidence of
the connexion of the two masters is that afforded by pictures,
particularly an altarpiece, which has alternately been assigned
to each of them, and which may possibly be due to their
joint labours. In this altarpiece, which is a triptych ordered
for a patron of the house of Sforza, we find the style of Van der
Weyden in the central panel of the Crucifixion, and that of
Memlinc in the episodes on the wings. Yet the whole piece
was assigned to the former in the Zambeccari collection at
Bologna, whilst it was attributed to the latter at the Middleton
sale in London in 1872. At first, we may think, a closer re-
semblance might be traced between the two artists than that
disclosed in later works of Memlinc, but the delicate organization
of the younger painter, perhaps also a milder appreciation of
the duties of a Christian artist, may have led Memlinc to realise
a sweet and perfect ideal, without losing, on that account, the
feeling of his master. He certainly exchanged the asceticism
of Van der Weyden for a sentiment of less energetic con-
centration. He softened his teacher's asperities and bitter
hardness of expression.
In the oldest form in which Memlinc's style is displayed, or rather
in that example which represents the Baptist in the gallery of
Munich, we are supposed to contemplate an effort of the year 1470.
The finish of this piece is scarcely surpassed, though the subject
is more important, by that of the " Last Judgment " of Danzig
MEMMINGEN MEMNON
105
But the latter is more interesting than the former, because it tells
how Memlinc, long after Rogier's death and his own settlement
at Bruges, preserved the traditions of sacred art which had been
applied in the first part of the century by Rogier van der Weyden to
the " Last Judgment " of Beaune. All that Memlinc did was to
purge his master's manner of excessive stringency, and add to his
other qualities a velvet softness of pigment, a delicate transparence
of colours, and yielding grace of slender forms. That such a beautiful
work as the " Last Judgment " of Danzig should have been bought
for the Italian market is not surprising when we recollect that
picture-fanciers in that country were familiar with the beauties of
Memlinc's compositions, as shown in the preference given to them
by such purchasers as Cardinal Grimari and Cardinal Bembo at
Venice, and the heads of the house of Medici at Florence. But
Memlinc's reputation was not confined to Italy or Flanders. The
" Madonna and Saints " which passed out of the Duchatel collection
into the gallery of the Louvre, the " Virgin and Child " painted
for Sir John Donne and now at Chatsworth, and other noble speci-
mens in English and Continental private houses, show that his work
was as widely known and appreciated as it could be in the state
of civilization of the 1 6th century. It was perhaps not their sole
attraction that they gave the most tender and delicate possible
impersonations of the " Mother of Christ " that could suit the taste
of that age in any European country. But the portraits of the
donors, with which they were mostly combined, were more charac-
teristic, and probably more remarkable as likenesses, than any
that Memlinc s contemporaries could produce. Nor is it unreason-
able to think that his success as a portrait painter, which is manifested
in isolated busts as well as in altarpieces, was of a kind to react with
effect on the Venetian school, which undoubtedly was affected by
the partiality of Antonello da Messina for trans- Alpine types studied
in Flanders in Memlinc's time. The portraits of Sir John Donne
and his wife and children in the Chatsworth altarpiece are not less
remarkable as models of drawing and finish than as refined pre-
sentations of persons of distinction; nor is any difference in this
respect to be found in the splendid groups of father, mother, and
children which fill the noble altarpiece of the Louvre. As single
portraits, the busts of Burgomaster Moreel and his wife in the
museum of Brussels, and their daughter the " Sibyl Zambetha "
(according to the added description) in the hospital at Bruges, are
the finest and most interesting of specimens. The " Seven Griefs
of Mary " in the gallery of Turin, to which we may add the " Seven
Joys of Mary " in the Pinakothek of Munich, are illustrations of
the habit which clung to the art of Flanders of representing a cycle
of subjects on the different planes of a single picture, where a wide
expanse of ground is covered with incidents from the Passion in
the form common to the action of sacred plays.
The masterpiece of Memlinc's later years, a shrine containing
relics of St Ursula in the museum of the hospital of Bruges, is fairly
supposed to have been ordered and finished in 14.80. The delicacy
of finish in its miniature figures, the variety of its landscapes and
costume, the marvellous patience with which its details are given,
are all matters of enjoyment to the spectator. There is later
work of the master in the " St Christopher and Saints " of 1484 in
the academy, or the Newenhoven " Madonna " in the hospital of
Bruges, or a large " Crucifixion," with scenes from the Passion,
of 1491 in the cathedral of Liibeck. But as we near the close of
Memlinc's career we observe that his practice has become larger
than he can compass alone ; and, as usual in such cases, the labour
of disciples is substituted for his own. The registers of the painters'
corporation at Bruges give the names of two apprentices who served
their time with Memlinc and paid dues on admission to the gild in
1480 and 1486. These subordinates remained obscure.
The trustees of his will appeared before the court of wards at
Bruges on the loth of December 1495, and we gather from records
of that date and place that Memlinc left behind several children
and a considerable property.
AUTHORITIES. A. Michiels, Memlinc: sa vie et ses ouwages (Ver-
viers, 1881) ; T. Gaedertz, Hans Memling und dessen Altar schrein im
Dom zu Liibeck (Leipzig, 1883) ; Jules du Jardin, L'lLcole de Bruges.
Hans Memling, son temps, sa vie et son ceuvre (Antwerp, 1897) ; Ludwig
Kammerer, Memling (Leipzig, 1899) ; W. H. J. Weale, Hans Memlinc
(London, 1901), Hans Memlinc: Biography (Bruges, 1901).
(J.A. C.;P.G. K.)
MEMMINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Ach, a tributary of the Iller, 35 m. S.W. of Augsburg on
the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905), 11,618. It is partly surrounded
with walls, and has some interesting old gates and houses. It
contains the fine Gothic church of St Martin, which contains 67
beautifully carved choir-stalls, and a town hall dating from about
1580. Its industrial products are yarn, calico, woollen goods,
thread. A considerable trade is carried on in hops, which are
extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and in cattle, wool,
leather and grain.
Memmingen, first mentioned in a docutnent of 1010, belonged
originally to the Guelf family, and later to the Hohenstaufens. In
1286 it became a free city of the empire, a position which it main-
tained down to 1802, when it was allotted to Bavaria. In 1331 it
was a member of the league of Swabian towns; in 1530 it was one
of the four towns which presented the Confessio Tetrapolitana to
the emperor Ferdinand I. ; and a few years later it joined the league
of Schmalkalden. During the Thirty Years' War it was alternately
occupied by the Swedes and the Imperialists. In May 1800 the
French gained a victory over the Austrians near Memmingen.
See Dobel, Memmingen im Reformationszeitaller (Augsburg,
1877-1878), and Clauss, Memmingen Chronik, 1826-1892 (Memmin-
gen, 1894).
MEMMIUS, GAIUS (incorrectly called Gemellus, " The Twin "),
Roman orator and poet, tribune of the people (66 B.C.), friend
of Lucretius and Catullus. At first a strong supporter of Pompey ,
he quarrelled with him, and went over to Caesar, whom he had
previously attacked. In 54, as candidate for the consulship,
he lost Caesar's support by revealing a scandalous transaction
in which he and his fellow candidate had been implicated (Cic.
Ad Alt. iv. 15-18). Being subsequently condemned for illegal
practices at the election, he withdrew to Athens, and afterwards
to Mytilene. He died about the year 49. He is remembered
chiefly because it was to him that Lucretius addressed the De
rerum nalura, perhaps with the idea of making him a convert to
the doctrines of Epicurus. It appears from Cicero (Ad Fam.
xiii. i) that he possessed an estate on which were the ruins of
Epicurus' house, and that he had determined to build on the site
a house for himself. According to Ovid (Trist. ii. 433) he was
the author of erotic poems. He possessed considerable oratorical
abilities, but his contempt for Latin letters and preference
for Greek models impaired his efficiency as an advocate (Cic.
Brut. 70).
Another GAIUS MEMMIUS, tribune in in B.C., attacked the
aristocrats on a charge of corrupt relations with Jugurtha. Memmius
subsequently stood for the consulship in 99, but was slain in a riot
stirred up by his rival the praetor Glaucia. Sallust describes him
as an orator, but Cicero (De oratore, ii. 59, 70) had a poor opinion
of him.
MEMNON, in Greek mythology, son of Tithonus and Eos
(Dawn), king of the Aethiopians. Although mentioned in
Hesiod and the Odyssey, he is rather a post-Homeric hero.
After the death of Hector he went to assist his uncle Priairi
against the Greeks. He performed prodigies of valour, but was
slain by Achilles, after he had himself killed Antilochus, the son
of Nestor and the friend of AchiUes. His mother, Eos, removed
his body from the field of battle, and it was said that Zeus,
moved by her tears, bestowed immortality upon him. Accord-
ing to another account, Memnon was engaged in single combat
with Ajax Telamonius, when Achilles slew him before his
warriors had time to come to his aid (Dictys Cretensis iv. 6;
Quintus Smyrnaeus ii. ; Pindar, Pythia, vi. 31). His mother
wept for him every morning, and the early dew-drops were said
to be her tears. His companions were changed into birds,
called Memnonides, which came every year to fight and lament
over his grave, which was variously located (Ovid, Metam. xiii.
576-622; Pausanias x. 31). The story of Memnon was the
subject of the lost Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus; the chief
source from which our knowledge of him is derived is the second
book of the Posthomerica of Quintus Smyrnaeus (itself probably
an adaptation of the works of Arctinus and Lesches), where his
exploits and death are described at length. As an Aethiopian,
Memnon was described as black, but was noted for his beauty.
The fight between Achilles and Memnon was often represented
by Greek artists, as on the chest of Cypselus, and more than one
Greek play was written bearing his name as a title. In later
times the tendency was to regard Memnon as a real historical
figure. He was said to have built the royal citadel of Susa,
called after him the Memnonion, and to have been sent by
Teutamus, king of Assyria, to the assistance of his vassal Priam
(Diod. Sic. ii. 22). In Egypt, the name of Memnon was con-
nected with the colossal statues of Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.
near Thebes, two of which still remain. The more northerly
of these was partly destroyed by an earthquake (27 B.C.) and
the upper part thrown down. A curious phenomenon then
occurred. Every morning, when the rays of the rising sun
touched the statue, it gave forth musical sounds, like the
io6
MEMNON OF RHODES MEMPHIS
moaning noise or the sharp twang of a harp-string. This was
supposed to be the voice of Memnon responding to the greeting
of his mother Eos. ' After the restoration of the statue by Sep-
timius Severus (A.D. 170) the sounds ceased. The sound, which
has been heard by modern travellers, is generally attributed to
the passage of the air through the pores of the stone, chiefly due
to the change of temperature at sunrise. Others have held that
it was a device of the priests. Strabo (xvii. 816), the first to
mention the sound, declares that he himself heard it, and Pau-
sanias (i. 42, 3) says " one would compare the sound most nearly
to the broken chord of a harp or a lute " (Juvenal xv. 5,
with Mayor's note; Tacitus, Annals, ii. 61).
The supporters of the solar theory look upon Memnon as the son
of the dawn, who, though he might vanish from sight for a time,
could not be destroyed; hence the immortality bestowed upon him
by Zeus. He comes from the east, that is, the land of the rising sun.
On early Greek vases he is represented as borne through the air;
this is the sun making his way to his place of departure in the west.
Both Susa and Egyptian Thebes, where there was a Memnonion
or temple in honour of the hero, were centres of sun-worship.
" Eos, the mother of Memnon, is so transparently the morning,
that her child must rise again as surely as the sun reappears to run
his daily course across the heavens (G. W. Cox, Mythology and
Folklore, p. 267).
See J. A. Letronne, La Statue vacate de Memnon (1833); C. R.
Lepsius, Briefe aus Agypten (1852) ; " The Voice of Memnon " in
Edinburgh Review (July 1886); article by R. Holland in Roscher's
Lexikon der mythologie.
MEMNON OF RHODES, brother of Mentor (?..), with whom
he entered the services of the rebellious satrap Artabazus of
Phrygia, who married his sister. Mentor after the conquest of
Egypt rose high in the favour of the king, and Memnon, who
had taken refuge with Artabazus at the Macedonian court,
became a zealous adherent of the Persian king; he assisted
Mentor in subduing the rebellious satraps and dynasts in Asia
Minor, and succeeded him as general of the Persian troops. In
the pseudo-Aristotelian Oeconomica, ii. 28, stories are told of his
methods of obtaining money and evading his obligations; thus
he extorted a large sum of money from the conquered inhabitants
of Lampsacus and cheated his soldiers out of a part of their pay.
He owned a large territory in eastern Troas (Arrian i. 17, 8;
Strabo xiii. 587). He gained some successes against Philip II.
of Macedon in 336 (Diod. xvii. 6; Polyaen. v. 44, 4, 5) and
commanded the Persian army against Alexander's invasion.
Convinced that it was impossible to meet Alexander in a pitched
battle, his plan was to lay waste the country and retire into the
interior, meanwhile organizing resistance on sea (where the
Persians were far superior to the Macedonians) and carrying
the war into Greece. But his advice was overridden by the
Persian satraps, who forced him to fight at the Granicus. After
his defeat he tried to organize the maritime war and occupied
the Greek islands, but in the beginning of 333 he fell ill and died
(Arrian ii. r, i). (Eo. M.)
MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION, in English company law,
a document subscribed to by seven or more persons associated
for any lawful purpose, by subscribing to which, and otherwise
complying with the requisitions of the Companies Acts in respect
of registration, they may form themselves into an incorporated
company, with or without limited liability (see COMPANY).
MEMORIAL DAY (or DECORATION DAY), a holiday observed
in the northern states of the United States on the 3Oth of May, in
honour of soldiers killed in the American Civil War, and espe-
cially for the decoration of their graves with flags and flowers.
Before the close of the Civil War the 3Oth of May was thus
celebrated in several of the southern states; in the North there
was no fixed day commonly celebrated until 1868, when (on
the sth of May) Commander-in-Chief John A. Logan, of the
Grand Army of the Republic, issued a general order designating
the 3oth of May 1868 " for the purpose of strewing with flowers
or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in
defense of their country during the late rebellion "; Logan did
this " with the hope that it will be kept up from year to year."
In 1882 the Grand Army urged that the " proper designation of
May 30 is Memorial Day " not Decoration Day. Rhode Island
made it a legal holiday in 1874, Vermont in 1876, and New Hamp.
shire in 1877; and by 1910 it was a legal holiday in all the states
and territories save Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Florida,
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina
and Texas. In Virginia the 3oth of May is observed as a
Confederate Memorial Day. The 3rd of June (the birthday of
Jefferson Davis) is observed as Confederate Memorial Day in
Louisiana and Tennessee; the 26th of April in Alabama, Florida,
Georgia and Mississippi; and the loth of May in North Carolina
and South Carolina.
MEMPHIS, the capital of Egypt through most of its early
history, now represented by the rubbish mounds at Bedreshen
on the W. bank of the Nile 14 m. S. of Cairo. As the chief seat
of the worship of Ptah, the artisan god (Hephaestus), Memphis
must have existed from a very remote time. But its greatness
probably began with Menes (?..), who united the kingdoms of
Upper and Lower Egypt, and is said to have secured the site for
his capital near the border of the two lands by diverting the
course of the river eastward. Memphis was the chief city of
the ist nome of Lower Egypt; in its early days it was known
as " the white walls " or the " white wall," a name which clung
to its citadel down to Herodotus's day. The residence here of
Pepi I. of the Vlth Dynasty, as well as his pyramid in the
necropolis, was named Mn-nfr, and this gradually became the
usual designation of the whole city, becoming Menfi, Membi in
late Egyptian, i.e. Memphis. It was also called Hakeptah,
" Residence of the ka of Ptah," and this name furnishes a possible
origin for that of Egypt (Ai-ywrros). Various dynasties had their
ancestral seats elsewhere and individual kings built their palaces
and pyramids at some distance up or down the valley, but Mem-
phis must have been generally the centre of the government
and the largest city in Egypt until the New Empire (Dyns.
XVIII.-XX.), when Thebes took the lead. In the succeeding
period it regained its ancient position. The government of the
Persian satrap was seated in Memphis. After the conquest of
Alexander the city quickly lost its supremacy to his new founda-
tion, and although it remained the greatest native centre, its
population was less than that of Alexandria. In the time of
Strabo (xvii. 807) it was the second city of Egypt, inferior
only to Alexandria, and with a mixed population like the latter.
Memphis was still important though declining at the time of
the Moslem conquest. Its final fall was due to the rise of the
Arabic city of Fostat on the right bank of the Nile almost oppo-
site the northern end of the old capital; and its ruins, so far as
they still lay above ground, gradually disappeared, being used
as a quarry for the new city, and afterwards for Cairo. The
remains of " Menf " were still imposing late in the izth century,
when they were described by "Abdallatif. Now the ruins of
the city, the great temple of Ptah, the dwelling of Apis, and the
palaces of the kings, are traceable only by a few stones among
the palm trees and fields and heaps of rubbish. But the necro-
polis has been to a great extent protected by the accumulations
of blown sand. Pyramids of the Old and Middle kingdoms
form a chain 20 m. long upon the edge of the valley from Giza
to Dahshur. At Saqqara, opposite Memphis itself, the step-
pyramid of Zoser of the Illrd Dynasty, several pyramids of
the Vth and Vlth Dynasties, and innumerable mastaba-tombs
of the Old Kingdom, are crowded together in the cemetery.
Later tombs are piled upon and cut through the old ones. One
of the chief monuments is the Serapeum or sepulchre of the Apis
bulls, discovered by Mariette in 1851. From 1905 J. E. Quibell
was charged by the Service des Antiquites solely with the
excavations in this vast necropolis. His principal discovery
has been the extensive remains of the Coptic monastery of
St Jeremias, with remarkable sculptures and frescoes. Flinders
Petrie began the systematic exploration of the ruins of Bed-
reshen, and in three seasons cleared up much of the topography
of the ancient city, identifying the mound of the citadel and
palace, a foreign quarter, &c. Among his finds not the least
interesting is a large, series of terra-cotta heads representing
the characteristic features of the foreigners who thronged the
bazaars of Memphis. They date from the Persian rule down to
MEMPHIS MENA, JUAN DE
the Ptolemaic period and are evidently modelled by Greek
workmen. In the Old Testament Memphis is mentioned under
the names of Moph (Hos. ix. 6) and Noph (Isa. xix. 13; Jer. ii.
16; Ezek. xxx. 13, 16).
See J. de Morgan, Carte de la necropole memphite (Cairo, 1897) ;
Baedeker's Egypt; J. E. Quibell, Excavations at Saqqara (2 vols.,
Cairo, 1908-1909); W. M. Flinders Petrie, Memphis I. and The
Palace of A pries (Memphis II.) (London, 1909). (F. LL. G.)
MEMPHIS, a port of entry and the largest city of Tennessee,
U.S.A., and the county-seat of Shelby county, on the Mississippi
river, in the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1860), 22,623;
(1870), 40,226; (1880), 33,592; (1890), 64,495; (1900), 102,320,
of whom 5110 were foreign-born and 49,910 were negroes;
(1910 census) 131,105. It is served by the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois
Central, the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville, the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis, the St Louis South-Western, the St
Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi
Valley railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi. The
river is spanned here by a cantilever railway bridge 1895 ft. long,
completed in 1892. The city is finely situated on the fourth
Chickasaw Bluffs, more than 40 ft. above high water; the streets
are broad, well paved and pleasantly shaded; and a broad levee
overlooks the river. In Court Square, in the heart of the city,
are many fine old trees and a bust of President Andrew Jackson.
In 1909 the city had about 1000 acres of parks and nj m. of
parkways, besides two race-courses. Overton Park has beautiful
playgrounds and a good zoological collection. Five miles from
Memphis is a National Cemetery. Among the prominent build-
ings are the United States Government building, the county
Court house, Cotton Exchange, Business Men's Club, Goodwyn
Institute, containing an auditorium and the public library, the
Cossett Free Library, Grand Opera House, Lyceum Theatre,
Auditorium, Gayoso Hotel, Memphis Evening Scimitar building,
the Union and Planters' Bank and Trust Company building,
Equitable building, Memphis Trust building, Tennessee Trust
building, the Bank of Commerce, Woman's building (containing
offices for business women), Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows'
building and the Commercial Appeal building. Among educa-
tional institutions are the College of Christian Brothers (Roman
Catholic, opened in 1871), Memphis Hospital Medical College,
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Hannibal Medical College
for negroes and Le Moyne Normal Institute, also for negroes.
Memphis is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. The
city is supplied with water from more than eighty artesian wells,
having an average depth of about 400 ft.
Owing to its situation at the head of deep water navigation
on the Mississippi, Memphis has become a leading commercial
city of the southern states; its trade in cotton, lumber, groceries,
mules and horses is especially large. The city also manufactures
large quantities of cotton-seed oil and cake, lumber, flpur and
grist-mill products, foundry and machine-shop products, confec-
tionery, carriages and wagons, paints, furniture, bricks, cigars,
&c. The Illinois Central and the St Louis & San Francisco
railways have workshops here. The total value of the city's
manufactures increased from $13,244,538 in 1890 to $17,923,059
($14,233,483 being factory product) in 1900, and to $21,346,817
(factory product) in 1905, an increase of 50% over the value of
the factory product in 1900.
Chickasaw Bluffs were named from the Chickasaw Indians,
who were in possession when white men first came to the vicinity.
Late in the i7th century the French built a fort on the site of
Memphis, and during most of the i8th century this site was held
either by the French or the Spanish. In 1797 it passed into the
possession of the United States. By a treaty of the igth of
October 1818, negotiated by General Andrew Jackson and
General Isaac Shelby, the Chickasaws ceded all their claims
east of the Mississippi, and early in 1819 Memphis was laid out
in accordance with an agreement entered into by John Overton
(1766-1833), Andrew Jackson and James Winchester (1752-
1826), the proprietors of the land. Its name was suggested
from the similarity of its situation on the Mississippi to that of
IO7
the Egyptian city on the Nile. Memphis was incorporated as
a town in 1827, and in 1849 was chartered as a city. Near
Memphis, on the 6th of June 1862, a Union fleet of 9 vessels
and 68 guns, under Commander Charles Henry Davis (1807-77),
defeated a Confederate fleet of 8 vessels and 28 guns under
Commander J. E. Montgomery after a contest of little more than
one hour, three of the Confederate vessels being destroyed and
four of them captured, and from this victory until the close of
the war the city was in possession of the Union forces. In
August 1864, however, a Confederate force under General N. B.
Forrest raided it and captured several hundred prisoners. The
decrease of population between 1870 and 1880 was due to the
ravages of yellow fever in 1873, 1878 and 1879. The epidemic
of 1873 resulted in over two thousand deaths, and that of 1878
in a total of 5150, of whom 4250 were whites and 900 negroes.
At the return of the fever in 1879 better care and strict quaran-
tine arrangements prevailed, but there were 497 deaths. During
the epidemics of 1878 and 1879 fully two-thirds of the popula-
tion fled from the city, many of whom died of the fever at other
places, and a still larger number did not return. For three
months during each year business was suspended, and all ingress
or egress except for the most necessary purposes was forbidden.
The city was left almost bankrupt, and as a means of relief the
legislature of the state in January 1879 repealed the city's charter,
and, assuming exclusive control of its taxation and finances, con-
stituted it simply a " taxing district," placing its government in
the hands of a " legislative council." This anomalous proceeding
was declared constitutional by the supreme court of Tennessee.
Subsequently the streets were cleansed and repaved, an improved
sewer system was put in operation, and the water supply was
obtained from artesian wells. In 1891 a new city charter was
obtained, and in 1907 the " Houston plan " (see HOUSTON,
TEXAS) was adopted for Memphis by the state legislature. The
act, however, was declared unconstitutional by the state supreme
court, on the ground that it would force elected officers out of
office before the expiration of their constitutional terms; and in
1909 a new charter on the Houston plan was adopted by the
legislature, to become effective on the ist of January 1910,
providing for a government by five commissioners, each having
charge of a separate department.
See J. M. Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby
County, Tennessee (Syracuse, 1888); James Phelan, History of
Tennessee (Boston, 1889).
MENA, JUAN DE (1411-1456), Spanish poet, was born at
Cordova in 1411. In his twenty-fourth year he matriculated
at the university of Salamanca, and studied later at Rome.
His scholarship obtained for him the post of Latin secretary at
the court of Castille; subsequently he became historiographer
to John II. and magistrate at Cordova. According to the
Epicedio of Valeric Francisco Romero, Mena died from natural
causes in 1456; popular tradition, however, ascribes his death
to a fall from his mule. Though nominally the king's chronicler,
Mena had no share in the Crdnica de Don Juan II. ; the statement
that he wrote the first act of the Celestina (q.v.) is rejected; but
three authentic specimens of his cumbrous prose exist in the com-
mentary to his dull poem entitled La Coronation or Calamacileos,
in the Illada en romance (an abridged version of Homer), and in
the unpublished Memorias de algunos linajes antiguas e nobles de
Castilla. He is conjectured to be the author of the satirical
Coplas de la panadera; but, apart from the fact that these verses
are ascribed by Argote de Molina to Inigo Ortiz de Zuniga,
they are instinct with a tart humour of which Mena was destitute.
His principal work is his allegorical poem, El Laberinto de
Fortuna, dedicated to John II.; in the oldest manuscripts it
consists of 297 stanzas, but three more stanzas were added to it
later, and hence the alternative, popular title of Las Trezientas.
The Laberinto is modelled on Dante, and further contains remin-
iscences of the Roman de la rose, as well as episodes borrowed
from Virgil and Lucan. It is marred by excessive emphasis and
pedantic diction, and the arte mayor measure in which it is
written is monotonous; but many octaves are of such excellence
that the arte mayor metre continued in fashion for nearly a
io8
MENA, PEDRO DE MENAHEM
century. The poem, as a whole, is tedious; yet its dignified
expression of patriotic spirit has won the admiration of Spaniards
from Cervantes' time to our own.
A critical edition of the Laberinto has been issued by R. Foulche 1 -
Delbosc (Macon, 1904).
HENA, PEDRO DE (d. 1693), Spanish sculptor, was born
in Adra. He was a pupil of his father as well as of Alonzo Cano.
His first conspicuous success was achieved in work for the con-
vent El Angel at Granada, including figures of St Joseph,
St Antony of Padua, St Diego, St Pedro Meantara, St Franciscus
and Santa Clara. In 1658 he signed a contract for sculptural
work on the choir stalls of the cathedral at Malaga this work
extending over four years. Other works are, statues of the
Madonna and child and of St Joseph in Madrid, the polychro-
matic figures in the church of St Isodoro, the Magdalena and the
Gertrudis in the church of St Martin (Madrid), the crucifixion
in the Nuestra Sefiora de Gracia (Madrid), the statuette of St
Francis of Assisi in Toledo, and of St Joseph in the St Nicholas
church in Murcia. Between 1673 and 1679 Mena worked at
Cordova. About 1680 he was in Granada, where he executed
a half -length Madonna and child (seated) for St Dominicos. Mena
died in Malaga in 1693. He and Mora (q.v.) may be regarded as
artistic descendants of Montanes and Alonzo Cano, but in tech-
nical skill and the expression of religious motive his statues are
unsurpassed in the sculpture of Spain. His feeling for the nude
was remarkable. Like his immediate predecessors he excelled in
the portrayal of contemplative figures and scenes; Mena's
drawing of Santiago leaping upon his charger is good, and the
carving admirable, but the necessary movement for so spirited
an action is lacking.
See B. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik
(Strassburg, 1900).
MENABREA, LUIGI FEDERICO, Marquis of Valdora (1809-
1896), Italian general and statesman, was born at Chambery on
the 4th of September 1809. He was educated at the university
of Turin, where he qualified as an engineer and became a doctor
of mathematics. As an officer of engineers he replaced Cavour
in 1831 at the fortress of Bardo. He then became professor of
mechanics and construction at the military academy and at the
university of Turin. King Charles Albert sent him in 1848 on
diplomatic missions to secure the adhesion of Modena and Parma
to Sardinia. He entered the Piedmontese parliament, and was
attached successively to the Ministries of War and Foreign
Affairs. He belonged to the right centre, and until the events
of 1859 he believed in the possibility of a compromise between the
Vatican and the state. He was major-general and commander-
in-chief of the engineers in the Lombard campaign of 1859.
He superintended the siege works against Peschiera, was present
at Palestro and Solferino, and repaired the fortifications of
some of the northern fortresses. In 1860 he became lieutenant-
general and conducted the siege of Gaeta. He was appointed
senator and received the title of count. Entering the Ricasoli
cabinet of 1861 as minister of marine, he held the portfolio of
public works until 1864 in the succeeding Farini and Minghetti
cabinets. After the war of 1866 he was chosen as Italian
plenipotentiary for the negotiation of the treaty of Prague and
for the transfer of Venetia to Italy. In October 1867 he suc-
ceeded Rattazzi in the premiership, and was called upon to deal
with the difficult situation created by Garibaldi's invasion of the
Papal States and by the catastrophe of Mentana. Menabrea
disavowed Garibaldi and instituted judicial proceedings against
him; but in negotiations with the French government he pro-
tested against the retention of the temporal power by the pope
and insisted on the Italian right of interference in Rome. He
was in the secret of the direct negotiations between Victor
Emanuel and Napoleon III. in June 1869, and refused to enter-
tain the idea of a French alliance unless Italy were allowed to
occupy the Papal States, and, on occasion, Rome itself. On the
eve of the assembly of the Oecumenical Council at Rome Mena-
brea reserved to the Italian government its right in respect of
any measures directed against Italian institutions. He with-
drew from seminary students in 1869 the exemption from mili-
tary service which they had hitherto enjoyed. Throughout his
term of office he was supported by the finance minister Count
Cambray Digny, who forced through parliament the grist tax
proposed by Quintino Sella, though in an altered form from the
earlier proposal. After a series of changes in the cabinet, and
many crises, Menabrea resigned in December 1869 on the election
of a new chamber in which he did not command a majority. He
was made marquis of Valdora in 1875. His successor in the
premiership, Giovanni Lanza, in order to remove him from his
influential position as aide-de-camp to the king, sent him to
London as ambassador, where he remained until in 1882 he
replaced General Cialdini at the Paris Embassy. Ten years
later he withdrew from public life, and died at Saint Capin on
the 24th of May 1896.
MENAGE, GILLES (1613-1692), French scholar, son of
Guillaume Menage, king's advocate at Angers, was born in that
city on the i5th of August 1613. A tenacious memory and an
early enthusiasm for learning carried him speedily through his
literary and professional studies, and he practised at the bar at
Angers as early as 1632. In the same year he pleaded several
causes before the parlement of Paris, but illness induced him to
abandon the legal profession for the church. He became prior
of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some
years in the household of Cardinal de Retz (then coadjutor to
the archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pur-
suits. Some time after 1648 he quarrelled with his patron and
withdrew to a house in the cloister of Notre-Dame, where he
gathered round him on Wednesday evenings those literary
assemblies which he called " Mercuriales." Chapelain, Pellisson,
Conrart, Sarrazin and Du Bos were among the habitues. He was
admitted to the Delia Cruscan Academy of Florence, but his
caustic sarcasm led to his exclusion from the French Academy.
Menage made many enemies and suffered under the satire of
Boileau and of Moliere. Moliere immortalized him as the
pedant Vadius in Les Femmes savantes, a portrait Menage
pretended to ignore. He died in Paris on the 23rd of
July 1692.
Of his works the following may be mentioned: Poemata latina,
gallica, graeca, et italica (1656); Origini delta lingua italiana (1669);
Dictionnaire etymologique (1650 and 1670); Observations sur la
langue fransaise (1672-1676), and Anti-Baillet (1690).
MENAGERIE, a collection of wild animals kept for show or
exhibition. The word is particularly applied to travelling
exhibitions of wild animals, attached to a circus or other show,
" zoological gardens "(q.v.) being the term generally applied to
large stationary and permanent exhibitions, arranged on a
scientific system. The French minagerie (from menage, O. Fr.
mesnage, Lat. mansionaticum, mansio, house, cf. " manage ")
originally meant the administration of a household or farm, with
special reference to the live stock.
MENAHEM (Hebrew for " consoler "), a king of Israel. He
was the son of Gadi (i.e. perhaps, a man of Gad), and during the
disturbances at the death of Jeroboam II. seized the throne
and reigned ten years (2 Kings xv. 14-18). The scene of his
revolt was Tirzah, the old seat of the kings of Israel between
Jeroboam I. and Omri (which period the present closely
resembles), and it was only after perpetrating nameless cruelties
at Tappuah 1 on the border of Ephraim and Mannasseh that the
counter revolt of Shallum, son of Jabesh (perhaps a Gileadite),
was suppressed. Towards the end of his reign Tiglath-
Pileser IV. marched against north Syria, and among
his tributaries mentions Menahem 2 together with Rezin
of Damascus, and kings of Tyre, Gebal, &c. (c. 738 B.C.).
According to the Old Testament account the Assyrian king
even advanced against Israel, and only withdrew in con-
sideration of a tribute amounting to. about 400,000. A
thousand talents (i.e. about 3,000,000 shekels) was raised by
assessing every wealthy person at 50 shekels. The act was
hardly popular, and the internal troubles which he had quelled
1 Scarcely Tiphsah (2 Kings xv. 16) on the Euphrates.
2 The identification of the Israelite king with Me-ni-hi-(im)-mi
of Sa-me-ri-na-ai on the Ass. inscription has been unnecessarily
doubted.
MENAI STRAITS MENANDER
109
broke out again at or shortly after his death. The Gileadites
again conspired, and having slain his son Pekahiah set up Pekah
the son of Remaliah in his place. 1 This meant a return to an
anti-Assyrian policy. (See AHAZ.) (S. A. C.)
MENAI STRAITS, a channel of the Irish Sea, separating
Anglesea from Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, extending 14 m. from
Beaumaris to Abermenai, and varying in breadth from 200 yds.
to 2 m. It is famous for the suspension and tubular bridges
which cross it. The suspension bridge carries the Holyhead
road from Bangor. Designs were prepared by T. Telford. It
was begun in 1819; the first chain carried over in April 1825;
the last in July of the same year, and the bridge opened to the
public the 3oth of January 1826. The cost was 120,000. The
length of the chains (from rock-fastenings) is 1715 ft., and be-
tween the piers 590 ft.; the length of the roadway between the
piers is 550 ft. and the total roadway length 1000 ft.; the height
of the roadway from the spring tide high-water level is 100 ft.;
the breadth of the roadway including two carriage-ways and a
footpath is 30 ft. The sixteen suspending chains are carried
60 ft. through rock. Their sustaining power has been calculated
at 2016 tons, while the whole weight of the suspended part of
the bridge is only 489 tons. During a gale a slight oscillation
is noticeable on the bridge itself and from the shore. The
tubular bridge carries the London & North Western railway.
Here the channel is about noo ft. wide, and divided in the
middle by the Britannia Rock, bare at low water. The tide
generally rises 20 ft., with great velocity. The principal measure-
ments are: each abutment 176 ft.; from abutment to side
tower, 230 ft. ; from side tower to central tower, 460 ft. ; breadth
of each side tower at road-level, 32 ft.; breadth of centre tower,
45 ft. 5 in. The total length of the roadway is 1841 ft. 5 in.
The Britannia tower measures at its base 62 by 525 ft.; with a
total height of 230 ft. There are 101 ft. between the sea at
high tide and the bridge roadway bottom. The limestone used
is from Penmon, 4 m. from Beaumaris. Four stone lions
couchant guard the approaches to the bridge. The first tube
of the tubular bridge was deposited in its place on the 9th of
November 1849, the last on the I3th of September 1850. The
total cost was 62 1, 865. The engineer of the tubular bridge was
Robert Stephenson, who was assisted by Sir William Fairbairn
and Eaton Hodgkinson.
MENAM, or ME NAM (literally the " mother water " or
" main river "), a river of Siam, the chief highway of the interior,
on whose yearly rise and fall depends the rice crop of Lower
Siam. Rising in the Lao or Siamese Shan state of Nan, at a
height of 1400 ft. upon the shoulders of the mountain mass of
Doi Luang, it is first known as the Nam Ngob, after a village of
that name. As the Nam Nan, still a mountain stream, it flows
southward through the state so named between high forested
ranges, and, notwithstanding the frequent rapids along its course,
the natives use it in dug-outs for the transport of hill produce.
From Utaradit, where it leaves the hills of the Lao country, it
flows southward through the plain of Lower Siam, and is navi-
gable for flat-bottomed native craft of considerable capacity.
It is here known as the Nam, or Menam Pichai. Below Pichai
the river flows through forest and swamp, the latter providing
vast overflow basins for the yearly floods. Thousands of tons
of fish are caught and cured here during the fall of the river after
the rains. Below Pitsunalok the waters of the Menam Yom,
the historic river of Siam, upon which two of its ancient capitals,
Sawankalok and Sukotai, were situated, meander by more than
one tortuous clayey channel to the main river, and combine to
form the Nam Po. 'At Paknam Po the main western tributary
comes in, the shallow Me Ping, the river of Raheng and Chieng
Mai, bringing with it the waters of the Me Wang. As the chief
duty-station for teak, which is floated in large quantities down
all the upper branches of the river and as a place of transshipment
for boats, Paknam Po is an important and growing town.
From this point southwards the river winds by many channels
1 The chronology in xv. 2, 23, 32, appears to confuse Pekah and
Pekahiah, and the view has been held that they were originally
one and the same; cf. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3643.
through the richest and most densely populated portion of Siam.
About Chainat the Tachin branches off, forming the main
western branch of the Menam, and falling into the gulf at a
point about 24 m. west of the bar of the main or Bangkok
river. At Ayuthia, another of the ancient capitals of Siam, the
Nam Sak flows in from the north-east, an important stream
affording communication with the rich tobacco district of Pecha-
bun, and draining the western slopes of the Korat escarpment.
MENANDER (342-291 B.C.), Greek dramatist, the chief repre-
sentative of the New comedy, was born at Athens. He was the
son of well-to-do parents; his father Diopeithes is identified by
some with the Athenian general and governor of the Thracian
Chersonese known from the speech of Demosthenes De Cher-
soneso. He doubtless derived his taste for the comic drama
from his uncle Alexis (q.v.). He was the friend and associate,
if not the pupil, of Theophrastus, and was on intimate terms
with Demetrius of Phalerum. He also enjoyed the patronage
of Ptolemy Soter, the son of Lagus, who invited him to his
court. But Menander, preferring independence and the com-
pany of his mistress Glycera in his villa in the Peiraeus, refused.
According to the note of a scholiast on the Ibis of Ovid, he was
drowned while bathing; his countrymen built him a tomb on
the road leading to Athens, where it was seen by Pausanias. A
well-known statue in the Vatican, formerly thought to represent
Marius, is now generally supposed to be Menander (although
some distinguished archaeologists dispute this), and has been
identified with his statue in the theatre at Athens, also mentioned
by Pausanias.
Menander was the author of more than a hundred comedies,
but only gained the prize eight times. His rival in dramatic
art and also in the affections of Glycera was Philemon (q.v.),
who appears to have been more popular. Menander, however,
believed himself to be the better dramatist, and, according to
Aulus Gellius, used to ask Philemon: " Don't you feel ashamed
whenever you gain a victory over me? " According to
Caecilius of Calacte (Porphyry in Eusebius, Praep. evan. x. 3, 13)
he was guilty of plagiarism, his AeKTidainuv being taken bodily
from the Oioworifc of Antiphanes. But, although he attained
only moderate success during his lifetime, he subsequently
became the favourite writer of antiquity. Copies of his plays
were known to Suidas and Eustathius (loth and nth centuries),
and twenty-three of them, with commentary by Psellus, were
said to have been in existence at Constantinople in the i6th
century. He is praised by Plutarch (Comparison of Menander
and Aristophanes) and Quintilian (Instil, x. 1. 69), who accepted
the tradition that he was the author of the speeches published
under the name of the Attic orator Charisius. A great admirer
and imitator of Euripides, he resembles him in his keen observa-
tion of practical life, his analysis of the emotions, and his fondness
for moral maxims, many of which have become proverbial:
" The property of friends is common," " Whom the gods love
die young," " Evil communications corrupt good manners "
(from the Thais, quoted in i Cor. xv. 33). These maxims
(chiefly monostichs) were afterwards collected, and, with addi-
tions from other sources, were edited as M^tvavSpov yvSifj.au.
fjavbarixoi, a kind of moral textbook for the use of schools.
Menander found many Roman imitators. The Eunuchus,
Andria, Heautontimorumenos and Adelphi of Terence (called
by Caesar " dimidiatus Menander ") were avowedly taken from
Menander, but some of them appear to be adaptations and combi-
nations of more than one play; thus, in the Andria were combined
Menander's 'Avdpia. and HepLvdia, in the Eunuchus the EwoDxor
and K6Xa, while the Adelphi was compiled partly from Menan-
der and partly from Diphilus. The original of Terence's Hecyra
(as of the Phormio) is generally supposed to be, not Menander,
but Apollodorus of Carystus. The Eacchid.es and Stichus of
Plautus were probably based upon Menander's Atj 'E^airarSiv
and < J > tXd5e\</>oi, but the Poenulus does not seem to be from the
Kctpx'/Soj'wj, nor the Mostellaria from the fcurjua, in spite of the
similarity of titles. Caecilius Statius, Luscius Lavinius, Tur-
pilius and Atilius also imitated Menander. He was further
credited with the authorship of some epigrams of doubtful
no
MENANDER
authenticity; the letters addressed to Ptolemy Soter and the
discourses in prose on various subjects mentioned by Suidas
are probably spurious.
Till the end of the igth century, all that was known of Menander
were the fragments collected by A. Meineke (1855) and T. Kock,
Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, iii. (1888). They consist of some
1650 verses or parts of verses, in addition to a considerable number
of words quoted expressly as from Menander by the old lexico-
graphers. From 1897 to 1907 papyri were discovered in different
parts of Egypt, containing fragments of considerable length,
amounting to some 1400 lines. In 1897, about eighty lines of the
recop-yAs; in 1899, fifty lines of the HfpiKapo^fvri ; in 1903, one
hundred lines (half in a very mutilated condition) from the K6\a{;
in 1906, two hundred lines from the middle of the nepucetpo/tepi;,
the part previously discovered containing the denouement; five
hundred lines from the 'EjriTpiiroir-ts, generally well preserved;
sixty-three lines (the prologue, list of characters, and the first
scene), from the "Hpcos; three hundred and forty lines from the
Saiila (the identification of the two last plays is not considered
absolutely certain) ; and twenty lines from an unknown comedy.
Subsequently, part of a third copy of the UepiKetponevrj was found
in Egypt, some one hundred and forty lines, half of which were
already known, while the remainder were new (Abhandlungen der
konigl.-sachsischen Gesellschafl der Wissenschaften, Leipzig), 1908.
It is doubtful whether these fragments, which are of sufficient
length to afford a basis for the consideration of the merits of
Menander as a writer of comedies, justify the great reputation
enjoyed by him in ancient times. With the exception of a scene in
the 'EiriTpewoires, which would appeal to the litigious Athenians,
they contain little that is witty or humorous; there is little
variety in the characters,, the situations are conventional, and the
plots, not of a highly edifying character, are lacking in originality.
Menander's chief excellences seem to be facility of language, accurate
portrayal of manners, and naturalness of the sentiments which he
puts into the mouth of his dramatis personae. It is remarkable
that the maxims, which form the chief part of the earlier collections
of fragments, are few in the later.
On Menander generally see monographs by C. Benoft (1854) and
G. Guizot (1855) ; ]. Geffcken, Studio, zu Menander (1898) ; H. Lilbke,
Menander und seine Kunst (1892); ]. Denis, La Comedie grecque
(1886), vol. ii. ; H. Weil, Etudes sur I'antiquite grecque (1900). Editions
of the fragments: Tfwpjk, by ]. Nicole, with translation and notes
(1898) and by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, with revised text and
translation (1898); the "Hpcos, 'EiriTptirovrfs, liepiKeiponkvii, 2a^ia,
by G. Lefebvre and M. Croiset, with introduction, notes and
translation (Cairo, 1907); J. van Leeuwen, with Latin notes (2nd
ed., 1908); L. Bodin and P. Mazon, Extraits de Menandre
(Samia and Epitrepontes, 1908); E. Croiset, L' Arbitrage, critical
ed. and translation (1908); C. Robert, Der neue Menander (text
reconstructed, 1908); Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, " Der Menander
von Kairo" in Neue Jahrbucher jur das klassische Altertum (1908),
pp. 34-62; German trans, by C. Robert, Szenen atis Menander
(1908); English by Unus Multorum (1909). See also V/ilamowitz-
Mollendorff, " Der Landmann des Menandros " in Neue Jahrbucher
(i 899), p. 513; C. Dziatzko, " Der Inhalt des Georgos von Menander,"
in Rhein. Mus. liv. 497, Iv. 104; F. Leo, " Der Neue Menander "
in Hermes, xliii. 120; E. Capps, "The Plot of Menander's Epitre-
pontes " in Amer. Journ. of Philology (1908), p. 410; A. Kretschmar,
De Menandri reliquiis nuper repertis (1906) ; F. G. Kenyon in
Quarterly Review (April, 1908); The Times Literary Supplement
(Sept. 20, 1907); Athenaeum (Oct. 23, 1897; Aug. I, 1908; Oct. 24,
1908); and list of articles in periodicals in Van Leeuwen's
edition. (]. H. F.)
MENANDER (MILINDA), a Graeco-Indian dynast. When the
Graeco-Indian king Demetrius had been beaten by Eucratides
of Bactria, about 160 B.C., and the kingdom of Eucratides
(q.i>.) dissolved after his assassination (c. 150 B.C.), a Greek
dynasty maintained itself in the Kabul Valley and the Punjab.
The only two kings of this dynasty mentioned by classical
authors are Apollodotus and Menander, who conquered a great
part of India. Trogus Pompeius described in his forty-first
book (see the prologue) " the Indian history of these kings,
Apollodotus and Menander," and Strabo, xi. 516, mentions from
Apollodotus of Artemita, the historian of the Parthians, that
Menander " conquered more tribes than Alexander, as he
crossed the Hypanis to the east and advanced to the Isamus; he
and other kings (especially Demetrius) occupied also Patalene
(the district of Patala near Hyderabad on the head of the delta of
the Indus) and the coast which is called the district of Saraostes
(i.e. Syrastene, in mod. Gujarat, Brahman Saurashtra) and the
kingdom of Sigerdis (not otherwise known); and they extended
their dominion to the Seres (i.e. the Chinese) and Phryni (?)."
The last statement is an exaggeration, probably based upon the
fact that from the mouth of the Indus trade went as far as China.
That the old coins of Apollodotus and Menander, with Greek
legends, were still in currency in Barygaza (mod. Broach), the
great port of Gujarat, about A.D. 70 we are told by the Periplus
marts Erythraei, 48. We possess many of these coins, which
follow the Indian standard and are artistically degenerate as
compared with the earlier Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian
coins, with bilingual legends (Greek and Kharoshti, see BACTRIA).
Apollodotus, who must have been the earlier of the two kings,
bears the titles Soter, Philopator, and " Great King "; Menander,
who must have reigned a long time, as his portrait is young on
some coins and old on others, calls himself Soter and " Just "
(5i/c<uos). Their reigns may be placed about 140-80 B.C.
Menander appears in Indian traditions as Milinda; he is praised
by the Buddhists, whose religion he is said to have adopted, and
who in the Milindapanha or Milinda Panho (see below), " the
questions of Milinda " (Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East,
xxxv., xxxyi.) relate his discourses with the wise Nagasena.
According to the Indians, the Greeks conquered Ayodhya and
Pataliputra (Palimbothra, mod. Patna); so the conjecture of
Cunningham that the river Isamus of Strabo is the Son, the great
southern tributary of the Ganges (near Patna), may be true.
The Buddhists praise the power and military force, the energy
and wisdom of " Milinda "; and a Greek tradition preserved by
Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6) relates that " when Menander,
one of the Bactrian kings, died on a campaign after a mild rule,
all the subject towns disputed about the honour of his burial,
till at last his ashes were divided between them in equal parts."
(The Buddhist tradition relates a similar story of the relics of
Buddha.) Besides Apollodotus and Menander, we know from
the coins a great many other Greek kings of western India,
among whom two with the name of Straton are most con-
spicuous. The last of them, with degenerate coins, seems to
have been Hermaeus Soter. These Greek dynasts may have
maintained themselves in some part of India till about 40 B.C.
But at this time the west, Kabul and the Punjab were already
in the hands of a barbarous dynasty, most of whom have Iranian
(Parthian) names, and who seem therefore to have been of
Arsacid origin (cf. Vincent A. Smith, " The Indo-Parthian
Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to A.D. 100," in Zeitschrift der
deulschen morgenlandischen Gesellschafl, 1906, Ix. 69 sqq.).
Among them Manes, two kings named Azes, Vonones and espe-
cially Gondophares or Hyndophares are the most conspicuous.
The latter, whose date is fixed by an inscription from the Kabul
Valley dated from the year 103 of the Samvat era ( = A.D. 46),
is famous by the legend of St Thomas, where he occurs as king
of India under the name of Gundaphar. Soon afterwards the
Mongolian Scyths (called Saka by the Indians), who had con-
quered Bactria in 139 B.C., invaded India and founded the great
Indo-Scythian kingdom of the Kushan dynasty. (See BACTRIA;
and PERSIA: Ancient History.) (Eo. M.)
The Milinda Panho is preserved in Pali, in Ceylon, Burma and
Siam, but was probably composed originally in the extreme north-
west of India, and in a dialect spoken in that region. Neither
date nor author is known; but the approximate date must have
been about the 2jid century of our era. The work is entitled
Milinda Panho that is, The Questions of King Milinda. In it the
king is represented as propounding to a Buddhist Bhikshu named
Nagasena a number of problems, puzzles or questions in religion
and philosophy ; and as receiving, in each case, a convincing reply.
It is a matter of very little importance whether a tradition of some
such conversations having really taken place had survived to the
time when the author wrote his book. In any case he composed
both problems and answers; and his work is an historical romance,
written to discuss certain points in the faith, and to invest the
discussion with the interest arising from the story in which it is
set. This plan is carried out with great skill. _An introduction,
giving the past and present lives of Milinda and Nagasena, is admir-
ably adapted to fill the reader with the idea of the great ability
and distinction of the two disputants. The questions chosen are
just those which would appeal most strongly to the intellectual
taste of the India of that age. And the style of the book is very
attractive. Each particular point is kept within easy limits of
space, and is treated in a popular way. But the earnestness of
the author is not concealed; and he occasionally rises into a very
real eloquence. The work is several times quoted as authority
by Buddhaghosa, who wrote about A.D. 450, and it is the only work;
not in the canon, which receives this honour.
MENANDER MENASHA
in
The Milinda has been edited in Pali by V. Trenckner, and trans-
lated into English by the present writer, with introductions in which
the historical and critical points made in this article are discussed
in detail. There is space here to mention only one further fact.
M. Sylvain Levy, working in collaboration with M. Specht, has
shown that there are two, if not three, Chinese works, written
between the 5th and 7th centuries, on the Questions of Milinda.
They purport to be translations of Indian works. They are not,
however, translations of the Pali text. They give, with alterations
and additions, the substance of the earlier part of the Pali work;
and are probably derived from a recension that may be older than
the Pali.
AUTHORITIES. V. Trenckner, Milinda-panho (London, 1880);
Rhys Davids, Questions of King Milinda (2 vols., Oxford, 1800-
1894) ; R. Garbe, Beitrage zur indisc.hen Kulturgeschichte (Berlin,
1903, ch. 3, Der Milinda- panha) ; Milinda Prashnaya, in Sinhalese,
(Colombo, 1877) ; R. Morris, in the Academy (Jan. II, 1881) ; Sylvain
Levy, Proceedings of the (>th International Congress of Orientalists
(London, 1892), i. 518-529, and Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
(1891), p. 476. (T. W. R. D.)
MENANDER, of Laodicea on the Lycus, Greek rhetorician
and commentator. Two incomplete treatises on epideictic
(or show) speeches have been preserved under his name, but it
is generally considered that they cannot be by the same author.
Bursian attributes the first to Menander, whom he placed in the
4th century, and the second to an anonymous rhetorician of
Alexandria Troas, who possibly lived in the time of Diocletian.
Others, from the superscription of the Paris MS., assign the
first to Genethlius of Petrae in Palestine. In view of the general
tradition of antiquity, that both treatises were the work of
Menander, it is possible that the author of the second was not
identical with the Menander mentioned by Suidas, since the name
is of frequent occurrence in later Greek literature. The first
treatise, entitled Atoipeirts rwv eiridttKTiK&v, discusses the different
kinds of epideictic speeches; the second, Ilepi tm5fi.KTi.KSiv, has
special titles for each chapter.
Text in L. Spengel's Rhetores graeci, iii. 329-446, and in
C. Bursian's " Der Rhetor Menandros und seine Schriften " in
Abhandl. der bayer. Akad. der Wissenschaften, xvi. (1882); see also
W. Nitsche, Der Rhetor M. und d'e Scholien zu Demosthenes; J. E.
Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), i. 338; W. Christ,
Gesch. der griechischen Litteratur (1898), 550.
MENANDER PROTECTOR (UporiKrup, i.e. one of the imperial
bodyguards), Byzantine historian, was born in Constantinople
in the middle of the 6th century A.D. The little that is known
of his life is contained in the account of himself quoted by Suidas.
He at first took up the study of law, but abandoned it for a life
of pleasure.' When his fortunes were low, the patronage accorded
to literature by the emperor Maurice (582) encouraged him
to try writing history. He took as his model Agathias (<?..),
who like him had been a jurist, and his history begins at the
point where Agathias leaves off. It embraces the period from
the arrival of the Cotriguri Hunni in Thrace during the reign of
Justinian in 558 down to the death of the emperor Tiberius in 582.
Considerable fragments of the work are preserved in the excerpts
of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and in Suidas. Although
the style is sometimes bombastic, he is considered trustworthy
and is one of the most valuable authorities for the history of
the 6th century, especially on geographical and ethnographical
matters. He was an eye-witness of some of the events he
describes. Like Agathias, he wrote epigrams, one of which, on a
Persian magus, who became a convert to Christianity and died
the death of a martyr, is preserved in the Greek anthology
(Anth. Pal. i. 101).
The fragments will be found in C. W. Miiller, Frag. hist, graec. iv.
200; J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxiii., and L. Dmdorf, Historici
graeci minores, ii. ; see also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzan-
tinischen Litteratur (1897).
MENAN6KABOS, the most civilized of all the true Malays
of Sumatra, inhabiting the mountains above Padang. Their
district is regarded as the cradle of the Malay race, and thence
began, about 1160, those migrations which ended in the true
Malays becoming the dominant race throughout the peninsula
and the Malay Archipelago. The Menangkabos are said to be
the original conquerors of the island, and the real form of the
word is Menang-Karbau (" victory of the buffalo "), in reference
to a local legend of a fight between a Sumatran and Javanese
buffalo, ending in victory for the former. Though converts to
Islam, the ancient confederate village communes and the matri-
archal system still exist. The people are divided into clans,
the chiefs together forming the district council. Early in the
1 9th century a religious sect was founded among the Manang-
kabos, known as " Padris " from its zealous proselytism, or
Orang puti (white men) from the converts being dressed in
white. The tendency was towards asceticism, the chief tenet
being the prohibition of opium, the use of which was made a
capital offence. The sect brought a large portion of the interior
of Sumatra under its rule, but the neighbouring tribes asked
the Dutch to protect them, and this led to the Netherlands
government acquiring the Menangkabo territory.
MENANT, JOACHIM (1820-1899), French magistrate and
orientalist, was born at Cherbourg on the i6th of April 1820.
He was educated for the law, and became vice-president of the
civil tribunal of Rouen in 1878, and a member of the cour d'appel
three years later. But he became best known by his studies on
the cuneiform inscriptions. Among his works on the subject
of Assyriology are: Recueil d' alphabets des ecrilures cuneiformes
(1860); Expose des elements de la grammaire assyrienne (1868);
Le Syllabaire assyrien (2 vols., 1860-1873); Les Langues perdues
de la Perse et de I'Assyrie (2 vols., 1885-1886) ; Les Pierres gravees
de la Haute-Asie (2 vols., 1883-1886). He also collaborated with
Julius Oppert. He was admitted to the Academy of Inscrip-
tions in 1887, and died in Paris on the 3oth of August 1899.
His daughter DELPHINE (b. 1850) received a prize from the
Academy for her Les Parsis, histoire des communautes zoro-
astriennes de I'Inde (1898), and was sent in 1900-1901 to British
India on a scientific mission, of which she published a report
in 1903.
MENARD, LOUIS NICOLAS (1822-1901), French man of
letters, was born in Paris on the i9th of October 1822. His
versatile genius occupied itself in turn with chemistry, poetry,
painting and history. In 1843 he published, under the pseudo-
nym of L. de Senneville, a translation of Promethee delivre.
Turning to chemistry, he discovered collodion in 1846, but its
value was not recognized at the time; and its application later
to surgery and photography brought him no advantage. Louis
Menard was a socialist, always in advance of the reform move-
ments of his time. After 1848 he was condemned to imprison-
ment for his Prologue d'une revolution. He escaped to London,
returning to Paris only in 1852. Until 1860 he occupied himself
with classical studies, the fruits of which are to be seen in his
Poemes (1855), Polytheisme hellenique (1863), and two academic
theses, De sacra poesi graecorum and La Morale avant les philo-
sophes (1860). The next ten years Menard spent chiefly among
the Barbizon artists, and he exhibited several pictures. He
was in London at the time of the Commune, and defended it
with his pen. In 1887 he became professor at the Ecole des
Arts decoratifs, and in 1895 professor of universal history at the
Hotel de Ville in Paris. His Reveries d'un paten mystique (1876),
which contained sonnets, philosophical dialogues and some
stories, was followed in 1896 by Poemes et reveries d'un paien
mystique. Menard died in Paris on the I2th of February 1901.
His works include: Histoire des anciens peuples de I'Orient (1882) ;
Histoire des Israelites d'apres I'exegese biblique (1883), and Histoire
des Grecs (1884-1886). There is an appreciation of Me'nard in the
opening chapter of Maurice BarreVs Voyage de Sparte.
MENASHA (an Indian word meaning " thorn " or " island "),
a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 88 m. N. of
Milwaukee, and 14 m. N. of Oshkosh, attractively situated at
the N. extremity of Lake Winnebago at its outlet into the Fox
river. Pop. (1890), 4581; (1900), 5589 (1535 foreign-born);
(1905, state census), 5960; (1910), 6081. Menasha is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago & North-Western
railways, and by an inter-urban electric railway system. Several
bridges across the Fox River connect Menasha with Neenah,
with which it really forms one community industrially. Doty
Island, at the mouth of the river and divided about equally
between the cities, is a picturesque and popular summer resort.
112
MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL MENCIUS
Menasha had good water power and among its manufactures
are paper and sulphite pulp, lumber, wooden-ware and cooperage
products, woollen and knit goods, leather, boats and bricks.
The first white man to visit the site of Menasha was probably
Jean Nicolet, who seems to have come in the winter of 1634-1635
and to have found here villages of Fox and Winnebago Indians.
Subsequently there were French and English trading posts here.
The city was settled permanently in 1848, and was chartered
in 1874.
MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL (.1604-1657), Jewish leader, was
born in Lisbon about 1604, and was brought up in Amsterdam.
His family had suffered under the Inquisition, but found an
asylum first in La Rochelle and later in Holland. Here Menasseh
rose to eminence not only as a rabbi and an author, but also as a
printer. He established the first Hebrew press in Holland.
One of his earliest works El Conciliador won immediate reputa-
tion. It was an attempt at reconciliation between apparent
discrepancies in various parts of the Old Testament. Among
his correspondents were Vossius, Grotius and Huet. In 1638
he decided to settle in Brazil, as he still found it difficult to pro-
vide in Amsterdam for his wife and family, but this step was
rendered unnecessary by his appointment to direct a college
founded by the Pereiras.
In 1644 Menasseh met Antonio de Montesinos, who persuaded
him that the North-American Indians were the descendants of
the lost ten tribes of Israel. This supposed discovery gave a
new impulse to Menasseh 's Messianic hopes. But he was con-
vinced that the Messianic age needed as its certain precursor
the settlement of Jews in all parts of the known world. Filled
with this idea, he turned his attention to England, whence the
Jews had been expelled since 1290. He found much Christian
support in England. During the Commonwealth the question
of the readmission of the Jews was often mooted under the
growing desire for religious liberty. Besides this, Messianic
and other mystic hopes were current in England. In 1650
appeared an English version of the Hope of Israel, a tract which
deeply impressed public opinion. Cromwell had been moved to
sympathy with the Jewish cause partly by his tolerant leanings,
but chiefly because he foresaw the importance for English com-
merce of the presence of the Jewish merchant princes, some of
whom had already found their way to London. At this juncture
Jews received full rights in the colony of Surinam, which had
been English since 1650. In 1655 Menasseh arrived in London.
It was during his absence that the Amsterdam Rabbis excom-
municated Spinoza, a catastrophe which would probably have
been avoided had Menasseh Spinoza's teacher been on the
spot. One of his first acts on reaching London was the issue of
his Humble Addresses to the Lord Protector, but its effect was
weakened by the issue of Prynne's able but unfair Short Demurrer.
Cromwell summoned the Whitehall Conference in December of
the same year. To this conference were summoned some of
the most notable statesmen, lawyers and theologians of the day.
The chief practical result was the declaration of Judges Glynne
and Steele that " there was no law which forbade the Jews'
return to England." Though, therefore, nothing was done to
regularize the position of the Jews, the door was opened to their
gradual return. Hence John Evelyn was able to enter in his
Diary under the date Dec. 14, 1655, " Now were the Jews
admitted." But the attack on the Jews by Prynne and others
could not go unanswered. Menasseh replied in the finest of his
works, Vindiciae judaeorum (1656). " The best tribute to its
value is afforded by the fact that it has since been frequently
reprinted in all parts of Europe when the calumnies it denounced
have been revived " (L. Wolf). Among those who used in this
way Menasseh's Vindiciae was Moses Mendelssohn (q.v.). Soon
after Menasseh left London Cromwell granted him a pension,
but he died before he could enjoy it. Death overtook him at
Middleburg, as he was conveying the body of his son Samuel
home for burial.
Menasseh ben Israel was the author of many works, but his
English tracts remain the only ones of importance. His De
termino vilae was translated into English by Pococke, and his
Conciliator by G. H. Lindo. Among his other works were a
ritual compendium Tesoro dos dinim, and a treatise in Hebrew
on immortality (Nishmath hayim). He was a friend of Rem-
brandt, who painted his portrait and engraved four etchings to
illustrate his Piedra gloriosa. These are preserved in the British
Museum.
See Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. v. ch. ii.; Lucien Wolf,
Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, with a reprint
of the English pamphlets (London, 1901); H. Adler, "A Homage
to Menasseh ben Israel," in Transactions of the Jewish Historical
Society of England, i. 25-54. (I- A -)
MENCIUS, the latinized form of Mang-tsze, " Mr Mang," or
" Mang the philosopher," a Chinese moral teacher whose name
stands second only to that of Confucius. His statue or spirit-
tablet (as the case may be) has occupied, in the temples of the
sage, since our nth century, a place among " the four assessors,"
and since A.D. 1530 his title has been " the philosopher Mang,
sage of the second degree."
The Mangs or Mang-suns had been in the time of Confucius
one of the three great clans of Lu (all descended from the marquis
Hwan, 711-694 B.C.), which he had endeavoured to curb.
Their power had subsequently been broken, and the branch to
which Mencius belonged had settled in Tsau, a small adjacent
principality, the name of which remains in Tsau hsien, a district
of Yenchau Shan-tung. A magnificent temple to Mencius is
the chief attraction of the district city. The large marble
statue of Mencius in the courtyard shows much artistic skill,
and gives the impression of a man strong in body and mind,
thoughtful and fearless. His lineal representative lives in the
city, and thousands of Mangs are to be found in the neigh-
bourhood.
Mencius, who died in the year 289 B.C., had lived to a great
age some say to his eighty-fourth year, placing his birth in
372 B.C., and others to his ninety-seventh, placing it in 385.
All that we are told of his father is that he died in the third year
of the child, who was thus left to the care of his mother. Her
virtues and dealings with her son were celebrated by a great
writer in the ist century before our era, and for two thousand
years she has been the model mother of China.
Mencius is more than forty years old when he comes before us
as a public character. He must have spent much time in study,
investigating questions as to the fundamental principles of morals
and society, and brooding over the condition of the country.
The history, the poetry, the institutions and the great men of the
past had received his attention. He intimates that he had been
in communication with men who had been disciples of Confucius.
That sage had become to him the chief of mortal men, the object
of his untiring admiration; and in the doctrines which he had
taught Mencius recognized the truth for want of an appreciation
of which the bonds of order all round him were being relaxed, and
the kingdom hastening to anarchy.
When he first comes forth from Tsau, he is accompanied by
several eminent disciples. He had probably imitated Confucius
in becoming the master of a school, and encouraging the resort
to it of inquiring minds that he might resolve their doubts and
unfold to them the right methods of government. One of his
sayings is that it would be a greater delight to the superior man
to get the youth of brightest promise around him and to teach
and train them than to enjoy the revenues of the kingdom. His
intercourse with his followers was not so intimate as that of
Confucius had been with the members of his selected circle; and,
while he maintained his dignity among them, he was not able
to secure from them the same homage and reverent admiration.
More than a century had elapsed since the death of Confucius,
and during that period the feudal kingdom of Chau had been
showing more and more of the signs of dissolution, and porten-
tous errors that threatened to upset all social order were widely
disseminated. The sentiment of loyalty to the dynasty had
disappeared. Several of the marquesses and other feudal princes
of earlier times had usurped the title of king. The smaller fiefs
had been absorbed by the larger ones, or reduced to helpless
dependence on them. Tsin, after greatly extending its territory,
MENCIUS
had broken up into three powerful kingdoms, each about as
large as England. Mencius found the nation nominally one,
and with the traditions of two thousand years affirming its
essential unity, but actually divided into seven monarchies,
each seeking to subdue the others under itself. The consequences
were constant warfare and chronic misery.
In Confucius's time we meet with recluses who had withdrawn
in disgust from the world and its turmoil; but these had now
given place to a class of men who came forth from their retire-
ments provided with arts of war or schemes of policy which
they recommended to the contending chiefs, ever ready to
change their allegiance as they were moved by whim or interest.
Mencius was once asked about two of them, "Are they not really
great men? Let them be angry, and all the princes are afraid.
Let them live quietly, and the flames of trouble are everywhere
extinguished." He looked on them as little men, and delighted
to proclaim his idea of the great man in such language as the
following:
" To dwell in love, the wide house of the world, to stand in
propriety, the correct seat of the world, and to walk in righteous-
ness, the great path of the world; when he obtains his desire for
office, to practise his principles for the good of the people, and
when that desire is disappointed, to practise them alone; to be
above the power of riches and honours to make dissipated, of
poverty and mean condition to make swerve from the right, and of
power and force to make bend these characteristics constitute
the great man."
Most vivid are the pictures which Mencius gives of the con-
dition of the people in consequence of the wars of the states.
" The royal ordinances were violated; the multitudes were
oppressed; the supplies of food and drink flowed away like
water." It is not wonderful that, when the foundations of
government were thus overthrown, speculations should have
arisen that threatened to overthrow what he considered to be
the foundations of truth and all social order. " A shrill-tongued
barbarian from the south," as Mencius called him, proclaimed
the dissolution of ranks, and advocated a return to primitive
simplicity. He and his followers maintained that learning was
quackery, and statesmanship craft and oppression, that prince
and peasant should be on the same level, and every man do
everything for himself. Another, called Yang-chvi, denied
the difference between virtue and vice, glory and shame.
It was the same with all at death. The conclusion there-
fore was: " Let us eat and drink; let us gratify the ears
and eyes, get servants and maidens, beauty, music, wine;
when the day is insufficient, carry it on through the night.
Each one for himself." Against a third heresiarch, of a very
different stamp, Mencius felt no less indignation. This was Mo
Ti, who found the source of all the evils of the time and of all
time in the want of mutual love. He taught, therefore, that
men should love others as themselves; princes, the states of
other princes as much as their own; children, the parents of
others as much as their own. Mo, in his gropings, had got hold
of a noble principle, but he did not apprehend it distinctly nor
set it forth with discrimination. To our philosopher the doctrine
appeared contrary to the Confucian orthodoxy about the five
relations of society; and he attacked it without mercy and with
an equal confusion of thought. " Yang's principle," he said,
" is 'each one for himself,' which does not acknowledge the claims
of the sovereign. Mo's is ' to love all equally,' which does
not acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to
acknowledge neither king nor father is to be in the state of a
beast. The way of benevolence and righteousness is stopped up,"
On this ocean of lawlessness, wickedness, heresies and misery
Mencius looked out from the quiet of his school, and his spirit
was stirred to attempt the rescue of the people from misrule
and error. "If Heaven," he said, "wishes that the kingdom
should enjoy tranquillity and good order, who is there besides
me to bring it about? " He formed his plan, and proceeded
to put it in execution. He would go about among the different
kings till he should find one among them who would follow
his counsels and commit to him the entire administration of
his government. That obtained, he did not doubt that in a
few years there would be a kingdom so strong and so good that
all rulers would acknowledge its superiority, and the people
hasten from all quarters to crown its sovereign as monarch
of the whole of China. This plan was much the same as that
of Confucius had been; but, with the bolder character that
belonged to him, Mencius took in one respect a position from
which " the master " would have shrunk. The former was
always loyal to Chau, and thought he could save the country
by a reformation; the latter saw the day of Chau was past,
and the time was come for a revolution. Mencius's view was
the more correct, but he was not wiser than the sage in fore-
casting for the future. They could think only of a reformed
dynasty or of a changed dynasty, ruling according to the model
principles of a feudal constitution, which they described in
glowing language. They desired a repetition of the golden
age in the remote past; but soon after Mencius disappeared
from the stage of life there came the sovereign of Ch'in, and
solved the question with fire and sword, introducing the
despotic empire which has since prevailed.
The question may be asked, " How, in the execution of
his plan, was Mencius, a scholar, without wealth or station,
to find admission to the courts of lawless and unprincipled
kings, and acquire the influence over them which he expected? "
The answer can only be found by bearing in mind the position
accorded from the earliest times in China to men of virtue and
ability. The same written character denotes both scholars
and officers. They are at the top of the social scale the
first of the four classes into which the population has always
been divided. This appreciation of learning or culture has
exercised a powerful influence over the government under
both conditions of its existence; and out of it grew the system
of making literary merit the passport to official employment.
The ancient doctrine was that the scholar's privilege was from
Heaven as much as the sovereign's right; the modern system
is a device of the despotic rule to put itself in Heaven's place,
and have the making of the scholar in its own hands. The
feeling and conviction out of which the system grew prevailed
in the time of Mencius. The dynasties that had successively
ruled over the kingdom had owed their establishment not
more to the military genius of their founders than to the wisdom
and organizing ability of the learned men, the statesmen,
who were their bosom friends and trusted counsellors. Why
should not he become to one of the princes of his day what 1 Yin
had been to Thang, and Thai-kung Wang to King Wan, and
the duke of Chau to Wu and Ch'ang? But, though Mencius
might be the equal of any of those worthies, he knew of no prince
like Thang and the others, of noble aim and soul, who would
adopt his lessons. In his eagerness he overlooked this condition
of success for his enterprise. He might meet with such a
ruler as he looked for, or he might reform a bad one, and make
him the coadjutor that he required. On the strength of these
peradventures, and attended by several of his disciples, Mencius
went for more than twenty years from one court to another,
always baffled, and always ready to try again. He was received
with great respect by kings and princes. He would not enter
into the service of any of them, but he occasionally accepted
honorary offices of distinction; and he did not scruple to receive
large gifts which enabled him to live and move about as a man
of wealth. In delivering his message he was as fearless and
outspoken as John Knox. He lectured great men, and ridiculed
them. He unfolded the ways of the old sage kings, and pointed
out the path to universal sway; but it was all in vain. He
could not stir any one to honourable action. He confronted
heresy with strong arguments and exposed it with withering
sarcasm; but he could work no deliverance in the earth. The
last court at which we find him was that of Lu, probably in
310 B.C. The marquis of that state had given office to Yo-chang,
one of Mencius's disciples, and he hoped that this might be the
means of a favourable hearing for himself. So it had nearly
happened. On the suggestion of Yo-chang the marquis had
ordered his carriage to be yoked, and was about to step into it
and proceed to bring Mencius to his palace, when an unworthy
MENCIUS
favourite stepped in and diverted him from his purpose. The
disciple told his master what had occurred, reproaching the
favourite for his ill-timed intervention; Mencius, however,
said to him," A man's advancement or the arresting of it may
seem to be effected by others, but is really beyond their power.
My not finding in the marquis of Lu a ruler who would confide
in me and put my lessons in practice is from Heaven."
Mencius accepted this incident as a final intimation to him
of the will of Heaven. He had striven long against adverse
circumstances, but now he bowed in submission. He withdrew
from courts and the public arena. According to tradition
he passed the last twenty years of his life in the society of his
disciples, discoursing to them, and giving the finishing touches
to the record of his conversations and opinions, which were
afterwards edited by them, and constitute his works. Mencius
was not so oracular, nor so self-contained, as Confucius; but
his teachings have a vivacity and sparkle all their own.
Mencius held with Confucius and it was a doctrine which had
descended to them both from the remotest antiquity that royal
government is an institution of God. An ancient sovereign had
said that " Heaven, having produced the people, appointed for
them rulers, and appointed for them teachers, who should be assist-
ing to God." Our philosopher, adopting this doctrine, was led by
the manifest incompetency of all the rulers of his time to ask how
it could be known on what individual the appointment of Heaven
had fallen or ought to fall, and he concluded that this could be
ascertained only from his personal character and his conduct of
affairs. The people must find out the will of Heaven as to who
should be their rulet for themselves. There was another old saying
which delighted Mencius " Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven
hears as the people hear." He taught accordingly that, while
government is from God, the governors are from the people; vox
populi MX Dei. No claim then of a " divine right should be
allowed to a sovereign if he were not exercising a rule for the good
of the people. " The people are the most important element in
a nation ; the altars to the spirits of the land and grain are the second ;
the sovereign is the lightest." Mencius was not afraid to follow
this utterance to its consequences. The monarch whose rule is
injurious to the people, and who is deaf to remonstrance and counsel,
should be dethroned. In such a case " killing is no murder."
But who is to remove the sovereign that thus ought to be removed ?
Mencius had three answers to this difficult question. First, he
would heve the members of the royal house perform the task.
Let them disown their unworthy head, and appoint some better
individual of their number in his room. If they could not or would
not do this, he thought, secondly, that any high minister, though
not allied to the royal house, might take summary measures with
the sovereign, assuming that he acted purely with a view to the
pubjic weal. His third and grand device was what he called " the
minister of Heayen." When the sovereign had become a pest
instead of a blessing, he believed that Heaven would raise up some
one for the help of the people, some one who should so conduct
himself in his original subordinate position as to draw all eyes
and hearts to himself. Let him then raise the standard not of
rebellion but of righteousness, and he could not help attaining to
the highest dignity. Mencius hoped to find one among the rulers
of his day who might be made into such a minister,-and he counselled
one and another to adopt measures with that object. It was in
fact counselling rebellion, but he held that the house of Chau had
forfeited its title to the throne.
A good government according to his ideal must be animated by
a spirit of benevolence, and ever pursue a policy of righteousness.
Its aims must be, first, to make the people well off, and next, to
educate them. No one was fit to occupy the throne who could
be happy while any of the people were miserable, who delighted
in war, who could indulge in palaces and parks which the poorest
did not in a measure share with him. Game laws received his
emphatic condemnation. Taxes should be light, and all the regula-
tions for agriculture and commerce of a character to promote and
encourage them. The rules which he suggested to secure those
objects had reference to the existing condition of his country,
but they are_ susceptible of wide application. They carry in them
schemes of drainage and irrigation for land, and of free trade for
commerce. But it must be he contended, that a sufficient and
certain livelihood be secured for all the people. Without this their
minds would be unsettled, and they would proceed to every form
of wild licence. They would break the laws, and the ruler -yould
punish them punish those whom his neglect of his own duties
had plunged into poverty, of which crime was the consequence.
He would be, not their ruler, but their " trapper."
Supposing the people to be made well off, Mencius taught that
education should be provided for them all. He gave the marquis
of Thang a programme of four kinds of educational institutions,
which he wished him to establish in his state in the villages and
the towns, for the poor as well as the rich, so that none might be
ignorant of his duties in the various relations of society. But
after all, unless the people could get food and clothing by their
labour, he had not much faith in the power of education to make
them virtuous. Give him, however, a government fulfilling the
conditions that he laid down, and he was confident there would
soon be a people, all contented, all virtuous. And he saw nothing
to prevent the realization of such a government. Any ruler might
become, if he would, " the minister of Heayen," who was his ideal,
and the influence of his example and administration would be all-
powerful. The people 'would flock to him as their parent, and
help him to do justice on the foes of truth and happiness. Pulse
and grain would be abundant as water and fire, and the multitudes,
well clothed, and well principled, would sit under the shade of their
mulberry trees, and hail the ruler " king by the grace of Heaven."
Opinions were much divided among his contemporaries on the
subject of human nature. Some held that the nature of man is
neither good nor bad ; he may be made to do good and also to do
evil. Others held that the nature of some men is good, and that
of others bad; thus it is that the best of men sometimes have bad
sons, and the worst of men good sons. It was also maintained
that the nature of man is evil, and whatever good appears in it is
the result of cultivation. In opposition to all these views Mencius
contended that the nature of man is good. " Water," he said,
" will flow indifferently to the east or west; but will it flow
indifferently up or down ? The tendency of man's nature
to goodness is like the tendency of water to flow downwards.
By striking water you may make it leap over your forehead; and
by damming and leading it you may make it go up a hill. But
such movements are not according to the nature of water; it is
the force applied which causes them. When men do what is not
good, their nature has been dealt with in this way." With various,
but equally felicitous, illustration he replied to his different oppo-
nents. Sometimes he may seem to express himself too strongly,
but an attentive study of his writings shows that he is speaking
of our nature in its ideal, and not as it actually is as we may
ascertain, by an analysis of it, that it was intended to be, and not
as it has been made to become.
Mencius insists on the constituents of human nature, dwelling
especially on the principles of benevolence, righteousness, propriety,
and wisdom or knowledge, the last including the judgment of
conscience. " These," said he, " are not infused into us from
without. Men have these four principles just as they have their
four limbs." But man has also instincts and appetites which
seek their own gratification without reference to righteousness
or any other control. He met this difficulty by contending that
human nature is a constitution, in which the higher principles are
designed to rule the lower. " Some constituents of it are noble
and some ignoble, some great and some small. The great must
not be injured for the small, nor the noble for the ignoble."
One of his most vigorous vindications of his doctrine is the
following: "For the mouth to desire flavours, the eye colours,
the ear sounds, and the four limbs ease and rest belong to man's
nature. An individual's lot may restrict him from the gratification
of them; and in such a case the superior man will not say, ' My
nature demands that pleasure, and I will get it.' On the other
hand, there are love between father and son, righteousness between
ruler and minister, the rules of ceremony between host and guest,
and knowledge seen in recognizing the able and virtuous, and in
the sage's fulfilling the heavenly course; these are appointed (by
Heaven). But they also belong to our nature, and the superior man
will not say, ' The circumstances of my lot relieve me from them.' "
When he proceeded from his ideal of human nature to account
for the actual phenomena of conduct, he was necessarily less success-
ful. " There is nothing good," he said, " that a man cannot do;
he only does not do it." But why does he not do it ? Against
the stubborn fact Mencius beats his wings and shatters his weapons
all in vain. He mentions a few ancient .worthies who, he con-
ceived, had always been, or who had become, perfectly virtuous.
Above them all he extols Confucius, taking no notice of that sage's
confession that he had not attained to conformity to his own rule
of doing to others as he would have them do to him. No such
acknowledgment about himself ever came from Mencius. Therein
he was inferior to his predecessor: he had a subtler faculty of
thought, and a much more vivid imagination ; but he did not know
himself nor his special subject of human nature so well.
A few passages illustrative of his style and general teachings
will complete all that can be said of him here. His thoughts,
indeed, were seldom condensed like those of " the master " into
aphorisms, and should be read in their connexion; but we have
from him many words of wisdom that have been as goads to millions
for more than two thousand years. For instance:
" Though a man may be wicked, yet, if he adjust his thoughts,
fast, and bathe, he may sacrifice to God."
" When Heaven is about to confer a great office on any man, it
first exercises his mind with suffering, and his sinews and bones
with toil. It exposes his body to hunger, subjects him to extreme
poverty, and confounds his undertakings. In all these ways
it stimulates his mind, strengthens his nature, and supplies his
incompetencies."
" The great man is he who does not lose his child-heart."
MENDE MENDELISM
" The sense of shame is to a man of great importance. When one
is ashamed of having been without shame, he will afterwards not
have occasion for shame."
" To nourish the heart there is nothing better than to keep the
desires few. Here is a man whose desires are few; in some things
he may not be able to keep his heart, but they will be few. Here
is a man whose desires are many; in some things he may be able
to keep his heart, but they will be few."
" Benevolence is the distinguishing characteristic of man. As
embodied in his conduct, it may be called the path of duty."
" There is an ordination for everything; and a man should receive
submissively what may be correctly ascribed thereto. He who
has the correct idea of what Heaven's ordination is will not stand
beneath a tottering wall. Death sustained in the discharge of one's
duties may be correctly ascribed to Heaven. Death under handcuffs
and fetters cannot be correctly so ascribed."
" When one by force subdues men, they do not submit to him
in heart. When he subdues them by virtue, in their hearts' core
they are pleased, and sincerely submit."
Two translations of the works of Mencius are within the reach
of European readers: that by Stanislaus Julien, in Latin (Paris,
1824-1829); and that forming the second volume of Legge's Chinese
Classics (Hong- Kong, 1862). The latter has been published at
London (1875) without the Chinese text. See also E. Faber, The
Mind of Mencius, or Political Economy founded on Moral Philo-
sophy, translated from the German by A. B. Hutchinson (London,
1882). (J. LE.)
MENDE, a town of south-eastern France, capital of the
department of Lozere, 59 m. N.N.E. of Millau by rail. Pop.
(1906), town 5246; commune 7007. Mende is picturesquely
situated on the left bank of the Lot, and at the foot of the
Mimat cliff, which rises 1000 ft. above the town, and terminates
the Causse de Mende. The town is the seat of a bishopric.
Its cathedral of St Peter was founded in the i4th century by
Pope Urban V., a native of the district, but the two towers,
respectively 280 and 210 ft. high, were added by Bishop Francois
de la Rovere in the early part of the i6th century. Partly
destroyed during the devastation of the town by the Protestants
in 1579 and 1580, it was rebuilt in the I7th century, and in
1874 a statue of Urban V. was erected in front of it. A Renais-
sance tower of the ancient citadel now serves as the belfry
of the church of the Penitents, and a 14th-century bridge
crosses the Lot. The town is a convenient centre for visitors
to the gorges of the Tarn. It is the seat of a prefect and a
court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance and a chamber
of commerce. The chief industry is the manufacture of serges
and shalloons, known as Mende stuffs, exported to Spain, Italy
and Germany.
Mende (Mimate) grew up around the hermitage, partly
excavated in the side of the Mimat cliff, to which St Privat,
bishop of Javols, retreated after the destruction of that town,
and where he was subsequently slain by the Vandals, who had
pursued him thither, about 408. In the I4th century the new
town became the civil, as it had previously been the ecclesiastical,
capital of the Gevaudan district.
MENDELEEFF, DMITRI IVANOVICH (1834-1907), Russian
chemist, the youngest of a family of seventeen, was born at
Tobolsk, Siberia, on the 7th of February (N.S.) 1834. After
attending the gymnasium of his native place, he went to
study natural science at St Petersburg, where he graduated in
chemistry in 1856, subsequently becoming privatdozent. In
1860 he went to Heidelberg, where he started a laboratory
of his own, but returning to St Petersburg in 1861, he became
professor of chemistry in the technological institute there in
1863, and three years later succeeded to the same chair in the
university. In 1890 he resigned the professorship, and in 1893
he was appointed director of the Bureau of Weights and
Measures, a post which he occupied till his death.
Mendeleeff 's original work covered a wide range, from questions
in applied chemistry to the most general problems of chemical and
physical theory. His name is best known for his work on the
Periodic Law. Various chemists had traced numerical sequences
among the atomic weights of some of the elements and noted
connexions between them and the properties of the different
substances; but it was left to him to give a full expression to the
generalization, and to treat it not merely as a system of classify-
ing the elements according to certan observed facts, but as a
" law of nature" which could be relied upon to predict new facts
and to disclose errors in what were supposed to be old facts.
Thus in 1871 he was led by certain gaps in his tables to assert the
existence of three new elements so far unknown to the chemist,
and to assign them definite properties These three he called
ekaboron, ekaaluminium, and ekasilicon; and his prophecy
was completely vindicated within fifteen years by the discovery
.oLgallium in 1871, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886.
Again, in several cases he ventured to question the correctness
of the " accepted atomic weights," on the ground that they
did not correspond with the Periodic Law, and here also he
was justified by subsequent investigation. In 1902, in an
" attempt at a chemical conception of the ether," he put
forward the hypothesis that there are in existence two elements
of smaller atomic weight than hydrogen, and that the lighter
of these is a chemically inert, exceedingly mobile, all-pene-
trating and all-pervading gas, which constitutes the aether.
Mendeleeff also devoted much study to the nature of such
" indefinite " compounds as solutions, which he looked upon
as homogeneous liquid systems of unstable dissociating com-
pounds of the solvent with the substance dissolved, holding
the opinion that they are merely an instance of ordinary definite
or atomic compounds, subject to Dalton's laws. In another
department of physical chemistry he investigated the expansion
of liquids with heat, and devised a formula for its expression
similar to Gay-Lussac's law of the uniformity of the expansion
of gases, while so far back as 1861 he anticipated T. Andrews's
conception of the critical temperature of gases by defining
the absolute boiling-point of a substance .as_the temperature
at which cohesion and heat of vaporization become equal to
zero and the liquid changes to vapour, irrespective of the pressure
and volume. Mendeleeff wrote largely on chemical topics,
his most widely known book probably being The Principles of
Chemistry, which was written in 1868-1870, and has gone through
many subsequent editions in various languages. For his work
on the Periodic Law he was awarded in 1882, at the same time
as L. Meyer, the Davy medal of the Royal Society, and in 1905
he received its Copley medal. He died at St Petersburg on
the 2nd of February 1907.
See W. A. Tilden, " Mendeleeff Memorial Lecture," Jour. Chem.
Soc., 95, p. 2077.
MENDELISM. To define what some biologists call Men-
delism briefly is not possible. Within recent years there has
come to biologists a new idea of the nature of living things,
a new conception of their potentialities and of their limitations;
and for this we are primarily indebted to the work of Gregor
Mendel. Peasant boy, monk, and abbot of Briinn, this remark-
able man at one time interested himself in the workings of
heredity, and the experiments devised by him and carried out
in his cloister garden are to-day the foundation of that exact
knowledge of the physiological process of heredity which bio-
logists are rapidly extending in various directions. This extension
Mendel never saw. Born in 1822 he published the account
of his experiments in 1865. but it was not until 1900, eighteen
years after his death, that biologists came to appreciate what
he had accomplished. That year marked the simultaneous
rediscovery of his work by three distinguished botanists: Hugo
de Vries, C. Correns and E. Tschermak. Thenceforward
Mendel's ideas have steadily gained ground, and, as the already
strong body of evidence in their favour grows, they must come
to exert upon biological conceptions an influence not less than
those associated with the name of Darwin.
Dominant and Recessive. Mendel chose the common pea
(Pisum sativum) as a subject for experiment, and investigated
the effects of crossing different varieties. In his method he
differed from previous investigators in concentrating his atten-
tion on the mode of inheritance of a single pair of alternative
characters at a time. Thus on crossing a tall with a dwarf
and paying attention to this pair of characters alone, he found
that the hybrids (or FI generation) were all tall and that no
intermediates appeared. Accordingly he termed the tall
character dominant ar.d the dwarf character recessive. On
allowing these hybrids to fertilize themselves in the ordinary
n6
MENDELISM
FIG. i.
way he obtained a further generation which on the average
was composed of three tails to one dwarf. Subsequent experi-
ment showed that the
Tx D P dwarfs always bred true,
as did also one out of
every three tails; the two
remaining tails behaved
as the original hybrids in
giving three tails to one
dwarf. Having regard to
the characters, tallness
and dwarfness, three and
only three kinds of peas
exist, viz. dwarfs which
breed true, tails which
breed true, and tails which give a fixed proportion of tails
and dwarfs. The relation between these three forms may
be briefly summarized in the subjoined scheme, in which
pure tall and dwarf are represented by T and D respectively,
while [T] denotes the tails which do not breed true. Experi-
ments were also made with several other pairs of characters,
and the same mode of inheritance was shown to hold good
throughout.
Unit-Characters. As Mendel clearly perceived, these definite
results lead inevitably to a precise conception of the consti-
tution of the reproductive cells, or gametes; and to appreciate
fully the change wrought in our point of view necessitates
a brief digression into the essential features of the reproductive
process. A sexual process (see SEX) is almost universal among
animals and plants, and consists essentially of the union of
two gametes, of which one is produced by either parent. Every
gamete contains small definite bodies known as chromosomes,
and the number of these is, with few known exceptions, con-
stant for the gametes of a given species. On the fusion of two
gametes the resulting cell or zygote has therefore a double
structure, for it contains an equal number of chromosomes
brought in by the paternal and by the maternal gamete
in the case of a plant by the pollen grain as well as by the
ovule. By a process of re-
peated division the zygote
gives rise to a plant (or an
animal) whose cells appar-
ently retain the double
structure throughout. Cer-
tain of the cells of such a
zygote become the germ
cells and are set apart, as
it were, for the formation
of gametes. Histology has
shown that when this occurs
the cells lose the double
structure which they had
hitherto possessed, and that
as the result of a process
known as the reduction
division gametes are formed
in which the number of
chromosomes is one half
of that which characterizes
the cells of the zygote. It
is generally acknowledged
that the chromosomes play
an important part in the
hereditary process, and it is
possible that the divisions which they undergo in gametogenesis
are connected with the observed inheritance of characters.
We shall refer later to the few observations which seem to connect
the two sets of phenomena.
Our conception of what occurs when a cross is made between
two individuals may be illustrated by the diagram which forms
fig. 2. Zygotes are here represented by squares and gametes
by circles. The dominant and recessive characters are indicated
Parents
FaZygotu
FIG. 2.
by small plain and black rectangles. Each zygote must con-
tain two and each gamete but one of these unit-characters.
Zygotes such as the original parents which breed true to a given
character are said to be homozygous for that character, and
from their nature such homozygotes must produce identical
gametes. Consequently when a cross is made only one kind
of zygote can be formed, viz. that containing both the
dominant and recessive unit-characters. When the germ-cells
of such a heterozygote split to form gametes, these, as indicated
in fig. 2, will be of two sorts containing the dominant and re-
cessive characters respectively, and will be produced in equal
numbers. If we are dealing with a hermaphrodite plant such as
the pea the ovules will consist of one half bearing only the
dominant character and one half bearing only the recessive
character; and this will be true also of the pollen grains.
Consequently each dominant ovule has an equal chance of
being fertilized by a dominant or by a recessive pollen grain,
and the dominant ovules must therefore give rise to equal
numbers of dominant homozygous and of heterozygous plants.
Similarly the recessive ovules must give rise to equal numbers
of recessive homozygotes and of heterozygotes. Hence of
the total offspring of such a plant one quarter will be pure
dominants, one quarter recessives, and one half heterozygotes
as indicated in fig. 2. Where one character is completely
dominant over the other, heterozygotes will be indistinguish-
able in appearance from the homozygous dominant, and the
p2 generation will be composed of three plants of the domi-
nant form to each recessive. These are the proportions actually
found by Mendel in the pea and by many other more recent
observers in a number of plants and animals. The experi-
mental facts are in accordance with the conception of unit-
characters and their transmission from zygote to gamete in
the way outlined above; and the numerical results of breeding
experiments are to be regarded as proving that in the forma-
tion of gametes from the heterozygote the unit-characters are
treated as unblending entities separating cleanly, or segregating,
from one another. From this it follows that any gamete can
carry but one of a pair of unit-characters and must therefore
be pure for that character. The principle of the segregation
of characters in gametogenesis with its natural corollary,
the purity of the gametes, is the essential part of Mendel's
discoveries. The quite distinct phenomenon of dominance
observed by him in Pisum occurs in many other cases, but, as
will appear below, is by no means universal.
Illustrations. Mendelian inheritance in its simplest form,
i.e. for a single pair of characters, has already been shown to
occur in many species of animals and plants, and for many
very diverse characters. In some cases complete dominance
of one of the pair of unit-characters occurs; in others the form
of heterozygote is more or less intermediate. Fresh cases
are continually being recorded and the following short list
can but serve to give some idea of the variety of characters in
which Mendelian inheritance has been demonstrated.
A. Dominance nearly or quite complete. (The dominant
character is given first).
Tall and dwarf habit (pea, sweet pea).
Round seed and wrinkled seed (pea).
Long pollen and round pollen (sweet pea).
Starch and sugar endosperm (maize).
Hoariness and absence of hairs (stocks, Lychnis).
Beardjess and bearded condition (wheat).
Prickliness and smoothness of fruits (Datura).
Palm and fern leaf (Primula).
Purple and red flowers (sweet pea, stocks, &c.).
Fertility and sterility of anthers (sweet pea).
Susceptibility and immunity to rust (wheat).
Rose comb and single comb (fowls).
Black and white plumage (Rosecomb bantams).
Grey and black coat colour (rabbits, mice).
Bay and chestnut coat colour (horses).
Pigmentation and albinism (rabbits, rats, mice).
Polled and horned condition (cattle).
Short and long " Angora " coat (rabbits).
Normal and waltzing habit (mice).
Deformed hand with but two phalanges in digits and normal
hand (man).
MENDELISM
117
B. Absence of dominance, the heterozygote being more or less
intermediate in form.
Black and white splashed plumage (Andalusian fowls).
Lax and dense ears (wheat).
Six rowed and two rowed ears (barley).
Dominance. The meaning of this phenomenon is at present
obscure, and we can make no suggestion as to why it should
be complete in one case, partial in another, and entirely absent
in a third. When found it is as a rule definite and orderly,
but there are cases known where irregularity exists. The
extra toe characteristic of certain breeds of fowls, such as Dork-
ings, behaves generally as a dominant character, but in certain
cases it has been ascertained that a fowl without an extra toe
may yet carry the extra toe character. It is possible that in
some cases dominance may be conditioned by the presence of
other features, and certain crosses in sheep lend colour to the
supposition that sex may be such a feature. A cross between
the polled Suffolk and the horned Dorset breeds results in
horned rams and polled ewes only, though in the F 2 generation
both sexes appear with and without horns. At present the
simplest hypothesis which fits the facts is that horns are domi-
nant in the male and recessive in the female. It is important
not to confuse cases of apparent reversal of dominance such
as the above with cases in which a given visible character may
be the result of two entirely different causes. One white hen
may give only colour chicks by a coloured cock, whilst the
same cock with another white hen, indistinguishable in appear-
ance from the former, will give only white chickens containing
a few dark ticks. There is here no reversal of dominance,
but, as has been abundantly proved by experiment, there are
two entirely distinct classes of white fowls, of which one is
dominant and the other recessive to colour.
The Presence and Absence Hypothesis. Whether the pheno-
menon of dominance occur or not, the unit-characters exist
in pairs, of which the members are seemingly interchangeable.
In virtue of this behaviour the unit-characters forming such
a pair have been termed allelomorphic to one another, and
the question arises as to what is the nature of the relation
between two allelomorphs. The fact that such cases of heredity
as have been fully worked out can all be formulated in terms
of allelomorphic pairs is suggestive, and has led to what may
be called the " presence and absence " hypothesis. An allelo-
morphic pair represents the only two possible states of any
given unit-character in its relation to the gamete, viz. its pre-
sence or its absence. When the unit-character is present the
quality for which it stands is manifested in the zygote: when
it is absent some other quality previously concealed is able
to appear. When the unit-character for yellowness is present
in a pea the seeds are yellow, when it is absent the seeds are
green. The green character is underlying in all yellow seeds,
but can only appear in the absence of the unit-character for
yellowness, and greenness is allelomorphic to yellowness because
it is the expression of absence of yellowness.
Dihybridism. The instances hitherto considered are all
simple cases in which the individuals crossed differ only in
one pair of unit-characters. Mendel himself worked out cases
in which the parents differed in more than one allelomorphic
pair, and he pointed out that the principles involved were
capable of indefinite extension. The inheritance of the various
allelomorphic pairs is to be regarded as entirely independent.
For example, when two individuals A A and aa are crossed
the composition of the F 2 generation must be A A + zAa+aa.
If we suppose that the two parents differ also in the allelo-
morphic pair B-b, the composition of the F 2 generation for
this pair will be BB + iBb + bb. Hence of the zygotes which
are homozygous for A A one quarter will carry also BB, one
quarter bb, and one half Bb. And similarly for the zygotes
which carry A a or aa. The various combinations possible
together with the relative frequencies of their occurrence may
be gathered from fig. 3. Of the 1 6 zygotes there are:
9 containing A and B 3 containing B but not A
3 A but not B i neither A nor B
In a case of dihybridism the F! zygote must be heterozygous for
the two allelomorphic pairs, i.e. must be of the constitution
Aa Bb. It is obvious that such a result may be produced in two
ways, either by the union of two gametes,
Ab and aB, or of two gametes AB and
ab. In the former case each parent
must be homozygous for one dominant
and one recessive character; in the
latter case one parent must be homo-
zygous for both the dominant and the
other for both recessive characters.
The results of a cross involving,
dihybridism may be complicated in
several ways by the reaction upon one
BB
Bb
Aa
BB
Aa,
Bb
AA
KB
AA
bb
Aa
bB
Aa
bb
aA
BB
aA
Bb
aa
BB
aa
Bb
OA
bE
aA
bb
aft
bB
aa
bb
FIG. 3.
another of the unit-characters belonging to the separate
allelomorphic pairs, and it will be convenient to consider
the various possibilities apart.
i. The simplest case is that in which the two allelomorphic
pairs affect entirely distinct characters. In the pea tallness
is dominant to dwarfness and yellow seeds are dominant to
green. When a yellow tall is crossed with a green dwarf the
FI generation consists entirely of tall yellows. Precisely the
same result is obtained by crossing a tali green with a dwarf
yellow. In either case all the four characters involved are
visible in one or other of the parents. Of every 16 plants
produced by the tall yellow FI, 9 are tall yellows, 3 are tall
greens, 3 are dwarf yellows, and i is a dwarf green. If we
denote the tall and dwarf characters by A and a, and the yellow
PEA
ROSE
WALNUT FIG. 4. /SINGLE
The four types of comb referred to in the text are shown here.
All the drawings were made from male birds. In the hens the
combs are smaller. All four types of comb are liable to a certain
amount of minor variation, and the walnut especially so. The
presence of minute bristles on its posterior portion, however,
serves at once to distinguish it from any other comb.
and green seed characters by B and 6 respectively, then the
constitution of the F 2 generation can be readily gathered from
fig. 3-
2. When the two allelomorphic pairs affect the same structure
we may get the phenomenon of novelties appearing in FI and
F 2 . Certain breeds of fowls have a " rose " and others a " pea "
comb (fig. 4). On crossing the two a " walnut " comb
results, and the offspring of such walnuts bred together consist
of 9 walnuts, 3 roses, 3 peas, and i single comb in every
1 6 birds. This case may be brought into line with the scheme
in fig. 3 if we consider the allelomorphic pairs concerned to
n8
MENDELISM
be rose (A) and absence of rose (a), and pea (B) and absence
of pea (b). The zygotic constitution of a rose is therefore
A Abb, and of a pea aaBB. A zygote containing both rose
and pea is a walnut: a zygote containing neither rose nor pea
is a single. The peculiar feature of such a case lies in the fact
that absence of rose and absence of pea are the same thing,
i.e. single; and this is doubtless owing to the fact that the
characters rose and pea both affect the same structure, the
comb.
3. Cases exist in which the characters due to one allelo-
morphic pair can only become manifest in the presence of a
particular member of the other pair. If in fig. 3 the characters
due to B-b can only manifest themselves in the presence of
A, it is obvious that this can happen in twelve cases out of
sixteen, but not in the remaining four, which are homozygous
for aa. An example of this is to be found in the inheritance
of coat colour in rabbits, rats and mice where the allelomorphic
pairs concerned are wild grey colour (B) dominant to black
(b) and pigmentation (4) dominant to albinism (a). Certain
albinos (aaBB) crossed with blacks (^4^166) give only greys
(AaBb), and when these are bred together they give 9 greys,
3 blacks and 4 albinos. Of the 4 albinos 3 carry the grey
character and i does not, but in the absence of the pigmenta-
tion factor (.4) this is not visible. The ratio 9:3:4 must be
regarded as a 9 : 3 : 3 : i ratio, in which the last two terms are
visibly indistinguishable owing to the impossibility of telling
by the eye whether an albino carries the character for grey
or not.
4. The appearance of a zygotic character may depend upon
the coexistence in the zygote of two unit-characters belonging
to different allelomorphic pairs. If in the scheme shown in
fig. 3 the manifestation of a given character depends upon
the simultaneous presence of A and B, it is obvious that 9 of
the 1 6 zygotes will present this character, whilst the remaining
7 will be without it. This is shown graphically in fig. 5, where
the 9 squares have been shaded
and the 7 left plain. The sweet pea
offers an example of this phenom-
enon. White sweet peas breed true
to whiteness, but when certain strains
of whites are crossed the offspring
are all coloured. In the next genera-
tion (F 2 ) these FI plants give rise to 9
coloured and 7 whites in every 16
plants. Colour here is a compound
character whose manifestation depends
upon the co-existence of two factors
FIG. 5.
in the zygote, and each of the original parents was homozy-
gous for one of the two factors necessary to the production
of colour. The ratio 9 : 7 is in reality a 9:3:3:1 ratio
in which, owing to special conditions, the zygotes represented
by the last three terms are indistinguishable from one another
by the eye.
The phenomena of dihybridism, as illustrated by the four
examples given above, have been worked out in many other
cases for plants and animals. Emphasis must be laid upon
the fact that, although the unit-characters belonging to two
pairs may react upon one another in the zygote and affect
its character, their inheritance is yet entirely independent.
Neither grey nor black can appear in the rabbit unless the
pigmentation factor is also present; nevertheless, gametic
segregation of this pair of characters takes place in the normal
way among albino rabbits, though its effects are never visible
until a suitable cross is made. In cases of trihybridism the
Mendelian ratio for the forms appearing in Fz is 27 : 9 : 9 : 9:
3 13 : 3 : i, i.e. 27 showing dominance of three characters, three
groups of 9 each showing dominance of two characters, three
groups of 3 each showing dominance of one character, and
a single individual out of 64 which is homozygous for all three
recessive characters. It is obvious that the system can be
indefinitely extended to embrace any number of allelomorphic
pairs.
Reversion. Facts such as those just dealt with in connexion
with certain cases of dihybridism throw an entirely new light
upon the phenomenon known as reversion on crossing. This
is now seen to consist in the meeting of factors which had in
some way or other become separated in phylogeny. The
albino rabbit when crossed with the black " reverts " to the
wild grey colour, because each parent supplies one of the two
factors upon which the manifestation of the wild colour depends.
So also the wild purple sweet pea may come as a reversion
on crossing two whites. In such cases the reversion appears
in the FI generation, because the two factors upon which it
depends are the dominants of their respective allelomorphic
pairs. Where the reversion depends upon the simultaneous
absence of two characters it cannot appear until the F2 genera-
tion. When fowls with rose and pea combs are crossed the
reversionary single comb characteristic of the wild Callus bankiva
first appears in the Fa generation.
Gametic Coupling. In certain cases the distribution of char-
acters in heredity is complicated by the fact that particular
unit-characters tend to become associated or coupled together
during gametogenesis. In no case have we yet a complete
explanation of the phenomenon, but in view of the important
FIG. 6.
bearing which these facts must eventually have on our ideas
of the gametogenic process an illustration may be given.
The case in which two white sweet peas gave a coloured on
crossing has already been described, and it was seen that the
production of colour was dependent upon the meeting of two
factors, of which one was brought in by each parent. If the
allelomorphic pairs be denoted by C-c and R-r, then the zygotic
constitution of the two parents must have been CCrr and
ccRR respectively. The FI plant may be either purple or red,
two characters which form an allelomorphic pair in which
the former is dominant, and which may be denoted by the
letters B-b. If B is brought in by one parent only the FI
plant will be heterozygous for all three allelomorphic pairs,
and therefore of the constitution Cc Rr Bb. In the Fz generation
the ratio of coloured to white must be 9 : 7, and of purple to
red 3:1; and experiment has shown that this generation is
composed on the average of 27 purples, 9 reds and 28 whites
out of every 64 plants. The exact composition of such a family
may be gathered from the accompanying table (fig. 6). So
far the case is perfectly smooth, and it is only on the introduction
of another character that the phenomenon of partial coupling
is witnessed. Two kinds of pollen grain occur in the sweet
pea. In some plants they are oblong in shape, whilst in others
they are round, the latter condition being recessive to the
former. If the original white parents were homozygous for long
and round respectively the FI purple must be heterozygous, and
in the Fz generation, as experiment has shown, the ratio of
longs to rounds for the whole family is 3 : i. But among the
purples there are about twelve longs to each round, the excess
of longs here being balanced by the reds, where the proportion
MENDELISM
119
is i long to about 3-5 rounds. There is partial coupling
of long pollen with the purple colour and a complementary
coupling of th.e red colour with round pollen. This result
would be brought about if it were supposed that seven out of
every eight purple gametes produced by the F! plant carried
the long pollen character, and that seven out of every eight
red gametes carried the round pollen character. The facts
observed fit in with the supposition that the gametes are pro-
duced in series of sixteen, but how such result could be brought
about is a question which for the present must remain open.
Spurious Allelomorphism. Instances of association between
characters are known in which the connection is between the
dominant member of one pair and the recessive of another.
In many sweet peas the standard folds over towards the wings,
and the flower is said to be hooded. This " hooding " behaves
as a recessive towards the erect standard. Red sap colour
is also recessive to purple. In families where purples and
reds as well as erect and hooded standards occur it has been
found, as might be expected, that erect standards are to hooded
ones, and that purples are to reds as 3:1. Were the case one
of simple dihybridism the Fj generation should be composed
of 9 erect purples, 3 hooded purples, 3 erect reds and i
hooded red in every 16. Actually it is composed of 8 erect
purples, 4 hooded purples and 4 erect reds. The hood will not
associate with the red, but occurs only on the purples. Cases
like this are best interpreted on the assumption that during
gametogenesis there is some form of repulsion between the
members of the different pairs in the present instance between
the factor for purple and that for the erect standard so that
all the gametes which contain the purple factor are free from
the factor for the erect standard. To the process involved
in this assumption the term spurious allelomorphism has been
applied.
Sex. On the existing evidence it is probable that the in-
heritance of sex runs upon the same determinate lines as that
of other characters. Indeed, there occurs in the sweet pea
what may be regarded as an instance of sex inheritance of
the simplest kind. Most sweet peas are hermaphrodite, but
some are found in which the anthers are sterile and the plants
function only as females. This latter condition is recessive to
the hermaphrodite one and segregates from it in the ordinary
way. Most cases of sex inheritance, however, are complicated,
and it is further possible that the phenomena may be of a
different order in plants and animals. Instructive in this
connexion are certain cases in which one of the characters
of an allelomorphic pair may be coupled with a particular sex.
The pale lacticolor variety of the currant moth (Abraxas
grossulariata) is recessive to the normal form, and in families
produced by heterozygous parents one quarter of the offspring
are of the variety. Though the sexes occur in approximately
equal numbers, all the lacticolor in such families are females;
and the association of sex with a character exhibiting normal
segregation is strongly suggestive of a similar process obtaining
for sex also. Castle has worked out similar cases in other
Lepidoptera and has put forward an hypothesis of sex in-
heritance on the basis of the Mendelian segregation of sex
determinants. An ovum or spermatozoon can carry either the
male or the female character, but it is essential to Castle's
hypothesis that a male spermatozoon should fertilize only a
female ovum and vice versa, and consequently on his view all
zygotes are heterozygous in respect of sex. Whether any such
gametic selection as that postulated by Castle occurs here or
elsewhere must for the present remain unanswered. Little
evidence exists for it at present, but the possibility of its
occurrence should not be ignored.
More recently evidence has been brought forward by Bateson
and others (3) which supports the view that the inheritance
of sex is on Mendelian lines. The analysis of cases where there
is a closer association between a Mendelian character and a
particular sex has suggested that femaleness is here dominant
to maleness, and that the latter sex is homozygous while the
former is heterozygous.
Chromosomes and Unit-Characters. Breeding experiments
have established the conception of definite unit-characters
existing in the cells of an organism: in the cell histology has
demonstrated the existence of small definite bodies the
chromosomes. During gametogenesis there takes place what
many histologists regard as a differentiating division of the
chromosomes: at the same period occurs the segregation of the
unit-characters. Is there a relation between the postulated
unit-character and the visible chromosome, and if so what is
this relation? The researches of E. B. Wilson and others have
shown that in certain Hemiptera the character of sex is definitely
associated with a particular chromosome. The males of Pro-
tenor possess thirteen chromosomes, and the qualitative division
on gametogenesis results in the production of equal numbers
of spermatozoa having six and seven chromosomes. The
somatic number of chromosomes in the female is fourteen, and
consequently all the mature ova have seven chromosomes.
When a spermatozoon with seven chromosomes meets an
ovum the resulting zygote has fourteen chromosomes and is a
female; when a spermatozoon with six chromosomes meets
an ovum the resulting zygote has thirteen chromosomes and
is a male. In no other instance has any such definite relation
been established, and in many cases at any rate it is certain
that it could not be a simple one. The gametic number of
chromosomes in wheat is eight, whereas the work of R. H. Biffen
and others has shown that the number of unit-characters in
this species is considerably greater. If therefore there exists
a definite relation between the two it must be supposed that a
chromosome can carry more than a single unit-character. It
is not impossible that future work on gametic coupling may
throw light upon the matter.
Heredity and Variation. It has long been realized that the
problems of heredity and variation are closely interwoven,
and that whatever throws light upon the one may be expected
to illuminate the other. Recent as has been the rise of the
study of genetics, it has, nevertheless, profoundly influenced
our views as to the nature of these phenomena. Heredity
we now perceive to be a method of analysis, and the facts of
heredity constitute a series of reactions which enable us to
argue towards the constitution of living matter. And essential
to any method of analysis is the recognition of the individuality
of the individual. Constitutional differences of a radical
nature may be concealed beneath apparent identity of external
form. Purple sweet peas from the same pod, indistinguishable
in appearance and of identical ancestry, may yet be funda-
mentally different in their constitution. From one may come
purples, reds and whites, from another only purples and reds,
from another purples and whites alone, whilst a fourth will
breed true to purple. Any method of investigation which
fails to take account of the radical differences in constitution
which may underlie external similarity must necessarily be
doomed to failure. Conversely, we realize to-day that indivi-
duals identical in constitution may yet have an entirely different
ancestral history. From the cross between two fowls with
rose and pea combs, each of irreproachable pedigree for genera-
tions, come single combs in the second generation, and these
singles are precisely similar in their behaviour to singles bred
from strains of unblemished ancestry. In the ancestry of the
one is to be found no single over a long series of years, in the
ancestry of the other nothing but singles occurred. The creature
of given constitution may often be built up in many ways,
but once formed it will behave like others of the same constitu-
tion. The one sure test of the constitution of a living thing
lies in the nature of the gametes which it carries, and it is
the analysis of these gametes which forms the province of
heredity.
The clear cut and definite mode of transmission of characters
first revealed by Mendel leads .inevitably to the conception
of a definite and clear-cut basis for those characters. Upon
this structural basis, the unit-character, are grounded certain
of the phenomena now termed variation. Varieties exist as
such in virtue of differing in one or more unit-characters from
I2O
MENDELSSOHN
what is conventionally termed the type; and since these unit-
characters must from their behaviour in transmission be regarded
as discontinuous in their nature, it follows that the variation
must be discontinuous also. A present tendency of thought
is to regard the discontinuous variation or mutation as the
material upon which natural selection works, and to consider
that the process of evolution takes place by definite steps.
Darwin's opposition to this view rested partly upon the idea
that the discontinuous variation or sport would, from the
rarity of its occurrence, be unable to maintain itself against
the swamping effects of intercrossing with the normal form.
Mendel's work has shown that this objection is not valid, and
the precision of the mode of inheritance of the discontinuous
variation leads us to inquire if the small or fluctuating variation
can be shown to have an equally definite physiological basis
before it is admitted to play any part in the production of
species. Until this has been shown it is possible to consider
the discontinuous variation as the unit in all evolutionary
change, and to regard the fluctuating variation as the unin-
herited effect of environmental accident.
The Human Aspect. In conclusion we may briefly allude to
certain practical aspects of Mendel's discovery. Increased
knowledge of heredity means increased power of control over
the living thing, and as we come to understand more and more
the architecture of the plant or animal we realize what can
and what cannot be done towards modification or improvement.
The experiments of Biffen on the cereals have demonstrated
what may be done with our present knowledge in establishing
new, stable and more profitable varieties of wheat and barley,
and it is impossible to doubt that as this knowledge becomes
more widely disseminated it will lead to considerable improve-
ments in the methods of breeding animals and plants.
It is not, however, in the economic field, important as this
may be, that Mendel's discovery is likely to have most meaning
for us: rather it is in the new light in which man will come
to view himself and his fellow creatures. To-day we are almost
entirely ignorant of the unit-characters that go to make the
difference between one man and another. A few diseases,
such as alcaptonuria and congenital cataract, a digital mal-
formation, and probably eye colour, are as yet the only cases
in which inheritance has been shown to run upon Mendelian
lines. The complexity of the subject must render investigation
at once difficult and slow; but the little that we know to-day
offers the hope of a great extension in our knowledge at no
very distant time. If this hope is borne out, if it is shown
that the qualities of man, his body and his intellect, his im-
munities and his diseases, even his very virtues and vices, are
dependent upon the ascertainable presence or absence of definite
unit-characters whose mode of transmission follows fixed laws,
and if also man decides that his life shall be ordered in the light
of this knowledge, it is obvious that the social system will have
to undergo considerable changes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In the following short list are given the titles of
papers dealing with experiments directly referred to in this article.
References to most of the literature will be found in (ll), and a
complete list to the date of publication in (3).
(l) W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity (Cambridge,
1902), contains translation of Mendel's paper. (2) W. Bateson, An
Address on Mendelian Heredity and its Application to Man,
" Brain," pt. cxiv. (1906). (3) W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles
of Heredity (1909). (4) R. H. Biffen, " Mendel's Laws of In-
heritance and Wheat Breedings," Journ. Agr. Soc., vol. i. (1905)
(5) W. E. Castle, " The Heredity of Sex," Bull. Mas. Camp. Zool.
(Harvard, 1903). (6) L. Cu6not, " L'He're'ditfi de la pigmentation
chez les souris," Arch. Zool. Exp. (1903-1904). (7) H. de Vrics,
Die Mutationstheorie (Leipzig, 1901-1903). (8) L. Doncaster and
G. H. Raynor, " Breeding Experiments with Lepidoptera," Proc.
Zool. Soc. (London, 1906). (9) C. C. Hurst, " Experimental
Studies on Heredity in Rabbits," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1905). (10)
G. J. Mendel, Versuche iiber Pflanzen-Hybriden, Verh. natur. f. ver.
in Brunn, Bd. IV. (1865). (u) Reports to the Evolution Committee
of the Royal Society, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1902-1906, experiments by
W. Bateson, E. R. Saunders, R. C. Punnett, C. C. Hurst and others).
(12) E. B. Wilson, " Studies in Chromosomes," vols. i.-iii. Journ.
Exp. Zool. (1905-1906). (13) T. B. Wood, " Note on the Inheri-
tance of Horns and Face Colour in Sheep," Journ. Agr. Soc. vol. i.
(1905). (R. C. P.)
MENDELSSOHN, MOSES (1729-1786), Jewish philosopher,
was born in Dessau in 1729. His father's name was Mendel,
and he was later on surnamed Mendelssohn ( = son of Mendel).
He was the foremost Jewish figure of the i8th century, and to
him is attributable the renaissance of the House of Israel. With
this third Moses (the other two being the Biblical lawgiver
and Moses Maimonides) a new era opens in the history of the
Jewish people. Mendel Dessau was a poor scribe a writer
of scrolls and his son Moses in his boyhood developed curvature
of the spine. His early education was cared for by his father
and by the local rabbi, David Frankel. The latter, besides
teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him the
philosophy of Maimonides (q.v.). Frankel received a call to
Berlin in 1743. Not many months later a weakly lad knocked
at one of the gates of Berlin. He was admitted after an alterca-
tion, and found a warm welcome at the hands of his former
teacher. His life at this period was a struggle against crushing
poverty, but his scholarly ambition was never relaxed. A
refugee Pole, Zamosz, taught him mathematics, and a young
Jewish physician was his tutor in Latin. He was, however,
mainly self-taught. " He learned to spell and to philosophize
at the same time " (Graetz). With his scanty earnings he
bought a Latin copy of Locke's Essay concerning the Human
Understanding, and mastered it with the aid of a Latin dictionary.
He then made the acquaintance of Aaron Solomon Gumperz,
who taught him the elements of French and English. In 1750
he was appointed by a wealthy silk-merchant, Isaac Bernhard,
as teacher to his children. Mendelssohn soon won the confidence
of Bernhard, who made the young student successively his
book-keeper and his partner.
Gumperz or Hess rendered a conspicuous service to Mendels-
sohn and to the cause of enlightenment in 1754 by introducing
him to Lessing. Just as the latter afterwards makes Nathan
the Wise and Saladin meet over the chess-board, so did Lessing
and Mendelssohn actually come together as lovers of the game.
The Berlin of the day the day of Frederick the Great was
in a moral and intellectual ferment. Lessing was the great
liberator of the German mind. He had already begun his work
of toleration, for he had recently produced a drama (Die
Juden, 1749), the motive of which was to prove that a Jew can
be possessed of nobility of character. This notion was being
generally ridiculed as untrue, when Lessing found in Mendels-
sohn the realization of his dream. Within a few months of
the same age, the two became brothers in intellectual and artistic
cameraderie. Mendelssohn owed his first introduction to
the public to Lessing's admiration. The former had written
in lucid German an attack on the national neglect of native
philosophers (principally Leibnitz), and lent the manuscript
to Lessing. Without consulting the author, Lessing published
anonymously Mendelssohn's Philosophical Conversations (Philo-
sophische Gesprache) in 1755. In the same year there appeared
in Danzig an anonymous satire, Pope a Metaphysician (Pope
ein Metaphysiker), the authorship of which soon transpired.
It was the joint work of Lessing and Mendelssohn. From
this time Mendelssohn's career was one of ever-increasing
brilliance. He became (1756-1759) the leading spirit of Nicolai's
important literary undertakings, the Bibliothek and the Lileratur-
briefe, and ran some risk (which Frederick's good nature
obviated) by somewhat freely criticizing the poems of the
king of Prussia. In 1762 he married. His wife was Fromet
Gugenheim, who survived him by twenty-six years. In the
year following his marriage Mendelssohn won the prize offered
by the Berlin Academy for an essay on the application of mathe-
matical proofs to metaphysics, although among the competitors
were Abbt and Kant. In October 1763 the king granted
Mendelssohn the privilege of Protected Jew (Schutz-Jude)
which assured his right to undisturbed residence in Berlin.
As a result of his correspondence with Abbt, Mendelssohn
resolved to write on the Immortality of the Soul. Materialistic
views were at the time rampant and fashionable, and faith
in immortality was at a low ebb. At this favourable juncture
appeared the Phadon (1767). Modelled on Plato's dialogue
MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY
121
of the same" name, Mendelssohn's work possessed some of the
charm of its Greek exemplar. What most impressed the
German world was its beauty and lucidity of style features to
which Mendelssohn still owes his popularity as a writer. The
Phadon was an immediate success, and besides being often
reprinted in German was speedily translated into nearly all
the European languages, including English. The author was
hailed as the " German Plato," or the " German Socrates ";
royal and other aristocratic friends showered attentions on
him, and it is no exaggeration to assert with Kayserling that
" no stranger who came to Berlin failed to pay his personal
respects to the German Socrates."
So far, Mendelssohn had devoted his talents to philosophy
and criticism; now, however, an incident turned the current
of his life in the direction of the cause of Judaism. Lavater
was one of the most ardent admirers of Mendelssohn. He
described him as " a companionable, brilliant soul, with piercing
eyes, the body of an Aesop a man of keen insight, exquisite taste
and wide erudition . . . frank and open-hearted." Lavater
was fired with the ambition to convert his friend to Christianity.
In the preface to a German translation of Bonnet's essay on
Christian Evidences, Lavater publicly challenged Mendelssohn
to refute Bonnet or if he could not then to " do what wisdom,
the love of truth and honesty must bid him, what a Socrates
would have done if he had read the book and found it unanswer-
able." This appeal produced a painful impression. Bonnet
resented Lavater's action, but Mendelssohn was bound to
reply, though opposed to religious controversy. As he put
it: " Suppose there were living among my contemporaries
a Confucius or a Solon, I could, according to the principles
of my faith, love and admire the great man without fall-
ing into the ridiculous idea that I must convert a Solon or a
Confucius."
Here we see the germs of Mendelssohn's Pragmatism, to
use the now current term. He shared this with Lessing; in
this case, at all events, it is probable that the latter was indebted
to Mendelssohn. But before discussing this matter, we must
follow out the consequences of Lavater's intrusion into Mendels-
sohn's affairs. The latter resolved to devote the rest of his
life to the emancipation of the Jews. Among them secular
studies had been neglected, and Mendelssohn saw that he could
best remedy the defect by attacking it on the religious side.
A great chapter in the history of culture is filled by the influence
of translations of the Bible. Mendelssohn added a new section
to this chapter by his German translation of the Pentateuch
and other parts of the Bible. This work (1783) constituted
Mendelssohn the Luther of the German Jews. From it, the Jews
learned the German language; from it they imbibed culture;
with it there was born a new desire for German nationality;
as a result of its popularity was inaugurated a new system of
Jewish education. Some of the conservatives among the Jews
opposed these innovations, but the current of progress was too
strong for them. Mendelssohn was the first great champion of
Jewish emancipation in the i8th century. He it was who
induced C. W. Dohm to publish in 1781 his epoch-making
work, On the Civil Amelioration of the Condition of the Jews,
a memorial which played a great part in the triumph of tolerance.
Mendelssohn himself published a German translation of the
Vindiciae judaeorum by Menasseh ben Israel. The excitement
caused by these proceedings led Mendelssohn to publish his
most important contribution to the problems connected with
the position of Judaism in relation to the general life.
This work was the Jerusalem (1783; Eng. trans. 1838
and 1852). It is a forcible plea for freedom of conscience.
Kant described it as " an irrefutable book." Its basic idea
is that the state had no right to interfere with the religion of
its citizens. As Kant put it, this was " the proclamation of
a great reform, which, however, will be slow in manifestation
and in progress, and which will affect not only your people
but others as well." Mendelssohn asserted the pragmatic
principle of the possible plurality of truths: that just as various
nations need different constitutions to one a monarchy, to
another a republic, may be the most congenial to the national
genius so individuals may need different religions. The
test of religion is its effect on conduct. This is the moral of
Lessing's Nathan the Wise, the hero of which is undoubtedly
Mendelssohn. The parable of the three rings is the epitome
of the pragmatic position. One direct result of this pragmatism
was unexpected. Having been taught that there is no absolutely
true religion, Mendelssohn's own descendants a brilliant
circle, of which the musician Felix was the most noted left
the Synagogue for the Church. But despite this, Mendelssohn's
theory was found to be a strengthening bond in Judaism.
For he maintained that Judaism was less a " divine need,
than a revealed life." In the first part of the I9th century,
the criticism of Jewish dogmas and traditions was associated
with a firm adhesion to the older Jewish mode of living. Reason
was applied to beliefs, the historic consciousness to life. Modern
reform in Judaism is parting to some extent from this conception,
but it still holds good even among the liberals.
Of Mendelssohn's remaining years it! must suffice to say that
he progressed in fame numbering among his friends more and
more of the greatest men of the age. His Morgenstunden
appeared in 1785, and he died as the result of a cold contracted
while carrying to his publishers in 1786 the manuscript of a
vindication of his friend Lessing, who had predeceased him
by five years.
Mendelssohn had six children. His sons were: Joseph (founder
of the Mendelssohn banking house, and a friend and benefactor
of Alexander Humboldt), whose son Alexander (d. 1871) was
the last Jewish descendant of the philosopher; Abraham (who
married Leah Bartholdy and was the father of Fanny Hensel
and J. L. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) ; and Nathan (a mechan-
ical engineer of considerable repute). His daughters were
Dorothea, Recha and Henriette, all brilliantly gifted women.
BIBLIOGRA PH Y. An edition of Mendelssohn's works was published
in 1843-1845, with a biography by his son Joseph; another edition
of his Schnften zur Philpsophie, Aesthetik und Apologetik, appeared
(ed. Brasch) in 2 vols. in 1880. For Mendelssohn's biography the
chief sources are Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. v., and Kayser-
ling's M. Mendelssohn's Leben und Wirken (1887). Much interesting
material on the Mendelssohn family is given in Hensel 's Die Familie
Mendelssohn (translated into English, 1881). Much general
comment on Moses Mendelssohn appeared in the press of the world
on occasion of the centenary of the birth of the composer Mendels-
sohn in 1909. (I. A.)
MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, JAKOB LUDWIG FELIX
(1809-1847), German composer, grandson of Moses Mendelssohn
(q.v.), was born in Hamburg on the 3rd of February 1809. In
consequence of the troubles caused by the French occupation
of Hamburg, Abraham Mendelssohn, his father, migrated in
1811 to Berlin, where his grandmother Fromet, then in the
twenty-fifth year of her widowhood, received the whole family
into her house, No. 7 Neue Promenade. Here Felix and his
sister Fanny received their first instruction in music from their
mother, under whose care they progressed so rapidly that their
exceptional talent soon became apparent. Their next teacher
was Madame Bigot, who, during the temporary residence of
the family in Paris in 1816, gave them valuable instruction.
On their return to Berlin they took lessons in thoroughbass
and composition from Zelter, in pianoforte-playing from Ludwig
Berger, and in violin-playing from Henning the care of their
general education being entrusted to the father of the novelist
Paul Heyse.
Felix first played in public on the 24th of October 1818,
taking the pianoforte part in a trio by Woelfl. On the nth
of April 1819 he entered the Berlin Singakademie as an alto,
and in the following year began to compose with extraordinary
rapidity. His earliest dated work is a cantata, In riihrend
feierlichen Tonen, completed on the i3th of January 1820.
During that year alone he produced nearly sixty movements,
including songs, pianoforte sonatas, a trio for pianoforte,
violin and violoncello, a sonata for violin and pianoforte,
pieces for the organ, and even a little dramatic piece in three
scenes. In 1821 he wrote five symphonies for stringed instru-
ments, each in three movements; motets for four voices, an
122
MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY
opera, in one act, called Soldatenliebschaft; another, called Die
beiden Pddagogen; part of a third, called Die wandernden Comodi-
anten; and an immense quantity of other music of different
kinds, all showing the precocity of his genius. The original
autograph copies of these early productions are preserved in
the Berlin Library, where they form part of a collection which
fills forty-four large volumes, all written with infinite neatness,
and for the most part carefully dated a sufficient proof that
the methodical habits which distinguished his later life were
formed in early childhood.
In 1821 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to Goethe, with whom
he spent sixteen days at Weimar, in company with Zelter.
From this year also dates his first acquaintance with Weber,
who was then in Berlin superintending the production of
Der Freischutz; and from the summer of 1822 his introduction,
at Cassel, to another of the greatest of his contemporaries,
Ludwig Spohr. During this year his pen was even more prolific,
producing, among other works, an opera, in three acts, entitled
Die beiden Nejfen, oder der Onkel aus Boston, and a pianoforte
concerto, which he played in public at a concert given by Frau
Anna Milder.
It had long been a custom with the Mendelssohn family to
give musical performances on alternate Sunday mornings in
their dining-room, with a small orchestra, which Felix always
conducted, even when he was not tall enough to be seen without
standing upon a stool. For each of these occasions he produced
some new work playing the pianoforte pieces himself, or
entrusting them to Fanny, while his sister Rebecka sang, and
his brother Paul played the violoncello. In this way Die beiden
Neffen was first privately performed, on the fifteenth anniversary
of his birthday, the 3rd of February 1824. Between the 3rd
and the 3ist of March in this year he composed his fine sym-
phony in C minor, now known as Op. 10, and soon afterwards
the quartet in B minor, Op. 3, and the (posthumous) pianoforte
sestet, Op. no. In this year also began his lifelong friendship
with Moscheles, who, when asked to receive him as a pupil,
said, " If he wishes to take a hint from me, as to anything
new to him, he can easily do so; but he stands in no need of
lessons."
In 1825 Abraham Mendelssohn took Felix to Paris, where
among other musicians then resident in the French capital he
met the two most popular dramatic composers of the age,
Rossini and Meyerbeer, and lived on terms of intimacy with
Hummel, Kalkbrenner, Rode, Baillot, Herz, and many other
artists of European celebrity. On this occasion also he made
his first acquaintance with Cherubini, who, though he rarely
praised any one, expressed a high opinion of his talent, and
recommended him to write a Kyrie, for five voices, with full
orchestral accompaniments, which he himself described as
" exceeding in thickness " anything he had attempted. From
letters written at this period we learn that Felix's estimate
of the French school of music was far from flattering; but he
formed some friendships in Paris, which were renewed on later
occasions. He returned to Berlin with his father in May 1825,
taking leave of his Parisian friends on the igth of the month,
and interrupting his journey at Weimar for the purpose of
paying a second visit to Goethe, to whom he dedicated his
quartet in B minor. On reaching home he must have worked
with greater zeal than ever; for on the loth of August in this
same year he completed an opera, in two acts, called Die Hochzeit
des Camacho, a work of considerable importance.
No ordinary boy could have escaped uninjured from the
snares attendant upon such a life as that which Mendelssohn
now lived. Notwithstanding his overwhelming passion for
music, his general education had been so well cared for that
he was able to hold his own, in the society of his seniors, with
the grace of an accomplished man of the world. He was already
recognized as a leading spirit by the artists with whom he asso-
ciated, and these artists were men of acknowledged talent
and position. The temptations to egoism by which he was
surrounded would have rendered most clever students intoler-
able. But the natural amiability of his disposition, and the
healthy influence of his happy home-life, counteracted all
tendencies towards self-assertion.
Soon after his return from Paris, Abraham Mendelssohn
removed from his mother's residence to No. 3 Leipziger Strasse,
a roomy, old-fashioned house, containing an excellent music-
room, and in the grounds adjoining a " Gartenhaus " capable
of accommodating several hundred persons at the Sunday
performances. 1 In the autumn of the following year this
" garden-house " witnessed a memorable private performance
of the work by means of which the greatness of Mendelssohn's
genius was first revealed to the outer world the overture to
Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream. The finished score
of this famous composition is dated " Berlin, August 6, 1826 "-
its author was only seventeen and a half years old. Yet in no
later work does he exhibit more originality of thought, more
freshness of conception, or more perfect mastery over the details
of technical construction, than in this delightful inspiration.
The overture was first publicly performed at Stettin, in February
1827, under the direction of the young composer, who was at
once accepted as the leader of a new and highly characteristic
manifestation of the spirit of progress. Henceforth we must
speak of him, not as a student, but as a mature and experienced
artist.
Meanwhile Camacho' s Wedding had been submitted to Spontini,
with a view to its production at the opera. The libretto,
founded upon an episode in the history of Don Quixote, was
written by Klingemann, and Mendelssohn threw himself into
the spirit of the romance with a keen perception of its peculiar
humour. The work was put into rehearsal soon after the com-
poser's return from Stettin, produced on the 2gth of April
1827, and received with great apparent enthusiasm; but a
cabal was formed against it, and it never reached a second
performance. The critics abused it mercilessly; yet it exhibits
merits of a very high order. The solemn passage for the trom-
bones, which heralds the first appearance of the knight of La
Mancha, is conceived in a spirit of reverent appreciation of the
idea of Cervantes, which would have done honour to a composer
of lifelong experience.
Mendelssohn was annoyed at this injustice, and some time
elapsed before his mind recovered its usual bright tone;
but he continued to work diligently. Among other serious
undertakings, he formed a choir for the study of the choral
works of Sebastian Bach, then unknown to the public; and,
in spite of Zelter's opposition, he succeeded, in 1829, in inducing
the Berlin Singakademie to give a public performance of the
Passion according to St Matthew, under his direction, vith a
chorus of between three and four hundred voices. The scheme
succeeded beyond his warmest hopes, and proved the means
of restoring to the world great compositions which had never
been heard since the death of Bach. But the obstructive
party were offended; and at this period Mendelssohn was far
from popular among the musicians of Berlin.
In April 1829 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to London. His
reception was enthusiastic. He made his first appearance
before an English audience at one of the Philharmonic Society's
concerts then held in the Argyll Rooms on the 25th of May,
conducting his symphony in C minor from the pianoforte, to
which he was led by John Cramer. On the 3oth he played
Weber's Concertstuck, from memory, a proceeding at that time
extremely unusual. At a concert given by Drouet, on the
24th of June, he played Beethoven's pianoforte concerto in
E flat, which had never before been heard in the country;
and the overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream was also,
for the first time, presented to a London audience. On returning
home from the concert, Attwood, then organist of St Paul's
Cathedral, left the score of the overture in a hackney coach,
whereupon Mendelssohn wrote out another, from memory,
without an error. At another concert he played, with Moscheles,
his still unpublished concerto in E, for two pianofortes and
1 After Mendelssohn's death this house was sold to the Prussian
government; and the " Herrenhaus " now stands on the site of the
garden-house.
MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY
123
orchestra. After the close of the London season he started
with Klingemann on a tour through Scotland, where he was
inspired with the first idea of his overture to The Isles of Fingal,
returning to Berlin at the end of November. Except for
an accident to his knee, which lamed him for some time, his
visit was highly successful and laid the foundation of many
friendships and prosperous negotiations.
The visit to England formed the first division of a great
scheme of travel which his father wished him to extend to all
the most important art centres in Europe. After refusing
the offer of a professorship at Berlin, he started again, in May
1830, for Italy, pausing on his way at Weimar, where he spent
a fortnight with Goethe, and reaching Rome, after many
pleasant interruptions, on the ist of November. No excitement
prevented him from devoting a certain time every day to
composition; but he lost no opportunity of studying either
the countless treasures which form the chief glory of the great
city or the manners and customs of modern Romans. He
attended, with insatiable curiosity, the services in the Sistine
Chapel ; and his keen power of observation enabled him to throw
much interesting light upon them. His letters on this subject,
however, lose much of their value through his incapacity to
comprehend the close relation existing between the music of
Palestrina and his contemporaries and the ritual of the Roman
Church. His Lutheran education kept him in ignorance even
of the first principles of ordinary chanting; and it is amusing
to find him describing as enormities peculiar to the papal choir
customs familiar to every village singer in England, and as closely
connected with the structure of the " Anglican chant " as with
that of " Gregorian music." Still, though he could not agree
in all points with Baini, the greatest ecclesiastical musician
then living, he shared his admiration for the Improperia, the
Miserere, and the canlus planus of the Lamentationes and the
Exultet, the musical beauty of which he could understand,
apart from their ritual significance.
In passing through Munich on his return in October 1831
he composed and played his pianoforte concerto in G minor,
and accepted a commission (never fulfilled) to compose an
opera for the Munich theatre. Pausing for a time at Stuttgart,
Frankfort and Diisseldorf he arrived in Paris in December,
and passed four pleasant months in the renewal of acquaintances
formed in 1825, and in close intercourse with Liszt and Chopin.
On the igth of February 1832 the overture to A Midsummer
Night's Dream was played at the conservatoire, and many of
his other compositions were brought before the public; but he
did not escape disappointments with regard to some of them,
especially the Reformation symphony, and the visit was brought
to a premature close in March by an attack of cholera, from
which, however, he rapidly recovered.
On the 23rd of April 1832 he was again in London, where
he twice played his G minor concerto at the Philharmonic
concerts, gave a performance on the organ at St Paul's, and
published his first book of Lieder ohne Worte. He returned
to Berlin in July, and during the winter he gave public perform-
ances of his Reformation symphony, his concerto in G minor,
and his Walpurgisnacht. In the following spring he paid a
third visit to London for the purpose of conducting his Italian
symphony, which was played for the first time, by the Phil-
harmonic Society, on the I3th of May 1833. On the 26th of
the same month he conducted the performances at the Lower
Rhine festival at Diisseldorf with such brilliant effect that he
was at once offered, and accepted, the appointment of general-
music-director to the town, an office which included the manage-
ment of the music in the principal churches, at the theatre,
and at the rooms of two musical associations.
Before entering upon his new duties, Mendelssohn paid a
fourth visit to London, with his father, returning to Diisseldorf
on the 27th of September 1833. His influence produced an
excellent effect upon the church music and in the concert-room ;
but his relations with the management of the theatre were not
altogether pleasant; and it was probably this circumstance
which first led him to forsake the cultivation of the opera for
that of sacred music. At Diisseldorf he first designed his
famous oratorio St Paul, in response to an application from
the Cacilien-Verein at Frankfort, composed his overture to
Die schone Melusine, and planned some other works of impor-
tance. He liked his appointment, and would probably have
retained it much longer had he not been invited to undertake
the permanent direction of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig,
and thus raised to the highest position attainable in the German
musical world. To this new sphere of labour he removed in
August 1835, opening the first concert at the Gewandhaus,
on the 4th of October, with his overture Die Meeresstille, a
work possessing great attractions, though by no means on a
level with the Midsummer Night's Dream, The Isles of Fingal,
or Melusine.
Mendelssohn's reception in Leipzig was most enthusiastic;
and under their new director the Gewandhaus concerts prospered
exceedingly. Meanwhile St Paul steadily progressed, and was
first produced, with triumphant success, at the Lower Rhine
festival at Diisseldorf, on the 22nd of May 1836. On the 3rd
of October it was first sung in English, at Liverpool, under
the direction of Sir George Smart; and on the i6th of March
1837 Mendelssohn again directed it at Leipzig.
The next great event in Mendelssohn's life was his happy
marriage, on the 28th of March 1837, to Cecile Charlotte Sophie
Jeanrenaud. The honeymoon was scarcely over before he was
again summoned to England to conduct St Paul, at the Birming-
ham festival, on the 2oth of September. During this visit
he played on the organ at St Paul's and at Christ Church,
Newgate Street, with an effect which exercised a lasting influ-
ence upon English organists. It was here also that he first
contemplated the production of his second oratorio, Elijah.
Passing over the composition of the Lobgesang in 1840, a
sixth visit to England in the same year, and his inauguration
of a scheme for the erection of a monument to Sebastian Bach,
we find Mendelssohn in 1841 recalled to Berlin by the king of
Prussia, with the title of Kapellmeister. Though his appoint-
ment resulted in the production of Antigone, Oedipus Coloneus,
Athalie, the incidental music to the Midsummer Night's
Dream, and other great works, it proved an endless source of
vexation, and certainly helped to shorten the composer's life.
In 1842 he came to England for the seventh time, accompanied
by his wife, conducted his Scotch symphony at the Philharmonic,
again played the organ at St Peter's, Cornhill, and Christ
Church, Newgate Street, and was received with honour by the
queen and the prince consort. He did not, however, permit
his new engagements to interfere with the direction of the
Gewandhaus concerts; and in 1843 he founded in Leipzig the
great conservatoire which soon became the best musical college
in Europe, opening it on the 3rd of April in the buildings of
the Gewandhaus. In 1844 he conducted six of the Phil-
harmonic concerts in London, producing his new Midsummer
Night's Dream music, and playing Beethoven's pianoforte
concerto in G with extraordinary effect. He returned to his
duties at Berlin in September, but succeeded in persuading the
king to free him from his most onerous engagements.
After a brief residence in Franfort, Mendelssohn returned
to Leipzig in September 1845, resuming his old duties at the
Gewandhaus, and teaching regularly in the conservatoire.
Here he remained, with little interruption, during the winter
introducing his friend Jenny Lind, then at the height of her
popularity, to the critical frequenters of the Gewandhaus,
and steadily working at Elijah, the first performance of which
he conducted at the Birmingham festival, on the 2 6th of August
1846. The reception of this great work was enthusiastic.
Unhappily, the excitement attendant upon its production,
added to the irritating effect of the worries at Berlin, made
a serious inroad upon the composer's health. On his return
to Leipzig he worked on as usual, but it was clear that his health
was seriously impaired. In 1847 he visited England for the
tenth and last time, to conduct four performances of Elijah
at Exeter Hall, on the i6th, 23rd, a8th and 3Oth of April, one
at Manchester on the 2oth, and one at Birmingham on the 2yth.
124
MENDES
But the exertion was beyond his strength. He witnessed
Jenny Lind's first appearance at Her Majesty's Theatre, on
the 4th of May, and left England on the gth, little anticipating
the trial that awaited him in the tidings of the sudden death
of his sister Fanny, which reached him only a few days after
his arrival in Frankfort. The loss of his mother in 1842 had
shaken him much, but the suddenness with which this last
intelligence was communicated broke him down. He fell to
the ground insensible, and never fully recovered. In June
he was so far himself again that he was able to travel, with his
family, by short stages, to Interlaken, where he stayed for
some time, illustrating the journey by a series of water-colour
drawings, but making no attempt at composition for many
weeks. He returned to Leipzig in September, bringing with
him fragments of Christus, Loreley, and some other unfinished
works, taking no part in the concerts, and living in privacy.
On the Qth of October he called on Madame Frege, and asked
her to sing his latest set of songs. She left the room for lights,
and on her return found him in violent pain and almost insen-
sible. He lingered for four weeks, and on the 4th of November
he passed away, in the presence of his wife, his brother, and
his three friends, Moscheles, Schleinitz, and Ferdinand David.
A cross marks the site of his grave, in the Alte Dreifaltigkeits
Kirchhof, at Berlin.
Mendelssohn's title to a place among the great composers
of the century is incontestable. His style, though differing
little in technical arrangement from that of his classical pre-
decessors, is characterized by a vein of melody peculiarly his
own, and easily distinguishable by those who have studied
his works, not only from the genuine effusions of contemporary
writers, but from the most successful of the servile imitations
with which* even during his lifetime, the music-shops were
deluged. In less judicious hands the rigid symmetry of his
phrasing might, perhaps, have palled upon the ear; but under
his skilful management it serves only to impart an additional
charm to thoughts which derive their chief beauty from the
evident spontaneity of their conception. In this, as in all other
matters of a purely technical character, he regarded the accepted
laws of art as the medium by which he might most certainly
attain the ends dictated by the inspiration of his genius. Though
caring nothing for rules, except as means for producing
a good effect, he scarcely ever violated them, and was never
weary of impressing their value upon the minds of his pupils.
His method of counterpoint was modelled in close accordance
with that practised by Sebastian Bach. This he used in
combination with an elastic development of the sonata-form,
similar to that engrafted by Beethoven upon the lines laid
down by Haydn. The principles involved in this arrangement
were strictly conservative; yet they enabled him, at the very
outset of his career, to invent a new style no less original than
that of Schubert or Weber, and no less remarkable as the
embodiment of canons already consecrated by classical authority
than as a special manifestation of individual genius. It is
thus that Mendelssohn stands before us as at the same time
a champion of conservatism and an apostle of progress; and
it is chiefly by virtue of these two apparently incongruous
though really compatible phases of his artistic character
that his influence and example availed, for so many years,
to hold in check the violence of reactionary opinion which
injudicious partisanship afterwards fanned into revolutionary
fury.
Concerning Mendelssohn's private character there have
never been two opinions. As a man of the world he was more
than ordinarily accomplished brilliant in conversation, and
in his lighter moments overflowing with sparkling humour
and ready pleasantry, loyal and unselfish in the more serious
business of life, and never weary of working for the general
good. As a friend he was unvaryingly kind, sympathetic and
true. His earnestness as a Christian needs no stronger testimony
than that afforded by his own delineation of the character of
St Paul; but it is not too much to say that his heart and life
were pure as those of a little child. (W. S. R.)
This article has the unique value of being the record of an
eminent musical scholar who was an actual pupil of Mendelssohn.
No change of reputation can alter the value of such a record of a
man whom even his contemporaries knew to be greater than his
works. Mendelssohn's aristocratic horror of self-advertisement
unfitted him for triumph in a period of revolution; he died, most
inopportunely, when his own powers, like Handel's at the same age,
were being wasted on pseudo-classical forms; the new art was not
yet ripe; and in the early Wagner-Liszt reign of terror his was the
first reputation to be assassinated. That of the too modest and gentle
" Romantic " pioneer Schumann soon followed; but, as being more
difficult to explain away, and more embarrassing to irreverence and
conceit, it remains a subject of controversy. Meanwhile Mendelssohn's
reputation, except as the composer of a few inexplicably beautiful
and original orchestral pieces, has vanished and been replaced by
a pure fiction known as the " Mendelssohn tradition " of orchestral
conducting. This fiction is traceable to some characteristic remarks
made by Wagner on his experiences of English orchestral playing,
remarks which, though not very good-natured, do not bear the full
construction popularly imputed to them. If Beethoven had come
and conducted in England, Mendelssohn's expostulations with
careless players would have been met by references to the " Beet-
hoven tradition"; and, if Wagner had shared Mendelssohn's
reluctance to putting on record remarks likely to wound individual,
professional and national sensibilities, it might not have been im-
possible that reproaches against slipshod and mechanical playing
might nowadays be met by references to the " Wagner tradition,"
for Wagner also found himself compelled to concentrate his care
on the main items in the overloaded English orchestral programmes,
to the detriment of the rest.
Mendelssohn's influence on the early career of Joachim is,
next to his work in the rediscovery of Bach, his greatest bequest
to later musical history. Those many profound and sincere admirers
to Joachim to whom the name of Mendelssohn calls up only the
Widow in Elijah and the weaker Songs without Words, may find
the idea strange; but there is no doubt that Joachim regarded
the continuation of a true Mendelssohn tradition as identical with
his own efforts to " uphold the dignity of art." (D. F. T.)
MENDES, CATULLE (1841-1909), French poet and man of
letters, of Jewish extraction, was born at Bordeaux on the 22nd
of May 1841. He early established himself in Paris, attaining
speedy notoriety by the publication in the Revue fantaisiste
(1861) of his " Roman d'une nuit," for which he was condemned
to a month's imprisonment and a fine of 500 francs. He was
allied with the Parnassians from the beginning of the movement,
and displayed extraordinary metrical skill in his first volume
of poems, Philomela (1863). In later volumes Poesies, I" e
serie (1876), which includes much of his earlier verse, " S&irs
moroses," Contes epiques, Philomela, &c; Poesies (7 vols., 1885),
a new edition largely augmented; Les Poesies de Catutte Mendcs
(3 vols., 1892); La Grive des vignes (1895), &c. his critics have
noted that the elegant verse is distinguished rather by dexterous
imitation of different writers than by any marked originality.
The versatility and fecundity of Mendes's talent is shown in a
series of his critical and dramatic writings, and of novels and
short stories, in the latter of which he continues the French
tradition of the licentious conte. For the theatre he wrote:
La Part du roi (1872), a one-act verse comedy; Les Freres d'armes
(1873), drama; Justice (1877), in three acts, characterized by
a hostile critic as a hymn in praise of suicide; the libretto of
a light opera, Le Capitaine Fracasse (1878), founded on Theo-
phile Gautier's novel; La Femmede Tabarin (1887) ; Medee (1898),
in three acts and in verse; La Reine Fiammette (1898), a conte
dramatique in six acts and in verse, the scene of which is laid
in the Italy of the Renaissance; Le Fils de I'eloile (1904), the hero
of which is Bar-Cochebas, the Syrian pseudo-Messiah, for the
music of C. Erlanger; Scarron (1905); Ariane (1906), for the
music of Massenet; and Glatigny (1906). His critical work
includes: Richard Wagner (1886); L'Art au theatre (3 vols.,
1896-1900), a series of dramatic criticisms reprinted from
newspapers; and a report addressed to the minister of
public instruction and of the fine arts on Le Mouvement poetique
fran$ais de 1867 a ipoo (new ed., 1903), which includes a biblio-
graphical and critical dictionary of the French poets of the
igth century. Perhaps the most famous of his novels are:
Le Roi merge (1880) in which he introduces Louis II. of Bavaria
and Richard Wagner; La Maison de la vielle (1894), and Gog
(1897). He married in 1866 Mile Judith Gautier, younger
daughter of the poet, from whom he was subsequently separated.
MENDICANCY MENDIP HILLS
125
On the pth of February 1909, early in the morning, his dead
body was discovered in the railway tunnel of Saint Germain.
He had left Paris by the midnight train on the 7th, and it is
supposed that, thinking he had arrived at the station, he had
opened the door of his compartment while still in the tunnel.
MENDICANCY (from Lat. mendicus, in a condition of beggary,
a word of unknown origin), a state or condition of being a beggar,
the practice of obtaining a livelihood by asking alms. The word
" mendicant," also found in the French form " mendiarit,"
appears to have come into use through the begging friars.
MENDICANT MOVEMENT AND ORDERS. The facts con-
cerning the rise of the Orders of Mendicant Friars are related
in the articles on the several orders (FRANCISCANS, DOMINICANS,
CARMELITES, AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS), and in that on MONASTI-
CISM ( n), where the difference between friars and monks is
explained. The purpose of this article is to characterize the
movement as a whole, and to indicate the circumstances that
produced it. The most striking phenomenon in connexion
with the beginnings of the mendicant orders is the rapidity
with which the movement spread. Within a generation of the
death of the two great founders, Dominic (1221) and Francis
(1226), their institutes had spread all over Europe and into
Asia, and their friars could be numbered by tens of thousands.
In all the great cities of Western Europe friaries were established,
and in the universities theological chairs were held by Dominicans
and Franciscans. And when at the middle of the century the
other great mendicant orders of Carmelites and Austin Friars,
and also Servites (q.v.) arose their propagation showed that the
possibilities of the mendicant movement had not been exhausted
by the Dominicans and Franciscans. Lesser mendicant orders
sprang up in all directions Gasquet mentions half a dozen
such that found their way into England (English Monastic Life,
p. 241) in such numbers that the Council of Lyons in 1274
found it necessary to suppress all except the orders already
named. Moreover, besides the various orders of friars, there
were the lay Tertiaries that arose and spread far and wide in
connexion with the Franciscans and other mendicants, and
the similar institute of the Humiliati (see TERTIARIES).
These facts clearly show that the Mendicant Movement re-
sponded to widely spread and deeply felt needs of the time.
These needs found expression not only in the Mendicant orders
within the Church, but also in a number of more or less heretical
and revolutionary religious sects. There was this in common
among the Cathari, Waldenses, Albigenses and other heretical
bodies that overran so many parts of Western Europe in the
second half of the i2th century and the beginning of the I3th,
that they all inveighed against the wealth of the clergy, and
preached the practice of austere poverty and a return to the
simple life of Christ and the Apostles. Thus the sectaries
no less than the Mendicant orders bear witness to the existence
of spiritual needs in Western Christendom, which the Mendicant
orders went a long way towards satisfying. Probably the
most crying need was that of priests to minister to the great
city populations, at that time growing up with such rapidity,
especially in Italy. During the loth, nth and I2th centuries
the Church had been organized on the lines of the prevailing
feudal system the bishops and abbots were feudal barons,
and the effects of the system were felt throughout the ranks
of the lower clergy. The social fabric was built up not on the
towns, but on the great landlords; and when the centre of gravity
began to move, first of all in Italy, to the towns, and crowded
populations began to be massed together in them, the parochial
systems broke down under the weight of the new conditions,
and the people were in a state of spiritual and moral no less than
physical destitution. So, when the friars came and established
themselves in the poorest localities of the towns, and brought
religion to the destitute and the outcasts of society, assimilat-
ing themselves to the conditions of life of those among whom
they worked, they supplied a need with which the parochial
clergy were unable to cope.
The friars responded not only to the new needs of the age,
but to its new ideas religious, intellectual, social, artistic.
It was a period of religious revival, and of reaction against abuses
that followed in the wake of the feudal system; and this religious
movement was informed by a new mysticism a mysticism
that fixed its attention mainly on the humanity of Christ and
found its practical expression in the imitation of His b'fe. A
new intellectual wave was breaking over Western Europe,
symbolized by the university and the scholastic movements;
and a new spirit of democratic freedom was making itself felt
in the growing commercial towns of Italy and Germany. There
is no need to labour the point that the Mendicants responded
to all these needs and interpreted them within the pale of
Catholic Christianity, for the fact lies upon the surface of history.
But a few words are necessary on the central idea from which
the Mendicants received their name the idea of poverty.
This was St Francis's root idea, and there is no doubt though
it has been disputed that it was borrowed from him by St
Dominic and the other Mendicant founders. St Francis did
not intend that begging and alms should be the normal means
of sustenance for his friars; on the contrary, he intended them
to live by the work of their hands, and only to have recourse
to begging when they could not earn their livelihood by work.
But as tlie friars soon came nearly all to be priests devoted to
spiritual ministrations, and the communities grew larger, it
became increasingly difficult for them to support themselves
by personal work; and so the begging came to play a greater
role than had been contemplated by St Francis. But his
idea certainly was that his friars should not only practise the
utmost personal poverty and simplicity in their life, but that they
should have the minimum of possessions no lands, no funded
property, no fixed sources of income. The maintaining of this
ideal has proved unworkable in practice. In the Dominican
Order and the others that started as mendicant it has been
mitigated or even abrogated. Among the Franciscans them-
selves it has been the occasion of endless strife, and has been
kept alive only by dint of successive reforms and fresh starts,
each successful for a time, but doomed always, sooner or later,
to yield to the inexorable logic of facts. The Capuchins (q.v.)
have made the most permanently successful effort to maintain
St Francis's ideal; but even among them mitigations have
had to be admitted. In spite, however, of all mitigations
the Franciscans have nearly always presented to the world
an object lesson in evangelical poverty by the poorness and
simplicity of their lives and surroundings.
On the subject-matter of this article the best thing in English
is the Introductory Essay by the Capuchin Fr. Cuthbert on " The
Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan Friars," in The Friars and
how they came to England (1903) ; see also the earlier chapters of
Emil Gebhard's Italic mystique (1899). (E. C. B.)
MENDIP HILLS, a range in the north of Somersetshire,
England. Using the name in its widest application, the
eastern boundary of the range may be taken to be formed by
the upper valleys of the rivers Frome and Brue, and the depres-
sion between them. The range extends from these north-
westward with a major axis of about 23 m., while the outliers
of Wavering Down and Bleadon Hill continue it towards the
shore of the Bristol Channel. The range is generally about
6 m. in width, and its total area about 130 sq. m. Its south-
western face descends to the low " moors " or marshes drained
by the Axe and other streams, the small towns of Axbridge,
Cheddar and Wells lying at the foot of the hills. Towards
the north-east its limits are less clearly defined, for high ground,
intersected by narrow vales, extends as far as the valley of the
Avon. A depression, followed by the road between Radstock
and Wells, strikes across the range about its centre; the principal
elevations lie west of this, and to the area thus defined the
name of the Mendips is sometimes restricted. The summit of
the hills is a gently swelling plateau, which reaches its extreme
height in the north 1068 ft. The Mendips consist principally
of Carboniferous Limestone. Fine cliffs and scars occur on
the flanks of the plateau, as in the gorge of Cheddar, and there
is a wonderful series of caverns, the result of water action.
The surface of the plateau is often broken by deep holes
126
MENDOZA, A. H. DE MENDOZA, P. G. DE
(" swallets ") into which streams flow. Some of the caves,
such as those at Cheddar, are easy of access, and attract many
visitors owing to the beauty of the stalactitic formations;
others, of greater extent and grandeur, have only been explored,
or partly explored, with great difficulty. Some caves have
yielded large quantities of animal remains (hyaenas, bears and
others) together with traces of prehistoric human occupation.
Among such Wookey Hole, where the river Axe issues from
the foot of a cliff, may be mentioned. Lead was worked among
the Mendips at a very early period. Some of the Roman
workings, especially in the neighbourhood of Charterhouse-on-
Mendip, have yielded pigs of lead inscribed with the names
of emperors of the ist and 2nd centuries A.D., together with
an abundance of smaller objects.
See E. Baker and H. Balch, The Netherworld of Mendip (Clifton,
1907).
MENDOZA, ANTONIO HURTADO DE (i593?-i644), Spanish
dramatist, was born about the end of the i6th century in the
province of Asturias, became page to the count de Saldana (son
of the duke de Lerma), and was recognized as a rising poet by
Cervantes in the Viaje del Parnaso (1614). He rose rapidly
into favour under Philip IV., who appointed him private
secretary, commissioned from him comedias palaciegas for the
royal theatre at Aranjuez, and in 1623 conferred on him the
orders of Santiago and Calatrava. Most of his contemporaries
and rivals paid court to " el discrete de palacio," and Mendoza
seems to have lived on the friendliest terms with all his brother-
dramatists except Ruiz de Alarc6n. He is said to have been
involved in the fall of Olivares, and died unexpectedly at
Saragossa on the ipth of September 1644. Only one of his plays,
Querer par silo querer, was published with his consent; it is
included in a volume (1623) containing his semi-official account
of the performances at Aranjuez in 1622. The best edition
of Mendoza's plays and verses bears the title of Obras liricas
y cdmicas, divinas y humanas (1728). Much of his work does
not rise above the level of graceful and accomplished verse;
but that he had higher qualities is shown by El Marido hace
mujer, a brilliant comedy of manners, which forms the chief
source of Moliere's Ecole des maris.
The Fiesta que se hizo en Aranjuez and Querer par solo querer
were translated into English by Sir Richard Fanshawe, afterwards
ambassador at Madrid, in a posthumous volume published in 1671.
MENDOZA, DIEGO HURTADO DE (1503-1575), Spanish
novelist, poet, diplomatist and historian, a younger son of the
count of Tendillas, governor of Granada, was born in that
city in 1503. The celebrated marquis of Santillana was his
great-grandfather. On leaving the university of Salamanca,
Mendoza abandoned his intention of taking orders, served
under Charles V. in Italy, and attended lectures at the uni-
versities of Bologna, Padua and Rome. In 1537 he was sent to
England to arrange a marriage between Henry VIII. and the
duchess of Milan, as well as a marriage between Prince Louis
of Portugal and Mary Tudor. Despite the failure of his mission,
he preserved the confidence of the emperor, and in 1539 was
appointed ambassador at Venice; there he patronized the Aldi,
procured copies of the Greek manuscripts belonging to Cardinal
Bessarion, and acquired other rare codices from the monastery
of Mount Athos. The first edition of Josephus was printed
(1544) from the texts in Mendoza's collection. He acted for
some time as military governor of Siena, represented Spain
diplomatically at the council of Trent, and in 1547 was nominated
special plenipotentiary at Rome, where he remained till 1554.
He was never a favourite with Philip II., and a quarrel with
a courtier resulted in his banishment from court (June 1568).
The remaining years of his life, which were spent at Granada,
he devoted to the study of Arabic, to poetry, and to his history
of the Moorish insurrection of 1568-1570. He died in 1575.
His Guerra de Granada was published at Lisbon by Luis
Tribaldos de Toledo in 1627; the delay was doubtless due to
Mendoza's severe criticism of contemporaries who survived
him. In some passages the author deliberately imitates Sallust
and Tacitus; his style is, on the whole* vivid and trenchant,
his information is exact, and in critical insight he is not inferior
to Mariana. The attribution to Mendoza of Lazarillo de Tormes
is rejected by all competent scholars, but that he excelled in
picaresque malice is proved by his indecorous verses written
in the old Castilian metres and in the more elaborate measures
imported from Italy. Mendoza is believed to be the author of
the letters to Feliciano de Silva and to Captain Salazar, published
by Antonio Paz y Melia in Sales Espanolas (Madrid, 1900).
See A. Senan y Alonso, D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, apuntes
biogrdfico-criticos (Granada, 1886); Calendar of Letters and Papers
foreign and domestic, Henry VIII., vols. xii. and xiii. ; C. Graux,
Essai sur I' origins du fonds grec de I'Escurial (Paris, 1880); R.
Fpulch^-Delbosc, " Etude sur la Guerra de Granada " in the Revue
hispanique (Paris, 1894), vol. i.
MENDOZA, PEDRO GONZALEZ DE (1428-1495), Spanish
cardinal and statesman, was the fourth son of Inigo Lopez de
Mendoza, marquess of Santillana, and duke of Infantado. He was
born at Guadalajara in New Castile, the chief lordship of his
family, on the 3rd of May 1428. The house of Mendoza claimed
to descend from the lords of Llodio in Alava, and to have been
settled in Old Castile, in the nth century. One chief of the
house had been greatly distinguished at the battle of the Navas
de Tolosa in 1212. Another had been Admiral of Castile in
the reign of Alphonso the Wise. Peter the Cruel had endowed
them with the lordships of Hita and Buitrago. The greatness
of the Mendozas was completed by Pedro Gonzalez, who sacri-
ficed his life to save King John I. at the battle of Aljubarrota
in 1385. The cardinal's father, the marquis of Santillana
to use the title he bore for the greater part of his life was a
poet, and was conspicuous during the troubled reign of John II.
Loyalty to the Crown was the traditional and prevailing policy
of the family. Pedro Gonzalez, the future cardinal, was sent into
the Church mainly because he was a younger son and that he
might be handsomely provided for. He had no vocation,
and was an example of the worldly, political and martial
prelates of the isth century, In 1452 at the age of twenty-
four, he was chosen by the king John II. to be bishop of Cala-
horra, but did not receive the pope's bull till 1454. As bishop
of Calahorra he was also senor, or civil and military ruler, of
the town and its dependent district. In his secular capacity
he led the levies of Calahorra in the civil wars of the reign of
Henry IV. He fought for the king at the second battle of
Olmedo on the 2oth of August 1467, and was wounded in the
arm. During these years he became attached to Dona Mencia
de Lemus, a Portuguese lady-in-waiting of the queen. She
bore him two sons, Rodrigo, who was once selected to be the
husband of Lucrezia Borgia, and Diego, who was the grandfather
of the princess of Eboli of the reign of Philip II (see PEREZ,
ANTONIO.) By another lady of a Valladolid family he had a
third son who afterwards emigrated to France. In 1468 he
became bishop of Siguenza. In 1473 he was created cardinal,
was promoted to the archbishopric of Seville and named
chancellor of Castile. During the last years of the reign of King
Henry IV. he was the partisan of the Princess Isabella, afterwards
queen. He fought for her at the battle of Tore on the ist of
March 1476; had a prominent part in placing her on the throne;
and served her indefatigably in her efforts to suppress the
disorderly nobles of Castile. In 1482 he became archbishop
of Toledo. During the conquest of Granada he contributed
largely to the maintenance of the army. On the 2nd of January
1492 he occupied the town in the name of the Catholic sovereigns.
Though his life was worldly, and though he was more soldier
and statesman than priest, the " Great Cardinal," as he was
commonly called, did not neglect his duty as a bishop. He
used his influence with the queen and also at Rome to arrange
a settlement of the disputes between the Spanish sovereigns
and the papacy. Though he maintained a splendid household
as archbishop of Toledo, and provided handsomely for his
children, he devoted part of his revenue to charity, and with part
he endowed the college of Santa Cruz at Valladolid. His health
broke down at the close of 1493. Queen Isabella visited and
nursed him on his deathbed. It is said that he recommended
her to choose as his successor the Franciscan Jimenez de Cisneros,
MENDOZA MENEDEMUS
127
a man who had no likeness to himself save in political faculty
and devotion to the authority of the Crown. He died at
Guadalajara on the nth of January 1495.
The life of the cardinal, by Salazar de Mendoza, Cronica del
gran cardinal Don Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza (Toledo, 1625), is
discursive and garrulous but valuable. See also Prescott, History of
Ferdinand and Isabella.
MENDOZA, a province of western Argentina, bounded N.
by San Juan, E. by San Luis and the territory of La Pampa,
S. by the territories of La Pampa and Neuquen, and W. by the
republic of Chile. Area, 56,502 sq. m.; pop. (1895), 116,136;
(1904, estimate), 159,780. The Andes form the western boun-
dary, and a considerable part of the territory is covered by
the great Cordillera, its foothills and flanking ranges. The
eastern part is an arid, sandy, level plain, with extensive saline
basins, having no vegetation other than coarse grasses and
thickets of low, spiny mimosas and " chanar " (Gourliaea
decorticans) . The fertile, populated districts of the province
border on the Cordillera, particularly in the north where numerous
streams from the snow-clad summits supply water for irrigation.
The secondary ranges in this part of Mendoza are the Sierra
de los Paramillos, which encloses the Uspallata Valley, and
the Sierra del Tunuyan, which encloses a number of populous
valleys drained by the Tunuyan river and its tributaries. One
of the largest of these is the Yuco Valley. Farther south the
country becomes more arid and sparsely populated, and unsub-
dued tribes of Indians for a long time prevented its exploration.
In this region the Sierra de Payen and Sierra del' Nevado
(otherwise known as the Sierra Quero Matro Pellon) extend
in a north-easterly direction. With the exception of the Rio
Grande in the south-west part of the province, which forms the
principal source of the Colorado, all the rivers of the province
flow easterly and southerly into the great saline depression of
western Argentina, which includes a great part of Mendoza,
San Luis and La Pampa. The -Andean streams rise in the
higher snow-clad elevations, but their waters become impregnated
with saline matter soon after reaching the plain, and are even-
tually lost in the saline marshes and lagoons of southern Mendoza
and La Pampa. These Andean rivers are the Mendoza, Tunuyan,
Diamante and Atuel, with their numerous tributaries, all of
which discharge into the sluggish river which flows from the
Huanacache lagoons, on the San Juan frontier, southward to
the marshes and lagoons of La Pampa. The upper part of
this brackish, swampy stream is called the Desaguadero, and
the lower the Salado. It forms the eastern boundary line of
the province down to the 36th parallel. With the exception
of the elevated districts of the Andes, the climate of Mendoza
is hot and dry. On the plains the rainfall is insignificant,
but on the slopes of the Cordillera rains are frequent and winter
cold is severe. Agriculture is the principal occupation where
irrigation can be used, the province having a high reputation
for its raisins and wines. Alfalfa is an important product,
being grown for fattening the cattle driven through the province
to the Chilean markets. The mineral resources of the province
are said to be good, but receive little attention. Petroleum
is found in the vicinity of San Rafael, on the Diamante river,
and it is claimed that coal exists in the same region. Although
Mendoza was settled by Spanish colonists from Chile as far
back as 1559, its development has been hindered by its isolated
position. This isolation was broken in 1884 by the completion
of the Argentine Great Western railway to the provincial
capital. Since then a railway has been built northward to San
Juan, and another line was in 1908 under construction through
the Andes to connect with the Chilean railway system. In
addition to Mendoza, the capital of the province, the principal
towns (hardly more than villages) are Guaymallen, Maipu, San
Martin, Lujan and San Rafael. The provinces of Mendoza, San
Juan and San Luis, which were settled from Chile and were for a
long time governed from Santiago, were at first called the province
of Cuyo, and are still spoken of as the " Cuyo provinces."
MENDOZA, a city of Argentina, capital of Mendoza province,
632 m. by rail W.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate),
32,000. It stands on a plain near the foot of a secondary Andean
range called the Sierra de los Paramillos, at an elevation of
2320 ft. The surrounding district is arid, but has been irrigated
and is covered with gardens, orchards and cultivated fields.
The city is about 15 m. N. of the Mendoza, or Lujan river, whose
waters are utilized for irrigation and for the requirements of
the city by means of a channel which leaves the main river a
little above the town of Lujan and runs to the Tulumaya river
and the lagoons of Huanacache. This channel is called El
Zanjon, and is believed to have been opened by Guaymallen,
the chief of the Guarpes who inhabited this district at the time
of the Spanish conquest, but it is more probably natural. The
city is laid out in a regular manner with broad well-paved
streets and numerous public squares. The Zanjon and another
stream called the Guaymallen traverse the city, and the principal
streets have water flowing through them and are shaded by
poplars. Because of earthquake risks, the public buildings
are neither costly nor imposing. The private residences are
commonly of one storey, built with wooden frames filled in
with adobes. The climate is hot, dry and enervating, not-
withstanding the elevation and the proximity of the Andes.
The surrounding districts produce fruit, vegetables, alfalfa and
cereals. The vineyard industry is prominent, and raisins and
wine are exported. The position on the main route across
the Andes into Chile, by way of the Uspallata or Cumbre pass
(highest point 12,870 ft.), has given the city commercial im-
portance. It has railway connexion with the principal cities
of the republic, including the ports of Rosario, Buenos Aires
and Bahia Blanca, and also with the capital of San Juan.
Mendoza was founded by Captain Pedro del Castillo, who
had been sent from Santiago across the Andes in 1559 by Garcia
Hurtado de Mendoza, the governor of Chile, to conquer and
annex the territory extending N.E. to Tucuman. The city
was named after Mendoza. It was made the capital of the
province of Cuyo, and belonged to Chile down to 1776, when
the province was transferred to the newly created viceroyalty
of La Plata. It was the headquarters of General San Martin
while he was organizing an army for the liberation of Chile,
and greatly assisted him with men and money. Under re-
publican administration Mendoza suffered much from revolu-
tions. Moreover, on the 2oth of March 1861, the city was
destroyed by an earthquake and a fire which followed. Not
a building was left standing, and the loss of life was estimated
at 10,000 to 12,000. The French geologist Bravard, who had
predicted the catastrophe, was one of its victims. The poplars
in the streets, together with some species of fruit-trees, were
first planted in Mendoza by a Spaniard, Juan Cobos, in 1809,
who thus became one of its greatest benefactors.
MENEDEMUS, Greek philosopher, and founder of the Eretrian
school of thought, was born at Eretria about 350 and died
between 278 and 275 B.C. Though of noble birth, he worked as
builder and tentmaker until he was sent with a military expe-
dition to Megara, where, according to Diogenes Laertius, he
heard Plato and resolved to devote himself to philosophy. It
is more likely that he heard one of Plato's followers, inasmuch
as Plato died when he was only four years old, if the above dates
are correct. At Megara he formed a life-long friendship with
Asclepiades, with whom he toiled in the night that he might
study philosophy by day. He was subsequently a pupil first
of Stilpo and then of Phaedo of Elis, whose school he transferred
to Eretria, by which name it was afterwards known. In
addition to his philosophical work, he took a leading part in
the political affairs of his city from the time of the Diadochi
until his death, and obtained a remission of the tribute to
Demetrius. His friendship with Antigonus Gonatas seems to
have roused suspicion as to his loyalty, and he sought safety
first in the temple of Amphiaraus at Oropus, and later with
Antigonus, at whose court he is said to have died of grief. Other
accounts say that he starved himself to death on failing to
induce Antigonus to free his native city. His philosophical
views are known only in part. Athenaeus quotes Epicrates
as stating that he was a Platonist, but other accounts credit
128
MENELAUS MENES
him with having preferred Stilpo to Plato. Diogenes Laertius
(ii. 134 and 135) says that he declined to identify the Good
with the Useful, and that he denied .the value of the negative
proposition on the ground that affirmation alone can express
truth. He probably meant to imply that qualities have no
existence apart from the subject to which they belong. In
ethics we learn from Plutarch (De virt. mor. 2) and from Cicero
(Acad. ii. 42) that, he regarded Virtue as one, by whatever name
it be called, and maintained that it is intellectual. Cicero's
evidence is the less valuable in that he always assumed that
Menedemus was a follower of the Megarians. Diogenes says
that he left no writings, and the Eretrian school disappeared
after a short and unobtrusive existence.
Beside the ancient sources quoted above, see H. Mallett, Histoire
de I'ecole de Megare et des ecoles d'Elis et d'Erftrie (1845). Also
the articles MEGARIAN SCHOOL; PHAEDO; STILPO.
MENELAUS, in Greek legend, son of Atreus (or Pleisthenes),
king of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon and husband of Helen.
He was one of the Greeks who entered Troy concealed in the
wooden horse (Virgil, Aeneid, ii. 264) and recovered his wife
at the sack of the city. On the voyage homewards his fleet
was scattered off Cape Malea by a storm, which drove him to
Egypt. After eight years' wandering in the east, he landed on
the island of Pharos, where Proteus revealed to him the means of
appeasing the gods and securing his return. He reached Sparta
on the day on which Orestes was holding the funeral feast over
Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra. After a long and happy life in
Lacedaemon, Menelaus, as the son-in-law of Zeus, did not die
but was translated to Elysium (Homer, Odyssey, iii. iv.). His
grave and that of Helen were shown at Therapnae, where he was
worshipped as a god (Pausanias iii. 19, 9). He was represented
in works of art as carrying off the body of the dead Patroclus
or lifting up his hand to slay Helen.
MENELEK II. (SAHALA MARIEM). emperor of Abyssinia,
officially negus negusti (king of kings) of Ethiopia (1844- ),
son of Haeli Melicoth, king of Shoa, was born in 1844, and
claimed to be a direct descendant of Solomon by the queen of
Sheba. On the death of his father in 1855 he was kept a prisoner
at Gondar by Kassai, the governor, who had seized the throne
under the title of Theodore III. But having succeeded in
effecting his escape he was acknowledged king of Shoa, and at
once attacked the usurper. These campaigns were unsuccessful,
and he turned his arms to the west, east and south, and annexed
much territory to his kingdom, still, however, maintaining his
divine right to the crown of Ethiopia. After the death of
Theodore in 1888 he continued to struggle against his successor,
the emperor Johannes (better known to Europeans as King
John of Abyssinia). Being again unsuccessful, he resolved to
await a more propitious occasion; so, acknowledging the supre-
macy of Johannes, in 1886 he married his daughter Zeodita
(b. 1876) to the emperor's son, the Ras Area; he was thereupon
declared heir to the empire, and on his side acknowledged the
Ras Area as his successor. Ras Area died in May 1888, and the
emperor Johannes was killed in a war against the dervishes at
the battle of Gallabat (Matemma) on the loth of March 1889.
The succession now lay between the late emperor's natural
son, the Ras Mangasha, and Menelek, but the latter was elected
by a large majority on the 4th of November, and consecrated
shortly afterwards. Menelek had married in 1883 Taitu (b. 1854)
a princess of Tigre, a lady who had been married four times
previously and who exercised considerable influence. Menelek's
clemency to Mangasha, whom he compelled to submit and then
made viceroy of Tigre, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts.
In 1889, at the time when he was claiming the throne against
Mangasha, Menelek signed at Uccialli a treaty with Italy
acknowledging Italian claims to the Asmara district. Finding,
however, that according to the Italian view of one of its articles
the treaty placed his empire under Italian domination, Menelek
denounced it; and after defeating the Italians at Amba-Alagi,
he compelled them to capitulate at Adowa in February 1896,
and a treaty was signed recognizing the absolute independence
of Abyssinia. His French sympathies were shown in a reported
official offer of treasure towards payment of the indemnity at
the close of the Franco-Prussian War, and in February 1897 he
concluded a commercial treaty with France on very favourable
terms. He also gave assistance to French officers who sought
to reach the upper Nile from Abyssinia, there to join forces
with the Marchand Mission; and Abyssinian armies were sent
Nilewards. A British mission under Sir Rennell Rodd in May
1897, however, was cordially received, and Menelek agreed to a
settlement of the Somali boundaries, to keep open to British
commerce the caravan route between Zaila and Harrar, and to
prevent the transit of munitions of war to the Mahdists, whom
he proclaimed enemies of Abyssinia. In the following year the
Sudan was reconquered by an Anglo-Egyptian army and there-
after cordial relations between Menelek and the British author-
ities were established. In 1889 and subsequent years, Menelek
sent forces to co-operate with the British troops engaged against
the Somali mullah, Mahommed Abdullah. Menelek had in
1898 crushed a rebellion by Ras Mangasha (who died in 1006)
and he directed his efforts henceforth to the consolidation of
his authority, and in a certain degree, to the opening up of his
country to western civilization. He had granted in 1894 a
concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the
French port of Jibuti, but, alarmed by a claim made by France
in 1902 to the control of the line in Abyssinian territory, he
stopped for four years the extension of the railway beyond
Dire Dawa. When in 1906 France, Great Britain and Italy
came to an agreement on the subject, Menelek officially reiterated
his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire. In May
1909 the emperor's grandson Lij Yasu, or Jeassu, then a lad of
thirteen, was married to Romanie (b. 1902), granddaughter of
the negus Johannes. Two days later Yasu was publicly pro-
claimed at Adis Ababa as Menelek's successor. At that time
the emperor was seriously ill and as his ill-health continued, a
council of regency from which the emperor was excluded was
formed in March 1910. (See also ABYSSINIA.)
MENENDEZ Y PELAYO, MARCELINO (1856- ), Spanish
scholar and critic, was born at Santander on the 3rd of November
1856. In 1871-1872 he studied under Milay Fontanals at the
university of Barcelona, whence he proceeded to the central
university of Madrid. His academic successes had never been
surpassed; a special law was passed by the Cortes to enable
him to become a professor at the age of twenty-two, and three
years later he was elected a member of the Spanish Academy.
But before this date (1882) he was well known throughout Spain.
His first volume, Estudios criticos sobre escritores montaneses
(1876), had attracted little notice, and his scholarly Horatio en
Espa.no. (1877) appealed only to students. He became famous
through his Ciencia espanola (1878), a collection of polemical
essays defending the national tradition against the attacks of
political and religious reformers. The unbending orthodoxy of
this work is, if possible, still more pronounced in the Historia de
los heterodoxos espaiioles (1880-1886), and the writer was hailed
as the champion of the ultramontane party. His lectures (1881)
on Calder6n established his reputation as a literary critic; and
his work as an historian of Spanish literature was continued in
his Historia de las ideas estiticas en Espana (1881-1891), his
edition (1890-1903) of Lope de Vega, his Antologta de poetas
llricos castettanos (1890-1906), and his Origenes de la navela
(1905)-
MENENIUS LANATUS, A6RIPPA, Roman patrician and
statesman, consul 503 B.C. On the occasion of the first secession
of the people to the Sacred Mount, Agrippa, who was known to
be a man of moderate views, was one of the commissioners
empowered by the senate to treat with the seceders. On this
occasion he recited the well-known fable of the belly and the
members.
Livy ii. 16, 32, 33; Dion. Halic. v. 44-47; vi. 49-88, 96; Val.
Max. iv. 4, 2.
MENES, the name of the founder of the ist Dynasty of
historical kings of Egypt. He appears at the head of the lists
not only in Herodotus and Manetho, but also in the native
Turin Papyrus of Kings and the lists of Abydos, while the list
MENGS MENIN
129
of Sakkara begins with the sixth king of the ist Dynasty, a fact
which may throw some doubt on the supposed foundation of
Memphis by Menes. Until recently he was looked upon as
semi-mythical, but the discovery of the tombs of many kings of
the ist Dynasty including probably that of Menes himself, as
well as an abundance of remains of still earlier ages in Egypt has
given him a personality. He was probably ruler of Upper
Egypt and conquered the separate kingdom of Lower Egypt.
See EGYPT ; K. Sethe, " Menes und die Grundung von Memphis,"
in his Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Alterthumskunde Aegyptens,
iii. 121. (F. LL. G.)
MENGS, ANTONY RAPHAEL (1728-1779), German painter,
was born in 1728 at Aussig in Bohemia, but his father, Ismael
Mengs, a Danish painter, established himself finally at Dresden,
whence in 1741 he took his son to Rome. The appointment of
Mengs in 1749 as first painter to the elector of Saxony did not
prevent his spending much time in Rome, where he had married
in 1748, and abjured the Protestant faith, and where he became
in 1754 director of the Vatican school of painting, nor did this
hinder him on two occasions from obeying the call of Charles III.
of Spain to Madrid. There Mengs produced some of his best
work, and specially the ceiling of the banqueting-hall, the
subject of which was the Triumph of Trajan and the Temple
of Glory. After the completion of this work in 1777, Mengs
returned to Rome, and there he died, two years later, in poor
circumstances, leaving twenty children, seven of whom were
pensioned by the king of Spain. Besides numerous paintings
in the Madrid gallery, the Ascension at Dresden, Perseus and
Andromeda at St Petersburg, and the ceiling of the Villa Albani
must be mentioned among his chief works. In England, the
duke of Northumberland possesses a Holy Family, and the
colleges of All Souls and Magdalen, at Oxford, have altar-pieces
by his hand. In his writings, in Spanish, Italian and German,
Mengs has put forth his eclectic theory of art, which treats of
perfection as attainable by a well-schemed combination of
diverse excellences Greek design, with the expression of
Raphael, the chiaroscuro of Correggio, and the colour of Titian.
His intimacy with Winckelmann who constantly wrote at his
dictation has enhanced his historical importance, for he formed
no scholars, and the critic must now concur in Goethe's judgment
of Mengs in Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert; he must deplore
that so much learning should have been allied to a total want
of initiative and poverty of invention, and embodied with a
strained and artificial mannerism.
See Opere di Antonio Raffaello Mengs (Parma, 1780); Mengs
Werke, ubersetzt v. G. F. Prange (1786); Zeitschrift fur bildende
Kunst (1880); Bianconi, Elogio storico di Mengs (Milan, 1780);
Woermann, Ismael und Raphael Mengs (Leipzig, 1893).
MENGTSZE, a city in the S.E. of the province of Yunnan,
China. Pop. about 12,000. It was selected by the French
convention of 1886 as the seat of the overland trade between
Tongking and Yunnan, and opened two years later. It is
beautifully situated in the centre of a valley basin on a plateau
3500 ft. above sea-level. The country round is fertile and
well cultivated, and the place must have been one of considerable
wealth before the T'aip'ing rebellion, as the ruins of many fine
temples attest. A considerable overland trade has sprung up
since the opening of Mengtsze. Of the import trade Hong-Kong
supplied 86%, and of the export trade 70%, Cochin-China,
Tongking and Annam claiming the remainder. Tin (68 %) and
opium (27-8%) are the principal exports, and textiles (71%),
mostly cottons, and tobacco (4%) are the chief imports. On
the Tongking side this trade follows the Red River route as far
as Manhao, which is distant from Mengtsze about 40 m., though
the navigation of the river is difficult. From Manhao the transit
is by coolies or pack animals. Concessions have been obtained
by the French government to build a line of railway from the
Tongking frontier at the town of Laokay via Mengtsze to
Yunnan-fu. The climate is equable and healthy.
MENHADEN, economically one of the most important fishes
of the United States, known by a great number of local names,
" menhaden " and " mossbunker " being those most generally
xvm. 5
in use. The Indians and white settlers used it as a manure,
and the name is Narragansett for " fertilizer." Its scientific
name is Clupea (or Alosa) menhaden and Brevoorlia tyrannus.
It is allied to the European species of shad and pilchard, and,
like the latter, approaches the coast in immense shoals, which
are found throughout the year in some part of the littoral
waters between Maine and Florida, the northern shoals retiring
into deeper water or to more southern latitudes with the
approach of cold weather. The average size of the menhaden
is about 12 in. It is too bony and oily, for a table-fish, but is
used as bait for cod and mackerel. A large fleet is engaged
in the fishery; and a great number of factories extract the
oil for tanning and currying, and for adulterating other more
expensive oils, and manufacture the refuse into a valuable guano.
MENIAL, that which belongs to household or domestic ser-
vice, hence, particularly, a domestic servant. The idea of such
service being derogatory has made the term one of contempt.
The word is derived from an obsolete meinie or meyney, the
company of household servants or retainers; a Scottish form is
menzie. The origin is to be found in the O.Fr. mesnie, popular
Lat. mansionata, from mansio, mansion, from which comes
Fr. maison, house.
MfiNIER, EMILE JUSTIN (1826-1881), French manufacturer
and politician, was born at Paris in 1826. In 1853, on the
death of his father, Antoine Brutus Menier, he became proprietor
of a large drug factory, founded in 1815 by the latter at Saint
Denis, Paris, and in 1825 at Noisiel-sur-Marne. Antoine Brutus
Menier had also manufactured chocolate in a small way, but
Emile Justin from the first devoted himself specially to chocolate.
He purchased cocoa-growing estates in Nicaragua and beet-fields
in France, erected a sugar-mill, and equipped himself in other
ways for the production of chocolate on a large scale. In 1864
he sold his interest in the drug-manufacturing business, and
thenceforth confined himself to chocolate, building up an
immense trade. Menier was a keen politician, and from 1876
till his death had a seat in the French Chamber, his general
views being strongly Republican, while he consistently opposed
protection. He was the author of several works on fiscal and
economic questions, notably L'lmpdt sur le capital (1872), La
Reforme fiscale (1872), Economic rurale (1875), L'Avenir
economique (1875-1878), Atlas de la production de la richesse
(1878). He died at Noisiel-sur-Marne in 1881, his sons succeeding
to the business.
MENIERE'S DISEASE, a form of auditory vertigo, first
described by a French physician, Emile Antoine M6niere, in
1 86 1. It usually attacks persons of middle age whose hearing
has been previously normal. A. Politzer gives the following
as the principal causes: intense heat and exposure to the sun,
rheumatism, influenza, venereal diseases, anaemia and leukaemia.
The disease presents itself in various forms, but the most
usual is the apoplectofonn, due to haemorrhage into the laby-
rinth, followed by more or less complete deafness in either or
both ears. The attack usually sets in with dizziness, noises
in the ears, nausea, vomiting and staggering gait, and the
patient may suddently fall down with loss of consciousness.
The seizures are usually paroxysmal, occurring at irregular
intervals of days or weeks. Between the attacks the equilibrium
may be disturbed, there being marked nystagmus and unsteadi-
ness of gait. The attacks of vertigo tend to become less frequent
and may entirely pass away, but the deafness may remain
permanent. The treatment is directed towards relieving the
troublesome head symptoms by the application of cold com-
presses. The drug that has proved most serviceable in dimin-
ishing the dizziness is potassium iodide, administered daily for
at least a month. Politzer considers that the attacks may be
averted by producing rarefaction of the air in the external
meatus of the ear by means of a specially devised aspirating
tube.
MENIN (Flemish Meenen), a town of Belgium in the province
of West Flanders situated on the Lys 7 m. S. of Courtrai. Pop.
(1904), 19,377. It manufactures linen and flannel, and in the
neighbourhood are extensive tobacco plantations. It was first
130
MENINGITIS
fortified in 1578, and in 1685 Vauban made it one of the strongest
places on the French frontier, but the fortifications were razed
in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
MENINGITIS (from Gr. nfjviyZ, a membrane), a term in
medicine applied to inflammation affecting the membranes of
the brain (cerebral meningitis) or spinal cord (spinal meningitis)
or both.
Tubercular cerebral meningitis (or Acute Hydrocephalus) is a
disease due to inflammation of the meninges of the brain produced
by the presence of a tubercle bacillus. This disease is most
common in children under ten years of age, but may affect
adults. The tubercular constitution is an important factor in
this malady. In numerous cases it is manifestly connected
with bad hygienic conditions, with insufficient or improper
feeding, or with over exercise of the mental powers, all of which
will doubtless more readily exert their influence where an inherited
liability exists, and the same may be said regarding its occasional
occurrence as one of the after consequences of certain of the
diseases of childhood, especially measles and whooping-cough. _
There are certain typical features characterizing the disease in
each of its stages. The premonitory symptoms are mostly such
as relate to the general nutrition. A falling off in flesh and failure
of strength are often observed for a considerable time before the
characteristic phenomena of the disease appear. The patient, if
a child, becomes listless and easily fatigued, loses appetite, and is
restless at night. There is headache after exertion, and the child
becomes unusually irritable. These symptoms may persist during
many weeks; but on the other hand such premonitory indications
may be entirely wanting, and the disease be developed to all
appearance suddenly.
The onset is in most instances marked by the occurrence of vomit-
ing, often severe, but sometimes only slight, and there is in general
obstinate constipation. In not a few cases the first symptoms
are convulsions, which, however, may in this early stage subside,
and remain absent, or reappear at a later period. Headache is
one of the most constant of the earlier symptoms, and is generally
intense and accompanied with sharper paroxysms, which cause
the patient to scream, with a peculiar and characteristic cry.
There is great intolerance of light and sound, and general nervous
sensitiveness. Fever is present to a greater or less extent, the
temperature ranging from ipo to 103 F. ; yet the pulse is not
quickened in proportion, being on the contrary rather slow, but
exhibiting a tendency to irregularity, and liable to become rapid
on slight exertion. The breathing, too, is somewhat irregular.
Symptoms of this character, constituting the stage of excitement,
continue for a period varying from one to two weeks, when they are
succeeded by the stage of depression. There is now a marked
change in the symptoms, which is apt to lead to the belief that a
favourable turn has taken place. The patient becomes quieter
and inclines to sleep, but it will be found on careful watching that
this quietness is but a condition of apathy or partial stupor into
which the child has sunk. The vomiting has ceased, and there
is less fever; the pulse is slower, and shows a still greater tendency
to irregularity than before, while the breathing is of markedly
unequal character, being rapid and shallow at one time, and
long drawn out and sinking away at another. There is manifestly
little suffering, although the peculiar cry may still be uttered,
and the patient lies prostrate, occasionally rolling the head uneasily
upon the pillow, or picking at the bedclothes or at his face with
his fingers. He does not ask for food, but readily swallows what
is offered. The countenance is pale, but is apt to flush up suddenly
for a time. The eyes present important alterations, the pupils
being dilated or unequal, and scarcely responding to light. There
may be double vision, or partial or complete blindness. Squinting
is common in this stage, and there may also be drooping of an eyelid,
due to paralysis of the part, and one or more limbs may be likewise
paralysed.
To this succeeds the third or final stage, in which certain of the
former symptoms recur, while others become intensified. There
is generally a return of the fever, the temperature rising sometimes
very high. The pulse becomes feeble, rapid, and exceedingly irre-
gular, as is also the case with the breathing. Coma is profound,
but yet the patient may still be got to swallow nourishment, though
not so readily as before. Convulsions are apt to occur, while para-
lysis, more or less extensive, affects portions of the body or groups
of muscles. The pupils are now widely dilated, and there is gener-
ally complete blindness and often deafness. In this condition the
patient's strength undergoes rapid decline, and the body becomes
markedly emaciated. Death takes place either suddenly in a fit,
or more gradually from exhaustion. Shortly before death it is
not uncommon for the patient, who, it may be for many days
previously, lay in a state of profound stupor, to awake up, ask for
food, and talk to those around. The duration of a case varies
somewhat, but in general death takes place within three weeks
from the onset of the symptoms. The disease may be said to be
almost invariably fatal, yet cases presenting all the principal
symptoms occasionally recover.
Much may be done in the way of prevention of this . disease,
and, in its earlier stages, even in the way of cure. It is most im-
portant in families where the history indicates a tuberculous or
scrofulous tendency, and particularly where acute hydrocephalus
has already occurred, that every effort should be used to fortify
the system and avoid the causes already alluded to as favouring
the development of the disease during that period in which children
are liable to suffer from it. With this view wholesome food, warm
clothing, cleanliness, regularity,, and the avoidance of over-exertion,
physical and mental, are of the utmost consequence.
Timely use of remedies may mitigate and even occasionally
remove the symptoms when they arise. The maintenance of the
patient's strength by light nourishment and the use of sedatives
to compose the nervous system are the measures most likely to
be attended with success. Bromide, combined with iodide of
potassium, is the medicinal agent of most value for this purpose.
Should convulsions occur, they are best treated by chloral or
chloroform.
In what is known as suppurative, or simple acute meningitis
(non-tubercular), the disease arises from various causes, and
the symptoms are similar to those described above.
In posterior-basic meningitis, inflammation of the membranes
investing the posterior basic spinal cord, the chief symptoms
are fever, with severe pain in the back or loins shooting down-
wards into the limbs (which are the seat of frequent painful
involuntary startings), accompanied with a feeling of tightness
round the body.
The local symptoms bear reference to the portion of the cord
the membranes of which are involved. Thus when the inflamma-
tion is located in the cervical portion the muscles of the arms and
chest are spasmodically contracted, and there may be difficulty
of swallowing or breathing, or embarrassed heart's action, while
when the disease is seated in the lower portion, the lower limbs and
the bladder and rectum are the parts affected in this way. At
first there is excited sensibility (hyperaesthesia) in the parts of
the surface of the body in relation with the portion of cord affected.
As the disease advances these symptoms give place to those of
partial loss of power in the affected muscles, and also partial anaes-
thesia. These various phenomena may entirely pass away, and
the patient after some weeks or months recover; or, on the other
hand, they may increase, and end in permanent paralysis.
Some observers regard these forms as sporadic cases of cerebro-
spinal fever; and Still, William Hunter and George Nuttall have
isolated an organism similar to the diplococcus intracellularis,
while Henry Koplik in New York found cases of typical posterior-
basic meningitis due to the diplococcus intracellularis.
The treatment is directed to allaying the pain and inflammatory
action by opiates. Ergot is recommended by many physicians.
The patient should have perfect rest in the recumbent, or better
still m the prone, position. Cold applications to the spine may
be of use, while attention to the functions of the bladder and bowels,
and to the condition of the skin with the view of preventing bed-
sores, is all-important.
Cerebro-spinal fever or epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis,
popularly called " spotted fever," is an infectious disease occur-
ring sporadically or in epidemics, and due to the diplococcus
intracellularis discovered by Weichselbaum in 1887. This
disease was not recognized until the igth century. It was first
described at Geneva in 1805 and small outbreaks followed in
Paris (1814), Metz and Genoa (1815), and Westphalia (1822),
but in the United States there was a widespread epidemic,
including New England and spreading as far as Kentucky and
Ohio. Fresh outbreaks in Europe took place between 1837 and
1850. In 1837 it prevailed in the south of France chiefly amongst
troops in garrison, and fresh outbreaks continued throughout
France in 1846 with epidemics in Algiers, Italy and Sicily. In
Great Britain it first showed itself in the Irish workhouses in
1846, where it was known as " the black death " or " malignant
purpuric fever." After 1866 except for sporadic cases it dis-
appeared from Great Britain, but small outbreaks took place
in 1885 to 1900 in Dublin. In 1905 there was an extensive
epidemic in New York, followed by an outbreak in Scotland in
1906, and in Scotland and Ireland in 1907-1908. The registrar-
general's returns for 1907 give 1018 deaths in Scotland due to
the disease, of which 711 were at Glasgow and 148 at Edinburgh.
In the same year Belfast was visited by a severe epidemic, 495
deaths out of the total death-rate of 631 taking place in that
district.
MENIPPUS MENIUS
The mode of infection is obscure, but the organism is thought
to gain access to the circulation through the mucous membrane of
the nose and conjunctiva, as the organism has been isolated from
the mucous membrane of the nose, not only of those suffering from
the disease but from healthy persons who have been in contact
with cases. Cerebro-spinal fever has an undoubted tendency to
follow bad sanitary conditions and to prevail in damp, sunless
houses. It is a disease of temperate climates, and the outbreaks
usually take place in the spring of the year. The victims are
mostly children and young adults, and Koplik states that few
recoveries take place in children under two years of age.
The onset of symptoms is sudden, as contrasted with tubercular
meningitis, in which the onset is gradual. The attack comes on
sharply with intense headache, rigors and vomiting. The pain
soon localizes itself in the back of the neck and occiput, and may
thence radiate down the spine, limbs and abdomen. The pain is
soon followed by a characteristic symptom, namely retraction of
the head. The head is drawn back and rigidly fixed, the spine
arched and the limbs drawn up, and muscular spasms may take
place. There is general hyperaesthaesia, the slightest contact
producing pain. More or less fever is present, but the temperature
is not characteristic. The headache continues with great severity
and restlessness and delirium supervene, or there may be long
periods when the patient is comatose. Twitching of the limbs
and general convulsions may occur and facial paralysis is frequent.
Paralysis -of the ocular nerves causing squint, dilatations and con-
tractions of the pupil are common as in other varieties of meningitis.
Some of the most striking symptoms are the rashes. These
usually occur about the fourth day of illness and vary widely in
character, resembling erythema, urticaria, rose spots or purpuric
spots. The rashes have usually no relation to the gravity of the
disease, but severe cutaneous haemorrhages usually indicate a
severe form of illness. Should the patient survive the first shock
of the attack serious complications may arise; the eyes may be
attacked by severe conjunctivitis, iritis or keratitis or inflammation
of the deeper parts may take place leading to detachment of the
retina. More frequent even is disease of the auditory apparatus,
and purulent otitis media or disease of the labyrinth may lead to
permanent deafness. Serous effusion may take place into joints
which are painful, red and swollen as in acute rheumatism.
Certain forms of the disease are rapidly fatal, these are known
as the fulminant type, and death may take place within 12 to 24
hours of the onset. Death usually occurs between the fifth and the
eighth day, but many cases drag on for weeks with rapid and pro-
gressive emaciation, and recovery is slow. The mortality has
varied in different epidemics. Hirsch's tables of forty-one epidemics
give a mortality of from 25 to 75%, and Koplik rates it at 48 to
0.0%. During 1907, 623 cases of cerebro-spinal fever were notified
in Belfast, and the deaths numbered 495. During that year the
disease was made notifiable in 48 Irish urban and 55 rural districts.
The mortality in Dublin was 75%. Osier states that in children
under one year (in New York) the mortality reached 87-6%.
The changes found after death from cerebro-spinal fever are an
acute inflammation of the pia-arachnoid membrane both of the
brain and spinal cord, with effusion of serum or pus into the ven-
tricular and subarachnoid spaces. With such rapidity may the
effusion become purulent that it has been found purulent in a case
where death took place within five hours from the apparent onset.
The operation of lumbar puncture (or puncture of the spinal canal
between the lumbar vertebrae) has enabled the physician to make
an accurate diagnosis by bacteriological examination of the contents
of the spinal fluid. Lumbar puncture too has been found to be of
eminent service in many cases, the withdrawal of from 30 to 50 cc.
of the spinal fluid serving to relieve pressure and at least temporarily
ameliorate the symptoms.
Up to a few years ago it may be said that there was no effective
treatment for cerebro-spinal fever but that of endeavouring to
alleviate pain by the administration of opium, but with the recent
introduction of serum therapy the future is full of hope. In
the epidemic in New York (1905) the serum of Flexner and Jobling
was used, and the most striking results were seen in young patients,
the death-rate where the serum was used sinking to 46-3% as
against 90 % without. Like other serum treatments, to get the
best results the serum must be administered early in the disease.
Of 221 patients injected during the first week of illness the mortality
was only 18%, while of 107 others injected after the first week of
the disease the mortality was double that amount. When given
subcutaneously, as in diphtheria, the serum has little or no effect,
and to obtain good results it must be injected directly into the
spinal canal after the removal of a certain amount of the spinal
fluid. The injections are then continued daily as required according
to the severity of the case. Dr Robb of Belfast reports that
during the epidemic there, of 275 cases treated by ordinary means,
the death-rate was 72-3%, but in 90 cases treated with injec-
tions of Flexner' and Jobling's serum the death-rate was only
30%. Dr Ivy McKenzie and Dr W. B. Martin of Glasgow have
published a series of cases treated with the highly immune serum
of patients who have recovered from the disease with encouraging
results.
MENIPPUS, of Gadara in Code-Syria, Greek cynic and satirist,
lived during the 3rd century B.C. According to Diogenes
Laertius (vi. 8) he was originally a slave, amassed a fortune as
a money-lender, lost it, and committed suicide through grief.
His works (written in a mixture of prose and verse) are all lost.
He discussed serious subjects in a spirit of raillery, and especially
delighted in attacking the Epicureans and Stoics. His writings
exercised considerable influence upon later literature. One of
the dialogues attributed to Lucian, his avowed imitator, who
frequently mentions him, is called Menippus. But this dialogue
is regarded with suspicion, and since the sub- title (" The Oracle
of the Dead ") resembles that of a work ascribed to Menippus by
Diogenes Laertius, it has been suggested that it is really the
work of Menippus himself, or at any rate imitated from his Nticuia
by the author, whether Lucian or another. It is well known
that the Menippean satires of M. Terentius Varro, the fragments
of which give an idea of this kind of composition, were called
after Menippus of Gadara (see Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Literature, 165, 3).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Ley, De vita scriptisque Menippi cynici
(Cologne, 1843); R. Helm, Lucian und Menipp (1906) ; C. Wachs-
muth, Sillographorum graecorum reliquiae (1885), with an account
of Menippus and similar writers. Menippus found an imitator in
later times in Justus Lipsius, author of a Satyra menippaea (1637)
in which he ridiculed certain literary men of his age, especially the
poet laureate; and in the authors of the famous Salyre Menippte
(1593; latest editions by C. Marcilly, Paris, 1882; J. Frank, Oppeln,
1884), written against the Holy League during the reign of Henri IV.
MENIUS, JUSTUS (1499-1558), Lutheran theologian, whose
name is Latinized from Jost or Just (i.e. Jodocus) Menig, was
born at Fulda, of poor but respectable parents, on the i3th of
December 1499. Entering the university of Erfurt in 1514, he
took the bachelor's degree in 1515, the master's in 1516. At
this time, in association with the keen humanists Conrad Mutian,
Crotus Rubeanus and Eoban Hess, he was of sceptical tendency;
moving to Wittenberg in 1519, he became evangelical under the
teaching of Melanchthon and the preaching of Luther. After
travel in Italy (1521-1522) he was appointed (1523) town's
preacher at Wittenberg, but was soon transferred to the charge
of Miihlberg, under Erfurt. Here he published his commentary
on Acts (1524) and married. He resigned his charge (1525) and
opened a school at Erfurt, but the town council insisted on his
resuming his ministry, appointing him preacher in St Thomas',
Erfurt. He worked in conjunction with Luther's friend, John
Lange, and was opposed by the Franciscans under Conrad
Kling. Hence he left for Gotha (1528), resumed teaching, and
enjoyed the friendship of Friedrich Myconius. Duke John of
Saxony had placed him on the commission for church visitation
in Thuringia, and in 1529 appointed him pastor and superin-
tendent at Eisenach, where for eighteen years he administered
church affairs with tact, and fostered the spread of education.
In 1529 he brought out his Oeconomia Christiana (a treatise in
German, on the right ordering of a Christian household) with a
dedication to the duchess Sybil of Saxony and a preface by
Luther. His tractate, written in concert with Myconius, con-
troverting Der Wiederlaufer Lehre und Geheimniss (1530) was
also prefaced by Luther. The reversion to the Roman com-
munion of his old friend Crotus led to his mordant Responsio
amid (1532, anon.) to the Apologia (1531) of Crotus. He took
his part in the theological disputations of the time, at Marburg
(1529), the Concordia at Wittenberg (1536), the Convention at
Schmalkalden (1537), the discussions at Hagenau and Worms
(1540). His tractate (1542) against the permission of bigamy in
the case of Philip of Hesse was not allowed to be printed (the
manuscript is in the Heidelberg university library). In 1542 he
removed to Miihlhausen, being appointed by Duke Henry of
Saxony for the ordering of the church there. On the death of
Myconius (1546) he was entrusted with the oversight of Gotha, in
addition to that of Eisenach; to Gotha he returned in 1547. The
remainder of his life was not happy. He was against the Leipzig
Interim (1548) with its compromise on some Catholic usages,
and was involved in controversies and quarrels; with Georgius
Merula, against whom he maintained the need of exorcism in
132
MENKEN MENNO SIMONS
baptism; with Osiander's adherents in the matter of justification;
with his colleague, Nicholas von Amsdorf, to whom he had
resigned the Eisenach superintendency; with Flacius Illyricus,
and others. He lost favour with Duke John Frederic of Saxony,
fell into bad health, was deposed (1555) from his offices, and was
disappointed in his hopes of being reinstated, after the colloquy
at Eisenach (1556). He died at Leipzig on the nth of August
1558. He was twice married, and had several sons, of whom
Eusebius held a chair of philosophy at Wittenberg, and married
Melanchthon's grand-daughter, Anna Sabinus. Schmidt gives
a full bibliography of the numerous writings of Menius, who
translated several of Luther's biblical commentaries into German.
His Oeconomia was reprinted in 1855.
See G. L. Schmidt, Justus Menius, der Reformator Thuringens
(1867); Wagenmann, mAUgemeinedeutscheBiog.(i88$) ; G. Kawerau,
in Hauck's Realencyklopddte (1903). (A. Go.*)
MENKEN, ADAH ISAACS (1835-1868), American actress,
was born in New Orleans, the daughter of a Spanish Jew, her
name being Dolores Adios Fuertes. Left in poverty at the age
of thirteen, she made her first appearance as a dancer in her
native city. She had a great success there and in other southern
cities, including Havana, and she afterwards aspired to act
in serious parts. In 1856 she married John Isaacs Menken,
translated Adios to Adah, and thus took the name she there-
after bore through various matrimonial ventures. In 1864 she
appeared at Astley's in London as Mazeppa, a performance of an
athletic dramatic type suited to her fine physique. In England
and France she became intimate with many literary men
Swinburne, Charles Reade, Dickens (to whom she dedicated in
1868 a volume of verse, Infelicia), Gautier and Dumas the
elder. Paris saw her for a hundred nights in Les Pirates de la
Savane, and she also played in Vienna and again in London.
She died in Paris on the roth of August 1868.
MENNONITES, a body of religionists who take their name
from Menno Simons (see below), the most valued exponent of
their principles. They maintain a form of Christianity which,
discarding the sacerdotal idea, owns no authority outside the
Bible and the enlightened conscience, limits baptism to the
believer, and lays stress on those precepts which vindicate the
sanctity of human life and of a man's word. The place of
origin of the views afterwards called Mennonite (see BAPTISTS)
was Zurich, where in 1523 a small community left the state
church and (from Jan. 18, 1525) adopted the tenet of believers'
baptism. Unlike other Reformers, they denied at once the
Christian character of the existing church and of the civil
authority, though, in common with the first Christians, it was
their duty to obey all lawful requirements of an alien power.
By Protestants as much as by Catholics this position was not
unnaturally regarded as subversive of the established founda-
tions of society. Hence the bitter persecutions which, when
the safety of toleration was not imagined, made martyrs of
these humble folk, who simply wished to cultivate the religious
life apart from the world. There was something in this ideal
which answered to that medieval conception of separation
from the world which had leavened all middle-class society in
Europe; and the revolt from Rome had prepared many minds
to accept the further idea of separation from the church, for the
pursuit of holiness in a society pledged to primitive discipline.
Hence the new teaching and praxis spread rapidly from Switzer-
land to Germany, Holland and France. While the horrors of
the MUnster fanaticism, which culminated in 1534, made Ana-
baptism a byword, and increased the severity of a persecution
directed against all Baptists indiscriminately, the reaction
against the fatal errors of the MUnster experiment increased
also the adherents of communities which discarded the sword;
thus Menno was brought into their ranks. Each community
was independent, united with others only by the bond of love.
There was no hierarchy (as with the Familists), but " exhorters "
chosen by the members, among them " elders " for administering
baptism and the Lord's Supper; an arrangement so readily
renewed that the sure way of putting down such a body was
the execution of all its constituents, often by drowning, an
appropriate end, according to Zwingli's quip. The remnant oi
the Swiss Mennonites (not tolerated till 1710) broke in 1620 into
two parties, the Uplanders (or Amish, from their leader Jacob
Amen) holding against the Lowlanders that excommunication
of husband or wife dissolved marriage, and that razors and
buttons were unlawful. In Holland the Mennonites have always
been numerous. An offshoot from them at Rhijnsburg in 1619,
founded by the four brother's, farmers, Van der Kodde, and .
named Collegianten from their meetings, termed collegia (thus,
as not churches, escaping the penal laws), has been compared
to the Plymouth Brethren, but differed in so far as they required
no conformity of religious opinion, and recognized no office
of teacher. With them, as Martineau notes, Spinoza had " an
intense fellow-feeling." Later, the exiled Socinians from Poland
(1660) were in many cases received into membership. There
had previously been overtures, more than once, for union with
Mennonites on the part of Polish Socinians, who agreed with
them in the rejection of oaths, the refusal to take human life,
the consequent abstinence from military service and magisterial
office, and in the Biblical basis of doctrine; differences of doc-
trinal interpretation precluded any fusion. In Holland the
Mennonites were exempted from military service in 1575, from
oath-taking in 1585, from public office in 1617. In Zeeland
exemption from military service and oaths was granted in 1577;
afterwards, as in Friesland, a heavy poll tax was the price of
exemption from military service; but since 1795 they have
enjoyed a legal exemption from oath-taking. In France the
Mennonites of the Vosges were exempted from military service
in 1793, an exemption confirmed by Napoleon, who employed
them in hospital service on his campaigns. That he did not
exempt the Dutch Mennonites is due to the fact that " they had
ceased to present a united front of resistance to military
claims " (Martineau) ; in fact they sent a large band of
volunteers to Waterloo (Barclay). While in Germany the
Mennonites exist in considerable numbers, more important are
the German Mennonite colonies in southern Russia, brought
there in 1786 by Catherine II., and freed, by the grant of complete
religious liberty, from the hardships imposed by Prussian
military law. These colonies have sent many emigrants to
America, where their oldest community was settled (1683) at
Germantown, Pennsylvania. Their settlement in Canada dates
from 1786. Among the American Mennonites there are three
sections, and a progressive party, known as New School
Mennonites.
S. Cramer gives (1903) the following statistics : in all, some 250,000
members, of whom over 80,000 are in the United States, 70,000 in
Russia, 60,000 in Holland, 20,000 in Canada, 18,000 in Germany,
1500 in Switzerland, 800 in France, and the same number in Poland
and Galicia. (A. Go.*)
MENNO SIMONS (1492-1559), religious leader, was born in
1492 at Witmarsum in Friesland. Of his parentage (apart
from his patronymic) and education nothing is known. He
was not a man of learning, nor had he many books; for his
knowledge of early Christian writers he was partly indebted to
the Chronica or compilations of Sebastian Franck. At the
age of twenty-four he entered the priesthood, becoming one of
two curates under the incumbent of Pingjum, a village near his
birthplace. He accused himself, with the other clergy, of lax
and self-indulgent living. Doubts about transubstantiation
made him uneasy; some of Luther's tracts fejl in his way, and
he was comforted by Luther's dictum that salvation does not
depend on human dogmata. Hence he began to study the New
Testament. The question as to the right age for baptism came
up; he found this an open matter'in the early church. Then
the execution, in March 1531, at Leeuwarden, of the tailor Sicke
Freerks, who had been rebaptized in the previous December at
Emden, introduced further questions. Menno was not satisfied
with the inconsistent answers which he got from Luther, Bucer
and Bullinger; he resolved to rely on Scripture alone, and from
this time describes his preaching as evangelical, not sacramental.
In 1532 he exchanged his curacy for a living at Witmarsum, in
response to a popular call. Anabaptism of the Munster type
MENOMINEE MENSHIKOV
133
repelled him. His first tractate (1535, first printed 1627) is
directed against the " horrible and gross blasphemy of John of
Leiden " though the genuineness of this tract has been doubted.
A brother of Menno joined the insurgent followers of John
Matthyszoon, and was killed at Bolsward (April 1535). Blaming
the leaders by whom these poor people had been misled, Menno
blamed himself for not having shown them a straight course.
Accordingly on the I2th of January 1536, he left the Roman
communion. There were now among the so-called Anabaptists
four parties, the favourers of the Minister faction, the Baten-
burgers, extremists, the Melchioiites and the Obbenites. For
a time Menno remained aloof from both Melchior Hofman and
Obbe Philipsz. Before the year was out, yielding to the prayer
of six or eight persons who had freed themselves from the
Munster spell, he agreed to become their minister, and was set
apart (January 1537) to the eldership at Groningen, with im-
position of hands by Obbe Philipsz, who is regarded as the actual
founder of the Mennonite body. In fact, Obbe left the body
and is stigmatized as its Dernas. Menno repudiated the forma-
tion of a sect; those who had experienced the " new birth "
were to him the true Christian church, which was limited by
no decree of reprobation. His Christology was in the main
orthodox, though he rejected terms (such as Trinity) which he
could not find in Scripture, and held a Valentinian doctrine of
the celestial origin of the flesh of Christ. His church discipline
was drawn from the Swiss Baptists. Silent prayer was a feature
of the worship; sermons were without texts. Neither baptism
(by pouring on the head) nor the Lord's Supper (with the
accompaniment of feet- washing) conferred grace; they were
divine ordinances which reflected the believer's inward state.
Marriage with outsiders was prohibited; women had no part
in church government. Oaths and the taking of life were
absolutely forbidden; hence the magistracy and the army were
for the Mennonite unlawful callings; but magistrates were to
be obeyed in all things not prohibited by Scripture. The
subsequent career of Menno was that of an active missioner;
his changes of place, often compulsory, are difficult to trace.
He was apparently much in East Friesland till 1541; in North
Holland, with Amsterdam as centre, from 1541 to 1543; again
till 1545 in East Friesland (where he held a disputation at Emden
with John a Lasco in January 1544); till 1547 in South Holland;
next, about Liibeck; at Wismar in 1553-1554 (he held two
disputations with Martin Micronius at Norden in February
1554); lastly at Wiistenfelde, a village near Oldesloo, between
Hamburg and Liibeck, where he died on the I3th of January
1559. He had married one Gertrude at Groningen, and left a
daughter, by whom the dates of his birth and death were
communicated to P. J. Twisch, for his Chronyk (1619).
Menno's writings in Plattdeutsch, printed at various places, are
numerous, with much sameness, and what an unfriendly critic
would call wool-gathering ; through them shines a character attrac-
tive by the sincerity of its simple and warm spirituality, the secret
of Menno's influence. The collection of his Opera Omnia Theologica
(Amsterdam, 1681), folio, in a Dutch version, comprises twenty-three
tractates, with reference to nine unprinted. His main principles
will be found in his Dal Fundament des Christelycken Leers (1539, 8vo).
A selection (Gedenkblatter) from his writings, in a German version, in
honour of the (supposed) tercentennial of his death was edited by
J. Mannhardt (Danzig, 1861) with an appendix from the writings of
Dirk Philipsz (1504-1570), brother of Obbe, and Menno's henchman.
His writings are published in English at Elkhart, Indiana.
Since the publication of the Leven (1837) by A. M. Cramer, light has
been thrown on the period by the researches of de Hoop Scheffer;
see Van der Aa, Biographisch woordenboek der Nederlanden (1869);
R. Barclay, Inner Life of Religious Societies of the Commonwealth
(1876) for a good account of Mennonite anticipations of Quaker views
and practices; F. C. Fleischer, Menno Simons, eene Levensschets
(1892) ; y. M. Reimann, MennonisSimonisqualisfueritvita (1894) ; S.
Cramer, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1903) ; a separate article in the
same, Mennoniten, by S. Cramer, gives a survey of the origin and
ramifications of the movement in Europe and America. (A. Go.*)
MENOMINEE, a city and the county-seat of Menominee
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Green Bay, at the mouth of the
Menominee river, opposite Marinette, Wisconsin, at the southern
extremity of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890), 10,630; (1900),
12,818, of whom 4186 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
10,507. It is served by the Chicago & North- Western, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wisconsin & Michigan, and the Ann
Arbor railways, and is connected by five bridges with Marinette,
Wisconsin. Menominee has several parks, and harbour and dock
facilities for the heaviest lake vessels. It is one of the largest
lumber centres in the United States; it has excellent water
power, and there are manufactures of wire, steel, electrical appli-
ances, mill and mining machinery, shoes, beet sugar and paper.
The use of beet-pulp instead of Indian corn ensilage for dairy
cows has promoted the dairying industry in the city.
A trading post was established here in 1799, but settlement
was not begun until 1833. Menominee became the county-seat
in 1874, was chartered as a city in 1883, and in 1891 and in 1901
it was re-chartered; in 1903 an amendment to the charter created
a municipal court. The city is named after the Menominee
Indians, 1 an Algonquian tribe formerly ranging over a consider-
able territory in Wisconsin and Michigan, who seem to have been
first visited by whites in 1634, when Nicolet found them at the
mouth of the Menominee river, and now number about 1600,
most of them being under the Green Bay school superintendency,
Wisconsin. The name is the Chippewa word for wild rice, which
formed part of the food of the tribe.
MENOMONIE, a city and the county-seat of Dunn county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 64 m. E. of St Paul, Minnesota, on the
Red Cedar river. Pop. (1890), 5491; (1900), 5655, of whom
1772 were foreign-born; (1905), 5473; (1910), 5036. It is
served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, and the Chicago,
St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. The city is widely
known for its institutions, for the most part founded cr supported
by James Huff Stout (1848-1910), a prominent local lumberman.
Among them are the Mabel Tainter Memorial Library, the Dunn
County School of Agriculture, the Dunn County Normal Training
School, the Stout Institute for the training of teachers of domestic
science &c., institutions in which public school children receive
physical training. The city has grain elevators, and manufac-
tures of bricks and tiles, foundry and machine shop products,
carriages and wagons and flour. Menomonie is an important
market for dairy products and livestock. Menomonie was
settled about 1846 and was chartered as a city in 1882. The
first free travelling library in the state was established here in
1896 by James Huff Stout.
MENSA and MAREA, semi-nomad pastoral tribes of Africans
occupying part of the Abyssinian highlands included in the
Italian colony of Eritrea, and the adjacent coast plains of the
Red Sea. They have for neighbours the Habab and Beni-
Amer tribes, as well as Abyssinians. The Marea are found
chiefly in the valley of the Khor Anseba, the Mensa dwelling
farther north. These tribes claim Arab origin, tracing their
descent from an uncle of the Prophet. Under Abyssinian rule
they were Christians, but became Mahommedans in the igth
century. They speak a dialect of Tigrin (Abyssinian). On the
death of a Marea the head of every dependent ligre or slave
family must give his heirs a cow. The tribes avenge an illegiti-
mate birth by putting parents and child to death.
MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER DANILOVICH, PRINCE (1663?-
1729), Russian statesman, was born not earlier than 1660 nor
later than 1663. It is disputed whether his father was an ostler
or a bargee. At the age of twenty he was gaining his livelihood
in the streets of Moscow as a vendor of meat-pies. His hand-
some looks and smart sallies attracted the attention of Francois
Lefort, Peter's first favourite, who took him into his service
and finally transferred him to the tsar. On the death of Lefort
in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as prime favourite. Ignorant,
brutal, grasping and corrupt as he was, he deserved the confid-
ence of his master. He could drill a regiment, build a frigate,
administer a province, and decapitate a rebel with equal facility.
During the tsar's first foreign tour, Menshikov worked by his
side in the dockyards of Amsterdam, and acquired a thorough
knowledge of colloquial Dutch and German. He took an active
1 See W. L. Hoffman in the Fourteenth Report (Washington, 1896)
of the Bureau of American Ethnology and A. E. Jenks in the Nine-
teenth Report (1900).
134
MENSHIKOV MENSURATION
part in the Azov campaigns (1695-96), and superseded Ogilvie as
commander-in-chief during the retreat before Charles XII. in
1708, subsequently participating in the battle of Holowczyn,
the reduction of Mazepa, and the crowning victory of Poltava
(June 26, 1709), where he won his marshal's baton. From
1709 to 1714 he served during the Courland, Holstein and
Pomeranian campaigns, but then, as governor-general of Ingria,
with almost unlimited powers, was entrusted with a leading part
in the civil administration. Menshikov understood perfectly
the principles on which Peter's reforms were conducted, and was
the right hand of the tsar in all his gigantic undertakings. But
he abused his omnipotent position, and his depredations fre-
quently brought him to the verge of ruin. Every time the tsar
returned to Russia he received fresh accusations of peculation
against " his Serene Highness." Peter's first serious outburst
of indignation (March 1711) was due to the prince's looting in
Poland. On his return to Russia in 1712, Peter discovered that
Menshikov had winked at wholesale corruptions in his own
governor-generalship. Peter warned him " for the last time "
to change his ways. Yet, in 1713, he was implicated in the
famous Solov'ey process, in the course of which it was demon-
strated that he had defrauded the government of 100,000 roubles. 1
He only owed his life on this occasion to a sudden illness. On his
recovery Peter's fondness for his friend overcame his sense of
justice. In the last year of Peter's reign fresh frauds and defal-
cations of Menshikov came to light, and he was obliged to appeal
for protection to the empress Catherine. It was chiefly through
the efforts of Menshikov and his colleague Tolstoi that, on the
death of Peter, in 1725, Catherine was raised to the throne.
Menshikov was committed to the Petrine system, and he recog-
nized that, if that system were to continue, Catherine was, at
that particular time, the only possible candidate. Her name
was a watchword for the progressive faction. The placing of
her on the throne meant a final victory over ancient prejudices, a
vindication of the new ideas of progress. During her short reign
(February 1725 May 1727), Menshikov was practically absolute.
On the whole he ruled well, his difficult position serving as some
restraint upon his natural inclinations. He contrived to prolong
. his power after Catherine's death by means of a forged will and a
coup d'ttat. While his colleague Tolstoi would have raised
Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, Menshikov set up the youthful
Peter II., son of the tsarevich Alexius, with himself as dictator
during the prince's minority. He now aimed at establishing
himself definitely by marrying his daughter Mary to Peter II.
But the old nobility, represented by the Dolgorukis and the
Golitsuins, united to overthrow him, and he was deprived
of all his dignities and offices and expelled from the capital
(Sept. 9, 1727). Subsequently he was deprived of his enormous
wealth, and he and his whole family were banished to Berezov
in Siberia, where he died on the i2th of November 1729.
See G. V. Esipov, Biography of A. D. Menshikov (Rus.) (St.
Petersburg, 1875); N. I. Kostomarov, The History of Russia in the
biographies of her great Men (Rus.), vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1888, &c.) ;
R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); ibid. The Pupils
of Peter the Great, ch. 2-4 (Westminster, 1897). (R. N. B.)
MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVICH, PRINCE (1787-
1869), great-grandson of the preceding, was born on the nth
of September 1787, and entered the Russian service as attache
to the embassy at Vienna. He accompanied the emperor
Alexander throughout his campaigns against Napoleon, and
retired from army service in 1823. He then devoted himself
1 The Solov'evs were three brothers ostensibly employed by the
Russian government to ship corn from Russia and sell it at Amster-
dam. As a matter of fact they were at the head of a combination
for selling Menshikov's corn in preference to the corn of the Russian
government and the bulk of the proceeds went into Menshikov's
pockets. From 1709 to 1711 they had exported almost as much of
Menshikov's corn as of that of the government, though the export
of any corn from Russia, except in account of the Treasury, was a
capital offence. The affair dragged on from 1713 to 1716, when
the examination of the Solov'evs' books, and the subsequent applica-
tion of torture, revealed the fact that the Solov'evs had systema-
tically robbed the Treasury of 675,000 roubles (i rouble then = 53.)
and had accumulated a fortune of half a million. For full details
see Nisbet Ra\n,Tne First Romanovs, pp. 327-329.
to naval matters, became an admiral in 1834, and put the Russian
navy, which had fallen into decay during the reign of Alexander,
on an efficient footing. At the time of the dispute as to the
Holy Places he was sent on a special mission to Constantinople,
and when the Crimean war broke out he was appointed com-
mander-in-chief by land and sea. He commanded the Russian
army at the Alma and in the field operations round Sevastopol.
In March 1855 he was recalled, ostensibly and perhaps really, on
account of failing health. He died on the 2nd of May 1869 at
St Petersburg.
MENSURATION (Lat. mensura, a measure), the science of
measurement; or, in a more limited sense, the science of
numerical representation of geometrical magnitudes.
1. Scope of the Subject. Even in the second sense, the term is a
very wide one, since it comprises the measurement of angles
(plane and solid), lengths, areas and volumes. The measure-
ment of angles belongs to trigonometry, and it is convenient to
regard the measurement of the lengths of straight lines (i.e. of
distances between points) as belonging to geometry or trigo-
nometry; while the measurement of curved lengths, except in
certain special cases, involves the use of the integral calculus.
The term " mensuration " is therefore ordinarily restricted to the
measurement of areas and volumes, and of certain simple curved
lengths, such as the circumference of a circle.
2. This restriction is to a certain extent arbitrary. The
statement that, if the adjacent sides of a rectangle are repre-
sented numerically by 3 and 4, the diagonal is represented by 5,
is as much a matter of mensuration as the statement that the
area is represented by 12. The restriction is really determined
by a difference in the methods of measurement. The distance
between two points can, at any rate in theory, be measured
directly, by successive applications of the unit of measurement.
But an area or a volume cannot generally be measured by
successive applications of the unit of area or volume; inter-
mediate processes are necessary, the result of which is expressed
by a formula. The chief exception is in the use of liquid measure;
this is of importance from the educational point of view ( 12).
3. The measurement is numerical, i.e. it is representation in
terms of a unit. The process of determining the area or volume
of a given figure therefore involves two separate processes; viz.
the direct measurement of certain magnitudes (usually lengths)
in terms of a unit, and the application of a formula for determin-
ing the area or volume from these data. Mensuration is not
concerned with the first of these two processes, which forms part
of the art of measurement, but only with the second. It might,
therefore, be described as that branch of mathematics which
deals with formulae for calculating the numerical measurements
of curved lengths, areas and volumes, in terms of numerical data
which determine these measurements.
4. It is also convenient to regard as coming under mensuration
the consideration of certain derived magnitudes, such as the
moment of a plane figure with regard to a straight line in its
plane, the calculation of which involves formulae which are
closely related to formulae for determining areas and volumes.
5. On the other hand, the scope of the subject, as described in
3, is limited by the nature of the methods employed to obtain
formulae which can be applied to actual cases. Up to a certain
point, formulae of practical importance can be obtained by the
use of elementary arithmetical or geometrical methods. Beyond
this point, analytical methods must be adopted, and the student
passes to trigonometry and the infinitesimal calculus. These
investigations lead, in turn, to further formulae, which, though
not obtainable by elementary methods, are nevertheless simple
in themselves and of practical utility. If these are included in
the description " mensuration," th& subject thus consists of two
heterogeneous portions elementary mensuration, comprising
methods and results, and advanced mensuration, comprising
certain results intended for practical application.
6. Mensuration, then, is mainly concerned with quadrature-
formulae and cubature-formulae, and, to a not very clearly de-
fined extent, with the methods of obtaining such formulae; a
quadrature-formula being a formula for calculating the numerical
MENSURATION
135
representation of an area, and a cubature-formula being a
formula for calculating the numerical representation of
a volume, in terms, in each case, of the numerical repre-
sentations of particular data which determine the area or the
volume.
7. This use of formulae for dealing with numbers, Which
express magnitudes in terms of units, constitutes the broad
difference between mensuration and ordinary geometry, which
knows nothing of units. Mensuration involves the use of
geometrical theorems, but it is not concerned with problems of
geometrical construction. The area of a rectangle, for instance,
is found by calculation from the lengths of the sides, not by
construction of a square of equal area. On the other hand, it is
worth noticing that the words " quadrature " and " cubature "
are originally due to geometrical rather than numerical con-
siderations; the former implying the construction of a square
whose area shall be equal to that of a given surface, and the
latter the construction of a cube whose volume shall be equal to
that of a given solid.
8. There are two main groups of subjects in which practical
needs have tended to develop a separate science of mensuration.
The first group comprises such subjects as land-surveying; here
the measurements in the elementary stages take place in a plane,
and the consideration of volumes necessarily constitutes a later
stage; and the figures to be measured are mostly not movable,
so that triangulation plays an important part. The second
group comprises the mechanic arts, in which the bodies to be
measured are solid bodies which can be handled; in these cases
plane figures appear mainly as sections of a solid. In develop-
ing a system of mensuration-formulae the importance of this
latter group of cases must not be overlooked.
A third group, of increasing importance, comprises cases in
which curves or surfaces arise out of the application of graphic
methods in engineering, physics and statistics. The general
formulae applicable to these cases are largely approximative.
9. Relation to other Subjects. As a result of the importance
both of the formulae obtained by elementary methods and of
those which have involved the previous use of analysis, there is a
tendency to dissociate the former, like the latter, from the
methods by which they have been obtained, and to regard
mensuration as consisting of those mathematical formulae which
are concerned with the measurement of geometrical magnitudes
(including lengths), or, in a slightly wider sense, as being the art
of applying these formulae to specific cases. Such a body of
formulae cannot, of course, be regarded as constituting a science;
it has no power of development from within, and can only grow
by accretion. It may be of extreme importance for practical
purposes; but its educational value, if it is studied apart from the
methods by which the formulae are obtained, is slight. Vitality
can only be retained by close association with more abstract
branches of mathematics.
10. On the other hand, mensuration, in its practical aspect, is of
importance for giving reality to the formulae themselves and to
the principles on which they are based. This applies not only
to the geometrical principles but also to the arithmetical prin-
ciples, and it is therefore of importance, in the earlier stages, to
keep geometry, mensuration and arithmetic in close association
with one another; mensuration forming, in fact, the link between
arithmetic and geometry.
11. It is in reference to the measurement of areas and volumes
that it is of special importance to illustrate geometrical truths
by means of concrete cases. That the area of a parallelogram
is equal to the area of a rectangle on the same base and between
the same parallels, or that the volume of a cone is one-third that
of a cylinder on the same base and of the same height, may be
established by a proof which is admitted to be rigorous, or be
accepted in good faith without proof, and yet fail to be a matter
of conviction, even though there may be a clear conception of the
relative lengths of the diagonal and the side of a square or of the
relative contents of two vessels of different shapes. The failure
seems ( 2) to be due to difficulty in realizing the numerical
expression of an area or a solid in terms of a specified unit, while
the same difficulty does not arise in the case of linear measure
or liquid measure, where the number of units can be ascertained
by direct counting. The difficulty is perhaps less for volumes
than for areas, on account of the close relationship between solid
and fluid measure.
12. The main object to be aimed at, therefore, in the study of
elementary mensuration, is that the student should realize the
possibility of the numerical expression of areas and volumes. The
following are some important points.
(i) The double aspect of an area should be borne in mind ; i.e. area
should be treated not only as length multiplied by length, but also
as volume divided by thickness. There are, indeed, certain advan-
tages in preferring the latter to the former, and in proceeding from
volumes to areas rather than from areas to vSlumes. While, for
instance, it may be difficult to realize the equality of area of two
plots of ground of different shapes, it may be easy to realize the
equality of the amounts of a given material that would be required
to cover them to a particular depth. This method is unconsciously
adopted by the teacher who illustrates the equality of area of two
geometrical figures by cutting them out of cardboard of uniform
thickness and weighing them.
(ii) The very earliest stages of mensuration should be directly
associated with simple arithmetical processes.
(iii) Association of solid measure with liquid measure, presenting
numerical measurement in a different aspect, should be retained
by testing volumes as found from linear dimensions with the
volumes of the same bodies as found by the use of measures of
capacity. Here, as usual, the British systems of measures produce
a difficulty which would not arise under the metric system.
(iv) Solids of the same substance should be compared by measur-
ing and also by weighing; the comparison being then extended to
areas of uniform thickness (see (i) above).
(v) The idea of an average may be introduced at an early stage,
methods of calculating an average being left to a later stage.
13. Classification. The methods of mensuration fall for the
most part under one or other of three main heads, viz. arith-
metical mensuration, geometrical mensuration, and analytical
mensuration.
14. The most elementary stage is arithmetical mensuration,
which comprises the measurement of the areas of rectangles and
parallelepipeds. This may be introduced very early; square
tablets being used for the mensuration of areas, and cubical
blocks for the mensuration of volumes. The measure of the area
of a rectangle is thus presented as the product of the measures
of the sides, and arithmetic and mensuration are developed con-
currently. The commutative law for multiplication is directly
illustrated; and subdivisions or groupings of the units lead to
such formulae as (a + a) (b + /3) = ab + a/3 + a& +o/3. Associ-
ation with other branches of science is maintained by such
methods as those mentioned in 1 2. '
The use of the square bricks familiarizes the scholar with the
ideas of parallel lines, of equality of lengths, and of right angles.
The conception of the right angle is strengthened, by contrast, by
the use of bricks in the form of a rhombus.
15. The next stage is geometrical mensuration, where geo-
metrical methods are applied to determine the areas of plane
rectilinear figures and the volumes of solids with plane faces.
The ordinary process involves three separate steps. The first
step is the establishment of the exact equality of congruence of
two geometrical figures. In the case of plane figures, the
congruence is tested by an imaginary superposition of one figure
on the other; but this may more simply be regarded as the super-
position, on either figure, of the image of the other figure on a
contiguous plane. In the case of solid figures a more difficult
geometrical abstraction is involved. The second step is the con-
version of one figure into another by a process of dissection,
followed by rearrangement of parts; the figure as rearranged
being one whose area or volume can be calculated by methods
already established. This is the process adopted, for instance,
for comparison of the area of a parallelogram with that of a
rectangle on the same base and of the same height. The third
step is the arithmetical calculation of the area or volume of the
rearranged figure. These last two steps may introduce
magnitudes which have to be subtracted, and which therefore
have to be treated as negative quantities in the arithmetical
calculation.
136
MENSURATION
The difficulties to which reference has been made in 1 1 are
largely due to the abstract nature of the process involved in the
second of the above steps. The difficulty should, wherever
possible, be removed by making the process of dissection and
rearrangement complete. This is not always done. To say, for
instance, that the area of a right-angled triangle is half the area
of the rectangle contained by the two sides, is not to say what the
area is, but what it is the half of. The proper statement is that,
if a and b are the sides, the area is equal to the area of a rectangle
whose sides are a and 36; this being, in fact, a particular case of
the proposition that the area of a trapezium is equal to the area
of a rectangle whose sides are its breadth and the arithmetic
mean of the lengths of the two parallel sides. This mode of
statement helps to establish the idea of an average. The
deduction of the formula %ab, where a and b are numbers,
should be regarded as a later step.
Elementary trigonometrical formulae, not involving the
conception of an angle as generated by rotation, belong to this
stage; the additional geometrical idea involved being that of
the proportionality of the sides of similar triangles.
16. The third stage is analytical mensuration, the essential
feature of which is that account is taken of the manner in which
a figure is generated. To prevent discontinuity of results at this
stage, recapitulation from an analytical point of view is desirable.
The rectangle, for instance, has so far been regarded as a plane
figure bounded by one pair of parallel straight lines and another
pair at right angles to them, so that the conception of " rectan-
gularity " has had reference to boundary rather than to
content; analytically, the rectangle must be regarded as the
figure generated by an ordinate of constant length moving
parallel to itself with one extremity on a straight line perpen-
dicular to it. This is the simplest case of generation of a plane
figure by a moving ordinate; the corresponding figure for
generation by rotation of a radius vector is a circle.
To regard a figure as being generated in a particular way is
essentially the same as to regard it as being made up of a number
of successive elements, so that the analytical treatment involves
the ideas and the methods of the infinitesimal calculus. It is not,
however, necessary that the notation of the calculus should be
employed throughout.
A plane figure bounded by a continuous curve, or a solid figure
bounded by a continuous surface, may generally be most con-
veniently regarded as generated by a straight line, or a plane area,
moving in a fixed direction at right angles to itself, and changing
as it moves. This involves the use of Cartesian co-ordinates, and
leads to important general formulae, such as Simpson's formula.
The treatment of an angle as generated by rotation, the
investigation of the relations between trigonometrical ratios and
circular measure, the application of interpolation to trigono-
metrical tables, and the general use of graphical methods to
represent continuous variation, all imply an analytical onlook,
and must therefore be deferred to this stage.
17. There are certain special cases where the treatment is
really analytical, but where, on account of the simplicity or
importance of the figures involved, the analysis does not take a
prominent part.
(i) The circle, and the solid figures allied to it, are of special
importance. The ordinary definition of a circle is equivalent to
definition as the figure generated by the rotation of a radius of
constant length in a plane, and is thus essentially analytical. The
ideas of the centre and of the constancy of the radius do not,
however, enter into the elementary conception of the circle as a
round figure. This elementary conception is of the figure as
already existing, rather than of its method of description; the test
of circularity being the possibility of rotation within a surrounding
figure so as to keep the two boundaries always completely in contact.
In the same way, the elementary conception of the sphere involves
the idea of sphericity, which would be tested in a similar way, and
is in fact so tested, at an early stage by tactual perception, and at
a more advanced stage by mechanical methods; the next step being
the circularity of the central section, as roughly tested (where the
sphere is small) by visual perception, i.e. in effect, by the circularity
of the cross-section of a circumscribing cylinder; and the ideas of
the centre and of non-central sections follow later.
It seems to follow that the consideration of the area of a circle
should precede the consideration of its perimeter, and that the
consideration of the volume of a sphere should precede the consider-
ation of its surface-area. The proof that the area of a circle is pro-
portional to the square of its diameter would therefore precede the
proof that the perimeter is proportional to the diameter; the former
property is the easier to grasp, since the conception of the length
of a curved line as the limit of the sum of a number of straight
lengths presents special difficulties. The ratio Jir would thus first
appear as the ratio of the average breadth of a circle to the greatest
breadth; the interpretation of ir as the ratio of the circumference
to the diameter being a secondary one. This order follows, in fact,
the historical order of development of the subject.
(ii) Developable surfaces, such as the cylinder and the cone, form
a special class, so far as the calculation of their area is concerned.
The process of unrolling is analytical, but the unrolled area can be
measured by methods not applicable to other surfaces.
(iii) Solids of revolution also form a special class, which can be
conveniently treated by the two theorems of Pappus ( 33).
18. The above classification relates to methods. The classifi-
cation of results, i.e. of formulae, will depend on the purpose for
which the collection of formulae is required, and may involve
the grouping of results obtained by very different methods. A
collection of formulae relating to the circle, for instance, would
comprise not only geometrical and trigonometrical formulae,
but also approximate formulae, such as Huygens's rule ( 91),
which are the result of advanced analysis.
The present article is not intended to give either a complete
course of study or a complete collection of formulae, and there-
fore such only of the ordinary formulae are given as are required
for illustrating certain general principles. For fuller discussion
reference should be made to GEOMETRY and TRIGONOMETRY,
as well as to the articles dealing with particular figures, such
as TRIANGLE, CIRCLE, &c.
19. The most important formulae are those which correspond
to the use of rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates. This implies
the treatment of a plane or solid figure as being wholly comprised
between two parallel lines or planes, regarded by convention as
being vertical; the figure being generated by an ordinate or
section moving at right angles to itself through a distance which
is called the breadth of the figure. The length or area obtained
by dividing the area or the volume of the figure by its breadth
is the mean ordinate (mean height) or mean section (mean sectional
area) of the figure.
Quadrature-formulae or cubature-formulae may sometimes
be conveniently replaced by formulae giving the mean ordinate
or mean section. In the early stages it is best to use both
methods, so as to develop the idea of an average ( 12). In the
present article the formulae for area or volume will be used
throughout.
20. Approximation. The numerical result obtained by apply-
ing a formula to particular data will generally not be exact.
There are two kinds of causes producing want of exactness.
(i) The formula itself may not be numerically exact. This may
happen in either of two ways.
(a) The formula may involve numbers or ratios which cannot
be expressed exactly in the ordinary notation. This is the case, for
instance, with formulae which involve it or trigonometrical ratios.
This inexactness may, however, be ignored, since the numbers or
ratios in question can generally be obtained to a greater degree of
accuracy than the other numbers involved in the calculation (see
(ii) (b) below).
(6) The formula may only be approximative. The length of the
arc of a circle, for instance, is known if the length of the chord and
its distance from the middle point of the arc are known; but it may
be more convenient in such a case to use a formula such as Huygens s
rule than to obtain a more accurate result by means of trigono-
metrical tables.
(ii) The data may be such that an exact result is impossible.
(a) The nature of the bounding curve or surface may not be
exactly known, so that certain assumptions have to be made, a
formula being then used which is adapted to these assumptions.
The application of Simpson's rule, for instance, to a plane figure
implies certain assumptions as to the nature of the bounding curve.
Such a formula is approximative, in that it is known that the result
of its application will only be approximately correct ; it differs from
an approximative formula of the kind mentioned in (i) (6) above,
in that it is adopted of necessity, not by choice.
(b) It must, however, be remembered that in all practical applica-
tions of formulae the data have first to be ascertained by direct or
indirect measurement; and this measurement involves a certain
margin of error.
MENSURATION
137
The two sources of error mentioned under (a) and (ft) above are
closely related. Suppose, tor instance, that we require the area of
a circular grass-plot of measured diameter. As a matter of fact,
no grass-plot is truly circular; and it might be found that if the
breadth in various directions were measured more accurately the
want of circularity would reveal itself. Thus the inaccuracy
in taking the measured diameter as the datum is practically
of the same order as the inaccuracy in taking the grass-plot to
be circular.
(iii) In dealing with cases where actual measurements are involved,
the error (i) due to inaccuracy of the formula will often be negligible
in comparison with the error (it) due to inaccuracy of the data. For
this reason, formulae which will on 'y g' ve approximate results are
usually classed together as rules, whether the inaccuracy lies (as in
the case of Huygens's rule) in the formula itself, or (as in the case
of Simpson's rule) in its application to the data.
21. It is necessary, in applying formulae to specific cases, not
only, on the one hand, to remember that the measurements are
only approximate, but also, on the other hand, to give to any
ratio such as ir a value which is at least more accurate than the
measurements. Suppose, for instance, that in the example given
in 20 the diameter as measured is 15 ft. 3 in. If we take ir= 3- 14
and find the area to be 26288-865 sq. in. = 182 sq. ft. 80-865 sq.
in., we make two separate mistakes. The main mistake is in
giving the result as true to a small fraction of a square inch; but,
if this degree of accuracy had been possible, it would have been
wrong to give ir a value which is in error by more than i in
2000.
Calculations involving feet and inches are sometimes performed
by means of duodecimal arithmetic; i.e., in effect, the tables of square
measure and of cubic measure are amplified by the insertion of
intermediate units. For square measure
12 square inches = i superficial prime,
12 superficial primes = i square foot;
while for cubic measure
12 cubic inches = I solid second,
12 solid seconds = i solid prime,
12 solid primes = i cubic foot.
When an area has been calculated in terms of square feet, primes
and square inches, the primes and square inches have to be reduced
to square inches; and similarly with the calculation of volumes.
The value of for duodecimal arithmetic is 3 + i/i2+8/i2 2 +
4/i2 3 +8/i2 4 -(- . . . ; so that, marking off duodecimal fractions
by commas, the area in the above case is i of 3, I, 8, 4, 8Xi5>
3X15, 3 sq. ft. = 182, 7, 10 sq. ft. = 182 sq. ft. 94 sq. in. (or
1825 sq. ft. approximately).
MENSURATION OF SPECIFIC FIGURES (GEOMETRICAL)
22. Areas of Plane Rectilinear Figures. The following are ex-
pressions for the areas of some simple figures; the expressions in
(i) and (ii) are obtained arithmetically, while those in (iii) (v) involve
dissection and rearrangement.
(i) Square: side a. Area=a 2 .
(ii) Rectangle : sides a and b. Area = aft.
(iii) Right-angled triangle: sides a and 6, enclosing the right
angle. Area = \ab.
(iv) Parallelogram : two opposite sides a and a, distance between
them h. Area = ha.
(v) Triangle: one side a, distant h from the opposite angle.
Area = \ha.
If the data for any of these figures are other than those given
above, trigonometrical ratios will usually be involved. If, for
instance, the data for the triangle are sides a and 6, enclosing an
angle C, the area is \ab sin C.
23. The figures considered in 22 are particular cases of the
trapezium, which is a quadrilateral with two parallel sides. If these
sides are a and 6, at distance h from one another, the area is h.%(a +
6). In the case of the triangle, for instance, ft is zero, so that the
area is %ha.
The trapezium is also sometimes called a " trapezoid," but it will
be convenient to reserve this term fora different figure ( 24).
The most important form of trapezium is that in which one of the
two remaining sides of the figure is at right angles to the two parallel
sides. The trapezium is then a right trapezium; the two parallel
sides are called the sides, the side at right angles to them the base,
and the fourth side the top.
By producing the two parallel sides of any trapezium (e.g. a para-
lellogram), and drawing a line at right angles to them, outside
the figure, we see that it may be treated as the difference of two right
trapezia.
It is, however, more simple to convert it into a single right
trapezium. Let CABD (fig. i) be a trapezium, the sides CA and DB
being parallel. Draw any straight line at right angles to CA and DB
(produced if necessary), meeting them in M and N. Along CA and
DB, on the same side of MN, take MA'=CA, NB' = DB; and
M
p
'"
to
FIG. i.
join A'B'. Then MA'B'N is a right trapezium, whose area is
equal to that of CABD; and it is related to the latter in such
a way that, if any two lines parallel to AC and BD meet AB,
CD, MN, A'B', in E, G, P, E', and F, H, Q, F', respectively,
the area of the piece PE'F'Q of the right trapezium
is equal to the area of the piece GEFH of the original
trapezium. The right trapezium so constructed
may be called the equivalent right trapezium. In
the case of a parallelogram, the equivalent right
trapezium is a rectangle; in the case of a triangle,
it is a right-angled triangje.
24. If we take a series of right trapezia, such
that one side ( 23) of the first is equal to one side
of the second, the other side of the second is equal
to one side of the third, and so on, and place them
with their bases in a straight line and their equal
sides adjoining each other, we get a figure such as
MABCDEFS (fig. 2), which has two parallel sides
MA and SF, a base MS at right angles to these, and
the remainder of its boundary from A to F recti-
linear, no part of the figure being outside the space
between MA (produced) and SF (produced). A
figure of this kind will be called a trapezoid.
(i) If from the other angular points B, C, D, E, perpendiculars
BN, CP, DQ, ER, are drawn to the base MS (fig. 2), the area is
MN.i(MA+NB)+NP. J (NB +
PC)+. . . .+RS.i(RE+SF) =
i(MN. MA + MP. NB +
NQ. PC+ .... +RS.SF).
The lines MA, NB, PC, ....
are called the ordinates of the
points A, B,C, .... from the
base MS, and the portions MN,
NP, PQ of the base are
the projections of the sides AB, BC, CD, .... on the base.
(ii) A special case is that in which A coincides with M, and F.
with S. The figure then stands on a base MS, the remainder of its
boundary being a broken line from M to S. The formula then
becomes
area = J(MP.NB+NQ . PC+ . . . +QS . RE),
i.e. the area is half the sum of the products obtained by, multiplying
each ordinate by the distance between the two adjacent ordinates.
It would be possible to regard this form of the figure as the general
one; the figure considered in (i) would then represent the special
case in which the two end-pieces of the broken line are at right angles
to the base.
(iii) Another special case is that in which the distances MN, NP,
PQ, . . . RS are all equal. If this distance is h, then
area = AQMA+NB+PC-f. . .+JSF).
25. To find the area of any rectilinear figure, various methods
are available.
(i) The figure may be divided into triangles. The quadrilateral,
for instance, consists of two triangles, and its area is the product
of half the length of one diagonal by the sum of the perpendiculars
drawn to this diagonal from the other two angular points.
For figures of more than four sides this method is not usually
convenient, except for such special cases as that of a regular polygon,
which can be divided into triangles
by radii drawn from its centre.
(ii) Suppose that two angular
points, A and E, are joined (fig. 3) so
as to form a diagonal AE, and that
the whole of the figure lies between
lines through A and E at right
angles to AE. Then the figure is
(usually) the sum of two trapezoids
on base AE, and its area can be
calculated as in 24. If BN, CP,
DQ FS, GT are the perpen-
FIG. 3.
diculars to AE from the angular points, the ordinates NB, PC .....
are called the offsets from the diagonal to the angular points.
The area of the polygon in fig. 3 is given by the expression
J(AP . NB+NQ . PC+PE . QD+ET . SF+SA . TG).
It should be noticed (a) that AP , NQ ...... SA are taken in the
cyclical order of the points ABC . . . GA, and (6) that in fig. 3, if
AN and NB are regarded as positive, then SF, TG, ET and SA are
negative, but the products ET . SF and SA . TG are positive.
Negative products will arise if in moving from A to E along the
perimeter of either side of the figure the projection of the moving
point does not always move in the direction AE.
(iii) Take any straight line intersecting or not intersecting the
figure, and draw perpendiculars Aa, B6, Cc, Dd, . . . F/, Gg to this
line. Then, with proper attention to signs,
aA+ac'. bB+bd . cC + . . . +fa . gG).
(iv) The figure may be replaced by an equivalent trapezoid, on the
system explained in 23. Take any base X'X, and draw lines at
right angles to this base through all the angular points of the figure.
138
MENSURATION
Let the lines through B, G, C, D and F (fig. 4) cut the boundary of
the figure again in B', G', C', D' and F , and meet the base
X'X in K, L, M, N and P;
the points A and E being at
the extremities of the figure,
and the lines through them
meeting the base in a and e.
Then, if we take ordinates Kb,
Lg, Me, Nd, P/, equal to B'B,
GG', C'C, D'D, FF', the figure
abgcdfe will be the equivalent
trapezoid, and any ordinate
drawn from the base to the
i top of this trapezoid will be
equal to the portion of this
ordinate (produced) which falls
X' a K
LM
Volume = height X J . area
area of cross-section S.
FIG. 4.
within the original figure.
26. Volumes of Solids witn Plane Faces. The following are ex-
pressions for the volumes of some simple solid figures,
(i) Cube: side a. Volume = a*.
(ii) Rectangular parallelepiped : sides a, b, c. Volume = abc.
(iii) Right prism. Volume = length of edge X area of end.
(iv) Oblique prism. Volume = height X area of end = length of
edge X area of cross-section; the " height " being the perpendicular
distance between the two ends.
The parallelepiped is a particular case,
(v) Pyramid with rectilinear base,
of base.
The tetrahedron is a particular case,
(vi) Wedge: parallel edges a, b, c
Volume = K<*+6+c)S.
This formula holds for the general case in which the base is a
trapezium; the wedge being thus formed by cutting a triangular
prism by any two planes.
(vii) Frustum of pyramid with rectilinear base; height h; areas
of ends (i.e. base and top) A and B. Volume =h. f(A+VAB+B).
27. The figures considered in 26 are particular cases of the
prismoid (or prismatoid), which may be defined as a solid figure with
two parallel plane rectilinear ends, each of the other (i.e. the lateral)
faces being a triangle with an angular point in one end of the figure
and its opposite side in the other. Two adjoining faces in the same
plane may together make a trapezium. More briefly, the figure
may be defined as a polyhedron with two parallel faces containing
all the vertices.
If R and S are the ends of a prismoid, A and B their areas, h the
perpendicular distance between them, and C the area of a section
by a plane parallel to R and S and midway between them, the volume
of the prismoid is
. JA(A+ 4 C+B).
This is known as the prismoidal formula.
The formula is a deduction from a general formula, considered
jater ( 58), and may be verified in various ways. The most
instructive is to regard the prismoid as built up (by addition or
subtraction) of simpler figures, which are particular cases of it.
(i) Let R and S be the vertex and the base of a pyramid. Then
A = O, C = JB, and volume = JAB = J*(A + 4 C + B). The
tetrahedron is a particular case.
(ii) Let R be one edge of a wedge with parallel ends, and S the
face containing the other two edges. Then A = O, C = iB, and
volume = 4AB = |A(A+4C+B).
(iii) Let R and S be two opposite edges of a tetrahedron. Then
the tetrahedron may be regarded as the difference of a wedge with
parallel ends, one of the edges being R, and a pyramid whose base
is a parallelogram, one side of the parallelogram being S (see fig. 9,
58). Hence, by (i) and (ii), the formula holds for this figure.
(iv) For the prismoid in general let ABCD ... be one end, and
abed . . . the other. Take any point P in the latter, and form
triangles by joining P to each of the sides AB, BC, . . . ab, be, . . .
of the ends, and also to each of the edges. Then the prismoid is
divided into a pyramid with vertex P and base ABCD . . ., and a
series of tetrahedra, such as PABa or PAab. By (i) and (iii), the
formula holds for each of these figures; and
therefore it holds for the prismoid as a whole.
Another method of verifying the formula is
to take a point Q in the mid-section, and
divide up the prismoid into two pyramids
with vertex Q and bases ABCD . . . and
abed . . . respectively, and a series of tetra-
hedra having Q as one vertex.
28. The Circle and Allied Figures. The
mensuration of the circle is founded on the
property that the areas of different circles are
proportional to the squares on their diameters.
Denoting the constant ratio by J*, the area of a circle is TO', where
is the radius, and T = 3-i4i59 approximately. The expression
2ira for the length of the circumference can be deduced by consider-
ing the limit of the area cut off from a circle of radius a by a
concentric circle of radius a -a, when a becomes indefinitely small;
this is an elementary case of differentiation.
The lengths of arcs of the same circle being proportional to the
FIG. 5.
angles subtended by them at the centre, we get the idea of circular
measure.
Let O be the common centre of two circles, of radii a and b, and
let radii enclosing an angle 6 (circular measure) cut their circum-
ferences in A, B and C, D respectively (fig. 5). Then the area of
ABDC is
If we bisect AB and CD in P and Q respectively, and describe
the arc PQ of a circle with centre O, the length of this arc is
%(b+a); and 6-a=AB. Hence area ABDC=ABX arc PQ.
The figure ABDC is a sector of an annulus, which is the portion of a
circle left after cutting out a concentric circle.
29. By considering the circle as the limit of a polygon, it follows
that the formulae (iii) and (y) of 26 'hold for a right circular cylinder
and a right circular cone; i.e.
volume of right circular cylinder = length X area of base;
volume of right circular cone =height X J area. of base.
These formulae also hold for any right cylinder and any cone.
30. The curved surfaces of the cylinder and of the cone are
developable surfaces; i.e. they can be unrolled on a plane. The
curved surface of any right cylinder (whether circular or not) be-
comes a rectangle, and therefore its area = length X perimeter
of base. The curved _ surface of a right circular cone becomes a
sector of a circle, and its area = J-slant height X perimeter of base.
31. If o is the radius of a sphere, then
(i) volume of sphere = Jira 3 ;
(ii) surface of sphere = 4iro 2 = curved surface of circum-
scribing cylinder.
The first of these is a particular case of the prismoidal formula
( 58). To obtain (i) and (ii) together, we show that the volume
of a sphere is proportional to the volume of the cube whose edge is
the diameter; denoting the constant ratio by JX, the volume of the
sphere is Xa 8 , and thence, by taking two concentric spheres (cf. 28),
the area of the surface is 3\o 2 . This surface may be split up into
elements, each of which is equal to a corresponding element of the
curved surface of the circumscribing cylinder, so that 3X0* = curved
surface of cylinder = 2a. 2ira = 4ira 2 . Hence X = jir.
The total surface of the cylinder is 4xa 2 + jra 2 +ira 2 = 6z 2 , and
its volume is 2a.jro 2 = 2?ra 3 . Hence
volume of sphere = f volume of circumscribing cylinder;
surface of sphere = surface of circumscribing cylinder.
These latter formulae are due to Archimedes.
32. Moments and Centroids. For every material body there is
a point, fixed with regard to the body, such that the moment of the
body with regard to_any plane is the same as if the whole mass were
collected at that point; the moment being the sum of the products
of each element of mass of the body by its distance from the plane.
This point is the centroid of the body.
The ideas of moment and of centroid are extended to geometrical
figures, whether solid, superficial or linear. The moment of a figure
with regard to a plane is found by dividing the figure into elements
of volume, area or length, multiplying each element by its distance
from the plane, and adding the products. In the case of a plane
area or a plane continuous line the moment with regard to a straight
line in the plane is the same as the moment with regard to a per-
pendicular plane through this line; i.e. it is the sum of the products
of each element of area or length by its distance from the straight
line. The centroid of a. figure is a point fixed with regard to the
figure, and such that its moment with regard to any plane (or, in
the case of a plane area or line, with regard to any line in the plane)
is the same as if the whole volume, area or length were concen-
trated at this point. The centroid is sometimes called the centre
of volume, centre of area, or centre of arc. The proof of the
existence of the centroid of a figure is the same as the proof of the
existence of the centre of gravity of a body. (See MECHANICS.)
The moment as described above is sometimes called the first
moment. The second moment, third moment, ... of a plane or solid
figure are found in the same way by multiplying each element by
the square, cube, ... of its distance from the fine or plane with
regard to which the moments are being taken.
If we divide the first, second, third, . . . moments by the total
volume, area or length of the figure, we get the mean distance, mean
square of distance, mean cube of distance, ... of the figure from the
line or plane. The mean distance of a plane figure from a line in its
plane, or of any figure from a plane, is therefore the same as the
distance of the centroid of the figure from the line or plane.
We sometimes require the moments with regard to a line or
olane through the centroid. If N is the area of a plane figure, and
Ni, N2, . . . are its moments with regard to a line in its plane,
the moments MI, M 2 , . . . with regard to a parallel line through
the centroid are given by
MI = NI *No = o,
M, = Ni - 2*N, + **N = N, - * 2 N ,
M, = N, - gxN,-,+
2 , .-i ...+(- )f-' ff *i-iN, +
('-)'* N ;
MENSURATION
where x = the distance between the two lines = Ni/No. These
formulae also hold for converting moments of a solid figure with
regard to a plane into moments with regard to a parallel plane
through the centroid ; x being the distance between the two planes.
A line through the centroid of a plane figure (drawn in the plane
of the figure) is a central line, and a plane through the centroid of a
solid figure is a central plane, of the figure.
The centroid of a rectangle is its centre, i.e. the point of intersec-
tion of its diagonals. The first moment of a plane figure with regard
to a line in its plane may be regarded as obtained by dividing the
area into elementary strips by a series of parallel lines indefinitely
close together, and concentrating the area of each strip at its centre.
Similarly the first moment of a solid figure may be regarded as
obtained by dividing the figure into elementary prisms by two sets
of parallel planes, and concentrating the volume of each prism at
its centre. This also holds for higher moments, provided that the
edges of the elementary strips or prisms are parallel to the line or
plane with regard to which the moments are taken.
33. Solids and Surfaces of Revolution. The solid or surface
generated by the revolution of a plane closed figure or a plane
continuous line about a straight line in its plane, not intersecting
it, is a solid of revolution or surface of revolution, the straight line
being its axis. The revolution need not be complete, but may be
through any angle.
The section of a solid of revolution by a plane at right angles to
the axis is an annulus or a sector of an annulus (fig. 5), or is composed
of two or more such figures. If the solid is divided into elements
by a series of such planes, and if h is the distance between two con-
secutive planes making sections such as ABDC in fig. 5, the volume
of the element between these planes, when h is very small, is approxi-
mately ftXAB X arc PQ = A.AB.OP.0. The corresponding
element of the revolving figure is approximately a rectangle of area
A.AB, and OP is the distance of the middle point of either side of
the rectangle from the axis. Hence the total volume of the solid
is M.0, where M is the sum of the quantities ft.AB.OP, i.e. is the
moment of the figure with regard to the axis. The volume is there-
fore equal to S.y.6, where S is the area of the revolving figure, and
y is the distance of its centroid from the axis.
Similarly a surface of revolution can be divided by planes at right
angles to the axis into elements, each of which is approximately a
section of the surface of a right circular cone. By unrolling each
such element ( 30) into a sector of a circular annulus, it will be found
that the total area of the surface is M'.0 = L.z.0, where M' is the
moment of the original curve with regard to the axis, L is the total
length of the original curve, and z is the distance of the centroid of the
curve from the axis. These two theorems may be stated as follows :
(i) If any plane figure revolves about an external axis in its plane,
the volume of the solid generated by the revolution is equal to the
product of the area of the figure and the distance travelled by the
centroid of the figure.
(ii) If any line in a plane revolves about an external axis in the
plane, the area of the curved surface generated by the revolution
is equal to the product of the length of the line and the distance
travelled by the centroid of the line.
These theorems were discovered by Pappus of Alexandria (c.
A.D. 300), and were made generally known by Guldinus (c. A.D. 1640).
They are sometimes known as Culdinus's Theorems, but are more
properly described as the Theorems of Pappus. The theorems
are of use, not only for finding the volumes or areas of solids or
surfaces of revolution, but also, conversely, for finding centroids or
centres of gravity. They may be applied, for instance, to finding
the centroid of a semicircle or of the arc of a semicircle.
34. Segment of Parabola. The parabola affords a simple example
of the use of infinitesimals. Let AB (fig. 6) be any arc of a parabola;
and suppose we require the area of the figure bounded by this
.^ arc and the chord AB.
v.^^ Draw the tangents at A and B,
meeting at T; draw TV parallel to
the axis of the parabola, meeting the
arc in C and the chord in V; and
M draw the tangent at C, meeting AT
and BT in a and 6. Then (see
PARABOLA) TC = CV, AV=VB, and
ab is parallel to AB, so that aC = Cb.
Hence area of triangle ACB = twice
area of triangle aTb. Repeating the
M
FIG. 6.
process with the arcs AC and CB, and continuing the repetition indefi-
nitely, we divide up the required area and the remainder of the
triangle ATB into corresponding elements, each element of the
former being double the corresponding elements of the latter. Hence
the required area is double the area of the remainder of the triangle,
and therefore it is two-thirds of the area of the triangle.
The line TCV is parallel to the axis of the parabola. If we draw
a line at right angles to TCV, meeting TCV produced in M and
parallels through A and B in K and L, the area of the triangle ATB
is JKL.TV = KL.CV; and therefore the area of the figure bounded
by AK, BL, KL and the arc AB, is
KL.i(AK+BL)+|KL{CM-KAK+BL)}
= JKL(AK+4CM+BL).
Similarly, for a corresponding figure K'L'BA outside the parabola,
the area is
JK'L'(K'A+ 4 M'C+L'B).
35. The Ellipse and the Ellipsoid. For elementary mensuration
the ellipse is to be regarded as obtained by projection of the circle,
and the ellipsoid by projection of the sphere. Hence the area of an
ellipse whose axes are 2a and 26 is iraft ; and the volume of an ellipsoid
whose axes are 20, 26 and 2c is iirabc. The area of a strip of an ellipse
between two lines parallel to an axis, or the volume of the portion
(frustum) of an ellipsoid between two planes parallel to a principal
section, may be found in the same way.
36. Examples of Applications. The formulae of 24 for the area
of a trapezoid are of special importance in land-surveying. The
measurements of a polygonal field or other area are usually taken
as in 25 (ii) ; a diagonal AE is taken as the base-line, and for the
points B, C, D, . . . there are entered the distances AN, AP,
AQ, . . . along the base-line, and the lengths and directions of the
offsets NB, PC, QD, . . . The area is then given by the formula
of 25 (ii).
37. The mensuration of earthwork involves consideration of
quadrilaterals whose dimensions are given by special data, and of
prismoids whose sections are
such quadrilaterals. In the
ordinary case three of the four
lateral surfaces of the prismoid
are at right angles to the two
ends. In special cases two of
these three lateral surfaces are
equally inclined to the third.
(i) In fig. 7 let base BC = 2o,
and let h be the distance, measured at right angles to BC,
from the middle point of BC to AD. Also, let angle ABC = *--0,
angle BCD =*-<, angle between BC and AD = ^. Then (as the
difference of two triangles)
(h cot l+a) 2 (h cot \fr-q) 8
2(COt ^ COt <t>) 2(cOt l^+COt 0)'
(ii) If <t> =0, this becomes
FIG. 7.
area ABCD=-
area =
tan
tan 2 t
f(h + a tan 0) 2 a 2 tan 0.
(iii) If ^ = o, so that AD is parallel to BC, it becomes
area = 2ofc+Hcot + cot <t>)h 3 .
(iv) To find the volume of a prismoidal cutting with vertical
ends, and with sides equally inclined to the vertical, so that <=0,
let the values of h, ^ for the two ends be hi, t\, and fe, <fri, and write
+ *' cot " "'= " ( fl + *' cot >
cot
- cot
Then volume of prismoid = length X?(iii
) -3<J 2 J tan 9.
MENSURATION OF GRAPHS
38. (A) Preliminary. In 23 the area of a right trapezium
has been expressed in terms of the base and the two sides; and in
34 the area of a somewhat similar figure, the top having been
replaced by an arc of a parabola, has been expressed in terms of
its base and of three lengths which may be regarded as the sides
of two separate figures of which it is composed. We have now
to consider the extension of formulae of this kind to other figures,
and their application to the calculation of moments and volumes.
39. The plane figures with which we are concerned come mainly
under the description of graphs of continuous variation. Let E
and F be two magnitudes so related that whenever F has any
value (within certain limits) E has a definite corresponding value.
Let u and x be the numerical expressions of the magnitudes of E
and F. On any line OX take a length ON equal to xG, and from
N draw NP at right angles to OX and equal to H; G and H being
convenient units of length. Then we may, ignoring the units G
and H, speak of ON and NP as being equal to x and respec-
tively. Let KA and LB be the positions of NP corresponding
to the extreme values of x. Then the different positions of NP
will (if x may have any value from OK to OL) trace out a figure
on base KL, and extending from KA to LB ; this is called the
graph of E in respect of F. The term is also sometimes applied
to the line AB along which the point P moves as N moves from K
to L.
To illustrate the importance of the mensuration of graphs,
suppose that we require the average value of u with regard to x.
It may be shown that this is the same thing as the mean distance
140
MENSURATION
of elements of the graph from an axis through at right angles
to OX. Its calculation therefore involves the calculation of the
area and the first moment of the graph.
40. The processes which have to be performed in the mensuration
of figures of this kind are in effect processes of integration ; the dis-
tinction between mensuration and integration lies in the different
natures of the data. If, for instance, the graph were a trapezium,
the calculation of the area would be equivalent to finding the integral,
from x=a to x = b, of an expression of the form px+q. This
would involve p and a ; but, for our purposes, the data are the sides
pa+q and pb+q and the base ba, and the expression of the
integral in terms of these data would require certain eliminations.
The province of mensuration is to express the final result of such an
elimination in terms of the data, without the necessity of going
through the intermediate processes.
ti. Trapezettes and Briquettes. A figure of the kind described
39 is called a trapezette. A trapezette may therefore be defined
as a plane figure bounded by two straight lines, a base at right angles
to them, and a top which may be of any shape but is such that every
ordinate from the base cuts it in one point and one point only; or,
alternatively, it may be defined as the figure generated by an ordinate
which moves in a plane so that its foot is always on a straight base
to which the ordinate is at right angles, the length of the ordinate
varying in any manner as it moves. The distance between the two
straight sides, i.e. between the initial and the final position of the
ordinate, is the breadth of the trapezette. Any line drawn from the
base, at right angles to it, and terminated by the top of the trapezette,
is an ordinate of the figure. The trapezium is a particular case.
Either or both of the bounding ordinates may be zero ; the top, in
th_at case, meets the base at that extremity. Any plane figure
might be converted into an equivalent trapezette by an extension
of the method of 25 (iv).
42. The corresponding solid figure, in its most general form, is
such as would be constructed to represent the relation of a magnitude
E to two magnitudes F and G of which it is a function; it would
stand on a plane base, and be comprised within a cylindrical boundary
whose cross-section might be of any shape. We are not concerned
with figures of this general kind, but only with cases in which the
base is a rectangle. The figure is such as would be produced by
removing a piece of a rectangular prism, and is called a briquette.
A briquette may therefore be defined as a solid figure bounded by a
pair of parallel planes, another pair of parallel planes at right angles
to these, a base at right angles to these four planes (and therefore
rectangular), and a top which is a surface of any form, but such that
every ordinate from the base cuts it in one point and one point only.
It may be regarded as generated either by a trapezette moving in
a direction at right angles to itself and changing its top but keeping
its breadth unaltered, or by an ordinate moving so that its foot has
every possible position within a rectangular base.
43. Notation and Definitions. The ordinate of the trapezette will
be denoted by u, and the abscissa of this ordinate, i.e. the distance
of its foot from a certain fixed point or origin O on the base (or the
base produced), will be denoted by x, so that u is some function of x.
The sides of the trapezette are the "bounding ordinates"; their
abscissae being xn and *o+H, where H is the breadth of the
trapezette.
The " mid-ordinate " is the ordinate from the middle point of the
base, i.e. the ordinate whose abscissa is #o+JH.
The " mean ordinate " or average ordinate is an ordinate of length /
such that H/ is equal to the area of the trapezette. It therefore
appears as a calculated length rather than as a definite line in the
figure; except that, if there is only one ordinate of this length, a line
drawn through its extremity is so placed that the area of the trape-
zette lying above it is equal to a corresponding area below it and
outside the trapezette. Formulae giving the area of a trapezette
should in general also be expressed so as to state the value of the
mean ordinate (| 12 (v), 15, 19).
The " median ordinate " is the ordinate which divides the area
of the trapezette into two equal portions. It arises mainly in
statistics, when the ordinate of the trapezette represents the relative
frequency of occurrence of the magnitude represented by the
abscissa *; the magnitude of the abscissa corresponding to the
median ordinate is then the " median value of x."
The " central ordinate " is the ordinate through the centroid of
the trapezette ( 32). The distance of this ordinate from the axis
of u (i.e. from a line drawn through O parallel to the ordinates) is
equal to the mean distance ( 32) of the trapezette from this axis;
moments with regard to the central ordinate are therefore sometimes
described in statistics as " moments about the mean."
The data of a trapezette are usually its breadth and either the
bounding ordinates or the mid-ordinates of a series of minor trape-
zettes or strips into which it is divided by ordinates at equal distances.
If there are m of these strips, and if the breadth of each is h, so that
ti=mh, it is convenient to write x in the form Xo-\-Oh, and to
denote it by xg, the corresponding value of u being ug. The data are
then either the bounding ordinates o, MI, ... m -ii m of the strips,
or their mid-ordinates u\, u\, . . . ,_}.
44. In the case of the briquette the position of the foot of the
ordinate u is expressed by co-ordinates x, y, referred to a pair of axes
parallel to a pair of sides of the base of the briquette. If the
lengths of these sides are H and K, the coordinates of the angles
of the base i.e. the co-ordinates of the edges of the briquette are
(*o, yo), (xo+H, y ), (*o, yo+K), and (*o+H, y +K).
The briquette may usually be regarded as divided into a series
of minor briquettes by two sets of parallel planes, the planes of each
set being at successively equal distances. If the planes of one set
divide it into m slabs of thickness h, and those of the other into n
slabs of thickness k, so that H = mh, K=nk, then the values of
* and of y for any ordinate may be denoted by Xo+eh and yo+<t>k,
and the length of the ordinate bv 0, c/>.
The data are usually the breadths H and K and either (i) the edges
of the minor briquettes, viz. o,o, Uo.i, . . . u\,o, Ui,i, ... or (ii) the
mid-ordinates of one set of parallel faces, viz. o,i, wo,a. . . .
i,j, ... or j,o, j.o, j,ii .... or (iii) the " mid-ordinates "
!,j, j_j, . . . M],}, ... of the minor briquettes, i.e. the ordinates
from the centres of their bases.
A plane parallel to either pair of sides of the briquette is a
" principal plane." The ordinate through the centroid of the
figure is the " central ordinate."
45. In some cases the data for a trapezette or a briquette are not
only certain ordinates within or on the boundary of the figure, but
also others forming the continuation of the series outside the figure.
For a trapezette, for instance, they may be ... w_ 8 , w_i, o, HI . . .
., m+i Wm+2 > where # denotes the same function of
x=xt>+9h, whether 9h lies between the limits o and H or not.
These cases are important as enabling simpler formulae, involving
central differences, to be used ( 76).
46. The area of the trapezette, measured from the lower bounding
ordinate up to. the ordinate corresponding to any value of x, is some
function of *. In the notation of the integral calculus, this area is
equal to j * udx; but the notation is inconvenient, since it implies
a division into infinitesimal elements, which is not essential to the
idea of an area. It is therefore better to use some independent
notation, such as A x . u. It will be found convenient to denote
the
<j>(b)<t>(a), where <t>(x) is any function of x, by
area of the trapezette whose bounding ordinates are o and u m may
then be denoted by FA* . w|*l!** or|A, . wlj"" , instead of
byf^
udx.
In the same way the Volume of a briquette between the planes
x=x a , y = yo, x = a, y = b may be denoted by
v xy .
y
\\
LL
47. The statement that the ordinate u of a trapezette is a function
of the abscissa x, or that u=f(x), must be distinguished from
=/(*) as the equation to the top of the trapezette.
In elementary geometry we deal with lines and curves, while in
mensuration we deal with areas bounded by these lines or curves.
The circle, for instance, is regarded geometrically as a line described
in a particular way, while from the point of view of mensuration
it is a figure of a particular shape. Similarly, analytical plane
geometry deals with the curve described by a point moving in a
particular way, while analytical plane mensuration deals with the
figure generated by an ordinate moving so that its length varies in
a particular manner depending on its position.
In the same way, in the case of a figure in three dimensions,
analytical geometry is concerned with the form of the surface, while
analytical mensuration is concerned with the figure as a whole.
48. Representation of Volume by Area. An important plane
graph is that which represents the volume of a solid figure.
Suppose that we take a pair of parallel planes, such that the solid
extends from one to the other of these planes. The section by any
intermediate parallel plane will be called a " cross-section." The
solid may then be regarded as generated by the cross-section moving
parallel to itself and changing its shape, or its position with regard
to a fixed axis to which it is always perpendicular, as it moves.
If the area of the cross-section, in every position, is known in
terms of its distance from one of the bounding planes, or from a fixed
plane A parallel to them, the volume of the solid can be expressed
in terms of the area of a trapezette. Let S be the area of the cross-
section at distance x from the plane A. On a straight line OX in
any plane take a point N at distance x from O, and draw an ordinate
NP at right angles to OX and equal to S//, where / is some fixed
length (e.g. the unit of measurement). If this is done for every
possible value of x, there will be a series of ordinates tracing out a
trapezette with base along OX. The volume comprised between
the cross-section whose area is S and a consecutive cross-section at
distance 6 from it is ultimately S0, when 8 is indefinitely small;
and the area between the corresponding ordinates of the trapezette
is (S//) . 9=S0//. Hence the volume of each element of the solid
figure is to be found by multiplying the area of the correspond-
ing element of the trapezette by /, and therefore the total volume is
/ X area of trapezette.
MENSURATION
141
The volume of a briquette can be found in this way if the area
of the section by any principal plane can be expressed in terms of
the distance of this plane from a fixed plane of the same set. The
result of treating this area as if it were the ordinate of a trapezette
leads to special formulae, when the data are of the kind mentioned
in 44.
49. (B) Mensuration of Graphs of Algebraical Functions. The
first class of cases to be considered comprises those cases in which
M is an algebraical function (i.e. a rational integral algebraical func-
tion) of x, or of x and y, of a degree which is known.
50. The simplest case is that in which is constant or is a linear
function of x, i.e. is of the form px + q. The trapezette is then a
right trapezium, and its area, if m=l, is j&(o + MI) or &MJ._
51. The next case is that in which is a quadratic function of x,
i.e. is of the form px? + qx + r. The top is then a parabola whose
axis is at right angles to the base; and the area can therefore ( 34)
be expressed in terms of the two bounding ordinates and the mid-
ordinate. If we take these to be MO and MJ, and MI, so that m = 2,
we have
area = JH(MO + 4M! + MS) = P(MO + 4Mj + MS).
This is Simpson's formula.
If instead! of o, MI, and MJ, we have four ordinates MO, MJ, MS, and
M 3 , so that m = 3, it can be shown that
area = \h(un -j- SMI + 3% + M S ).
This is Simpson's second formula. It may be deduced from the
formula given above. Denoting the areas of the three strips by
A, B, and C, and introducing the middle ordinate MJ, we can express
A + B; B + C; A + B + C; and B in terms of MO, MI, MS; MI, MJ,
u> ; MO, MJ, MS ; and MI, MJ, M 2 respectively. Thus we get two expressions
for A + B + C, from which we can eliminate u\.
A trapezette of this kind will be called a parabolic trapezette.
52. Simpson's two formulae also apply if M is of the form px 3 +
qx' + rx + s. Generally, if the area of a trapezette for which M is an
algebraical function of x of degree ?.n is given correctly by an expres-
sion which is a linear function of values of representing ordinates
placed symmetrically about the mid-ordinate of the trapezette
(with or without this mid-ordinate), the same expression will give
the area of a trapezette for which M is an algebraical function of * of
degree 2n + i. This will be seen by taking the mid-ordinate as the
ordinate for which x = o, and noticing that the odd powers of x
introduce positive and negative terms which balance one another
when the whole area is taken into account.
53. When M is of degree 4 or 5 in x, we require at least five ordinates.
If m = 4, and the data are MO, i, M 2 , M S , M<, we have
+ 32"i + I2M 2 + 32a + 7M 4 ).
For functions of higher degrees in x the formulae become more
complicated.
54. The general method of constructing formulae of this kind
involves the use of the integral calculus and of the calculus of finite
differences. The breadth of the trapezette being mh, it may be
shown that its area is
mh
5?
1555
3-500
where ,,, u^ m , u^ m , . . . denote the values for x = *j m of the
successive differential coefficients of M with regard to x; the series
continuing until the differential coefficients vanish. There are two
classes of cases, according as m is even or odd; it will be con-
venient to consider them first for those cases in which the data are
the bounding ordinates of the strips.
(i) If m is even, Mj m will be one_of the given ordinates, and we
can express Wui m , h*u^ m , ... in terms of wj m and its even central
differences (see DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF). Writing m = 2p, and
grouping the coefficients of the successive differences, we shall find
u f +
If u is of degree 2/ or 2/ + I in *, we require to go up to & if u p , so
that m must be not less than 2/. Simpson's (first) formula, for
instance, holds for / = I, and is obtained by taking p = I and
ignoring differences after S*u p .
(ii) If m is odd, the given ordinates are o, . . . Mj m _j, Mjm+j,
. . . MB,. We then have
where iM\ m , /u5 2 Mj m ,
967680
. denote KMj m _s + wjm-t-0, i( 2 im-J +
Q M R
FIG. 8.
6 2 Mj m +j), . . .Simpson's second formula is obtained by taking
m = 3 and ignoring differences after n&u\ m .
55. The general formulae of 54 (p being replaced in (i) by \m)
may in the same way be applied to obtain formulae giving the area
of the trapezette in terms of the mid-ordinates of the strips, the
series being taken up to tP f u\ m or /^ 2/ Mj m at least, where M is of
degree 2f or 2/ + I in x. Thus we find from (i) that Simpson's
second formula, for the case where the top is a parabola (vrith axis,
as before, at right angles to the base) and there are three strips of
breadth h, may be replaced by
area = f A^MJ + 2w, + 3 8 ).
This might have been deduced directly from Simpson's first formula,
by a series of eliminations.
56. Hence, for the case of a parabola, we can express the area
in terms of the bounding ordinates of two strips, but, if we use
mid-ordinates, we require three strips; so that, in each case,
three ordinates are required. The question then arises whether,
by removing the limitation as to the position of the ordinates, we
can reduce their number.
Suppose that in fig. 6 ( 34) we draw ordinates QD midway between
KA and MC, and RE midway between MC and LB, meeting the top
in D and E (fig. 8), and join DE, meeting
KA, LB, and MC in H, J, and W. Then it
may be shown that DE is parallel to AB, and
that the area of the figure between chord DE
and arc DE is half the sum of the areas DHA
and EJB. Hence the area of the right tra-
pezium KHJL is greater than the area of the
trapezette KACBL.
If we were to take QD and RE closer to MC,
the former area would be still greater. If, on
the other hand, we were to take them very
close to KA and LB respectively, the area of
the trapezette would be the greater. There
is therefore some intermediate position such
that the two areas are equal ; i.e. such that the area of the trapezette
is represented by KL . i(QD + RE).
To find this position, let us write QM = MR = 6 . KM. Then
WC = s . VC, VW = (i - P) VC;
curved area ACB = f of parallelogram AFGB = JKL . VC ;
parallelogram AHJB = KL . VW = (i - ffi) KL . VC.
Hence the areas of the trapezette and of the trapezium will be equal
if
i - = \, 8 = i /V3-
This value of 6 is the same for all parabolas which pass through D
and E and have their axes at right angles to KL. It follows that,
by taking two ordinates in a certain position with regard to the
bounding ordinates, the area of any parabolic trapezette whose top
passes through their extremities can be expressed in terms of these
ordinates and of the breadth of the trapezette.
The same formula will also hold ( 52) for any cubic trapezette
through the points.
57. This is a particular case of a general theorem, due to Gauss,
that, if M is an algebraical function of * of degree 2p or 2p-{- 1, the
area can be expressed in terms of p + I ordinates taken in suitable
positions.
58. The Prismoidal Formula. It follows from 48 and 51 that,
if V is a solid figure extending from a plane K to a parallel plane L,
and if the area of every cross-section parallel to these planes is a
quadratic function of the distance of the section from a fixed plane
parallel to them, Simpson's formula may be applied ta find the volume
of the solid. If the areas of the two ends in the planes K and L are
So and 82, and the area of the mid-section (i.e. the section by a plane
parallel to these planes and midway between them) is Sj, the volume
is JH(So + 4S t + Sj), where H is the total breadth.
This formula applies to such figures as the cone, the sphere, the
ellipsoid and the prismoid. In the case of the sphere, for instance,
whose radius is R, the area of the section at distance * from the
centre is ir(R 2 -* 2 ), which is a quadratic function of x; the values
of So Si, and Sz are respectively o, irR 2 , and o, and the volume is
therefore | . 2R . 4irR 2 = jirR 3 .
To show that the area of a cross-section of a prismoid is of
the form ax 2 + bx +_ c, where x is
the distance of the section from
one end, we may proceed as in
27. In the case of a pyramid, of
height h, the area of the section
by a plane parallel to the base
and at distance x from the vertex
is clearly x 2 /h 2 X area of base.
In the case of a wedge with
parallel ends the ratio * 2 /A 2 is re-
placed by x/h. For a tetrahedron,
two of whose opposite edges are
AB and CD, we require the area
FIG. 9.
of the section by a plane parallel to AB and CD. Let the distance
between the parallel planes through AB and CD be h, and let a
plane at distance x from the plane through AB cut the edges AC,
MENSURATION
BC, BD, AD, in P, Q, R, S (fig. 9). Then the section of the pyramid
by this plane is the parallelogram PQRS. By drawing Ac and
Ad parallel to BC and BD, so as to meet the plane through
CD in c and d, and producing QP and RS to meet Ac and Ad in q
and r, we see that the area of PQRS is (x/A -*/*) X area of-
cCDd; this also is a quadratic function of x. The proposition can
then be established for a prismoid generally by the method of 27 (iv) .
The formula is known as the prismoidal formula.
59. Moments. Since all points on any ordinate are at an equal
distance from the axis of u, it is easily shown that the first moment
(with regard to this axis) of a trapezette whose ordinate is u is equal
to the area of a trapezette whose ordinate is xu ; and this area can
be found by the methods of the preceding sections in cases where u
is an algebraical function of x. The formulae can then be applied
to finding the moments of certain volumes.
In the case of the parabolic trapezette, for instance, xu is of degree
3 in *, and therefore the first moment is \h(xvUo-\-4XiUi+xiUt).
In the case, therefore, of any solid whose cross-section at distance x
from one end is a quadratic function of x, the position of the cross-
section through the centroid is to be found by determining the
position of the centre of gravity of particles of masses proportional
to So, Sj, and 481, placed at the extremities and the middle of a line
drawn from one end of the solid to the other. The centroid of a
hemisphere of radius R, for instance, is the same as the centroid
of particles of masses o, irR 2 , and 4 . f irR 2 , placed at the extremities
and the middle of its axis; i.e. the centroid is at distance |R from
the plane face.
60. The method can be extended to finding the second, third, . . .
moments of a trapezette with regard to the axis of u. If u is an
algebraical function of x of degree not exceeding p, and if the area
of a trapezette, for which the ordinate is of degree not exceeding
p+q, may be expressed by a formula Xofo+yifi-f- . . . +X m p >n , the
gth moment of the trapezette is Xo*o< r uo+Xi*ii + . . . +\ n x m ''u m ,
and the mean value of x is
(XoJCo'Mo + XlXl'Wl + . . . + A m * m m )/(Xoo + XiMi + . . . + Xmttm).
The calculation of this last expression is simplified by noticing that
we are only concerned with the mutual ratios of Xo, Xi, . . . and of
tto, i,.., not with their actual values.
61. Cubature of a Briquette. To extend these methods to a bri-
quette, where the ordinate u is an algebraical function of x and y,
the axes of * and of y being parallel to the sides of the base, we
consider that the area of a section at distance x from the plane x=o
is expressed in terms of the ordinates in which it intersects the series
of planes, parallel to y = o, through the given ordinates of the
briquette ( 44) ; and that the area of the section is then represented
by the ordinate of a trapezette. This ordinate will be an algebraical
function of x, and we can again apply a suitable formula.
Suppose, for instance, that u is of degree not exceeding 3 in x, and
of degree not exceeding 3 in y, i.e. that it contains terms in x'y 3 ,
x 3 y 1 , x'y 3 , &c. ; and suppose that the edges parallel to which * and y
are measured are of lengths 2h and 3^, the briquette being divided
into six elements by the plane x=xn+h and the planes y = yo+k,
y = y a -\-2k, and that the 12 ordinates forming the edges of these
six elements are given. The areas of the sides for which x = xt> and
x^xn-\-2h, and of the section by the plane x = xo-\-h, may be
found by Simpson's second formula; call these A and Az, and Ai.
The area of the section by a plane at distance x from the edge
x = xo is a function of x whose degree is the same as that of u.
Hence Simpson's formula applies, and the volume is \h(An-\-^Ai-\-
A 2 ).
The process is simplified by writing down the general formula
first and then substituting the values of u. The formula, in the
above case, is
pji(o,o + 3o,i + 3o,2 + o,a) + 4X|fe(i,o + . ) + i*(*i,o + . .)!,
where u*,<t> denotes the ordinate for which x=xn+6h, y=yo+<t>k.
The result is the same as if we multiplied
|&(o + 3i+3s + f) by \h(u<> + 4i
+ui), and then replaced Mono, oi, . . .
by o,o, o,i . . . The multiplication is
shown in the adjoining diagram; the
factors J and | are kept outside, so that
the sum o,o+3o,i + . . . +42*1,0+- . . .
can be calculated before it is multiplied
by \h . \k.
62. The above is a particular case of a general principle that
the obtaining of an expression such as |/Ko+4i+<2) or
|fc(uo+3i+3t>2+3) is an operation performed on Uo or o,
and that this operation is the sum of a number of operations
such as that which obtains \hu$ or \kvi>. The volume of the
briquette for which u is a function of x and y is found by
the operation of double integration, consisting of two successive
operations, one being with regard to x, and the other with regard
'to y; and these operations may (in the cases with which we
are concerned) be performed in either order. Starting from any
ordinate ,, the result of integrating with regard to x through a
distance 2h is (in the example considered in 61) the same as the
result of the operation \h(i + 4E + E 2 ), where E Tdenotes the
operation of changing x into x+h (see DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS
|X|
I
4
I
I
I
4
I
3
3
12
3
3
3
12
3
L
i
4
i
OF). The integration with regard to y may similarly (in the particular
example) be replaced by the operation i*(i+3E'+3E' ! +E'),
where E' denotes the change of y into y + k. The result of per-
forming both operations, in order to obtain the volume, is the result
of the operation denoted by the product of these two expressions;
and in tnis product the powers of E and of E' may be dealt with
according to algebraical laws.
The methods of 59 and 60 can similarly be extended to finding
the position of the central ordinate of a briquette, or the mean g*
distance of elements of the briquette from a principal plane.
63. (C) Mensuration of Graphs Generally. We have next to-
consider the extension of the preceding methods to cases in which u
is not necessarily an algebraical function of x or of x and y.
The general principle is that the numerical data from which a
particular result is to be deduced are in general not exact, but are
given only to a certain degree of accuracy. This limits the accuracy
of the result; and we can therefore replace the figure by another
figure which coincides with it approximately, provided that the
further inaccuracy so introduced is comparable with the original
inaccuracies of measurement.
The relation between the inaccuracy of the data and the additional
inaccuracy due to substitution of another figure is similar to the
relation between the inaccuracies in mensuration of a figure which
is supposed to be of a given form ( 20). The volume of a frustum
of a cone, for instance, can be expressed in terms of certain magni-
tudes by a certain formula ; but not only will there be some error in
the measurement of these magnitudes, but there is not any material
figure which is an exact cone. The formula may, however, be used
if the deviation from conical form is relatively less than the
errors of measurement. The conditions are thus similar to those
which arise in interpolation (q.v.). The data are the same in both
cases. In the case of a trapezette, for instance, the data are the
magnitudes of certain ordinates ; the problem of interpolation is to
determine the values of intermediate ordinates, while that of men-
suration is to determine the area of the figure of which these are the
ordinates. If, as is usually the case, the ordinate throughout each
strip of the trapezette can be expressed approximately as an alge-
braical function of the abscissa, the application of the integral
calculus gives the area of the figure.
64. There are three classes of cases to be considered. In the case
of mathematical functions certain conditions of continuity are
satisfied, and the extent to which the value given by any particular
formula differs from the true value may be estimated within certain
limits; the main inaccuracy, in favourable cases, being due to the
fact that the numerical data are not absolutely exact. In physical
and mechanical applications, where concrete measurements are
involved, there is, as pointed out in the preceding section, the
additional inaccuracy due to want of exactness in the figure itself.
In the case of statistical data there is the further difficulty that there
is no real continuity, since we are concerned with a finite number
of individuals.
The proper treatment of the deviations from mathematical accu-
racy, in the second and third of the above classes of cases, is a
special matter. In what follows it will be assumed that the condi-
tions of continuity (which imply the continuity not only of u but
also of some of its differential coefficients) are satisfied, subject to
the small errors in the values of u actually given ; the limits of these
errors being known.
65. It is only necessary to consider the trapezette and the briquette,
since the cases which occur in practice can be reduced to one or other
of these forms. In each case the data are the values of certain
equidistant ordinates, as described in 43-45. The terms quad-
rature-formula and cubature-formula are sometimes restricted to
formulae for expressing the area of a trapezette, or the volume of
a briquette, in terms of such data. Thus a quadrature-formula
is a formula for expressing [A z . u] or fudx in terms of a series of
given values of tt, while a cubature-formula is a formula for express-
ing [fxn/-]] orffudxdy in terms of the values of u for certain values
of x in combination with certain values of y; these values not
necessarily lying within the limits of the integrations.
66. There are two principal methods. The first, which is the
best known but is of limited application, consists in replacing each
successive portion of the figure by another figure whose ordinate
is an algebraical function of x or of x and y, and expressing the area
or volume of this latter figure (exactly or approximately) in terms of
the given ordinates. The second consists in taking a comparatively
simple expression obtained in this way, and introducing corrections
which involve the values of ordinates at or near the boundaries of the
figure. The various methods will be considered first for the trapez-
ette, the extensions to the briquette being only treated briefly.
67. The Trapezoidal Rule. The simplest method is to replace the
trapezette by a series of trapezia. If the data are MO, i, . . . m,
the figure formed by joining the tops of these ordinates is a trapezoid
whose area is A(io + ]+% + ... + m-i + ^ m >. This is
called the. trapezoidal or chordal area, and will be denoted by Ci. If
the data are HI, 1*3, ... m-j, we can form a series of trapezia by
drawing the tangents at the extremities of these ordinates; the sum
of the areas of these trapezia will be i(aj+ttg+. . . +m_i).
This is called the tangential area, and will be denoted by TI. The
MENSURATION
tangential area may be expressed in terms of chordal areas. If we
write Cj for the chordal area obtained by taking ordinates at
intervals \h, then Ti = 2Q Ci. If the trapezette, as seen from
above, is everywhere convex or everywhere concave, the true area
lies between Ci and Ti.
68. Other Rides for Trapezettes. The extension of this method
consists in dividing the trapezette into minor trapezettes, each
consisting of two or more strips, and replacing each of these minor
trapezettes by a new figure, whose ordinate v is an algebraical
function of x; this function being chosen so that the new figure shall
coincide with the original figure so far as the given ordinates are
concerned. This means that, if the minor trapezette consists of k
strips, v will be of degree k or k i in x, according as the data are the
bounding ordinates or the mid-ordinates. If A denotes the true
area of the original trapezette, and B the aggregate area of the
substituted figures, we have A=2=B, where =Qr denotes approximate
equality. The value of B is found by the methods of 49~55-
The following are some examples.
(i) Suppose that the bounding ordinates are given, and that m is
a multiple of 2. Then we can take the strips in pairs, and treat each
pair as a parabolic trapezette. Applying Simpson's formula to each
of these, we have
MS)
4S
This is Simpson's rule.
(ii) Similarly, if m is a multiple of 3, the repeated application of
Simpson's second formula gives Simpson's second rule
A =0= fft(o + 3l + 3%+ 2U 3 + 34 + . . + 3m-4 + 2ttm_3 +
3m-2 + 3"m-l + m)-
(iii) If mid-ordinates are given, and m is a multiple of 3, the
repeated application of the formula of 55 will give
A ^
69. The formulae become complicated when the number of strips
in each of the minor trapezettes is large. The method is then modified
by replacing B by an expression which gives the areas of the sub-
stituted figures approximately. This introduces a further inaccuracy ;
but this latter may be negligible in comparison with the main in-
accuracies already involved (cf. 20 (iii)).
Suppose, for instance, that m = 6, and that we consider the
trapezette as a whole; the data being the bounding ordinates.
Since there are seven of these, v will be of degree 6 in x; and we shall
have ( 54 (i))
B =6h(v 3 + |SH
If we replace s*A** M i m l h' s expression by && e ut, the method of
68 gives
A == ft/i (MO + 5"i + + 6 + + 56 + W I
the expression on the right-hand side being an approximate expres-
sion for B, and differing from it only by 5 ipH6 6 3. This is Weddle's
rule. If m is a multiple of 6, we can obtain an expression for A by
applying the rule to each group of six strips.
70. Some of the formulae obtained by the above methods can
be expressed more simply in terms of chordal or tangential areas
taken in various ways. Consider, for example, Simpson's rule
( 68 (i)). The expression for A can be written in the form
+ ttl+2 +
+...+ Mm-2
Now, if p is any factor of m, there is a series of equidistant
ordinates MO, M ? , UI P , . . . Um- p , Um\ and the chordal area as
determined by these ordinates is
ft(i0 + Up + Ulp +..
which may be denoted by C f . With this notation, the area as
given by Simpson's rule may be written in the form JCi JC or
Ci + i(Ci d). The following are some examples of formulae of
this kind, in terms of chordal areas.
(i) m a multiple of 2 (Simpson's rule).
A =0= J( 4 C, - C 2 =0= C, + l(Ci - C,).
(ii) m a multiple of 3 (Simpson's second rule).
A =0= i( 9 C, - C,) A C, + i(Q - C,).
(iii) m a multiple of 4.
A =0= &(64d - 2oC,+C 4 ) = Ci+f (Ci - C,) - &(Ci - CO-
(iv) m a multiple of 6 (Weddle's rule, or its repeated application).
A =a T \(i5Ci-6C 2 +C 8 ) A Ci +i(Ci - C t ) -A(d - C,).
(v) m a multiple of 12.
A =0= A(56Ci - 28C, + 8C 3 - C 4 )
=ad+f(d - C,) - KCi - C,) + ft(C, - C 4 ).
There are similar formulae in terms of the tangential areas Ti,
T,, T,. Thus (iii) of 68 may be written A =0= KgTi - T,).
71. The general method of constructing the formulae of 70 for
chordal areas is that, if p, q, r, . . . are k of the factors (including i)
of m, we take
A=aPCp+QC,+RC r -|-. . . ,
where P, Q, R, . . . satisfy the k equations
P + Q + R + ...
P 2 + Qcf + Rr 2 + . . .
Pp 4 + Qg. i + Rr* + ....
= i,
= o,
=o,
=o.
The last k i of these equations give
l/P : i/Q : i/R : . . . = />(/>' -
_
Combining this with the first equation, we obtain the values of
P, Q, R, . . .
The same method applies for tangential areas, by taking
A =a PT P + QT 4 + RT r + . . .
provided that p, q, r, . . . are odd numbers.
72. The justification of the above methods lies in certain properties
of the series of successive differences of u. The fundamental
assumption is that each group of strips of the trapezette may be
replaced by a figure for which differences of u, above those of a
certain order, vanish ( 54). The legitimacy of this assumption,
and of the further assumption which enables the area of the new
figure to be expressed by an approximate formula instead of by an
exact formula, must be verified in every case by reference to the
actual differences.
73. Correction by means of Extreme Ordinates. The preceding
methods, though apparently simple, are open to various objections
in practice, such as the following: (i) The assignment of different
coefficients of different ordinates, and even the selection of ordinates
for the purpose of finding Cj, C 3 , &c. (70), is troublesome, (ii) This
assignment of different coefficients means that different weights are
given to different ordinates; and the relative weights may not
agree with the relative accuracies of measurement, (iii) Different
formulae have to be adopted for different values of m ; the method is
therefore unsuitable for the construction of a table giving successive
values of the area up to successive ordinates. (iv) In order to find
what formula may be applied, it is necessary to take the successive
differences of u; and it is then just as easy, in most cases, to use
a formula which directly involves these differences and therefore
shows the degree of accuracy of the approximation.
The alternative method, therefore, consists in taking a simple
formula, such as the trapezoidal rule, and correcting it to suit the
mutual relations of the differences.
74. To illustrate the method, suppose that we use the chordal
area Ci, and that the trapezette is in fact parabolic. The difference
between Ci and the true area is made up of a series of areas bounded
by chords and arcs; this difference becoming less as we subdivide
the figure into a greater number of strips.
The fact that Ci does not give the true area is due to the fact that
in passing from one extremity of the top of any strip to the other
extremity the tangent to the trapezette
changes its direction. We have therefore
in the first place to see whether the
difference can be expressed in terms of the
directions of the tangents.
Let KABL (fig. 10) be one of the strips,
of breadth h. Draw the tangents at A and
B, meeting at T; and through T draw a
line parallel to KA and LB, meeting the
arc AB in C and the chord AB in V.
Draw AD and BE perpendicular to this
line, and DF and TG perpendicular to LB. _
Then AD = EB = i*, and the triangles K
AVD and BVE are equal.
The area of the trapezette is less (in
fig. 10) than the area of the trapezium KABL by two-thirds of the
area of the triangle ATB ( 34). This latter area is
ABTE - AATD = ABTG-AATD = J/i 2 tan GTB - |A 2 tan DAT.
Hence, if the angle which the tangent at the extremity of the ordinate
ug makes with the axis of x is denoted by <j/ e , we have
area from o to ui = \h(u<, + ui) ^'(tan fa tan fa),
,, i to ut = %h(ui + ut) frtf(tan fa tan fa),
m - tan
M
FIG. 10.
+ u m ) -
*_! to u m = ^h
and thence, by summation,
A = Ci -,V! ! (tan^ m - tan fa).
This, in the notation of 46 and 54, may be written
Since h = H/m, the inaccuracy in taking Ci as the area varies as
l/m 2 .
It might be shown in the same way that
A =T,
- tan
T, +
75. The above formulae apply only to a parabolic trapezette.
Their generalization is given by the Euler-Maclaurin formula
14.4
MENSURATION
V" -
udx - Ci
and an analogous formula (which may be obtained by substituting
JA and C 4 for * and Ci in the above and then expressing T t as
2Cj-Ci)
To apply these, the differential coefficients have to be expressed in
terms of differences.
76 If we know not only the ordinates o, MI, . . . or
but also a sufficient number of the ordinates obtained by continuing
the series outside the trapezette, at both extremities, we can use
central-difference formulae, which are by far the most convenient
The formulae of 75 give
77- H we do not know values of u outside the figure, we must use
advancing or receding differences. The formulae usually employed
are
A = C
+fc j
Ti+*| -
where A, A*, . . . have the usual meaning (Ao=tti o, A 2 o =
AMI Ao ..... ), and A', A' 1 , . . . denote differences read back-
wards, so that A'w m = m _,- M , A' 2 m =tt m _ 2 -;2M m _i+tt m , . . .
The calculation of the expressions in brackets may be simplified by
taking the pairs in terms from the outside; i.e. by finding the
successive differences of o + m, MI + WOT-I, . . ., or of
An alternative method, which is in some ways preferable, is to
complete the table of differences by repeating the differences of the
highest order that will be taken into account (see INTERPOLATION),
and then to use central-difference formulae.
78. In order to find the corrections in respect of the terms shown
in square brackets in the formulae of 75, certain ordinates other
than those used for Ci or TI are sometimes found specially. Par-
mentier's rule, for instance, assumes that in addition to j, ,...'.
tt^-j, we know o and Um\ and j o and Um z< m _ j are taken
to be equal to Jftu'o and i&w'm respectively. These methods are
not tc be recommended except in special cases.
70. By replacing h in 75 by 2h, 3^, . . . and eliminating W-u' ,
h*u ",..., we obtain exact formulae corresponding to the ap-
proximate formulae of 70. The following are the results (for the
formulae involving chordal areas), given in terms of differential
coefficients and of central differences. They are not so convenient
as the formulae of 76, but they serve to indicate the degree of
accuracy of the approximate formulae. The expressions in square
brackets are in each case to be taken as relating to the extreme
values x=*o and x=Xm, as in 75 and 76.
(i) A
(ii) A =
=
(iii) A =
=
(iv) A =
=
(v) A =
The general expression, if p, q, r, . . . are k of the factors of m, is
RC r +...
where P, Q, R, . . . have the values given by the equations in 71,
and the coefficients bt, &t+i, . . . are found from the corresponding
coefficients in the ^uler-Maclaurin formula ( 75) by multiplying
them by -
So. Moments of a Trapezette. The above methods can be applied,
as in 59 and 60, to finding the moments of a trapezette, when the
data are a series of ordinates. To find the pth moment, when
<o. ii M, are given, we have only to find the area of a trapezette
whose ordinates are *o"o, xfui, xfu?, . . .
81. There is, however, a certain set of cases, occurring in statistics,
in which the data are not a series of ordinates, but the areas
Aj, Ag, . . . A m _j of the strips bounded by the consecutive ordin-
ates HO, MI, ... . The determination of the moments in these
cases involves special methods, which are considered in the next
two sections.
82. The most simple case is that in which the trapezette tapers
out in such a way that the curve forming its top has very close-
contact, at its extremities, with the base; in other words, the differ-
ential coefficients u', u", u'", ... are practically negligible for
x = xo and for x = Xm. The method adopted in these cases is to
treat the areas Aj, Aj, ... as if they were ordinates placed at
the points for which x = x,, *=Xj, . . . , to calculate the moments
on this assumption, and then to apply certain corrections. If the
first, second, . . . moments, so calculated, before correction are
denoted by pi, ps, . . . , we have
p, = *jA}+ *3A| + . . . + aw.jAm-j
Pt
These are called the raw moments. Then, if the true moments are
denoted by i, vt ..... their values are given by
where po (or wo) is the total area Aj + Aj + . . . + A_}; the
general expression being
where
The establishment of these formulae involves the use of the integral
calculus.
The position of the central ordinate is given by X = VI/PO, and
therefore is given approximately by * pi/po. To find the moments
with regard to the central ordinate, we must use this approximate
value, and transform by means of the formulae given in 32. This
can be done either before or after the above corrections are made. If
the transformation is made first, and if the resulting raw moments
with regard to the (approximate) central ordinate are o, TJ, irj, . . . ,
the true moments in, ftt, us, . . . with regard to the central ordinate
are given by
83. These results may be extended to the calculation of an expres-
ion of the form f*u<t>(x)dx, where </>(*) is a definite function of x,
and the conditions with regard to u are the same as in 82.
(i) If <j>(x) is an explicit function of x, we have
where
5*(x) -|j*V'<*) +*f *<**(*>- ...
the coefficients Xi, Xz ..... having the values given in 82.
(ii) If (p(x) is not given explicitly, but is tabulated for the values
*j, *j, . . . of x, the formula of (i) applies, provided we take
The formulae can be adapted to the case in which <j>(x) is tabulated
'or x=xo, *i,...
84. In cases other than those described in 82, the pth moment
with regard to the axis of u is given by
where A is the total area of the original trapezette, and Sp_i is the
area of a trapezette whose ordinates at successive distances h,
beginning and ending with the bounding ordinates, are
The value of Sp_i has to be found by a quadrature-formula. The
generalized formula is
_ T
.* I
MENSURATION
where T is the area of a trapezette whose ordinates at successive
distances A are o, A{<*>' (*i), (Aj+Aj)4>'(* 2 ), . . . (Ai+A|+ . . . +
Am_|)*'(*m_i), A<t>'(x m ); the accents denoting the first differential
coefficient.
85. Volume and Moments of a Briquette. The application of the
methods of 75-79 to calculation of the volume of a briquette leads
to complicated formulae. If the conditions are such that the methods
of 61 cannot be used, or are undesirable as giving too much weight
to particular ordinates, it is best to proceed in the manner indicated
at the end of 48 ; i.e. to find the areas of one set of parallel sections,
and treat these as the ordinates of a trapezette whose area will be
the volume of the briquette.
86. The formulae of 82 can be extended to the case of a briquette
whose top has close contact with the base all along its boundary;
the data being the volumes of the minor briquettes formed by the
planes x = xk>, # = *i, . . . and y = yo, y=yi, The method
of constructing the formulae is explained in 62. If we write
we first calculate the raw values 0-0,1, <n,o, <r\,i, ... of So,i, Sj,o, Si,i,
... on the assumption that the volume of each minor briquette
is concentrated along its mid-ordinate ( 44), and we then obtain the
formulae of correction by multiplying the formulae of 82 in pairs.
Thus we find (e.g.)
Si,i=a<n,i
82,1=0=0-2,1
S 8 ,2=Q=ff 3,2 - JAVl ,2 - A feVs,0 + A A'ft Vl,o
where <TO,O is the total volume of the briquette.
87. If the data of the briquette are, as in 86, the volumes of the
minor briquettes, but the condition as to close contact is not satisfied,
we have
where K=*S,Xgth moment with regard to plane y=o,
L=ylXpth moment with regard to plane x = o,
and R is the volume of a briquette whose ordinate at (x,,y,) is found
by multiplying by pq av"" 1 y."" 1 the volume of that portion of the
original briquette which lies between the planes X = XQ, X = XT,
y = y , y = y,. The ordinates of this new briquette at the points of
intersection of * = xo, x = xi, . . . with y=y<i, y=yi, are
obtained from the data by summation and multiplication; and the
ordinary methods then apply for calculation of its volume. Either
or both of the expressions K and L will have to be calculated by
means of the formula of 84; if this is applied to both expressions,
we have a formula which may be written in a more general form
The second and third expressions on the right-hand side represent
areas of trapezettes, which can be calculated from the data; and
the fourth expression represents the volume of a briquette, to be
calculated in the same way as R above.
88. Cases of Failure. When the sequence of differences is not such
as to enable any of the foregoing methods to be applied, it is some-
times possible to amplify the data by measurement of intermediate
ordinates, and then apply a suitable method to the amplified series.
There is, however, a certain class of cases in which no subdivision
of intervals will produce a good result ; viz. cases in which the top
of the figure is, at one extremity (or one part of its boundary), at
right angles to the base. The Euler-Maclaurin formula ( 75)
assumes that the bounding values of u', u'", . . . are not infinite;
this condition is not satisfied in the cases here considered. It is
also clearly impossible to express u as an algebraical function of x
and y if some value of du/dx or du/dy is to be infinite.
No completely satisfactory methods have been devised for dealing
with these cases. One method is to construct a table for interpola-
tion of x in terms of u, and from this table
to calculate values of x corresponding to
values of , proceeding by equal intervals;
a quadrature-formula can then be applied.
Suppose, for instance, that we require the
area of the trapezette ABL in fig. 1 1 ; the
curve being at right angles to the base AL
at A. If QD is the' bounding ordinate of
c- . . one of the component strips, we can calculate
the area of QDBL in the ordinary way. The
data for the area ADQ are a series of values of u corresponding to
equidifferent values of *; if we denote by y the distance of a point
on the arc AD from QD, we can from the series of values of u
construct a series of values of y corresponding to equidifferent values
of u, and thus find the area of ADQ, treating QD as the base. The
process, however, is troublesome.
89. Examples of Applications. The following are some examples
of cases in which the above methods may be applied to the calcula-
tion of areas and integrals.
(i) Construction of Mathematical Tables. Even where u is an
explicit function of *, so that f'udx may be expressed in terms of *,
it is often more convenient, for construction of a table of values of
such an integral, to use finite-difference formulae. The formula
of 76 may (see DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF) be written
j" udx = h.pau + h( - -fa uSu + ,
= a (hu
The second of these is usually the more convenient. Thus, to
construct a table of values of y x udx by intervals of h in x, we first
form a table of values of hu for the intermediate values of x, from
this obtain a table of values of (i+j^S 2 rHo* 4 + ) k for
these values of x, and then construct the table of f'udx by succes-
sive additions. Attention must be given to the possible accumula-
tion of errors due to the small errors in the values of u. Each
of the above formulae involves an arbitrary constant; but this
disappears when we start the additions from a known value of
/* udx.
The process may be repeated. Thus we have
f'f'udxdx = (a
Here there are two arbitrary constants, which may be adjusted in
various ways.
The formulae may be used for extending the accuracy of tables,
in cases where, if ti represents the quantity tabulated, hdv/dx or
K'd^v/dx 2 can be conveniently expressed in terms of v and * to a
greater degree of accuracy than it could be found from the table.
The process practically consists in using the table as it stands for
improving the first or second differences of o and then building up
the table afresh.
(ii) Life Insurance. The use of quadrature-formulae is important
in actuarial work, where the fundamental tables are based on experi-
ence, and the formulae applying these tables involve the use of the
tabulated values and their differences.
90. The following are instances of the application of approximative
formulae to the calculation of the volumes of solids.
(i) Timber Measure. To find the quantity of timber in a trunk
with parallel ends, the areas of a few sections must be calculated
as accurately as possible, and a formula applied. As the measure-
ments can only be rough, the trapezoidal rule is the most appropriate
in ordinary cases.
(ii) Gauging. To measure the volume of a cask, it may be as-
sumed that the interior is approximately a portion of a spheroidal
figure. The formula applied can then be either Simpson s rule or
a rule based on Gauss's theorem for two ordinates ( 56). In the
latter case the twosectionsaretakenat distances =*= $H/V 3 = =*= -2887H
from the middle section, where H is the total internal length; and
their arithmetic mean is taken to be the mean section of the cask.
Allowance must of course be made for the thickness of the wood.
91. Certain approximate formulae for the length of an arc of a
circle are obtained by methods similar to those of 71 and 79.
Let a be the radius of a circle, and 8 (circular measure) the un-
known angle subtended by an arc. Then, if we divide 6 into
m equal parts, and Li denotes the sum of the corresponding
chords, so that Li=2ma sin (8 /2m), the true length of the arc is
Li + 06 \ ) ^ + . . . | , where < =6 /2m. Similarly, if L repre-
sents the sum of the chords when m (assumed even) is replaced by
Jm, we have an expression involving Lt and 2tj>. The method of
71 then shows that, by taking J(4Li Ls) as the value of the arc,
we get rid of terms in <t>*. If we use Ci to represent the chord of
the whole arc, Ci the chord of half the arc, and c t the chord of one
quarter of the arc, then corresponding to (i) and (iii) of 70 or
79 we have J(8cj-Ci) and &(2S6c t 4uci+ci) as approximations
to the length of the arc. The first of these is Huygens's rule.
REFERENCES. For applications of the prismoidal formula, see
Alfred Lodge, Mensuration for Senior Students (1895). Other works
on elementary mensuration are G. T. Chivers, Elementary Mensura-
tion (1904) ; R. W. K. Edwards, Elementary Plane and Solid Mensura-
tion (1902); William H. Jackson, Elementary Solid Geometry (1907);
P. A. Lambert, Computation and Mensuration (1907). A. E. Pier-
point's Mensuration Formulae (1902) is a handy collection. Rules
for calculation of areas are also given in such works as F. Castle,
Manual of Practical Mathematics (1903); F. C. Clarke, Practical
Mathematics (1907); C. T. Millis, Technical Arithmetic and Geometry
146
MENTAWI MENZEL, A. F. E. VON
(1903). For examples of measurement of areas by geometrical
construction, see G. C. Turner, Graphics applied to Arithmetic,
Mensuration and Statics (1907). Discussions of the approximate
calculation of definite integrals will be found in works on the in-
finitesimal calculus; see e.g. E. Goursat, A Course in Mathematical
Analysis (1905; trans, by E. R. Hedrick). For the methods involv-
ing finite differences, see references under DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS
OF; and INTERPOLATION. On calculation of moments of graphs,
see W. P. Elderton, Frequency- Curves and Correlation (1906) ; as to
the formulae of 82, see also Biomeirika, v. 450. For mechanical
methods of calculating areas and moments see CALCULATING
MACHINES. (W. F. SH.)
MENTAWI, a chain of islands in the Dutch East Indies, off
the west coast of Sumatra, between i and 3 30' S. There are
twenty-one islands in all, of which the majority lie close to or
between the four largest Siberut, Sikaban or Sipora, North
Pageh and South Pageh. The two last (also called Pagi or
Poggy) are sometimes termed the Nassau Islands. The total
land area is 1224 sq. m. The islands are included in the admini-
stration of Padang, Sumatra. They are apparently volcanic.
Coral reefs lie off the coasts and render them difficult of access.
The natives in language and customs present affinities with some
Polynesians, and have been held to be a survival of the eastward
immigration of people of Caucasian stock which took place
before those which established the " pre- Malay "peoples (such
as the Dyaks and Battas) in the Malay Archipelago. The islands
produce some coco-nuts, sago, trepang and timber.
MENTEITH, or MONTEITH, a district of south Perthshire,
Scotland, roughly comprising the territory between the Teith
and the Forth. Formerly it was a stewartry and gave the title
to an earldom. The title was first held by Gilchrist, a Celtic
chief ennobled by Malcolm IV., and passed successively to Walter
Comyn (d. 1258), to a branch of the Stewarts, and finally to the
Grahams, becoming extinct in 1694. The lake of Menteith,
situated 2^ m. S. of Loch Vennachar measures i^ m. long by i m.
broad, and contains three islands. On Inchmahome (Gaelic,
" the Isle of Rest") are the ruins of an Augustinian priory
founded in 1238 by Walter Comyn. It is Early English, with an
ornate western doorway. The island was the residence of Queen
Mary, when a child of five, for a few months before her departure
to France in 1 548. On Inch Talla stands the ruined tower of the
earls of Menteith, dating from 1428. The village of Port of
Monteith (pop. of parish, 1088), on the north shore of the lake,
is 31 m. north by west of the station of the same name on the
North British Railway Company's Forth & Clyde line.
MENTONE (Fr. Menlon), a town in the department of the
Alpes Maritimes in south-east France, situated on the shore of
the Mediterranean, about 15 m. by rail E. of Nice. Pop. (1901),
9944. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre on a rocky
promontory, which divides its semicircular bay into two portions.
The main town is composed of two parts. Below, along the sea-
shore, is the town of hotels and foreigners, while above, and
inaccessible to wheeled vehicles, is that of the native Mentonese,
with steep, narrow and dark streets, clinging to the mountain
side around the strong castle which was once its protection
against pirates. In the old town is the church of St Michel,
rebuilt in great part since an earthquake in 1887, while below,
in the principal street, the Corniche road, is the monument set
up in 1896 to commemorate the union (in 1860) of Mentone with
France. East of the main town is the suburb of Caravan,
sheltered by cliffs, and filled with hotels. A mile and a half far-
ther on is the Pont St Louis, which marks the frontier between
France and Italy, while beyond it Sir Thomas Hanbury's villa
at La Murtola is soon reached, with its marvellous gardens of
250 acres. West of the main town more hotels and villas are
scattered along the coast towards Cap Martin. This is a pine-
covered promontory which shelters the Bay of Mentone on the
west, and is crowned by a great hotel, not far from which is the
villa of the ex-empress Eugenie. Facing south-east, and
sheltered on the north and west by mountains, the Bay of
Mentone has a delicious climate and is frequented by invalids.
The mean for the year is 61 F., while that for the winter is 72
in the sun, and 55 in the shade. Frost occurs on the average
only once in ten years. Besides the charms of its climate Mentone
offers those of an almost tropical vegetation. Lemon-trees, olive-
trees and pines rise in successive stages on surrounding slopes.
The district produces 40,000,000 lemons yearly, and this is its
principal natural wealth. In the east bay is the harbour, con-
structed in 1890. It has a depth of about 26 ft., and is sheltered
by a jetty about 400 yds. in length. The harbour is frequented
by pleasure yachts and a few coasting vessels.
Mentone was probably the Lumone of the Itineraries, but no
Roman remains exist. After having belonged to the counts of
Ventimiglia and a noble Genoese family, it was purchased about the
middle of the lith century by the Grimaldis, lords of Monaco.
During the First Republic and the First Empire it belonged to France,
but in 1815 it reverted to the prince of Monaco, who subjected it to
such exactions that in 1848 its inhabitants proclaimed the town
(with Roquebrune on the west) independent, under the protection
of Sardinia. In 1860 both Mentone and Roquebrune were purchased
by France from the prince of Monaco, and added to the department
of the Alpes. Maritimes then formed out of the county of Nice, ceded
the same year to France by Sardinia.
MENTOR, in Greek legend, the son of Alcimus and the faithful
friend of Odysseus. During the absence of the latter, Mentor
was entrusted with the care of his household and the guardian-
ship of his son Telemachus. The word " mentor " is now used
in the sense of a wise and trustworthy adviser, a meaning
probably connected with the etymology of the name, from the
root man-, seen, in Lat. monere, to advise, monitor, adviser.
The New English Dictionary points out that the transferred use
is due less to Homer's Odyssey than to F<Snelon's Tel4maque, in which
Mentor is a somewhat prominent character.
MENTOR OF RHODES, brother of Memnon (?..), a Greek
condottiere who appears first in the service of the rebellious
satrap Artabazus of Phrygia in 363. When Artabazus had
rebelled a second time and was in 353 forced to flee with Memnon
into Macedonia, Mentor entered the service of the Egyptian
king Nectanebus, and was sent by him with a body of Greek
mercenaries to support the rebellious king Tennes (Tabnit) of
Sidon against Artaxerxes III. But Tennes and Mentor betrayed
the besieged town to the Persians (344 B.C.). Tennes was killed
after his treason, but Mentor gained the favour of the king. It
was due largely to him that Egypt was conquered in 343 (Diod.
xvi. 45 sqq.). He now closely allied himself with the eunuch
Bagoas (q.v.), the all-powerful vizier of Artaxerxes III. He
was appointed general in Asia Minor, and with the help of
Artabazus and Memnon, whose pardon and recall he obtained
from the king, subdued the rebels and local dynasts. The most
famous among them was Hermias of Atarneus, the protector
of Aristotle, who had become master of some towns of Aeolis
and Troas. By treachery he made him prisoner and occupied his
towns (342 B.C.); Hermias was executed by order of the king
(Diod. xvi. 52; Polyaen. vi. 48; pseudo-Arist. Oecon. ii. 27;
Strabo xiii. 610; Didymus' commentary on Demosthenes
Phil. 4, p. 6; cf. Diog. Laert. vi. 9). Shortly afterwards Mentor
died, and was succeeded by his brother Memnon. His son
Thymondas commanded in the naval war against Alexander and
at Issus (Arrian ii. 2, i ; 13, 2). (Eo. M.)
MENZEL, ADOLPH FRIEDRICH ERDMANN VON (1815-
1905), German artist, was born at Breslau on the 8th of December
1815. His father was at the head of a school for girls, and
intended to educate his son as a professor; but he would not
thwart his taste for art. Left an orphan in 1832, Menzel had to
maintain his family. In 1833 Sachse of Berlin published his first
work, an album of pen-and-ink drawings reproduced on stone,
to illustrate Goethe's little poem, " Kunstlers Erdenwallen."
He executed lithographs in the same manner to illustrate
DenkwUrdigkeiten aus der brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte,
pp. 834-836; " The Five Senses " and " The Prayer," as well as
diplomas for various corporations and societies. From 1839 to
1842 he produced 400 drawings, reviving at the same time the
technique of engraving on wood, to illustrate the Geschichte
Friedrichs des Grossen (" History of Frederick the Great ") by
Franz Kugler. He subsequently brought out Friedrichs des
Grossen Armee in ihrer Uniformirung (" The Uniforms of the
Army under Frederick the Great "), Soldaten Friedrichs des
Grossen (" The Soldiers of Frederick the Great ") ; and finally, by
MENZEL, W. MEQUINEZ
order of the king Frederick William IV., he illustrated the
works of Frederick the Great, Illustrationen zu den Werken
Friedrichs des Grossen (1843-1849). By these works Menzel
established his claim to be considered one of the first, if not
actually the first, of the illustrators of his day in his own line.
Meanwhile Menzel had set himself to study unaided the art of
painting, and he soon produced a great number and variety of
pictures, always showing keen observation and honest workman-
ship subjects dealing with the life and achievements of Frederick
the Great, and scenes of everyday life, such as " In the Tuileries,"
" The Ball Supper," and " At Confession." Among the most
important of these works are " The Forge " (1875) and " The
Market-place at Verona." Invited to paint " The Coronation of
William I. at Koenigsberg," he produced an exact representation
of the ceremony without regard to the traditions of official
painting. Menzel died at Berlin on the gth of February 1905.
In Germany he received many honours, and was the first painter
to be given the order of the Black Eagle.
MENZEL, WOLFGANG (1798-1873), German poet, critic and
literary historian, was born on the 2ist of June 1798, at Walden-
burg in Silesia, studied at Breslau, Jena and Bonn, and after
living for some time in Aarau and Heidelberg finally settled in
Stuttgart, where, from 1830 to 1838, he had a seat in the Wiirt-
temberg Diet. His first work, a clever and original volume of
poems, entitled Streckverse (Heidelberg, 1823), was followed in
1824-1825 by a popular Geschichte der Deutschen in three volumes
and in 1829 and 1830 by Rubezahl and Narcissus, the dramatized
fairy-stories upon which his reputation as a poet chiefly rests.
In 1851 he published the romance of Furore, a lively picture of
the period of the Thirty Years' War; his other writings include
Geschichte Europas, 1789-1815 (2 vols. Stuttgart, 1853), and
histories of the German War of 1866 and of the Franco-German
War of 1870-71. From 1826 to 1848 Menzel edited a " Litera-
turblatt " in connexion with the Morgenblatt; in the latter year
he transferred his allegiance from the Liberal to the Conservative
party, and in 1852 his " Literaturblatt " was revived in that
interest. In 1866 his political sympathies again changed, and
he opposed the " particularism " of the Prussian " junkers "
and the anti-unionism of south Germany. He died on the 23rd
of April 1873 at Stuttgart. His library of 18,000 volumes was
afterwards acquired for the university of Strassburg.
MENZELINSK, a town of eastern Russia, in the government
of Ufa, 142 m. N.W. of the town of Ufa, and 10 m. from the left
bank of the Kama. Pop. (1897), 7542. Its fair is one of the
most important in the southern Ural region for cattle, hides, furs,
grain, tea, manufactured articles, crockery, &c., which are sold
to the annual value of 500,000. The town was founded in 1 584.
MEPHISTOPHELES, 1 in the Faust legend, the name of the
evil spirit in return for whose assistance Faust signs away his
soul. The origin of the conception and name of Mephistopheles
has been the subject of much learned debate. In Dr Fausts
Hollenzwang " Mephistophiel " is one of the seven great princes
of hell; " he stands under the planet Jupiter, his regent is named
Zadkiel, an enthroned angel of the holy Jehovah . . . ; his form
is firstly that of a fiery bear, the other and fairer appearance is as
of a little man with a black cape and a bald head." The origin
of the idea of Mephistopheles in Faust's mind is thus clear. He
was one of the evil demons of the seven planets, the Maskim of
the ancient Akkadian religion, a conception transmitted through
the Chaldeans, the Babylonians and the Jewish Kabbala to
medieval and modern astrologers and magicians. This fact
suggests a plausible theory of the origin of the name. In the
ancient Mesopotamian religion the Intelligence of Jupiter was
Marduk, " the lord of light," whose antithesis was accordingly
conceived as the lord of darkness. Mephistopheles, then (or
rather Mephostophiles, as the Faust-books spell the name) is
" he who does not love light " (Gr./ii?, <wj, <t>i\i)s). 2
1 In the Faustbuch of 1587 it is spelt Miphostophiles; by Marlowe
Mephistophilis; by Shakespeare (Merry Wives of Windsor, Act i.)
Mephostophilus. The form Mephistopheles adopted by Goethe
first appears in the version des Ghristlich Meinenden, c. 1712. _
* Kiesewetter, p. 163. To Schroer this derivation seems improb-
able, and he appears to prefer that from Hebrew Mephiz, destroyer,
To Faust himself, somnambulist and medium, Mephistopheles
had according to Kiesewetter a real existence: he was " the
objectivation of the transcendental subject of Faust," an experi-
ence familiar in dreams and, more especially, in the visions of
mediums and clairvoyants. He was thus a " familiar spirit,"
akin to the " daemon " of Socrates; and if he was also half the
devil of theology, half the kobold of old German myth, this was
only because such " objectivations " are apt to clothe themselves
in forms borrowed from the common stock of ideas current at the
time when the seer lives; and Faust lived in an age obsessed with
the fear of the devil, and by no means sceptical of the existence
of kobolds. It is suggested, then, in the light of modern psychical
research, that Mephistopheles, though (as the Faust-books
record) invisible to any one else, was visible enough to Faust
himself and to Wagner, the famulus who shared his somnambu-
listic experiences. He was simply Faust's "other self," appear-
ing in various guises as a bear, as a little bald man, as a monk,
as an invisible presence ringing a bell but always recognizable as
the same " familiar."
The Mephostophiles of the Faust-books and the puppet plays
passed with little or no modification into literature as the Mephisto-
philis of Marlowe's Faustus. Mephistophilis has the kobold
qualities: he not only waits upon Faustus and provides him with
sumptuous fare ; he indulges in horse-play and is addicted to practical
joking of a homely kind. He is, however, also the devil, as the age
of the Reformation conceived him: a fallen angel who has not for-
gotten the splendour of his first estate, and who pictures to Faust
the glories of heaven, in order to accentuate the horrors of the hell
to which he triumphantly drags him. Goethe's Mephistopheles is
altogether another conception. Some of the traditional qualities
are indeed preserved: the practical joke, for instance, in the scene
in Auerbacn's Keller shows that he has not altogether shed his
character as kobold; and, like the planet-spirits of the old magic
he appears alternately in animal and human shape. He is also
identified with the devil ; thus, in accordance with old German tradi-
tion, he is dressed as a nobleman (ein edler Junker), all in red, with
a little cape of stiff silk, a cock's feather in his hat, and a long pointed
sword; at the witches' Sabbath on the Brocken he is hailed as " the
knight with the horse's hoof," and Sybel in Auerbach's Keller is
not too drunk not to notice that he limps. But his limp is the only
indication that he is Lucifer fallen from heaven. He could not, like
Marlowe's Mephistophilis or Milton's Satan, regretfully paint the
glories of the height from which he has been hurled; for he denies
the distinction between high and low, since " everything that comes
into being deserves to be destroyed." 3 He is, in short, not the devil
of Christian orthodoxy, a spirit conscious of the good against which
he is in revolt, but akin to the Evil Principle of the older dualistic
systems, with their conception of the eternal antagonism between
good and evil, light and darkness, creation and destruction. (See
FAUST.) (W. A. P.)
MEPPEL, a town in the province of Drente, Holland, i6| m. by
rail N. by E. of Zwolle. Pop. (1903), 10,470. It is favourably
situated at the confluence of a number of canals and rivers which
communicate hence with the Zuider Zee by the Meppeler Diep,
and rose rapidly into prominence in the igth century. The chief
business is in butter, eggs, cattle and pigs, while bleaching,
dyeing and shipbuilding are also carried on here.
MEQUINEZ (the Spanish form of the Arabic Miknasa), a city
of Morocco, situated 1600 ft. above the sea, about 70 m. from
the west coast and 36 m. W.S.W. of Fez, on the road to Rabat,
in 33 56' N., 5 50' W. The town wall with its four-cornered
towers is pierced by nine gates, one, the Bab Bardain, with fine
tile-work. A lower wall of wider circuit protects the luxuriant
gardens in the outskirts. Mequinez at a distance appears a city
of palaces, but it possesses few buildings of any note except the
palace and the mosque of Mulai Ismail, which serves as the royal
burying-place. The palace, founded in 1634, was described in
1821 by John Windus in his Journey to Mequinez (London 1825)
as " about 4 m. in circumference, the whole building exceeding
massy, and the walls in every part very thick; the outward one
about a mile long and 25 ft. thick." The interior is composed
of oblong court-yards surrounded by buildings and arcades.
These buildings are more or less square with pyramidal roofs
ornamented outside with green glazed tiles, and inside with
and tophel, liar (Faust, ed. 1886, i. 25), which is certainly supported
by the fact that almost all the names of devils in the magic-books
of the l6th century are derived from the Hebrew.
3 Alles was entsteht ist werth dass es zu Grunde geht.
148
MERAN MERCANTILE SYSTEM
richly carved and painted woodwork in Mauresque style. The
walls are tiled to a height of 4 or 5 ft., and above they are finished
in plaster, whitewashed or carved into filigree work. The popu-
lation numbers being between thirty and forty thousand. Idrisi,
writing in A.D. noo, calls the place Takarart, and describes
it as an ordinary citadel, from which the town gradually
developed, taking its name from the Miknasa Berbers.
MERAN, the chief town of the administrative district of the
same name in the Austrian province of the Tirol, 20 m. by rail
N.W. of Botzeiuon the Brenner line, while the Vintschgau railway
connects it with Mais, 37 m. N.W. It is the chief town in the
upper Adige valley, a region which bears the special name of the
Vintschgau, and is on the high road either to Landeck and the
Lower Engadine by the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), or
more directly to the Lower Engadine by the Minister valley and
the Ofen Pass (7071 ft.). In 1900 Meran had 9284 inhabitants
(or, with the neighbouring villages of Untermais and Obermais,
13,201), mainly German-speaking and Romanist. The town is
picturesquely situated, at a height of 1001 ft., at the foot of the
vine-clad Kiichelberg, and on the right bank of the Passer River,
just above its junction with the Adige or Etsch. Meran proper
consists mainly of one long narrow street, the Laubengasse,
flanked by covered arcades, but the name is often used to include
several adjacent villages, Untermais and Obermais being on the
left bank of the Passer, while Gratsch is on its right bank and
north-west of the main town. The most noteworthy buildings are
the parish church (i4th to isth centuries) and the old residence
(iSth century) of the counts of the Tirol. Meran is best known
as a much-frequented resort for consumptive patients, for whom
it is well suited by reason of the purity of the air and the compara-
tive immunity of the place from wind and rain in the winter. It
is also visited in spring for the whey cure and in autumn for the
grape cure.
To the north-west, on the Kiichelberg, is the half-ruined castle
of Tirol (2096 ft.), the original seat of the family which gave its
name to the county. Meran may have been built on the site of a
Roman settlement, but is first mentioned in 857. From the i2th
century to about 1420 it was the capital of the ever-extending
land named after it Tirol, but then had to give way to Innsbruck,
while the building of the Brenner railway (1864-1867) and the
rise of Botzen have decreased its commercial importance.
(W. A. B. C.)
MERBECK (or MARBECK), JOHN (d. c. 1585), English theo-
logical writer and musician, was organist of St George's, Windsor,
about 1540. Four years later he was convicted of heresy and
sentenced to the stake, but received a pardon owing to the
intervention of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, though Gardiner
had himself censured Merbeck for compiling an English Con-
cordance of the Bible. This work, the first of its kind in English,
was published in 1550 with a dedication to Edward VI. In the
same year Merbeck published his annotated Book of Common
Prayer, intended to provide for musical uniformity in the use of
the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., which was several times
reprinted in the igth century. Merbeck wrote several devo-
tional and controversial works of a strongly Calvinistic character,
and a number of his musical compositions are preserved in manu-
script in the British Museum, and at Oxford and Cambridge. He
died, probably while still organist at Windsor, about 1585. His
son, ROGER MERBECK (1536-1605), a noted classical scholar, was
appointed public orator in the university of Oxford in 1 564, and
in- 1 565 became a canon of Christ Church and was elected provost
of Oriel; he left Oxford on account of an unfortunate marriage,
and took to medicine as a profession, becoming the first registrar
of the College of Physicians in London, and chief physician to
Queen Elizabeth.
MERCADIER (d. 1200), French warrior of the I2th century,
and chief of freebooters in the service of Richard I. of England.
In 1183 he operated for Richard, then duke of Aquitaine, in the
Limousin and the Angoumois, taking castles and laying waste
the country. We know nothing of him during the ten years
1184-1194, but after Richard's return from Palestine, Mercadier
accompanied him everywhere, travelling and fighting by his
side. Richard eulogized Mercadier's exploits in his letters, and
gave him the estates left by Ademar de Bainac, who died without
heirs about 1190. During the various wars between Richard
and Philip Augustus of France, Mercadier fought successively
in Berry, Normandy, Flanders and Brittany. When Richard
was mortally wounded at the siege of Chalus in March 1199,
Mercadier avenged him by hanging the defenders of the chateau
and flaying the crossbowman who had shot the king. Mercadier
then entered the service of John, and ravaged Gascony. On
Easter Monday, the loth of April 1200, he was assassinated while
on a visit to Bordeaux to pay his respects to Eleanor of Aquitaine,
who was bringing from Spain Blanche of Castile. His murderer
was an agent of Brandin, another freebooter in the service of John.
See Geraud, Mercadier, in BibHotheque de 1'Ecole des Chartes,
1st series, t. iii., pp. 417-443.
MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES, the name given
in America to organizations designed to collect, record and
distribute to regular clients information relative to the standing
of commercial firms. In Great Britain and some European coun-
tries trade protective societies, composed of merchants and trades-
men, are formed for the promotion of trade, and members ex-
change information regarding the standing of business houses.
These societies had their origin in the associations formed in the
middle of the I9th century for the purpose of disseminating
information regarding bankruptcies, assignments and bills of
sale. The mercantile agency in the United States is a much
more comprehensive organization. It came into existence after
the financial crisis of 1837. Trade in the Ignited States had
become scattered over a wide territory. Communication was slow,
and the town merchant was without adequate information
as to the standing of many business men seeking credit. Un-
doubtedly the severity of the collapse of 1837 was due in part
to the insufficiency of this information. New York merchants,
who had suffered so severely, determined to organize a head-
quarters where reports regarding the standing of customers
could be exchanged. Lewis Tappan (1788-1873), founder of
the Journal of Commerce (1828) and a prominent anti-slavery
leader, undertook the work, and established in New York, in 1841,
the Mercantile Agency, the first organization of its kind. The
system has been wonderfully developed and extended since.
MERCANTILE SYSTEM, the name given to the economic
policy which developed in Europe at the close of the middle ages.
The doctrine of the mercantile system, stated in its most extreme
form, made wealth and money identical, and regarded it there-
fore as the great object of a community so to conduct its dealings
with other nations as to attract to itself the largest possible share
of the precious metals. Each country's interest was to export
the utmost possible quantity of its own manufactures and to
import as little as possible of those of other countries, receiving
the difference of the two values in gold and silver. This differ-
ence is called the balance of trade, and the balance is favourable
when more money is received than is paid. Governments might
resort to all available expedients prohibition of, or high duties
on, the importation of foreign wares, bounties on the export of
home manufactures, restrictions on the export of the precious
metals for the purpose of securing such a balance.
But this statement of the doctrine, though current in text-
books, does not represent correctly the views of all who belonged
to the mercantile school. Many members of that school were
much too clear-sighted to entertain the belief that wealth consists
exclusively of gold and silver. The mercantilists may be best
described, as W. G. F. Roscher remarked, not by any definite
economic theorem which they held in common, but by a set of
theoretic tendencies, commonly found in combination, though
severely prevailing in different degrees in different minds. The
underlying principles may be enumerated as follows: (i) the
importance of possessing a large amount of the precious metals;
(2) an exaltation (a) of foreign trade over domestic, and (ft) of the
industry which works up materials over that which provides
them; (3) the value of a dense population as an element of
national strength; and (4) the employment of state action in
furthering artificially the attainment of the ends proposed.
MERCAPTANS MERCATOR
149
The discoveries in the New World had led to a large develop-
ment of the European currencies. The old feudal economy,
founded principally on dealings in kind, had given way before
the new " money economy," and the dimensions of the latter were
everywhere expanding. Circulation was becoming more rapid,
distant communications more frequent, city life and movable
property more important. The mercantilists were impressed by
the fact that money is wealth sui generis, that it is at all times in
universal demand, and that it puts into the hands of its possessor
the power of acquiring all other commodities. The period, again,
was marked by the formation of great states, with powerful
governments at their head. These governments required men
and money for the maintenance of permanent armies, which,
especially for the religious and Italian wars, were kept up on a
great scale. Court expenses, too, were more lavish than ever
before, and a larger number of civil officials was employed. The
royal domains and dues were insufficient to meet these require-
ments, and taxation grew with the demands of the monarchies.
Statesmen saw that for their own political ends industry must
flourish. But manufactures make possible a denser population
and a higher total value of exports than agriculture; they open
a less limited and more promptly extensible field to enterprise.
Hence they became the object of special governmental favour and
patronage, whilst agriculture fell comparatively into the back-
ground. The growth of manufactures reacted on commerce, to
which a new and mighty arena had been opened by the establish-
ment of colonies. These were then viewed simply as estates to be
worked for the advantage of the mother countries, and the aim
of statesmen was to make the colonial trade a new source of
public revenue. Each nation, as a whole, working for its own
power, and the greater ones for predominance, they entered into a
competitive struggle in the economic no less than in the political
field, success in the former being indeed, by the rulers, regarded as
instrumental to pre-eminence in the latter. A national economic
interest came to exist, of which the government made itself the
representative head. States became a sort of artificial hothouse
for the rearing of urban industries. Production was subjected
to systematic regulation, with the object of securing the goodness
and cheapness of the exported articles, and so maintaining the
place of the nation in foreign markets. The industrial control
was exercised, in part directly by the state, but largely also
through privileged corporations and trading companies. High
duties on imports were resorted to, at first perhaps mainly for
revenue, but afterwards in the interest of national production.
Commercial treaties were a principal object of diplomacy, the
end in view being to exclude the competition of other nations in
foreign markets, whilst in the home market as little room as
possible was given for the introduction of anything but raw
materials from abroad. The colonies were prohibited from
trading with other European nations than the parent country, to
which they supplied either the precious metals or raw produce
purchased with home manufactures. ^
That the efforts of governments for the furtherance of man
factures and commerce under the mercantile system were really
effective towards that end is admitted by Adam Smith, and
cannot reasonably be doubted, though doctrinaire free-traders
have often denied it. Technical skill must have been promoted
by their encouragements; whilst new forms of national produc-
tion were fostered by attracting workmen from other countries,
and by lightening the burden of taxation on struggling industries.
Communication and transport by land and sea were more rapidly
improved; and the social dignity of the industrial professions was
enhanced relatively to that of the classes before exclusively
dominant.
The foundation of the mercantile system was at the time when
it took its rise inspired by the situation of the European nations.
Such a policy had been already in some degree practised in the
I4th and isth centuries, thus preceding any formal exposition or
defence of its speculative basis. At the commencement of the
i6th century it began to exercise a widely extended influence.
Charles V. adopted it, and his example contributed much to its
predominance. Henry VIII. and Elizabeth conformed their
measures to it. The leading states soon entered on a universal
competition, for manufacturing and commercial preponderance.
Through almost the whole of the i;th century the prize, so far as
commerce was concerned, remained in the possession of Holland,
Italy having lost her former ascendancy by the opening of the
new maritime routes, and Spain and Germany being depressed
by protracted wars and internal dissensions. The admiring envy
of Holland felt by English politicians and economists appears in
such writers as Raleigh, Mun, Child and Temple. Cromwell, by
his Navigation Act, which destroyed the carrying trade of
Holland and founded the English empire of the sea, and
Colbert, by his whole economic policy, domestic and inter-
national, were the chief practical representatives of the
mercantile system.
See G. Schmoller, The Mercantile System (Eng. trans., 1896);
also the articles, BALANCE OF TRADE; FREE TRADE; PROTECTION;
PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL, &c.
MERCAPTANS (Thio-alcohols), organic chemical compounds
of the type R.SH (R = an alkyl group). The name is derived
from mercurium captans, in allusion to the fact that these
compounds react readily with mercuric oxide to form crystalline
mercury derivatives. The mercaptans may be prepared by
the action of the alkyl halides on an alcoholic solution of potas-
sium hydrosulphide; by the reduction of the sulpho-chlorides,
e.g. CjHsSOjCl (chlorides of sulphonic acids), by heating the salts
of esters of sulphuric acid with potassium hydrosulphide, and
by heating the alcohols with phosphorus pentasulphide. They
are colourless liquids, which are insoluble in water and possess
a characteristic offensive smell. On oxidation by nitric acid
they yield sulphonic acids. They combine with aldehydes
and ketones, with elimination of water and formation of mer-
captals and mercaptols. (See SULPHONAL.) -
Methyl mercaptan, CHj.SH, is a liquid which boils at 5-8 C.
(752 mm.), and forms a crystalline hydrate with water. Ethyl
mercaptan, CiHs.SH, is a colourless liquid which boils at 36-2 C. It
is used commercially in the preparation of sulphonal (g.f.). The
mercury salt, Hg(SCH 6 )2, crystallizes from alcohol in plates. When
heated with alcohol to 190 C. it decomposes into mercury and
ethyldisulphide.
HERCATOR, GERARDUS [latinized form of GERHARD
KREMER] (1512-1594), Flemish mathematician and geographer,
was born at Rupelmonde, in Flanders, on the 5th of March 1512.
Having studied at Bois-le-Duc and Louvain (where he matricu-
lated on the 2Qth of August 1530, and became licentiate, in
October 1532), he met Gemma Frisius, a pupil of Apian of
Ingolstadt, who at the request of the emperor Charles V. had
settled in Louvain. From Frisius young Kremer derived much
of his inclination to cartography and scientific geography. In
1534 he founded his geographical establishment at Louvain; in
J 537 ne published his earliest known map, now lost (Terrae
sanctae descriptio). In 1537-1540 he executed his famous survey
and map of Flanders (Exaclissima Flandriae descriptio), of which
& copy exists in the Musee Plantin, Antwerp. At the order of
Charles V. Mercator made a complete set of instruments of
observation for the emperor's campaigns: when these were
destroyed by fire, in 1546, another set was ordered of the same
maker. In 1538 appeared Mercator's map of the world in (north
and south) hemispheres, which was rediscovered in 1878 in New
York; this work shows Ptolemy's influence still dominant over
Mercatorian cartography. In 1541 he issued the celebrated
terrestrial globe, which he dedicated to Nicolas Perrenot, father
of Cardinal Granvelle: this was accompanied by his Libellus de
usu globi, which is said to have been presented to Charles V. In
1551 a celestial globe followed. Mercator early began to incline
towards Protestantism; in 1533 he had retired for a time from
Louvain to Antwerp, partly to avoid inquiry into his religious
beliefs; in 1544 he was arrested and prosecuted for heresy, but
escaped serious consequences (two of the forty-two arrested with
him were burnt, one beheaded, two buried alive). He now
thought seriously of emigrating; and when in 1552 Cassahder,
ordered by the duke of Juliers, Cleves and Berg to organize a
university at Duisburg, offered Mercator the chair of cosmo-
graphy the offer was accepted. The organization of the
MERCENARY MERCERIZING
university was adjourned, and never completed in Mercator's
lifetime; but he now became cosmographer to the duke
and permanently settled on the German soil to which many
of his ancestors and relatives had belonged. Soon after this,
however, he paid a visit to Charles V. at Brussels, and presented
the emperor with a cosmos, a celestial sphere enclosing a terres-
trial, together with an explanatory Declaralio: this work marks
an era in the observation of longitude by magnetic declination,
perfected by Halley. Charles rewarded the author with the title
of imperatorii domesticus (Hofrath in the epitaph at Duisburg).
In 1 554 Mercator published his great map of Europe in six sheets,
three or four of which had already been pretty well worked out at
Louvain; a copy of this was rediscovered at Breslau in 1889.
Herein, though still greatly under Ptolemy's influence, Mercator
begins to emancipate himself; thus Ptolemy's 6 2 for the length
of the Mediterranean, reduced to 58 in the globe of 1541,
he now cuts down to 53. On the 28th of October 1556
he observed an eclipse at Duisburg; in 1563 he surveyed
Lorraine, at the request of Duke Charles, and completed a
map of the same (Lotharingiae descriptio); but it is uncertain
if this was ever published. In 1564 he engraved William
Camden's map of the British Isles; in 1568 he brought
out his Chronologia, hoc est temporum demonstralio . . .
ab intiio mundi usque ad annum domini 1568, ex eclipsibus
et observationibus astronomicis. In the same year was published
his memorable planisphere for use in navigation, the first map
on " Mercator's projection," with the parallels and meridians
at right angles (Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum
navigantium accommodata) . Improvements were introduced in
this projection by Edward Wright In 1590; the more general use
of it dates from about 1630, and largely came about through
Dieppese support. In 1572 Mercator issued a second edition
of his map of Europe; in 1578 appeared his Tabulae geographicae
ad mentem Plelemaei restitutae et emendatae; and in 1585 the
first part (containing Germany, France and Belgium) of the
Atlas, site cosmographicae meditationes defabrica mundi, in which
he planned to crown his work by uniting in one volume his
various detailed maps, so as to form a general description of the
globe In 1585 he adapted his Europe to the Atlas; in 1587,
with the help of his son Rumold, he added to the same a world-
map (Orbis lerrarum compendiosa descriptio), followed in 1590
by a second series of detailed maps (Italy, Slavonia, Greece and
Candia). The rest of the regional and other plans in this under-
taking, mostly begun by Gerard, were finished by Rumold; they
include Iceland and the Polar regions, the British Isles (dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth), the Scandinavian countries (dedicated
to Henr. Ranzovius), Prussia and Livonia, Russia, Lithuania,
Transylvania, the Crimea, Asia, Africa and America (in the last
Michael Mercator, in Asia and Africa Gerard Mercator the
younger, assisted). The designs are accompanied by cosmo-
graphical and other dissertations, some of the theological views
in which were condemned as heretical (see the Duisburg edition
ot 1594, folio). In 1592 Mercator published, two years after
his first apoplectic stroke, a Harmonia evangeliorum. He died
on the sth of December 1594, and was buried in St Saviour's
church, Duisburg. Besides his famous projection, he did ex-
cellent service with Ortelius in helping to free the geography
of the i6th century from the tyranny of Ptolemy; his map and
instrument work is noteworthy for its delicate precision and
admirable execution in detail.
See the Vita Mercatoris by Gualterus Ghymnius in the Latin
editions of the Atlas; Gerard Mercator, sa me et ses asuvres, by Dr
J. van Raemdonck (St Nicolas, 1869); A. Breusing, Gerhard Kremer
(Duisburg, 1878), and article " Mercator " in Alleemeine deutsche
Biographte; General Wauwermans, Histoire de I'ecote cartographique
beige . . . au XVI.-siecle, and article "Mercator" in Biographte
nationale (de Belgique), vol. xiv. (Brussels, 1897). Also the lesser
studies of Dr J. van Raemdonck, Sur les exemplaires des grand.es
cartes de Mercator; Carte de Flandre de Mercator; Relations entre
. . . Mercator et . . . Plantin . . . (St Nicolas, 1884); La Geo-
graphic ancienne de la Palestine: Lettre de Gerard Mercator . . .
mat 22, 1567 (St N.. 1884) ; Les Spheres terrestre et celeste de Mercator,
1541 . . . 1551 (St N., 1885); Van Ortroy, L'CEuvre geographique
de Mercator. (C. R. B.)
MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, gain),
one who serves or acts solely for motives of personal gain, particu-
larly a soldier who offers himself for service in any army which
may hire him. The name is sometimes used as a term of reproach
by nations who raise their armies by conscription, of armies
raised by voluntary enlistment whose members are paid a more
or less living wage.
MERCER (through Fr. mercier, from popular Lat. mercerius,
a dealer, merx, merces, merchandise), a dealer in the more costly
textiles, especially in silks and velvets. The word formerly
had a wider meaning. Mercery, according to W. Herbert
(History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies, 1834), " compre-
hended all things sold by retail by the ' little balance ' or small
scales (in contradistinction to the things sold by the ' beam '
or in gross), and included not only toys, together with haber-
dashery and various other articles connected with dress, but also
spices and drugs." Many of the articles in which they dealt
fell later within the sphere of other trades; thus the trade in
the smaller articles of dress was taken over by the haberdashers
(q.v.). The trade in silk seems to have been originally in the
hands of the " silkmen and throwsteres." The Mercers' Com-
pany is the first in precedence of the twelve great livery com-
panies of the city of London, and is also the wealthiest both in
trust and corporate property. The first charter was obtained
in 1393, but the mercers appear to have been formed into a gild
much earlier. Herbert finds the mercers as patrons of a charity
a few years after 1172, and one Robert Searle, who was mayor
in 1214, was a" mercer." A further charter was granted in 1424,
with the right to use a common seal. The history of the company
is closely connected with the name of Richard Whittington (q.v.),
and later with that of Dean Colet, who chose the company as
the manager of St Paul's School. (See LIVERY COMPANIES.)
MERCERIZING, the term applied to a process, discovered
in 1844 by John Mercer, a Lancashire calico printer, which
consists in treating cotton (and to a limited extent other plant
fibres) with strong caustic soda or certain other reagents, where-
by morphological and chemical changes are brought about in
the fibre. Thus, if a piece of bleached calico be immersed in
caustic soda of 50 Tw. strength (sp. gr. 1-25), it rapidly changes
in appearance, becoming stiff and translucent, but when taken
out and well washed in running water it loses these properties
and apparently reverts to its original condition. On closer
examination, however, the fabric is found to have shrunk con-
siderably both in length and breadth, so as to render the texture
quite different in appearance to that of the original calico; it is
also considerably stronger, and if dyed in the same bath along
with some of the untreated fabric is found to have acquired a
greatly increased affinity for colouring matters. This peculiar
action is not restricted to caustic soda, similar effects being
obtained with sulphuric acid of 105 Tw., nitric acid of 83 Tw.,
zinc chloride solution of 145 Tw., and other reagents. Mercer
assumed that a definite compound, corresponding to the formula
Ci2H 2 oOio.Na2O is formed when the cotton is steeped in caustic
soda, and that this is decomposed by subsequent washing with
water into a hydrated cellulose C^^oOio.HzO, which would
account for the fact that in the air-dried condition mercerized
cotton retains about 5% more hygroscopic moisture than
ordinary cotton. This view is strengthened by the observation
that when cotton is immersed in nitric acid of 83 Tw. it acquires
similar properties to cotton treated with caustic soda. If, after
immersion in the nitric acid, it is squeezed and then dried
(without washing) in a vacuum over burnt lime, it is found to
have formed a compound which corresponds approximately
to the formula CjHioOs.HNOs, which is decomposed by water
into free nitric acid and a hydrated cellulose.
When viewed under the microscope, mercerized cotton is seen
to have undergone considerable morphological changes, inas-
much as the lumen or central cavity is much reduced in size,
while the fibre has lost its characteristic band-shaped appearance
and becomes rounded.
In Mercer's time the process, which he himself termed
" sodaizing " or " fulling," never acquired any degree of com-
MERCHANT MERCIA
mercial success, partly on account of the expense of the caustic
soda required, but mainly on account of the great shrinkage
(20 to 25%) which took place in the cloth. An important
application of the process in calico printing for the production
of permanent crimp or " crepon " effects, which was originally
devised by Mercer, was revived in 1890-1891 and is still largely
practised by calico printers (see TEXTILE PRINTING). Another
application, also dependent upon the shrinking action of caustic
soda on cotton, was patented in 1884 by Depoully, and has for
its object the production of crimp effects on piece-goods consist-
ing of wool and cotton or silk and cotton. In the manu-
facture of such goods cotton binding threads are introduced at
definite intervals in the warp or weft, or both, and the piece is
passed through cold caustic soda, washed, passed through dilute
sulphuric acid, and washed again till neutral. The cotton con-
tracts under the influence of the caustic soda, while both wool
and silk remain unaffected, and the desired crimped or puckered
effect is thus obtained.
By far the most important application of the mercerizing
process is that by which a permanent lustre is imparted to
cotton goods; this was discovered in 1889 by H. A. Lowe, who
took out a patent for his process in that year, this being supple-
mented by a further patent in 1890. Since Lowe's invention
did not receive sufficient encouragement, he allowed his patents
to lapse and the process thus became public property. It was
not until 1895, when Messrs Thomas & Prevost repatented Lowe's
invention, that actual interest was aroused in the new product
and the process became a practical success. Their patent was
subsequently annulled on the ground of having been anticipated.
The production of a permanent lustre on cotton by mercerizing
is in principle a very simple process, and may be effected in two ways.
According to the first method, the cotton is treated in a stretched
condition with strong caustic soda, and is then washed, while still
stretched, in water. After the washing has been continued for a
short time the tension relaxes, and it is then found that the cotton
has acquired a permanent lustre or gloss similar in appearance to
that of a spun silk though not so pronounced. According to the
second method, which constitutes but a slight modification of the
first, the cotton is immersed in caustic soda of the strength required
for mercerizing, and is then taken out, stretched slightly beyond its
original length, and then washed until the tension slackens.
Not all classes of cotton are equally suited for being mercerized.
Thus, in the case of yarns the most brilliant lustre is always obtained
on twofold or multifold yarns spun from long-stapled cotton
(Egyptian or Sea Island). Single yarns made from the same quality
of cotton are only slightly improved in appearance by the process,
and are consequently seldom mercerized; and the same applies to
twofold yarns made from ordinary American cotton. In piece-goods,
long-stapled cotton also gives the best results, but it is not necessary
that the yarn used for weaving should be twofold. In the great
majority of cases, the mercerizing of cotton, whether it be in the
yarn or in the piece, is done before bleaching, but sometimes it is
found preferable to mercerize after bleaching, or even after bleaching
and dyeing. The strength of the caustic soda employed in practice
is generally between 55 and 60' Tw. The temperature of the caustic
soda has] a material influence on its action on the cotton fibre,
very much stronger solutions being required to produce the same
effect at elevated temperatures than at the ordinary temperature,
while, on the contrary, by lowering the temperature it is possible
to obtain a good lustre with considerably weaker lyes.
Cotton yarn may be mercerized either in the hank or in the
warp, and a great number of machines have been patented and
constructed for the purpose. The simplest form of machine for
hanks consists essentially of two superposed strong steel rollers, on
which the hanks are placed and spread out evenly. The upper roller,
the bearings of which run in a slotted groove, is then raised by
mechanical means until the hanks are taut. Caustic soda of
60 Tw. is now applied, and the upper roller is caused to revolve
slowly, the hanks acting as a belt and causing the lower roller to
revolve simultaneously. After about three minutes the caustic
soda is allowed to drain off and the hanks are washed by spurt pipes
until they slacken, when they are taken off and rinsed, first in dilute
sulphuric acid (to neutralize the alkali and facilitate washing), and
then in water till neutral. The hanks are then bleached in the
ordinary way and may be subsequently dyed, no diminution being
brought about in the lustre by these operations. Cotton warps
are usually mercerized on a machine similar in construction to a four
box dyeing machine (see DYEING), but with the guiding rollers and
their bearings of stronger construction and the squeezers at each end
of the first box with a double nip (three rollers). The first box con-
tains caustic soda, the second water, the third dilute sulphuric acid,
and the fourth water.
For the continuous mercerizing of cotton in the piece much more
complicated and expensive machinery is required than for yarn,
since it is necessary to prevent contraction in both length and
breadth. The mercerizing range in most common use for pieces is
constructed on the same principle as the stentering machine used
in stretching pieces after bleaching, dyeing or printing, and consists
essentially of two endless chains carried at either end by sprocket
wheels. The chains carry clips which run in slotted grooves in the
horizontal frame of the machine, which is about 40 ft. in length.
The clips close automatically and grip the cloth on either side as it is
fed on to the machine from the mangle, in which it has been saturated
with caustic soda. The stretching of the piece begins immediately
on entering the machine, the two rows of clips being caused to
diverge by setting the slotted grooves in such a manner that when
the piece has travelled about one-third of the length of the machine
it is stretched slightly beyond its original width. At this point the
piece meets with a spray of water, which is thrown on by means of
spurt pipes ; and in consequence the tension slackens and the mercer-
izing is effected. When the piece arrives at the end of the machine
the clips open automatically and release it. Thence it passes through
a box containing dilute sulphuric acid, and then through a second
box where washing with water is effected.
In most large works the caustic soda washings, which were
formerly run to waste or were partly used up for bleaching, are
evaporated down in multiple effect evaporators to 90 Tw., and the
solution is used over again for mercerizing.
Cotton mercerized under tension has not as much affinity for
colouring matters as cotton mercerized without tension, and although
the amount of hygroscopic moisture which it retains in the air-dried
condition is greater than in the case of ordinary untreated cotton,
it is not so great as that held by cotton which has been mercerized
without tension. By drying cotton which has been mercerized with
or without tension at temperatures above 100 C. its affinity for
colouring matters is materially decreased.
The cause of the lustre produced by mercerizing has been variously
explained, and in some cases antagonistic views have been expressed
on the subject. When viewed under the microscope by reflected
light, the irregularly twisted band-shaped cotton fibre is seen to
exhibit a strong lustre at those points from which the light is reflected
from the surface. Cotton mercerized without tension shows a
similar appearance. In the yarn or piece the lustre is not
apparent, because the innumerable reflecting surfaces disperse the
light in all directions. If, however, the cotton has been mercerized
under tension, beingj plastic while still containing the caustic soda,
it is stretched and is set in this condition by the washing. Thus
in the finished product a large proportion of the rounded fibres are
laid parallel to each other, as in the case of spun silk, and the lustre
inherent to the fibre becomes visible to the naked eye.
See The Life and Labours of John Mercer, by E. A. Parnell (Long-
mans Green & Co); Die Mercerisation der Baumwolle, by Paul
Gardner (Julius Springer, Berlin) ; Mercerisation, by the editors of
The Dyer and Calico Printer (Heywood & Co.). (E. K.)
MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheanl, modern marchand; from
Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise), a trader,
one who buys and sells goods for profit. The term is now usually
confined to a wholesale dealer or one who trades on an extended
scale with foreign countries.
MERCIA, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England.
The original kingdom seems to have lain in the upper basin of
the Trent, comprising the greater part of Derbyshire and
Staffordshire, the northern parts of Warwickshire and Leicester-
shire, and the southern part of Nottinghamshire. The name
(Merce) seems to denote men of the March, and presumably
was first applied when this district bordered upon the Welsh.
In later times Mercia successively absorbed all the other terri-
tories between the Humber and the Thames except East Anglia,
and some districts even beyond the Thames.
The origin of the kingdom is obscure. The royal family,
according to Felix, Life of St Guthlac (Anglo-Saxon version),
were called Iclingas. Icel, their ancestor, may have been the
founder of the kingdom, but nothing is known of him. The
family, however, claimed descent from the ancient kings of
Angle (cf. Off a I. and Wermund). The first Mercian king of
whom we have any record was Cearl, who apparently reigned
about the beginning of the 7th century, and whose daughter
Coenburg married Edwin, king of Deira. During Edwin's
reign Mercia was subject to his supremacy, though it may have
been governed throughout by princes of its own royal family.
Its first prominent appearance in English history may be dated
in the year 633, when the Mercian prince Penda joined the Welsh
king Ceadwalla in overthrowing Edwin. According to the Saxon
Chronicle, Penda began to reign in 626, and fought against the
MERCIE
West Saxons at Cirencester in 628. In the Mercian regnal
tables, however, he is assigned a reign of only twenty-one years,
which, as his death took place in 654 or 655, would give 634 as
the date of his accession, presumably on the overthrow of
Edwin, or perhaps on that of Ceadwalla. During the reign of
Oswald Penda clearly reigned under the suzerainty of that king.
In 642, however, Oswald was slain by Penda in a battle at a
place called Maserfeld, which has not been identified with
certainty. During the early part of Oswio's reign the North-
umbrian kingdom was repeatedly invaded and ravaged by the
Mercians, and on one occasion (before 651) Penda besieged and
almost captured the Northumbrian royal castle at Bamborough.
At the same time he extended his influence in other directions,
and expelled from the throne of Wessex Coenwalh, who had
divorced his sister. Indeed, at this time nearly all the English
kingdoms must have acknowledged his supremacy. The king-
dom of Middle Anglia, which appears to have included the
counties of Northampton, Rutland, Huntingdon, and parts of
Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Leicestershire and Lincolnshire,
was formed into a dependent principality under his son Peada.
At this time also the territory corresponding to the modern
counties of Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire seems to have
been occupied. The last of these counties is said some time
later to have been under the government of another son of Penda,
named Merewald. In 654 or 655 Penda again invaded North-
umbria, with a huge army divided into thirty legiones, each under
a royal prince, among whom were iEthelhere, king of East Anglia,
and several Welsh kings. He was defeated and slain, however,
by Oswio, at a river called the Winwaed. Mercia then came
again under Northumbrian rule. Peada, the eldest son of Penda,
was allowed to govern the part south of the Trent, while north
Mercia was put in charge of Northumbrian officials. Penda,
although he did not prohibit the preaching of Christianity, had
remained a heathen to the end of his life. His death was
followed by the conversion of his kingdom. Peada had embraced
Christianity on his marriage with a daughter of Oswio, and under
him the first Mercian bishopric was founded. Shortly afterwards
Peada was murdered; but in 658 the Mercians rose under his
younger brother Wulfhere and threw off the Northumbrian
supremacy.
Wulfhere seems to have been a vigorous ruler, for he extended
the power of Mercia as far as it had reached in the days of his
father, and even farther. According to the Chronicle he invaded
Wessex as far as Ashdown in Berkshire in the year 661. At the
same time he conquered the Isle of Wight, which he gave to
jEthelwalh, king of Sussex. Between the years 661 and 665
he was defeated by the Northumbrian king Ecgfrith and had to
give up Lindsey. In 675 he again fought with the West Saxons
under Aescwine, and shortly afterwards died. His brother
^Ethelred, who succeeded him, invaded Kent in the following
year, and in 679 fought a battle on the Trent against Ecgfrith, by
which he recovered Lindsey. After this, however, we hear little
of Mercian interference with the other kingdoms for some time;
and since it is clear that during the last 15 years of the 7th cen-
tury Wessex, Essex, Sussex and Kent were frequently involved
in strife, it seems likely that the Mercian king had somewhat lost
hold over the south of England. In 704 jEthelred resigned the
crown and became a monk, leaving his kingdom to Coenred, the
son of Wulfhere. Coenred also abdicated five years later and
went to Rome. Ceolred, the son of ^Ethelred, who succeeded,
fought against the West Saxon king Ine in 715. On his death
in the following year ^Ethelbald, a distant relative, came to the
throne, and under him Mercian supremacy was fully restored
over all the kingdom south of the Humber. .He reigned for 41
years. After his murder in 757 the Mercian throne was held for
a short time by Beornred. He was expelled the same year by
Offa, who soon restored the power of Mercia, which seems to
have suffered some diminution during the later years of .(Ethel-
bald. Offa's policy was apparently the extinction of the depen-
dent kingdoms. In his reign the dynasties of Kent, Sussex and
the Hwicce seem to have disappeared, or at all events to have
given up the kingly title. In 787 he associated his son Ecgfrith
with him in the kingdom, and after his death (796) Ecgfrith
reigned alone for a few months. On the death of Ecgfrith the
throne passed to Coenwulf, a descendant of Pybba, father of
Penda. In 821 Coenwulf was succeeded by his brother
Ceolwulf, who was deprived of the throne in 823, being succeeded
by Beornwulf. In 825 Beornwulf was defeated by Ecgberht,
king of Wessex, and in the same year he was overthrown and
slain by the East Angles. 'The supremacy now passed to
Wessex.
In 827 Ludeca, the successor of Beornwulf, was slain in battle
with five of his earls. Wiglaf, who succeeded him, was expelled
two years later by Ecgberht, but regained the throne in the
following year. He died, probably in 839, and was succeeded by
Berhtwulf, who reigned until 852. Under these later kings
Mercia seems to have extended from the Humber to the Thames,
including London, though East Anglia was independent, and
that part of Essex which corresponds to the modern county of
that name had been annexed to Wessex after 825. Berhtwulf
was succeeded in 852 by Burgred, who married ^Ethebwith,
daughter of ^Ethelwulf. His power seems to have been more or
less dependent on the West Saxons. In 853, with the assistance
of .lEthelwulf he reduced North Wales to subjection. Again
in 868 he called upon the West Saxon king ^Ethehred for assist-
ance against the Danes under LoSbrok's sons, who at this
time invaded Mercia after their overthrow of the Northumbrians
at York. No battle took place, and the Mercians subsequently
made peace with the Danes. In 872 the Danes occupied London
on their return from invading Wessex, after which a truce was
again made. In 873 the Danes encamped at Torksey in Lincoln-
shire, and although another truce ensued, they advanced in the
following year to Repton, and Burgred was driven from the
kingdom. He went to Rome, where he remained until his death.
In 874 Ceolwulf, a king's thegn or baron, was made king by the
Danes, and definitely acknowledged their overlordship. In 877,
after the second invasion of Wessex, the Danes seem to have
taken the eastern part of Mercia into their own hands. How long
Ceolwulf reigned over the western portion is unknown. About
the year 884 the most important person in English Mercia was
an earl, ^Ethelred, who accepted the suzerainty of Alfred, and
in or before the year 887 married his daughter .(Ethelflaed.
jEthelred and ^Ethelflaed appear to have had practically regal
power, though they did not use the royal title. In 886 London,
which had been recovered by Alfred from the Danes, was re-
stored to ^Ethelred. During the invasion of 893-97 English
Mercia was again repeatedly ravaged by the Danes; but in the
last of these years, by the united efforts of Alfred and jEthelred,
they were at length expelled. With this exception, Watling
Street, the Ouse and the Lea, continued to be the boundary
between Mercia and the Danish kingdom of East Anglia down to
the death of ^Ethebred, between 910 and 912. The government
was then carried on by ^Ethelflaed, who built a number of fort-
resses, and in conjunction with her brother, King Edward the
Elder, succeeded in expelling the Danes from Derby and Leicester
by the year 917-18. After her death in the latter year her
daughter .lElfwyn was soon deprived of the government by
Edward, and Mercia was definitely annexed to Wessex.
From this time onwards its existence as a separate kingdom
was at an end, though during the last years of Eadwig's reign
the Mercians and Northumbrians set up Eadgar as king. In the
last century of the Saxon period the earls of Mercia frequently
occupied a semi-royal position. The most important of these
were ^Elfhere under Eadgar,* Edward and ^Ethelred, Eadric
Streona, under the last-mentioned king, and Leofric, under the
Danish kings.
AUTHORITIES. Bede, Historia ecclesiastica (ed. C. Plummer,
Oxford, 1896); Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer,
Oxford, 1899); W. de G. Birch, Cartularium saxonicum (London,
1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.)
MERClfi, MARIUS JEAN ANTONIN (1845- ), French
sculptor and painter, was born in Toulouse on the 3Oth of October
1845. He entered the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, and studied
under Falguiere and Jouffroy, and in 1868 gained the Grand Prix
MERCIER, H. MERCK
153
de Rome. His first great popular successes were the " David "
and " Gloria Victis," which was shown and received the medal
of honour of the Salon. The bronze was subsequently placed
in the Square Montholon. " The Genius of the Arts " (1877), a
relief, is in the Tuileries, in substitution for Barye's " Napoleon
III."; a similar work for the tomb of Michelet (1879) is in the
cemetery of Pere la Chaise; and in the same year Mercie produced
the statue of Arago with accompanying reliefs, now erected at
Perpignan. In 1882 he repeated his great patriotic success of
1874 with a group " Quand Meme!" replicas of which have been
set up at Belfort and in the garden of the Tuileries. " Le
Souvenir " (1885), a marble statue for the tomb of Mme Charles
Ferry, is one of his most beautiful works. " Regret," for the
tomb of Cabanel, was produced in 1892, along with " William
Tell," now at Lausanne. Mercie also designed the monuments
to " Meissonier " (1895), erected in the Jardin de ITnfante in
the Louvre, and " Faidherbe " (1896) at Lille, a statue of
" Thiers " set up at St Germain-en-Laye, the monument to
" Baudry " at Pere-la-Chaise, and that of " Louis-Philippe and
Queen Amelie " for their tomb at Dreux. His stone group of
" Justice " is at the H6tel de Ville, Paris. Numerous other
statues, portrait busts, and medallions came from the sculptor's
hand, which gained him a medal of honour at the Paris Exhibi-
tion of 1878 and the grand prix at that of 1889. Among the
paintings exhibited by the artist are a " Venus," to which was
awarded a medal in 1883, " Leda " (1884), and " Michael-
angelo studying Anatomy " (1885) his most dramatic work
in this medium. Mercie was appointed professor of drawing and
sculpture at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and was elected a member
of the Academic Francaise in 1891, after being awarded the
biennial prize of the institute of 800 in 1887.
MERCIER, HONOR6 (1840-1894), Canadian lawyer and
statesman, was the son of Jean Baptiste Mercier, farmer, and
of Marie Kimener, his wife. He was born in the village of
St Athanase d'Iberville on the isth of October 1840. The
family came from France, and settled in the district of Mont-
magny, and later removed to Iberville. Mercier entered the
Jesuit College of St Mary, Montreal, at the age of fourteen,
and throughout his life retained a warm friendship for the
society. He married, firstly in 1866 Leopoldine Boivin, and
secondly in 1871 Virginie St Denis. On the completion of his
course at St Mary's he studied law in the office of Laframboise
and Papineau, in St Hyacinthe, and was admitted to the bar of
the province in April 1865. At the age of twenty-two he became
the editor of the Conservative Courrier de St Hyacinthe, and
in this journal supported the policy of the Sicotte administration,
which then represented the interests of Quebec, under the Act
of Union (1840); but when Sicotte accepted a seat on the bench
Mercier joined the Opposition, and contributed largely to the
defeat of the Ministerial candidate. In 1864 he vigorously
opposed the scheme of confederation, on the ground that it
would prove fatal to the distinctive position held by the French
Canadians. He resumed the editorship of the Courrier in 1866;
but after a few months retired from journalism, and for the
next five years devoted all his energy to his profession. At the
commencement of the year 1871 the national party was organized
in Quebec, and Mercier supported the candidates of the party
on the platform. In August 1872 he was elected as a member of
the House of Commons for the county of Rouville, and proved
a vigorous opponent of Sir John A. Macdonald on the question
of separate schools for New Brunswick. He was a candidate
at the general elections in 1874; but retired on the eve of the
contest in favour of another candidate of his own party. Mercier
entered the arena of provincial politics in May 1879 as solicitor-
general in the Joly government, representing the county of
St Hyacinthe; and on the defeat of the ministry in October
he passed, with his leader, into opposition. On the retirement
of M. Joly from the leadership of the Liberal party in Quebec
in 1883 Mercier was chosen as his successor. Towards the close
of 1885 the French-Canadian mind was greatly agitated over the
execution of Louis Riel, leader of the north-west rebellion, and
in consequence of the attitude of Mercier on this question the
Liberal minority in the Legislative Assembly, which had been
reduced to fifteen, rapidly gained strength, until at the general'
elections held in October 1886 the province was carried in the
Liberal interest. In January 1887 Mercier was sworn in as
premier and attorney-general, and from this moment he exer-
cised an extraordinary influence in the province. He succeeded
in passing without opposition the Jesuit Estates Act, a measure
to compensate the order for the loss of property confiscated by
the Crown. This act came before the Federal House for disallow-
ance, but was carried on division. When Mercier appealed to
the electorate in 1890, his policy was endorsed, and he was able
to give effect to many important measures. Early in 1891 he
negotiated a loan in Europe for the province, and whilst on a
visit to Rome he was created a count of the Roman Empire by
Leo XIII., who three years previously had conferred upon him
the rank of a commander of the order of St Gregory the Great.
Of commanding presence, firm, decisive, courteous in manner,
convincing in argument, and deeply attached to his native
province, he had all the qualities of a popular leader. For a few
years he was the idol of the people of Quebec, and French Canada
loomed large in the public eye; but towards the end of 1891
serious charges were preferred against his ministry, on the ground
that subsidies voted for railways had been diverted to political
use, and he was dismissed by the lieutenant-governor. At the
subsequent elections held in March 1892 he was returned for
the county of Bonaventure, but his party was hopelessly
defeated. On the formation of a new government he was
brought to trial, and declared not guilty; his health, however,
gave way, and he never regained his former influence.
See Biographie, discours, conferences, &c., de I' Hon. Honore Mercier,
by J.-O. Pelland (Montreal, 1893). (A. G. D.)
MERCIER, LOUIS SEBASTIEN (1740-1814), French drama-
tist and miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris on the 6th of
June 1740. He began his literary career by writing heroic
epistles, but early came to the conclusion that Boileau and
Racine had ruined the French language, and that the true poet
was he who wrote in prose. The most important of his miscel-
laneous works are L' An 2440 (1770); L'Essai sur I'art dramalique
(i773); Neologie (1801); Le Tableau de Paris (1781-1788); Le
nouveau Paris (1799); Histoire de France (1802) and Satire
centre Racine et Boileau (1808). He decried French tragedy as
a caricature of antique and foreign customs in bombastic verse,
and advocated the comedie larmoyante as understood by Diderot.
To the philosophers he was entirely hostile. He denied that
modern science had made any real advance; he even carried his
conservatism so far as to maintain that the earth was a circular
flat plain around which revolved the sun. Mercier wrote some
sixty dramas, among which may be mentioned Jean Hennuyer
(1772); La Destruction de la ligue (1782); Jenneval (1769); Le
Juge (1774) ; Natalie (1775) and La Brouette du vinaigrier (1775).
In politics he was a Moderate, and as a member of the Convention
he voted against the death penalty for Louis XVI. During
the Terror he was imprisoned, but was released after the fall of
Robespierre. He died in Paris on the 25th of April 1814.
See Lon Bechard, Sebastien Mercier, sa vie, son cewvre (Paris,
1903); R. Doumic in the Revue des deux mondes (l5th July 1903).
MERCK, JOHANN HEIKRICH (1741-1791), German author
and critic, was born at Darmstadt on the nth of April 1741,
a few days after the death of his father, a chemist. He studied
law at Giessen, and in 1767 was given an appointment in the
paymaster's department at Darmstadt, and a year later himself
became paymaster. For a number of years he exercised con-
siderable influence upon the literary movement in Germany;
he helped to found the Frankfurter gelehrte Anzeigen in 1772,
and was one of the chief contributors to Nicolai's Allgemeine
Bibliothek. In 1782 he accompanied the Landgravine Karoline
of Hesse-Darmstadt to St Petersburg, and on his return was a
guest of the duke Charles Augustus of Weimar in the Wartburg.
Unfortunate speculations brought him in to pecuniary embarrass-
ment in 1788, and although friends, notably Goethe, were ready
to come to his assistance, his losses combined with the death of
five of his children so preyed upon his mind that he committed
154
MERCCEUR MERCURY
suicide on the 27th of June 1791. Merck distinguished himself
mainly as a critic; his keen perception, critical perspicacity and
refined taste made him a valuable guide to the young writers of
the Sturm und Drang. He also wrote a number of small treatises,
dealing mostly with literature and art, especially painting, and
a few poems, stories, narratives and the like ; but they have not
much intrinsic importance. Merck's letters are particularly
interesting and instructive, and throw much light upon the
literary conditions of his time.
Merck's Ausgewahlte Schriften zur schonen Literatur und Kunst
were published by A. Stahr in 1840, with a biography. See Brief e
an J. H. Merck von Goethe, Herder, Wieland und andern bedeutenden
Zeitgenossen (1835), Brief e an und von J. H. Merck (1838) and Brief e
aus dem Freundeskreise von Goethe, Herder, Hopfner und Merck
(1847), all edited by K. Wagner. Cf. G. Zimmermann, J. H. Merck,
seine Umgebung und seine Zeit (1871).
MERCCEUR, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The estate
of Mercceur in Auvergne, France, gave its name to a line of
powerful lords, which became extinct in the i4th century, and
passed by inheritance to the dauphins of Auvergne, counts of
Clermont. In 1426 it passed to the Bourbons by the marriage
of Jeanne de Clermont, dauphine of Auvergne, with Louis de
Bourbon, count of Montpensier. It formed part of the confis-
cated estates of the Constable de Bourbon, and was given by
Francis I. and Louise of Savoy to Antoine, duke of Lorraine,
and his wife, Renee de Bourbon. Nicolas of Lorraine, son of
Duke Antoine, was created duke of Mercceur and a peer of
France in 1569. His son Philippe Emmanuel (see below) left
a daughter, who married the due de Vendome in 1 609.
MERCCEUR, PHILIPPE EMMANUEL DE LORRAINE, Due
DE (1558-1602), French soldier, was born on the pth of Septem-
ber 1558, and married Marie de Luxemburg, duchesse de Pen-
thievre. In 1582 he was made governor of Brittany by Henry
III., who had married his sister. Mancceur put himself at the
head of the League in Brittany, and had himself proclaimed
protector of the Roman Catholic Church in the province in 1588.
Invoking the hereditary rights of his wife, who was a descendant
of the dukes of Brittany, he endeavoured to make himself
independent in that province, and organized a government at
Nantes, calling his son " prince and duke of Brittany." With
the aid of the Spaniards he defeated the due de Montpensier,
whom Henry IV. had sent against him, at Craon in 1592, but
the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon re-
covered the advantage. The king marched against Mercceur
in person, and received his submission at Angers on the 2Oth of
March 1598. Mercceur subsequently went to Hungary, where
he entered the service of the emperor Rudolph II., and fought
against the Turks, taking Stuhlweissenburg (Szekes-Fehervar)
in 1 599. Mercceur died on the igth of February 1602.
MERCURY (MERCURIUS), in Roman mythology, the god of
merchandise (merx) and merchants; later identified with the
Greek Hermes. His nature is more intelligible and simple than
that of any other Roman deity. In the native Italian states
no trade existed till the influence of the Greek colonies on the
coast introduced Greek customs and terminology. It was no
doubt under the rule of the Tarquins that merchants began to ply
their trade. Doubtless the merchants practised their religious
ceremonies from the first, but their god Mercurius was not
officially recognized by the state till the year 495 B.C. Rome
frequently suffered from scarcity of grain during the unsettled
times that followed the expulsion of the Tarquins. Various
religious innovations were made to propitiate the gods; in 496
the Greek worship of Demeter, Dionysus and Persephone was
established in the city, and in 495 the Greek god Hermes was
introduced into Rome under the Italian name of Mercurius
(Livy ii. 21, 27), as protector of the grain trade, especially with
Sicily. Preller thinks that at the same time the trade in grain
was regulated by law and a regular college or gild of merchants
instituted. This college was under the protection of the god;
its annual festival was on the i sth (the ides) of May, on which day
the temple of the god had been dedicated at the southern end of
the Circus Maximus, near the Aventine; and the members were
called mercuriales as well as mercatores. Mommsen, however,
considers the mercuriales to be a purely local gild the pagani of
the Circus valley. The isth of May was chosen as the feast of
Mercury, obviously because Maia was the mother of Hermes,
that is of Mercury; and she was worshipped along with her son by
the mercuriales on this day. According to Preller, this religious
foundation had a political object; it established on a legitimate
and sure basis the trade between Rome and the Greek colonies
of the coast, whereas formerly this trade had been exposed to
the capricious interference of government officials. Like all
borrowed religions in Rome, it must have retained the rites and
the terminology of its Greek original (Festus p. 257). Mercury
became the god, not only of the mercatores and of the grain trade,
but of buying and selling in general; and it appears that, at least
in the streets where shops were common, little chapels and images
of the god were erected. There was a spring dedicated to
Mercury between his temple and the Porta Capena; every
shopman drew water from this spring on the isth of May, and
sprinkled it with a laurel twig over his head and over his goods, at
the same time entreating Mercury to remove from his head and
his goods the guilt of all his deceits (Ovid, Fasti, v. 673 seq.).
The word mercurialis was popularly used as equivalent to
" cheat."
Roman statuettes of bronze, in which Mercury is represented,
like the Greek Hermes, standing holding the caduceus or staff in
the one hand and a purse in the other (an element very rare in purely
Hellenic representations), are exceedingly common.
MERCURY, in astronomy, the smallest major planet and the
nearest to the sun; its symbol is . Its proximity to the sun
makes the telescopic study of its physical constitution extremely
difficult. The result is that less is known on this subject than
in the case of any other planet. Even the time of rotation on
its axis is uncertain. J. H. SchrSter inferred a period of rotation
of 24 h. 5 m. 30 s., which was in seeming agreement with the obser-
vations of K. L. Harding. This period was generally accepted,
though Herschel had been unable to see any changes indicating
rotation. In 1882 G. Schiaparelli began a careful study of the
face of the planet with a refractor of 8 in. aperture, subse-
quently replaced by one of 18 in. His unexpected conclu-
sion was that the rotation of Mercury resembles that of the
moon, in having its period equal to that of its orbital revolution.
As the moon always presents the same face to the earth, so
Mercury must, in this case, always present very nearly the same
face to the sun. Schiaparelli also announced that the axis of
rotation of the planet is nearly perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The rotation being uniform, while the orbital motion,
owing to the great eccentricity of the orbit, is affected by a
very large inequality, it would follow that there is a libration
in longitude of nearly 24 on each side of the mean position.
Percival Lowell in 1897 took up the question anew by combining
a long series of measured diameters of the planet with drawings
of its apparent surface. The seeming constancy of the surface
appearance was considered to confirm the view of Schiaparelli
as to the slow rotation of the planet. But there is wide room
for doubt on the question.
The period of orbital revolution of Mercury is nearly 88 days,
or somewhat less than three months. Consequently, the period
of synodic revolution is less than four months, during which
the entire round of phases is completed. When near greatest
elongation Mercury shines as a star of the first magnitude, or
brighter; but in the latitudes of central and northern Europe
it is so near the horizon soon after sunset as to be generally
obscured by vapours or cloudy.
The eccentricity of the orbit, o- 20, is far greater than that of
any major planet, and nearly the average of that of the minor
planets. Consequently, its distance and its greatest elongation
from the sun vary widely with its position in its orbit at the
time.
The mass of Mercury can be determined only from its action
upon Venus; this is so small that the result is doubtful.
Leverrier adopted in his tables i: 3,000,000 as the ratio of the
mass of Mercury to that of the sun. S. Newcomb, from the action
upon Venus, reduced this to one-half its amount, or i : 6,000,000.
MERCURY
G. W. Hill, basing his conclusions on the probable density of
the planet, estimated the mass to be less than i : 10,000,000. The
adoption of a mass even as large as that of Newcomb implies a
greater density than that of the earth, but it is not possible to
estimate the probability that such is the case.
The most interesting phenomenon connected with Mercury is
that of its occasional transit over the disk of the sun at inferior
conjunction. These occur only when the planet is near one of
its nodes at the time. The earth, in its orbital revolution,
passes through the line of the nodes of Mercury about the 8th of
May and the loth of November of each year. It is only near one
of these times that a transit can occur. The periodic times of
Mercury and the earth are such that the transits are generally
repeated in a cycle of 46 years, during which 8 transits occur in
May and 6 in November. The following table shows the Green-
wich mean time of the middle of all the transits from 1677, the
date of the first one accurately observed, until the end of the
present century.
Transits of Mercury from 1677 to 2003.
h.
h.
1677
Nov.
7
o
J845
May 8
8
1690
Nov.
9
18
1848
Nov. 9
2
1697
Nov.
2
18
1861
Nov. ii
2O
1707
May
5
ii
1868
Nov. 4
19
1710
Nov.
6
ii
1878
May 6
7
1723
Nov.
9
5-
1881
Nov. 7
13
1736
Nov.
10
22
1891
May 9
14
1740
May
2
II
1894
Nov. 10
7
1743
Nov.
4
22
1907
Nov. 14
1753
May
5
18
1914
Nov. 7
1756
Nov.
6
16
1924
May 7
14
1769
Nov.
9
10
1927
Nov. 9
18
1776
Nov.
2
10
1940
Nov. ii
ii
1782
Nov.
12
3
1953
Nov. 14
5
1786
May
3
18
1957
May 5
13
1789
Nov.
5
3
1960
Nov. 7
5
1799
May
7
i
1970
May 8
20
1802
Nov.
8
21
1973
Nov. 9
23
1815
Nov.
ii
15
1986
Nov. 12
16
1822
Nov.
4
14
1993
Nov. 5
16
1832
May
5
I999 1
Nov. 15
9
1835
Nov.
7
8
2003
May 6
19
A perplexing problem is offered by the secular motion of the
perihelion of Mercury. In 1845 Leverrier found that this motion,
as derived from observation of the transits, was greater by 35"
per century than it should be from the gravitation of all the other
planets. This conclusion has been fully confirmed by subsequent
investigations, a recent discussion showing the excess of motion
to be 43* per century. It follows from this either that Mercury
is acted upon by. some unknown masses of matter, or that the
intensity of gravitation does not precisely follow Newton's law.
The most natural explanation was proposed by Leverrier, -who
attributed the excess of motion to the action of a group of intra-
Mercurial planets. At first this conclusion seemed to be con-
firmed by the fact that occasional observations of the transit of
a dark object over the sun had been observed. But no such
observation was ever made by an experienced astronomer, and
the frequent photographs of the sun, which have been taken at
the Greenwich observatory and elsewhere since 1870, have^never
shown the existence of any such body. We may therefore regard
it as certain that, if a group of intra-Mercurial planets exists, its
members are too small to be seen when projected on the sun's
disk. During the eclipses of 1900 and 1905 the astronomers of
the Harvard and Lick Observatories photographed the sky in
the neighbourhood of the sun so fully that the stars down to the
7th or 8th magnitude were imprinted on the plates. Careful
examination failed to show the existence of any unknown body.
It follows that if the group exists the members must be so small
as to be entirely invisible. But in this case they must be so
numerous that they should be visible as a diffused illumination
on the sky after sunset. Such an illumination is shown by the
zodiacal light. But such a group of bodies, if situated in the
plane of the ecliptic, would produce a motion of the node of
Mercury equal to that of its perihelion, while the observed motion
1 Mercury grazes sun's limb.
of the node of Mercury is somewhat less than that computed
from the gravitation of the known planets. The same is true
of the node of Venus, which might also be affected by the same
attraction. To produce the observed result, the inclination of the
ring would have to be greater than that of the orbit of either
Mercury or Venus. In 1895 Newcomb showed that the observed
motions, both of the perihelion of Mercury and of the nodes of
Mercury and Venus, could be approximately represented by the
attraction of a ring of inter-mercurial bodies having a mean incli-
nation of 9 and the mean node in 48 longitude. He also showed
that if the ring was placed between the orbits of Mercury and
Venus, the inclination would be 7-5 and the longitude of the
node 35. The fact that the zodiacal light appears to be near
the ecliptic, and the belief that, if it were composed of a lens of
discrete particles, their nodes would tend to scatter themselves
equally around the invariable plane of the solar system, led him
to drop these explanations as unsatisfactory, and to prefer
provisionally the hypothesis that the sun's gravitation is not
exactly as the inverse square. (See GRAVITATION.)
In 1896 H. H. Seeliger made a more thorough investigation
than his predecessor had done of the attraction of the matter
producing the zodiacal light, assuming it to be formed of a series
of ellipsoids. He showed that the motions of the nodes and
perihelion could be satisfactorily represented in this way. The
following are the three principal elements of the hypothetical
orbits as found by the two investigators:
Newcomb.
Seeliger.
Intra-
Mercurial
Ring.
Ring between
Mercury and
Venus.
Zodiacal Light
Matter.
Inclination .
Node . .
Mass
f
7-5
, 35
1/37,000,000
6-95
40-o s
1/2,860,000
The demonstration by E. W. Brown that the motion of the
moon's perigee is exactly accordant with the Newtonian law of
gravitation, seems to preclude the possibility of any deviation
from that law, and renders the hypothesis of Seeliger the most
probable one in the present state of knowledge. But the ques-
tion is still an open one whether the zodiacal light has an inclina-
tion of the ecliptic as great as that computed by Seeliger. This
is a difficult one because the action on Mercury is produced by
the inner portions of the matter producing the zodiacal light.
These are so near the sun that they cannot be observed, unless
possibly during a total eclipse. (S. N.)
MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 200), in chemistry, a
metallic element which is easily distinguished from all others by
its being liquid at even the lowest temperatures naturally occur-
ring in moderate climates. To this exceptional property it owes
the synonyms of quicksilver in English (with the Germans Queck-
silber is the only recognized name) and of hydrargyrum (from
i56wp, water, and apyvpos, silver) in Graeco-Latin. This metal
does not appear to have been known to the ancient Jews, nor
is it mentioned by the earlier Greek writers. Theophrastus
(about 300 B.C.) mentions it as prepared from cinnabar by
treatment with copper and vinegar; Dioscorides obtained it
from the same mineral with the aid of iron, employing at the
same time a primitive distillation apparatus. With the alche-
mists it was a substance of great consequence. Its appearance
commended it as a substance for investigation; many of its
compounds, especially corrosive sublimate and calomel, were
studied, and improved methods for extracting and purifying
the metal were devised. Being ignorant of its susceptibility
of freezing into a compact solid, they did not recognize it as a
true metal, and yet, on the authority of Geber, they held that
mercury (meaning the predominating element in this metal)
enters into the composition of all metals, and is the very cause
of their metalh'city (see ELEMENT). When, about the beginning
of the i6th century, chemistry and scientific medicine came to
merge into one, this same mysterious element of " mercury "
played a great part in the theories of pathology; and the metal.
i 5 6
MERCURY
in the free as in certain combined states, came to be looked upon
as a powerful medicinal agent.
Occurrence. Mercury occurs in nature chiefly in the form of a
red sulphide, HgS, called cinnabar (q.v.), which, as a rule, is
accompanied by more or less of the reguline metal the latter
being probably derived from the former by some secondary
reaction. The most important mercury mines in Europe are
those of Almaden in Spain and of Idria in Illyria; and in America
those of California and Texas. Deposits also occur in Russia,
the Bavarian palatinate, in Hungary, Italy, Transylvania,
Bohemia, Mexico, Peru and in some other countries.
Mercury occurs in formations of all ages from the Archean to
the Quaternary, and it has been found in both sedimentary and
eruptive rocks of the most varied character, e.g. conglomerates,
sandstones, shales, limestones, quartzites, slates, serpentines,
crystalline schists, and eruptive rocks from the most acid to
the most basic. It appears that nearly all known deposits occur
along lines of continental uplift, where active shearing of the
formations has occurred. Large deposits are seldom found in
eruptive rocks, but generally near such formations or near active
or extinct hot springs. The deposits are of many types, simple
fissure veins being less usual than compound, reticulated, or linked
veins. Segregations and impregnations are very common. The
form of the deposit seems to depend chiefly on the physical properties
and structure of the enclosing rocks and the nature of the fissure
systems that result from their disturbance.^ The principal ore is
cinnabar, though metacinnabarite and native mercury are often
abundant; the selenide (tiemannite), chloride, and iodide are rare.
Of the associated heavy minerals, pyrite (or marcasite) is almost
universal, and chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, blende and realgar are
frequent. Many deposits contain traces of gold and silver, and some
deposits, as the Mercur in Utah, are more valuable for their gpld
than their mercury content. The usual gangue-forming minerals
are quartz, dolomite, calcite, barite, fluorspar and various zeolites.
Some form of bituminous matter is one of the most universal and
intimate associates of cinnabar. Formerly quicksilver deposits
were supposed to be formed by sublimation, but from a careful study
of the California occurrences S. B. Christy was convinced as early
as 1875 that this was unlikely, and that deposition from hot alkaline
sulphide solutions was more probable. By treating the black
mercuric sulphide with such solutions, hot and under pressure, he
succeeded in producing artificial cinnabar and metacinnabarite. He
also showed that the mineral water at the New Almaden mines,
when charged with sulphydric acid and heated under pressure, was
capable of effecting the same change, and that this method of pro-
duction agreed better with all the facts than the sublimation theory.
(See " Genesis of Cinnabar Deposits," Amer. Jour. Science, xvii.
453 ) The investigations of Dr G. F. Becker on the " Quicksilver
Deposits of the Pacific " (U.S. Geol. Survey, Mon. xiii., 1888) estab-
lished the correctness of these views beyond doubt.
Production. At one time the world's supply of mercury was
almost entirely derived from the Almaden and Idrian mines;
but now the greater proportion is produced in California and
Texas, where cinnabar was used by the Indians as a pigment,
and first turned to metallurgical purpose in 1845 by Castellero.
In the United States mercury has also been found in Utah,
Nevada, Oregon and Arizona. In the i6th century the Almaden
and Idrian mines were practically the only producers of this
metal; statistics of Almaden dating from 1564 and of Idria
since 1525 are given in B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904). Spain
produced 1151 metric tons in 1870, and in 1889 its maximum
of 1975 tons; since then it has, on the whole, been decreasing.
The Austria-Hungary output steadily increased to about
550-600 tons at which it appears to remain. In 1887 Russia
produced 64 tons, and has steadily improved. The United
States output was over 1000 tons, in 1871, and declined to
800-900 in the period 1880-1892; it has since increased and
surpassed the supply from Spain. The following table gives
the production in various countries for selected years:
Spain.
United
States.
Russia.
Austria-
Hungary.
Italy.
Mexico.
Total
(Metric
Tons) .
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
754
H25
914
IO2O
800
1031
1208
1288
1192
1043
368
416
362
393
3i8
558
556
567
581
564
278
259
3H
357
370
128
191
1 88
190'
190 1
3120
4056
3633
3733
3285
1 Estimated.
Mercury is transported in steel bottles closed by a screw
stopper; the Almaden and Idrian bottles contain 76 ft; and
until the ist of June 1904, the Californian bottles contained
76^ Ib of mercury; they now hold 75 ft. From the smaller
works the metal is sometimes sent out in sheepskin bags holding
55 ft of mercury.
Metallurgy. Chemically speaking, the extraction of mercury
from its ores is a simple matter. Metallic mercury is easily volati-
lized, and separated from the gangue, at temperatures far below
redness, and cinnabar at a red heat is readily reduced to the metallic
state by the action of iron or lime or atmospheric oxygen, the sulphur
being eliminated, in the first case as iron sulphide, in the second as
calcium sulphide and sulphate, in the third as sulphur dioxide. A
close iron retort would at first suggest itself as the proper kind of
apparatus for carrying out these operations, and this idea was, at
one time, acted upon in a few small establishments for instance, in
that of Zweibrucken in the Palatinate, where lime was used as a
decomposing agent ; but the method has now been discarded. In
all the large works the decomposition of the cinnabar is effected by
the direct exposure of the ore to the oxidizing flame of a_furnace,
and the mercury vapour, which gets diffused through an immense
mass of combustion gases, is recovered in more or less imperfect
condensers.
With the exception of the massive deposits of Almaden in Spain
and a few of those in California and Idria, cinnabar occurs in forms
so disseminated as to make its mining very expensive. Rude hand-
sorting of the ores is usually practised. Wet concentration has not
been successful, because it necessitates ore crushing and extensive
slime losses of the brittle cinnabar. As a rule low-grade ores can
be roasted directly with less loss and expense. At Almaden in
Spain the ores average from 5 to 7 %, but in other parts of the world
much poorer ores have to be treated. In California, in spite of the
high cost of labour, improved furnaces enable ores containing not
more than | % to be mined and roasted at a profit.
The furnaces originally used at Almaden and Idria differ only in
the condensing plant. The roasting was carried out in internally
fired, vertical shafts of brickwork, and, at Almaden, the vapours
were led through a series of bottles named aludels, so arranged that
the neck of one entered the sole of the next ; and at Idria the vapours
were led into large brickwork chambers lined with cement, and there
condensed. The aludel furnace, which was designed in 1633 by
Lopez Saavedra Barba in Huancavelica, Peru (where cinnabar was
discovered in 1566), and introduced at Almaden in 1646 by Busta-
mente, by whose name it is sometimes known, has now been entirely
given up. The Idrian furnace was designed in 1787 by von Leithner;
it was introduced at Almaden in 1800 by Larrafiaga, and used side
by side with the aludel furnace. The crude mercury is purified by
straining through dense linen or chamois leather bags.
The most important improvements in the metallurgy of
mercury are the introduction of furnaces for treating coarse ores,
and the replacement of the old discontinuous furnaces by those
which work continuously. The most successful of these continuous
furnaces was a modification of Count Rumford's continuous lime-
kiln. This furnace was introduced at New Almaden by J. B.
Randol, the author of many improvements in the metallurgy of
mercury. The success of the continuous coarse-ore furnace at New
Almaden led Randol to attempt the continuous treatment of fine
ores also, and the Huettner and Scott continuous fine-ore furnace,
which was the result of these experiments solved the problem com-
pletely. It contains several vertical shafts in which the descending
ore is retarded at will by inclined shelving, which causes it to be
exposed to the flames as long as may be necessary to roast it thor-
oughly. The time of treatment is determined by the rapidity with
which the roasted ore is withdrawn at the bottom. Several similar
furnaces are in use, as the Knox and Osborne, the Livermore and
the Cormak-Spirek. The fumes from the roasting furnaces are
received in masonry chambers, usually provided with water-cooled
pipes; from these they pass through earthenware pipes, and finally
through others of wood and glass. Not all the yield is in liquid
mercury ; much of it is entangled in masses of soot that cover the
condenser walls, and this is only recovered after much labour.
The conditions for effective condensation are: (i) The furnace
gases should be well oxidized, to avoid the production of an excess
of soot. Gas firing would meet this requirement better than the use
of wood or coal. (2) The volume of permanent gases passing through
the furnace should be reduced* to a minimum consistently with
complete oxidation. (3) The cross-section of the condensers should
be sufficient to reduce the velocity of the escaping gases, and the
surface large enough for cooling and for the adhesion of condensed
mercury. The latter requirement is best provided for by hanging
wooden aprons in the path of the cooled gases. (4) The temperature
of the escaping gases should not exceed 15 to 20 C., but cooling
below this temperature would not give any adequate return for the
expense. Cooling by water is quicker, but more expensive than by
air. Water sprays, acting directly on the fumes, have not given
good results, on account of the difficulty of recovering " floured
quicksilver from the water. (5) The use of an artificial inward
draught is absolutely necessary to control the operation of the
MERCURY
furnaces and condensers and to avoid the salivation of the workmen.
(6) The condenser should be easily and quickly cleaned during the
operation of the furnace. (7) Both furnaces and condensers should
have inclined iron plates in their foundations to prevent the infiltra-
tion of mercury. (8) There is a great need of some substance for
the construction of quicksilver condensers which shall be strong
enough to be made thin, be a good conductor of heat, and resistant
to abrasion and the alternate action of heat and cold. It should
also resist the action of mercury and warm dilute sulphuric acid,
and be not too expensive.
Quicksilver is best removed from the " soot," not by pressure, but
by the opposite treatment. A machine in use for this purpose at
New Almaden, devised by Colonel von Leicht, consists of an iron
bowl, perforated at the bottom, in which revolves a vertical shaft
carrying a propeller blade which tosses the soot (mixed with wood
ashes and a little coal oil) into the air, so that the entangled mercury
is free to run out through the bottom of the bowl. The residue
from which no more mercury can be extracted mechanically is
returned to the roasting furnace.
The losses of treatment are: (i) Furnace loss, which is easily
reduced to nothing, and (2) condenser loss, which can never be zero.
The latter consists of mercury lost as vapour and as mist, and its
minimum amount is determined not by the richness of the ore but
by the volume of escaping gases, their velocity and temperature.
The percentage of loss will be higher with a poor than a rich ore.
On a 3 % ore the losses need not exceed 3 or 4 % ore content. On a
I % ore they will run from 5 to 10%. But in poorly arranged plants
under bad management they may easily be doubled or even trebled.
The Huettner and Scott fine-ore furnace costs with condensers in
California about $30,000, and roasts from 30 to 45 tons of ore
(from 2 J in. to dust) in 24 hours at a cost of from $i to $0-62 per ton.
Purification. Commercial mercury, as a rule, only needs to be
forced through chamois leather or allowed to run though a very fine
hole to become fit for all ordinary applications; but the metal,
having the power of dissolving most other metals, is very liable to
get contaminated, and requires then to be purified. For this purpose
many chemical methods have been proposed; the commonest
consist in allowing the metal to fall in a very fine stream through a
column of a mixture of nitric acid and mercurous nitrate, or of
sulphuric acid, or of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid ; the
metal being subsequently dried and filtered through a perforated
paper filter. The only really exhaustive method is distillation in a
vacuum out of a glass apparatus. Many forms of apparatus have
been devised to effect this. Recent researches have shown, however,
that the metal so obtained is not chemically pure, there being found
in the distillate traces of other metals. Absolutely pure mercury
does not at all adhere to any surface which does not consist of a metal
soluble in mercury. Hence the least quantity of it, when placed on
a sheet of paper, forms a neatly rounded-off globule, which retains
its form on being rolled about, and, when subdivided, breaks up
into a number of equally perfect globules, which tend to coalesce
when sufficiently near -to each other. The presence in it of the
minutest trace of lead or tin causes it to " draw tails." A very
impure metal may adhere even to glass, and in a glass vessel, instead
of the normal convex, form an irregular flat meniscus.
Properties. Pure mercury is a freely flowing liquid, which
does not wet objects placed in it, and has a silvery white colour
and perfect metallic lustre; in very thin layers it transmits a
bluish-violet light. It freezes at about - 39 C. (Mallet gives
- 38-85; Hutchins, - 39-44) with contraction, and the forma-
tion of a white, very ductile and malleable mass, easily cut with
a knife, and exhibiting crystals belonging to the cubic system.
When heated the metal expands very uniformly, and vaporizes
at about 360; the volatility is generally increased by the
presence of impurities; its high expansion and the wide range
of temperature over which it is fluid render it especially valuable
as a thermometric fluid (see THERMOMETRY). .The vapour is
colourless, and its density points to the conclusion that the mole-
cules are monatomic. Its specific gravity at o is 13-5959, *'
it is about half as heavy again as copper volume for volume, a
quarter as heavy again as lead, and nearly twice as heavy as
zinc; this property is turned to account in the construction of
barometers and air-pumps. Its specific heat is about 0-0333
(see CALORIMETRY) ; its electrical conductivity is involved in
the definition of the ohm (see CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC); and its
thermal conductivity is about two thirds that of silver.
Pure mercury remains unchanged in dry air, oxygen, nitrous
oxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia and some other gases at ordinary
temperatures ; hence its application for collecting and measuring
gases. In damp air it slowly becomes coated with a film of
mercurous oxide; and when heated for some time in air or
oxygen it becomes transformed into the red mercuric oxide,
which decomposes into mercury and oxygen when heated to
a higher temperature; this reaction is of great historical impor-
tance, since it led to the discovery of oxygen at the hands of
Priestley and Scheele. The halogen elements and sulphur
combine directly with the metal. Mercury is unattacked by
dilute sulphuric acid; the strong acid, however, dissolves it on
heating with the formation of sulphur dioxide and mercurous
or mercuric sulphate according as mercury is in excess or not.
Hydrochloric acid has no action. Dilute nitric acid readily
attacks it, mercurous nitrate being formed in the cold with excess
of mercury, mercuric nitrate with excess of acid, or with strong
acid, in the warm. The metal dissolves in solutions containing
chlorine or bromine, and consequently in aqua regia.
Mercury readily dissolves many metals to form a class of com-
pounds termed amalgams, which have considerable applications
in the arts.
Compounds of Mercury.
Mercury forms two well-defined series of salts the mercurous
salts derived from the oxide Hg 2 O, and the mercuric salts from the
oxide HgO ; the existence of these salts can hardly be inseparably
connected with a variable valency, i.e. that mercury is monovalent
in mercurous, and divalent in mercuric compounds, for according to
Baker mercurous chloride or calomel (q.v.) has the formula HgjCU-
Mercurous Oxide, Hg 2 O, is an unstable dark-brown powder formed
when caustic potash acts on calomel ; it is decomposed by light or
on trituration into mercury and mercuric oxide Mercuric oxide,
HgO, occurs in two forms: it is obtained as a bright-red crystalline
powder (also known as " red precipitate," or as mercurius praecipi-
tatus per se) by heating the metal in air, or by calcining the nitrate,
and as an orange-yellow powder by precipitating a solution of a
mercuric salt with potash ; the difference is probably one of subdivi-
sion. The yellow form is the most reactive and is transformed into
the red when heated to 400. If the red oxide be heated it becomes
black, regaining its colour on cooling, and on further heating to 630
it decomposes into mercury and oxygen. It is slightly soluble
in water, to which it imparts an alkaline reaction and strongly
metallic taste. A peroxide is obtained as a brown solid from mercury
and slightly acid 30 % hydrogen peroxide at low temperatures.
Mercurous and mercuric chlorides, known respectively as calomel
(q.v.) and corrosive sublimate (g.i>.), are two of the most important
salts of mercury. Mercurous bromide, Hg 2 Br 2 , is a yellowish-white
powder, insoluble in water. Mercuric bromide, HgBr 2 , forms white
crystals, sparingly soluble in cold water, readily in hot, and prepared
by the direct union of its components. Mercurous iodide, Hgj^, is
a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating its components to
about 250, or by triturating them with a little alcohol; it is also
obtained by precipitating a solution of mercurous nitrate with
potassium iodide. It is blackened by exposure to light. Mercuric
iodide, HgI 2 , exists in two crystalline forms. By mixing solutions
of mercuric chloride and potassium iodide under a microscope,
yellow rhombic plates are seen to be formed which are transformed
very quickly into scarlet quadratic octahedra. On heating to about
126 the red form is transformed into the yellow modification; on
cooling the reverse gradualjy occurs, and immediately if the yellow
iodide be topched. Mercuric iodide is insoluble in water, but soluble
in absolute alcohol ; and also in potassium iodide solution, with the
formation of K 2 Hgl4, which may be obtained in lemon-yellow crystals.
A strongly alkaline solution of this salt is known as Nessler's reagent,
and is specially used for determining traces of ammonia (see below).
Mercuric iodide dissolves in other iodide solutions to form similar
compounds; these solutions are characterized by their exceptionally
high specific gravity, and hence are employed in density deter-
minations (see DENSITY). It also forms many other double salts.
Oxidation with strong nitric acid gives the iodate, Hg(IOj)2. An
iodide, HgJs, intermediate between mercurous and mercuric iodides,
is obtained as a yellow insoluble powder by precipitating mercurous
nitrate with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide. Mercurous
fluoride, Hg 2 F 2 , and mercuric fluoride, HgF 2 , are unstable substances
obtained from the corresponding oxide and hydrofluoric acid.
Mercurous Nitrate, Hg 2 (NOa) 2 . 2H 2 O, is obtained as a white
crystalline salt soluble in water by dissolving the metal in cold dilute
nitric acid ; if the metal be in excess a basic salt Hg 2 (NO3)s . 2HG 2 O.
3H 2 O is obtained. Several other basic salts are known. By adding
ammonia to a solution of mercurous nitrate a black precipitate of
variable composition, known in pharmacy as mercurius solubilis
Hahnemanni, is obtained.
Mercuric Nitrate. By dissolving mercuric oxide in strong nitric
acid there is obtained a thick liquid which will not crystallize, and
which gives on the addition of strong nitric acid a white precipitate
of 2Hg(NO3) 2 . H 2 O. Water decomposes it to give basic salts of
variable composition. By dissolving the oxide in dilute nitric acid,
the basic salt Hg(NO 3 ) 2 . HgO . H a O, crystallizing in needles, is
obtained.
Mercurous Sulphide, Hg 2 S, is an unstable black powder obtained
by acting with sulphuretted hydrogen, diluted with carbon dioxide,
on calomel at -10. It decomposes into mercuric sulphide and
mercury at o. Mercuric sulphide, HgS, is one of the most important
i 5 8
MERCURY
mercury compounds; it is the principal ore, occurring in nature as
the mineral cinnabar (q.v.), and is extensively used as a pigment,
vermilion (q.v.). It is obtained as a black powder by triturating
mercury with sulphur, the compound thus formed being known in
pharmacy as Aethiops mineralis, and also by precipitating a
mercuric salt with sulphuretted hydrogen. It is only slightly
acted upon by nitric acid; it dissolves in aqua regia; chlorine
gives a yellow compound, aHgS . HgCU; and it dissolves in
potassium sulphide solutions to form double salts of variable
composition.
Mercurous Sulphate, Hg 2 SO<, is a white, sparingly soluble, crystal-
line substance obtained by adding sodium sulphate to a solution
of mercurous nitrate. Mercuric sulphate, HgSOi, is a white, soluble
salt obtained by dissolving mercury in hot strong sulphuric
acid; on digestion with water, it decomposes into a basic salt
HgSC>4 . zHgO known as turbith or turpeth mineral, and into an
acid salt, HgSO 4 . aSOs.
Mercury Phosphide, HgsPa, is obtained as brilliant red, hexagonal
crystals by heating mercury with phosphorus iodide to 300 and
removing the mercuric iodide simultaneously formed by means of
potassium iodide solution. Mercurous phosphate, HgjPC>4, and
mercuric phosphate, Hgi(PO4)s, are obtained as white precipitates
by adding sodium phosphate to solutions of mercurous and mercuric
nitrates respectively.
Mercurammonium Compounds. By the action of ammonia and
ammonium salts mercury compounds yield a number of substances,
many of which have long been used in medicine. By the action
of dry ammonia on calomel mercuroso-ammonium chloride,
NH 3 HgCl, is obtained; aqueous ammonia on calomel gives di-
mercuroso-ammonium chloride, NH 2 Hg 2 Cl. By adding ammonia
to a solution of mercuric chloride, mercurammonium chloride,
known in pharmacy as " infusible white precipitate," NH 2 HgCl,
is obtained; " fusible white precipitate " is mercuro-diammpmum
chloride, Hg(NHsCl) 2 , and is obtained by adding a solution of
mercuric chloride to hot solutions of ammonium chloride and
ammonia so long as the precipitate first formed redissolves; the
substance separates out on cooling. By precipitating a strongly
alkaline solution of mercuric iodide in potassium iodide (Nessler's
solution) there is obtained a yellow precipitate of NH 2 Hg 2 OI ; this
reaction is the most delicate test for ammonia, a yellow coloration
being given by minute traces. By passing dry ammonia over pre-
cipitated mercuric oxide at 130, a nitride N 2 Hg3 is obtained. The
oxide and ammonia solution gives the stable and basic mercur-
hydroxylamine, NHg 2 OH. The constitution of these compounds
has been especially studied by K. A. Hofmann and E. C. Marburg
(Zeit. Anore. Chem. 23, p. 126); these chemists formulate " infusible
precipitate as Hg(NH 2 )Cl, " fusible precipitate " as Hg(NH s Cl) 2
" Millon's base" as (HO . Hg) 2 :NH 2 OH, thus postulating three
distinct types of compounds, (i) amidochlorides ; (2) amines; (3)
substituted ammonium derivatives.
j4na/y.m. Mercury compounds, when heated in a closed tube
with sodium carbonate, yield a grey to black sublimate of metallic
mercury, which readily unites to form visible globules. The metal
is precipitated from solutions by digestion with bright copper-foil,
a coating being formed on the copper, which becomes silvery on
rubbing, and disappears when the quicksilvered copper is heated
in a sublimation tube.
Solutions of mercurous salts with hydrochloric acid give a white
precipitate of calomel, which becomes jet-black on treatment with
ammonia. Stannous chloride, in its twofold capacity as a chloride
and a reducing agent, precipitates both mercurous and mercuric
solutions, at first as calomel, and on addition of an excess of reagent
the precipitate becomes grey through conversion into finely-divided
quicksilver. Sulphuretted hydrogen, when added very gradually
to an acid mercuric solution, gives at first an almost white pre-
cipitate, which, on addition of more and more reagent, assumes
successively a yellow, orange and at last jet-black colour. The
black precipitate is HgS, which is identified by its great heaviness,
and by being insoluble in boiling nitric and in boiling hydrochloric
acid. A mixture of the two (aqua regia) dissolves it as chloride.
" Mercurous " mercury is quantitatively estimated by precipitat-
ing as calomel and weighing the precipitate on a tared filter at 100.
The metal may also be estimated by distillation in a closed tube with
lime, the metal being collected and weighed, or by precipitating
the solution with an excess of stannous chloride. More convenient
is the method of precipitating as sulphide by an excess of sulphuretted
hydrogen, and weighing the precipitate on a tared filter; or by means
of a Gooch crucible.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics
The use of mercury as a therapeutic agent is of comparatively
recent date. To the Greeks and Romans its value was unknown,
and the Arabian physicians only used it for skin affections. It
was not till the middle of the i6th century that the special pro-
perties of mercury were fully appreciated, but since that time
the metal has continued to hold a high though fluctuating value
as a medicine. At first the metal in a finely divided state or in
vapour was used; but very soon its various compounds were
found to be endowed with powers even greater than those of
the metal itself, and with the discovery of new compounds the
number of mercurial medicines has largely increased.
The British Pharmacopeia contains some twenty-five mercurial
preparations, including those of calomel (q.v.). Only the useful
preparations will be mentioned here. Free mercury is contained
in Hydrargyrum cum Creta, or " grey powder," which consists of
one part of mercury to two of prepared chalk. The power of this
valuable and widely used preparation varies somewhat with its age,
as old specimens contain some mercuric oxide, which makes them
more active. The dose is 1-5 gr., and the preparation is usually
employed for children. The Pilula Hydrargyri, or " blue pill, '
contains one part of mercury in three, and the dose is 4-8 gr. It
is usually employed for adults. There are also five preparations
of free mercury for external use. Of these the most useful is the
Unguentum Hydrargyri, " or blue ointment," which contains one
part of mercury in two. Weaker ointments are also prepared from
the red and the yellow forms of mercuric oxide. The perchloride
of mercury or corrosive sublimate is therapeutically the most im-
portant salt of mercury. The dose is s"z-A gr. It is incompatible
with alkalies, alkaline carbonates, potassium iodide, albumen and
many other substances, and should therefore be prescribed alone.
It is decomposed by impure water, and distilled water is therefore
used in making the Liquor Hydrargyri Perchloridi, in which form
it is usually prescribed. This contains half a grain of the perchloride
to the fluid ounce and its dose is 30-60 minims. The perchloride
is also compounded with lime-water to form the Lotio Hydrargyri
Flava, or yellow wash," which contains two grains of the salt
to the fluid ounce. Mercuric iodide is an equally potent salt and
has come into wide use of late years. It has the same dose as
the perchloride and is largely prescribed in the Liquor Arsenii et
Hydrargyri lodidi, or Donovan's solution, which contains I % of
arsenious iodide and I % of mercuric iodide, the dose being 5-20
minims. An ointment widely used is prepared from the mercur-
ammonium chloride (Unguentum Hydrargyri ammoniatum) of which
it contains one part in ten. It is known as " white precipitate
ointment."
In discussing the pharmacology of mercury and its compounds,
it is of the first importance to observe that metallic mercury is inert
as such, and that the same may practically be said of mercurous
salts generally. Both mercury itself and mercurous salts tend to
be converted in the body into mercuric salts, to which the action
is due. When metallic mercury is triturated or exposed to air it
is partly oxidized, the first stage of its transformation to an active
condition being thus reached.
Metallic mercury can be absorbed by the skin, passing in minute
globules through the ducts of the sweat-glands. The mercury
contained in " blue ointment " is certainly thus absorbed, actually
circulating in the blood in a very different form, as described below.
There is no local action on the skin. The mercuric salts, and espe-
cially the chloride and iodide, are probably the most powerful of all
known antiseptics. One part of the perchloride in 500,000 will
prevent the growth of anthrax bacilli, and one part in 2000 the
strength commonly employed in surgery kills all known bacteria.
The action is apparently specific and not due to the fact that per-
chloride of mercury precipitates albumen, including the albuminous
bodies of bacteria, for the iodide is still more powerful as a germicide,
though it does not coagulate albumen. These salts cannot be
employed for sterilizing metallic instruments, which they tarnish.
As these drugs are essentially poisons they must be used with the
greatest care in surgical practice, and as they are particularly dele-
terious to the secreting structure of the kidney they must not be
employed as antiseptics in diseases where renal inflammation is
already present or probable. They are therefore contra-indicated
for application to the throat in scarlet-fever or to the uterus in
eclampsia. The stronger mercurial ointments kill cutaneous para-
sites and also possess some degree of antipruritic action, especially
when the cause of the itching is somewhat obscure. Mercuric
salts, when in strong solution, are caustic. It is important to observe
that the volatility of metallic mercury and many of its compounds
causes their absorption by the lungs even when no such effect is
intended to follow their external application. This fact explains
the occurrence of chronic mercurial poisoning in certain trades.
Single doses of mercury or its compounds have no action upon
the mouth, the characteristic salivation being produced only after
many doses. Their typical actionbn the bowel is purgative, the effect
varying with the state of the mercury. So relatively inert is metallic
mercury that a pound of it has been given without ill effects in
cases of intestinal obstruction, which it was hoped to relieve by the
mere weight of the metal. Half a grain of the perchloride, on the
other hand, is a highly toxic dose. The action of mercurials on the
bowel is mostly exerted on the duodenum and jejunum, though
the lower part of the bowel is slightly affected. Hence a dose of
mercury usually needs a saline aperient to complete its action, as
in the blue pill and black draught " of former days. Mercurials
do not cause, in therapeutic doses, much increase in the intestinal
secretion, the action being mainly exerted on the muscular wall of
the bowel. The bile is rapidly removed from the duodenum,
before any re-absorption can occur, and the bacterial action which
MERCY, F. MERCY-ARGENTEAU
decomposes the bile-pigment is arrested by the antiseptic power of the
drug, so that the excreta are of a very dark colour. The classical
experiments of William Rutherford (1839-1899), of Edinburgh,
showed that calomel does not increase the amount of bile formed
by the liver. Corrosive sublimate does, however, stimulate the
liver to a slight degree. The value of calomel in hepatic torpor is
as an excretory, not a secretory, cholagogue, the gall-bladder being
stimulated to expel its stagnant contents. In large doses mercurials
somewhat diminish the secretion of bile. The greater part of the
mercury administered by the mouth, in whatever form, is excreted
as mercuric sulphide. Prior to this decomposition the mercury
exists as a complex soluble compound with sodium, chlorine and
albumen. When perchloride of mercury is injected subcutaneously
the sodium chloride in the blood similarly prevents the precipitation
of the albuminate of mercury, and it is therefore desirable to add a
little sodium chloride to the solution for injection of mercuric chloride.
Some observers assert that mercury is a haematinic, increasing,
like iron, the amount of haemoglobin in the blood. Whilst this is
doubtful it is certain that large doses, when continued, produce
marked anaemia. The excretion of the drug is accomplished by all
the secreting glands, including the breasts, if these are functioning.
All the secretions of the body, except that of the peptic glands of
the stomach, are stimulated, but the excretion of mercury is slow,
and it is typically one of the drugs that are cumulative, like arsenic
and digitalis.
Mercury is largely used in affections of the alimentary canal, and
has an obscure but unquestionable value in many cases of heart-
disease and arterial degeneration. But its value in syphilis (see
VENEREAL DISEASES) far outweighs all its other uses.
Toxicology. Acute poisoning by mercurials usually occurs in the
case of corrosive sublimate. There is intense gastro-intestinal
inflammation, with vomiting, frequent " rice-water " stools and
extreme collapse. The treatment, except when the case is seen
at once, is very difficult, but white-of-egg or other form of albumen
is the antidote, forming an insoluble compound with the perchloride.
Chronic poisoning (hydrargyrism or mercurialism) is of great
importance, since any indication of its symptoms must be closely
watched for in patients who are under mercurial treatment. Usually
the first symptom is slight tenderness of the teeth whilst eating, and
some foetor of the breath. These symptoms become more marked
and the gums become the seat of severe inflammation, being spongy,
vascular and prone to bleed. The salivary glands are swollen and
tender, and the saliva pours from the mouth, and may amount to
pints in the course of a day. The teeth become quite loose and may
fall out. The symptoms are aggravated until the tongue and mouth
ulcerate, the jaw-bone necroses, haemorrhages occur in various
parts of the body, and the patient dies of anaemia, septic inflamma-
tion or exhaustion. The treatment consists, besides stopping the
intake of poison and relieving the symptoms, in the administration
of potassium iodide in small, often repeated doses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the history of mercury see B. Neumann,
Die Metalle (1904); A. Rossing, Geschichte der Metatte (1901). The
general chemistry is treated in detail in O. Dammer, Handbuch der
anorganischen Chemie, and H. Moissan, Traite de chimie minerale.
For the metallurgy reference may be made to Carl Schnabel, Hand-
book of Metallurgy, vol. ii. (1906), translated by H. Louis.
MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON, lord of Mandre
and Collenburg (d. 1645), German general in the Thirty Years'
War, who came of a noble family of Lorraine, was born at
Longwy between 1590 and 1598. From 1606 to 1630 he was
engaged in the imperial service. By the latter year he had
attained high military rank, and after distinguishing himself at
the first battle of Breitenfeld (1631) he commanded a regiment
of foot on the Rhine and defended Rheinfelden against the
Swedes with the utmost bravery, surrendering only after endur-
ing a five-months' siege. He now became a general officer of
cavalry (General-Feldwachtmeister), and in 1635, 1636 and 1637
took part in further campaigns on the Rhine and Doubs. In
September 1638 he was made master-general of ordnance in
the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army in Germany.
In the next campaign he was practically commander-in-chief of
the Bavarians, and at times also of an allied army of Imperialists
and Bavarians. He was now considered one of the foremost
soldiers in Europe, and was made general field marshal in 1643,
when he won his great victory over the French marshal Rantzau
at Tuttlingen (Nov. 24-25), capturing the marshal and seven
thousand men. In the following year Mercy opposed the French
armies, now under the duke of Enghien (afterwards the great
Conde) and the vicomte de Turenne. He fought, and in the end
lost, the desperate battle of Freiburg, but revenged himself next
year by inflicting upon Turenne the defeat of Mergentheim
(Marienthal). Laterin 1645, fighting once more against Enghien
and Turenne, Mercy was killed at the battle of Nordlingen (or
Allerheim) at the crisis of the engagement, which, even without
Mercy's guiding hand, was almost a drawn battle. He died on
the 3rd of August 1645. On the spot where he fell, Enghien
erected a memorial, with the inscription Sta viator, heroem calcas.
His grandnephew CLAUDIUS FLORIMOND, COUNT MERCY DE
VILLETS ^1666-1734), Imperial field marshal, son of his brother
Kaspar, who fell at Freiburg, was born in Lorraine, and entered
the Austrian army as a volunteer in 1682. He won his com-
mission at the great battle of Vienna in the following year; and
during seven years of campaigning in Hungary rose to the rank
of Rittmeister. A wound sustained at this time permanently
injured his sight. For five years more, up to 1697, he was
employed in the Italian campaigns, then he was called back to
Hungary by Prince Eugene and won on the field of Zenta two
grades of promotion. He displayed great daring in the first
campaigns of the Spanish Succession War in Italy, twice fell
into the hands of the enemy in fights at close quarters and
for his conduct at the surprise of Cremona (Jan. 31, 1702)
received the emperor's thanks and the proprietary colonelcy of
a newly raised cuirassier regiment. With this he took part in
the Rhine campaign of 1703, and the battle of Friedlingen, and
his success as an intrepid leader of raids and forays became well
known to friend and foe. He was on that account selected early
in 1704 to harry the elector of Bavaria's dominions. He was
soon afterwards promoted General-Fddwachtmeister, in which
rani he was engaged in the battle of the Schellenberg (July 2,
1704). In the rest of the war he was often distinguished by
his fiery courage. He rose to be general of cavalry in the course
of these ten years. His resolute leadership was conspicuous at
the battle of Peterwardein (1716) and he was soon afterwards
made commander of the Banat of Temesvar. At the great
battle of Belgrade (1717) he led the second line of left wing
cavalry in a brilliant and decisive charge which drove the Turks
to their trenches. After the peace he resumed the administra-
tion of the Banat, which after more than 150 years of Turkish
rule needed a humane and capable governor. But before his
work was done he was once more called away to a command in
the field, this time in southern Italy, where he fought the battle
of Francavilla (June 20, 1719), took Messina and besieged
Palermo. For eleven years more he administered the Banat,
reorganizing the country as a prosperous and civilized com-
munity. In 1734 he was made a general field marshal in the
army, but on the 29th of June was killed at the battle of Parma
while personally leading his troops. He left no children, and
his name passed to Count Argenteau, from whom came the
family of Mercy- Argenteau (see below).
MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward),
compassion, pardon, pity or forgiveness. The Latin word was
used in the early Christian ages for the reward that is given in
heaven to those who have shown kindness without hope' of
return. The French word, except in such phrases as Dieu merci,
sans merci, is principally used in the sense of " thanks," and is
seen in the old English expression " gramercy," i.e. grant merci,
great, many thanks, which Johnson took for " grant me mercy."
In the medieval Church there were seven " corporal " and seven
" spiritual works of mercy " (opera misericordiae) ; these were
(a) the giving of food to the hungry and drink to the thirsty,
the clothing of the naked, the visitation of the sick and of
prisoners, the receiving of strangers, and the burial of the dead;
(b) the conversion of sinners, teaching of the ignorant, giving of
counsel to the doubtful, forgiveness of injuries, patience under
wrong, prayer for the living and for the dead. The order of
the Sisters of Mercy is a religious sisterhood of the Roman Church.
It is found chiefly in England and Ireland, but there are branches
in the United States of America, in South America and in Aus-
tralia and New Zealand. It was founded in 1827 in Dublin by
Miss Catherine McAuley (1787-1841). The object was to per-
form the corporal and spiritual works of mercy.
MERCY-ARGENTEAU, FLORIMOND CLAUDE, COMTE DE
(1727-1794), Austrian diplomatist, son of Antoine, comte de
Mercy-Argenteau, entered the diplomatic service of Austria,
going to Paris in the train of Prince Kaunitz. He became
i6o
MERE MEREDITH
Austrian minister at Turin, at St Petersburg, and in 1766 at
Paris, where his first work was to strengthen the alliance between
France and Austria, which was cemented in 1770 by the marriage
of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., with Marie Antoinette,
daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. When four years later
Louis and Marie Antoinette ascended the throne, Mercy-Argen-
teau became one of the most powerful personages at the French
court. He was in Paris during the turbulent years which
heralded the Revolution, and his powerful aid was given first to
Lom6nie de Brienne, and then to Necker. In 1792 he became
governor-general of the Belgian provinces, which had just been
reduced to obedience by Austria, and here his ability and experi-
ence made him a very successful ruler. Although at first in
favour of moderate courses, Mercy-Argenteau supported the
action of Austria in making war upon his former ally after the
outbreak of the Revolution, and in July 1794 he was appointed
Austrian ambassador to Great Britain, but he died a few days
after his arrival in London.
See T. Juste, Le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau (Brussels 1863); A.
von Arneth and A. Geoffrey, Correspondances secretes de Marie
Therlse avec le comte de Mercy (Paris 1874); and A. von Arneth and
J. Flammermont, Correspondence secrete de Mercy avec Joseph II.
el Kaunitz (Paris 1889-1891). Mercy-Argenteau's Correspondances
secretes de Marie Therese has been condensed and translated into
English by Lilian Smythe under the title of A Guardian of Marie
Antoinette (2 vols., London 1902).
MERE. i. (From Lat. merus, pure, unmixed; O. Fr. mier),
an adjective primarily indicating something pure and unmixed;
thus " mere wine " implied pure and unadulterated wine, as
" mere folly " expressed folly pure and simple. Modern usage
has, however, given both to the adjective " mere " and the
adverb " merely " a deprecatory and disparaging idea, so that
expressions like " the mere truth," a " mere statement of fact,"
&c., often convey the impression that they are far from being
" mere " in the sense of " entire " or " absolute," but are, on the
contrary, fragmentary and incomplete. The earlier idea of the
word is retained in some legal phrases, especially in the phrase
" mere motion,'' that is, of one's own initiative without help or
suggestion from the outside. Another legal phrase is " mere
right" (law Latin jus merum), i.e. right without possession.
2. A word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic
and other languages ; cf. Dutch and Ger. M eer. From the cognate
Lat. mare are derived the Romanic forms, e.g. Fr. mer, Span, mar,
&c.; the word appears also in the derivative "marsh" for
" marish "; the ultimate origin has been taken to be an Indo-
European root, meaning " to die," i.e. to lie waste; cf. Sansk.
maru, desert), an arm of the sea or estuary; also the name
given to lakes, pools and shallow stretches of water inland.
In the Fen countries a mere signifies a marsh or a district
nearly always under water.
3.' (Derived from an O. Eng. source, maere, a wall or
boundary; cognate with Lat. murus, a wall), a landmark or
boundary, also an object indicating the extent of a property
without actually enclosing it. A special meaning is that of a
road, which forms a dividing line between two places. A
" meresman " is an official appointed by parochial authorities
to ascertain the exact boundaries of a parish and to report
upon the condition of the roads, bridges, waterways, &c.,
within them. In the mining districts of Derbyshire a mere is a
certain measurement of land in which lead-ore is found.
MEREDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909), British novelist and
poet, was born at Portsmouth, Hampshire, on the I2th of Feb-
ruary 1828; the parish church register records his baptism
on the gth of April. About his early life few details are recorded,
but there is a good deal of quasi-autobiography, derived appar-
ently from early associations and possibly antipathies, in some
of his own novels, notably Evan Harrington and Harry Rich-
mond, as to which the judicious may speculate. He had, as he
used to boast, both Welsh (from his father) and Irish blood
(from his mother) in his veins. His father, Augustus Armstrong
Meredith, was a naval outfitter at Portsmouth (mentioned as
such in Marryat's Peter Simple); and his grandfather, Mel-
chisedek Meredith, clearly suggested the " Old Mel " of Evan
Harrington. Melchisedek was 35 when in 1796 he was initiated as
a freemason at Portsmouth ; and he appears to have been known
locally as "the count," because of a romantic story as 'to an
adventure he once had at Bath; he was churchwarden in 1801 and
1804; and some of the church plate still bears his name.
Meredith's mother died when he was three years old, and
he was made a ward in chancery. He was sent to school at
Neuwied on the Rhine, and remained in Germany till he was
sixteen. During these impressionable years he imbibed a good
deal of the German spirit; and German influence, especially
through the media of poetry and music, can often be traced in
the cast of his thought and sentiment, as well as in some of the
intricacies of his literary style. Returning to England he was
at first articled to a solicitor in London, but he had little inclina-
tion for the law, and soon abandoned it for the more congenial
sphere of letters, of which he had become an eager student. At
the age of twenty-one he began to contribute poetry to the maga-
zines, and he eked out a livelihood for some years by journalism,
for the Daily News and other London papers, and for the Ipswich
Journal, for which he wrote leaders; a certain number of his
more characteristic fugitive writings are collected in the memo-
rial edition of his works (1910). In London he became one of
the leading spirits in the group of young philosophical and
positivistic Radicals, among whom were John (afterwards Lord)
Morley, Frederic Harrison, Cotter Morison and Admiral Maxse.
But during the years when he was producing his finest novels
he was practically unknown to the public. In 1849 he married
Mrs Nicholls, daughter of Thomas Love Peacock, the novelist,
a widow, eight years his senior, whose husband had been acciden-
tally drowned a few months after her first marriage (1844),
and who had one child, a daughter; but their married life was
broken by separation; she died in 1861, and in 1864 Meredith
married Miss Vulliamy, by whom he had a son and daughter.
His second wife died in 1885. Up to that time there is little to
record in the incidents of his life; he had not been " discovered "
except by an " honourable minority " of readers and critics.
It must suffice to note that during the Austro-Italian War of
1866 he acted as special correspondent for the Morning Post;
and though he saw no actual fighting, he enjoyed, particularly at
Venice, opportunities for a study of the Italian people which he
turned to account in several of his novels. Towards the close
of 1867, when his friend John Morley paid a visit to America,
Meredith undertook in his absence the editorship of the Fort-
nightly Review for Messrs Chapman & Hall. They were not only
the publishers of his books, but he acted for many years as their
literary adviser, in which capacity he left a reputation for being
not only eminently wise in his selection of the books to be
published, but both critical and encouraging to authors of
promise whose works he found himself obliged to reject. Thomas
Hardy and George Gissing were among those who expressed
their grateful sense of his assistance. He was indeed one of the
last of the old school of " publishers' readers." In his early
married life he lived near Weybridge, and later at Copsham
between Esher and Leatherhead, while soon after his second
marriage he settled at Flint Cottage, Mickleham, near Dorking,
where he remained for the rest of his life.
Meredith's first appearance in print was in the character
of a poet, and his first published poem " Chillian Wallah,"
may be found in Chambers's Journal for the 7th of July 1849. Two
years later he put forth a small volume of Poems (1851), which
was at least fortunate in eliciting the praise of two judges
whose opinion was of the first importance to a beginner. Tenny-
son was at once struck by the individual flavour of the verse,
and declared of one poem, " Love in the Valley," that he could
not get the lines out of his head. Charles Kingsley's eulogy
was at once more public and more particular. In Eraser's
Magazine he subjected the volume to careful consideration,
praising it for richness and quaintness of tone that reminded
him of Herrick, for completeness and coherence in each separate
poem, and for the animating sweetness and health of the general
atmosphere. At the same time he censured the laxity of
rhythm, the occasional lack of polish, and the tendency to
MEREDITH
161
overload the description with objective details to the con-
fusion of the principal effect. No doubt as a result of Kingsley's
introduction, two poems by Meredith appeared in Fraser's
Magazine shortly afterwards; but with the exception of these,
and a sonnet in the Leader, he did not publish anything for
the next five years. In the meanwhile he was busy upon his
first essay in prose fiction. It was early in 1856 that the Shaving
of Shagpat, a work of singular imagination, humour and romance,
made its appearance. Modelled upon the stories of the Arabian
Nights, it catches with wonderful ardour the magical atmosphere
of Orientalism, and in this genre it remains a unique triumph
in modern letters. Though unappreciated by the multitude,
its genius was at once recognized by such contemporaries as
George Eliot and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the latter of whom was
one of Meredith's intimate friends. For his next story it occurred
to Meredith to turn his familiarity with the life and legendary
tradition of the Rhinelander into a sort of imitation of the
grotesquerie of the German romanticists, and in 1857 he put
forth Farina, a Legend of Cologne, which sought to transfer
to English sympathies the spirit of German romance in the
same way that Shagpat had handled Oriental fairy-lore. The
result was less successful. The plot of Farina lacks fibre, its
motive is insufficient, and the diverse elements of humour,
serious narrative, and romance scarcely stand in proportion
to one another. But the Ordeal of Richard Feverel, which
followed in 1859, transferred Meredith at once to a new sphere
and to the altitude of his accomplishment. With this novel
Meredith deserted the realm of fancy for that of the philosophical
and psychological study of human nature, and Richard Feverel
was the first, as it is perhaps the favourite, of those wonderful
studies of motive and action which placed him among the
demigods of English literature. The essential theme of this
fine criticism of life is the question of a boy's education. It
depicts the abortive attempt of a proud and opinionated father,
hide-bound by theory and precept, to bring up his son to a
perfect state of manhood through a " system " which controls
all his early circumstances and represses many of the natural
and wholesome instincts and impulses of adolescence. The
love scenes in Richard Feverel are gloriously natural and full
of vitality, and the book throughout marked a revolution
in the English treatment of manly passion. Those who have
not read this novel in the original form, with the chapters
which were afterwards omitted, have lost, however, the key
to many passages in the story. In the following year Meredith
contributed to Once a Week, and in 1861 published as a book
the second of his novels of modern life, Evan Harrington, origi-
nally with the sub-title " He Would be a Gentleman " in
allusion to the hero being the son of " Old Mel," the tailor
which contains a richly humorous in its unrevised form,
splendidly farcical plot, with some magnificent studies of
character. Afterwards revised, a certain amount of the farcical
element was cut out, with the result that, considered as comedy,
it has weak spots; but the Countess de Saldar remains a genuine
creation.' A year later he produced his finest volume of poems,
entitled Modern Love, and Poems of the English Roadside,
with Poems and Ballads. An attack upon the dramatic poem
which gives the volume its title appeared in the Spectator,
and is memorable for the fact that Meredith's friend, the poet
Swinburne, with one of his characteristically generous impulses,
replied (Spectator, June 7, 1862) in a spirit of fervent eulogy.
Some of the individual " sonnets " (of sixteen lines) into which
Modern Love is divided are certainly worthy of being ranked with
the most subtle and most intense poetic work of the igth century.
Returning to fiction, Meredith next published Emilia in
England (1864), afterwards renamed Sandra Belloni. His
powerful story Rhoda Fleming (1865) followed soon afterwards.
Vittoria, published in the Fortnightly Review in 1866, and in
book form in 1867, is a sequel to Emilia in England. Four years
later appeared The Adventures of Harry Richmond in the pages
of Cornhill (1870-1871). Its successor was Beauchamp's Career
(Fortnightly Review, 1874-1875), the novel which Meredith usually
described as his own favourite. Its hero's character is supposed
xvra. 6
to have been founded upon that of Admiral Maxse. Sandra
Belloni, Rhoda Fleming, Vittoria and Beauchamp are all master-
pieces of his finest period, rich in incident, character and work-
manship. " The House on the Beach " and " The Case of
General Opie and Lady Camper " (New Quarterly Magazine,
1877) were slight but glittering exercises in comedy; the next
important novel was The Egoist (1879), which shows an increase
in Meredith's twistedness of literary style and is admittedly
hard to read for those who merely want a " story," but which
for concentrated analysis and the real drama of the human spirit
is an astounding production. In an interesting series of lectures
which Meredith delivered at the London Institution in 1877
his main thesis was that a man without a sense of comedy
is dead to the finer issues of the spirit, and the conception
of Sir Willoughby Patterne, the central figure of The Egoist,
is an embodiment of this idea in the flesh. The Tragic Comedians
(1880), the next of Meredith's novels, slighter in texture than
his others, combines the spirits of comedy and tragedy in the
story of the life of Ferdinand Lassalle, the German Socialist.
The appearance of Diana of the Crossways (1885), a brilliant
book, full of his ripest character-drawing, though here and
there tormenting the casual reader by the novelist's mannerisms
of expression, marks an epoch in Meredith's career, since it
was the first of his stories to strike the general public. Its
heroine was popularly identified with Sheridan's granddaughter,
Mrs Norton, and the use made in it of the contemporary story
of that lady's communication to The Times of the cabinet
secret of Peel's conversion to Free Trade had the effect of
producing explicit evidence of its inaccuracy from Lord Dufferin
and others. As a matter of historical fact it was Lord Aberdeen
who himself gave Delane the information, but the popular
acceptance of the other version of the incident gave a factitious
interest to the novel.
Meanwhile further instalments of poems Poems and Lyrics
of the Joy of Earth (1883) had struck anew the full, rich
note of natural realism which is Meredith's chief poetic
characteristic. " The Woods of Westermain," in particular,
has a sense of the mysterious communion of man with nature
unapproached by any English poets save Wordsworth and
Shelley. Ballads ind Poems of Tragic Life (1887) and A
Reading of Earth (1888) gave further evidence of the wealth
of thought and vigour of expression which Meredith brought
to the making of verse. To " the general," no doubt,
Meredith's verse is prohibitive, or nearly so for, after all,
he has written some poems, like " Martin's Puzzle," " The
Old Chartist," and " Juggling Jerry," which anybody can read
with ease. But his most characteristic style in verse is so
concentrated that any one accustomed to " straightforward "
writing, and unwilling to read with the mind rather than with
the eye, must needs, to his loss, be put off. His readers, of
the verse even more than of the prose, must be prepared to
meet him on a common intellectual footing. When once that
is granted, however, the music and magic of such poems as
" Seed-time," " Hard Weather," " The Thrush in February,"
" The South-Wester," " The Lark Ascending," " Love in the
Valley," " Melampus," " A Faith on Trial," are very real,
amid all their occasional obscurities of diction.
Meredith had now completed his sixtieth year, and with his
advancing years the angles of his individuality began to grow
sharper, while the difficulties of his style became accentuated.
The increase in mannerism was marked in One of Our Conquerors
(1891), otherwise a magnificent rendering of a theme full of
both tragedy and comedy, and in the poem of " The Empty
Purse " (1892). Neither Lord Ormont and His Aminta (1894)
nor The Amazing Marriage (1895) reached the level of the
earlier novels, though in the latter he seemed to catch an after-
glow of genius. In 1898 appeared his Odes in Contribution
to the Song of French History, consisting of one ode (" France,
December 1870 ") reprinted from Ballads and Poems (1871),
and three others previously unpublished; a fine example of
his lofty thought, and magnificent if often difficult and
individual diction. In 1901 another volume of verse, A Reading
MEREDITH
of Life, appeared. In later years too he contributed occasional
poems to newspapers and reviews and similar publications,
which were collected after his death (Last Poems. 1910). His
comedy, The Sentimentalists, was performed on the ist of
March 1910; his early but unfinished novel, Celt and Saxon,
was also posthumously published in that summer.
From the early 'nineties onward Meredith's fame had been
firmly established. His own literary contemporaries still living
could join hands with the younger generation of enthusiastic
admirers in insisting on a greatness of which they themselves
had been unable to persuade the public. He was chosen
to succeed Tennyson as president of the Authors' Society;
on his seventieth birthday (1898) he was presented with a
congratulatory address by thirty of the most prominent men
of letters of the day; before he died he had been included by
the king in the Order of Merit; and in various other ways his
position as the chief living English writer had come to be popu-
larly recognized. The critics discussed him; and new editions
of his books (both prose and verse), for which there had long
been but scanty demand, were called for. One of the results
was that Meredith, with very doubtful wisdom, recast some of
his earlier novels; and in the sumptuous " authorized edition "
of 1897 (published by the firm of Constable, of which his son,
William Maxse Meredith, was a member) very large alterations
are made in some of them. In fact, a reader who compares
the first and last editions either of Richard Feverel or Evan
Harrington will notice changes little short of revolutionary.
Even in the previously current editions of 1878 onwards, pub-
lished by Chapman & Hall, Richard Feverel had been consider-
ably, shortened as compared with the original three-volume
edition; but it was now robbed again of some of its best-known
passages. It is no doubt competent to an author himself to
revise his earlier published work even to the extent to which
Meredith in the 1897 edition revised these novels; but certainly
it is not necessary to accept his judgment when this involves
the excision in old age of some of the most virile passages of
books that were written in the full glow <tnd vigour of his prime.
In Constable's memorial edition (1910) of his complete works
the excisions were published separately, and are therefore on
record for those to consult who care. But the wise will read
Richard Feverel and Evan Harrington in the original versions.
Meredith's literary quality must always be considered in
the light of the Celtic side of his temperament and the peculiar-
ities of his menial equipment. His nature was intuitive rather
than ratiocinative; his mental processes were abrupt and far-
reaching; and the suppression of connecting associations fre-
quently gives his language, as it gave Browning's, but even
to a greater extent, the air of an impenetrably nebulous
obscurity. This criticism applies mainly to his verse, but is also
true of his prose in many places, though there is much exaggera-
tion about the difficulties of his novels. When once, however,
his manner has been properly understood, it is seen to be insepar-
able from his method of intellection, and to add to the narrative
of description both vividness of delineation and intensity of
realization. The essential respect in which Meredith's method
of describing action and emotion in narrative differs from that
of convention is that, while the ordinary method is to relate
what happens from the point of view of the onlooker, Meredith
frequently describes it from the point of emotion of the actor;
and his influence in this direction has largely modified the art
of fiction. ' Herein lies the secret of the peculiar brilliancy of
his style, derived from his combination of the narrator with
the creator, or in its strict sense the seer. The reader,
by the transference of the interest from the audience to the
stage, is transported into the very soul of the character, and
made to feel as he feels and act as he acts. Moreover, Mere-
dith's instinct for psychology is so intimate, and his sense of
motive and action so true, that the interaction of character
and character directly dominates the sequence of events depicted
in his imaginary world, and discloses the moral idea or criticism
of life, instead of the preconceived " moral " being merely
illustrated by the plot. In building up the minds, actions,
creeds, and tragedies or comedies of his imaginary personalities
amid the selected circumstances, and inspiring them with the
identical motives and educational influences of life itself, Mere-
dith spent an elaboration and profundity of thought and an
originality and vigour of analysis upon his novels which in
explicitness go far beyond what had previously been attempted
in fiction, and which give to his works a philosophical value
of no ordinary kind. Simplicity can scarcely be expected of
his language, for the interplay of ideas is in itself original and
complex, and their interpretation is necessarily original and
complex too. But when Meredith is at his best he is only
involved with the involution of his subject; the aphorisms
that decorate his style are simple when the idea they convey
is simple, elaborate only in its elaboration. Pregnant, vividly
graphic, capable of infinite shades and gradations, his style
is a much finer and subtler instrument than at first appears,
and must be judged finally by what it conveys to the mind,
and not by its superficial sound upon the conventional ear.
It owes something to Jean Paul Richter; something, too, to
Carlyle, with whose methods of narrative and indebtedness to
the apparatus of German metaphysics it has a good deal in
common. To the novelist Richardson, too, a careful reader
will find that Meredith, both in manner and matter (notably
in The Egoist and in Richard Feverel), owes a good deal;
in " Mrs Grandison " in Richard Feverel he even recalls
" Sir Charles Grandison " by name; and nobody can doubt
that Sir Willoughby Patterne, both in idea and often in
expression, was modelled on Richardson's creation. Careful
students of the early 19th-century English novel will find
curious echoes again in Meredith of Bulwer-Lytton's (Baron
Lytton's) literary manner and romantic outlook. 1 But he
was, after all, an originator, and at first suffered in esti-
mation on that score; he wrote in his own way, and what
is most characteristic in Meredith remains individual. Like
all the great masters, he has his own tone of voice, his own
fashion of expressing an idea. Feeling, perception, reflection,
judgment, have equal shares in determining his architectonic
relation to a problem or a situation. He rings changes on the
changing emotions of humanity, but every chime rings true. He
is a literary artist. He takes great themes, not little ones;
the characters in his fiction are personalities, human beings,
neither " heroes " nor " sports "; and he does not descend
to pander to lubricity or cater for the " reading public." His
gallery of portraits of real human women, not dolls, would
alone place him among the few creators in English literature.
It is beyond our scope here to enter into details concerning
the philosophy which represents Meredith's " criticism of life."
Broadly speaking, it is a belief in the Tightness and wholesome-
ness of Nature, when Nature " Sacred Reality " is lovingly
and faithfully and trustfully sought and known by the pure
use of reason. Man must be " obedient to Nature, not her
slave." Mystical as this philosophy occasionally becomes,
it is yet an inspiring one, clean, austere and practical; and it
is always dominated by the categorical imperative of self-know-
ledge and the striving after honesty of purpose and thought.
A strong vein of political Radicalism runs through Meredith's
creed. It is, however, a Radicalism allied to that of the French
philosophes, rather than to the contemporary developments
of British party politics, though in later life he gave his open
support to the Liberal party. In spite of his German upbringing
Meredith was always strongly French in his sympathies, and
his appreciation of French character at its best and at its worst
is finely shown in his Napoleon odes. In the main his politics
may be summed up as a striving after liberty for reason and
conscience and the constant progress of humanity
The cry of the conscience of life;
Keep the young generations in hail,
And bequeath them no tumbled house.
'The fact that Bulwer-Lytton's son, the 1st Earl of Lytton,
Meredith's junior by three years, took the pen-name of " Owen
Meredith," led occasionally to some contusion among uninstructed
contemporaries, and even the suggestion of a family connexion.
MEREJKOVSKY MERGANSER
163
It is part of Meredith's philosophy and this must be remem-
bered in considering his diction that verbal expression is
itself a test of right thought and action. Hence is derived
his passion for verbal analysis. Hence also his impulse towards
and vindication of poetry meaning still " the best words in
the best order "; and hence his own dictum, otherwise perhaps
hard to undiscerning minds, that Song itself is the test by which
truth may be tried. The passage occurs in " The Empty
Purse " a poem which throughout is a careful though mannered
exposition of Meredith's general views on life
Ask of thyself : This furious Yea
Of a speech I thump to repeat,
In the cause I would have prevail,
For seed of a nourishing wheat,
Is it accepted of Song ?
Does it sound to the mind through the ear,
Right sober, pure sane ? has it disciplined.feet ?
Thou wilt find it a test severe;
Unerring whatever the theme.
Rings it for Reason a melody clear,
We have bidden old Chaps retreat,
We have called on Creation to hear;
All forces that make us are one full stream.
Meredith is generally ranked far less high as a poet than
as a novelist. But he can only be understood and appreciated
properly by those who realize that not prose (in the ordinary
sense) but poetry was to him the highest form of expression,
and that only in it could he fully deliver his message, as a
writer who aspired to contribute something more to the common
stock of ideas than could be embodied dramatically in prose
fiction.
On Meredith's 8oth birthday in 1908, the homage of the
English literary world was again paid in an address of con-
gratulation. But his health, which for many years had been
precarious, was now failing. He died at Flint Cottage, Box Hill,
Surrey, on the i8th of May 1909. A strong feeling existed
that he should be buried in Westminster Abbey, and a petition
to that effect, which was approved by the prime minister,
Mr Asquith, was signed by a large number of men of letters.
But this was not to be. A memorial service was held in the
abbey, but Meredith's own remains, after cremation, were
interred at Dorking by the grave of his second wife. He had died
only a brief span after his old friend Swinburne, his affection
for whom had never suffered abatement; and it was felt
that, with them, a great epoch in English literary history
had closed. They were the last of the great Victorians; and
in Meredith went the writer who had raised the creative art of
the novel, as a vehicle of character and constructive philosophy,
to its highest point a point higher indeed than most contem-
porary readers were prepared for. The estimate of his genius
formed by " an honourable minority," who would place him in
the highest class of all, by Shakespeare, has yet to be confirmed
by the wider suffrage of posterity.
A carefully compiled bibliography by John Lane was included in
George Meredith: Some Cliaracteristics, by R. Le Gallienne (1890).
This sympathetic essay in criticism was the first substantial publi-
cation addressed to that stimulation of a wider appreciation of
Meredith which was carried on by several later books, perhaps the
best of which is M. Sturge Henderson's George Meredith: Novelist
Poet, Reformer (1908): but such earlier testimonies to Meredith's
importance as Justin McCarthy's, in his History of Our Own Times,
must not be forgotten. See also J. A. Hammerton, George Mere-
dith in Anecdotes and Criticism (1909). (H. CH.)
MEREJKOVSKY (or MEREZHKOVSKIY), DMITRI SERGYEE-
VICH (1865- ), Russian novelist and critic, was born at
St Petersburg in 1865. His trilogy of historical romances,
collectively entitled Christ and Antichrist, has been translated
into many European languages, notably English and French.
It comprises Smert Bogov (Eng. trans. " The Death of the
Gods," London, 1901), the central figure in which is Julian
the Apostate; Voskresenie Bogi (" The Forerunner," London,
1902), which describes the life and times of Leonardo da Vinci;
and Antikhrist: Petr i Aleksyey (" Peter and Alexis," London,
1905), which is based on the tragic story of the relations between
Peter the Great and his son. The influence of Sienkiewicz
can be traced in many of Merejkovsky's writings, which include
critical studies of Pliny the Younger, Calderon, Montaigne,
Ibsen, Tolstoy (Tolstoy as Man and Artist, London, 1902),
and of Gorki and other Russian writers. Merejkovsky married
Zinaida Nikolaevna, known in Russia for her poems, essays
and short stories written under the pseudonym of Zinaida
Hippius (or Gippius); her collected poems (1889-1903) were
published in Moscow in 1904.
MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647), English divine and author,
was born at Kirton in the Holland division of Lincolnshire
in 1565. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge,
where he graduated B.A. in 1587, and M.A. in 1591. Two
years later he was incorporated M.A. of Oxford. His kinsman,
John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1 596, and appar-
ently helped him hi the early part of his career. In 1602 he
became rector of Whig in Rutland, where he had a school.
He died on the 2gth of January 1647. Meres rendered immense
service to the history of Elizabethan literature by the publication
of his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598). It was one of
a series of volumes of short pithy sayings, the first of which was
Politeuphuia: Wits Commonwealth (1597), compiled by John
Bodenham or by Nicholas Ling, the publisher. The Falladis
Tamia contained moral and critical reflections borrowed from
various sources, and embraced sections on books, on philosophy,
on music and painting, and a famous/' Comparative Discourse
of our Engh'sh poets with the Greeke, Latin, and Italian poets."
This chapter enumerates the Engh'sh poets from Chaucer to
Meres's own day, and in each case a comparison with some
classical author is instituted. The book was issued in 1634
as a school book, and has been partially reprinted in the Ancient
Critical Essays (1811-1815) of Joseph Haslewood, Professor
E. Arber's English Garner, and Gregory Smith's Elizabethan
Critical Essays (1004). A sermon entitled Gods Arithmeticke
(1597), and two translations from the Spanish of Luis de Granada
entitled Granados Devotion and the Sinners Guide (1598) com-
plete the list of his works.
MERGANSER, a word due to C. Gesner (Hist, animalium
iii. 129) in 1555, and for long used in English as the general
name for a group of fish-eating ducks possessing great diving
powers, and forming the genus Mergus of Linnaeus, now regarded
by ornithologists as a'sub-family, Merginae, of the family Anatidae.
The mergansers have a long, narrow bill, with a small but
evident hook at the tip, and the edges of both mandibles beset
by numerous horny denticulations, whence in English the name
of " saw-bill " is frequently applied to them. Otherwise their
structure does not much depart from the Anatine or Fuliguline
type. All the species bear a more or less developed crest or
tuft on the head. Three of them, Mergus merganser or castor,
M. serralor, and M . albellus, are found over the northern parts
of the Old World, and of these the first two also inhabit North
America, which has besides a fourth species, M. cucullatus,
said to have occasionally visited Britain. M. merganser,
commonly known as the goosander, is the largest species, being
nearly as big as the smaller geese, and the adult male in breeding-
attire is a very beautiful bird, conspicuous with his dark glossy-
green head, rich salmon-coloured breast, and the upper part
of the body and wings black and white. This full plumage
is not assumed till the second year, and in the meantime, as
well as in the post-nuptial dress, the male much resembles
the female, having, like her, a reddish-brown head, the upper
parts grey and the lower white. In this condition the bird
is often known as the " dun diver." This species breeds abun-
dantly in many parts of Scandinavia, Russia, Siberia and North
America, and occasionally in Scotland. M . serrator, commonly
called the red-breasted merganser, is a somewhat smaller bird;
and, while the fully-dressed male wants the delicate hue of
the lower parts, he has a gorget of rufous mottled with black,
below which is a patch of white feathers, broadly edged with
black. Both these species have the bill and feet of a bright
reddish-orange, while the much smaller M . albellus, known as
the smew, has these parts of a lead colour, and the breeding
plumage of the adult male is white, with quaint crescentic
markings of black, and the flanks most beautifully verxniculated.
164
MERGENTHEIM MERIAN
M. cucullatus, the hooded merganser of North America, is in
size intermediate between M. albellus and M. senator; the male
is easily recognizable by his broad semicircular crest, bearing
a fanshaped patch of white, and his elongated subscapulars of
white edged with black. The conformation of the trachea
in the male of M. merganser, M, senator and M. cucullatus
is very like that of the ducks of the genus Clangula, but
M. albellus has a less exaggerated development more resembling
that of the ordinary Fuligula. 1 From the southern hemisphere
two species of Mergus have been described, M. octosetaceus or
brasilianus, L. P. Vieillot (N. Diet. d'Hist.naturelle, ed. 2, vol. xiv.
p. 222; Gal. des oiseaux, torn. ii. p. 209, pi. 283), inhabiting
South America, of which but few specimens have been obtained,
having some general resemblance to M . senator, but much more
darkly coloured, and M. australis, Hombron and Jacquemont
(Ann. sc. not. zoologie, ser. 2, vol. xvi. p. 320; Voy. au Pol Sud,
oiseaux, pi. 31, fig. 2), known only by the unique example in
the Paris Museum procured by the French Antarctic expedition
in the Auckland Islands.
Often associated with the mergansers is the genus Merganella,
the so-called torrent-ducks of South America, of which six
species have been described; but they possess spiny tails and
have their wings armed with a spur. These with Hymenolaemus
Malacorhynchus, the blue duck of New Zealand, and Salvadorina
waigiuensis of Waigiou are placed in the sub-family Mergan-
ettinae. (A. N.)
MERGENTHEIM, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, situated in the valley of the Tauber, 7 m. S.
from Lauda by rail. Pop. (1905), 4535. It contains an Evan-
gelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a Latin and other
schools, and a magnificent castle with a natural history collection
and the archives of the Teutonic order. This is now used
as barracks. The industries of the town include tanning, the
manufacture of agricultural machinery and wine-making.
Near the town is a medicinal spring called the Karlsbad.
Mergentheim (Mariae domus) is mentioned in chronicles
as early as 1058, as the residence of the family of the counts
of Hohenlohe, who early in the i3th century assigned the greater
part of their estates in and around Mergentheim to the Teutonic
order. It rapidly increased in fame, and became the most
important of the eleven commanderies of that society. On
the secularization of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in 1525,
Mergentheim became the residence of the grand master, and
remained so until the final dissolution of the order in 1809. '
See Horing, Das Karlsbad bei Mergentheim (Mergentheim, 1887);
and Schmitt, Garnisongeschichte der Stadt Mergentheim (Stuttgart,
1895).
MERGER (Fr. merger, to sink), in law, the sinking or
" drowning " of a lesser estate in a greater, when the two come
together in one and the same person without any intervening
estate. In order to effect a merger the two estates must vest
in the same person at the same time, must be immediately
expectant one on the other, and the expectant estate must be
larger than the preceding estate. The term is also used for the
extinguishment of any right, contract, &c., by absorption in
another, e.g. the acceptance of a higher security for a lower,
or the embodying of a simple contract in a deed.
MERGUI, the southernmost district of Lower Burma, in the
Tenasserim division, bounded on the W. by the Bay of Bengal
and on the E. by Siam. Area 9789 sq. m. Two principal
ranges cross the district from north to south, running almost
Hybrids between, as is presumed, M. albellus and Clangula
glaucion, the common golden-eye, have been described and figured
(Eimbeck, Isis, 1831, 300, tab. iii. ; Brehm, Naturgesch. oiler Vog.
Deutschlands, p. 930; Naumann, Vog. Deutschlands, xii. 194,
frontispiece; Kfjaerbolling, Jour, fur Ornithologie, 1853, Extraheft,
p. 29, Naumannia, 1853, p. 327, Ornithol. danica, tab. lv., suppl.
tab. 29) under the names of Mergus anatarius, Clangula angustirostris,
and Anas (Clangula) mergoides, as though they were a distinct
species; but the remarks of De Selys-Longchamps (Bull. Ac. Sc.
Bruxelles, 1845, pt. ii. p. 354, and 1856, pt. ii. p. 21) leave little
room for doubt as to their origin, which, when the cryptogamic
habit and common range of their putative parents, the former
unknown to the author last-named, is considered, will seem to be
still more likely.
parallel to each other for a considerable distance, with the
Tenasserim river winding between them till it turns south
and flows through a narrow rocky gorge in the westernmost
range to the sea. The whole district, from the water's edge
to the loftiest mountain on the eastern boundary, may be
regarded as almost unbroken forest. The timber trees found
towards the interior, and on, the higher elevations, are of great
size and beauty, the most valuable being teak (Tectona grandis),
then-gan (Hopea odorata), ka-gnyeng (Dipterocarpus laevis), &c.
The coast-line of the district, off which lies an archipelago of
two hundred and seven islands, is much broken, and for several
miles inland is very little raised above sea-level, and is drained
by numerous muddy tidal creeks. Southwards of Mergui
town it consists chiefly of low mangrove swamps alternating
with small fertile rice plains. After passing the mangrove
limits, the ground to the east gradually rises till it becomes
mountainous, even to the banks of the rivers, and finally cul-
minates in the grand natural barrier dividing Burma from
Siam. The four principal rivers are the Tenasserim, Le-nya,
Pakchan and Palauk, the first three being navigable for a
considerable distance. Coal is found on the banks of the
Tenasserim and its tributaries, but is still unworked. Gold,
copper, iron and manganese are also found in various parts
of the district, and there are tin mines at Maliwun, upon which
European methods have been tried without much profit, owing
to the cost of labour.
From the notices of early travellers it appears that Mergui,
when under Siamese rule, before it passed to the Burmese,
was a rich and densely peopled country. On its occupation by
the British in 1824-1825 it was found to be almost depopulated
the result of border warfare and of the cruelties exercised
by the Burmese conquerors. At that time the entire inhabitants
numbered only 10,000. It had a population of 88,744 in 1901,
showing an increase of 20% in the decade and giving a density
of 9 inhabitants to the sq. m. Mergui carries on a flourish-
ing trade with Rangoon, Bassein and the Straits Settlements.
The chief exports consist of rice, rattans, torches, dried fish,
areca-nuts, sesamum seeds, molasses, sea-slugs, edible birds' nests
and tin. The staple imports are piece goods, tobacco, cotton,
earthenware, tea and sugar. The climate is remarkably healthy,
the heat due to its tropical situation being moderated by land
and sea breezes. The rainfall is very heavy and usually exceeds
150 inches.
Mergui town has risen into prominence in recent years as
the centre of the pearling trade in the neighbouring archipelago.
The pearling grounds were practically unknown in 1890, but
in the following decade they produced pearls and mother-of-
peal shell of considerable value. In 1901 the population was
11,987; but the census is taken at a time when many of the
fishermen and their families are away in the islands. There is
a considerable coasting trade with other Burmese ports and
with the Straits Settlements.
MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO, a cluster of islands in the Bay
of Bengal, near the southern coast of Lower Burma. They
are chiefly noted for their picturesque beauty, some of them
rising to 3000 ft. They are only sparsely inhabited by the
island race of Selungs.
MERIAN, MATTHEW (1593-1650), Swiss engraver, was
born in Basel, on the asth of September 1593. The family
came originally from near Delemont, but in his grandfather's
time settled in Basel, where in 1553 it obtained the burghership
of the city. As Matthew early showed signs of artistic tastes,
he was placed (1609) under the care of Dietrich Meyer, a painter
and engraver of Zurich (1572-1658). He went on to Nancy
in 1613, where he already displayed considerable talents as an
engraver on copper. After studying in Paris, Stuttgart (1616)
and the Low Countries, he came to Frankfort, where in 1618
he married the eldest daughter of J. T. de Bry, who was a
publisher and bookseller as well as an engraver. Merian worked
for some time with his father-in-law in Oppenheim, but the
returned to Basel, whence he came back (1624) to Frankfort
after Bry's death (1623), in order to take over his business;
MERIDA MERIDIAN
165
this remained in his family till 1726, when, after a great fire
that destroyed most of the books in stock, it came to an end.
In 1625 Merian became a burgher of Frankfort, then the great
centre of the book trade in Germany, and lived there till his
death on the 22nd of June 1650. Among his many works two
deserve to be specially mentioned. The first is the long series
of works, each entitled Topographia, which contained descrip-
tions of various countries, illustrated by copper plates, largely
done by Merian himself, while the accompanying text was due
to Martin Zeiller (1589-1661), an Austrian by birth. The
first volume was published in 1642 and described Switzerland,
with the Grisons and the Valais; it contains the first known
view of the glaciers of Grindelwald. " Austria " appeared
in 1649, but the volume relating to Upper Saxony and Bohemia
(1650) was the last issued by Merian himself. " France "
appeared in 1655-1656, while in 1688 the series (extending to
30 parts, in 1 8 vols.) came to an end with " Italy," the volume
as to Rome having appeared in 1681. The other great enter-
prise of Merian was the series entitled Theatrum Europaeum,
which appeared in 21 parts between 1635 and 1738 it is a
historical chronicle of events in Europe from 1617 onwards.
In 1625-1630 Merian published a series of illustrations to the
Bible, and in 1649 a Dance of Death. But he is best remembered
by his views of towns, which have very considerable historical
value. His best pupil, Wenceslaus Hollar (1607-1677), of
Prague, settled in London (1635-1643, 1652-1677), and worthily
carried on the Merian tradition. (W. A. B. C.)
See Life, by H. Eckardt (Basel, 1887).
MERIDA, a city of Mexico and capital of the state of Yucatan,
23 m. by rail S. of Progreso, its port on the Gulf of Mexico.
Pop. (1900), 43,630, the Maya element being predominant.
Merida is the centre of an isolated railway system, connected
with the ports of Progreso and Campeche, and having short
lines radiating in all directions to Peto, Valladolid and Izamal.
It stands on a broad, partly open plain near the northern
border of the peninsula, where the thin loose soil covering
a limestone foundation permits the rapid percolation and
evaporation of the rainfall, and therefore supports a compara-
tively scanty vegetation. It is highly favourable to maguey
cultivation, however, and Merida is the centre of the henequen,
or sisal fibre, industry. There is an imposing 16th-century
cathedral facing upon the principal plaza, together with the
government and episcopal palaces. There are also an old
university, with schools of law, medicine and pharmacy, an
episcopal seminary and other educational institutions. The
most interesting building in the city is a Franciscan convent,
dating from 1547, which covers an area of 6 acres and is sur-
rounded by a wall 40 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. It once harboured
no less than 2000 friars, but has been allowed to fall into com-
plete decay since the expulsion of the order in 1820. The
manufactures include straw hats, hammocks, cigars, soap, cotton
fabrics, leather goods, artificial stone, and a peculiar distilled
beverage called estabentun. The exports are henequen, or
sisal fibre, hides, sugar, rum, chicle and indigo all products
of the vicinity. Merida was founded in 1542 by the younger
Francisco de Montejo on the site of a native city called Tihoo, or
Th6, whose stone pyramids furnished building material in abun-
dance for the invaders. It became an episcopal see in 1561.
MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania), a
town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the
right bank of the river Guadiana, 30 m. E. of Badajoz. Pop.
(1900), 11,168. Merida is an important railway junction,
for here the Madrid-Badajoz railway meets the lines from
Seville, Huelva and Caceres. No Spanish town is richer
in Roman antiquities. Most of these are beyond the limits of
modern Merida, which is greatly inferior in area to the ancient
city. Chief among them is the Roman bridge, constructed
of granite under Trajan, or, according to some authorities,
under Augustus, and restored by the Visigoths in 686 and
by Philip III. in 1610. It comprised 81 arches, 17 of which
were destroyed during the siege of Badajoz (1812), and mea-
sured 2575 ft. in length. There are a few remnants of Roman
temples and of the colossal wall which encircled the city,
besides a Roman triumphal arch, commonly called the Arco
de Santiago, and a second Roman bridge, by which the road
to Salamanca was carried across the small river Albarregas
(Alba Regia). The Moorish alcazar or citadel was originally
the chief Roman fort. From the Lago de Proserpina, or Charca
de la Albuera, a large Roman reservoir, 3 m. north, water was
conveyed to Merida by an aqueduct, of which 37 enormous
piers remain standing, with ten arches in three tiers built of
brick and granite. The massive Roman theatre is in good
preservation; there are also a few vestiges of an amphitheatre
and of a circus which measured 485 yds. by 1 20. Other Roman
remains are exhibited in the archaeological museum, and much
Roman masonry is incorporated in the i6th century Mudejar
palace of the dukes of La Roca, the palace of the counts of
Los Corbos, and the convent of Santa Eulalia, which is said
by tradition to mark the spot where St Eulalia was martyred
(c. 3o).
Augusta Emerita was founded in 25 B.C. As the capital
of Lusitania it soon became one of the most splendid cities
in Iberia, and was large enough to contain a garrison of 90,000
men. Under the Visigoths it continued to prosper, and was
made an archbishopric. Its fortifications included five castles
and eighty-four gateways; but after a stubborn resistance
it was stormed by the Moors in 713. Its Moorish governors
frequently, and sometimes successfully, asserted their indepen-
dence, but Merida was never the capital of any large Moorish
state. In 1129 its archbishopric was formally transferred to
Santiago de Compostela, and in 1228, when Alphonso IX. of
Leon expelled the Moors, Merida was entrusted to the order
of Santiago, in whose keeping it soon sank into decadence.
MERIDEN, a city of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
in the township of Meriden, S.W. of the centre of the state,
about 18 m. N.N.E. of New Haven and about the same distance
S.S.W. of Hartford. Pop. of the township, including the city
(1900), 28,695; (i9 10 ). 3 2 >66; of the city (1900), 24,296, of
whom 7 21 5 were foreign-born; (1910), 27,265. Meriden is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an
inter-urban electric line. The city is bisected by Harbor Brook,
a small stream, and through the S.W. part of the township
flows the Quinnipiac river. A short distance N.W. of the city,
in Hubbard Park, an attractive reservation of more than 900
acres, are the Hanging Hills, three elevations (West Mountain,
South Mountain and Cat-Hole Mountain) in a broken range
of trap ridges, which have resisted the erosion that formed the
lowlands of the Connecticut valley; they rise to a height of
about 700 ft. above the sea. In their vicinity, near the boundary
of Berlin township, is Merimere, one of the city's four reservoirs.
Meriden is the seat of the Connecticut School for Boys (Reform-
atory). There are also a public library (1899), a state armoury,
a hospital, the Curtis Home for orphans and aged women,
and a tuberculosis sanitarium supported by the city. Meriden
is one of the most important manufacturing cities of Connecticut,
and in 1905 produced 59-9% of the plated ware manufactured
in the state, and much sterling silver. In 1905 the factory
product was valued at $13,763,548, an increase of 17-1% over
that of 1900. Meriden was originally a part of the township
of Wallingford, but a tract in the northern part of this township
was designated as Merideen by an Indian deed of 1664. It
was made a separate parish under that name in 1728, but did
not become a separate township until 1806. The city was
chartered in 1867.
See G. W. Perkins, Historical Sketches of Meriden (West Meriden,
1849); C. H. S. Davis, History of Wallingford (Meriden, 1870),
and G. M. Curtis and C. Bancroft Gillespie, A Century of Meriden
(Meriden, 1906).
MERIDIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lauderdale county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., about 90 m. E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890),
10,624; (1900), 14,050, of whom 5787 were negroes; (1910
census), 23,285. It is served by the Southern, the Alabama
Great Southern, the Mobile & Ohio, and the New Orleans
& North Eastern and the Alabama & Vicksburg (Queen &
i66
MERIDIAN MERIMEE
Crescent Route) railways. It is the seat of the East Mississippi
Insane Hospital, of the state Masonic Widows and Orphans'
Home and of the Meridian Women's College (noil-sectarian,
opened in 1903), the Meridian Male College (opened in 1901),
and, for negroes, the Lincoln School (Congregational) and
Meridian Academy (Methodist Episcopal). The city is an impor-
tant market for cotton grown in the surrounding country, and
is the principal manufacturing city in the state. Its factory
products, chiefly railway supplies and cotton products, increased
in value from $1,924,465 in 1900 to $3,267,600 in 1905, or
69-8% in five years. Mineral waters (especially lithia) are
bottled in and near the city. Meridian was laid out in 1854
at a proposed railway crossing, and was chartered as a city
in 1860. In February 1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman,
with an army of about 20,000, made an expedition from Vicks-
burg to Meridian, then an important railway centre and dep6t
for Confederate supplies, chiefly for the purpose of making
inoperative the Mobile & Ohio and the Jackson & Selma
railways; on the I4th of the month his army entered Meridian,
and within a week destroyed nearly everything in the city
except the private houses, and tore up over no m. of track.
In the " Meridian riot " of 1871 a prominent episode of recon-
struction when one of several negroes on trial for urging
mob violence had shot the presiding judge, the whites, especially
a party from Alabama interested in the trial, killed a number
of negroes and burned a negro school. On the 2nd of March
1906 a cyclone caused great loss of life and property.
MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the
south or mid-day), in general a direction toward the south or
toward the position of the sun at mid-day. The terrestrial
meridian of a place is the great circle drawn on the earth's
surface from either pole through the place. As determined
astronomically the celestial meridian is the great circle passing
through the celestial pole and the zenith. The terrestrial
meridian as practically determined is the circle on the earth's
surface in which the plane of the celestial meridian cuts that
surface. Owing to local deviations of the plumb-line the
meridian thus determined does not strictly coincide with the
terrestrial meridian as ordinarily denned, but the deviation,
though perceptible in mountainous regions, is so minute that it
is generally ignored.
MERIMEE, PROSPER (1803-1870), French novelist, archaeo-
logist, essayist, and in all these capacities one of the greatest
masters of French style during the igth century, was born at
Paris on the 28th of September 1803. His grandfather, of
Norman abstraction, had been a lawyer and steward to the
marechal de Broglie. His father, Jean Francois Leonor Merimee
(1757-1836), was a painter of repute. Merimee had English
blood in his veins on the mother's side, and had English pro-
clivities in many ways. He was educated for the bar, but entered
the public service instead. A young man at the time of the
Romantic movement, he felt its influence strongly, though
his peculiar temperament prevented him from joining any of
the c&teries of the period. Nothing was more prominent
among the romantics than the fancy, as Merimee himself puts
it, for " local colour," the more unfamiliar the better. He
exhibited this in an unusual way. In 1825 he published what
purported to be the dramatic works of a Spanish lady, Clara
Gazul, with a preface stating circumstantially how the supposed
translator, one Joseph L'Estrange, had met the gifted poetess
at Gibraltar. This was followed by a still more audacious
and still more successful supercherie. In 1827 appeared a small
book entitled la Guzla (the anagram of Gazul), and giving
itself out as translated from the Illyriain of a certain Hyacinthe
Maglanovich. This book, which has greater formal merit
than Clara Gazul, is said to have taken in Sir John Bowring,
a competent Slav scholar, the Russian poet Poushkin, and
some German authorities, although not only had it no original,
but, as Merim6e declares, a few words of Illyrian and a book
or two of travels and topography were the author's only
materials. In the next year appeared a short dramatic romance,
La Jacquerie, in which are visible Merim6e's extraordinary
faculty of local and historical colour, his command of language,
his grim irony, and a certain predilection for tragic and terrible
subjects, which was one of his numerous points of contact with
the men of the Renaissance. This in its turn was followed
by a still better piece, the Chronique de Charles IX. (1829),
which stands towards the i6th century much as the Jacquerie
does towards the middle ages. All these works were to a
certain extent second-hand. ' But they exhibited all the future
literary qualities of the author save the two chiefest, his wonder-
fully severe and almost classical style, and his equally classical
solidity and statuesqueness of construction.
He had already obtained a considerable position in the civil
service, and after the revolution of July he was ckef de cabinet
to two different ministers. He was then appointed to the more
congenial post of inspector-general of historical monuments.
Merimee was a born archaeologist, combining linguistic faculty
of a very unusual kind with accurate scholarship, with remark-
able historical appreciation, and with a sincere love for the arts
of design and construction, in the former of which he had some
practical skill. In his official capacity he published numerous
reports, some of which, with other similar pieces, have been
republished in his works. He also devoted himself to history
proper during the latter years of the July monarchy, and pub-
lished numerous essays and works of no great length, chiefly
on Spanish, Russian and ancient Roman history. He did
not, however, neglect novel writing during this period, and
numerous short tales, almost without exception masterpieces,
appeared, chiefly in the Revue de Paris. The best of all, Colombo,
a Corsican story of extraordinary power, appeared in 1840.
He travelled a good deal; and in one of his journeys to Spain,
about the middle of Louis Philippe's reign, he made an acquaint-
ance destined to influence his future life not a little that of
Mme de Montijo, mother of the future empress Eugenie.
Merimee, though in manner and language the most cynical
of men, was a devoted friend, and shortly before the accession
of Napoleon III. he had occasion to show this. His friend,
Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja, was accused of having stolen
valuable manuscripts and books from French libraries, and
Merimee took his part so warmly that he was actually sentenced
to and underwent fine and imprisonment. He had been elected
of the Academy in 1844, and also of the Academy of Inscriptions,
of which he was a prominent member. Between 1840 and 1850
he wrote more tales, the chief of which were Arsene Guitiot
and Carmen (1847), this last, on a Spanish subject, hardly
ranking below Colombo,.
The empire made a considerable difference in Merimee's
life. His sympathies were against democracy, and his habitual
cynicism and his irreligious prejudices made legitimism dis-
tasteful to him. But the marriage of Napoleon III. with
the daughter of Mme de Montijo at once enlisted what was
always strongest with Merimee the sympathy of personal
friendship on the emperor's side. He was made a senator,
but his most important r61e was that of a constant and valued
private friend of both the " master and mistress of the house."
as he calls the emperor and empress in his letters. He was
occasionally charged with a kind of irregular diplomacy, and
once, in the matter of the emperor's Caesar, he had to give
literary assistance to Napoleon. But for the most part he
was strictly the ami de la maison. At the Tuileries, at Com-
piegne, at Biarritz, he wa9 a constant though not always a
very willing guest, and his influence over the empress was
very considerable and was fearlessly exerted, though he used to
call himself, in imitation of Scarron, " le bouffon de sa majeste."
He found, however, time for not a few more tales, of which
more will be said presently, and for correspondences, which
are not the least of his literary achievements, while they have
an extraordinary interest of matter. One of these consists
of the letters which have been published as Lettres a une inconnue,
another of the letters addressed to Sir Anthony Panizzi, librarian
of the British Museum. After various conjectures it seems
that the inconnue just mentioned was a certain Mile Jenny
Daqin of Boulogne. The acquaintance extended over many
MERINO
167
years; it partook at one time of the character of love, at another
of that of simple friendship, and Merimee is exhibited in the
letters under the most surprisingly diverse lights, most of them
more or less amiable, and all interesting. The correspondence
with Panizzi has somewhat less personal interest. But M6rimee
often visited England, where he had many friends (among
whom the late Mr Ellice of Glengarry was the chief), and certain
similarities of taste drew him closer to Panizzi personally,
while during part of the empire the two served as the channel
for a kind of unofficial diplomacy between the emperor and
certain English statesmen. These letters are full of shrewd
aper^us on the state of Europe at different times. Both series,
and others since published, abound in gossip, in amusing anec-
dotes, in sharp literary criticism, while both contain evidences
of a cynical and Rabelaisian or Swiftian humour which was very
strong in Merimee. This characteristic is said to be so prominent
in a correspondence with another friend, which now lies in the
library at Avignon, that there is but little chance of its ever
being printed. A fourth collection of letters, of much inferior
extent and interest, has been printed by Blaze de Bury under
the title of Lettres a une autre inconnue (1873), and others still
by d'Haussonville (1888), and in the Revue des Deux Mondes
(1896). In the latter years of his life Merimee suffered very
much from ill-health. It was necessary for him to pass all his
winters at Cannes, where his constant companions were two
aged English ladies, friends of his mother. The Terrible Year
found him completely broken in health and anticipating the
worst for France. He lived long enough to see his fears realized,
and to express his grief in some last letters, and he died at Cannes
on the 23rd of September 1870.
Merimee's character was a peculiar and in some respects
an -unfortunate one, but by no means unintelligible. Partly
by temperament, partly it is said owing to some childish experi-
ence, when he discovered that he had been duped and determined
never to be so again, not least owing to the example of Henri
Beyle (Stendhal), who was a friend of his family, and of whom
he saw much, Merimee appears at a comparatively early age
to have imposed upon himself as a duty the maintenance of
an attitude of sceptical indifference and sarcastic criticism.
Although a man of singularly warm and affectionate feelings,
he obtained the credit of being a cold-hearted cynic; and,
though both independent and disinterested, he was abused
as a hanger-on of the imperial court. Both imputations were
wholly undeserved, and indeed were prompted to a great extent
by political spite or by the resentment felt by his literary equals
on the other side at the cool ridicule with which he met them.
But he deserved in some of the bad as well as many of the
good senses of the term the name of a man of the Renaissance.
He had the warm partisanship and amiability towards friends
and the scorpion-like sting for his foes, he had the ardent delight
in learning and especially in matters of art and belles lettres,
he had the scepticism, the voluptuousness, the curious delight
in the contemplation of the horrible, which marked the men
of letters of the humanist period. Even his literary work has
this Renaissance character. It is tolerably extensive, amount-
ing to some seventeen or eighteen volumes, but its bulk is not
great for a life which was not short, and which was occupied,
at least nominally, in little else. About a third of it consists
of the letters already mentioned. Rather more than another
third consists of the official work which has been already alluded
to reports, essays, short historical sketches, the chief of which
latter is a history of Pedro the Cruel (1843), and another of
the curious pretender known in Russian story as the false
Demetrius (1852). Some of the literary essays, such as those on
Beyle, on Turgueniev, &c., where a personal element enters,
are excellent. Against others and against the larger historical
sketches admirable as they are Taine's criticism that they
want life has some force. They are, however, all marked by
Merimee's admirable style, by his sound and accurate scholar-
ship, his strong intellectual grasp of whatever he handled, his
cool unprejudiced views, his marvellous faculty of designing and
proportioning the treatment of his work. In purely archaeo-
logical matters his Description des peintures de Saint-Savin
is very noteworthy. It is, however, in the remaining third
of his work, consisting entirely of tales either in narrative or in
dramatic form, and especially in the former, that his full power
is perceived. He translated a certain number of things (chiefly
from the Russian); but his fame does not rest on these, on
his already-mentioned youthful supercheries, or on his later
semi-dramatic works. There remain about a score of tales,
extending in point of composition over exactly forty years
and in length from that of Colomba, the longest, which fills
about one hundred and fifty pages, to that of I'Enlevement de
la redoule (1829) , which fills just half a dozen. They are unques-
tionably the best things of their kind written during the century,
the only nouvelles that can challenge comparison with them
being the very best of Gautier, and one or two of Balzac. The
motives are sufficiently different. In Colomba and Mateo
Falcone (1829), the Corsican point of honour is drawn on; in
Carmen (written apparently after reading Sorrow's Spanish
books), the gipsy character; in la Venus d'llle (1837) and Lokis
(two of the finest of all), certain grisly superstitions, in the
former case that known in a milder form as the ring given to
Venus, in the latter a variety of the were- wolf fancy. Arsene
Guillot is a singular satire, full of sarcastic pathos, on popular
morality and religion; la Chambre bleue, an iSth-century conte,
worthy of C. P. J. Crebillon for grace and wit, and superior to
him in delicacy; The Capture of the Redoubt just mentioned
is a perfect piece of description; I'Abbe au bain is again satirical;
la Double meprise (the authorship of which was objected to
Merimee when he was elected of the Academy) is an exercise
in analysis strongly impregnated with the spirit of Stendhal,
but better written than anything of that writer's. These
stories, with his letters, assure Merimee's place in literature
at the very head of the French prose writers of the century. He
had undertaken an edition of Brant6me for the Bibliotheque
Elzevirienne, but it was never completed.
MeVimee's works have only been gradually published since his
death. There is no uniform edition, but almost everything is
obtainable in the collections of MM. Charpentier and Calmann
LeVy. Most of the sets of letters above referred to from those to
the first inconnue, where the introducer was Taine, have essay-
prefaces on Me'rime'e. Maurice Tourneux's Prosper Merimee, sa
bibliographic (1876) and Prosper Merimee, ses portraits (1879), are
useful, while Emile Faguet and many other critics have dealt
with him incidentally. But the best single book on him by far is
the Merimee et ses amis of Augustin Filon (1894). M. F. Chambon's
Correspondence inedite (1897) gives little that is substantive, but
supplies and corrects a good many gaps or faults in earlier editions.
English translations, especially of Colomba and Carmen, are numer-
ous. The Chronique de Charles IX. was translated by G. Saintsbury
in 1889 with an introduction; and the same writer has also prefixed
a much more elaborate essay, containing a review of Me'rime'e's
entire work, to an American translation. (G. SA.)
MERINO, the Spanish name for a breed of sheep, and hence
applied to a woollen fabric. The Spanish word is generally
taken to be an adaptation to the sheep of the name of an official
(merino) who inspected sheep pastures. This word is from the
medieval Latin majorinus, a steward, head official of a village,
&c., from major, greater.
The merino is a white short-wool sheep, the male having
spiral horns, the ewes being generally hornless. It is bred
chiefly for its wool, because, though an excellent grazer and very
adaptable, it matures slowly and its mutton is not of the best
quality. The wool is close and wavy in staple, reaching 4 in.
in length, and surpasses that of all other sheep in fineness;
it is so abundant that little but the muzzle, which should be
of an orange tint, and hoofs, are left uncovered. The best
wool is produced on light sandy soils.
The merino is little known in Great Britain, the climatic
moisture of which does not favour the growth of the finest
wools, but it predominates in all regions where sheep are
bred for their wool rather than their mutton, as in the western
United States, Cape Colony, Australia, New Zealand and
Argentina. In Australasia, especially in New Zealand, the
merino has been crossed with Lincolns, Leicesters, Shropshires
and other breeds, with the result of improving the quality
i68
MERIONETH MERISTEM
of the mutton while sacrificing to some extent that of the
wool.
The merino sheep appears to have originated in Africa, whence
it was brought by the Moors to Spain and thence spread over
Europe, especially to Austria-Hungary, Germany and France.
The best-known breeds are the Rambouillet, a large merino
named after the village near Paris, to which it was imported
towards the end of the i8th century, and the Negretti, which
stands in closer relationship to the old Spanish stock and has
shorter wool but a more wrinkled fleece. Importations to
America began about the beginning of the igth century. The
so-called American merino, the Delaine, the Vermont and the
Rambouillet, are well-known breeds in the United States.
The term " merino " is widely employed in the textile in-
dustries with very varied meanings. Originally it was restricted
to denote the wool of the merino sheep reared in Spain, but
owing to the superiority of the wools grown on merino sheep
and shipped from Botany Bay, the name as applied to wool
was replaced by the term " botany." In the dress-goods and
knitting trades the term " merino " still implies an article
made from the very best soft wool. The term " cashmere,"
however, is frequently confused with it, although cashmere
goods should be made from true cashmere and not, as is often
the case, from the finest botany wool. In the hosiery and
remanufactured materials trades the term " merino " is applied
to fibre-mixtures of cotton and wool in contradistinction to
" all wool " goods.
MERIONETH (Welsh, Meirionydd), a county of North Wales,
bounded N. by Carnarvon and Denbigh, E. by Denbigh and
Montgomery, S.E. by Montgomery, S. by the Dovey (Dyfi)
estuary, dividing it from Cardigan, and W. by Cardigan Bay.
It is nearly triangular, its greatest length from N.E. to S.W.
being about 45 m., its greatest breadth about 30 m. The
relief is less bold than that of Carnarvon, but the scenery is
richer and more picturesquely varied. The highest summits
are the peaks of Cader Idris (q.v.) including Pen y gader (the
head of the chair; 2927 ft.); Aran Fawddwy (2970 ft.);
Arenig fawr (2600 ft.); Y Llethr (2475 ft.), and Rhobell fawr
(2313 ft.). Perhaps the finest of the valleys are those of Dyfi
(Dovey) Dysyni, Tal y llyn (forehead of the lake), Maw
(Mawddach), and Festiniog. The Dyfrdwy (Dee) drains
Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid or Pimblemere), which is fed by two
brooks rising at the foot of the Berwyn Hills. The Dyfrdwy
leaves the lake at the north-east corner, near Castell Goronwy
(erected 1202, hardly traceable), flowing slowly to Corwen,
after which it is rapid, and receives the tributaries Alwen,
Ceiriog, Clywedog and Alun. The Dyfi (Dovey) rising in
a small lake near Aran Fawddwy, passes Machynlleth, and
expands into an estuary of Cardigan Bay. Rising north of the
Aran, the Mawddach (Maw) runs south-west some 12 m.,
being joined by rivulets. Traeth bach is formed by the
Dwyryd streamlet among others. Other streams are the
Wnion, Eden, Cain (variously spelled). Besides Bala and
Tal y llyn lakes, there are among the hills over fifty more, e.g.
Llyn Mwyngil. Among the waterfalls may be mentioned
Rhaiadr y glyn (cascade of the glen), near Corwen, Rhaiadr
du (black), and Pistyll Cain (Cain's waterspout), some 150 ft.
A mountain tract of the county, 15 m. from north to south by
10 from east to west, stretching from the coast inland, is of the
Cambrian age, composed of grits, quartzites and slates, and com-
prising the Merionethshire anticlinal. The central portion of this
tract is occupied mainly by Harlech Grits and Menevian beds; it
is bordered on the north, east and south by the Lingula, Tremadoc
and Arenig beds, which are pierced by numerous dikes and intrusive
masses, mostly greenstone. The andesitic rock of Rhobell-fawr is one
of the greatest igneous masses in the whole area of the Lingula beds
The Lingula beds are quarried and mined for slate at Festiniog, and
near Dolgelly gold is obtained from a quartz vein, while near Bar
mouth manganese has been worked. Bordering the Cambrian area
are the Ordovician rocks. The Arenig beds are interstratihed with
and overlaid by accumulations of volcanic ashes, felspathic traps o
lava-flows, which form the rugged heights of Cader Idris, the Arans
the Arenigs, Manod and Moelwyn; and these are in turn overlaic
by the Llandeilo and Bala beds, the latter including the Bala lime
stone. Lead and copper ores have been worked near Towyn.
Here and there along the eastern boundary Llandovery and
Wenlock strata are included. The structure of the Silurian tract
s synclinal; in the Berwyn mountains the Ordovician rocks again
appear with associated andesitic and felsitic lavas and tuffs. West
oFLlangar, near Corwen, is a small patch of Carboniferous limestone.
Olacial drift with boulder clay is a prominent feature in the valleys
.nd on the mountain sides. A good deal of blown sand fringes the
oast north and south of Harlech. At the Llyn Arenig Bach a
leposit of kieselguhr has been found.
The climate varies much with the elevation, from bleak to
jenial, as at Aberdyfi (Aberdovey). Grain crops cover a small
area only, green crops being poor, and fruits practically nil.
iVhile the soil is generally thin, there are fertile tracts in the
valleys, and there is some reclaimed land. The small, hardy
ponies (known as of Llanbedr, Con way Valley) are now almost
estricted to this county and Montgomeryshire. Manufactures
nclude woollen stockings, &c., at and near Bala, flannels at
[)olgellau (Dolgelley), Towyn, and a few other places. Slate is
he chief staple. The Cambrian railway skirts the coast from
Portmadoc to Aberdyfi. At Barmouth junction a branch crosses
:o Dolgelley, where it is joined by a branch of the Great Western
railway. Bala and Festiniog are also united by the Great
Western, and Festiniog is further joined with Llandudno junction
by the London & North Western railway, and with Portmadoc
;Minffordd) by the narrow gauge railway, a light line, opened in
1865, running between Portmadoc and Duffws, rising 700 ft. in
13 m. The tourist traffic is a source of livelihood to many of the
nhabitants. The coast is almost unnavigable, owing to sand-
janks, and the only havens are Barmouth and Aberdyfi.
The area of the ancient county is 427,810 acres or 670 sq. m.,
with a population in 1891 of 49,212 and 1901 of 49,149. In
;he igth century, however, the population nearly doubled.
The area of the administrative county is 422,018 acres. Welsh
is the tongue par excellence of Merionethshire. The county
returns one member to parliament, and has neither parliamentary
nor municipal borough. The urban districts are: Bala (pop.
1544), Barmouth (Abermaw, 2214), Dolgelley (Dolgellau, 2437),
Festiniog (11,435), Mallwyd (885), Towyn (3756). The shire
is in the north-west circuit, and assizes are held at Dolgellau.
It is partly in the diocese of St Asaph and partly in that of
Bangor, and has 37 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, with
parts of four others.
History and Antiquities. This is the only Welsh county
retaining in English its primitive British name, latinized into
Mervinia, a subdivision of Britannia Secunda, and in the Ordo-
vices' territory. The poet Churchyard in 1587 described the
county as remote and difficult of access in his day, and it was
never made the field of battle in Saxon, Danish or Norman
times, nor indeed until close on the period of Welsh loss of
independence. There are not many remains, Celtic, Roman
or medieval. Caer Drewyn, a British fort on the Dee, is near
Corwen, where Owen Gwynnedd was posted to repel Henry II.
and whither Owen Glendower retired before Henry IV. The
numerous cromlechs are chiefly near the coast. The Roman
via occidental ran through the county from south to north
and was joined by a branch of Watling Street at Tomen y mur
(perhaps Heriri Mons) on Sarn Helen, not far from Castell
Prysor. Tomen y mur (detritus of the wall) and Castell Prysor
have yielded Roman bricks, tiles, urns and coins. Castell y
bere, an extensive ruin, and once one of Wales's largest castles,
has not been inhabited sinoe the time of Edward I. Cymmer
Abbey (Y Fanner) near Dolgellau, a Cistercian establishment
founded about 1260, and dissolved by Henry VIII., is most
perfect at the east end, with lancet windows, and against the
south wall there are a few Gothic pillars and arches. The
architecture varies from Norman to Perpendicular. Towen
y Bala, east of Bala, is supposed to be a Roman encampment.
It was afterwards occupied by the Welsh, to check the English
lords marchers. Moel Offrwm is near Dolgellau. Among
the county families may be mentioned that of Hengwrt, since
the Hengwrt Welsh MSS. are famous in north Wales and
among all Celtic scholars.
MERISTEM (Gr. Mtpurros, divided or divisible), a botani-
cal term for tissue which has the power of developing new
MERIVALE, C. MERLIN, P. A.
169
forms of tissue, such as the cambium from which new wood
is developed.
MERIVALE, CHARLES (1808-1893), English historian and
dean of Ely, the second son of John Herman Merivale and
Louisa Heath Drury, daughter of Dr Drury, head master of
Harrow, was born on the 8th of March 1808. His father
(1779-1844) was an English barrister, and, from 1831, a com-
missioner in bankruptcy; he collaborated with Robert Bland
(1779-1825) in his Collections from the Greek Anthology, and
published some excellent translations from Italian and German.
Charles Merivale was at Harrow School (1818 to 1824) under
Dr Butler. His chief friends were Charles Wordsworth, after-
wards bishop of St Andrews, and Richard Chenevix Trench,
afterwards archbishop of Dublin. In 1824 he was offered a
writership in the Indian civil service, and went for a short
time to Haileybury College, where he was distinguished for
proficiency in Oriental languages. But he eventually decided
against an Indian career, and went up to St John's College,
Cambridge, in 1826. Among other distinctions he came out
as fourth classic in 1830, and in 1833 was elected fellow of St
John's. He was a member of the Apostles' Club, his fellow-
members including Tennyson, A. H. Hallam, Monckton Milnes,
W. H. Thompson, Trench and James Spedding. He was fond
of athletic exercises, had played for Harrow against Eton in
1824. and in 1829 rowed in the first inter-university boat-race,
when Oxford won. Having been ordained in 1833, he undertook
college and university work successfully, and in 1839 was
appointed select preacher at Whitehall. In 1848 he took the
college living of Lawford, near Manningtree, in Essex; he
married, in 1850, Judith Mary Sophia, youngest daughter of
George Frere. In 1863 he was appointed chaplain to the
Speaker of the House of Commons, declined the professorship
of modern history at Cambridge in 1869, but in the same year
accepted from Mr Gladstone the deanery of Ely, and until his
death on the 27th of December 1893 devoted himself to the
best interests of the cathedral. He received many honorary
academical distinctions. His principal work was A History
of the Romans under the Empire, in seven volumes, which came
out between 1850 and 1862; but he wrote several smaller
historical works, and published sermons, lectures and Latin
verses. Merivale as a historian cannot be compared with
Gibbon for virility, but he takes an eminently common-sense
and appreciative view. The chief defect of his work, inevitable
at the time it was composed, is that, drawing the materials
from contemporary memoirs rather than from inscriptions,
he relies on literary gossip rather than on numismatics and
epigraphy. The dean was an elegant scholar, and his rendering
of the Hyperion of Keats into Latin verse (1862) has received
high praise.
See Autobiography of Dean Merivale, with selections from his
correspondence, edited by his daughter, Judith A. Merivale (1899);
and Family Memorials, by Anna W. Merivale (1884).
MERIVALE, HERMAN (1806-1874), English civil servant
and author, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Dawlish,
Devonshire, on the 8th of November 1806. He was educated
at Harrow School, and in 1823 entered Oriel College, Oxford.
In 1825 he became a scholar of Trinity College and also won
the Ireland scholarship, and three years later he was elected
fellow of Balliol College. He became a member of the Inner
Temple and practised on the western circuit, being made in
1841 recorder of Falmouth, Helston and Penzance. From
1837 to 1842 he was professor of political economy at Oxford.
In this capacity he delivered a course of lectures on the British
Colonies in which he dealt with questions of emigration, employ-
ment of labour and the allotment of public lands. The reputation
he secured by these lectures had much to do with his appointment
in 1847 as assistant under-secretary for the colonies, and in
the next year he became permanent under-secretary. In 1859
he was transferred to the permanent under-secretaryship for
India, receiving the distinction of C.B. In 1870 Merivale
was made D.C.L. of Oxford. He died on the 8th of February
1874. Besides his Lectures on Coloniza'ion and Colonies (1841),
he published Historical Studies (1865), and completed the
Memoirs of Sir Philip Francis (1867); he wrote the second
volume of the Life of Sir Henry Lawrence (1872) in continuation
of Sir Herbert Edwardes's work.
A tribute to his powers as an original thinker by his chief at the
Colonial Office, Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, is printed with a notice
of his career which his brother contributed to the Transactions
(1884) of the Devonshire Association.
MERKARA, the capital of the province of Coorg, in Southern
India, situated on a plateau about 4000 ft. above the sea. Pop.
(1901), 6732. It consists of two quarters: the fort, containing
the public offices, the old palace, and the residence of the com-
missioner; and the native town of Mahadevapet. Here are
the headquarters of the Coorg and Mysore Rifles, a body of
volunteers chiefly composed of coffee planters.
MERLIN, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1762-1833), French
revolutionist, called " of Thionville " to distinguish him from
his namesake of Douai (see below), was born at Thionville on
the 13th of September 1762, being the son of a procureur in
the bailliage of Thionville. After studying theology, he devoted
himself to law, and in 1788 was an avocat at the parlement
of Metz. In 1790 he was elected municipal officer of Thionville,
and was sent by the department of Moselle to the Legislative
Assembly. On the 23rd of October 1791 he moved and carried
the institution of a committee of surveillance, of which he
became a member. It was he who proposed the law sequestrat-
ing the property of the emigre's, and he took an important part
in the emeute of the zoth of June 1792 and in the revolution
of the loth of August of the same year. He was elected deputy
to the National Convention, and pressed for the execution of
Louis XVI., but a mission to the army prevented his attendance
at the trial. He displayed great bravery in the defence of
Mainz. He took part in the reaction which followed the fall
of Robespierre, sat in the Council of the Five Hundred under
the Directory, and at the coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor
(Sept. 4, 1797) demanded the deportation of certain repub-
lican members. In 1798 he ceased to be a member of the
Council of Five Hundred, and was appointed director-general
of posts, being sent subsequently to organize the army of Italy.
He retired into private life at the proclamation of the con-
sulate, and lived in retirement under the consulate and the
empire. He died in Paris on the I4th of September 1833.
See J. Reynaud, Vie et correspondance de Merlin de Thionville
(Paris, 1860).
MERLIN, PHILIPPE ANTOINE, COUNT (1754-1838), French
politician and lawyer, known as Merlin " of Douai," was born
at Arleux (Nord) on the 3<Dth of October 1754, and was called
to the Flemish bar in 1775. An indefatigable student, he
collaborated in the Repertoire de jurisprudence published by
J. N. Guyot, the later editions of which appeared under Merlin's
superintendence, and also contributed to other important
legal compilations. Elected to the states-general as deputy
for Douai, he was one of the chief of those who applied the
principles of liberty and equality embodied in the decree of
the 4th of August 1789 to actual conditions. On behalf of
the committee appointed to deal with feudal rights, he presented
to the Convention reports on the seignorial rights which were
subject to compensation, on hunting and fishing rights, forestry,
and kindred subjects. He carried legislation for the abolition
of primogeniture, secured equality of inheritance between
relations of the same degree, and between men and women.
His numerous reports to the Constituent Assembly were supple-
mented by popular exposition of current legislation in the
Journal de legislation. On the dissolution of the Constituent
Assembly he became judge of the criminal court at Douai.
He was no advocate of violent measures; but, as deputy to
the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and
as a member of the council of legislation he presented to the
Convention on the I7th of September 1793 the infamous
law permitting the detention of suspects. He was closely allied
with his namesake Merlin " of Thionville," and, after the
counter-revolution which brought about the fall of Robespierre,
MERLIN
he became president of the Convention and a member of the
Committee of Public Safety. His efforts were primarily directed
to the prevention of any recrudescence of the tyranny exercised
by the Jacobin Club, the commune of Paris, and the revolution-
ary tribunal. He persuaded the Committee of Safety to take
upon itself the closing of the Jacobin Club, on the ground that
it was an administrative rather than a legislative measure.
He recommended the readmission of the survivors of the Girondin
party to the Convention, and drew up a law limiting the right
of insurrection; he had also a considerable share in the foreign
policy of the victorious republic. With Cambaceres he had
been commissioned in April 1794 to report on the civil and
criminal legislation of France, with the result that after eighteen
months' work he produced his Rapport et projet de code des
dilils et des peines (10 Vendemiaire, an. IV.). Merlin's code
abolished confiscation, branding and imprisonment for life,
and was based chiefly on the penal code drawn up in September
1791. He was made minister of justice (Oct. 30, 1795) under
the Directory, and showed excessive rigour against the emigrants.
After the coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor he became (Sept.
5, 1797) one of the five directors, and was accused of the various
failures of the government. He retired into private life (June
18, 1799), and had no share in the revolution of the i8th Bru-
maire. Under the consulate he accepted a modest place in the
court of cassation, where he soon became procureur-g6n6ral.
Although he had no share in drawing up the Napoleonic code,
he did more than any other lawyer to fix its interpretation.
He became a member of the council of state, count of the empire,
and grand officer of the Legion of Honour; but having resumed
his functions during the Hundred Days, he was one of those
banished on the second restoration. The years of his exile
were devoted to his Repertoire de jurisprudence ($th ed., 18 vols.,
Paris, 1827-1828) and to his Recuett alphabetique des questions
de droii (4th ed., 8 vols., Paris, 1827-1828). At the revolution
of 1830 he was able to return to France, when he re-entered
the Institute of France, of which he had been an original member,
being admitted to the Academic des Sciences Morales et Poli-
tiques. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1838.
His son, ANTOINE FRANCOIS EUGENE MERLIN (1778-1854), was
a well-known general in the French army, and served through
most of Napoleon's campaigns.
See M. Mignet, Portraits et notices nistoriques (1852), vol. i.
MERLIN (Welsh, Myrddhin), the famous bard of Welsh
tradition, and enchanter of Arthurian romance. His history
as related in this latter may be summarized as follows. The
infernal powers, aghast at the blow to their influence dealt
by the Incarnation, determine to counteract it, if possible,
by the birth of an Antichrist, the offspring of a woman and
a devil. As in the book of Job, a special family is singled out
as subjects of the diabolic experiment, their property is destroyed,
one after the other perishes miserably, till one daughter, who
has placed herself under the special protection of the Church,
is left alone. The demon takes advantage of an unguarded
moment of despair, and Merlin is engendered. Thanks, however,
to the prompt action of the mother's confessor, Blayse, in at
once baptizing the child of this abnormal birth, the mother
truly protesting that she has had intercourse with no man,
Merlin is claimed for Christianity, but remains dowered with
demoniac powers of insight and prophecy. An infant in arms,
he saves his mother's life and confounds her accusers by his
knowledge of their family secrets. Meanwhile Vortigern,
king of the Britons, is in despair at the failure of his efforts
to build a tower in a certain spot; however high it may be
reared in a day, it falls again during the night. He consults
his diviners, who tell him that the foundations must be watered
with the blood of a child who has never had a father; the king
accordingly sends messengers through the land in search of
such a prodigy. They come to the city where Merlin and his
mother dwell at the moment when the boy is cast out from
the companionship of the other lads on the ground that he has
had no father. The messengers take him to the king, and
on the way he astonishes them by certain prophecies which
are fulfilled to their knowledge. Arrived in Vortigern's presence,
he at once announces that he is aware alike of the fate destined
for him and of the reason, hidden from the magicians, of the
fall of the tower. It is built over a lake, and beneath the waters
of the lake in a subterranean cavern lie two dragons, a white
and a red; when they turn over the tower falls. The lake is
drained, the correctness of the statement proved, and Merlin's
position as court prophet assured. Henceforward he acts as
adviser to Vortigern's successors, the princes Ambrosius and
Uther (subsequently Uther-Pendragon). As a monument to
the Britons fallen on Salisbury Plain he brings from Ireland,
by magic means, the stones now forming Stonehenge. He
aids Uther in his passion for Yguerne, wife to the duke of
Cornwall, by Merlin's spells Uther assumes the form of the
husband, and on the night of the duke's death Arthur is en-
gendered. At his birth the child is committed to Merlin's
care, and by him given to Antor, who brings him up as his own
son. On Arthur's successful achievement of the test of the
sword in the " perron," Merlin reveals the truth of his parentage
and the fact that he is by hereditary right, as well as by divine
selection, king of the Britons. During the earlier part of
Arthur's reign Merlin acts as counsellor; then he disappears
mysteriously from the scene. According to one account he
is betrayed by a maiden, Nimue or Niniane (a king's daughter,
or a water-fairy, both figure in different versions), of whom he
is enamoured, and who having beguiled from him a knowledge
of magic spells, casts him into a slumber and imprisons him
living in a rocky tomb. This version, with the great cry, or
Brail, which the magician uttered before his death, appears
to have been the most popular. Another represents his prison
as one of air; he is invisible to all, but can see and hear, and
occasionally speak to passers by; thus he holds converse with
Gawain. In the prose Perceval he retires voluntarily to an
" Esplumeor " erected by himself, and is seen no more of man.
The curious personality of Merlin is now generally recognized
as being very largely due to the prolific invention of Geoffrey
of Monmouth. Nennius, upon whose Historia Geoffrey enlarged
and " improved," gives indeed the story of Vortigern and the
tower, but the boy's name is Ambrosius. Geoffrey calls him
Merlin-Ambrosius, a clear proof that he was adapting Nennius'
story. He represents the sage in his r61e of court diviner, his
" Prophecies " being incorporated in later manuscripts of the
Historia. Subsequently Geoffrey enlarged on the theme, com-
posing a Vila Merlini in which we find the magician in the
r61e of a " possessed " wood-abider, fleeing the haunts of men,
and consorting with beasts. This gave rise to the idea that
there had originally been two Merlins, Merlin-Ambrosius and
Merlin-Sylvester, a view now discarded by the leading scholars.
The Vita was so successful that Geoffrey obtained as reward
the bishopric of St Asaph.
Welsh vernacular literature has preserved a small but interest-
ing group of poems, strongly national and patriotic in character,
which are attributed to Merlin (Myrddhin).
A few years after Geoffrey's death Merlin's adventures were
amplified into a romance, the first draft of which is attributed
to Robert de Borron, and which eventually took the form of
a lengthy introduction to the prose Lancelot and cyclic redaction
of the Arthurian legend.
The romantic, as distinguished from legendary or historical
Merlin, exists in the following forms: (a) a fragmentary poem pre-
served in a unique manuscript of the Bibl. nat. (this gives no more
than the introduction to the story); (b) a prose rendering of the
above, of which a fair number of copies exist, generally found, as
in the original poem, coupled with a version of the early history
of the Grail, known as Joseph of Arimalhea, and in two cases followed
by a Perceval and Mart Artus, thus forming a small cycle; (c) the
Ordinary or Vulgate Merlin, a very lengthy romance, of which
numerous copies exist (see Dr Sommer's edition) ; (d) and (e) two
continuations to the above, each represented by a single manu-
script (d) the " Huth " Merlin, which was utilized by_ Malory
for his translation, and also formed a part of the compilation used
by the Spanish and Portuguese translators, and () a very curious
manuscript, 337, Bibl. nat. (-fonds Francais), which Paulin Paris
calls the Livre Artus, containing much matter not found elsewhere.
M. La Villemarqu6's " critical study " (Myrdhinn, ou I'enchanteur
MERLON MERMAIDS
171
Merlin, 1861) cannot be regarded as much more trustworthy than
Geoffrey himself. The story of the tower, and the Boy without
a Father, has been critically examined by Dr Gaster, in a paper
read before the Folk-lore Society and subsequently published in
Folk-lore (vol. xvi.). Dr Gaster cites numerous Oriental parallels
to the tale, and sees in it the germ of the whole Merlin legend.
Alfred Nutt (Revue celtique, vol. xxvii.) has since shown that
Aengus, the magician of the Irish Tuatha de Danaan, was also
of unknown parentage, and it seems more probable that the Boy
without a Father theme was generally associated with the Celtic
magicians, and is the property of no one in particular. Some
years ago the late Mr Ward of the British Museum drew attention
to certain passages in the life of St Kentigern, relating his dealings
with a " possessed " being, a dweller in the woods, named Lailoken,
and pointed out the practical identity of the adventures of that
personage and those assigned by Geoffrey to Merlin in the Vita;
the text given by Mr Ward states that some people identified
Lailoken with Merlin (see Romania, vol. xxvii.). Ferd. Lot, in an
examination of the sources of the Vita Merlini (Annales de Bretagne,
vol. xv.), has pointed out the more original character of the " Lai-
loken " fragments, and decides that Geoffrey knew the Scottish
tradition and utilized it for his Vita. He also comes to the con-
clusion that the Welsh Merlin poems, with the possible exception
of the Dialogue between Merlin and Taliessin, are posterior to, and
inspired by, Geoffrey's work. So far the researches of scholars
appear to point to the result that the legend of Merlin, as we know
it, is of complex growth, combined from traditions of independent
and widely differing origin. Most probably there is a certain
substratum of fact beneath all; there may have been, there very
probably was, a bard and soothsayer of that name, and it is by no
means improbable that Jcurious stories were told of his origin. It is
worth noting that Layamon, whose translation of Wace s Brut is
of so much interest, on account of the variants he introduces into
the text, gives a much more favourable form of the " Birth " story;
the father is a glorious and supernatural being, who appears to
the mother in her dreams. Layamon lived on the Welsh border,
and the possibility of his variants being drawn from genuine British
tradition is generally recognized. The poem relating a dialogue
between Merlin and his brother bard, Taliessin, may also derive
from genuine tradition. Further than this we can hardly venture
to go; the probability is that anything more told of the character
andcareer of Merlin rests upon the imaginative powers and faculty
of combination of Geoffrey of Monmouth.
See also G. Paris and Ulrich (Societe des anciens textes franc,ais,
1886); Merlin, ed. Wheatley (Early English Text Society, 1899);
Arthour and Merlin, ed. Kolbing. (J. L. W.)
MERLON, in architecture, the solid part of an embattled
parapet between the embrasures, sometimes pierced by loop-
holes. The word is French, adapted from Ital. mer/one, possibly
a shortened form of mergola, connected with Lat. mergae,
pitchfork, or from a diminutive moerulus, from munis
(moerus), a wall.
MERMAIDS and MERMEN, in the folk-lore of England and
Scotland, a class of semi-human beings who have their dwelling
in the sea, but are capable of living on land and of entering
into social relations with men and women. 1 They are easily
identified, at least in some of their most important aspects,
with the Old German Meriminni or Meerfrau, the Icelandic
Hafgufa, Margygr, and Marmennill (mod. Marbendill), the
Danish Hafmand or Maremind, the Irish Merrow or Merruach,
the Marie-Morgan of Brittany and the Morforwyn of Wales; 2
and they have various points of resemblance to the vodyany
or water-sprite and the rusalka or stream-fairy of Russian
mythology. The typical mermaid has the head and body
of a woman, usually of exceeding loveliness, but below the
waist is fashioned like a fish with scales and fins. Her hair
is long and beautiful, and she is often represented, like the
Russian rusalka, as combing it with one hand while in the other
she holds a looking-glass. For a time at least a mermaid may
become to all appearance an ordinary human being; and an
Irish legend (" The Overflowing of Lough Neagh and Liban
1 The name mermaid is compounded of mere, a lake, and
mosgd, a maid ; but, though mere urif occurs in Beowulf, mere-maid
does not appear till the Middle English period (Chaucer, Romaunt
of the Rose, &c.). In Cornwall the fishermen say merry-maids and
merry-men. The connexion with the sea rather than with inland
waters appears to be of later origin. " The Mermaid of Martin
Meer " (Koby's Traditions of Lancashire, vol. ii.) is an example of
the older force of the word; and such " meer- women " are known
to the country-folk in various parts of England (e.g. at Newport
in Shropshire, where the town is some day to be drowned by the
woman's agency).
2 See Rhys, " Welsh Fairy Tales," in Y Cymmrodor (1881, 1882).
the Mermaid," in Joyce's Old Celtic Romances) represents the
temporary transformation of a human being into a mermaid.
The mermaid legends of all countries may be grouped as
follows, (a) A mermaid or mermaids either voluntarily or under
compulsion reveal things that are about to happen. Thus the two
mermaids (merewip) Hadeburc and Sigelint, in the Nibelungen-
lied, disclose his future course to the hero Hagen, who, having
got possession of their garments, which they had left on the
shore, compels them to pay ransom in this way. According
to Resenius, a mermaid appeared to a peasant of Samsoe,
foretold the birth of a prince, and moralized on the evils of
intemperance, &c. (Kong Fredericks den andens Kronike, Copen-
hagen, 1680, p. 302). (b) A mermaid imparts supernatural
powers to a human being. Thus in the beautiful story of " The
Old Man of Cury " (in Hunt's Popular Romances of the West of
England, 1871) the old man, instead of silver and gold, obtains
the power of doing good to his neighbours by breaking the spells
of witchcraft, chasing away diseases, and discovering thieves.
(c) A mermaid has some one under her protection, and for wrong
done to her ward exacts a terrible penalty. One of the best and
most detailed examples of this class is the story of the " Mermaid's
Vengeance " in Hunt's book already quoted, (d) A mermaid
falls in love with a human being, lives with him as his lawful wife
for a time, and then, some compact being unwittingly or intentionally
broken by him, departs to her true home in the sea. Here, if its
mermaid form be accepted, the typical legend is undoubtedly
that of Melusine (q.v.), which, being made the subject of a
romance by Jean d'Arras, became one of the most popular
folk-books of Europe, appearing in Spanish, German, Dutch
and Bohemian versions, (e) A mermaid falls in love with a man,
and entices him to go to live with her below the sea; or a merman
wins the affection or captures the person of an earthborn maiden.
This form of legend is very common, and has naturally been
a favourite with poets. Macphail of Colonsay successfully
rejects the allurements of the mermaid of Corrievrekin, and
comes back after long years of trial to the maid of Colonsay. 3
The Danish ballads are especially full of the theme; as " Agnete
and the Merman," an antecedent of Matthew Arnold's " Forsaken
Merman ";the" Deceitful Merman, or Marstig's Daughter ";and
the finely detailed story of Rosmer Hafmand (No. 49 in Grimm).
In relation to man the mermaid is usually of evil issue if not
of evil intent. She has generally to be bribed or compelled to
utter her prophecy or bestow her gifts, and whether as wife or
paramour she brings disaster in her train. The fish-tail, which
in popular fancy forms the characteristic feature of the mermaid,
is really of secondary importance; for the true Teutonic mermaid
probably a remnant of the great cult of the Vanir had no
fish-tail; 4 and this symbolic appendage occurs in the mythologies
of so many countries as to afford no clue to its place of origin.
The Tritons, and, in the later representations, the Sirens of
classical antiquity, the Phoenician Dagon, and the Chaldaean
Oannes are all well-known examples; the Ottawas and other
American Indians have their man-fish and woman-fish (Jones,
Traditions of the North American Indians, 1830); and the Chinese
tell stories not unlike our own about the sea-women of their
southern seas (Dennis, Folklore of China, 1875).
Quasi-historical instances of the appearance or capture of
mermaids are common enough, 6 and serve, with the frequent
use of the figure on signboards and coats of arms, to show how
thoroughly the myth had taken hold of the popular imagination. 6
'See Leyden's "The Mermaid," in Sir Walter Scott's Border
Minstrelsy.
4 Karl Blind, " New Finds in Shetlandic and Welsh Folk-Lore,"
in Gentleman's Magazine (1882).
6 Compare the strange account of the quasi-human creatures
found in the Nile given by Theophylactus, Historiae, viii. 16,
pp. 299-302, of Bekker's edition.
6 See the paper in Jpurn. Brit. Arch. Assoc., xxxviii., 1882, by
H. S. Cuming, who points out that mermaids or mermen occur in
the arms of Earls Caledon, Howth and Sandwich, Viscounts Boyne
and Hood, Lord Lyttelton and Scott of Abbotsford, as well as in
those of the Ellis, Byron, Phen6, Skeffington and other families.
The English heralds represent the creatures with a single tail, the
French and German heralds frequently with a double one.
172
MEROBAUDES MEROVINGIANS
A mermaid captured at Bangor, on the shore of Belfast Lough,
in the 6th century, was not only baptized, but admitted into
some of the old calendars as a saint under the name of Murgen
(Notes and Queries, Oct. 21, 1882); and Stowe (Annales, under
date 1187) relates how a man-fish was kept for six months
and more in the castle of Orford in Suffolk. As showing how
legendary material may gather round a simple fact, the oft-told
story of the sea-woman of Edam is particularly interesting.
The oldest authority, Job. Gerbrandus a Leydis, a Carmelite
monk (d. 1504), tells (Annales, &c., Frankfort, 1620) how in
1403 a wild woman came through a breach in the dike into
Purmerlake, and, being found by some Edam milkmaids, was
ultimately taken to Haarlem and lived there many years.
Nobody could understand her, but she learned to spin, and
was wont to adore the cross. Ocka Scharlensis -(Chronijk van
Friesland, Leeuw., 1597) reasons that she was not a fish because
she could spin, and she was not a woman because she could
live in the sea; and thus in due course she got fairly established
as a genuine mermaid. Vosmaer, who has carefully investigated
the matter, enumerates forty writers who have repeated the
story, and shows that the older ones speak only of a woman
(see " Beschr. van de zoogen. Meermin der stad Haarlem,"
in Verh. van de Holl. Maatsch. van K. en Wet., part 23, No.
1786).
The best account of the mermaid-myth is in Baring-Gould's
Myths of the Middle Ages. See also, besides works already men-
tioned, Pontoppidan, who in his logically credulous way collects
much matter to prove the existence of mermaids ; Maillet, Telliamed
(Hague, 1755); Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 404, and Altdan.
Heldenlieder (1811); Waldron's Description and Train's Hist, and
Slot. Ace. of the Isle of Man; Folk-lore Society's Record, vol. ii. ;
Napier, Hist, and Trad. Tales connected with the South of Scotland;
S6billot, Traditions de la haute Bretagne (1882), and Conies des
marins (1882).
MEROBAUDES, FLAVIUS (sth century A.D.), Latin rhetori-
cian and poet, probably a native of Baetica in Spain. He was
the official laureate of Valentinian III. and Aetius. Till the
beginning of the ipth century he was known only from the
notice of him in the Chronicle (year 443) of his contemporary
Idacius, where he is praised as a poet and orator, and mention
is made of statues set up in his honour. In 1813 the base of
a statue was discovered at Rome, with a long inscription belong-
ing to the year 435 (C.I.L. vi. 1724) upon Flavius Merobaudes,
celebrating his merits as warrior and poet. Ten years later,
Niebuhr discovered some Latin verses on a palimpsest in the
monastery of St Gall, the authorship of which was traced to
Merobaudes, owing to the great similarity of the language in
the prose preface to that of the inscription. Formerly the only
piece known under the name of Merobaudes was a short poem
(30 hexameters) De Chrislo, attributed to him by one MS., to
Claudian by another; but Ebert is inclined to dispute the claim
of Merobaudes to be considered either the author of the De
Christo or a Christian.
The " Panegyric " and minor poems have been edited by B. G.
Niebuhr (1824); by I. Bekker in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist.
Byz. (1836) ; the " De Christo " in T. Bin's Claudian (1892), where the
authorship of Merobaudes is upheld; see also A. Ebert, Geschichte
der Liter atur des Mittelalters im Abendlande (1889).
MERGE, the general name (as Island of Meroe) for the region
bounded on three sides by the Nile (from Atbara to Khartum),
the Atbara, and the Blue Nile; and the special name of an
ancient city on the east bank of the Nile, 877 m. from Wadi
Haifa by river, and 554 by the route across the desert, near
the site of which is a group of villages called Bakarawiya. The
site of the city is marked by over two hundred pyramids in
three groups, of which many are in ruinous condition. After
these ruins had been described by several travellers, among
whom F. Cailliaud (Voyage a Meroe, Paris, 1826-1828) deserves
special mention, some excavations were executed on a small
scale in 1834 by G. Ferlini (Cenno sugli scan operati nella Nubia
e catalogo degli oggetti ritrovati, Bologna, 1837), who discovered
(or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form
of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich. The
ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius, who brought
many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquities, to
Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by E. W. Budge in
the years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his
work, The Egyptian Sudan: its History and Monuments (London,
1907). Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate,
governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the
pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids
were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the
remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummi-
fied. The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on
the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing
the names with representations of queens and some kings, with
some chapters of the Book of the Dead; some steles with inscrip-
tions in the Meroitic language, and some vessels of metal and
earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone
by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and
partly in the museum at Khartum. In 1910, in consequence of
a report by Professor Sayce, excavations were commenced in the
mounds of the town and the necropolis by J. Garstang on behalf
of the university of Liverpool, and the ruins of a palace and
several temples were discovered, built by the Meroite kings.
(See further ETHIOPIA.)
Meroe was probably also an alternative name for the city of
Napata, the ancient capital of Ethiopia, built at the foot of Jebel
Barkal. The site of Napata is indicated by the villages of Sanam
Abu Dom on the left bank of the Nile and Old Merawi on the right
bank of the river. New Merawi, I m. east of Sanam Abu Dom
and on the same side of the river, was founded by the Sudan govern-
ment in 1905 and made the capital of the mudiria of Dongola.
(D. S. M.*)
MEROPE, the name of several figures in Greek mythology.
The most important of them are the following: (i) The daughter
of Cypselus, king of Arcadia, and wife of Cresphontes, ruler
of Messenia. During an insurrection Cresphontes and two of
his sons were murdered and the throne seized by Polyphonies,
who forced Merope to marry him. A third son, Aepytus,
contrived to escape, and, subsequently returning to Messenia,
put Polyphontes to death and recovered his father's kingdom
(Apollodorus ii. 8, 5; Pausanias iv. 3, 6). The fortunes of
Merope have furnished the subject of tragedies by Euripides
(Cresphontes, not extant), Voltaire, Maffei and Matthew Arnold.
(2) The daughter of Atlas and wife of Sisyphus. She was
one of the seven Pleiades, but remained invisible, hiding her
light for shame at having become the wife of a mortal (Apollo-
dorus i. 9, 3; iii. 10, i; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 175).
MEROVINGIANS, the name given to the first dynasty which
reigned over the kingdom of the Franks. The name is taken
from Merovech, one of the first kings of the Salian Franks,
who succeeded to Clodio in the middle of the 5th century, and
soon became the centre of many legends. The chronicler
known as Fredegarius Scholasticus relates that a queen was
once sitting by the seashore, when a monster came out of the
sea, and by this monster she subsequently became the mother
of Merovech, but this myth is due to an attempt to explain
the hero's name, which means " the sea-born." At the great
battle of Mauriac (the Catalaunian fields) in which Aetius
checked the invasion of the Huns (451), there were present
in the Roman army a number of Prankish foederati, and a later
document, the Vila lupi, states that Merovech (Merovaeus)
was their leader. Merovech was the father of Childeric I.
(457-481), and grandfather- of Clovis (481-511), under whom
the Salian Franks conquered the whole of Gaul, except the
kingdom of Burgundy, Provence and Septimania. The sons
of Clovis divided the dominions of their father between them,
made themselves masters of Burgundy (532), and in addition
received Provence from the Ostrogoths (535); Septimania was
n,ot taken from the Arabs till the time of Pippin, the founder
of the Carolingian dynasty. From the death of Clovis to that
of Dagobert (639), the Merovingian kings displayed considerable
energy, both in their foreign wars and in the numerous wars
against one another in which they found an outlet for their
barbarian instincts. After 639, however, the race began to
decline, one after another the kings succeeded to the throne,
MERRILL MERSEBURG
173
but none of them reached more than the age of twenty or twenty-
five; this was the age of the " rois faineants." Henceforth
the real sovereign was the mayor of the palace. The mayors
of the palace belonging to the Carolingian family were able
to keep the throne vacant for long periods of time, and finally,
in 751 the mayor Pippin, with the consent of the pope Zacharias,
sent King Childeric III. to the monastery of St Omer, and shut
up his young son Thierry in that of St Wandrille. The
Merovingian race thus came to an end in the cloister.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See P6tigny, Etudes sur I'epoque merovingienne
(Paris, 1851) ; G. Richter, Annalen des frdnkischen Reichs im Zeitalter
der Merowinger (Halle, 1873); F. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen,
vii. (Leipzig, 1894); by the same author, Urgeschichte der
germanischen und romanischen Volker, iii. (Berlin, 1883); W.
Schultze, Deutsche Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern,
ii. (Stuttgart, 1896).
Merovingian Legend. It has long been conceded that the great
French national epics of the nth and I2th centuries must have
been founded on a great fund of popular poetry, and that many of
the episodes of the chansons de geste refer to historical events anterior
to the Carolingian period. Floovant is obviously connected with
the Gesta Dagoberti, and there are traces of the influence of popular
songs on the Prankish heroes in Gregory of Tours and other
chroniclers. See G. Kurth, Hist. poet, des Merovingiens (Paris,
Brussels and Leipzig, 1893); A. Darmesteter, De Floovante vetustiore
gallico poemate (Paris, 1877); Floovant (Paris, 1859); ed. MM. F.
Guessard and H. Michelant; P. Rajna, Delle Origine dell' epopea
francese (Florence, 1884), with which cf. G. Paris in Romania,
xiii. 602 seq.; F. Settegast, Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen
Epik (Leipzig, 1904); C. Voretzsch, Epische Studien (Halle, 1900);
H. Groeber, Grundriss d. roman. Phil. (Bd. II., abt. i. pp. 447 seq.).
(CT PF.)
MERRILL, a city and the county-seat of Lincoln county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., 185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on both sides
of the Wisconsin river. Pop. (1910 census), 8689. It is
served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railroad. The
city is situated about 1270 ft. above the sea and has an invigorat-
ing climate. Brook trout and various kinds of game, including
deer, abound in the vicinity. Grandfather Falls and the
Delles of the Prairie river are picturesque places near the city,
and furnish good water-power. The principal public building
is the Lincoln county court house, and the city contains the
T. B. Scott free library, a fine high-school, and the Ravn
hospital, a private institution. Riverside Park is maintained
by a corporation, and a park along the Prairie river is owned
and maintained by the city. Merrill is an important hardwood
lumber market, and its principal industry is the manufacture
of lumber and lumber products. The manufacture of paper
and paper pulp and of lathes is also important. In 1905 the
factory products were valued at $3,260,638. There are granite
quarries and brickyards in the vicinity. Merrill was settled
in 1875, incorporated as a village in 1880, and chartered as a
city in 1883.
MERRIMAC, 1 a river in the north-eastern part of the United
States, having its sources in the White Mountains of New Hamp-
shire, and flowing south into Massachusetts, and thence east
and north-east into the Atlantic Ocean. With its largest branch
it has an extreme length of about 183 m. The Merrimac proper
is formed at Franklin, New Hampshire, by the junction of the
Pemigewasset and Winnepesaukee rivers. The former is the
larger branch and rises in the White Mountains in Grafton
county; the latter is the outlet of Lake Winnepesaukee. The
valley of the Merrimac was formed before the glacial period
and was filled with drift as the ice retreated; subsequently
the high flood plain thus formed has been trenched, terraces
have been formed, and at different places, where the new
channel did not conform to the pre-glacial channel, the river
has come upon buried ledges, relatively much more resistant
than the drift below, and waterfalls have thus resulted. The
river falls 269 ft. in a distance of no m. from Franklin to its
mouth. The greater part of the total fall is at six points, and
at each of four of these is a city which owes its importance in
great measure to the water-power thus provided, Lowell and
'The name is an Indian word said to mean "swift water."
In popular usage the spelling " Merrimack " is used at places along
the river above Haverhill.
Lawrence in Massachusetts, and Manchester and Concord in
New Hampshire; at Lowell there is a fall of 30 ft. (Pawtucket
Falls), and at Manchester there is a fall of 5 5 ft. (Amoskeag
Falls). The region drained by the river is 4553 sq. m. in extent,
and contains a number of lakes, which together with some
artificial reservoirs serve as a storage system. On the navigable
portion of the river, which extends 17^ m. above its mouth,
are the cities of Newburyport, near its mouth, and Haverhill,
at the head of navigation. In 1890-1908 the Federal govern-
ment dredged a channel from Newburyport to Haverhill
(14-5 m.) 7 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide at mean low water; vessels
having a draft of 12-5 ft. could then pass over the outer bar
of Newburyport.
MERRIMAN, HENRY SETON (d. 1903), the pen-name of
Hugh Stowell Scott, English novelist. He was a member of
the firm of Henry Scott & Sons, and was for some years an
underwriter at Lloyd's. His literary career began in 1889 with
The Phantom Future, and he made his first decided hit with
his Russian story, The Sowers (1896), which was followed by
many other well-constructed novels remarkable for excellence
of plot and literary handling. The author was an enthusiastic
traveller, many of his journeys being undertaken with his
friend Stanley Weyman. He was about forty when he died
at Melton, near Ipswich, on the igth of November 1903. Among
his most successful books were Roden's Corner (1898); The Isle
of Unrest (1899); In Kedar's Tents (1897); The Velvet Glove
(1901); The Vultures (1902); Barlasch of the Guard (1903);
and The Last Hope (1904).
MERRITT, WESLEY (1836- ), American soldier, was
born in New York City on the i6th of June 1836. He graduated
at West Point in 1860, and was assigned to the cavalry service.
He served in Utah (1861) and in the defences of Washington
(1861-62); learnt the field duties of his arm as aide (1862) to
General Philip St George Cooke, who then commanded the
cavalry of the Army of the Potomac; became brigadier-general,
United States Volunteers, in June 1863; and in September
1863 was placed in command of a brigade of regular cavalry
in the Army of the Potomac. He won great distinction in
the Virginian campaigns of 1864-65 and in Sheridan's Valley
campaign, being brevetted major-general of volunteers for his
conduct at Winchester and Fisher's Hill, and brigadier-general
of the regular army for his services at Five Forks. In the
final campaign about Richmond he did such good service in
command of a cavalry division that he was brevetted major-
general in the regular army and was promoted major-general
of volunteers. With two other Federal commissioners he
arranged with the Confederate commanders for the surrender
of the Army of Northern Virginia. He was mustered out of
the Volunteer Service in February 1866, and in July became
lieutenant-colonel of the 9th cavalry in the regular army, being
promoted gradually to major-general (1895). He served in the
Big Horn and Yellowstone Indian campaigns (1876) and in the
expedition to relieve the command of Major Thornburgh, who
was killed in 1879 by the Utes; was superintendent at West
Point (1882-87); and commanded the military department
of Missouri in 1887-95, and that of the Atlantic in 1897-98.
He was assigned in May 1898 to the command of the United
States forces that were sent to the Philippines, after Admiral
Dewey's victory; stormed Manila on the I3th of August; and
was military governor of the islands until the 3oth of August,
when he left Manila for Paris to join the peace commission.
From 1899 until his retirement from active service in June
1900 he commanded the Department of the East.
MERSEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, on the river Saale, 10 m. _by rail S. of Halle and ism.
W. of Leipzig. Pop. (1905), 20,024. It consists of a quaint
and irregularly built old town, a new quarter, and two extensive
suburbs, Altenburg and Neumarkt. The cathedral, which was
restored in 1884-1886, has a choir, a crypt and two towers of the
nth, a transept of the I3th and a late Gothic nave of the i6th
century. Among its numerous monuments is one to Rudolph
of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Henry IV. It contains
174-
MERSEN, TREATY OF MERTHYR TYDFIL
a great organ dating from the ijth century. Near the cathedral
is the Gothic palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of
Merseburg, and now used as public offices. The town hall
and the Standehaus, where the meetings of the provincial
estates were held, are also noteworthy buildings. The industries
include the manufacture of machinery, paper and celluloid,
and tanning and brewing.
Merseburg is one of the oldest towns in Germany. From
968 until the Reformation, it was the seat of a -bishop, and in
addition to being for a time the residence of the margraves of
Meissen, it was a favourite residence of the German kings
during the loth, nth and izth centuries. Fifteen diets were
held here during the middle ages, when its fairs enjoyed the
importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig.
The town suffered severely during the Peasants' War and also
during the Thirty Years' War. From 1657 to 1738 it was
the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg.
See E. Hoffmann, Historische Nachrichten aus Alt-Merseburg
(Merseburg, 1903).
MERSEN (MEERSSEN), TREATY OF, a treaty concluded
on the 8th of August 870 at Mersen, in Holland, between Charles
the Bald and his half-brother, Louis the German, by which
the kingdom of their nephew Lothair II. (d. 869) was divided
between them. Charles received a portion of the kingdom
of Lothair afterwards called Lorraine, extending from the
mouths of the Rhine to Toul, together with the town of Besanfon,
the Lyonnais, the Viennais, the Vivarais, and the Uzege, i.e.
the lands acquired by Lothair II. in 863 at the death of his
brother Charles of Provence; while Louis had the cities of
Cologne, Trier and Metz, together with Alsace, the Escuens,
and the Varais, i.e. the greater part of the diocese of Besangon.
The boundary between the two realms was marked approxi-
mately by the valleys of the Meuse and Moselle and by the
Jura. Great importance has been attached to the determina-
tion of this frontier by some historians, who consider that it
coincided with the dividing line between the Teutonic and
Romance races and languages; but nothing is known of the
bases upon which the negotiations were effected, and the
situation created by this treaty came to an end in 879.
MERSENNE, MARIN (1588-1648), French philosopher and
mathematician, was born of peasant parents near Oize (Sarthe)
on the 8th of September 1588, and died in Paris on the ist of
September 1648. He was educated at the Jesuit College of
La Fleche, where he was a fellow-pupil and friend of Descartes.
In 1611 he joined the Minim Friars, and devoted himself to
philosophic teaching in various convent schools. He settled
eventually in Paris in 1620 at the convent of L'Annonciade.
For the next four years he devoted himself entirely to philosophic
and theological writing, and published Quaestiones celeberrimae
in Genesim (1623); L'Impiete des deistes (1624); La Virile des
sciences (1624). These works are characterized by wide scholar-
ship and the narrowest theological orthodoxy. His greatest
service to philosophy was his enthusiastic defence of Descartes,
whose agent he was in Paris and whom he visited in exile in
Holland. He submitted to various eminent Parisian thinkers
a manuscript copy of the Meditations, and defended its orthodoxy
against numerous clerical critics. In later life, he gave up
speculative thought and turned to scientific research, especially
in mathematics, physics and astronomy. Of his works in this
connexion the best known is L' Harmonic universelle (1636),
dealing with the theory of music and musical instruments.
Among his other works are: Euclidis elementorum libri, &c.
(Paris, 1626) ; Universae geometriae synopsis (1644) I Le* Mechaniques
de Galilee (Paris, 1634); Questions inomes ou recreations des savants
(1634); Questions tMologiques, physiques, &c. (1634); Nouvelles
decouvertes de Galilee (1639); Cogitata physico-mathematica (1644).
See Baillet, Vie de Descartes (1691); Pots', loge de Mersenne
(1816).
MERSEY, a river in the north-west of England. It is formed
by the junction of the Goyt and the Etherow a short distance
below Marple in Cheshire on the first-named stream. The
Goyt rises in the neighbourhood of Axe Edge, south-west of
Buxton, and the Etherow in the uplands between Penistone
and Glossop, watering the narrow Longdendale in which are
several reservoirs for the Manchester water supply.. The
Mersey thus drains a large part of the Peak district of Derby-
shire and of the southern portion of the Pennine system. The
general direction from Marple is westerly. At Stockport the
river Tame joins from the north, rising in the moors to the
north-east of Oldham, and the Mersey soon afterwards debouches
upon the low plain to the west of Manchester, which lies on
its northern tributary the Irwell. The Bollin joins from the
south-east near Heatley, and the main river, passing Warrington,
begins to expand into an estuary before reaching Runcorn
and Widnes. which face each other across it. The estuary,
widening suddenly at the junction of the Weaver from the south-
east, 25 m. below Runcorn, is 3 m. wide off Ellesmere Port, but
narrows to less than f m. at Liverpool, and hardly exceeds a
mile at the mouth in the Irish Sea. The fall of the Mersey is about
1600 ft. in all and about 300 from Marple; its length, including
the Goyt, is 70 m. exclusive of lesser windings, and it drains,
an area of 1596 sq. m. The estuary is one of the most important
commercial waterways in the world. (See LIVERPOOL and
BIEKENHEAD.) The Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.) joins the
estuary through Eastham Locks, skirts its southern shore up
to Runcorn, and crosses the river several times. From the name
of the river was taken the title of Lord Mersey in 1910 by
Sir John Bigham (b. 1840), on his elevation to the peerage after
serving as a judge of the high court from 1897 to 1909 and
president of the divorce court 1909-1910.
MERSINA, a town on the south-eastern coast of Asia Minor,
and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Adana. Pop. about
15,000 including many Christians, Armenian, Greek and
European. Its existence as a port began with the silting up-
of the harbour of Tarsus and Pompeiopolis, east and west, in
the early middle ages; but it did not rise to importance till the
Egyptian occupation of Cilicia (1832). It is now the busiest
port on the south coast, being the terminus of the railway from
Tarsus and Adana, by which (but still more by road) the produce
of the rich " Aleian " plain comes down. It is served by most
of the Levantine steamship companies, and is the best point
of departure for visitors desiring to see Tarsus, the Cilician
remains, and the finest scenery of the East Taurus. There
is, however, no enclosed harbour, but only a good jetty. The
making of a breakwater has long been under consideration.
The anchorage in the roadstead is good, but the bay shoals for
a long way out, and is exposed to swell from south-west and
south. Mersina is an American mission centre, and the seat
of a British vice-consul. Like all lowland Cilicia, it has a
notoriously bad summer climate, and all inhabitants, who-
can do so, migrate to stations on the lower slopes of Taurus.
(D. G. H.)
MERTHYR TYDFIL, or MERTHYR TYDVIL, a municipal,
county and parliamentary borough, and market-town of Glamor-
ganshire, south Wales, situated in a bleak and hilly region on
the river Taff, on the Glamorganshire Canal, and the Brecon
and Merthyr, Great Western, North Western, Taff Vale and
Rhymney railways, 25 m. N.N.W. of Cardiff, 30 E.N.E. of
Swansea, and 176 from London. Pop. (1901), 69,228. The
town is said to have derived its name from the martyrdom of
St Tydfil, daughter of Brychan, who was put to death by
Saxons in the sth century. It is for the most part irregularly
built and was formerly subject to severe epidemics due to-
defective sanitation ; but it now possesses a supply of the purest
water from the lesser Taff on the southern slope of the Brecon-
shire Beacons. The. town owes its early industrial prosperity
to the abundant ironstone and coal of the district, and it thus,
became at an early date the chief seat of the iron industry in Wales.
Four great ironworks were established here between 1759 and
1782. With the earliest, that of Dowlais, the Guest family
were associated, first as partners and later as sole owners from
1782 to 1901 when the works were disposed to the company
of Guest, Keen and Nettlefold. In 1765, Cyfarthfa was started
by Anthony Bacon, and when firmly established, sold in 1794
to Richard Crawshay by whose descendants the works were
MERULA MERV
175
carried on till the owners formed themselves in 1890 into a limited
company (Crawshay Brothers Cyfarthfa Limited), the controlling
interest in which has since been acquired by the Dowlais
Company. The Plymouth works, started soon after Cyfarthfa,
by Wilkinson and Guest, passed later into the hands of Anthony
Hill from whose descendants they were purchased in 1863.
They were closed down in 1882, but the collieries belonging
to them continue to be worked on a large scale, yielding over
2000 tons of coal a day. The fourth great ironworks were
those of Pen-y-darran which were carried on from 1782 to 1859.
It was at Dowlais (in 1856) that Bessemer steel was first rolled
into rails, but the use of puddled iron was not wholly abandoned
at the works till 1882. It has now eighteen blast furnaces,
and extensive collieries are also worked by the company, and
large branch works were opened on the sea-board at Cardiff in
1891. Cyfarthfa was converted into steel works in 1883. The
iron ore used is mainly imported from Spain. Merthyr Vale
is almost entirely dependent on coal-mining and has one of the
largest collieries in south Wales (Nixon's Navigation). The
population of this district more than quintupled between 1881
and 1901.
From 1850 the government of the town was vested in a local
board of health which in 1894 became an urban district council;
by charter granted on the 5th of June 1905, it was vested in a
corporation consisting of a mayor, 8 aJdermen and 24 councillors.
It was made a county borough from the ist of April 1908. It
comprises about 17,759 acres, is divided into eight wards and
besides the older town, it includes Penydarran (i m. N.E.),
Dowlais (2 m. N.E.), Plymouth (i m. S.) and Merthyr Vale
(5 m. S.). It has a separate commission of the peace, and in
conjunction with Aberdare and Mountain Ash, has had a
stipendiary magistrate since 1829. The parliamentary borough
which was created and given one member in 1832 and a second
in 1867, includes the parish of Aberdare and parts of the parishes
of Llanwonno, Merthyr Tydfil and Vainor (Brecon).
There is an electric tramway (completed in 1901) from the
town to Cefn and Dowlais. In 1901 about 50% of the population
above three years of age spoke both Welsh and English, 7!%
spoke Welsh only, and the remainder English only. The
ancient parish of Merthyr Tydfil has been divided into five
ecclesiastical parishes (Merthyr, Cyfarthfa, Dowlais, Pentre-
bacb, and Penydarran) and part of another parish (Treharris).
These six parishes form the rural deanery of Merthyr in the
archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff, and in 1906 had nine
churches and fifteen mission rooms. An inscribed stone
(Artbeu) has been built into the east wall of the parish church;
and two other inscribed stones removed from Abercar Farm
in the greater Taff valley now lie in the parish churchyard.
The old structure of the parish church has been entirely removed
except the base of the tower. There is a Roman Catholic
church in Penydarran Park and another at Dowlais. The
Nonconformists, of which the chief denominations are the
Baptists, Congregationalists and Methodists Wesleyan and
Calvinistic had in 1906 82 chapels, 49 of which were used for
Welsh services and 33 for English.
The public buildings include, besides the churches, a town
hall and law courts (1898), drill hall (1866), library, market
house, a county intermediate school, general hospital built
in 1887 and enlarged in 1897, and an isolation fever hospital,
a theatre (1894) and a fountain presented by Sir W. T. Lewis as
a memorial to the pioneers of the town's industry. At Dowlais
there are public baths (1900) and a free library which have
been provided by the owners of the Dowlais Works, Oddfellows'
hall (1878), and a fever hospital (1869). At Thomas Town
there is a recreation ground of 16 acres, formed in 1902. In
1908 the corporation purchased Cyfarthfa Castle (formerly the
residence of the Crawshay family) with a park of 62 acres
including a lake of 6 acres.
The Roman road from Cardiff and Gelligaer to Brecon passec
through Merthyr and the remains of a supposed fort were discoverec
in Penydarran park in 1902. Three miles to the north of Merthyr
on a limestone rock about 470 ft. above the lesser (eastern) Taf
are the ruins of Morlais Castle, built about 1286 by Gilbert de Clare
on the northern limits of his lordship of Glamorgan, its erection
causing a serious feud between him and de Bohun, earl of Hereford,
who claimed its site as part of the lordship of Brecknock.
MERULA, GEORGIUS (the Latinized name of GIORGIO
rRLANi; c. 1430-1494), Italian humanist and classical scholar,
was born at Alessandria in Piedmont. The greater part of his
life was spent at Venice and Milan, where he held a professorship
and continued to teach until his death. To Merula we are
ndebted for the editio princeps of Plautus (147 2) , of the Scriplotes
rei ruslicae, Cato, Varro, Columella, Palladius (1472) and
possibly of Martial (1471). He also published commentaries
on portions of Cicero (especially the De finibus), on Ausonius,
fuvenal, Curtius Rufus, and other classical authors. He wrote
also Bellum scodrense (1474), on account of the siege of Scodra
Scutari) by the Turks, and AntiquUales vicecomitum, the
listory of the Visconti, dukes of Milan, down to the death of
Matteo the Great (1322). He violently attacked Politian
Poliziano), whose Miscellanea (a collection of notes on classical
authors) were declared by Merula to be either plagiarized from
lis own writings or, when original, to be entirely incorrect.
See monograph by F. Gabotto and Badini-Gonfalonieri (1894)
with bibliography; for the quarrel with Politian see also C. Meiners
'^ebensbeschreibungen der beruhmten Manner (1796), ii. 158.
MERV, MERU or MAUR, an casls and town of Asia, in the
Transcaspian province of Russia. The oasis is situated on the
S. edge of the Kara-kum desert, in 37 30' N. and 62 E. It is
about 230 m. N. from Herat, and 280 S.S.E. from Khiva. Its
area is about 1900 sq. m. The great chain of mountains which,
under the names of Paropamisus and Hindu-Kush, extends from
the Caspian to the Pamirs is interrupted some 180 m. south of
Merv. Through or near this gap flow northwards in parallel
courses the rivers Heri-rud (Tejend) and Murghab, until they
lose themselves in the desert of Kara-kum. Thus they make
Merv a sort of watch tower over the entrance into Afghanistan
on the north-west and at the same time create a stepping-stone
or elape between north-east Persia and the states of Bokhara
and Samarkand. The present inhabitants of the oasis are
Turkomans of the Tekke tribe. In 1897 they numbered
approximately 240,000. The oasis is irrigated by an
elaborate system of canals cut from the Murghab. The
country has at all times been renowned throughout the East
for its fertility. Every kind of cereal and many fruits grow
in great abundance, e.g. wheat, millet, barley and melons,
also rice and cotton. Silkworms are bred. The Turkomans
possess a famous breed of horses and keep camels, sheep,
cattle, asses and mules. They are excellent workers in silver
and noted as armourers, and their carpets are superior to
the Persian. They also make felts and a rough cloth of sheep's
wool. The heat of summer is most oppressive. The least wind
raises clouds of fine dust, which fill the air, render it so opaque
as to obscure the noonday sun, and make respiration difficult.
In winter the climate is very fine. Snow falls rarely, and when
it does, it melts at once. The annual rainfall rarely exceeds
5 in., and there is often no rain from June till October. While
in summer the thermometer goes up to 97 F., in winter it
descends to 19-5. The average yearly temperature is 60.
Here is a Russian imperial domain of 436 sq. m., artificially
irrigated by works completed in 1895.
History. In Hindu (the Puranas), Pars! and Arab tradition,
Merv is looked upon as the ancient Paradise, the cradle of the
Aryan families of mankind, and so of the human race. Under
the name of Mouru this place is mentioned with Bakhdi (Balkh)
in the geography of the Zend-Avesta (Vendidad, ed Spiegel,
1852-1863), which dates probably from at least 1200 B.C. Under
the name of Margu it occurs in the cuneiform (Behistun) inscrip-
tions of the Persian monarch Darius Hystaspis, where it is
referred to as forming part of one of the satrapies of the ancient
Persian Empire. It afterwards became a province (Margiana)
of the Graeco-Syrian, Parthian and Persian kingdoms. On the
Margus the Epardus of Arrian and now the Murghab stood the
capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana, so called after Anti-
ochus Soter, who rebuilt the city founded by Alexander the Great.
MERX MERYON
About the sth century, during the rule of the Persian Sassanian
dynasty, Merv was the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the
Nestorian Church. The town was occupied (A.D. 646) by the
lieutenants of the caliph Othman, and was constituted the capital
of Khorasan. From this city as their base the Arabs, under
Kotaiba (Qotaiba) ibn Moslim, early in the Sth century brought
under subjection Balkh, Bokhara, Ferghana and Kashgaria,
and penetrated into China as far as the province of Kan-suh.
In the latter part of the Sth century Merv became obnoxious to
Islam as the centre of heretical propaganda preached by Mokanna
(q.v.). In 874 Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end. During
their dominion Merv, like Samarkand and Bokhara, was one of
the great schools of learning, and the celebrated historian
Yaqut studied in its libraries. In 1040 the Seljuk Turks crossed
the Oxus from the north, and having defeated Masud, sultan of
Ghazni, raised Toghrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, to the throne
of Persia, founding the Seljukian dynasty, with its capital at
Nishapur. A younger brother of Toghrul, Baud, took possession
of Merv and Herat. Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew Alp
Arslan (the Great Lion), who was buried at Merv. It was about
this time that Merv reached the zenith of her glory. During
the reign of Sultan Sanjar or Sinjar of the same house, in the
middle of the nth century, Merv was overrun by the Turkish
tribes of the Ghuzz from beyond the Oxus. It eventually passed
under the sway of the rulers of Khwarizm (Khiva).
In 1 22 1 Merv opened its gates to Tule, son of Jenghiz Khan,
chief of the Mongols, on which occasion most of the inhabitants
are said to have been butchered. From this time forward the
city began to decay. In the early part of the i4th century the
town was made the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the
Eastern Church. On the death of the grandson of Jenghiz
Khan Merv was included (1380) in the possessions of Timur-i-
Leng (Tamerlane), Mongol prince of Samarkand. In 1505 the
city was occupied by the Uzbegs, who five years later were
expelled by Ismail Khan, the founder of the Safawld dynasty of
Persia. Merv remained in the hands of Persia until 1787, when
it was captured by the emir of Bokhara. Seven years later the
Bokharians razed the city to the ground, broke down the dams,
and converted the district into a waste. When Sir Alexander
Burnes traversed the country in 1832, the .Khivans were the
rulers of Merv. About this time the Tekke Turkomans, then
living on the Heri-rud, were forced by the Persians to migrate
northward. The Khivans contested the advance of the Tekkes,
but ultimately, about 1856, the latter became the sovereign
power in the country, and remained so until the Russians
occupied the oasis in 1883.
The ruins of Old Merv cover an area of over 15 sq. m.
They consist of a square citadel (Bairam Ah' Khan kalah), i| m.
in circuit, built by a son of Tamerlane and destroyed by
the Bokharians, and another kalah or walled inclosure known as
Abdullah Khan. North from these lies the old capital of the
Seljuks, known as Sultan Kalah, and destroyed by the Mongols
in 1219. Its most conspicuous feature is the burial mosque of
Sultan Sanjar, reputedly dating from the I2th century. East
of the old Seljuk capital is Giaur Kalah, the Merv of the Nestorian
era and the capital of the Arab princes. North of the old
Seljuk capital are the ruins of Iskender Kalah, probably to be
identified with the ancient Merv of the Seleucid dynasty.
NEW MERV, the present chief town of the oasis, founded in
the first quarter of the igth century, is on the Transcaspian
railway, 380 m. by rail south-west from Samarkand. It
stands on both banks of the Murghab, 820 ft. above the Caspian.
Pop. (1897), 8727, including Russians, Armenians, Turkomans,
Persians and Jews. It has a meteorological observatory.
Corn, raw cotton, hides, wool, nuts and dried fruit are exported.
See E. O'Donovan, The Men Oasis (2 vols., London, 1882);
C. Marvin, Merv (London, 1880); and H. Lansdell, The Russians
at Mem and Herat (London, 1883). (J. T. BE.)
MERX, ADALBERT (1838-1909), German theologian and
orientalist, was born at Bleicherode near Nordhausen on the
2nd of November 1838. He studied at Jena, where he became
extraordinary professor in 1869. Subsequently he was ordinary
professor of philosophy at Tubingen, and in 1873 professor of
theology at Giessen. From 1875 till his death he was professor
of theology of Heidelberg. In the course of his researches he
made several journeys in the East. Among his many works
are: Grammatica syriaca (1867-1870); Vocabulary of the Tigri
language (1868); Das Gedicht vom Hiob (1871); Die Prophetie
des Joel und ihre Ausleger (1879); Die Saadjanische tjbersetzung
der Hohenlieder ins Arabische (1882); Ckrestomathia targumica
(1888) ; Historia artis grammaticae apud Syros (1889) ; Ein samari-
tanisches Fragment (1893); 1 dee und Grundlinien einer allgemeiner
Geschichte der Mystik (1893). Merx devoted much of his later
research to the elucidation of the Sinaitic palimpsest discovered
in 1892 by Mrs Agnes Smith Lewis (see BIBLE, iv. 321, ad fin.),
the results being embodied in Die vier kanonischen Evangelien
nach ihrem altesten bekannten Texte (1897-1905). His last work
was an edition of the books of Moses and Joshua. He died
at Heidelberg on the 6th of August 1909.
MERYON, CHARLES (1821-1868), French etcher, was born
in Paris in 1821. His father was an English physician, his
mother a French dancer. It was to his mother's care that
Meryon's childhood was confided. But she died when he was
still young, and Meryon entered the French navy, and in the
corvette " Le Rhin " made the voyage round the world. He was
already a draughtsman, for on the coast of New Zealand he made
pencil drawings which he was able to employ, years afterwards,
as studies for etchings of the landscape of those regions. The
artistic instinct developed, and, while he was yet a lieutenant,
Meryon left the navy. Finding that he was colour-blind, he
determined to devote himself to etching. He entered the work
room of one Blery, from whom he learnt something of technical
matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Meryon
was by this time poor. It is understood that he might have had
assistance from his kindred, but he was too proud to ask it.
And thus he was reduced to the need of executing for the sake
of daily bread much work that was mechanical and irksome.
Among learners' work, .done for his own advantage, are to be
counted some studies after the Dutch etchers such as Zeeman and
Adrian van de Velde. Having proved himself a surprising
copyist, he proceeded to labour of his own, and began that series
of etchings which are the greatest embodiments of his greatest
conceptions the series called " Eaux-fortes sur Paris." These
plates, executed from 1850 to 1854, are never to be met with as a
set; they were never expressly published as a set. But they
none the less constituted in Meryon's mind an harmonious
series.
Besides the twenty-two etchings " sur Paris," characterized
below, Meryon did seventy-two etchings of one sort and another
ninety-four in all being catalogued in Wedmore's Meryon and
Meryon's Paris; but these include the works of his apprentice-
ship and of his decline, adroit copies in which his best success
was in the sinking of his own individuality, and more or less dull
portraits. Yet among the seventy-two prints outside his pro-
fessed series there are at least a dozen that will aid his fame.
Three or four beautiful etchings of Paris do not belong to the
series at all. Two or three etchings, again, are devoted to the
illustration of Bourges, a city in which the old wooden houses
were as attractive to him for their own sakes as were the stone-
built monuments of Paris. But generally it was when Paris
engaged him that he succeeded the most. He would have done
more work, however though v he could hardly have done better
work if the material difficulties of his life had not pressed upon
him and shortened his days. He was a bachelor, unhappy in
love, and yet, it is related, almost as constantly occupied with
love as with work. The depth of his imagination and the sur-
prising mastery which he achieved almost from the beginning in
the technicalities of his craft were appreciated only by a few
artists, critics and connoisseurs, and he could not sell his etchings,
or could sell them only for about lod. apiece. Disappointment
told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, poverty must
have affected him. He became subject to hallucinations.
Enemies, he said, waited for him at the corners of the streets;
his few friends robbed him or owed him that which they would
MESA MESHED
177
never pay. A few years after the completion of his Paris series
he was lodged in the madhouse of Charenton. Its order and care
restored him for a while to health, and he came out and did a
little more work, but at bottom he was exhausted. In 1867 he
returned to his asylum, and died there in 1868. In the middle
years of his life, just before he was placed under confinement,
he was much associated with Bracquemond and with Flameng,
skilled practitioners of etching, while he was himself an unde-
niable genius and the best of the portraits we have of him
is that one by Bracquemond under which the sitter wrote
that it represented " the sombre Meryon with the grotesque
visage."
There are twenty-two pieces in the Eaux-fortes sur Paris.
Some of them are insignificant. That is because ten out of the
twenty-two were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running
commentary on some more important plate. But each has its
value, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the
aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate not a picture at all
is devoted to the record of verses made by Meryon, the purpose
of which is to lament the life of Paris. The misery and poverty
of the town Meryon had to illustrate, as well as its splendour.
The art of Meryon is completely misconceived when his etchings
are spoken of as views of Paris. They are often " views," but
they are so just so far as is compatible with their being likewise
the visions of a poet and the compositions of an artist. It was
an epic of Paris that Meryon determined to make, coloured
strongly by his personal sentiment, and affected here and there
by the occurrences of the moment in more than one case, for
instance, he hurried with particular affection to etch his im-
pression of some old-world building which was on the point of
destruction. Nearly every etching in the series is an instance
of technical skill, but even the technical skill is exercised most
happily in those etchings which have the advantage of impressive
subjects, and which the collector willingly cherishes for their
mysterious suggestiveness or for their pure beauty. Of these,
the Abside de Notre Dame is the general favourite; it is com-
monly held to be Meryon's masterpiece. Light and shade play
wonderfully over the great fabric of the church, seen over the
spaces of the river. As a draughtsman of architecture, Meryon
was complete; his sympathy with its various styles was broad,
and his work on its various styles unbiased and of equal perfec-
tion a point in which it is curious to contrast him with Turner,
who, in drawing Gothic, often drew it with want of appreciation.
It is evident that architecture must enter largely into any
representation of a city, however much such representation may
be a vision, and however little a chronicle. Besides, the archi-
tectural portion even of Meryon's labour is but indirectly
imaginative; to the imagination he has given freer play in his
dealings with the figure, whether the people of the street or of the
river or the people who, when he is most frankly or even wildly
symbolical, crowd the sky. Generally speaking, his figures are,
as regards draughtsmanship, " landscape-painter's figures."
They are drawn more with an eye to grace than to academic
correctness. But they are not " landscape-painter's figures " at
all when what we are concerned with is not the method of their
representation but the purpose of their introduction. They are
seen then to be in exceptional accord with the sentiment of the
scene. Sometimes, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who
tell the story of the picture. Sometimes, as in the case of La
Rue des Mauvais Garcons with the two passing women bent
together in secret converse they at least suggest it. And
sometimes, as in L'Arche du Pont Notre Dame, it is their expres-
sive gesture and eager action that give vitality and animation
to the scene. Dealing perfectly with architecture, and perfectly,
as far as concerned his peculiar purpose, with humanity in his
art, Meryon was little called upon by the character of his subjects
to deal with Nature. He drew trees but badly, never represent-
ing foliage happily, either in detail or in mass. But to render
the characteristics of the city, it was necessary that he should
know how to portray a certain kind of water river-water,
mostly sluggish and a certain kind of sky the grey obscured
and lower sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney.
This water and this sky Meryon is thoroughly master of; he
notes with observant affection their changes in aU lights.
Meryon's excellent draughtsmanship, and his keen apprecia-
tion of light, shade and tone, were, of course, helps to his becom-
ing a great etcher. But a living authority, himself an eminent
etcher, and admiring Meryon thoroughly, has called Meryon by
preference a great original engraver so little of Meryon's work
accords with Sir Seymour Haden's view of etching. Meryon
was anything but a brilliant sketcher; and, if an artist's success
in etching is to be gauged chiefly by the rapidity with which he
records an impression, Meryon's success was not great. There
can be no doubt that his work was laborious and deliberate,
instead of swift and impulsive, and that of some other virtues
of the etcher" selection " and " abstraction " as Hamerton
has defined them he shows small trace. But a genius like
Meryon is a law unto himself, or rather in his practice of his art
he makes the laws by which that art and he are to be judged.
It is worth while to note the extraordinary enhancement in the
value of Meryon's prints. Probably of no other artist of genius,
not even of Whistler, could there be cited within the same period
a rise in prices of at all the same proportion. Thus the first state
of the "_ Stryge " that " with the verses," selling under the
hammer in 1873 for 5, sold again under the hammer in 1005 for
100. The first state of the " Galerie de Notre Dame," selling in
1873 for 5, and at M. Wasset's sale in 1880 for 11, fetched in
1905.. 52. A "Tour de 1'horloge," which two or three years
after it was first issued sold for half a crown, in May 1903 fetched
70. A first state (Wedmore's, not of course M. Delteil's " first
state," which, like nearly all his first states, is in fact a trial proof)
of the " Saint Etienne du mont," realizing about 2 at M. Burty's
sale in 1876, realized 60 at a sale in May 1906. The second state
of the " Morgue " (Wedmore) sold in 1905 for 65; and Wedmore's
second of the " Abside," which used to sell throughout the 'seventies
for 4 or 5, reached in November 1906 more than 200. At no
period have even Diirers or Rembrandts risen so swiftly and steadily.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Philippe Burty, Gazette des beaux arts (1865);
Descriptive Catalogue of the Works of Mtryon (London, 1879);
Aglaiis Bouvenne, Notes et souvenirs sur Charles Meryon; P. G.
Hamerton, Etching and Etchers (1868) ; F. Seymour Haden, Notes
on Etching; H. BeValdi, Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neuvieme siecle;
Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907); L. Delteil, Charles Meryon
(1907) ; Frederick Wedmore, Meryon and Meryon's Paris, with a
descriptive catalogue of the artist's work (1879; 2n d ed., 1892);
and Fine Prints (1896; 2nd ed., 1905). (F. WE.)
MESA (Span, mesa, from Lat. mensa, a table), in physical
geography, a high table-land capped with hard rock, being the
remnant of a former plateau. This type is general where strata
are horizontal. In the process of denudation the hard rock acts
as a flat protective cap preserving the regions between stream
valleys or other places where denudation is especially active,
in the form of " table-mountains " or " fortress-hills." Many
examples are found in Spain, North and South Africa, the Bad
Lands and Colorado regions of North America, in Arabia, India
and Australia.
MESHCHERYAKS, or MESHCHERS, a people inhabiting eastern
Russia. Nestor regarded them as Finns, and even now part of
the Mordvinians (of Finnish origin) call themselves Meshchers.
Klaproth, on the other hand, supposed they were a mixture of
Finns and Turks, and the Hungarian traveller Reguli discovered
that the tatarized Meshchers of the Obi closely resembled
Hungarians. They formerly occupied the basin of the Oka
(where the town Meshchersk, now Meshchovsk, has maintained
their name) and of the Sura, extending north-east' to the Volga.
After the conquest of the Kazan Empire by Russia, part of them
migrated north-eastwards to the basins of the Kama and Byelaya,
and thus the Meshchers divided into two branches. The western
branch became russified, so that the Meshcheryaks of the govern-
ments of Penza, Saratov, Ryazan and Vladimir have adopted
the customs, language and religion of the conquering race;
but their ethnographical characteristics can be easily distin-
guished in the Russian population of the governments of Penza
and Tambov. The eastern branch has taken on the customs,
language and religion of Bashkirs, with whom their fusion is still
more complete.
MESHED (properly Mask-had, " the place of martyrdom "),
capital of the province of Khorasan in Persia, situated in a plain
watered by the Kashaf-rud (Tortoise river), a tributary of the
i 7 8
MESHREBIYA MESMER
Hari-rud (river from Herat, which after its junction with the
Kashaf is called Tejen), 460 m. E. of Teheran (550 by road) and
200 m. N.W. of Herat, in 36 17' N., 59 36' E., at an elevation
of 3800 ft. Its population is about 70,000 fixed and 10,000
floating, the latter consisting of pilgrims to the shrine of Imam
Reza. 1
The town is of irregular shape, about 6 m. in circumference
and surrounded by a mud wall flanked with towers. In the
south-western corner of the enclosure stands the citadel (ark),
within a wall 25 ft. high and a broad dry ditch which is 40 ft.
deep in parts and can be flooded from neighbouring water-
courses. The city has five gates, and from one of them, called
Bala Khiaban gate (upper Khiaban), the main street (Khiaban),
25 yds. broad, runs in a north- west-south-east direction,
forming a fine avenue planted with plane and mulberry trees
and with a stream of water running down its middle. The
shrine of Imam Reza is the most venerated spot in Persia, and
yearly visited by more than 100,000 pilgrims. Eastwick thus
describes it (Journal of a Diplomat's Three Years' Residence in
Persia, London, 1864):
" The quadrangle of the shrine seemed to be about 150 paces
square. It was paved with large flagstones and in the centre was
a beautiful kiosk or pavilion, covered with gold and raised over the
reservoir of water for ablutions. This pavilion was built by Nadir
Shah. All round the northern, western and southern sides of the
quadrangle ran, at some 10 ft. from the ground, a row of alcoves,
similar to that in which I was sitting, and filled with mullas in white
turbans and dresses. In each of the sides was a gigantic archway,
the wall being raised in a square from above the entrance. The
height to the top of this square wall must have been 90 or 100 ft.
The alcoves were white, seemingly of stone or plaster; but the
archways were covered with blue varnish or blue tiles, with
beautiful inscriptions in white and gold. Over the western arch-
way was a white cage for the muazzin, and outside it was a
gigantic minaret 120 ft. high, and as thick as the Duke of York's
column in London. The beauty of this minaret cannot be exagger-
ated. It had an exquisitely carved capital, and above that a light
pillar, seemingly 10 ft. high; and this and the shaft below the capital,
or about 20 ft., were covered with gold. All this part of the mosque
(shrine) was built by Shah Abbas. In the centre of the eastern
side of the quadrangle two gigantic doors were thrown open to
admit the people into the adytum or inner mosque (shrine) where
is the marble tomb of Imam Reza, surrounded by a silver railing
with knobs of gold. There was a flight of steps ascending to these
doors, and beyond were two smaller doors encrusted with jewels
the rubies were particularly fine. The inner mosque would contain
3000 persons. Over it rose a dome entirely covered with gold,
with two minarets at the sides, likewise gilt all over. On the right
of the Imam's tomb is that of Abbas Mirza, grandfather of the
reigning Shah. 2 Near him several other princes and chiefs of note
are buried. Beyond the golden dome, in striking and beautiful
contrast with it, was a smaller dome of bright blue. Here begins
the mosque of Gauhar Shad. 3 The quadrangle is larger than that
of Shah Abbas; and at the eastern side is an immense blue dome,
out of which quantities of grass were growing, the place being too
sacred to be disturbed. In front of the dome rose two lofty minarets
covered with blue tiles. In the boulevard of the Bala Khiaban is
a kitchen supported by the revenues of the shrine, where 800
persons are fed daily."
The buildings of the shrine together with a space extending
to about one hundred yards beyond the gates of the shrine on
each side is sanctuary (bast). Within it are many shops and
lodgings, and criminals, even murderers, may live there in safety.
The only other notable buildings in the place are some colleges
(medresseh), the oldest being the M. Do-dar, i.e. " college of two
doors," built in 1439 by Shah Rukh, and some fine caravan-
serais, two dating from 1680.
1 Abul Hassan AH, al Reza, commonly known as Imam Reza,
the eighth imam of the Shiites, a son of Musa al Kazim, the seventh
imam, was the leader from whom the party of the Alids (Shiites)
had such hopes under the caliphate of Mamun. Gold coins (dinars)
of this caliph are extant on which al Reza's name appears with the
title of heir-apparent. The imam died in March 819 in the village
Sanabad near Tus, some miles north-west of Meshed. To the
Shiites he is a martyr, being believed to have been poisoned by
Mamun.
2 This refers to Nasr-ud-din (d. 1896), grandfather of Shah
Mahommed AH (1907).
' Gauhar Shad was the wife of Shah Rukh (1404-1447), and was
murdered by that monarch's successor Abu Said, August I, 1457.
Her mosque was built in 1418.
Without the pilgrims who come to visit it, Meshed would be a
poor place, but lying on the eastern confines of Persia, close to
Afghanistan, Russian Central Asia and Transcaspia, at the point
where a number of trade routes converge, it is very important
politically, and the British and Russian governments have main-
tained consulates-general there since 1889. Meshed had
formerly a great transit trade to Central Asia, of European
manufactures, mostly Manchester goods, which came by way of
Trebizond, Tabriz and Teheran; and of Indian goods and pro-
duce, mostly muslins and Indian and green teas, which came by
way of Bander Abbasi. With the opening of the Russian
railway from the Caspian to Merv, Bokhara and Samarkand in
1886-1887, Russian manufacturers were enabled to compete in
Central Asia with their western rivals, and the value of European
manufactures passing Meshed in transit was much reduced.
In 1894 the Russian government enforced new customs regula-
tions, by which a heavy duty is levied on Anglo-Indian manufac-
tures and produce, excepting pepper, ginger and drugs, imported
into Russian Asia by way of Persia; and the importation of
green teas is altogether prohibited except by way of Batum,
Baku, Uzunada and the Transcaspian railway. Since then the
transit trade has been practically nil. In 1890 General Maclean,
the British consul-general, reported that there were 650 silk,
40 carpet and 320 shawl looms at work. The carpet-looms at
work now number several hundreds, while looms of silk and
shawl number less than half what they did in 1890.
Meshed has telegraph (since 1876) and post (since 1879)
offices, and the Imperial Bank of Persia opened a branch here in
1891. The climate is temperate and healthy. The coldest
month is January, with a mean temperature of about 32 F.,
while the hottest month is July, with a mean of 78. The
highest temperature recorded in a period of six years was 91,
the lowest 15. The mean annual rainfall during nine years
(1890-1907) was nearly 9$ in., about one-eighth of it being
represented by snow. (A. H.-S.)
MESHREBIYA (drinking places), the Arabic term given
to the projecting oriel windows in Cairo, enclosed with lattice-
work, through which a good view of the street can be obtained
by the occupants without being seen; the term was derived
from the small semicircular bows, in which porous water-
bottles are placed to cool by evaporation in the air.
MESMER, FRIEDRICH (or FRANZ) ANTON (1733-1815),
Austrian doctor, from whose name the word " Mesmerism " was
coined (see HYPNOTISM), was born at Weil, near the point at
which the Rhine leaves the Lake of Constance, on the 23rd of
May 1733. He studied medicine at Vienna under the eminent
masters of that day, Van Swieten and De Haen, took a degree,
and commenced practice. Interested in astrology, he imagined
that the stars exerted an influence on beings living on the earth.
He identified the supposed force first with electricity, and then
with magnetism; and it was but a short step to suppose that
stroking diseased bodies with magnets might effect a cure. He
published his first work (De planetarum influxu) in 1766. Ten
years later, on meeting with J. J. Gassner in Switzerland, he ob-
served that the priest effected cures by manipulation alone. This
led Mesmer to discard the magnets, and to suppose that some kind
of occult force resided in himself by which he could influence
others. He held that this force permeated the universe, and
more especially affected the nervous systems of men. He re-
moved to Paris in 1778, andln & short time the French capital
was thrown into a state of great excitement by the marvellous
effects of mesmerism. Mesmer soon made many converts;
controversies arose; he excited the indignation of the medical
faculty of Paris, who stigmatized him as a charlatan; still the
people crowded to him. He refused an offer of 20,000 francs
from the government for the disclosure of his secret, but it is
asserted that he really told all he knew privately to any one for
100 louis. He received private rewards of large sums of money.
His consulting apartments were dimly lighted and hung with
mirrors; strains of soft music occasionally broke the profound
silence ; and the patients sat round a kind of vat in which various
chemical ingredients were concocted. Holding each others'
MESNAGER MESOPOTAMIA
179
hands, or joined by cords, the patients sat in expectancy, and
then Mesmer, clothed in the dress of a magician, glided amongst
them, affecting this one by a touch, another by a look, and
making " passes " with his hand towards a third. Nervous
ladies became hysterical or fainted; some men became convulsed,
or were seized with palpitations of the heart or other bodily
disturbances. The government appointed a commission of
physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investi-
gate these phenomena; Franklin and Baillie were members of
this commission, and drew up an elaborate report admitting
many of the facts, but contesting Mesmer's theory that there
was an agent called animal magnetism, and attributing the
effects to physiological causes. Mesmer himself was undoubt-
edly a mystic; and, although the excitement of the time led
him to indulge in mummery and sensational effects, he was
honest in the belief that the phenomena produced were real, and
called for further investigation. For a time, however, animal
magnetism fell into disrepute; it became a system of downright
jugglery, and Mesmer himself was denounced as a shallow
empiric and impostor. He withdrew from Paris, and died at
Meersburg in Switzerland on the 5th of March 1815. He left
many disciples, the most distinguished of whom was the marquis
de Puysegur.
MESNAGER (or LE MESAGNER), NICOLAS (1658-1714),
French diplomatist, belonged to a wealthy merchant family.
He gave up a commercial career for the law, however, and
became advocate before the parlement of Rouen. In 1700 he
was sent as deputy of Rouen to the council of commerce which
was established in Paris for the extension of French trade.
Here he made his mark, and was chosen to go on three missions
to Spain, between the years 1704 and 1705, to negotiate financial
arrangements. In August 1711 he was sent on a secret mission
to London to detach England from the alliance against France,
and succeeded in securing the adoption of eight articles which
formed the base of the later Treaty of Utrecht. As a reward for
his skill he was made one of the three French plenipotentiaries
sent to Utrecht in January 1712, and had the honour of signing
the treaty the next year. As he had used much of his own
large fortune to keep up his state as ambassador, he was granted
a pension by the grateful king of France. His portrait by
Hyacinthe Rigaud is in the gallery of Versailles.
MESNE (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien,
mod. moyen, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf.
" mean "), middle or intermediate, an adjective used in several
legal phrases. A mesne lord is one who has tenants holding
under him, while himself holding of a superior lord. Mesne
process was such process as intervened between the beginning
and end of a suit (see PROCESS). Mesne profits are profits
derived from land whilst in wrongful possession, and may be
claimed in damages for trespass either in a separate action or
joined with an action for the recovery of the land. The plaintiff
must prove that he has re-entered into possession, his title
during the period for which he claims, the fact that the defendant
has been in possession during that period, and the amount of
the mesne profits. The amount recovered as mesne profits need
not be limited to the rental value of the land, but may include
a sum to cover such items as deterioration or reasonable costs of
getting possession, &c.
MESOCEPHALIC, a term applied by anthropologists to those
skulls which exhibit a cephalic index intermediate between the
dolichocephalic and brachycephalic crania (see CRANIOMETRY).
Taking the longer diameter of a skull, i.e. the one from front to
back, as 100, mesocephalic skulls are those of which the trans-
verse diameter varies between 75 to 80.
MESOMEDES of Crete, Greek lyric poet, who lived during
the 2nd century A.D. He was a freedman of the emperor
Hadrian, on whose favourite Antinous he is said to have written
a panegyric. Two epigrams by him in the Greek anthology
(Anlhol. pal. xiv. 63, xvi. 323) and a hymn to' Nemesis
are extant. The hymn is of special interest as preserving
the ancient musical notation written over the text. Two
other hymns to the muse Calliope and to the sun formerly
assigned to Dionysius of Alexandria, have also been attributed
to him.
See J. F. Bellermann, Die Hymnen des Dionysius und Mesomedes
(1840); C. de Jan, Musici scrtptores graeci (1899); S. Reinach in
Revue des etudes grecques, ix. (1896) ; Suidas, s.v.
MESONERO ROMANOS, RAM6N DE (1803-1882), Spanish
prose-writer, was born at Madrid on the igth of July 1803, and
at an early age became interested in the history and topography
of his native city. His Manual de Madrid (1831) was published
when literature was at a low ebb in Spain; but the author's
curious researches and direct style charmed the public, and next
year, in a review entitled Cartas espanolas, under the pseudonym
of " El Curioso parlante," he began a series of articles on the
social life of the capital which were subsequently collected and
called Panorama matritense (1835-1836). Mesonero Romanes
was elected to the Spanish Academy in 1838 and, though he
continued to write, had somewhat outlived his fame when he
issued his pleasing autobiography, Memorias de un setentdn,
natural y vecino de Madrid (1880). He died at Madrid on the
30th of April 1882, shortly after the publication of his Obras
completes (8 vols., 4to, 1881). >
MESOPOTAMIA (Meowrora/wa, sc. \uipo. or Supia, from juecroj,
middle, irora/^os, river), one of the Greek renderings of the earlier
Semitic names for the river-country that stretches
eastward from northern maritime Syria. The earliest *'
appearance of a Semitic name of this kind is in the last para-
graph of the biography of Ahmose of el-Kab, the aged officer
of Tethmosis (Thutmose) I. As early therefore as the late i6th
century B.C. the name Naharin (N'h'ryn') was in use. That the
name was connected with nahar (a river) was plain to some
of the Egyptian scribes, who wrote the word with determinative
for " water " in addition to that for " country."
The scribes show no suspicion, however, of the name's being
anything but a singular. 1 Is it possible that a consciousness that
the word was not a plural can have survived till the early Christian
centuries, when the Targum of Onqelos (Onkelos) rendered Naharaim
by " the river Euphrates " (Pethor of Aram which is on the
Euphrates: Deut. xxiii. 4 [5])? The Naharin or Naharen of the
Egyptian texts appears some five generations later in the Canaanitic
of the Amarna letters in the form Na{jrim(a), which would seem
therefore to be the pronunciation then prevalent in Phoenicia
(Gebal) and Palestine (Jerusalem). About the same time Naharin
(N-h-ry-n) is given as the northern boundary of Egypt's domain
(year 30 of Amenbotep or Amenophis III.), over against Kush in
the south (tomb of Khamhet: Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 350).
The origin of the name is suggested by the Euphrates being
called " the water of Naharin," on the Karnak stele more fully " the
water of the Great Bend (phr wr) of Naharin (N-h-r-n) " (Breasted,
Anc. Rec. ii. 263), or on the Constantinople obelisk simply " the
Great Bend of Naharin " (loc. cit. note d). The precise mean-
ing of phr wr is not certain. When Breasted renders " Great
Bend " of the Euphrates he is probably thinking of the great
sweep round between Birejik-Zeugma and Raljlfa-Nicephorium.
W. M. Muller, on the other hand, rendering Kreislauf, explains it
of the Euphrates water system as a whole, thought of as encom-
passing Naharin. The Sea of the Great Bend would seem to be
the sea fed by the north-to-south waters of Naharin, just as the
Mediterranean, fed by the south-to-north waters of the Nile, is
called the Great Circle (sn wr).
For many centuries after Amenophis IV. the name cannot be
found. The next occurrence is in Hebrew (Gen. xxiv. io = J),
where the district from which a wife for Isaac is brought is called
Aram-Naharaim. The diphthongal pronunciation of the termina-
tion aim is probably a much later development. We should
probably read something like Aram-Naharlm. The meaning is:
the Nanarim portion of the Aramaic speaking domain. 2 Probably
the author thought primarily of the district of Harran. 3 Some
generations later Aram-Naharim is used of the district including
Pethor, a town on the west bank of the Euphrates 4 (Deut. xxiii.
'The threefold n after Nahar in a stele of Persian or Greek
times (healing of Bentresh) is probably only the determinative
for " water," a fourth n being accidentally omitted (Breasted,
Ancient Records, iii. 434).
2 Cf. Aram-Damascus, which means, the Damascus portion of
the Aramaic domain ; and har-Ephraim, which means, the Ephraim
portion of the (Israelitish) highlands EV " Mount Ephraim.'
3 Halevy's suggestion that we are to look towards the Hauran,
and think of the rivers of Damascus, has not met with favour.
4 Padan-Aram (Rev. Vers. better Paddan-Aram), Gen. xxv. 20, &c.,
rendered by the Septuagint " Mesopotamia of Syria," is obscure.
Paddan has been connected phonetically with Patin, west of the
Euphrates, and explained by others as a synonym for Harran.
i8o
MESOPOTAMIA
4 = D). The Syriac version of the Old Testament (and cent. A.D. ?)
uses Beth Nahrin. This may or may not imply the belief that
Nahrln is a plural. Eventually that belief was general, as is proved
by the substitution of the normal feminine plural (for the supposed
masculine) in the alternative form Beth Nahrawatha (e.g. Wright,
Chron. Joshua Styl. 49, 50). Beth is probably the Syriac equiva-
lent of the Assyrian Bit as in Bit-Adini (see below, 3 viii.), as is
shown by such names as Beth 'Arbaye, " district of Arabians,"
Beth Armaye, " district of Aramaeans." The Parapotamia of
Strabo xvi. 2,11, would be a suitable Greek equivalent. Mesopotamia
seems to imply the view that beth is the preposition " amid, which
has the same form, 1 but need not imply the meaning " between,"
that is, the idea that there were precisely two rivers. There is
evidence of the use of this form as early as the Septuagint transla-
tion of the Pentateuch (3rd cent. B.C.). It is natural to suppose
it was adopted by the Greeks who accompanied Alexander's expedi-
tion. Xenophon does not use it.
As early as the time of Ephraem (d. A.D. 373) the use of the
Syriac Gezirtha, " island," had come in, and over a century earlier
Philostratus reported (Life of Apollonius, i. 20) that the Arabs
designated Mesopotamia as an island. 2 This term in the form
al-Gazira became, and still is, the usual Arabic name.
The absence of any equivalent names in Babylonian or Assyrian
documents is noteworthy, 3 especially as the Babylonians spoke
of the " Sea-Country " (mat Tamtim). The name was not dis-
tinctive enough from the point of view of Babylonia, which belonged
to the same water system. Tiglath-pileser I. (Octagon Prism,
6, 40, 42 seq.) sums up the results of the military operations of his
first five years as reaching from the Lower Zab Riviera to the
Euphrates Riviera (ebirttm Puratti, well rendered " Parapotamia "
by Winckler 4 ) and t}atte-land; but this is obviously not a proper
name in the same sense as Naharin. 5 That probably originated
in the maritime district of Syria.
Whilst the names we have mentioned are derived from physical
geography, there are related names the meaning and origin of
which are not so clear. Tethmosis III. is said, in a tomb which
contains a picture of " the chief of Kheta," to have " overthrown
the lands of My-tn " (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 773), which lands
are mentioned also in his hymn of victory (Breasted, Anc. Rec.
ii- 659). Amenophis II. receives tribute from the " chiefs of
My-tn ' (Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 804). In the bilingual Hittite
inscription of Tarqudimme the land is called " the land of the
city of Metan," just as in the Hittite documents the Hittite country
in Asia Minor is called " the land of the city of Khatti." Metan
is clearly the same as Mitanni, over against Khatti, mentioned
e.g. by Tiglath-pileser I. (vi. 63), which is the same as Mitanni,
several letters from- which are in the Amarna collection. Since a
Mitanni princess of these letters is called in Egyptian scarabs a
princess of Naharin, it is clear that Mitanni and Naharin are more
or less equivalent, whilst in the Amarna letters even Tushratta,
the king of Mitanni, seems to use in the same way the name Khani-
galbat. A shorter form of this name is Khani, which it is difficult
not to connect with Khana, the capital of which at one time was
Tirqa, on the Euphrates, below the Khabur (see 4). The slowly
accumulating data have not yet made it possible to determine
precisely the probably varying relations of these various names.
The great astrological work uses a term of still wider signification,
Subartu, eventually Suri (written Su. EDIN; see especially Winckler's
discussion in Or. Lit.-Zeit., 1907). This represented one of the
four quarters of the world in the early Babylonian view, the other
three being Akkad (i.e. Babylonia) in the " north," Elam in the
" south," and Amurru in the " west." It appears to have denoted
the territory above Babylonia stretching from Anshan in the south-
east north-westwards^ across the Tigris-Euphrates district, inde-
finitely towards Asia Minor. At an early time it seems to have
formed along with Ansh,an a distinct kingdom.
Strabo (xvi. 746) makes the south limit of Mesopotamia the
Median wall; Pliny (v. 24 21) seems to extend it to the Persian
Extent Gulf. The Latin term naturally varied in meaning
with the changing extent of Roman authority. For
example, under Trajan Mesopotamia reached the gulf and was
bounded by Assyria and Armenia. In modern times it is often
1 There may be further evidence of the prevalence of the inter-
pretation " amid " if the difficult bainath athrawatha of Cureton,
Anc. Syr. Doc. p. 112, 1. 21, is correctly rendered in Payne Smith,
Thesaurus Syr. 469, " Mesopotamia," and if we may assume a
reading Nahrawatha for Athrawatha.
1 Compare the use of the adjective, Ephr. Op. Or. ii. 403 (cf.
B. O. i. 145, 168, 169), and the noun, B. O. ii. 108, 109.
3 Mesopotamian personal names like Na-ha-ra-a-u occur (cf.
Johns, Deedt*and Documents, iii. 127) ; but these may be connected
with a divine name Nachor.
4 Auszug vorderas. Gesch. 34; on the meaning see Alt.-orient.
Forsch. iii. 349.
It seems worth considering, however, whether ebir nari (see
Johns, Assyr. Doomsday Book, 69; Winckler, Alt.-or. Forsch. 212;
Hommel, Anc. Heb. Trad., index) is not in origin practically a
Begrif equivalent to Naharin.
used for the whole Euphrates-Tigris country. That would pro-
vide a useful name for an important geographical unit, but is
too misleading. In view of historical and geographical facts
there is much to be said for applying the name Mesopotamia
to the country drained by the Khabur, the Bellkh, and the part
of the Euphrates connected therewith. It would thus include
the country lying between Babylonia on the south and the
Armenian Taurus highlands on the north, the maritime Syrian
district on the west, and Assyria proper on the east. That is
practically the sense in which it is treated in this article. 6 We
may begin, however, with the definition of Jezira by the Arabic
geographers, who take it as representing the central part of
the Euphrates-Tigris system, the part, namely, lying between
the alluvial plains in the south and the mountainous country in
the north. Measured on the Euphrates, this would be from the
place where the river, having bored its way through the rocks,
issues on to the high plain a little above Samsat (Samosata)
only 1500 ft. above the sea, to somewhere about Hit (Is = Id),
where, probably less than 150 ft. above the sea, it begins to
make its way through the alluvial deposits of the last few
millenniums. In these 750 m. it has descended less than 1400 ft.
Measured on the Tigris Mesopotamia would stretch from some-
where between JezIret-ibn-'Omar and Mosul to somewhere below
Tekrlt.
In the tract defined, physical changes unconnected with
civilization have been slight as compared with those in Baby-
lonia; the two great rivers, having cut themselves deep channels,
could not shift their courses far.
i. Natural Divisions. The stretch from Samsat and Jeziret-ibn-
'Omar to the alluvial plain seems to divide itself naturally into
three parallel belts, highland watershed district, un- _
dulating plains and steppe, (i) The Taurus foothill ae X r P h y-
barrier that shuts off the east to west course of the Euphrates and
Tigris culminates centrally in the rugged volcanic Karaja-Dagh
(6070 ft.) which blocks the gap between the two rivers, continued
eastwards by the mountainous district of Tur-'Abdin (the modern
capital Midyat is at a height of 3500 ft.) and westwards by the
elevated tract that sends down southwards the promontory of
J. Tektek (c. 1950 ft.). (2) At the line where this east to west
wall ends begins the sea of undulating plains where there is enough
rain for abundant wheat and barley. (3) From the alluvial flats
upwards toward these undulating plains is an extensive stretch
of steppe land almost destitute of rain. .Not far above the transi-
tion from the barren steppe is a second mountain wall (125 m.
between extremities) roughly parallel with the first, consisting of
the Sinjar chain (about 3000 ft., limestone, 50 m. long, 7 m. broad),
continued westwards after a marshy break by the volcanic Tell
Kokab (basalt, about 1300 ft.), and then the 'Abd al-'Aziz range
(limestone), veering upwards towards its western end as if to meet
the Tektek promontory from the north.
ii. Drainage. The water system is thus determined. West of
Tektek drains into the Bellkh, east of Tektek into the Khabur.
All this drainage, collected into two rivers, the Bellkh and the
Khabur, is towards the left bank of the Euphrates, for the Meso-
potamian watershed seems to be only some 15 m. or less from the
Tigris until, south of the Sinjar range, it lies farther west, and the
Tharthar river is possible. The Bellkh (Balich, Bilechas, BaXWoj 7 ),
a stream some 30 ft. wide, has its main source some 50 m. north
in the 'Ain Khalil ar-Rahman, but receives also the waters of the
united Nahr al-Kut (in its upper course formerly the Daisan,
2/cipTos) from Edessa and Kopru Dagh, and the Jullab from
Tektejc Dagh about as much farther north. The Khabur (Chabur,
Chaboras 8 ), 80-100 ft. wide, before its last 40 m. reach in a south-
west direction, has a 70 m. reach due north and south from Tell
Kpkab (about 1300 ft.), near which are united the Jaghjagh (earlier,
Hirmas, 20 ft. in width), which has come 50 m. from Nasibin in the
north-east, bringing with it thfe waters of the many streams from
theTur 'Abdin highlands; the north 'Awij, which at certain seasons
brings much water due south from Mardin, and the main stream
of the Khabur, which has come 60 m. from Ras al-'Ain in the north-
west, after flowing 50 m. by way of WSranshahr from Karaja Dagh
in the north. The Tharthar (Assyrian Tartar, in Tukulti-Ninib II. 's
inscription) begins in the Sinjar range and runs southwards, to
lose itself in the desert a little above the latitude of Hit. So it
was two generations before Ahab (Annales de Tukulti Ninip, V.
Scheil, 1909). The Arabian geographers represent the Tharthar as
connected at its upper end (by a canal?) with the Khabur system.
* In general the Tigris is considered to belong to Assyria or Baby-
lonia, and all west of the Euphrates to Arabia or Syria.
7 Cf. Ritter, Erdkunde, v. 250-253.
8 Ibid. xi. 253-265.
MESOPOTAMIA
181
iii. Character of Surface. 1 (i) The tract between the Belikh and
the Euphrates is in its middle section exceedingly fertile, as is
implied in the name Anthemusia, and according to v. Oppenheim
(Z. d. Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde, 36, 1901, p. 80) the same is true of the
southern portion also. The plain extending from Urfa to a dozen
miles below Harran has a rich red-brown humus derived from the
Nimrud Dagh east of Edessa. (2) The rolling plains north of the
'Abd al 'Aziz Sinjar mountain wall are intersected by the many
streams of the Khabur system (the Arab geographer Mustaufi
speaks of 300 feeders), which under favourable political and admini-
strative conditions would produce a marked fertility. At Nasibin
(Nisibis) rice is cultivated with success. (3) The country south
of the mountain range is steppe land, imperfectly known, and of
little use except for nomadic tribes, apart from the banks of
the rivers (on which see EUPHRATES, TIGRIS). It consists
mainly of grey dreary flats covered with selenite ; and a little below
the surface, gypsum. Bitumen is found at Hit, whence perhaps
its name (Babylonian Id in Tukulti Ninib II. 's inscription referred
to above), and near the Tigris. 2
iv. Climate. 3 Mesopotamia combines strong contrasts of climate,
and is a connecting link between the mountain region of western
Asia and the desert of Arabia. At Der ez-Z6r, for example, the
heat is intense, (i) In the steppe, during the sandstorms which
frequently blow from the West Arabian desert the temperature
may rise to 122 F. On the other hand, in winter the warm
currents coming in from the Persian Gulf being met to a large ex-
tent by northerly currents from the snow-covered tracts of Armenia,
are condensed down on to the plain and discharge moisture enough
to cover the gravel steppes with spring herbage. (2) In the higher
plains, in mid winter, since the high temperature air from the gulf
is drawn up the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris there may
be, e.g. at Mosul, a " damp mildness." In spring the grass on the
rolling plains is soon parched. So when the hot sandstorms blow
in the lower steppe the scorching heat is carried right up to the foot
of the mountains. On the other hand, since the spurs of the
Taurus bring the winter cold a long way south, and the cold increases
from west to east as we leave the mild coast of the Mediterranean,
far down into the Mesopotamian plain the influence of the snow-
covered ridges can be felt, and in the higher parts of the plain snow
and ice are not infrequent ; and although there is no point of sufficient
altitude to retain snow for long, the temperature may fall as low
as 14 F., especially if the cold north winds are blowing.
The cycle of vegetation begins in November. The first winter
rains clothe the plain with verdure, and by the beginning of the
year various bulbous plants are in bloom. The full summer develop-
ment is reached in June. By the end of August everything is
burnt up; August and September are the low-water months in the
rivers, March to May the time of flood.
v. Flora.* (i) Botanical lists have been published by von
Oppenheim (Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, ii. 373-388) of
a collection made in 1893 containing 43 entries for Mesopotamia,
and by E. Herzfeld (Herbaraufnahmen aus Kal'at-Serkaf-Assur,
in Beiheft II. zur Or. Lit.-Zeit, 1908, pp. 29-37) f a collection made
in 1903-1905 in the neighbourhood of Assur, containing 181 entries.
(2) The following are among the more important products of the
central zone of Mesopotamia: wheat, barley, rice (e.g. at Saruj,
the Khabur), millet, sesemum (for oil, instead of olive), dura (Holcus
sorghum and H. bicolor) ; lentils, peas, beans, vetches; cotton, hemp,
safflower, tobacco; Medicago saliva (for horses); cucumber, melons,
water-melons, figs (those of Sinjar famed for sweetness), dates
(below, 'Ana and Tekrit); a few timber trees; plane and white
poplar (by streams), willow and sumach (by the Euphrates). The
sides of Iaraja-Dagh, J. 'Abd el- 'Aziz and Sinjar are wooded,
but not now the neighbourhood of Nisibis. (3) In the steppe the
vegetation is that which prevails in similar soil from Central Asia
to Algeria ; but many of the arborescent plants that grow in the
rockier and more irregular plateaux of western Asia, and especially
of Persia, have been reported as missing. Endless masses of tall
weeds, belonging to a few species, cover the face of the country
large Cruciferae, Cynareae and Umbelliferae also large quantities
of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra and echinata) and Lagonychium,
and the white ears of the Imperata. In autumn the withered
weeds are torn up by the wind and driven immense distances.
vi. Fauna. 6 The following abound: wild swine, hyaena, jackal,
cheetah, fox; gazelle (in herds), antelope species (in the steppe);
jerboa, mole, porcupine, and especially the common European rat
(in the desert); bat, long-haired desert hare. The following are
rare: wild ass; beaver, said to have been observed on the Euphrates;
wolf, among others a variety of black wolf (Canis lycaon), said to
be found in the plains; lion, said to roam as far as the Khabur.
On the Euphrates are the following: vulture, owl, raven, &c.,
also the falcon (Tinnanculus alaudarius), trained to hunt. Among
game birds are: wild duck and goose, partridge, francolin, some
kinds of dove, and in the steppe the buzzard. The ostrich seems
almost to have disappeared. Large tortoises abound, and, in the
'Ain el-'Arus pool, fresh-water turtles and carp. Of domestic
1 Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 493-498.
* See Geog. Journ. Ix. 528-532 (with map).
8 Ritter, xi. 498-499. 4 Ibid., xi. 499-502. 6 Ibid., xi. 502-510.
animals in the steppe the first place belongs to the camel; next
come goat and sheep (not the ordinary fat-tailed variety); the
common buffalo is often kept by the Arabs and the Turkomans
on the Euphrates and the Tigris; on the Euphrates is found the
Indian zebu.
vii. Towns. 6 The towns that have survived are on the rivers.
Such are Samsat (see SAMOSATA), Rakka (Nicephorium) above the
mouth of the Belikh, Der ez-Zor, a rising town on the right bank,
where there is (since 1897) a stone bridge, 'Ana (on an island; see
ANA), Hit (Is, Bab. Id), on the Euphrates; Jeziret ibn 'Omar,
Mosul (q.v.), Tekrit, on the Tigris; Edessa (o.f.), Harran (q.v.),
on confluents of the Belikh; Veranshehr (Tela), Ras al-'Ain (Rhesae-
na), Mardin (half-way up the mountain wall),_and Nasibin (Assyr.
Nasibina, Nisibis), on confluents of the Khabur; Sinjar (Singara)
on the Tharthar. Villages are more numerous than has often been
supposed. Von Oppenheim counted in the district west of Edessa
and Harran, in a stretch of two days' march, 300 flourishing villages.
At one time, however, Mesopotamia was teeming with life. The
lines of the rivers are marked at frequent intervals by the ruins of
flourishing towns of Assyrian, Roman and Caliphate times. Such
are Blrejls, Jerablus, Tell Aljmar, Kal 'at en-Najm, Balis, Karkisiya
(Qarqisiya, Circesium), on the Euphrates; Kuyunjik, Nimrud
on the Tigris ; Khorsabad on a small tributary ; 'Arban, Tell Khalaf ,
on the Khabur. The interesting oasis town el-Hadr (Hatra) is
near the Tharthar. Excavation has hardly begun. The country
is covered with countless mounds (tells), each of which marks the
site of a town. The documents from the ancient Tirqa said to
have been found at 'Ishara, a few miles belowKarkisiya, are referred
to below ( 4). At Anaz(=Dur of Tiglathpileser IV.) was found
in 1901 a slab (Pognon, Inscript. sm. de la Syrie, Plate xxvi. No^ 59)
with a bas-relief and an inscription of the governor of Dur, Mushezib-
Shamash. 7 The stele referred to below ( 7, end) as being probably 8
Nabonidus's was found in 1906 some 15-20' W. of Eski-Harran,
a little nearer to it than to Hmeira, which is west of Eski-Harran,
an hour and a half north-east of the ruins of Harran. Parts
of Mesopotamia have probably always harboured wandering tribes.
Exactly how far the intervening lands beyond reach of the streams
have done so it is difficult to make out. Fraser (Short Cut to India,
p. 134) insists that in the undulating plains the direct rainfall is
quite sufficient for agricultural purposes.
viii. Political Divisions. On the whole the natural lie of the
country has been reflected in the political divisions, which have
of course varied in detail. We only mention some of those most
often occurring. In the pre-Persian period, besides those referred
to elsewhere, we may cite Kashyari (Tur 'Abdin), Guzanu (Gozan
of 2 Kings xvii. 6; in the Khabur district), Bit Adini (Osroene),
Kummukh (north-west corner and beyond) ; in the Roman period,
Osroene (q.v.), Mygdonia (in the east), and in Syriac usage Beth
'Arbaye (between Nisibis and Mosul) ; in the Arab period, Diarbekr
(Tur 'Abdin), Diar Rebi'a (Mygdonia), Diar Mudar (Osroene).
ix. Roads? The routes of communication have probably changed
little in the last 5000 years. It has not yet been proved that
Edessa is an ancient city (see EDESSA : 2) but it probably was,
and its neighbour Harran, the tower of which can be seen from it,
bears a name which seems to indicate its position as a highway
centre, (i) An obvious series of routes followed the course of the
rivers: from Thapsacus (Dibse) down the Euphrates, from Jeziret
ibn 'Omar down the Tigris, from Circesium up the Khabur. The
Euphrates was crossed at Birejik (Til Barsip?), or Jerablus (Car-
chemish?), or Tell Ahmar (unidentified), or Thapsacus. 10 (2)
Probably the modern route from Samosata eastwards behind the
Karaja Dagh to Diarbekr was also well known. The same is doubt-
less true of the route from Osroene by Ras al-'Ain and Nasibin,
and that by Veranshehr and Mardin to^he Tigris. About other
cross-roads, such as those_from Harran to Tell Shaddada on the
lower Khabur, or from 'Ana by al-Hadr to Mosul it is difficult
to say.
Functionally, Mesopotamia is the domain that lies between
Babylonia and the related trans-Tigris districts on the one hand,
and the west Asian districts of Maritime Syria and History:
Asia Minor on the other. Its position has given it a Earliest
long, complicated and exciting history. The great
rivers, in later times theoretically regarded as its boundaries,
have never really been barriers (cf. e.g. Winckler, Allorient.
Forschungen, iii. 348), whence the vagueness of the geographical
terminology in all times. Its position, along with its character,
has prevented it often or long, if ever, playing a really indepen-
dent part.
Who the earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia in approximately
historical times were is not yet clear. It is possible that its
' Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 279-492.
7 For the interpretation cf. Or. Lit.-Zeit. xi. 242-244.
8 On the interpretation see P. Dhorme, Rev. Bibl. (Jan., 1908).
9 Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 265-278.
10 On these and other crossing places, see Ritter, Erdkunde, x.
959-1004.
182
MESOPOTAMIA
connexion with the north, and Asia Minor, goes back to a very
early date. It may be that some of the early north Babylonian
kingdoms, such as Kish, extended control thither. The earliest
Babylonian monarch of whose presence in Mesopotamia there is
positive evidence is Lugalzaggisi (before 2500 B.C.), who claims,
with the help of En-lil, to have led his countless host victorious
to the Mediterranean. His empire, if he founded one, was
before long eclipsed, however, by the rising power of the Semites.
Excavation in Mesopotamia may in time cast some light on the
questions whether the Semites really reached Babylonia by way
of Mesopotamia, 1 when, and whom they found there, and
whether they partly settled there by the way. Whether
Sharru-GI, Manishtusu and Remush (often called Uru-mush)
really preceded, and to some extent anticipated, " Sargon " i.e.
Shargani-sharri, as L. W. King now 2 plausibly argues, is not
certain; nor whether the 32 kings who revolted and were con-
quered by Manishtusu, as we now learn, were by the Mediter-
ranean, as Winckler argued, or by the Persian Gulf, as King
holds. That Sargon was or became supreme in Mesopotamia
cannot be doubted, since there is contemporary evidence that
he conquered Amurru. The three versions of the proceedings
of Sargon (Sharru-GI-NA) in Suri leave us in doubt what really
happened. As he must have asserted himself in Mesopotamia
before he advanced into the maritime district (and perhaps
beyond: see SARGON), what is referred to in the Omens and the
Chronicle 26,472 may be, as Winckler argued (Or. Lit.-Zeit. 1907,
col. 296), an immigration of new elements into Suri in that
case perhaps one of the early representatives of the " Hittite "
group. According to- the Omens text Sargon seems to have
settled colonies in Suri, and suggestions of an anticipation of
the later Assyrian policy of transportation have been found
by King (pp. tit.) under the rulers of this time, and there are
evidences of lively intercommunication. Mesopotamia certainly
felt the Sumero-Babylonian civilization early. It was from the
special type of cuneiform developed there, apparently, that the
later Assyrian forms were derived (Winckler, Altorient. Forsch.
i. 86 seq.). What the " revolt of all lands " ascribed to the later
part of Sargon's reign means is not yet clear; but he or his son
quickly suppressed it. Mesopotamia would naturally share in
the wide trade relations of the time, probably reaching as far as
Egypt. The importance of Harran was doubtless due not only
to its fame as a seat of the Moon-god Sin, honoured also west of
the Euphrates, and to its political position, but also to its trade
relations. Contemporary records of sales of slaves from Amurru
are known.
When the Semitic settlers of the age of Sargon, whom it is now
common with some justice to call Akkadians (see SUMER), had
become thoroughly merged in the population, there appeared a
new immigrant element, the Amurru, whose advance as far as
Babylonia is to be traced in the troubled history of the post-
Gudean period, out of the confusion of which there ultimately
emerged the Khammurabi dynasty. That the Amurru passed
through Mesopotamia, and that some remained, seems most
probable. Their god Dagan had a temple at Tirqa (near
'Ishara, a little below Circesium), the capital of Khana (several
kings of which we now know by name), probably taking the place
of an earlier deity. At Tirqa they had month names of a peculiar
type. It is not improbable that the incorporation of this
Mesopotamian kingdom with Babylon was the work of Kham-
murabi himself.
Not quite so successful eventually was the similar enterprise
farther north at Asshur [or Assur (q.v.)] on the east margin of
Mesopotamia, although we do not know the immediate outcome
of the struggle between Asshur and the first Babylonian king,
Sumu-abi. Possibly the rulers of Babylon had a freer hand in a
city that they apparently raised to a dominant position than the
Semitic rulers of Asshur, who seem to have succeeded to men of
the stock which we have hitherto called Mitanni, if we may judge
1 On the theory that it was climatic changes in Arabia that drove
the Semites to seek new homes along the route mentioned above,
see L. W. King, History of Sumer and Akkad (1910), which appeared
after this article was written.
2 See the preceding note.
Hittite
Times.
from the names of Ushpia who, according to Shalmaneser I.
and Esarhaddon, built the temple, and Kikia who, according
to Ashur-rem-nisheshu, built the city wall. 3 The considerable
number of such names already found in First Dynasty records
seems to show that people of this race were to be found at home
as far south as Babylonia. Whether they were really called
Shubaru, as Ungnad suggests, we may know later.
When Khammurabi's fifth successor saw the fall of the Amorite
dynasty in consequence of an inroad of " Hittites," these may
have been Mesopotamian Shubaru-Mitanni; but
they may, as Ungnad suggests, represent rather an-
cestors of the Hittites of later times. It is difficult
in any case not to connect with this catastrophe the carrying
away to Khani of the Marduk statue afterwards recovered by
Agum, one of the earlier kings of the Kassite dynasty. Whether
Hittites were still resident at Khana we do not know. The
earlier Kassite kings of Babylon still maintained the Amorite
claim to " the four quarters; " but it is improbable that there
was much force behind the claim, although we have a document
from Khana dated under Kashtiliash. It is just as uncertain
how long Asshur remained under the Babylonian suzerainty
of which there is evidence in the time of Khammurabi, and what
the relation of Asshur to western Mesopotamia was under the
early kings whose names have lately been recovered. All these
matters will no doubt be cleared up when more of the many
tells of Mesopotamia are excavated. Only two have been
touched: 'Arban on the Khabur, where remains of a palace of
uncertain date, among other things an XVIII. dynasty scarab,
were found by Layard in 1851, and Tell Khalaf, where the con-
fluents join, and remains of the palace of a certain Kapar, son
of Hanpan of " Hittite " affinities but uncertain date, were
found by von Oppenheim in 1899. A long inscription of a
certain Shamshi-Adad [Samsi-Hadad], 'extracts from which are
quoted byDelitzsch (Mill. d. Deutsch Or.-Gesellschaft No. 21
p. 50), unfortunately cannot be dated exactly, or with certainty
even approximately; but if Delitzsch and Ed. Meyer are right, it
belongs to a time not many generations after Agum recovered
the Marduk statue. Shamshi-Adad's claims extend over the
land between the Tigris and the Euphrates, and he says that he
erected memorials of himself on the shore of the Great Sea.
The mystery of theHyksoshas not yet been solved; but it
is not impossible that they had relations with Mesopotamia.
After they had been driven out of Egypt (q.v.), when Ahmose, the
officer of Tethmosis (Thutmose) I., mentions Naharin (late i6th
century), he does not say anything about the inhabitants. He
seems to imply, however, that there was more than one state.
The first mention of Mitanni, as we saw, is under Tethmosis
III., who clearly crossed the Euphrates. It is at least possible
that common enmity to Mitanni led to a treaty with Assyria
(under Ashur-nadin-akhe) . 4 Victorious expeditions into Naharin
are claimed for Amenophis II., Tethmosis IV. and Amenophis
III. The Egyptian references are too contemptuous to name the
rulers; but Shaushatar may have begun his reign during the life-
time of Tethmosis III., and from cuneiform sources we know
the names of six other Mitanni rulers. As they all bear Aryan
names, and in some of their treaties appear Aryan deities
(Indra, Varuna, Mithra, &c.), it is clear that Mesopotamia had
now a further new element in its population, bearing apparently
the name Kharri. 6 Manyjof the dynasts in North Syria and
Palestine in the time of Tushratta bear names of the same type.
The most natural explanation is that Aryans had made their way
into the highlands east of Assyria, and thence bands had pene-
trated into Mesopotamia, peacefully or otherwise, and then, like
the Turks in the days of the Caliphate, founded dynasties. The
language of the Mitanni state, however, was neither Aryan nor
Semitic, and may very well be that of the mysterious " Hittite "
hieroglyphic inscriptions (see HITTITES) . Mitanni was one of the
great powers, alongside of Egypt and Babylonia, able to send to
Egypt the Ninevite Tshtar; and at this time as much as at any
3 Ungnad, Beitr. z. Assyr. VI. v. 13.
4 See e.g. P. Schnabel, Stud. z. bab.-ass. Chron. p. 25 (1908).
6 Winckler has identified the Kharri with the Aryans, to whom he
assigns a state in Armenia (Or. Lit.-Zeit., July 1910).
MESOPOTAMIA
183
Aramaeans.
other, we must think of common political relations binding the
districts east and west of the Euphrates. The king mentioned
above (Shaushatar) conquered Asshur (Assur), and Assyria
remained subordinate to Mitanni till near the middle of the i4th
century, when, on the death of Tushratta, it overthrew Mitanni
with the help of Alshe, a north Mesopotamian state, the allies
dividing the territory between them. The Hittite king's inter-
ference restored the Mitannite state as a protectorate, but with
a smaller territory, probably in the north-west, where it may have
survived long.
Assyria was now free, and Ashur-uballit [Assur-yuballidh
ace. to Sayce] knew how to make use of his opportunities, and, in
the words of his great grandson, " broke up the forces of the
widespread Shubari " (AKA , p. 7, 1. 32 seq.). Knowing what we
know of the colonizing power of the Assyrians, we may assume
that among the " Mitanni " and other elements in the Mesopo-
tamian population there would now be an increase of people of
" Assyrian " origin. On the tangled politics of this period,
especially Mesopotamia's relations with the north-west, the
Boghaz-Keui documents may be expected to throw a great deal of
light. We know already a little more of the chequered history of
the Amorites in the Naharin district, beset by great powers on
three sides. When Mitanni fell Babylon no doubt adhered to
its older claims on Mesopotamia; but the Kassite kings could do
little to contest the advance of Assyria, although several rectifica-
tions of the boundary between their spheres are reported.
Mitanni's fall, however, had opened the way for others also.
Hence when Ashur-uballifs grandson, Arik-den-ili (written
PU.DI.ili), carried on the work of enforcing Assyria's
claim to the heirship of Mitanni, he is described as
conquering the warriors * (?) of the Akhlame and the Suti. The
references to these -people, who practically make their first
appearance in the Amarna correspondence, 2 show that they
were unsettled bands who took advantage of the loosening of
authority to introduce themselves into various parts of the
country, in this case Mesopotamia. Gradually settlements
were made, the names of many of which are given by the various
Assyrian kings who had at one time or another to assert or
reassert supremacy over them such as Chindanu, Laqe, Suhi
along the South Euphrates boundary of Mesopotamia, and various
districts bearing names compounded with Bit = settlement
(see above), such as Bit-Adini (nearly equal the later Osroene;
see EDESSA), or Bit-Zamani in the north near Diarbekr.
The specific name Aramaean first appears in the annals of
Tiglath-pileser I., unless we identify the Arimi of Shalmaneser I.
in Tur 'Abdin with the Aramu; 3 but the name may probably
with fitness be applied to a very large number of the communities
mentioned from time to time. Their position in Mesopotamia
must have been very like that of the Shammar at the present
time (see ad fin.). As they gradually adopted settled life in
various parts of the country the use of Aramaic spread more
and more (see below, " Persians ").
Meanwhile Mesopotamia continued to be crossed and re-
crossed by the endless marches of the Assyrian kings (such as
Adad-nirari, Shalmaneser I. and his son), building
Empire" an d rebuilding the Assyrian empire (see BABYLONIA
AND ASSYRIA), and eventually pushing their con-
quests towards Asia Minor at the expense of the Hittite domain.
If, on the fall of the Kassites, Nebuchadrezzar I. established
more direct relations between Mesopotamia and Babylon, his
work was presently undone by the vigorous campaigns of
Tiglath-pileser I., who seems to have even won Egypt's sanction of
his succession to the Hittite claims. The newly recovered (1009)
tablet of Tukulti-Ninib, the grandfather of Shalmaneser II.,
is interesting from its account of an expedition down the
course of the Tharthar to Hit = Id (river and town now first
mentioned in cuneiform sources) and up the Euphrates to the
Khabur district.
1 See M. Streck, Zeit. Assyr., 18, 157.
2 On a wrongly supposed much earlier occurrence of the name
Achlamu, see Klio, vi. 193 n. 3.
3 So for example A. Sanda, Die Aramaer, 5 (1902).
Now that Mesopotamia had passed out of the hands of
Babylon, all that the later kings could do was to encourage local
Mesopotamian rulers in their desire for independence (Nabu-
apluiddin). These were convinced that Assyria was master,
but refused their tribute when they thought they dared. To
thoroughly overpower the troublesome Bit-Adini (see above,
3, viii.), which had naturally been aided by the states west of
the Euphrates, Shalmaneser II. (860-825) settled Assyrians in
their midst. Harran was one of the few places that remained
on his side during the great insurrection that darkened his last
days. Similarly the province of Guzanu (Heb. Gozan,ravf avtra),
on the Kahbur, held with the capital Asshur in the insurrection
that occurred in 763 (the year of the eclipse), when evidently
some one (an Adad-nirari ?) wore the crown, at least for a time.
Harran was clearly closely associated with Asshur in the rights
and institutions that were the subject of so much party struggle
in the new Assyrian empire that began with Tiglath-pileser IV.
(see BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA). When the policy of transporting
people from one part of the empire to another was developed,
new elements were introduced into Mesopotamia, amongst them
Israelites, of whom perhaps traces have been found in the neigh-
bourhood of Harran at Kannu'. 4 These new elements may have
been more organically attached to the Assyrian state as such
than the older inhabitants, to whom the affairs of state at
Nineveh would be of little interest. On the conditions at
Harran some light is thrown by the census partly preserved in
Ashurbanipal's library. 5 The governors of several Mesopotam-
ian cities, such as Naibin, Amid, took their turn as eponyms;
but this would not have much significance for the people.
Hence even the fall of Nineveh (607 B. C.), apart from what such
cities in Mesopotamia as held by its last kings suffered through
the invasion, first perhaps of Nabopolassar, who in 609 B.C.
claims to be lord of Shubaru, and then of the Medes, would be a
matter of comparative indifference; tribute paid to Babylon was
just as hard to find as if it were going to Nineveh. Necho did
not succeed, like his great XVIIIth dynasty predecessor, in
crossing the Euphrates. He was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar
at Carchemish (605 B.C.), and Mesopotamia was confirmed to
Babylon. Its troubles began again shortly after Nebuchadrezzar's
death; the Medes seized Mesopotamia and besieged Harran.
Before long, however, the overthrow of Astyages by Cyrus
cleared Mesopotamia, and Nabonidus (Nabu-naid) was able,
drawing on the resources of the whole of Syria for the purpose,
to restore the famous temple of Sin at Harran, where a few
years later he erected in memory of his mother, who seems
to have been a priestess there, the stele published in 1907 by
Pognon.
The fragmentary nature of the records does not enable us to
follow the steps by which Cyrus became master of Mesopotamia,
dn which he probably met with little or no resistance. Persians
How much of Mesopotamia was involved in the
revolt of what the Persian inscription calls Assyria (Athur) is
not clear. Nor does it appear with certainty to which of the
twenty satrapies into which, according to Herodotus, the
Persian empire was divided, Mesopotamia belonged; probably
it was included in ' ' Abar nahdra. The fact is, we have no infor-
mation from native sources. 8 The probability is that conditions
remained very much what they had been; except that the policy
of transportation was not continued. The satraps and other
high officials would naturally be of Persian extraction; but local
affairs were probably managed in the old way, and there was
no important shift of population. The large Aramaic infusion
had by this time been merged in the general body of the people.
These settlers doubtless influenced the " Assyrian " language; 7
but gradually, especially in the west, their own language more
4 S. Schiffer, Keilinschriftliche Spuren der in der zweiten Halfte
des 8. Jahrhunderts von den Assyr ern nach Mesopotamien deportierten
Samarier (10 Stamme) (1907); C. H. W. Johns in Proc. Soc. Bib.
Arch. (March, May, 1908).
6 C. H. W. Johns, An Assyrian Doomsday Book (1901).
6 For the history from the time of Herodotus onwards, see
Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 6^-284.
7 M. Streck, Klio, vi. 222 seq.
184
MESOPOTAMIA
and more prevailed. Although Aramaic inscriptions of the
Assyrian period, like those of Zanjlrli or that of King ZKR of
Hamath, have not been found in Mesopotamia, already in the
time of Shalmaneser II. mention is made of an Aramaean letter
(Harper, Ass. Bab. Letters, No. 872, obv. 1. 10), and Aramaic
notes on cuneiform documents begin to appear. Weights with
Aramaic inscriptions (the oldest from the reign of Shalmaneser
IV., 727-22) were found at Calah. By the Achaemenian period
Aramaic had become the international language, and was
adopted officially.
How Mesopotamia was affected by the passing of Persian
armies on their way to suppress revolts in Syria or Egypt, or to
conquer Greece, we do not know; on the whole it probably
enjoyed unwonted peace. The expedition of Cyrus the Younger,
with which Xenophon has made us so familar, only skirted the
left bank of the Euphrates. The route followed by Alexander,
though he also crossed at Thapsacus, took him unresisted across
the northern parts; but the poor people of Mesopotamia suffered
from the measures taken by their satrap Mazaeus to impede
Alexander's progress. In spite of this, where Cyrus failed
Alexander succeeded.
What would have happened had Alexander lived we can only
guess. Under the Seleucids Babylon was moved across the
Hellenism P^ am to Seleucia; but before long the central author-
ity was transferred to the other side of Mesopotamia,
Antioch or elsewhere a fateful move. It is improbable that
cuneiform and the Babylonion language continued to be used
in Mesopotamia during the Hellenistic period, as it did in
Babylonia, where it was certainly written as late as the last
century B.C.; 1 and may have been a learned language till the
second Christian century. 2 Unfortunately there are no native
documents from the pre-Christian Hellenistic period. That the
Hellenizing process went as far as it did in Syria is unlikely;
and even there Aramaic remained the language of the people,
even in the towns (cf. EDESSA). Still, Greek influence was con-
siderable. This would be mainly in the towns, the growth of
which was quite a feature of the Macedonian rule in Mesopotamia
(Pliny, vi. 30, 117).' This is seen in the Greek names which
now appear: such are Seleucia opposite Samosata, Apamea
( = Birejik) opposite 'Zeugma, Hierapolis ( = Membij), Europos,
Nicatoris, Amphipolis ( = Thapsacus, or near it), Nicephorium
(er-Rakka,) Zenodotium (stormed by Crassus), all on or by the
Euphrates; Edessa (q.v.) on the upper waters of the Bellkh,
Ichnae (perhaps Khnes, above the junction of the Qaramuch
with the Bellkh). These are all in the Osroene district; but
Naslbin became an Antioch, and as its district was known as
Mygdonia (from Macedon) there were doubtless many other
Greek settlements. To a less extent the same influences would
be at work in towns called even by Western writers by their real
names, such as Batnae, Carrhae (Charran), Rhesaena.
Mesopotamia naturally had its share of suffering in the
struggles that disturbed the time, when Eumenes or Seleucus
traversed it or wintered there. It was invaded and temporarily
annexed in 245 by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in his rapid expedition
to beyond the Tigris. When Melon revolted on the accession of
the youthful Antiochus III. (224 B.C.) he entered Mesopotamia
from the south. Antiochus skirted the northern highlands by
way of Naslbin. How far the natives of Mesopotamia shared the
desire of the Greek settlers (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. 5, n, 184-186)
to help Demetrius II. Nicator in checking the aggressions of the
rising power of Parthia under Mithradates I. we do not know.
It was in Mesopotamia that a large part of the army of
Antiochus VII. Sidetes was destroyed in 130 B.C., and the Syrian
kings did not again seriously attempt to assert their rule beyond
the Euphrates. When Phraates II. turned the Scythians against
himself, however, even Mesopotamia suffered from the plunderers
(Jok. Antioch, in Mtiller iv. 561). The immigration of Arabs
1 Probably the latest cuneiform document of certain date is a
contract of 68 B.C. (cf. Klio, vi. 223 n. 3).
2 See G. J. F. Gutbrod, Zeitsch. f. Assyr. vi. 26-33; cf. M. Streck,
Klio^ vi. 223 n. 1.
'See E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucus, i. 219-222, and references
given there.
must have been going on for long. About this time they even
founded a dynasty in Aramaean Osroene (see EDESSA).
Under Mithradates II. Mesopotamia was a definite part of
the Parthian empire, of which the Euphrates became
the western boundary; but in 92 B.C. on that river his
ambassador met Sulla, though the long duel did
not begin immediately.
It was perhaps a Parthian governor of Mesopotamia that was
called in to help Strato of Beroea against Demetrius III.; but before
long Mesopotamia (especially the district of Niibis) was attached
to the growing dominions of Armenia under its ambitious king
Tigranes, perhaps with the consent of Sinatruces (Sanatruces).
The lost territory, however, was recovered by Phraates III., and
Mesopotamia was guaranteed to Parthia by the treaties of Lucullus
and Pompey (66 B.C.). It was traversed, however, several times
by Roman troops crossing from Armenia to Syria, and Parthia's
declaration of war against Armenia involved it with Rome. Gabinius
crossed the Euphrates (54); but the command was assumed by
Crassus, who, though he seized Ichnae, &c., and Raqqa (Ralfka),
fell near Carrhae (53), and the Parthian dominion was confirmed.
The tragedy of the Ides of March saved Mesopatamia and the
East from a great campaign by Julius Caesar, and it was at the hands
of Ventidius Bassus, and west of the Euphrates, at Gindarus (north
east of Antioch), that the Parthians received the check that put an
end to any real rivalry with Rome. Mesopotamia narrowly escaped
being the scene of the struggle when Antonius in 36 finally decided
to make his disastrous attempt against Phraates iy. by way of
Armenia. In A.D. 36, Tiridates found support in his attempt to
secure the throne of Artabanus III. in Mesopatamia, and it was
there that he saw his army melt away. The affairs of Armenia
continued to be the source of friction between Parthia and Rome,
and Nisibis changed hands several times. The expedition against
Rome of Vologaeses I. (q.v.) of A.D. 62 reached no further west-
wards than Nisibis, and in 66 a peaceable arrangement was come
to. Of the half-century that preceded Trajan's great oriental
undertaking not much is known. When in 115 Trajan entered
Mesopotamia from the north no serious resistance was offered, and
it became a province as far as Singara. The woods at Nisibis,
the headquarters, provided material for the boats with which in
116 he crossed the Tigris. Hatra, an interesting fortress which
seems to have been Aramaean, fell, and the army advanced to Hit,
where it found the fleet that was subsequently transferred to the
Tigris. For the revolt that occurred while Trajan was on the
Persian Gulf, in which the Jews had an important hand, Nisibis
and Edessa suffered capture and destruction. Hatra successfully
withstood siege, however, and Hadrian abandoned Mesopotamia,
setting the boundary at the Euphrates. Again for half a century
there is not much to relate. Then, when Vologaeses, yielding to
his growing discontent, took advantage of the death of Antoninus to
invade Armenia the Romans were victorious (164), and after the
storming of places such as Nicephorium, Edessa, Nisibis, western
Mesopotamia was once more Roman as far as the Khabur, Carrhae
becoming a free city and Osroene a dependency.
By this time Christianity had secured a foothold, perhaps first
among the Jews (see EDESSA), and we enter upon the earliest
period from which documents in the Edessan dialect of Aramaic,
known as Syriac, have been preserved. Unfortunately they
contain practically nothing that is not of Christian origin. 4
On the death of Aurelius Hatra aided Niger against Septimius
Severus in 194; Osroene rose against Rome, and Nisibis was
besieged and other Roman places taken; but Septimius Severus
appeared in person (195), and from Nisibis as headquarters
subdued the whole country, of which he made Niibis metropolis,
raising it to the rank of a colony, the Sinjar district, where
Arabs from Yemen had settled, being incorporated. On his
retiring everything was undone, only Nisibis holding out; but
on his reappearance in 198 the Parthians withdrew. Again
the Euphrates bore a Roman fleet. Hatra, however, was
besieged twice in vain. Peace then prevailed till Carcalla's
unprovoked attack on Parthia in 216, after he had reduced
Osroene to a province. On his assassination near Carrhae (217),
Macrinus was defeated at Nisibis and had to purchase peace,
though he retained Roman Mesopotamia, reinstating the
princely house in Osroene.
The power of Ardashir, the Sassanian, however, was already
rising, and the Parthian Artabanus died in battle in 224 (or 227);
and Ardashir proposed to prove himself the successor of the
Achaemenidae. Hatra resisted the first Persian attack as it
4 The earliest inscription in Syriac yet known dates from A.D. 77,
and was found at Serrin (opposite Kal'at en-Najm) by von
Oppenheim.
MESOPOTAMIA
185
bad resisted Rome; but Mesopotamia was overrun, Nislbis and
Carrhae being taken (233). It was immediately, indeed, recov-
ered by Alexander Severus, and retained, whatever
Period*. a " was tne P rec i se success of the war ; but Nis.Ibis and
Carrhae were retaken by the Persians in the reign of
Maximin. Under Gordian III. in 242 Mesopotamia was entered
by a great Roman army which recovered Carrhae and Ni$ibis, and
defeated the Persians at Rhesaena; but when Gordian, after a
difficult march down the Khabur, was murdered at Zaitha below
Circesium, Philip the Arabian (244) made the best terms he could
with Shapur I. Whatever they were, the Roman garrisons seem
not to have been really withdrawn. A rest for Mesopotamia seems
to have followed; but in 258 Shapur, tempted by the troubles in
the Roman empire, overran the country taking Nisibis and
Carrhae, and investing Edessa, and when Valerian invaded
Mesopotamia he was eventually made prisoner, by Edessa (260).
After Shapur's cruel victories in Syria, however, he was defeated
by Odaenathus, who relieved Edessa, and Mesopotamia became
for ten years practically part of an Arabian Empire (see PALMYRA),
as it was to be four centuries later. In consequence of the
revolt of Zenobia Mesopotamia was lost to Rome, and the
Euphrates became the frontier. Aurelian overthrew the
Palmyran rule; but he was assassinated before he could carry
out his intended expedition against Persia, Probus was assas-
sinated before he was able to do anything (or much), and
although Carus easily overran Mesopotamia, which became
Roman again, and even took Ctesiphon, the Romans retreated
on his death (283-4). The next incident is the defeat of
Galerius, between Carrhae and Callinicus, where he had entered
Mesopotamia (about 296), in the war provoked by Narses in
consequence of his relations with Armenia. When it was
retrieved by a signal victory, Diocletian advanced to Nislbis
and thence dictated terms of peace by which Mesopotamia to
the Tigris was definitely ceded to Rome (298).
One result of the connexion with Rome was, naturally, that
Mesopotamia came within the range of the Decian, and later
the Diocletian persecutions (see EDESSA: Sassanian Period).
At the Nicene Council there were bishops from Nislbis (Jacob),
Rhesaena, Macedonopolis (on the Euphrates, west of Edessa),
and Persia (Harnack, Mission and Expansion of Christianity,
ii. 146; see generally 142-152).
After a forty years' peace the struggle was resumed by
Shapur II. Nislbis thrice endured unsuccessful siege (338, 346,
350), although meanwhile Constantine had suffered defeat
at Singara (348). Then Mesopotamia enjoyed two short rests
(separated by a sharp struggle) while the rivals were engaged
elsewhere, when in 363 Julian (17.11.) made his disastrous
attempt, and Jovian bought peace at the price, among other things,
of Singara and Nislbis i.e. practically all eastern Mesopotamia.
The surrender of Nislbis, which had been in the possession
of Rome for so many generations, caused consternation among
the Christians, and Ephraem (q.v.) moved to Edessa, where his
"school of the Persians " soon became famous (see EDESSA). In
the war of 421. in which the north-east of Mesopotamia was
chiefly concerned, the Romans failed to take Nislbis, and it
became a natural rallying point for the Nestorians after the
decision of Ephesus (431). Matters were still more complicated
when the Western Christians of Edessa found themselves unable
to accept the ruling of Chalcedon against Monophysitism in 451
(see MONOPHYSITES), and there came to be three parties:
Nestorians (q.v.), Jacobites (see JACOBITE CHURCH) and Mel-
chites (q.v.).
In the beginning of the 6th century there was another severe
struggle in Mesopotamia, which found an anonymous Syriac
historian (see EDESSA), and in infringement of agreement the
Romans strongly fortified Dara against Nislbis. The Persian
invasion of Syria under Kavadh I. (q.v.) was driven back by
Belisarius; but the latter was defeated in his pursuit at Rakka
(531). The peace begun by Chosroes I. (532) was not long
kept, and Roman Mesopotamia, except the pagan Harran,
suffered severely (540), Edessa undergoing a trying siege (544).
The fifty years' peace also (562) was short lived; the Romans
again failed in an attempt to recover Nislbis (573), whilst
Chosroes' siege of Dara was successful. Mesopotamia naturally
suffered during the time of confusion that preceded and followed
the accession of Chosroes II., and the Romans recovered their
old frontier (591).
With the accession of Phocas (602) began the great war which
shook the two kingdoms. The loss of Edessa, where Narses
revolted, was temporary; but the Roman fortress of Dara fell
after nine months' siege (c. 605) ; Harran, Ras al-' Ain and Edessa
followed in 607, many of the Christian inhabitants being trans-
ported to the Far East, and Chosroes carried the victorious arms
of Persia far into the Roman Empire. Finally Heraclius turned
the tide, and Kavadh II. restored the conquests of his pre-
decessor. The Syrian Christians, however, found that they
had only exchanged the domination of a Zoroastrian monarch
for an unsympathetic ecclesiastical despotism. In the confusion
that followed, when men of letters had to live and work in exile,
Nislbis set up for a time (631-632) a grandson of Chosroes II.
Finally all agreed on Yazdegerd III.; but, while Chosroes II. and
Heraclius had been at death grips with each other a great
invasion had been preparing in Arabia.
The Arab tribes in Mesopotamia were Christian, and Heraclius
at Edessa hoped for their support; but Karklsiya and Hit
succumbed (636), and then Tekrit; and Heraclius
retired to Samosata. When in 638 he made another
attempt, it is said at the entreaty of the Mesopotamian
Christians, Arab forces appeared before Rakka, Edessa, Nasibin
and other places, and all Mesopotamia was soon in the hands of
the Arabs. Henceforth it looked to Damascus and to Kufa
and Basra, instead of to Constantinople or Ctesiphon. The
new regime brought welcome relief to the Christian part of the
population, for the Arabs took no note of their orthodoxies or
heterodoxies. (Moawiya is said to have rebuilt the dome of the
great church at Edessa after an earthquake in 678.) Fortunately
for Mesopotamia the seats of the factions which immediately
broke the peace of Islam were elsewhere; but it could not escape
the fate of its geographical position.
The men of Rakka were compelled to help 'AH, after his march
across Mesopotamia from near Mosul, in getting a bridge made at
Ralfka to convey his men to iffin. Not long afterwards there
was a new excitement in Moawiya's incursion across to the Tigris.
The discontent under Yazid III. was keen in Mesopotamia, where
Merwan in fact got a footing, and when the troubles increased after
he became caliph he abandoned Damascus in favour of his seat
at Harran. His son was besieged by Dabbak and his Kharijites
and Saffarids in Na?lbln; but a fierce battle at Mardln ended in
Merwan's favour (745). The cruelties that accompanied the over-
throw of the Omayyad dynasty excited a revolt, which spread to
Mesopotamia, and Harran had to undergo a siege by one of Merwan's
generals. It was next besieged by al-Mansur's brother; but the
battle between the brothers was fought at Nasibin. It was decisive,
but there were further risings, involving Mesopotamia. 1
An inevitable effect of the reign of Islam had been that the
kindred language of the Arabs gradually killed the vernacular
Syriac of Mesopotamia (see EDESSA) as the alien Greek and
Persian had shown no tendency to do, and the classical period
(4th to 8th centuries) of the only Mesopotamian literature we
know, such as it is, useful but uninviting, came to an end (see
SYRIAC LITERATURE). This naturally encouraged grammatical
study. Among the Aramaic-speaking people the revolution
which displaced the Arabian court of Damascus in favour of
a cosmopolitan world centred at the Babylonian seat of the
civilizations dealt with in the preceding paragraphs naturally
gave an impulse to the wider scholarship. Translations were
made from Greek, as, e.g. by Thabit b. Qurra of Harran (d. 901),
and from Pahlavi.
Mansur built a castle at Rafiqa_ opposite Rakka to control
the country round, and his son Harun al-Rashld actually resided
during most of his reign, not at Bagdad but at Rakka, where two
generations later al-Battani of Harran was making the astronomical
observations on which his tables were based (see ALBATEGNIUS)
Abu Qurra, bishop of Harran, and acquaintance of the caliph
Ma'mun, who was one of the earlier Aramaean Christians to use
Arabic, has been thought to have contributed to the influences
1 For this and following section see further CALIPHATE and
PERSIA: History.
i86
MESOPOTAMIA
Decline of
Caliphate.
that developed the Mu'tazilite (Motazilite) sect. Nasibin was the
scene of another revolt (793) under a Kharijite leader. Harun's
son Motasim displeased the people by creating a bodyguard of
Turks, and therefore transferred his seat to Samarra. This put
the caliphs fatally at the mercy of their guards.
Mesopotamia fell partly under the power of Ahmad ibn Julun
of Egypt and his son; but before the end of the gth century the
Hamdanids, descendants of the Arab tribe of Taghlib,
were in possession of Mardin, and in 919 one of them
was governor of Diar Rabi'a. Later the brothers
Nasir ad-Daula and Saif ad-Daula ruled over Mesopotamia and
North Syria respectively. Meanhwile the caliph Mottaqi appeared
as a fugitive at Mosul, Nasibin, Rakka (944). The Hamdanids
were followed by the "Oqaylids, who had their seats at various
places, such as Mosul, Nasibin, Rakka, Harran, between 996 and
1096. By 1055 the Seljuks had taken the caliph under their charge.
They arrived at Jerusalem in 1076, the first crusaders reached Asia
in 1097, and Bit Adini became the countship of Edessa (q.v.).
The power of the Seljuks auickly disintegrated. The son of a
slave of the third Seljuk sultan, Zangi, governor of 'Irak, made
himself gradually (Mosul, Sinjar, Jezira, Harran) master of Meso-
potamia (1128), capturing Edessa in 1144. Mesopotamia fell to
one of his sons, Saif ad-Din, and branches sprang up at Sinjar and
Jezira. To the same period belong other Atabeg dynasties;
Begtiglnids at Harran, Tekrit, &c. ; Ortokids at Edessa, 'Ana, &c.,
with Mardin ag their headquarters. By 1185-1186 Saladin had
made Egypt supreme over all these principalities, thus achieving
what the XVIIIth and XlXth Egyptian dynasties had attempted in
vain. Mesopotamia remained in the hands of the Ayyubite family
till the appearance of the Mongols. The petty principalities were
unable to unite to resist the terrible attack, and Jezira, Edessa,
Nasibin, Maridin, &c., fell in 1259-60. The leading men of
Harran emigrated into Syria, the rest were carried into slavery,
and the ancient town was laid in ruins. It was the Mamluk rulers
of Egypt that checked the death-bringing flood. Near Bira was
the scene of one of their victories (in 1273), and their authority
extended to Karkisiya. The Ortokid dynasty survived the Mongol
inundation, and it was in the I4th century that its laureate Safiy
ad-Din al-Hilli flourished. From the Mongol invasions of the
I3th century western Asia has never recovered. Then, before
the next century was out, came the invasion of Timur (1393-94).
The Ortokids were followed by the Karakuyunli. In 1502 Meso-
potamia passed for a time into the hands of the Safawid shah,
Ishmael; but in 1516 it came under the Osmanli Turks, to whom it
has belonged ever since. The inroad of the Persians in the 1 7th
century was confined to the south.
Since Mesopotamia finally came into the power of the Ottoman
sultans considerable changes in the population have occurred.
About that time parts of a confederation of tribes
which had taken the name of Shammar from a moun-
tain in their neighbourhood, moved northwards
from Central Arabia in search of better pasture, &c. Successfully
displacing their forerunners, they made themselves at home in
the Syrian steppe until their possession was in- turn disputed
by a later emigrant from Arabia, for whom they finally made
room by moving on into Mesopotamia, over which they spread,
driving before them their predecessors the Tai (whose name the
Mesopotamian Aramaeans had adopted as a designation for
Arab in general), partly north of the Sinjar, partly over the
Tigris. Others they forced to abandon the nomadic life, and
settle by the Khabur (e.g. the Jebur) or the Euphrates. These
adjustments, it is supposed, had been effected by 1700.
In 1831 'AH, a newly appointed Turkish governor of Bagdad,
induced Sufug the chief of the Jerba, the more important division
of the Shammar, to help him to dislodge his predecessor, Daud,
who would not vacate his position, but then refused them the
promised payment. To defend himself from the enraged Shammar
"AH summoned the 'Anaza from across the Euphrates. Having
also succeeded in detaching part of the Shammar under Shlosh, he
told the 'Anaza he no longer needed their help. In the futile
attempt of the three parties to dislodge the 'Anaza Shlosh lost his
life; but with the help of the Zubeid the other two succeeded, and
Sufug was now supreme " King of the Steppe," levying blackmail
as he pleased. Other methods of disposing of him having failed,
the Porte made his nephew a rival sheikh; but he basely assassinated
him. Sufug then suffered the same fate himself at the hands of
the pasha, but has since become a hero. Two of his sons became
involved in a quarrel with the government, in consequence of which
for years all Mesopotamia was in danger, till the second was put
to death in 1868, and Ferhan, the eldest son, a peaceable man who
had been made pasha, became supreme. One of Sufug's widows
had fled to her Tai kindred in Central Arabia with her youngest
son Paris; but when he grew up she brought him back in the seven-
ties, and he immediately attracted a great following. He kept
to the far north of Mesopotamia to avoid his brother Ferhan; but
Nomad
Arabs,
finally half-sedentary tribes on the Khabur and the Belikh became
:ributary to him, and a more or less active warfare sprang up
aetween the brothers, which ended in a partition of Mesopotamia.
Ferhan and the South Shammar claimed the steppe south-east
of a line from Mosul to Mayadin (just below Karkisiya), and
Fans and the North Shammar the north-west. Since Ferhan's
death the Porte has favoured one after another of his many sons,
hoping to keep the South Shammar disunited, especially as they
are more than the others. The Shammar have been in undis-
puted mastery from Urfa to the neighbourhood of Bagdad,
practically all tribes paying khuwwa to them, and even the
towns, till the government garrisoned them. Some 60 of these
more or less nomadic communities, of one or two thousand
tents (or houses) each, representing a population of several
hundred thousands are described by Oppenheim. Each has its
recognized camping ground, usually one for summer and another
for winter. Most of them are Arab and Mahommedan. Some
are Christian and some are not Arab: viz. Kurds, Turkomans
or Circassians. For some years the Porte has been applying
steady pressure on the nomads to induce them to settle, by
increasing the number of military posts, by introducing Circas-
sian colonies, as at Ras al-'Ain, sometimes by forcible settlement.
More land is thus being brought under cultivation, the disturbing
elements are being slowly brought under control, and life and
property are becoming more secure.
Security is what the country chiefly needs. Hence its
primary interest in the railway scheme, with a view to agri-
cultural development and perhaps the growth of
cotton; Sir W. Willcocks' irrigation schemes had rime.
not up to 1910 affected " Mesopotamia " directly.
Apparently the real problem is one of population adequate to
effect the improvements demanded. The new regime introduced
in 1908 seems to justify a hopeful attitude. Apart from the
disturbing effects of recent events in Persia, an exposition of
present conditions would show progress. Exact statistics are not
available because the vilayet of Mosul (35, 13osq. m., 351, 200 pop.)
takes in on the east territory with which we are not concerned, and
omits the Osroene district, which goes with Aleppo. Urfa is a
town of 55,000; Mosul, 61,000, Bagdad, 145,000. The exports of
Mosul for 1908 were (in thousands of pounds sterling): United
Kingdom 195, India 42, other countries 52, parts of Turkey 218;
the imports: United Kingdom 56, India 16, other countries 35,
parts of Turkey 24. The language is in most parts Arabic; but
Turkish is spoken in Blrejik and Urfa, Kurdish and Armenian
south of Diarbekr, and some Syriac in Tur 'Abdln. There are
Christian missionary institutions of European origin in various
places, such as Urfa, Mardin, Mosul. An interesting survival
of early faiths is to be found in the Yezidis of the Sinjar
district.
AUTHORITIES Land and People: full references to Greek, Latin,
Arabic and other writers are given in Ritter, Erdkunde x. 6-284.
921-1149; xi. 247-510, 660-762; for the conditions since the Arab
conquest, Guy le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (1905),
chiefly pp. 86-114, ls especially useful. Of recent works the follow-
ing are valuable: E. Sachau, Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien (1883) ;
M. v. Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum Persischen Golf, vol. ii (1889).
We may mention further D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East (1902),
passim; K. Regling, " Zur histonschen Geographic des meso-
potamischen Parallelograms" (Sarug district), in Klio, I. 443-476;
M. Sykes, " Journeys in North Mesopotamia " in Geog. Journal,
xxx. 237-254, 384-395 ; " The Western Bend of the Euphrates,"
op. cit. xxxiv. 61-65 (plans of two castles); D. Eraser, Short Gut to
India (1909); W. Kurz, " Beurteilung der Aussichten auf eine
Wiederbelebung der Kultur der Euphrat- und Tigrisniederung,"
in Deutsche geographische Blatter, xxxi. I47-I79 (i98); E. Pears,
" The Bagdad Railway," in Contemp. Rev., 1908, 57-59i ; K.
Baedeker, Palestine and Syria (1906), pp. 389-412. The annual
Consular Reports most nearly bearing on Mesopotamia are those
for Aleppo, Mosul, Bagdad and Basra. ,
Maps. The following deserve special mention: v. Oppenheim,
op. cit., a most valuable large scale folding map in pockets of volumes ;
Sachau. op. cit.; M. Sykes, Geog. Journ.xx-n. opp. p. 356, and xxxiv.
opp. p. 120; Hogarth, op. cit., orographic, &c.
Excavations at 'Arban: A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1849-
1851), pp. 230-242; at Tell Khalaf: M. v. Oppenheim, Der Tell
Halaf (1908), in the Der alte Orient series (see an account by J. L.
Myres in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 139-144;
at Asshur: Sendschnften der deutsch. or. Gesellsch., and W. Andrae,
MESOXALIC ACID MESOZOA
187
Der Anu Adad Tempel (1909). See also D. G. Hogarth, " Car-
chamesh and its Neighbourhood " (Annals, &c. ii. 165-184), and
W. Andrae's Die Ruinen von Hatra (1908).
History. Early period: besides the histories of Babylonia and
Assyria see Winckler, various essays in his Altor. Forschungen,
" Vorlaufige Nachrichten iiber die Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-koi
im Sommer, 1907," in Mitteilungen der Deutsch. Orient. Cesellschaft,
No. 35, and " Suri " in Oriental. Lit.-Zeit, x. 281-299, 345-357,
401-412, 643; O. Weber, the notes to Knudtzon's Die El-Amarna
Tafeln; A. Ungnad, Untersuchungen zu den . . . Urkunden aus
Dilbat (1909), pp. 8-21 ; P. Schnabel, Studien "Mr bab.-assyrischen
Chronologic (1908) ; A. Sanda, Die Aramder (1902) in the Der Alte
Orient series; M. Streck, " Cber die alteste Geschichte der Aramaer "
in Klio, vi. 185-225. For the later periods see PERSIA: History;
HELLENISM; ROME: History; PARTHIA;SYRIACL,ITERATURE;CALI-
PHATE and authorities there given. (H. W. H.)
MESOXALIC ACID (dioxymalonic acid), (HO 2 C) 2 C(OH) 2 or
Ie, is obtained by hydrolysis of alloxan with baryta water
(J. v. Liebig, Ann., 1838, 26, p. 298), by warming caffuric acid
with lead acetate solution (E. Fischer, Ann., 1882, 215, p. 283),
or from glycerin diacetate and concentrated nitric acid in the
cold (E. Seelig, Ber., i89i,'24, p. 3471). It crystallizes in delique-
scent prisms and melts with partial decomposition at 1 19-1 20 C.
It behaves as a ketonic acid, being reduced in aqueous solution
by sodium amalgam to tartronic acid, and also combining
with phenylhydrazine and hydroxylamine. It reduces ammo-
niacal silver solutions. When heated with urea to 100 C. it
forms allantoin. By continued boiling of its aqueous solution it
is decomposed into carbon dioxide and glyoxylic acid, C 2 H 4 O4.
MESOZOA. Van Beneden ' gave this name to a small group
of minute and parasitic animals which he regarded as inter-
mediate between the
Protozoa and the Meta-
zoa. The Mesozoa com-
prise two classes: (i)
the Rhombozoa, which
are found only in the
kidneys of Cephalopods,
and(2)the Orthonectida,
which infest specimens
of Ophiurids, Poly-
chaets,Nemertines,Tur-
bellaria and possibly
other groups.
Class I. RHOMBOZOA
(E.vanBeneden). These
animals consist of a
central cell from which
certain reproductive cells
arise, enclosed in a single
layer of flattened and for
the most part ciliated
cells; some of them are
modified at the anterior
end and form the polar
cap. The Rhombozoa
comprises two orders: (a)
Dicyemida, ciliated ver-
miform creatures whose
polar cap has 8 or 9 cells
arranged in two rows
(Dicyema, Koll., Dicye-
mennea, Whitm.) ; (b)He-
terocyemida, non-ciliated
animals with no polar
(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. "Worms, cap, but whose anterior
&c.," by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd. After ectodermal cells contain
Gamble.) refringent bodies and
may be produced into
wart-like processes (Con-
in- ocyema, v. Ben. in Octopus
mdgaris; Microcyema in
Sepia officinalis) . Unlike
FIG. i. Dicyemennea eledones Wag.
from the kidney of Eledone moschata.
A. Full-grown Rhombogen with
fusoriform embryos (emb).
g. Part of endoderm cell where forma-
tion of the embryos is actively proceeding, the Dicyemida, which are
n. ect. Nucleus of ectoderm cell.
n. end. Nucleus of endoderm cell.
/>. " Calotte."
B. Developing infusoriform embryo.
C. One fully developed.
D. " Calotte " of nine cells.
fixed in the renal cells of
their host by their polar
cap, the Heterocyemida
are free. The number of
ectoderm cells apart from
the polar cap is few, some
fourteen to twentv-two.
1 Bull. Ac. Belgique (1876), p. 35.
The central cell is formed by the layer of the first two blastomeres,
and remains cjuiescent until surrounded by the micromeres or
products of division of the smaller blastomere. It then divides
unequally, and of the two cells thus formed the larger repeats the
process. Each of the two small cells are now called primary
germ cells," and they enter into and lie inside the Jarge central
cell. The primary germ cells divide until there are eight of them
all lying within the axial cell. At this stage the future of the
parasite may take one of two directions. Following one path,
the animal (now called a " Nematogen ") gives rise by the segmenta-
tion of its primary germ cells to vermiform larvae which, though
smaller, are but replicas of the parent form. Following the other
path, the animal (now termed a " Rhombogen ") gives origin to a
number of " infusoriform larvae," several of these arising from each
primary germ-cell. The vermiform larvae leave their Nematogen
parent and swimming through the renal fluid attach themselves to
the renal cells. They never leave their hrt, and die in sea-water.
The infusoriform larvae have a very complicated structure; they
escape from the Rhombogen, and, unlike the vermiform larvae
they can live in sea-water. They possibly serve to infect new
hosts. Some authorities look upon these infusoriform larvae as
males, and consider that they fertilize some of the Nematogens,
92
91
(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, ftc.," by permission of
Macmillan & Co. Ltd. After Julin.)
FIG. 2. Rhopalura giardii Metschn. from Amphiura squamata.
rf . Full grown male X8oo.
? I. Flattened form of female X 510.
?2. Cylindrical female X 510.
which then give rise to males again, whereas the females which
produce the vermiform embryos arise from unfertilized vermiform
larvae. After the infusoriform larvae have left the parent's body,
the Rhombogen takes to producing vermiform offspring, and thus
becomes a secondary Nematogen. Thus, if the above views be
correct, a Rhombogen is a protandrous hermaphrodite.
E. Nerescheimer has recently described under the name of
Lohmanella catenate an organism parasitic in Fritillaria which shows
marked affinities with the Rhombozoa. The genus Haplozoon of
which two species have been found in the worms Travisia and
Clymene by Dogiel is classed as a new group of Mesozoa.
Class II. ORTHONECTIDA (A. Giard). The Orthonectida contain
animals with a central mass of eggs destined to form male and female
reproductive cells surrounded by a single layer of ciliated ectoderm
cells arranged in regular rings which contain varying numbers of
rows of cells. Muscular fibrils occur between the outer and inner
cells. The sexes are separate and unlike, and there are two kinds
of females, cylindrical and flat. There are but two genera, Rhopalura
and Staecharthrum, the latter found in a Polychaet. The male
R. giardii lives in the body-cavity of Amphiura squamata, has six
rings of ectodermal cells all ciliated except the second, whose cells
contain refringent granules. The ectoderm encloses the testis, a
mass of cells which have arisen from a single axial cell in the embryo.
The female differs from the male in appearance, and in size it is
larger. It occurs in two forms_: (i) The cylindrical with _ 8 (or 9)
rows of ectoderm cells ; here as in the male the second ring is devoid
of cilia. (2) The flat females are broader, uniformly ciliated, and
have not rings of ectoderm cells. The central mass of cells forms
MESOZOIC ERA MESSAGER
ova which are free in the cylindrical forms; they leave the mother
through the dehiscing of the cells of the non-ciliated ring, are
fertilized and develop parthenogenetically into females both flat
and cylindrical.
R. pelseneeri and 5. giardi are said to be hermaphrodite. The
parasites first make their appearance in a host in the form of a
plasmodium comparable with the sporocyst of a Trematode. By the
segregation of nuclei and some of the surrounding protoplasm,
germ cells arise which develop into ciliated larvae and ultimately
into males and females which only discharge their spermatozoa and
ova when they reach sea-water. The oroduct of the consequent
fertilization is unknown ; presumably it infects new hosts, entering
them in the form of a nucleated plasmodium.
The original idea that in the Rhombozoa and Orthonectida we
had animals intermediate between the Protozoa and Metazoa is no
longer widely held. The modern view is that the simplicity of
their structure is secondary and not primary, and is correllated
with their parasitic habit of life. They are probably derived from
some Platyhelminthine ancestor and perhaps come nearer to the
Trematoda than to any other group.
LITERATURE. E. van Beneden, Bull. Ac. Belgique (2), (1876) xli.
85, 116; (1876), xlii. 35; also Arch. Biol. (1882), iii. 197; C. O.
Whitman, ML Slat. Neapel. (1883), iv. i; W. M. Wheeler, Zool.
Anz., (1899), xxii. 169; A. Giard, Jour. anal, physiol. (1879), xv.
449; Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. (1880), xx. 225; St Joseph, Butt. Soc.
Zool. France (1896), xxi. 58; Caullery and Mesnil, C. R. ac. sci.
(1899), cxxviii. 457 and 516; C. Julin, Arch. Biol. (1882), iii. i;
E. Nerescheimer, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1904), Ixxvi. 137; V. A.
Dogiel, Trail, soc. imp. natur. St Pktersbourg (1907), xxxviii. 28, and
Zool. Anz. (1906), xxx. 895. (A. E. S.)
MESOZOIC ERA, in geology, the name given to the period
of time between the Palaeozoic and Cainozoic eras; it is synony-
mous with the older and less satisfactory term " Secondary "
as applied to the major divisions of geological time and with
the " Flozgebirge " of the Wernerian school. This era is sub-
divided into a lower, Triassic, a middle, Jurassic, and an upper,
Cretaceous period or epoch. The duration of the Mesozoic
era was not more than one fourth of that of the Palaeozoic era,
measured by the thickness of strata formed during these periods.
It was an era marked by peaceful conditions in the earth's crust
and by a general freedom from volcanic activity. The sediments
as a whole are characterized by the prevalence of limestones
as compared with those of the preceding era; they are seldom
much altered or disturbed except in the younger mountain
regions. Mammals, represented by small marsupials, and
primitive forms of birds and bony fishes make their first appear-
ance in rocks of Mesozoic age. Saurian reptiles played an
extremely prominent part; ammonites and belemnites lived in
extraordinary variety in the seas along with the echinoids and
pelecypods, which had to a great extent supplanted the crinoids
and brachiopods of the preceding periods. The first clear
indications of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous angio-
sperms made their appearance, while Cycads and Conifers
constituted the bulk of the land flora.
MESQUITE, or HONEY LOCUST, in botany, a tree, native of
the southern United States and extending southwards through
Mexico and the Andean region to Chile and the Argentine
Republic. It is known botanically as Prosopis julifiora, and
belongs to the natural order Leguminosae (suborder Mimoseae).
It reaches 40 or 50 ft. in height with a trunk usually not more
than 6 to 1 2 in. in diameter, and divided a short distance above
the ground into numerous irregular crooked branches forming
a loose straggling head. The remarkable development of its
main root in relation to water-supply renders it most valuable
as a dry-country plant; the root descends to a great depth in
search of water, and does not branch or decrease much in
diameter till this is reached. It can thus flourish where no
other woody plant can exist, and its presence and condition
afford almost certain indications of the depth of the water-level.
When the plant attains the size of a tree, water will be found
within 40 or 50 ft. of the surface; when it grows as a bush,
between 50 or 60 ft.; while, when the roots have to descend
below 60 ft., the stems are only 2 or 3 ft. high. These woody
roots supply valuable fuel in regions where no wood of fuel value
is produced above ground. The leaves are compound, the
main axis bearing two or sometimes four secondary axes on
which are borne a number of pairs of narrow bluntish leaflets.
The minute greenish-white fragrant flowers are densely crowded
on slender cylindrical spikes from ij to 4 in. long; the long
narrow pods are constricted between the seeds, of which they
contain from ten to thirty surrounded by a thick spongy layer of
sweet pulp. The wood is heavy, hard and close-grained, but
not very strong; it is almost indestructible in contact with soil,
and is largely used for fence-posts and railway ties. The ripe
pods supply the Mexicans and Indians with a nutritious food;
and a gum resembling gum arabic exudes from the stem.
An allied species Prosopis pubescens, a small tree or tall shrub,
native of the arid regions of the south-western United States,
is known as the screw-bean or screw-pod mesquite from the
fact that the pods are twisted into a dense screw-like spiral;
they are used for fodder and are sweet and nutritious, but
smaller and less valuable than those of the mesquite.
For a fuller account of these trees see Charles Sprague Sargent,
Silva of North America, iii. p. 99 (1892).
MESS (an adaptation of 0. Fr. mes, mod. mels; Ital. messo;
derived from the Late Lat. missum, past participle of mittere
" to send or place in position "), a service of meat, a dish sent to
table. The term is also used of the persons who are in the habit
of eating their meals together, and thus particularly of the
parties into which a ship's company or a regiment is divided,
either according to their rank, or for convenience in catering.
Originally, a mess in this sense was a group of four persons
sitting at one table and helped from the same dishes. In the
Inns of Court, London, the original number is preserved, four
benchers or four students dining together.
In early times the word mess was applied to food of a more or less
liquid character, as soup, porridge, broth, &c. It is probably in
allusion to the sloppy nature of semi-liquid messes of food that a
mess has come also to mean a state of disorder, confusion and
discomfort. Skeat takes the word in this sense to be a variant of
" mash," originally to mix up.
MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in
several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span, mensaje, Ital. messagio;
adapted from the Low Lat. missalicum, from mittere), a com-
munication either verbal, written or printed, sent from one
person to another. Message is the term generally applied to the
official communications addressed by the heads of states to their
legislatures at the opening of the session or at other times. These
also, though written, are borne and delivered by special messen-
gers and have the force of a face to face speech. The sessional
and other messages to Congress of the president of the United
States of America are printed state documents. Washington
and John Adams delivered them in person but the practice was
discontinued by Jefferson.
" Messenger " is of the same derivation; the earlier form of
the word was messager (cf. passenger, scavenger). In ordinary
language the word means one who is charged with the delivery
of a message. In Scottish law a messenger-at-arms is an
official appointed by Lyon-King-at-Arms to execute summonses
and letters of diligence connected with the Court of Sessions
and Court of Justiciary (see WRIT: Scotland). Technically
the term " messenger " is given to an endless rope or chain,
passing from the capstan to the cable so that the latter may be
hauled in when the messenger is wound round the capstan;
also to a similar contrivance for hauling in a dredge.
MESSAGER, ANDRE CHARLES PROSPER (1853- ),
French musician, was born at Montlujon on the 3Oth of December
1853; he studied at Paris, and in 1874 became organist at
St Sulpice. He was for some time a pupil of Saint-Sagns. In
1876 he won the gold medal of the Societe des Compositeurs
with a symphony. In 1880 he was appointed music director
at Ste Marie-des-Batignolles. In 1883 he completed Firmin
Bernicat's comic opera Francois des has bleus; and in 1885
produced his own operettas, La Fauvetle du temple and La
Bearnaise, the latter being performed in London in 1886. His
ballet Les Deux pigeons was produced at the Paris Opera in 1886.
But it was the production of his comic opera La Basoche in
1890 at the Opera Comique (English version in London the
following year) that established his reputation; and subse-
quently this was increased by such tuneful and tasteful light
MESSALLA CORVINUS MESSAPII
189
operas as Madame Chrysanlheme (1893), Mirette (1894), Les
Petites Michus (1897), and Veronique (1898), the latter of which
had a great success in London. Besides conducting for some
years at the Opera Comique in Paris, Messager's services were
also secured in London in 1901 and later years as one of the
directors of the Covent Garden opera.
MESSALLA CORVINUS, MARCUS VALERIUS (64 B.C.-A.D. 8),
Roman general, author and patron of literature and art. He
was educated partly at Athens, together with Horace and the
younger Cicero. In early life he became attached to republican
principles, which he never abandoned, although he avoided
offending Augustus by too open an expression of them. He
moved that the title of pater patriae should be bestowed upon
Augustus, and yet resigned the appointment of praefect of
the city after six days' tenure of office, because it was opposed
to his ideas of constitutionalism. In 43 B.C. he was proscribed,
but managed to escape to the camp of Brutus and Cassius.
After the battle of Philippi (42) he went over to Antony, but
subsequently transferred his support to Octavian. In 31
Messalla was appointed consul in place of Antony, and took
part in the battle of Actium. He subsequently held commands
in the East, and suppressed the revolted Aquitanians; for this
latter feat he celebrated a triumph in 27.
Messalla restored the road between Tusculum and Alba, and
many handsome buildings were due to his initiative. His
influence on literature, which he encouraged after the manner
of Maecenas, was considerable, and the group of literary persons
whom he gathered round him including Tibullus, Lygdamus
and the poet Sulpicia has been called " the Messalla circle."
With Horace and Tibullus he was on intimate terms, and Ovid
expresses his gratitude to him as the first to notice and encourage
his work. The two panegyrics by unknown authors (one
printed among the poems of Tibullus as iv. i , the other included
in the Catalepton, the collection of small poems attributed to
Virgil) indicate the esteem in which he was held. Messalla was
himself the author of various works, all of which are lost. They
included Memoirs of the civil wars after the death of Caesar,
used by Suetonius and Plutarch; bucolic poems in Greek;
translations of Greek speeches; occasional satirical and erotic
verses; essays on the minutiae of grammar. As an orator, he
followed Cicero instead of the Atticizing school, but his style
was affected and artificial. Later critics considered him superior
to Cicero, and Tiberius adopted him as a model. Late in life
he wrote a work on the great Roman families, wrongly identified
with an extant poem De progenie Augusti Caesaris bearing the
name of Messalla, but really a 1 5th-century production.
Monographs by L. Wiese (Berlin, 1829), J. M. Valeton (Groningen,
1874), L. Fontaine (Versailles, 1878); H. Schulz, De M. V. aetate
(1886); "Messalla in Aquitania " by J. P. Postgate in Classical
Review, March 1903; W. Y. Sellar, Roman Poets of the Augustan
Age. Horace and the Elegiac Poets (Oxford, 1892), pp. 213 and 221
to 258 ; the spurious poem ed. by R. Mecenate (1820).
Two other members of this distinguished family of the Valerian
gens may be mentioned:
1. MARCUS VALERIUS MESSALLA, father of the preceding,
consul in S3 B.C. He was twice accused of illegal practices
in connexion with the elections; on the first occasion he was
acquitted, in spite of his obvious guilt, through the eloquence
of his uncle Quintus Hortensius; on the second he was con-
demned. He took the side of Caesar in the civil war. Nothing
appears to be known of his later history. He was augur for
fifty-five years and wrote a work on the science of divination.
Cicero, Ad Fam. vi. 18, viii. 4, ad Atticum, iv. 16; Dip Cassius xl.
17, 45; Bellum africanum, 28; Macrobius, Saturnalia, i. 9, 14;
Aulus Gellius.xiii. 14, 3.
2. MANIUS VALERIUS MAXIMUS CORVINUS MESSALLA, consul
263 B.C. In this year, with his colleague Manius Otacilius
(or Octacilius) Crassus, he gained a brilliant victory over the
Carthaginians and Syracusans; the honour of a triumph was
decreed to him alone. His relief of Messana obtained him the
cognomen Messalla, which remained in the family for nearly
800 years. To commemorate his Sicilian victory, he caused it
to be pictorially represented on the wall of the Curia Hostilia,
the first example of an historical fresco at Rome. . He is said
also to have brought the first sun-dial from Catana to Rome,
where it was set up on a column in the forum.
Polybius i. 16; Diod. Sic. xxiii. 4; Zonaras viii. 9; Pliny, flat.
Hist., vii. 60, xxxv. 4 (7).
MESSALLINA, VALERIA, the third wife of the Roman
emperor Claudius (q.v.). She was notorious for her profligacy,
avarice and ambition, a*id exercised a complete ascendancy
over her weak-minded husband, with the help of his all-powerful
freedmen. During the absence of Claudius from the city,
Messallina forced a handsome youth named Gaius Silius to
divorce his wife and go through a regular form of marriage with
her. The freedman Narcissus, warned by the fate of another
freedman Polybius, who had been put to death by Messallina,
informed Claudius of what had taken place, and persuaded him
to consent to the removal of his wife. She was executed in the
gardens of Lucullus, which she had obtained on the death of
Valerius Asiaticus, who through her machinations had been
condemned on a charge of treason. She was only twenty-six
years of age. By Claudius she was the mother of the unfortunate
Britannicus, and of Octavia, wife of Nero.
See Tacitus, Annals, xi. 1-38; Dio. Cassius Ix. 14-31 ; Juvenal vi.
HS-^S. x. 333, xiv. 331; Suetonius, Claudius; Merivale, Hist, of
the Romans under the Empire ch. 50; A. Stahr, " Agrippina " in
Bilder aus dem Alterthume, iv. (1865).
MESSAPII, an ancient tribe which inhabited, in historical
times, the south-eastern peninsula or " heel " of Italy, known
variously in ancient times as Calabria, Messapia and lapygia.
Their chief towns were Uzentum, Rudiae, Brundisium and tlria.
They are mentioned (Herod, vii. 170) as having inflicted a serious
defeat on the Greeks of Tarentum in 473 B.C. Herodotus adds
a tradition which links them to the Cretan subjects of "King
Minos." Their language is preserved for us in a scanty group
of perhaps fifty inscriptions of which only a few contain more
than proper names, and in a few glosses in ancient writers
collectedly Mommsen (Unteritalische Dialekte, p. 70). Unluckily
very few originals of the inscriptions are now in existence,
though some few remain in the museum at Taranto. The only
satisfactory transcripts are those given by (i) Mommsen (loc.
cit.) and by (2) I. P. Droop in the Annual of the British School
at Athens (1905-1906), xii. 137, who includes, for purposes of
comparison, as the reader should be warned, some specimens
of the unfortunately numerous class of forged inscriptions. A
large number of the inscriptions collected by Gamurrini in the
appendices to Fabretti's Corpus inscriptionum italicarum are
forgeries, and the text of the rest is negligently reported. It is
therefore safest to rely on the texts collected by Mommsen,
cumbered though they are by the various readings given to him
by various authorities. In spite, however, of these difficulties
some facts of considerable importance have been established.
The inscriptions, so far as it is safe to judge from the copies
of the older finds and from Droop's facsimiles of the newer, are
all in the Tarentine-Ionic alphabet (with [ for v and [ for h).
For limits of date 400-150 B.C. may be regarded as approxi-
mately probable; the two most. important inscriptions those of
Bindisi and Vaste may perhaps be assigned provisionally to
the 3rd century B.C.
Mommsen's first attempt at dealing with the inscriptions and
the language attained solid, if not very numerous, results, chief
of which were the genitival character of the endings aihi and
ihi; and the conjunctional value of inOi (loc, cit. 70-84 sqq.).
Since that time (1850) very little progress has been made.
There is, in fact, only one attempt known to the present writer
to which the student can be referred as proceeding upon
thoroughly scientific lines, that of Professor AH Torp in Indoger-
manische Forschungen (1895), v., 195, which deals fully with the
two inscriptions just mentioned, and practically sums up all
that is either certain or probable in the conjectures of his pre-
decessors. Hardly more than a few words can be said to have
been separated and translated with certainty kalatoras (masc.
gen. sing.) " of a herald " (written upon a herald's staff which
was once in the Naples Museum); aran (ace. sing, fern.) " arable
MESSENE MESSENIA
land "; mazzes, " greater " (neut. ace. sing.), the first two
syllables of the Latin maiestas; while tepise (3rd sing, aorist
indie.) " placed " or " offered "; and forms corresponding to the
article (to- = Greek rt>) seem also reasonably probable.
Some phonetic characteristics of the dialect may be regarded
as quite certain; (i) the change of the original short to & (as
in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras); (2) of final -m to -
(as in aran); (3) of -Kt--ti- -si- respectively to -nn- -t6- and -w-
as in dazohonnes " Dasonius," dazohonnihi " Dasonii "; dazetdes,
gen. dazelBihi "Dazetius, Dazetii," from the shorter stem dazet-;
Vallasso for Vattasio (a derivative from the shorter name Valla) ;
(4) the loss of final d (as in tepise), and probably of final / (as in
-des, perhaps meaning " set," from the root of Gr. rK%u) !
(5) the change of original dh to d (anda = Gr. evda. and bh to b
(beran = Lat. ferant) ; (6) -au- before (at least some) consonants
becomes -a- (Bdsta, earlier /SaDora). (7) Very great interest
attaches to the form penkaheh which Torp very probably
identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio which is a derivative
of the Indo-European numeral *penque " 5."
If this last identification be correct it would show that in
Messapian (just as in Venetic and Ligurian) the original velars
were retained as gutturals and not converted into labials. The
change of o to a is exceedingly interesting as being a phenomenon
associated with the northern branches of Indo-European such
as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not appearing in any
other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek 'A(/>poSira
appears in the form Aprodila (dat. sing., fern.). The use of
double consonants which has been already pointed out in the
Messapian inscriptions has been very acutely connected by
Deecke with the tradition that the same practice was introduced
at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town
Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M).
It should be added that the proper names in the inscriptions
show the regular Italic system of gentile nomen preceded by a
personal praenomen; and that some inscriptions show the inter-
esting feature which appears in the Tables of Heraclea of a
crest or coat of arms, such as a triangle or an anchor, peculiar
to particular families. The same reappears in the lovilae (q.v.)
of Capua and Cumae.
For further information the student must be referred to the
sources already mentioned and further to W. Deecke in a series of
articles in the Rheinisches Museum, xxxvi. 576 sqq. ; xxxvii. 373 sqq. ;
xl. 131 sqq.; xlii. 226 sqq.; S. Bugge, Bezzenbergers Beitrdge, vol. 18.
A newly discovered inscription has been published by L. Ceci
Notizie degli Scavi (1908), p. 86; and one or two others are recorded
Tarentine-Ionic alphabet see ibid, ii., 461.
For a discussion of the important ethnological question of the
origin of the Messapians see W. Helbig, Hermes, xi. 257; P.
Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache,
pp. 262 sqq., 272 sqq. ; H. Hirt, Die sprachliche Stellung der IHyrischen
(Festschrift fur H. Kiepert, pp. 179-188). Reference should also
be made to the discussion of their relation to the Veneti by C. Pauli
in Die Veneter, p. 413 sqq., especially p. 437; and also to R. S.
Conway, Italic Dialects, i. 15. (R. S. C.)
MESSENE, an ancient Greek city, the capital of Messenia,
founded by Epaminondas in 369 B.C., after the battle of Leuctra
and the first Theban invasion of the Peloponnese. The town
was built by the combined Theban and Argive armies and the
exiled Messenians who had been invited to return and found a
state which should be independent of Spartan rule. The site
was chosen by Epaminondas and lay on the western slope of
the mountain which dominates the Messenian plain and cul-
minates in the two peaks of Ithome and Eua. The former of
these (2630 ft.) served as the acropolis, and was included within
the same system of fortifications as the lower city. Messene
remained a place of some importance under the Romans, but
we hear nothing of it in medieval times and now the hamlet of
Mavromati occupies a small part of the site.
Pausanias has left us a description of the city (iv. 31-33), its
chief temples and statues, its springs, its market-place and
gymnasium, its place of sacrifice (iepodvaiov) , the tomb of the
hero Aristomenes (q.v.) and the temple of Zeus Ithomatas on the
summit of the acropolis with a statue by the famous Argive
sculptor Ageladas, originally made for the Messenian helots
who had settled at Naupactus at the close of the third Messenian
War. But what chiefly excited his wonder was the strength of
its fortifications, which excelled all those of the Greek world. Of
the wall, some s| m. in extent, considerable portions yet
remain, especially on the north and north-west, and almost the
entire circuit can still be traced, affording the finest extant
example of Greek fortification. The wall is flanked by towers
about 31 ft. high set at irregular intervals: these have two
storeys with loopholes in the lower and windows in the upper,
and are entered by doors on a level with the top of the wall which
is reached by flights of steps. Of the gates only two can be
located, the eastern or Laccnian, situated on the eastern side
of the saddle uniting Ithome and Eua, and the northern or
Arcadian gate. Of the former but little remains: the latter,
however, is excellently preserved and consists of a circular
court about 20 yds. in diameter with inner and outer gates,
the latter flanked by square towers some n yds. apart. The
lintel of the inner gate was formed by a single stone 18 ft.
8 in. in length, and the masonry of the circular court is of
astonishing beauty and accuracy. The other buildings which
can be identified are the theatre, the stadium, the council
chamber or Bouleuterion, and the propylaeum of the market,
while on the shoulder of the mountain are the foundations of
a small temple, probably that of Artemis Laphria.
See E. Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 138 sqq.; W. M. Leake, Travels in
the Morea, i. 366 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, Pausanias's Description of
Greece, iii. 429 sqq. ; W. G. Clark, Peloponnese, 232 sqq. ; A. Blouet,
Exped. scient. de Moree: Architecture, \. 37-42, Plates 38-47; E. P.
Boblaye, Recherches geogr. sur les ruines de la Moree, 107 sqq.; C.
Bursian, Geographie von Griechenland, ii. 165 sqq. (M. N. T.)
MESSENIA (Gr. Mewfivri or Monrovia), the S.W. district
of the Peloponnese, bounded on the E. by Mt Taygetus, on the
N. by the river Neda and the Arcadian Mountains, on the S.
and W. by the sea. Its area is some 825,000 acres, considerably
less than that of Shropshire or Wiltshire. Historically and
economically its most important part is the great plain,
consisting of two distinct portions, watered by the river Parnisus
(mod. Pirnatza) and its affluents. This is the most fertile tract
in Greece, and at the present day produces oranges, citrons,
almonds, figs, grapes and olives in great abundance and of
excellent quality. The plain is bounded on the north by the
Nomian Mountains (mod. Tetrasi, 5210 ft.) and their westerly
extension, on the west by the mountains of Cyparissia (4000 ft.),
a southern continuation of which forms the south-west peninsula
of the Morea, attaining its greatest height in Mt Mathia (mod.
Lykodimo 3160 ft.). Off the south coast of this peninsula
lie the three Oenussae islands and the islet of Theganussa
(Venetiko). In spite of its long coast-line, Messenia has no good
harbours except the Bay of Pylos (Navarino), and has never
played an important part in Greek naval history.
The earliest inhabitants of Messenia are said to^have been
Pelasgians and Leleges (qq.ii.), of whom the latter had their
capital at Andania. Then came an Aeolo-Minyan immigration,
which apparently extended to Messenia, though the Pylos of
Nestor almost certainly lay in Triphylia, and not at the site
which in historic times bore that name. In the Homeric poems
eastern Messenia is represented as under the rule of Menelaus
of Sparta, while the western coast is under the Neleids of Pylos,
but after Menelaus's death the Messenian frontier was pushed
eastwards as far as Taygetus. A body of Dorians under
Cresphontes invaded the country from Arcadia, and, taking as
their capital Stenyclarus in the northern plain, extended first
their suzerainty and then their rule over the whole district. The
task apparently proved an easy one, and the Dorians blending
with the previous inhabitants produced a single Messenian race
with a strong national feeling. But the fertility of the soil,
the warm and genial climate, the mingling of races and the
absence of opposition, combined to render the Messenians no
match for their hardy and warlike neighbours of Sparta. War
broke out in consequence, it was said, of the murder of the
Spartan king Teleclus by the Messenians which, in spite of
MESSIAH
191
the heroism of King Euphaes and his successor Aristodemus (q.v.)
ended in the subjection of Messenia to Sparta (p. 720 B.C.).
Two generations later the Messenians revolted and under the
leadership of Aristomenes (q.v.) kept the Spartans at bay for
some seventeen years (648-631 B.C., according to Grote): but
the stronghold of Ira (Eira) fell after a siege of eleven years,
and those Messenians who did not leave the country were reduced
to the condition of helots. The next revolt broke out in 464,
when a severe earthquake destroyed Sparta and caused great
loss of life; the insurgents defended themselves for some years
on the rock-citadel of Ithome, as they had done in the first war;
but eventually they had to leave the Peloponnese and were
settled by the Athenians at Naupactus in the territory of the
Locri Ozolae. After the battle-of Leuctra (371 B.C.) Epaminondas
invited the exiled Messenians scattered in Italy, Sicily, Africa,
and elsewhere to return to their country: the city of Messene
(q.v.) was founded in 369 to be the capital of the country and,
like Megalopolis in Arcadia, a powerful check on Sparta. Other
towns too were founded or rebuilt at this time, though a great
part of the land still remained very sparsely peopled. But
though independent Messenia never became really powerful
or able to stand without external support. After the fall of
the Theban power, to which it had owed its foundation, it
became an ally of Philip II. of Macedon and took no part in
the battle of Chaeroneia (338 B.C.). Subsequently it joined
the Achaean League, and we find Messenian troops fighting
along with the Achaeans and Antigonus Doson at SeUasia in
222 B.C. Philip V. sent Demetrius of Pharos to seize Messene,
but the attempt failed and cost the life of Demetrius: soon
afterwards the Spartan tyrant Nabis succeeded in taking the
city, but was forced to retire by the timely arrival of the Philo-
poemen and the Megalopolitans. A war afterwards broke out
with the Achaean League, during which Philopoemen was
captured and put to death by the Messenians (183 B.C.), but
Lycortas took the city in the following year, and it again joined
the Achaean League, though much weakened by the loss of
Abia, Thuria and Pherae, which broke loose from it and entered
the League as independent members (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE).
In 146 B.C. the Messenians, together with the other states of
Greece, were brought directly under Roman sway by L. Mum-
mius. For centuries there had been a dispute between
Messenia and Sparta about the possession of the Ager
Dentheliates on the western slope of Taygetus: after various
decisions by Philip of Macedon, Antigonus, Mummius, Caesar,
Antony, Augustus and others, the question was settled in
A.D. 25 by Tiberius and the Senate in favour of the
Messenians (Tac. Ann. iv. 43).
In the middle ages Messenia shared the fortunes of the rest
of the Peloponnese. It was overrun by Slavic hordes, who have
left their traces in many village names, and was one of the chief
battlefields of the various powers Byzantines, Franks, Vene-
tians and Turks who struggled for the possession of the Morea.
Striking reminders of these conflicts are afforded by the extant
ruins of the medieval strongholds of Kalamata, Coron (anc.
A sine, mod. Korone), Modon (Methane) and Pylos. At the
present day Messenia forms a department with its capital at
Kalamata, and a population numbering (according to the census
of 1907), 127,991.
See W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), i. 324 scjq. ;
E. Curtius, Pelopannesos (Gotha, 1852), ii. 121 sqq.; C. Bursian,
Geographic von Griechenland (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 155 sqq. ; E. P. Bob-
laye, Recherches geographiques sur les mines de la Moree (Paris, 1835),
103 sqq.; Strabo vhi. 358 sqq. ; Pausanias iv., and the commentary in
J. G . Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece, vol. iii.; and
articles by W. Kolbe, Athenische Mitteilungen (1904), 364 sqq.,
jnd M. N. Tod, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxv. 32 sqq. Physical
features: A. Philippsqn, Der Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892), 340-381.
Inscriptions: Inscnptiones graecae, v. ; Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage
archeologique: Inscriptions, Nos. 291-326 A; Collitz-Bechtel, Samm-
lung der griech. Dialektinschriften, iii. 2, Nos. 4637-4692.
(M. N .T.)
MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26), and MESSIAS (John i. 41; iv. 25),
transcriptions (the first form modified by reference to the
etymology ) of the Greek Meacrtas, (Mecrtas, Mecreias), which in
turn represents the Aramaic H?'*? (mishlha), answering to the
Hebrew' DTfy?, " the anointed." l There can be no doubt that
a magical power was ascribed to the anointing oil (cf. Frazer,
Golden Bough, 2nd ed., ii. 364 sqq.). The king was thereby
rendered sacrosanct (i Sam. xxiv. 6 sqq.; 2 Sam. i. 14 sqq.; iv. 9
sqq.), and he was considered to be endowed with a special virtue.
Thus whosoever curses the king is stoned as though God Himself
had been cursed (2 Sam. xix. 22). In ancient Egyptian cultus
the priest, after he has solemnly saluted the gods, begins the
daily toilet of the god, which consists in sprinkling his image,
clothing it with coloured cloths, and anointing it with oil (Erman,
Die aegyptische Religion, p. 49). In the magical texts of
Babylonia a similar virtue was attached to oil: " bright oil,
pure oil, resplendent oil that bestows magnificence on the Gods
. . . the oil for the conjuration (iiptu) of Marduk" (Tallquist,
Makl& series, tablet vii. col. i, 31 sqq.; cf. Gressmann, Der
Ursprung der israelUisch-jiid'ischen Eschatologie, p. 258, sqq.). We
have, in Schrader's K.I.B. v. letter 37 (p. 98), evidence from
the Tell el-Amarna tablets that the anointing of kings was
practised in Egypt or Syria in 1450 B.C. (c.) in a letter addressed
to the Egyptian king by Ramman-nirari of Nuhassi. On the
intimate relation which in primitive times subsisted between the
sorcerer and the king see the citation from Frazer's Early
History of Kingship, p. 127, in the article PRIEST, and cf. p. 29:
" Classical evidence points to the conclusion that in prehistoric
ages . . . the various tribes or cities were ruled by kings who
discharged priestly duties" (p. 31). Thus the early kings of
Assyria were priests of Assur (Aur), the tutelary deity of
Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. i too B.C.) calls his predecessors,
Samsi-Ramman and Ismi-Dagan, issakku (pa-te-si) of the God
Assur (Prism-insc. col. vii. 62, 63). Later kings, e.g. Shal-
maneser II. (Nimrud-obelisk, line 15, monolith, line ii) and
Assur-bani-pal (Rassam cyl. col. vii. 94) call themselves by the
more definite title of Sangu of Assur. The Hebrew word with
the article prefixed occurs in the Old Testament only in the
phrase " the anointed priest " (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16; vi. 22 [15]), but
" Yahweh's anointed " is a common title of the king of Israel,
applied in the historical books to Saul and David, in Lam. iv. 20
to Zedekiah, and in Isa. xlv. i extended to Cyrus. In the
Psalms corresponding phrases (My, Thy, His anointed) 2 occur
nine times, to which may be added the lyrical passages i Sam. ii.
10, Hab. iii. 13.
In the present attitude of literary criticism it would be most
difficult to assert, as Robertson Smith did in the 9th edition of
this work, that " in the intention of the writers it [i.e. the term
messiah or " anointed "] refers to the king then on the throne."
Nor would most recent critics agree with Professor Driver
(L.O.T., 8th ed. p. 385) in considering Pss. ii. and Ixxii. as " pre-
sumably pre-exilic." G. Buchanan Gray (J.Q.R., July 1895,
p. 658 sqq.) draws a parallel between the " king " in the Psalms
and the " servant " in Deutero-Isaiah or Yahweh's " Son "
(in Hos. xi. i, &c.) which is applied to Israel either actual or
idealized. It would be possible so to interpret " king " or
." anointed " in some Psalms, e.g. Ixi., Ixiii. and Ixx^iv., but
hardly in Pss. ii., Ixxii. and Ixxxix., where the Messianic reference
is strongly personal. 3 In the Psalms the ideal aspect of the
kingship, its religious importance as the expression and organ
of Yahweh's sovereignty, is prominent. When the Psalter
became a liturgical book the historical kingship had gone by,
and the idea alone remained, no longer as the interpretation of
a present political fact but as part of Israel's religious inherit-
ance. It was impossible, however, to think that a true idea had
become obsolete merely because it found no expression on earth
for the time being; Israel looked again for an anointed king to
whom the words of the sacred hymns should apply with a force
1 The transcription is as in Tewoiip T&nrlp for ), Onomastica,
ed. Lag., pp. 247, 281, Ba<7. ii. 3. For the termination -as for nn,
see Lagarde, Psalt. Memph., p. vii.
2 The plural is found in Ps. cv. 15, of the patriarchs as conse-
crated persons.
3 In Ps. Ixxxiv. 9 [10] it is disputed whether the anointed one
is the king, the priest, or the nation as a whole. The second view is
perhaps the best.
MESSIAH
never realized in the imperfect kingship of the past. Thus the
Psalms were necessarily viewed as prophetic; and meantime, in
accordance with the common Hebrew representation of ideal
things as existing in heaven, the true king remains hidden with
God. The steps by which this result was reached must, however,
be considered in detail.
The hope of the advent of an ideal king was only one feature
of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all evils,
which was constantly held forth by all the prophets, from the
time when the seers of the 8th century B.C. proclaimed that the
true conception of Yahweh's relation to His people could become
a practical reality only through a great deliverance following
a sifting judgment of the most terrible kind. The idea of a
judgment so severe as to render possible an entire breach with
the guilty past is common to all the prophets, but is expressed
in a great variety of forms and images. As a rule the prophets
directly connect the final restoration with the removal of the
sins of their own age; to Isaiah the last troubles are those of
Assyrian invasion, to Jeremiah the restoration follows on the
exile to Babylon, to Daniel on the overthrow of the Greek
monarchy. But all agree in giving the central place to the
realization of a real effective kingship of Yahweh; in fact the
conception of the religious subject as the nation of Israel, with
a national organization under Yahweh as king, is common to
the whole Old Testament, and connects prophecy proper with
the so-called Messianic psalms and similar passages which speak
of the religious relations of the Hebrew commonwealth, the
religious meaning of national institutions, and so necessarily
contain ideal elements reaching beyond the empirical present.
All such passages are frequently called Messianic; but the term
is more properly reserved as the specific designation of one
particular branch of the Hebrew hope of salvation, which,
becoming prominent in post-canonical Judaism, used the
name of the Messiah as a technical term (which it never is
in the Old Testament), and exercised a great influence on
New Testament thought the term " the Christ " (6 XP"""S)
being itself nothing more than the translation of " the
Messiah."
In the period of the Hebrew monarchy the thought that
Yahweh is the divine king of Israel was associated with the
conception that the human king reigns by right only if he reigns
by commission or " unction " from Him. Such was the theory
of the kingship in Ephraim as well as in Judah (Deut. xxxiii. ;
2 Kings ix. 6), till in the decadence of the northern state Amos
(ix. n) foretold 1 the redintegration of the Davidic kingdom,
and Hosea (iii. 5 ; viii. 4) expressly associated a similar prediction
with the condemnation of the kingship of Ephraim as illegitimate.
So the great Judaean prophets of the 8th century connect the
salvation of Israel with the rise of a Davidic king, full of Yahweh's
Spirit, in whom all the energies of Yahweh's transcendental
kingship are as it were incarnate (Isa.ix. 6 seq. ; xi. i seq. ; Micah v. ) .
This conception, however, is not one of the constant elements
of prophecy; other prophecies of Isaiah look for the decisive
interposition of Yahweh in the crisis of history without a kingly
deliverer. Jeremiah again speaks of the future David or
righteous sprout of David's stem (xxiii. 5 seq.; xxx. 9) and
Ezekiel uses similar language (xxxiv., xxxvii.); but that such
passages do not necessarily mean more than that the Davidic
dynasty shall be continued in the time of restoration under
worthy princes seems clear from the way in which Ezekiel
speaks of the prince in chs. xlv., xlvi. As yet we have no
fixed doctrine of a personal Messiah, but only material from
which such a doctrine might be drawn. The religious view of
the kingship is still essentially the same as in 2 Sam. vii., where
1 Most recent critics regard Amos ix. 9-15 as a later addition, and
the same view is held by Nowack, Harper and others respecting
Hos. iii. 5, though on grounds which seem questionable. Isa.
ix. 1-7, xi. I sqq. are held by Hackmann, Cheyne, Marti, and
other critics to be post-exilian. Duhm and others hold that they
are genuine. It may be admitted that Isa. xi. I seq. might be held to
be contemporary with Isa. Iv. 3, 4, and to refer to Zerubbabel.
Cf. Haggai ii. 21-23, composed seventeen years afterwards. Mic. v.
18 can with difficulty be regarded as genuine.
the endless duration of the Davidic dynasty is set forth as part
of Yahweh's plan.
There are other parts of the Old Testament notably i Sam.
viii., xii. (belonging to the later stratum) in which the very
existence of a human kingship is represented as a departure from
the theocratic ideal, and after the exile, when the monarchy
had come to an end, we find pictures of the latter days in which
its restoration has no placed Such is the great prophecy of
Isa. xl.-xlviii., in which Cyrus is the anointed of Yahweh. So too
there is no allusion to a human kingship in Joel or in Malachi;
the old forms of the Hebrew state were broken, and religious
hopes expressed themselves in other shapes. 2 In the book of
Daniel it is collective Israel that, under the symbol of a " son of
man," receives the kingdom (vii. 13, 18, 22, 27).
Meantime, however, the decay and ultimate silence of the liv-
ing prophetic word concurred with prolonged political servitude
to produce an important change in Hebrew religion. To the
prophets the kingship of Yahweh was not a mere ideal, but an
actual reality. Its full manifestation indeed, to the eye of sense
and to the unbelieving world, lay in the future ; but true faith
found a present stay in the sovereignty of Yahweh, daily
exhibited in providence and interpreted to each generation by
the voice of the prophets. And, while Yahweh's kingship was
a living and present fact, it refused to be formulated in fixed
invariable shape.
But when the prophets were succeeded by the scribes, the
interpreters of the written word, and the yoke of foreign oppres-
sors rested on the land, Yahweh's kingship, which presupposed
a living nation, found not even the most inadequate expression
in daily political life. Yahweh was still the lawgiver of Israel,
but His law was written in a book, and He was not present to
administer it. He was still the hope of Israel, but the hope
too was only to be read in books, and these were interpreted
of a future which was no longer the ideal development of forces
already at work, but wholly new and supernatural. The present
was a blank, in which religious duty was summed up in patient
obedience to the law and penitent submission to the Divine
chastisements. The scribes were mainly busied with the law;
but no religion can subsist on mere law; and the systematization
of the prophetic hopes, and of those more ideal parts of the
other sacred literature which, because ideal and dissevered from
the present, were now set on one line with the prophecies, went
on side by side with the systematization of the law, by means of a
harmonistic exegesis, which sought to gather up every prophetic
image in one grand panorama of the issue of Israel's and the
world's history. The beginnings of this process can probably
be traced within the canon itself, in the book of Joel and the
last chapters of Zechariah; 3 and, if this be so, we see from Zech.
ix. that the picture of the ideal king claimed a place in such
constructions. The full development of the method belongs,
however, to the post-canonical literature, and was naturally
much less regular and rapid than the growth of the legal tradi-
tions of the scribes. It was in crises of national anguish that
men turned most eagerly to the prophecies, and sought to
construe their teachings as a promise of speedy deliverance (see
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). But these books, however influen-
tial, had no public authority, and when the yoke of oppression
was lightened but a little their enthusiasm lost much of its
contagious power. It is not therefore safe to measure the
general growth of eschatological doctrine by the apocalyptic
books, of which Daniel alone attained a canonical position. In
the Apocrypha eschatology has a relatively small place; but there
is enough to show that the hope of Israel was never forgotten,
and that the imagery of the prophets was accepted with a
literalness not contemplated by the prophets themselves.
It was, however, only very gradually that the figure and name
of the Messiah acquired the prominence which they have in
2 The hopes which Haggai and Zechariah connect with the name of
Zerubbabel, a descendant of David, hardly form an exception to this
statement. There may even be a reference to him in Isa. Iv. 3, 4.
3 See Stade's articles " Deuterozacharja," Z.f. A.-T.-liche Wiss.,
1881-1882. Cf. Dan. ix. 2 for the use of the older prophecies
in the solution of new problems of faith.
MESSIAH
193
later Jewish doctrine of the last things and in the official exegesis
of the Targums. In the very developed eschatology of Daniel
they are, as we have seen, altogether wanting, and in the
Apocrypha, both before and after the Maccabean revival, the
everlasting throne of David's house is a mere historical reminis-
cence (Ecclus. xlvii. ii ; i Mace. ii. 57). So long as the wars
of independence occupied the Palestinian Jews, and the Hasmo-
naean sovereignty promised a measure of independence and
felicity under the law, the hope that connected itself with the
House of David was not likely to rise to fresh life, especially as a
considerable proportion of the not very numerous passages of
Scripture which speak of the ideal king might with a little
straining be applied to the rising star of the new dynasty (cf.
i Mace. xiv. 4-15). It is only in Alexandria, where the Jews
were still subject to the yoke of the Gentile, that at this time
(c. 140 B.C.) we find the oldest Sibylline verses (iii. 652 seq.)
proclaiming the approach of the righteous king whom God shall
raise up from the East (Isa. xli. 2.) The name Messiah is still
lacking, and the central point of the prophecy is not the reign of
the deliverer but the subjection of all nations to the law and the
temple. 1
With the growing weakness and corruption of the Hasmonaean
princes, and the alienation of a large part of the nation from
their cause, the hope of a better kingship begins to appear in
Judaea also; at first darkly shadowed forth in the Book of Enoch
(chap, xc.), where the white steer, the future leader of God's
herd after the deliverance from the heathen, stands in a certain
contrast to the actual dynasty (the horned lambs) ; and then much
more clearly, and for the first time with use of the name Messiah,
in the Psalter of Solomon, the chief document of the protest of
Pharisaism against its enemies the later Hasmonaeans. The
struggle between the Pharisees and Sadducees, between the party
of the scribes and the aristocracy, was a struggle for mastery
between a secularized hierarchy whose whole interests were
those of their own selfish politics, and a party to which God
and the exact fulfilment of the law according to the scribes
were all in all. This doctrine had grown up under Persian and
Grecian rule, and no government that possessed or aimed at
political independence could possibly show constant deference
to the punctilios of the schoolmen. The Pharisees themselves
could not but see that their principles were politically impotent;
the most scrupulous observance of the Sabbath, for example
and this was the culminating point of legality could not
thrust back the heathen. Thus the party of the scribes, when
they came into conflict with an active political power, which at
the same time claimed to represent the theocratic interests of
Israel, were compelled to lay fresh stress on the doctrine that the
true deliverance of Israel must come from God.
But now the Jews were a nation once more, and national ideas
came to the front. In the Hasmonaean sovereignty these ideas
took a political form, and the result was the secularization
of the kingdom of God for the sake of a harsh and rapacious
aristocracy. The nation threw itself on the side of the Pharisees ;
not in the spirit of punctilious legalism, but with the ardour of
a national enthusiasm deceived in its dearest hopes, and turning
for help from the delusive kingship of the Hasmonaeans to the
true kingship of Yahweh, and to His vicegerent the king of
David's house. It is in this connexion that the doctrine and
name of the Messiah appear in the Psalter of Solomon. The
eternal kingship of the House of David, so long forgotten, is
seized on as the proof that the Hasmonaeans have no divine right.
" Thou, Lord, art our king for ever and ever. . . . Thou didst
choose David as king over Israel, and swarest unto him concerning
his seed for ever that his kingship should never fail before Thee.
And for our sins sinners (the Hasmonaeans) have risen up over us,
taking with force the kingdom which Thou didst not promise to
them, profaning the throne of David in their pride. But Thou, O
Lord, will cast them down and root out their seed from the land,
when a man not of our race (Pompey) rises up against them. . . . .
Behold, O Lord, and raise up their king the Son of David at the time
that Thou hast appointed, to reign over Israel Thy servant ; and gird
him with strength to crush unjust rulers; to cleanse Jerusalem from
the heathen that tread it under foot, to cast out sinners from Thy
1 In Sibyll. iii. 775, nj6c must undoubtedly be read for vl&v.
xvra. 7
inheritance; to break the pride of sinners and all their strength
is potter's vessels with a rod of iron (Ps. ii. 9) ; to destroy the law-
less nations with the word of his mouth (Isa. xi. 4) ; to gather a
iioly nation and lead them in righteousness. ... He shall divide
them by tribes in the land, and no stranger and foreigner shall dwell
with them; he shall judge the nations in wisdom and righteousness.
The heathen nations shall serve under his yoke; he shall glorify
'he Lord before all the earth, and cleanse Jerusalem in holiness, as
in the beginning. From the ends of the earth all nations shall
come to see his glory and bring the weary sons of Zion as gifts
(Isa. Ix. 3 seq.); to see the glory of the Lord with which God hath
crowned him, for he is over them a righteous king taught of God.
In his days there shall be no unrighteousness in their midst; for
they are all holy and their king the anointed of the Lord(xprr<Js
, mistranslation of nvr n-ro). Psalt. Sol. xvii.
This conception is traced in Enes too firm to be those of a
[irst essay; it had doubtless grown up as an integral part of the
religious protest against the Hasmonaeans. And while the
polemical motive is obvious, and the argument from prophecy
against the legitimacy of a non-Davidic dynasty is quite in the
manner of the scribes, the spirit of theocratic fervour which
inspires the picture of the Messiah is broader and deeper than
their narrow legalism. In a word, the Jewish doctrine of the
Messiah marks the fusion of Pharisaism with the national
religious feeling of the Maccabean revival. This national feeling,
claiming a leader against the Romans as well as deliverance from
the Sadducee aristocracy, again sets the idea of the kingship
rather than that of resurrection and individual retribution in
the central place. Henceforward the doctrine of the Messiah
is the centre of popular hope and the object of theological
culture. The New Testament is the best evidence of its influence
on the masses (see especially Matt. xxi. 9); and the exegesis
of the Targums, which in its beginnings doubtless reaches back
before the time of Christ, shows how it was fostered by the
Rabbins and preached in the synagogues. 2 Its diffusion far
beyond Palestine, and in circles least accessible to such ideas, is
proved by the fact that Philo himself (De praem. el poen. 16)
gives a Messianic interpretation of Num. xxiv. 27 (LXX). It
must not indeed be supposed that the doctrine was as yet the
undisputed part of Hebrew faith which it became when the fall
of the state and the antithesis to Christianity threw all Jewish
thought into the lines of the Pharisees. It has, for example,
no place in the Assumption of Moses or the Book of Jubilees.
But, as the fatal struggle with Rome became more and more
imminent, the eschatological hopes which increasingly absorbed
the Hebrew mind all group themselves round the person of
the Messiah. In the later parts of the Book of Enoch (the
" symbols " of chap. xlv. seq.) the judgment day of the Messiah
(identified with Daniel's " Son of Man ") stands in the fore-
front of the eschatological picture. Josephus (B. J. vi. 5, 4)
testifies that the belief in the immediate appearance of the
Messianic king gave the chief impulse to the war that ended in
the destruction of the Jewish state; after the fall of the temple
the last apocalypses (Baruch, 4 Ezra) still loudly proclaim the
near victory of the God-sent king; and Bar Cochebas, the leader
of the revolt against Hadrian, was actually greeted as the
Messiah by Rabbi Aqiba (cf. Luke xxi. 8). These hopes were
again quenched in blood; the political idea of the Messiah, the
restorer of the Jewish state, still finds utterance in the daily
prayer of every Jew (the Shemone Esre), and is enshrined in
the system of Rabbinical theology; but its historical significance
was buried in the ruins of Jerusalem. 3
* The Targmnic passages that speak of the Messiah are registered
by Buxtorf, Lex. Chald., s.v.
3 False Messiahs have continued from time to time to appear
among the Jews. Such was Serenus of Syria (c. 720 A.D.). Soon
after, Messianic hopes were active at the time of the fall of the
Omayyads, and led to a serious rising under Abu 'Isa of Ispahan,
who called himself forerunner of the Messiah. The false Messiah
David Alrui (Alroy) appeared among the warlike Jews in Azerbijan
in the middle of the I2th century. The Messianic claims of Abraham
Abulafia of Saragossa (born 1240) had a cabalistic basis, and the
same studies encouraged the wildest hopes at a later time. Thus
Abarbanel calculated the coming of the Messiah for 1503 A.D.; the
year 1500 was in many places observed as a preparatory season of
penance; and throughout the i6th century the Jews were much
stirred and more than one false Messiah appeared.
SABBATAI, SEBI.
See also
MESSINA
But this proof that the true kingdom of God could not be
realized in an earthly state, under the limitations of national
particularism, was not the final refutation of the Old Testament
hope. Amidst the last convulsions of political Judaism a new
spiritual conception of the kingdom of God, of salvation, and
of the Saviour of God's anointing, had shaped itself through
the preaching, the death, and the resurrection of Jesus of
Nazareth. As applied to Jesus the name of Messiah lost all its
political and national significance. Between the Messiah of the
Jews and the Son of Man who came to give His life a ransom
for many there was on the surface little resemblance; and from
their standpoint the Pharisees reasoned that the marks of the
Messiah were conspicuously absent from this Christ. But when
we look at the deeper side of the Messianic conception in the
Psalter of Solomon, at the heartfelt longing for a leader in the
way of righteousness and acceptance with God which underlies
the aspirations after political deliverance, we see that it was
in no mere spirit of accommodation to prevailing language that
Jesus did not disdain the name in which all the hopes of the
Old Testament were gathered up.
Messianic Parallels. Within the limits of this article it is im-
possible to attempt any extended survey of parallels to Hebrew
Messianic conceptions drawn from other religions. One interest-
ing analogy communicated by Professor Rapson, may, however,
be cited from the Bhagavad-gUa, iv. 5-8, in which Krishna says:
5 " Many are the births that have passed of me and of thee
Arjuna.
All these I know: thou knowest them not, O conqueror of
thy foes.
6 Unborn, of imperishable soul, the Lord of all creatures,
Taking upon me mine own nature, I arise by my own power.
7 For whensoever, O son of Bharata, there is decay of righteous-
ness
And a rising up of unrighteousness, then I create myself,
8 For the protecting of the good and for the destroying of
evil-doers,
And for the establishing of righteousness I arise from age
to age."
u Somewhat similar are the avatars of Vishnu, who becomes
incarnate in a portion of his essence on ten occasions to deliver
mankind from certain great dangers. Krishna himself is usually
regarded as one of these avatars." This we may consider as one
of the striking parallels which meet us in other religions to that
" hope of the advent of an ideal king which was one of the features
of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all evils, the reali-
zation of perfect reconciliation with Jehovah and the felicity of the
righteous in Him," to which reference was made in an early portion
ofthis article and which constitutes the essential meaning of Messiah-
ship. The form in which the Indian conception presents itself in
the above quoted lines is more closely analogous amid many differ-
ences to the later and apocalyptic type of the Messianic idea as
it appears in Judaism.
The interesting parallels between the Babylonian Marduk
(Merodach) god of light and Christ as a world saviour are ingeniously
set forth by Zimmern in K.A.T., 3rd ed., pp. 376-391, but the
total impression which they leave is vague.
It would carry us too far to consider in this place the details of
the Jewish conception of the Messiah and the Messianic times as
they appear in the later apocalypses or in Talmudic theology.
See for the former the excellent summary of Schiirer, Geschichte
desjiidischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3rd ed., vol. ii. pp. 497-
556. See also Weber, Judische Theologie, ch. xxiii. For the whole
subject see also Drummond, The Jewish Messiah, and Kuenen,
Religion of Israel, ch. xii. For the Messianic hopes of the
Pharisees and the Psalter of Solomon see especially Wellhausen,
Pharisder und Sadducaer (Greifswald, 1874). In its ultimate form
the Messianic hope of the Tews is the centre of the whole eschatology,
embracing the doctrine of the last troubles of Israel (called by the
Rabbins the " birth pangs of the Messiah "), the appearing of the
anointed king, the annihilation of the hostile enemy, the return of
the dispersed of Israel, the glory and world-sovereignty of the
elect, the new world, the resurrection of the dead and the last
judgment. But even the final form of Jewish theology shows
much vacillation as to these details, especially as regards their
sequence and mutual relation, thus betraying the inadequacy of
the harmonistic method by which they were derived from the Old
Testament and the stormy excitement in which the Messianic idea
was developed. It is, for example, an open question among the
Rabbins whether the days of the Messiah belong to the old or_ to
th? new world (n;n o^yrj or Kjn Dj'tycO, whether the resurrection
embraces all men or only the righteous, whether it precedes or
follows the Messianic age. Compare MILLENNIUM.
We must also pass over the very important questions that arise
as to the gradual extrication of the New Testament idea of the
Christ from the elements of Jewish political doctrine which had
so strong a hold of many of the first disciples the relation, for
example, of the New Testament Apocalypse to contemporary
Jewish thought. A word, however, is necessary as to the Rabbinical
doctrine of the Messiah who suffers and dies for Israel, the Messiah
son of Joseph or son of Ephraim, who in Jewish theology is dis-
tinguished from and subordinate to the victorious son of David.
The developed form of this idea is almost certainly a product of
the polemic with Christianity, in which the Rabbins were hard
pressed by arguments from passages (especially Isa. liii.) which
their own exegesis admitted to be Messianic, though it did not
accept the Christian inferences as to the atoning death of the
Messianic king. That the Jews in the time of Christ believed in
a suffering and atoning Messiah is, to say the least, unproved and
highly improbable. See, besides the books above cited, De Wette,
Opuscula; Wiinsche, Die Leiden des Messias (1870).
See the articles on " Messiah " in Hastings's D. B. (together with
Fairweather's art., " Development of Doctrine," in extra vol., pp. 295-
302) in Ency. Bibl. Also P.R.E. 3rd ed., as well as Hastings's Diet, of
Christ and the Gospels, should be consulted. Comp. Edersheim, Life
and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2nd ed., i. 160-179, ii. 434 sqq.,
710-741; Stanton, The Jewish and the Christian Messiah (1886);
Wendt, Teaching of Jesus, i. 60-84, 176-181, ii. 122-139; Holtz-
mann, N. T. Theologie (1897), pp. 81-85, 234-304; Baldensperger,
Das Selbstbewusstsein Jesu; Wellhausen, Israel, u. jiid. Geschichte
(1895), pp. 198-204; Charles's Book of Enoch and Apocalypse of
Baruch (especially the introductions); Bousset, Religion des Juden-
tums, 2nd ed., pp. 245-277 ; Volz, Judische Eschatologie von Daniel
bis Akiba, pp. 55-68, 213-237: Dalman, Der leidende u. sterbende
Messias; Gressmann, Ursprung der israelitisch-judischen Eschato-
loeie, pp. 2 50- us. A fuller survey of literature will be found in
Schurer. op. cit., p. 496 sqq. (W. R. S. ; O. C. W.)
MESSINA, a city of Sicily, 7 m. S.S.W. of the promontory of
Faro (anc. Promontorium Pelorum), which forms the north-
eastern angle of the island, the capital of the province of Messina
and the seat of an archbishop. Pop. (1850), 97,074; (1881),
126,497; (19!). I49,77 8 ; (1905), 158,812. The site of the town
curves round the harbour, between it and the strongly fortified
hills of Antennamare, the highest point of which is 3707 ft.
The straits, which take their name from the town, are here about
3^ m. wide, and only a little over 2 m. at the promontory of Faro.
The numerous earthquakes from which the city had suffered,
notably that in 1783, had left it few remains of antiquity. But
it was a flourishing and beautiful city when in 1908 one of the
most disastrous earthquakes ever recorded destroyed it totally.
The earthquake occurred early in the morning of December 28,
and so far as Messina was concerned the damage was done chiefly
by the shock and by the fires which broke out afterwards; the
seismic wave which followed was comparatively innocuous. But
it did vast damage elsewhere along the strait, notably at Reggio,
Calabria, which was also totally destroyed. Many other smaller
towns suffered both in Sicily and in Calabria; the loss of life was
appalling and the distress widespread, in spite of the prompt
assistance rendered by Italian naval and military forces and by
the crews of British, Russian and German warships and other
vessels, and the contribution of funds for relief works from every
part of the world. The immediate seismic focus appeared to be
in the straits, but Dr E. Suess pointed out that it was surrounded
by a curved line of earth-fracture, following an arc drawn from
a centre in the Lipari Islands, from Catanzaro to Etna, and so
westward; within this arc he held that the crust of the earth is
gradually sinking, and is in an unstable condition. According
to an official estimate the earthquake caused the loss of 77,283
lives. 1 (See also EARTHQUAKE.)
The facades of buildings at Messina in great part withstood
the earthquake, but even when they did so the remainder of the
buildings was destroyed. The cathedral, which was completely
wrecked, was begun in 1098 and finished by Roger II. It had
a fine Gothic facade: the interior had mosaics in the apses dating
from 1330, and the nave contained 26 granite columns, said to
have been brought from a temple of Poseidon near Faro, and had
a fine wooden roof of 1260. The rest of the edifice was in tk
baroque style; the high altar (containing the supposed letter of
the Virgin Mary to the people of Messina), richly decorated with
marbles, lapis lazuli, &c., was begun in 1628 and completed in
1726. The importance of Messina was almost entirely due to its
1 See S. Franchi, " II Terremoto ... a Messina . . .," in Boll. R.
Comit. geologico d'ltal., 4th series, vol. x. (1909).
MESSUAGE METABOLIC DISEASES
195
harbour, a circular basin open on the north only, formed by a
strip of land curving round like a sickle, from which it took its
original name, Zancle (f byicbov, or rather 8ar/K\ov, the Sicilian
equivalent of the Greek dpeiravov, l according to Thucydides,
vi. 4)-
Zancle was first founded, no doubt on the site of an earlier
settlement, by pirates from Cumae, and again more regularly
settled, after an unknown interval, by settlers from Cumae under
Perieres, and from Chalcis under Crataemenes, in the first
quarter of the 8th century B.C. Mylae must have been occupied
as an outpost very soon afterwards, but the first regular colony
of Zancle was Himera, founded in 648 B.C. After the capture
of Miletus by the Persians in 494 B.C. Skytbes, king of Zancle,
invited the lonians to come and settle at KaXi) 'A(CTi7, then
in the occupation of the Sicels (the modern Marina di Caronia,
25m. east of Cefalu) ; but at the invitation of Anaxilas of Regium
the Samians proceeded instead to the latter place. About 488 B.C.
Anaxilas and the Samians occupied Zancle in the absence of
Skythes, and it was then that the name was changed to Messene,
as the existence of coins of the Samian type, bearing the new
name, proves. About 480, however, Anaxilas thoroughly estab-
lished his authority at Messene, and the types of coinage intro-
duced by him persevere down to about 396 B.C., 2 when Anaxilas
himself zealously supported his son-in-law Terillus in inviting
the Carthaginians' invasion of 480 B.C. In 426 the Athenians
gained the alliance of Zancle, but soon lost it again, and failed
to obtain it in 415.
Messina fell into the hands of the Carthaginians during their
wars with Dionysius the elder of Syracuse (397 B.C.). The
Carthaginians destroyed the city, but Dionysius recaptured and
rebuilt it. During the next fifty years Messina changed masters
several times, till Timoleon finally expelled the Carthaginians in
343 B.C. In the wars between Agathocles of Syracuse and
Carthage, Messina took the side of the Carthaginians. After
Agathocles' death, his mercenaries, the Mamertines, treacher-
ously seized the town about 282 B.C. and held it. They came to
war with Hiero II. of Syracuse and appealed for help to Rome,
which was granted, and this led to a collision between Rome and
Carthage, which ended in the First Punic War. Messina was
almost at once taken by Rome. At the close of the war, in
241 B.C., Messina became a free and allied city (civitas foed erata),
and obtained Roman citizenship before the rest of Sicily, probably
from Caesar himself. During the civil wars which followed the
death of Caesar, Messina held with Sextus Pompeius; and in
35 B.C. it was sacked by Octavian's troops. After Octavian's
proclamation as emperor he founded a colony here; and Messina
continued to flourish as a trading port. In the division of the
Roman empire it belonged to the emperors of the East; and in
A.D. 547 Belisarius collected his fleet here before crossing into
Calabria. The Saracens took the city in A.D. 831; and in 1061 it
was the first permanent conquest made in Sicily by the Normans.
In 1190 Richard I. of England, with his crusaders, passed six
months in Messina. He quarrelled with Tancred, the last of the
Hauteville dynasty, and sacked the town. In 1194 the city,
with the rest of Sicily, passed to the house of Hohenstaufen under
the emperor Henry VI., who died there in 1197; and after the
fall of the Hohenstaufen was contended for by Peter I., king of
Aragon, and Charles I., count of Anjou. At the time of the
Sicilian Vespers (1282), which drove the French out of Sicily,
Messina bravely defended itself against Charles of Anjou, and
repulsed his attack. Peter I., through his commander Ruggiero
di Loria, defeated the French off the Faro; and from 1282 to 1713
Messina remained a possession of the Spanish royal house. In
1571 the fleet fitted out by the Holy League against the Turk
assembled at Messina, and in the same year its commander, Don
John of Austria, celebrated a triumph in the city for his victory
at Lepanto. Don John's statue stands in the Piazza dell'
Annuziata. For one hundred years, thanks to the favours and
1 From this word Trapani derives its name.
2 This account is at variance with the literary evidence and
rests on that of the coins, as set forth by I. H. Dodd in Journal of
Hellenic Studies, xxviii. (1908) 56 sqq.
the concessions of Charles V., Messina enjoyed great prosperity.
But the internal quarrels between the Merli, or aristocratic
faction, and the Malvezzi, or democratic faction, fomented as
they were by the Spaniards, helped to ruin the city (1671-1678).
The Messinians suspected the Spanish court of a desire to destroy
the ancient senatorial constitution of the city, and sent to France
to ask the aid of Louis XIV. in their resistance. Louis despatched
a fleet into Sicilian waters, and the French occupied the city.
The Spaniards replied by appealing to Holland, who sent a fleet
under Ruyter into the Mediterranean. In .1676 the French
admiral, Abraham Duquesne, defeated the combined fleet of
Spain and Holland; but, notwithstanding this victory, the French
suddenly abandoned Messina in 1678, and the Spanish occupied
the town once more. The senate was suppressed, and Messina
lost its privileges. This was fatal to the importance of the city.
In 1743 the plague carried off 40,000 inhabitants. The city was
partially destroyed by earthquake in 1783. During the revolu-
tion of 1848 against the Bourbons of Naples, Messina was bom-
barded for three consecutive days. In 1854 the deaths from
cholera numbered about 15,000. Garibaldi landed in Sicily
in 1860, and Messina was the last city in the island taken from
the Bourbons and made a part of united Italy under Victor
Emmanuel.
Messina was the birthplace of Dicaearchus, the historian
(c. 322 B.C.); Aristocles, the Peripatetic; Euhemerus, the rationalist
(c. 316 B.C.); Stefano Protonotano, Mazzeo di Ricco and Tommaso
di Sasso, poets of the court of Frederick II. (A.D. 1250); and Anto-
nello da Messina, the painter (1447-1499), of whose works one is
preserved in the museum. During the isth century the grammarian,
Constantine Lascaris, taught in Messina; and Bessarion was for a
time archimandrite there. (T. As.)
MESSUAGE (from Anglo-French mesuage, probably a cor-
ruption of msuage, manage, popular Lat. mansionaticum, from
mansio, whence mod. Fr. maison, from manere, to dwell), in
law, a term equivalent to a dwelling-house, and including out-
buildings, orchard, curtilage or court-yard and garden. At one
time " messuage " is supposed to have had a more extensive
meaning than that comprised in the word " house," but such
distinction, if it ever existed, no longer survives.
MESTIZO (adopted from the Spanish, the Portuguese form
being mestizo, from Lat. miscere, to mix), a term originally
meaning a half-breed, one of whose parents was Spanish, and
now used occasionally of any half-breed, but especially to denote
persons of mixed Spanish (or Portuguese) and American Indian
blood. The offspring of such half-breeds are also called mestizoes.
The feminine form is mestiza.
MESUREURv GUSTAVE EMIL EUGENE (1847- ), French
politician, was born at Marcq-en-Baroeul (Nord) on the 2nd of
April 1847. He worked as a designer in Paris, and became
prominent as a member of the municipal council of Paris,
rousing much angry discussion by a proposal to rename the
Parisian streets which bore saints' names. In 1887 he became
president of the council. The same year he entered the Chamber
of Deputies, taking his place with the extreme left. He joined
the L. Bourgeois ministry of 1895-1896 as minister of commerce,
industry, post and telegraphs, was vice-president of the Chamber
from 1898 to 1902, and presided over the Budget Commission of
1899, 1901 and 1902. He was defeated at the polls in 1902, but
became director of the Assistance Publique. His wife, Amelie
de Wailly (b. 1853), is well known as a writer of light verse and
of some charming children's books.
META, the Latin word for the goal which formed the turning-
point for the chariot races in the Roman circus. The metae
consisted of three conical pillars resting on a single podium.
None have been preserved, but they are shown on coins, gems
and terra-cotta bas-reliefs.
METABOLIC DISEASES. Ail disease is primarily due to
alterations (Gr. juera/3o\i;, change), quantitative or qualitative,
in the chemical changes in the protoplasm of some or all
of the tissues of the body. But while in some pathological
states these modifications lead to structural changes, in others
they do not produce gross lesions, and these latter conditions
are commonly classified as Functional Diseases. When such
196
METABOLIC DISEASES
functional disturbances affect the general nutrition of the body
they have been termed Metabolic Diseases (Stojfwechselkrank-
heiten). It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between
functional and organic disease, since the one passes gradually
into the other, as is well seen in gout. Nor is it always easy to
decide how far the conditions are due merely to quantitative
alterations in the metabolism and how far to actual qualitative
changes, for it is highly probable that many of the apparently
qualitative alterations are really quantitative disturbances in
one part of the protoplasmic mechanism, leading to an apparent
qualitative change in the total result of the activity.
Obesity. It is as fat that the surplus food absorbed is stored
in the body; but the power of storing fat varies enormously
in different individuals, and in some it may be considered patho-
logical. The reasons of this are very imperfectly understood.
One undoubted cause of obesity is taking a supply of food in
excess of the energy requirements of the individual. The
amount of food may be absolutely large, or large relatively to the
muscular energy evolved in mechanical work or in heat-produc-
tion; but in either case, when fat begins to be deposited, the
muscular activity of the body tends to diminish and the loss of
heat from the surface is reduced; and thus the energy require-
ments become less, and a smaller diet is sufficient to yield the
surplus for further storage of fat. Fat is formed from carbo-
hydrates, and possibly indirectly from proteids (see NUTRITION).
Individuals probably vary in their mode of dealing with these
substances, some having the tendency to convert them to fat,
some to burn them off at once. Carl von Noorden, however,
who has studied the metabolism in cases of obesity, finds no
marked departure from the normal. It may be that in some
persons there is a very perfect absorption of food, but so far no
scientific evidence for this view is forthcoming. In all cases the
fat stored is available as a source of energy, and this circum-
stance is taken advantage of in the various fat " cures," which
consist in giving a diet containing enough proteids to cover the
requirements of the body, with a supply of fats and carbohydrates
insufficient to meet the energy requirements of the individual.
This is illustrated by the dietaries of some of the best known of
these " cures ":
In Grms. per Diem.
Proteid.
Fat.
Carbo-
hydrates.
Calories.
Banting's cure
Oertel's . .
Ebstein's
172
156-170
102
8
25-45
85
81
75-12
47
ma
1180-1608
1401
In a normal individual in moderate muscular activity about
3000 Calories per diem are required (see DIETETICS), and there-
fore under the diets of these " cures," especially when accom-
panied by a proper amount of muscular exercise, the fats stored
in the body are rapidly used up.
Diabetes, as distinguished from transitory glycosuria, is pro-
duced by a diminution in the power of the tissues to use sugar,
which thus accumulates in the blood and escapes in the urine.
One great source of energy being unavailable, the tissues have to
use more fats and more proteids to procure the necessary energy,
and hence, unless these are supplied in very large quantities,
there is a tendency to emaciation.
The power of storing and using sugar in the tissues is strictly
limited, and varies considerably in healthy individuals. Normally,
when about 200 grms. of glucose are taken at one time, some
of it appears in the urine within one hour. In some individuals
the taking of even 100 grms. leads to a transient glycosuria,
while others can take 2 50 grms. or more and use it all. But even
in the same healthy individual the power of using sugar varies
at different times and in different conditions, muscular exercise
markedly increasing the combustion. Again, some sugars are
more readily used than others, and therefore have a less tendency
to appear in the urine when taken in the food. Milk-sugar and
laevulose appear in the urine more readily than glucose. This
power of using sugar possessed by an individual may depend to a
small extent on the capacity of the liver to store as glycogen any
excess of carbohydrates absorbed from the food, and some slight
cases of transient glycosuria may be accounted for by a dimi-
nution of this capacity. But the typical form of diabetes cannot
be thus explained. It has been maintained that increased
production of sugar is a cause of some cases of the disease, and
this view has been supported by Claude Bernard's classical
experiment of producing glycosuria by puncturing the floor of
the fourth ventricle in the brain of the rabbit. But after such
puncture the glycosuria occurs only when glycogen is present in
the liver. It is transient and has nothing to do with true
diabetes. The fact that various toxic substances, e.g. carbon
monoxide, produce glycosuria has been used as an argument
in support of this view, but they too seem to act by causing a
conversion of glycogen to glucose, and are effective only when the
liver is charged with the former substance. At one time it was
thought that the occurrence of glycosuria under the admini-
stration of phloridzin proved that diabetes is due to a poison.
But the fact that, while sugar appears abundantly in the urine
under phloridzin, it is not increased in the blood, shows that the
drug acts not by diminishing the power of the tissues to use sugar,
but by increasing the excretion of sugar through the kidneys and
thus causing its loss to the body. Hence the tissues have to fall
back upon the proteids, and an increased excretion of nitrogen
is produced. This, however, is a totally different condition from
diabetes.
Anything which produces a marked diminution in the normally
limited power of the tissues to use sugar will cause the disease
in a lighter or graver form. As age advances the activity of the
various metabolic processes may diminish irregularly in certain
individuals, and it is possible that the loss of the power of using
sugar may be sooner impaired in some than in others, and thus
diabetes be produced. But Minkowski and von Mering have
demonstrated, by experiments upon animals, that pathological
changes in the pancreas have probably a causal relationship
with the disease. They found that excision of that organ in
dogs, &c., produced all the symptoms of diabetes the appear-
ances of sugar in the urine, its increased amount in the blood,
the rapid breaking-down of proteids, and the resulting emaciation
and azoturia. At the same time the absorption from the intestine
of proteids, fats and carbohydrates was diminished. How this
pancreatic diabetes is produced has not been explained. It has
been suggested that the pancreas forms an internal secretion
which stimulates the utilization of sugar in the tissues. Though
in a certain number of cases of diabetes disease of the pancreas
has been found, other cases are recorded where grave disease
of that organ has not produced this condition. But the apparent
extent of a lesion is often no measure of the depth to which the
functions of the structure in which it is situated are altered, and
it is very possible that the functions of the pancreas may in
many cases be profoundly modified without our methods of
research being able to detect the change. The pancreas consists
of two parts, the secreting structure and the epithelial islets, and
one or other of these may be more specially involved, and thus
alteration in digestion and absorption on the one hand, and
changes in the utilization of carbohydrates on the other, may be
separately produced. The subcutaneous injection of large doses
of extracts of the supra-renal bodies causes glycosuria and an
increase of sugar in the blood, but the relationship of this con-
dition to diabetes has not yet been investigated.
The disease may be divided into two forms:
i. Slight Cases. The individual can use small quantities of sugar,
but the taking of larger amounts causes glycosuria. Supposing
that the energy requirements of an individual are met by a diet
of
Proteid . . 100 grms. . 410 Calories.
Fat . . 100 ' . . 930
Carbohydrate 400 ,, . . 1640
2980
then if only 100 grms. of glucose can be used, the energy value of
300 grms., i.e. 1230 Calories, must be supplied from proteids and
fats. To yield this, 300 grms. of proteids or 132 grms. of fats would
be required. If these are not forthcoming in the diet, they must
METABOLIC DISEASES
197
be supplied from the tissues, and the individual will become emaci-
ated; hence a diabetic on an ordinary diet is badly nourished, and
hence the huge appetite characteristic of the disease.
2. Grave Cases. From the products of the splitting of proteids
sugar can be formed, probably in the liver, and in the more serious
form of the disease, even when carbohydrates are excluded from
the food, a greater or lesser quantity of the sugar thus formed
escapes consumption and may be excreted. Theoretically, 100 grms.
of proteid can yield 113-6 grms. of glucose, i.e. I grm. of nitrogen
will be set free for each 7-5 grms. of glucose formed. In the urine
of grave cases of diabetes on a proteid diet, the proportion of nitrogen
to sugar is about I to 2. This may mean that the theoretically
possible amount of sugar is not yielded, or that some of the sugar
formed is used in the economy. Both hypotheses may be correct,
but the latter is supported by the fact that even in grave cases the
decomposition of proteid may be diminished by giving sugar, and
that in muscular exercise the proportion of sugar may fall.
In the course of the disease the amount of sugar which the tissues
can use varies from day to day. It is in the utilization of glucose -
the normal sugar of the body that the tissues chiefly fail. Many
diabetics are able to use laevulose, or the inulin from which it is
derived, and lactose (milk-sugar) to a certain extent. It has,
however, been observed that under the administration of these
sugars the excretion of glucose may be increased, the tissues,
apparently by using the foreign sugar, allowing part of the glucose
which they would have consumed to escape.
The increased decomposition of proteid, rendered necessary to
supply the energy not forthcoming in the sugar, leads to the appear-
ance of a large quantity of nitrogen in the urine azoturia and it
also leads to the formation of various acids. Sulphuric acid and
phosphoric acid are formed by oxidation of the sulphur and phos-
phorus in the proteid molecule. Organic acids of the lower fatty
acid scries /3 oxybutyric and aceto-acetic acid with their derivative
acetone also appear in the course of diabetes. They are in part
formed from the disintegration of proteids and in part from fats,
as the result of a modified metabolism induced by the withdrawal
of carbohydrates. To neutralize them ammonia is developed and
hence the proportion of ammonia in the urine is increased. By the
development of these various acids the alkalinity of the blood is
diminished. The development of these acids in large quantities
is associated with extensive decomposition of proteid, and is some-
times indicative of the onset of a comatose condition, which seems
to be due rather to an acid intoxication than to the special toxic
action of any particular acid.
Myxoedema. The thyroid gland forms a material which has
the power of increasing the metabolism of proteids and of fats;
and when the thyroid is removed, a condition of sluggish metabol-
ism, with low temperature and a return of the connective tissues
to an embryonic condition, supervenes, accompanied by the
appearance of depression of the mental functions and by other
nervous symptoms. The disease myxoedema, which was first
described by Sir William Gull in 1873, was shown by Ord in 1878
to be due to degenerative changes in the thyroid gland. It
affects both sexes, but chiefly females, and is characterized by a
peculiar puffy appearance of the face and hands, shedding of the
hair, a low temperature, and mental hebetude. The symptoms
are similar to those produced by removal of the thyroid, and are
indicative of a condition of diminished activity of metabolism.
The nervous symptoms may be in part due to some alteration in
the metabolism, leading to the formation of toxic substances.
The administration of thyroid gland extract causes all the
symptoms to disappear.
Cretinism may now be denned as myxoedema in the infant,
and it has been definitely proved to be associated with non-
development or degeneration of the thyroid gland. The char-
acters of the disease are all due to diminished metabolism, leading
to retarded development, and the treatment which has proved of
service, at least in some sporadic cases, is the administration of
various thyroid preparations.
Exophthalmic Goitre Graves 's Disease or Basedow's Disease.
This disease chiefly affects young women, and is characterized
by three main symptoms: increased rate and force of the heart's
action, protrusion of the eyeballs, and enlargement of the thyroid
gland. The patient is nervous, often sleepless, and generally
becomes emaciated and suffers from slight febrile attacks. The
increased action of the heart is the most constant symptom, and
the enlargement of the thyroid gland may not be manifest.
Various theories as to the pathology of the condition have
been advanced, but in the light of our knowledge of the physio-
logy of the thyroid the most probable explanation is an increased
functional activity of that gland or of changes in the parthyroids.
Gout has often been divided into the typical and atypical
forms. The first is undoubtedly a clinical and pathological
entity, but the second, though containing cases of less severe
forms of true gout, is largely constituted of imperfectly diagnosed
morbid conditions. The accumulation of urate of soda in the
tissues in gout formerly led physicians to believe in a causal
relationship between an increased formation of that substance
and the onset of the disease. Sir A. Garrod's investigations,
however, seemed to indicate that diminished excretion rather
than increased production is the cause of the condition. He
found an accumulation of uric acid in the blood and a diminution
in its amount in the urine during the attack. That uric acid is
increased in the blood is undoubted, but the changes described
by Garrod in the urine, and considered by him as indicative of
diminished excretion and retention, are rendered of less value
by the imperfections of the analytic method employed. More
recent work with better methods has thrown still further doubt
upon the existence of such a relationship, and points rather to the
accumulation of uric acid being, like the other symptoms of the
condition, a result of some unknown modification in the metabol-
ism, and a purely secondary phenomenon. The important fact
that in leucaemia (von Jaksch), in lead-poisoning (Garrod), and
in other pathological conditions, uric acid may be increased in the
blood and in the urine without any gouty symptoms supervening,
is one of the strongest arguments against the older views. That
the gouty inflammation is not caused by the deposit of urate of
soda, seems to be indicated by the occurrence of cases in which
there is no such deposition. The source of the uric acid which
is so widely deposited in the gouty is largely the phosphorus
containing nucleins of the food and tissues. These in their
decomposition yield a series of di-ureides, the purin bodies, of
which uric acid is one. Their excretion is increased when
substances rich in nuclein, e.g. sweetbreads, &c., are ad-
ministered. While uric acid itself has not been demonstrated
to have any injurious action, the closely allied adenin has
been found to produce toxic symptoms. After the discovery
of this source of uric acid, physiologists for a time inclined
to regard it as the only mode of production. But it must
be remembered that in birds uric acid is formed from the
ammonia compounds coming from the intestine and muscles,
just as urea is formed from the same substance in mammals.
Uric acid is a di-ureide a body composed of two urea molecules
linked by acrylic acid an unsaturated propionic acid. It is
therefore highly probable that in many conditions the con-
version of ammonia compounds to urea is not complete, and
that a certain amount of uric acid is formed apart from the
decomposition of nucleins.
Sir William Roberts has adduced evidence to show that uric
acid circulates in the blood in a freely soluble combination or
quadurate that is, a compound in which one molecule of an acid
salt BHU is linked to a molecule of the acid BHU. H 2 U. These
compounds are said to be readily decomposed and the bi-urates
formed, which are at first gelatinous but become crystalline.
The deposition of urate of soda in joints, &c., has been ascribed
to this change. Francis Tunnicliffe, however, has published the
results of certain investigations which throw doubt upon this
explanation. The most recent investigations on the metabolism
of the gouty have shown that there is undoubtedly a slowing in
the rate of elimination of uric acid and also of the total nitrogen
of the urine with occasional sudden increases sometimes connected
with a gouty paroxysm, sometimes independent of it. Whether
this is due to the action of some toxin developed in the body or is
caused by a constitutional renal inadequacy is difficult to decide.
Certain it is these renal diseases often develop in the course of
gout.
Rheumatism. Rheumatic fever was formerly regarded as due
to some disturbance in the metabolism, but it is now known to be
a specific micro-organismal disease. The whole clinical picture
is that of an infective fever, and it is closely related to gonor-
rhoeal rheumatism and to certain types of pyaemia. A number
of independent observers have succeeded in isolating from
cases of rheumatic fever a diplococcus which produces similar
198
METABOLISM METAL
symptoms in the rabbit to those which characterize the disease
in man.
Excluding the peculiar changes in the joints which occur in
rheumatoid arthritis undmCharcot's disease, and which are almost
certainly primary affections of the nervous system, it is found
that a large number of individuals suffer from pain in the joints,
in the muscles, and in the fibrous tissues, chiefly on exposure to
cold and damp or after indiscretions of diet. This so-called
chronic rheumatism appears to be a totally distinct condition
from rheumatic fever; and although its pathology is not deter-
mined, it looks as if it were due either .to a diminished elimina-
tion or an increased production of some toxic substance or
substances, but so far we have no evidence as to their nature.
Rickets is undoubtedly a manifestation of a profound alteration
of the metabolism in childhood, but bow far it is an idiopathic
condition and how far a result of the action of toxins introduced
from without is not yet definitely known. Kassowitz long ago
showed that the bone changes are similar to those which can be
produced in animals by chronic phosphorus poisoning, and that
they are really irritative in nature. Spillmann, in his work
Le Rachitisme, discusses the evidence as regards the action of
various conditions, and comes to the conclusion that there is no
evidence that it is due to a mere primary disturbance of the
metabolism, or to excessive production of lactic acid, or to any
specific micro-organismal poisoning. But he adduces evidence,
perhaps not very convincing, that in the disease there is a specific
intoxication derived from the alimentary canal and provoking
inflammatory lesions in the bones.
See generally Carl von Noorden, Metabolism and Practical
Medicine (1907). (D. N. P.)
METABOLISM (from Gr. nerapo\ri, change), the biological
term for the process of chemical change in a living cell (see
PHYSIOLOGY).
METAL (through Fr. from Lat. melallum, mine, quarry,
adapted from Gr. /leroXXoi', in the same sense, probably con-
nected with jueraXXac, to search after, .explore, fiera, after,
oXXos, other). Originally applied to gold, silver, copper, iron,
tin, lead and bronze, i.e. substances having high specific gravity,
malleability, opacity, and especially a peculiar lustre, the term
" metal " became generic for all substances with these properties.
In modern chemistry, however, the metals are a division of the
elements, the members of which may or may not possess all
these characters. The progress of science has, in fact, been
accompanied by the discovery of some 70 elements, which may
be arranged in order of their " metallic " properties as above
indicated, and it is found that while the end members of the scale
are most distinctly metallic (or non-metallic), certain central
members, e.g. arsenic, may be placed in either division, their
properties approximating to both metallic and non-metallic.
One chemical differentia utilizes the fact that metals always form
at least one basic oxide which yields salts with acids, while non-
metals usually form acidic oxides, i.e. oxides which yield acids
with water. This definition, however, is highly artificial and
objectionable on principle, because when we speak of metals we
think, not of their chemical relations, but of a certain sum of
mechanical and physical properties which unites them all into
one natural family.
All metals, when exposed in an inert atmosphere to a sufficient
temperature, assume the form of liquids, which all present the
following characteristic properties. They are (at least practically)
non-transparent; they reflect light in a peculiar manner, produc-
ing what is called " metallic lustre." When kept in non-metallic
vessels they take the shape of a convex meniscus. These liquids,
when exposed to higher temperatures, some sooner than others,
pass into vapours. What these vapours are h'ke is not known in
many cases, since, as a rule, they can be produced only at very
high temperatures, precluding the use of transparent vessels.
Silver vapour is blue, potassium vapour is green, many others
(mercury vapour, for instance) are colourless. The liquid metals,
when cooled down sufficiently, some at lower, others at higher,
temperatures freeze into compact solids, endowed with the
(relative) non-transparency and the lustre of their liquids. These
frozen metals in general form compact masses consisting of
aggregates of crystals belonging to the regular or rhombic or
(more rarely) the quadratic system. Compared with non-
metallic solids, they in general are good conductors of heat and of
electricity. But their most characteristic, though not perhaps
their most general, property is that they combine in themselves
the apparently incompatible properties of elasticity and rigidity
on the one hand and plasticity on the other. To this remarkable
combination of properties more than to anything else the ordinary
metals owe their wide application in the mechanical arts. In
former times a high specific gravity used to be quoted as one of
the characters of the genus; but this no longer holds, since we
now know a series of metals lighter than water.
Non-Transparency. This, in the case of even the solid metals,
is perhaps only a very low degree of transparency. In regard to
gold this has been proved to be so; gold leaf, or thin films of gold
produced chemically on glass plates, transmit light with a green
colour. On the other hand, infinitely thin films of silver which
can be produced chemically on glass surfaces are absolutely
opaque. Very thin films of liquid mercury, according to Melsens,
transmit light with a violet-blue colour; also thin films of copper
are said to be translucent.
Colour. Gold is yellow; copper is red; silver, tin, and some
others are pure white; the majority are greyish.
Reflection of Light. Polished metallic surfaces, like those of
other solids, divide any incident ray into two parts, of which one
is refracted while the other is reflected with this difference,
however, that the former is completely absorbed, and that the
latter, in regard to polarization, is quite differently affected.
The following values are due to Rubens and Hagen (Ann. der
Phys., 1900, p. 352); they express the percentage of incident light
reflected. The superiority of silver is obvious.
Violet.
Yellow.
Red.
X = 45o
* = 550
X = 6so
Silver
Platinum ...'...
90-6
iS-8
92-5
61-1
93-6
66-
Nickel
Steel
Gold
Copper
Glass backed with silver
Glass backed with mercury
58-5
58-6
36-8
48-8
79-3-857
72-8
62-6
59-4
74-7
59-5
82-88
71-2
65-9
60- 1
88-2
89
83-89
71-5
Crystalline Form and Structure. Most (perhaps all) metals are
capable of crystallization. The crystals belong to the following
systems: regular system silver, gold, palladium, mercury,
copper, iron, lead; quadratic system tin, potassium; rhombic
system antimony, bismuth, tellurium, zinc, magnesium. Per-
haps all metals are crystalline, only the degree of visibility of
the crystalline arrangement is very different in different metals,
and even in the same metal varies according to the slowness of
solidification and other circumstances.
Antimony, bismuth and zinc exhibit a very distinct crystalline
structure: a bar-shaped ingot readily breaks, and the crystal face*
are distinctly visible on the fracture. Tin also is crystalline: a
thin bar, when bent, " creaks " audibly from the sliding of the
crystal faces over one another; but the bar is not easily broken,
and exhibits an apparently non-crystalline fracture. Class I.
Gold, silver, copper, lead, aluminium, cadmium, iron (pure),
nickel and cobalt are practically amorphous, the crystals (where
they exist) being so closely packed as to produce a virtually homo-
geneous mass. Class II.
The great contrast in apparent structure between cooled ingots
of Class I. and of Class II. appears to be owing chiefly to the fact
that, while the latter crystallize in the regular system, metals of
Class I. form rhombic or quadratic crystals. Regular crystals
expand equally in all directions; rhombic and quadratic expand
differently in different directions. Hence, supposing the crystals
immediately after their formation to be in absolute contact with
one another all round, then, in the case of Class II., such contact
will be maintained on cooling, while in the case of Class I. the
contraction along a given straight line will in general have different
values in any two neighbouring crystals, and the crystals con-
sequently become slightfy detached from one another. The crystal-
line structure which exists on both sides becomes visible only in
the metals of the first class, and only there manifests itself as
brittleness.
METAL
199
Closely related to the structure of metals is their degree of
* plasticity " (susceptibility of being constrained into new forms
without breach of continuity). This term of course includes
as special cases the qualities of " malleability " (capability of
being flattened out under the hammer) and " ductility " (capa-
bility of being drawn into wire) ; but these two special qualities
do not always go parallel to each other, for this reason amongst
others that ductility in a higher degree than malleability is
determined by the tenacity of a metal. Hence tin and lead,
though very malleable, are little ductile. The quality of plasticity
is developed to very different degrees in different metals, and
even in the same species it depends on temperature, and may
be modified by mechanical or physical operations.
A bar of zinc, for instance, as obtained by casting, is very brittle;
but when heated to iop or 150 C. it becomes sufficiently plastic
to be rolled into the thinnest sheet or to be drawn into wire. Such
sheet or wire then remains flexible after cooling, the originally
only loosely cohering crystals having got intertwisted and forced
into absolute contact with one another an explanation supported
by the fact that rolled zinc has a somewhat higher specific gravity
(7-2) than the original ingot (6-9). The same metal, when heated
to 205 C., becomes so brittle that it can be powdered in a mortar.
Pure iron, copper, silver and other metals are easily drawn into
wire, or rolled into sheet, or flattened under the hammer. But all
these operations render the metals harder, and detract from their
plasticity. Their original softness can be restored to them by
" annealing," i.e. by heating them to redness and then quenching
them in cold water. In the case of iron, however, this applies
only if the metal is perfectly pure. If it contains a few parts of
carbon per thousand, the annealing process, instead of softening
the metal, gives it a " temper," meaning a higher degree of hardness
and elasticity (see below).
What we have called plasticity must not be confused with the
notion of " softness," which means the degree of facility with
which the plasticity of a metal can be discounted. Thus lead
is far softer than silver, and yet the latter is by far the more
plastic of the two. The famous experiments of H. E. Tresca
show that the plasticity of certain metals at least goes consider-
ably farther than had before been supposed.
He operated with lead, copper, silver, iron and some other metals.
Round disks made of these substances were placed in a closely fitting
cylindrical cavity drilled in a block of steel, the cavity having a
circular aperture of two or four centimetres below. By an hydraulic
press a pressure of 100,000 kilos was made to act upon the disks,
when the metal was seen to " flow " out of the hole like a viscid
liquid. In spite of the immense rearrangement of parts there was
no breach of continuity. What came out below was a compact
cylinder with a rounded bottom, consisting of so many layers super-
imposed upon one another. Parallel experiments with layers of dough
or sand plus some connecting material proved that the particles
in all cases moved along the same tracks as would be followed by a
flowing cylinder of liquid. Of the better known metals potassium
and sodium are the softest; they can be kneaded between the fingers
like wax. After these follow first thallium and then lead, the latter
being the softest of the metals used in the arts. Among these the
softness decreases in about the following order: lead, pure silver,
pure gold, tin, copper, aluminium, platinum, pure iron. _ As liquidity
might be looked upon as the ne plus ultra of softness, this is the right
place for stating that, while most metals, when heated up to their
melting points, pass pretty abruptly from the solid to the liquid
state, platinum and iron first assume, and throughout a long range
of temperatures retain, a condition of viscous semi-solidity which
enables two pieces of them to be " welded " together by pressure
into one continuous mass.
According to Prechtl, the ordinary metals, in regard to the
degree of facility or perfection with which they can be hammered
flat on the anvil, rolled out into sheet, or drawn into wire, form
the following descending series:
Rolling into Slieet.
Gold.
Silver.
Copper.
Tin.
Lead.
Zinc.
Platinum.
Iron.
Hammering.
Lead.
Tin.
Gold.
Zinc.
Silver.
Copper.
Platinum.
Iron.
To give an idea of what can be done in this way, it may be stated
that gold can be beaten out to leaf of the thickness of 3^00 mm. ;
and that platinum, by judicious work, can be drawn into wire
mm. thick.
Drawing into Wire.
Platinum.
Silver.
Iron.
Copper.
Gold.
Zinc.
Tin.
Lead.
By the " hardness " of a metal we mean the resistance which
it offers to the file or engraver's tool Taking it in this sense, it
does not necessarily measure, e.g. the resistance of a metal to
abrasion by friction. Thus, for instance, 10% aluminium bronze
is scratched by an ordinary steel knife-blade, yet the sets of
needles used for perforating postage stamps last longer if made
of aluminium bronze than if made of steel.
Elasticity. All metals are elastic to this extent that a change of
form, brought about by stresses not exceeding certain limit values,
will disappear on the stress being removed. Strains exceeding the
" limit of elasticity " result in permanent deformation or (if suffi-
ciently great) in rupture. Referring the reader to the article ELASTI-
CITY tor the theoretical and to the STRENGTH OF MATERIALS for the
practical aspects of this subject, we give here a table of the " modulus
of elasticity,' 1 E (column 2), for millimetre and kilogramme. Hence
looo/E is the elongation in millimetres per metre length per kilo.
Column 3 shows the charge causing a permanent elongation of
0-05 mm. per metre, which, for practical purposes, Wertheim takes
as giving the limit of elasticity; column 4 gives the breaking strain.
These values may vary within certain limits for different specimens.
For Wire of I sq. mm.
Section, Weight (in
Kilos) causing
iName 01 iviecai.
.
Permanent
Elongation
Breakage.
f s^ijiir-
Lead, drawn ....
1,803
0-25
2-1
,, annealed
1,727
0-20
1-8
Tin, drawn
4,148
o-45
2-45
annealed ....
1,700
O-2O
Cadmium
7,070
2-24
Gold, drawn ....
8,131
13-5
27
annealed ....
5.585
3-o
10
Silver, drawn ....
7,357
"3
29
,, annealed
7,140
2-6
16
Zinc, pure, cast in mould.
9,021
ordinary, drawn
8,735
o-75
13
Palladium, drawn .
n,759
18
annealed .
9,709
under 5
27
Copper, drawn.
12,449
12
40
annealed .
io,5i9
under 3
30
Platinum wire, medium
thickness, drawn
17,004
26
34
Platinum, annealed
I5,5i8
H
23
Iron, drawn ....
20,869
32
61
annealed ....
20,794
under 5
47
Nickel, drawn ....
23,950
|X6l
Aluminium ....
7,200
bronze
10,700
Brass (ZnCu z ) ....
8,543
German silver (ZniCuuNij)
10,788
Specific Gravity. This varies in metals from -594 (lithium) to
22-48 (osmium), and in one and the same species is a function of
temperature and of previous physical and mechanical treatment.
It has in general one value for the powdery metal as obtained by
reduction of the oxide in hydrogen below the melting point of the
metal, another for the metal in the state which it assumes spon-
taneously on freezing, and this latter value, in general, is modified
by hammering, rolling, drawing, &c. These mechanical operations
do not necessarily add to the density ; stamping, it is true, does so
necessarily, but rolling or drawing occasionally causes a diminution
of the density. Thus, for instance, chemically pure iron in the ingot
has the specific gravity 7-844; when it is rolled out into thin sheet,
the value falls to 7-6; when drawn into thin wire, to 7-75. The
following table gives the specific gravities of many metals. Where
special statements are not made, the numbers hold for the ordinary
temperature (15 to 17 or 20 C.), referred to water of the same
temperature as a standard, and to hold for the natural frozen metal.
Name of Metal.
Specific Gravity.
594
875
Sodium '
978
Rubidium
1-52
I-578
Magnesium
I- 743
i 8
I-OO
2-1
2'5
2-583 at 4
ordinary, hammered ....
2-67
2OO
METAL
Name of Metal.
Specific Gravity.
Barium
3-75
4-15
Vanadium powder
5-5
5-95
6-163
Cerium
6-68
6-62
6-50
Zinc, ingot
rolled out
Manganese
Tin, cast
crystallized by electrolysis from solutions
Indium
Iron, chemically pure, ingot
thin sheet
,, wrought, high quality
Nickel, ingot
forged
Cadmium, ingot
hammered
Cobalt
6-915
7-2
7-39
7-29 to 7-299
7-178
7-42
7-844
7-6
7-8 to 7-9
8-279
8-666
8-546
8-667
8-6
Molybdenum, containing 4 to 5 % of carbon .
Copper, native
,, cast
wire or thin sheet
,, electrotype, pure
Bismuth
Silver, cast
,, stamped
Lead, very slowly frozen
quickly frozen in cold water
Palladium
Thallium
Rhodium
Ruthenium
Mercury, liquid
,, solid
8-6
8-94
8-92
8-94 to 8-95
8-945
9-823 at 12
10-4 to 10-5
io-57
11-254
"363
11-4 at 22-5
n-86
I2-I
12-26 at o
13-595 at o
H-^Q below 40
Tungsten, compact, by H from chloride i
vapour 5
,, as reduced by hydrogen, powder
Uranium
16-54
I9-I3
18-7
Gold, ingot
,, stamped
powder, precipitated by ferrous sul- )
phate \
19-265 at 13
19-31 to 19-34
19-55 to 19-72
21-50
Iridium
Osmium .
22-2
22-477
Thermal Properties. The specific heats of most metals have been
determined. The general result is that, conformably with Dulong
and Petit's law, the " atomic heats " all come to very nearly the
same value (of about 6-4); i.e. atomic weight by specific heat =6-4.
Thus we have for silver by theory 6-4/108 = -0593, and by experi-
ment -0570 for 10 to 100 C.
The expansion by heat varies greatly. The following table gives
the linear expansions from o to 100 C. according to Fizeau (Comptes
rendus, Ixviii. 1125), the length at o being taken as unity.
Name of Metal.
Expansion
o to 100.
OOO QO7
ooi 451
ooi 936
Copper, native, from Lake Superior
,, artificial
Iron, soft, as used for electromagnets . . . ' .
,, reduced by hydrogen and compressed
Cast steel, English annealed
Bismuth, in the direction of the axis
at right angles to axis
mean expansion, calculated
Tin, of Malacca, compressed powder
ooi 708
ooi 869
ooi 228
ooi 208
OOI IIO
ooi 642
ooi 239
ooi 374
002 269
OO2 948
Zinc, distilled, compressed powder
Cadmium, distilled, compressed powder ....
OO2 905
003 1 02
002 ^6
Brass (71 -5'% copper, 28-5% zinc)
Bronze (86-3 % copper, 9-7 % tin, 4-0 % zinc) . .
ooi 879
ooi 802
, The coefficient of expansion is constant for such metals only as
crystallize in the regular system; the others expand differently in
the directions of the different axes. To eliminate this source of
uncertainty these metals were employed as compressed powders.
The cubical expansion of mercury from o to 100 C. is -018153
= rr-ViT (Regnault). (See THERMOMETRY.)
Fusibility and Volatility. The fusibility in different metals is
very different, as shown by the following table, which, besides
including all the fusing points (in degrees C.) of metals which have
been determined numerically, indicates those of a selection of other
metals by the positions assigned to them in the table.
Name of Metal.
Melting Point.
Boiling Point.
Mercury
-38-8
357-3
26-27
30-1
Rubidium
Potassium
38-5
62-5
95-6
719-731
861-Q'U.
155
Lithium
Tin
1 80-0
231-9
1450-1600
Bismuth
269-2
lOOO-IASO
Thallium
Cadmium
290
320-7
327-7
780
1450-1600
Zinc
Incipient red heat
Antimony
Magnesium
Aluminium
Cherry red heat
419
525
629-5
632-6
655
700
780
929-954
about iioo
Lanthanum
Barium
810
850
Silver
962
Gold ......
1064
Copper
Yellow heat
1082
IIOO
1300-1400
2IOO
Nickel
Cobalt
Dazzling white heat . .
Palladium
Platinum
Rhodium
1427
1800 (?)
1500-1600
1500
1760
above Pt.
Iridium
Ruthenium
Tantalum )
Osmium \
2200
Ir.
In electric
furnace
For practical purposes the volatility of metals may be stated as
follows :
1. Distillable below redness: mercury.
2. Distillable at red heats: cadmium, alkali metals, zinc, mag-
nesium.
3. Volatilized more or less readily when heated beyond their
fusing points in open crucibles: antimony (very readily), lead,
bismuth, tin, silver.
4. Barely so: gold, (copper).
5. Practically non-volatile: (copper), iron, nickel, cobalt, alu-
minium; also lithium, barium, strontium and calcium.
In the oxyhydrogen flame silver boils, forming a blue vapour,
while platinum volatilizes < slowly, and osmium, though infusible,
very readily.
Latent Heats of Liquefaction. Of these we know little. The fol-
lowing numbers are due to Person ice, it may be stated, being 80.
Name of Metal.
Latent
Heat.
Name of Metal.
Latent
Heat.
Mercury ....
Lead
Bismuth ....
2-82
5-37
12-4
Cadmium ....
Silver
Zinc
13-6
2I-I
28-1
The latent heat of vaporization of mercury was found by Marignac
to be 103 to 1 06.
Conductivity. Conductivity, whether thermic or electric, is very
differently developed in different metals; and, as an exact knowledge
of these conductivities is of great importance, much attention has
been given to their numerical determination (see CONDUCTION,
ELECTRIC; and CONDUCTION OF HEAT).
The following table gives the electric conductivities of a number
of metals as determined by Matthiesen, and the relative internal
thermal conductivities of (nominally) the same metals as determined
by Wiedemann and Franz, with rods about 5 mm. thick, of which
one end was kept at 100 C., the rest of the rod in a "vacuum "
(of 5 mm. tension) at 12 C. Matthiesen's results, except in the two
cases noted, are from his memoir in Pogg. Ann., 1858, ciii. 428
METAL
2OI
Name of Metai.
Relative Conductivities.
Electric.
Thermic.
Copper, commercial, No. 3 .
774 at 18-8
No. 2 ...
721 22-6
chemically pure, hard drawn
93 l
Copper
748
Gold, pure
552 21-8
548
absolutely pure ....
73' .. '9-0
Brass
25
Tin, pure
115 21-0
154
Pianoforte wire ......
144 20-4
Iron rod
IOI
Steel
103
Lead, pure
0777 - 17-3
079
Platinum
105 20-7
094
German silver
0767 ,, 18-7
73
Bismuth
0119 ,, 13-8
Aluminium
196 ,, 19-6
Mercury
0163 ,, 22-8
Silver, pure
I-OOO O
I -000
Magnetic Properties. Iron, nickel and cobalt are the only metals
which are attracted by the magnet and can become magnets them-
selves. But in regard to their power of retaining their magnetism
none of them comes at all up to the compound metal steel. See
MAGNETISM.
Chemical Changes. Metals may unite chemically both with
metals and with non-metals. The compounds formed in the first
case,- which may be either definite chemical compounds or solid
solutions, are discussed under ALLOYS; in this place only com-
binations with non-metals are discussed, it being premised that
the free metal takes part in the reaction.
Metallic Substances Produced by the Union of Metals with Small
Proportions of Non-Metallic Elements.
Hydrogen, as was shown by Graham, is capable of uniting with
or being occluded by certain metals, notably with palladium (q.v.),
into metal-like compounds.
Oxygen. Mercury and copper and some other metals are capable
of dissolving their own oxides. Mercury, by doing so, becomes
viscid and unfit for its ordinary applications. Copper, when pure
to start with, suffers considerable deterioration in plasticity. But
the presence of moderate proportions of cuprous oxide has been
found to correct the evil influence of small contaminations by arsenic,
antimony, lead and other foreign metals. Commercial coppers
sometimes owe their good qualities to this compensating influence.
Arsenic combines readily with all metals into true arsenides, which
latter, in general, are soluble in the metal itself. The presence in
a metal of even small proportions of arsenide generally leads to
considerable deterioration in mechanical qualities.
Phosphorus. The remark iust made might be said to hold for
phosphorus were it not for the existence of what is called " phos-
phorus-bronze," an alloy of copper with phosphorus (i.e. its own
phosphide), which possesses valuable properties. According to
Abel, the most favourable effect is produced by from I to l% of
phosphorus. Such an alloy can be cast like ordinary bronze, but
excels the latter in hardness, elasticity, toughness and tensile
strength.
Carbon. Most metals when molten are capable of dissolving at
least small proportions of carbon, which, in general, leads to a
deterioration in metallicity, except in the case of iron, which by the
addition of small percentages of carbon gains in elasticity and tensile
strength with little loss of plasticity (see IRON).
Silicon, so far as we know, behaves to metals pretty much like
carbon, but our knowledge of facts is limited. What is known as
cast iron is essentially an alloy of iron proper with 2 to 6 % of carbon
and more or less of silicon (see IRON). Alloys of copper and silicon
were prepared by Deville in 1863. The alloy with 12% of silicon
is white, hard and brittle. When diluted down to 4-8%, it assumes
the colour and fusibility of bronze, but, unlike it, is tenacious and
ductile like iron.
Action of the More Ordinary Chemical Agents on
Simple Metals.
The metals to be referred to are always understood to be given
in the compact (frozen) condition, and that, wherever metals are
enumerated as being similarly attacked, the degree of readiness in
the action is indicated by the order in which the several members
are named the more readily changed metal always standing first.
Water, at ordinary or slightly elevated temperatures, is decom-
posed more or less readily, with evolution of hydrogen gas and forma-
tion of a basic hydrate, by (i) potassium (formation of KHO),
sodium (NaHO), lithium (Li'OH), barium, strontium, calcium
(BaH 2 O 2 , &c.) ; (2) magnesium, zinc, manganese (MgO 2 H 2 , &c.).
1 Published in 1860, and declared by Matthiesen to be more exact
than the old numbers.
In the case of group I the action is more or less violent, and the
hydroxides formed are soluble in water and very strongly basic;
metals of group 2 are only slowly attacked, with formation of rela-
tively feebly basic and less soluble hydroxides. Disregarding the
rarer elements, the metals not named so far may be said to be proof
against the action of pure water in the absence of free oxygen (air).
By the joint action of water and air, thallium, lead, bismuth are
oxidized, with formation of more or less sparingly soluble hydroxides
(ThHO, PbH 2 O2, BiHaOs), which, in the presence of carbonic acid,
pass into still less soluble basic carbonates. Iron, when exposed to
moisture and air, " rusts " ; but this process never takes place in the
absence of air, and it is questionable whether it ever sets in in the
absence of carbonic acid (see RUST).
Copper, in the present connexion, is intermediate between iron
and the following group of metals.
Mercury,' if pure, and all the " noble " metals (silver, gold, plati-
num and platinum-metals), are absolutely proof against water even
in the presence of oxygen and carbonic acid.
The metals grouped together above, under I and 2, act on steam
pretty much as they do on liquid water. Of the rest, the following are
readily oxidized by steam at a red heat, with formation of hydrogen
gas zinc, iron, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, tin. Bismuth is similarly
attacked, but slowly, at a white heat. Aluminium js barely affected
even at a white heat, if it is pure; the ordinary impure metal is liable
to be very readily oxidized.
Aqueous Sulphuric or Hydrochloric Acid readily dissolves groups
I and 2, with evolution of hydrogen and formation of chlorides or
sulphates. The same holds for the following group (A) : [manga-
nese, zinc, magnesium] iron, aluminium, cobalt, nickel, cadmium.
Tin dissolves readily in strong hot hydrochloric acid as SnCl 2 ;
aqueous sulphuric acid does not act on it appreciably in the cold;
at 150 it attacks it more or less quickly, according to the strength
of the acid, with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen or, when the
acid is stronger, of sulphurous acid gas and deposition of sulphur
(Calvert and Johnson). A group (B), comprising copper, is,
substantially, attacked only in the presence of oxygen or air. Lead,
in sufficiently dilute acid, or in stronger acid if not too hot, remains
unchanged. A group (C) may be formed of mercury, silver, gold
and platinum, which are not touched by either aqueous acid in
any circumstances.
Hot (concentrated) sulphuric acid does not attack gold, platinum
and platinum- metals generally; all other metals (including silver)
are converted into sulphates, with evolution of sulphur dioxide.
In the case of iron, ferric sulphate, Fe 2 (SO4)3, is produced; tin yields
a somewhat indefinite sulphate of its oxide SnO 2 .
Nitric Acid (Aqueous) Gold, platinum, iridium and rhodium
only are proof against the action of this powerful oxidizer. Tin and
antimony (also arsenic) are converted by it (ultimately) into hydrates
of their highest oxides SnO 2 , Sb 2 Os (As^Os) the oxides of tin and
antimony being insoluble in water and in the acid itself. All other
metals, including palladium, are dissolved as nitrates, the oxidizing
part of the reagent being generally reduced to oxides of nitrogen.
Iron, zinc, cadmium, also tin under certain conditions, reduce the
dilute acid, partially at least, to nitrous oxide, N 2 O, or ammonium
nitrate, NH 4 NO S .
Aqua Regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, converts
all metals (even gold, the " king of metals," whence the name) into
chlorides, except only rhodium, iridium and ruthenium, which,
when pure, are not attacked.
Caustic Alkalis. ^O( metals not decomposing liquid pure water,
only a few dissolve in aqueous caustic potash or soda, with evolution
of hydrogen. The most important of these are aluminium and zinc,
which are converted into aluminate, Al(OK,Na)s, and zincate,
Zn(OK,Na) 2 , respectively. But of the rest the majority, when
treated with boiling sufficiently strong alkali, are attacked at least
superficially; of ordinary metals only gold, platinum, and silver are
perfectly proof against the reagents under consideration, and these
accordingly are used preferably for the construction of vessels
intended for analytical operations involving the use of aqueous
caustic alkalis. For commercial purposes iron is universally em-
ployed and works well ; but it is not available analytically, because
a superficial oxidation of the empty part of the vessel (by the water
and air) cannot be prevented. Basins made of pure malleable nickel
are free from this drawback; they work as well as platinum, and
rather better than silver ones do. There is hardly a single metal which
holds out against the alkalis themselves when in the state of fiery
fusion; even platinum is most violently attacked. In chemical
laboratories fusions with caustic alkalis are always effected in vessels
made of gold or silver, these metals holding out fairly well even in
the presence of air. Gold is the better of the two. Iron, which
stands so well against aqueous alkalis, is most violently attacked by
the fused reagents. Yet tons of caustic soda are fused daily in
chemical works in iron pots without thereby suffering contamination,
which seems to show that (clean) iron, like gold and silver, is at-
tacked only by the joint action of fused alkali and air, the influence
of the latter being of course minimized in large-scale operations.
Oxygen or Air. The noble metals (from silver upwards) do not
combine directly with oxygen given as oxygen gas (Oj), although,
like silver, they may absorb this gas largely when in the fused
condition, and may not be proof against ozone, O. Mercury, within
202
METALLOGRAPHY
a certain range of temperatures situated close to its boiling point,
combines slowly with oxygen into the red oxide, which, however,
breaks up again at higher temperatures. All other metals, when
heated in oxygen or air, are converted, more or less readily, into
stable oxides. Potassium, for example, yields peroxide, K 2 O 2 or
K 2 O4; sodium gives Na 2 O 2 ; the barium-group metals, as well as
magnesium, cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, are converted into their
monoxides MeO. Bismuth and antimony give (the latter very
readily) sesquioxide (BizOa and StijOj, the latter being capable of
passing into SbjO<). Aluminium, when pure and kept out of contact
with siliceous matter, is only oxidized at a white heat, and then very
slowly, into alumina, Al 2 Oa. Tin, at high temperatures, passes
slowly into oxide, SnO 2 .
Sulphur. Amongst the better known metals, gold and aluminium
are the only ones which, when heated with sulphur or in sulphur
vapour remain unchanged. All the rest, under these circumstances,
are converted into sulphides. The metals of the alkalis and alkaline
earths, also magnesium, burn in sulphur vapour as they do in oxygen.
Of the heavy metals, copper is the one which exhibits by far the
greatest avidity for sulphur, its subsulphide Cu 2 S being the stablest
of all heavy metallic sulphides in opposition to dry reactions.
Chlorine. All metals, when treated with chlorine gas at the proper
temperatures, pass into chlorides. In some cases the chlorine is
taken up in two instalments, a lower chloride being produced first,
to pass ultimately into a higher chloride. Iron, for instance, is
converted first into FeCU, ultimately into FeCls, which practically
means a mixture of the two chlorides, or pure FeCU as a final product.
Of the several products, the chlorides of gold and platinum (AuClj
and PtCU) are the only ones which when heated beyond their
temperature of formation dissociate into metal and chlorine. The ulti-
mate chlorination product of copper, CuCU, when heated to redness,
decomposes into the lower chloride, CuCl, and chlorine. All the
rest, when heated by themselves, volatilize, some at lower, others
at higher temperatures.
Of the several individual chlorides, the following are liquids or
solids, volatile enough to be distilled from glass vessels: AsCli,
SbCU, SnCl, Bids, HgCl 2 , the chlorides of arsenic, antimony, tin,
bismuth, mercury respectively. The following are readily volatilized
in a current of chlorine,. at a red heat: AlClj, CrCls, FeCU, the
chlorides of aluminium, chromium, iron. The following, though
volatile at higher temperatures, are not volatilized at dull redness:
KC1. NaCl, UCl, N|C1 2 , CoClj, MnCl 2 , ZnCl 2 , MgCl 2 , PbCl 2 , AgCl, the
chlorides of rjotassium, sodium, lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese,
zinc, magnesium, lead, silver. Somewhat less volatile than the
last-named group are the chlorides (MC1 2 ) of barium, strontium and
calcium.
Metallic chlorides, as a class, are readily soluble in water. The
following are the most important exceptions: silver chloride,
AgCl, and mercurous chloride, HgCl, are absolutely insoluble; lead
chloride, PbCl 2 , and cuprous chloride, CuCl, are very sparingly soluble
in water. The chlorides AsClj, SbCh, BiCh, are at once decomposed
by (liquid) water, with formation of oxide (AsOs) or oxychlorides
(SbOCl, BiOCl) and hydrochloric acid. The chlorides MgCl 2 , A1CU.
CrCU, FeCls, suffer a similar decomposition when evaporated with
water in the heat. The same holds in a limited sense for ZnCl 2 ,
CoCl 2 , NiCl 2 , and even CaClj. All chlorides, except those of silver
and mercury (and, of course, those of gold and platinum), are
oxidized by steam at high temperatures, with elimination of hydro-
chloric acid.
For the characters of metals as chemical elements see the special
articles on the different metals.
See generally A. Rossing Geschichte der Metatte (1901); B.
Neumann, Die Metalle (1904); also treatises on chemistry.
METALLOGRAPHY. The examination of metals and alloys
by the aid of the microscope has assumed much importance in
comparatively recent years, and it might at first be considered
to be a natural development of the use of the microscope in
determining the constitution of rocks, a study to which the name
petrography has been given. It would appear, however, that
it is an extension of the study of the structure of meteoric irons.
There can be no question that in the main it was originated by
Dr H. C. Sorby, who in 1864 gave the British Association an
account of his work. Following the work of Sorby came that
of Professor A. Martens of Charlottenburg, presenting many
features of originality. F. Osmond has obtained results in
connexion with iron and steel which are of the highest interest.
A list of the more important papers by these and other workers
will be found in the appended bibliography.
Preparation of the Specimen. Experience alone can enable the
operator to determine what portion of a mass of metal or alloy
will afford a trustworthy sample of the whole. In studying a
series of binary alloys it has been found advantageous in certain
cases to obtain one section which will show in a general way the
variation in structure from one end of the series to the other.
This has been effected by pouring the lighter constituent carefully
on the surface of the heavier constituent, and allowing solidifica-
tion to take place. A section through the culot so obtained will
show a gradation in structure from pure metal on one side to
pure metal on the other. A thin slice of metal is usually cut by
means of a hack-saw driven by mechanism. The thickness of
the piece should not be less than J in. and in order that it may
be firmly held between the fingers it should not be less than i in.
square. The preliminary stages of polishing are effected by
emery paper placed preferably on wooden disks capable of being
revolved at a high rate of speed. The finest grade of emery paper
that can be obtained is used towards the end of the operation.
Before use the finer papers should be rubbed with a hard steel
surface to remove any coarse particles. The completion of the
operation of polishing is generally effected on wet cloth or parch-
ment covered with a small amount of carefully washed jeweller's
rouge. Various mechanical appliances are employed to minimize
the labour and time required for the polishing. These usually
consist of a series of interchangeable revolving disks, each of which
is covered with emery paper, cloth or parchment, according to
the particular stage of polishing for which it is required. In the
case of brittle alloys and of alloys having a very soft constituent,
which during polishing tends to spread over and obliterate the
harder constituents, polishing is in many cases altogether avoided
by casting the alloy on the surface of glass or mica. In this way,
with a little care, a perfect surface is obtained, and it is only
necessary to develop the structure by suitable etching. In
adopting this method, however, instances have occurred in which
the removal of the cast surface has shown a structure differing
considerably from the original.
Polishing in Bas-Rdief. If the polishing be completed with
fine rouge on a sheet of wet parchment, placed upon a compara-
tively soft base such as a piece of deal, certain soft constituents
of an alloy may often be eroded in such a manner as to leave the
hardest portions in relief. For the later stages of polishing H. L.
Le Chatelier recommends the use of alumina obtained by the
calcination of ammonium alum; and for the final polish of soft
metals, chromium oxide.
Although in some cases a pattern becomes visible after polish-
ing, yet more frequently a mirror-like surface is produced in
which no pattern can be detected, or if there is a pattern it is
blurred, as if seen through a veil or mist. This is due to a thin
layer of metal which has been dragged, or smeared, uniformly
over the whole surface by the friction of the polishing process.
Such a surface layer is formed in all cases of polishing, and the
peculiar lustre of burnished silver or steel is probably due to this
layer. But to the metallographist it is an inconvenience, as it
conceals scratches left by imperfect polishing, and also hides the
pattern. It is therefore desirable to conduct the polishing so as
to make this layer as thin as possible: it is claimed for alumina
that it can be so used as to produce a much thinner surface layer
than that due to the employment of rouge. The surface layer is
very readily removed by appropriate liquid reagents, and, the
true surface of the metal having been laid bare, the etching
reagent acts differently on the individual substances in the alloy
and the pattern can thus be emphasized to any required extent.
Osmond divides etching reagents into three classes acids,
halogens and salts. As regards acids, water containing from 2 to
10% of hydrochromic acid is useful. It is made by mixing 10
grams of potassium bichromate with 10 grams of sulphuric acid
in zoo grams of water. The use of nitric acid requires much
experience. It is frequently employed in the examination of
steels, Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen preferred a i% solution in
alcohol, but many workers use concentrated acid, and effect the
etching by allowing a stream of water to dilute the film of acid left
on the surface of the specimen after dipping it. Of the halogens,
iodine is the most useful. A solution in alcohol is applied, so that
a single drop covers half a square inch of surface. The specimen
is then washed with alcohol, and dried with a piece of fine linen or
chamois leather. Tincture of iodine also affords a means of
identifying lead in certain alloys by the formation of a yellow
iodide of lead, while the vapour of iodine has in certain cases been
METALLURGY
203
used to tint the constituents. Thin coloured films may often be
produced by the oxidation of the specimen when heated in air.
This, as a means of developing the structure, in the case of the
copper alloys is specially useful. Tinted crystals may thus be
distinguished from the investing layer caused by the presence
of a minute quantity of another constituent. The temper colours
produced by heating iron or steel in air are well known. Carbide
of iron is less oxidizable than the iron with which it is intimately
associated, and it assumes a brown tint, while the iron has reached
the blue stage. These coloured films may be fixed by covering
with thin films of gelatine.
In some cases the alloy may be attacked electrolytically by
exposing it for a few minutes to a weak electric current in a bath
of very dilute sulphuric acid. Certain organic bodies give very
satisfactory results. The Japanese, for instance, produce most
remarkable effects by simple reagents of which an infusion of
certain forms of grass is a not unimportant constituent. In the
case of iron and steel a freshly prepared infusion of liquorice
root has been found to be most useful for colouring certain
constituents of steel. Osmond, who was the first to use this
reagent, insisted that it should be freshly prepared and always
used under identical conditions as regards age and concentration.
His method of applying it was to rub the specimen on parchment
moistened with it, but he has subsequently modified this " polish
attack " by substituting a 2 % solution of ammonium nitrate for
the liquorice infusion. In each case a small quantity of freshly
precipitated calcium sulphate is used on the parchment to assist
the polishing.
Appliances used in Micrography. The method of using the
microscope in connexion with a camera for photographic purposes
will now be considered. Every micrographer has his own views as
Micrographic Apparatus.
to the form of an installation to be adopted, and it will therefore
be well to give an illustration of a definite apparatus which has
been found to give satisfactory results. It consists of a micro-
scope A with a firm base placed in a horizontal position. The
microscope can be connected by a tube] B with the expanded
camera CC, at the end of which is the usual frame to receive the
photographic plate. A practised observer can focus on a plate
of clear glass by the aid of a subsidiary low-power microscope
lens. If a semi-transparent plate is employed it. should be as fine
as possible. The surface of the table is cut in such a way near H
that the observer who is seated may conveniently examine the
object on the stage of the microscope, the portion B turning
should be an achromatic one, as colour effects cause trouble in
photographing the objects. For lower powers the Lieberkuhn
parabolic illuminator is useful. Certain groups of alloys show
better under oblique illumination, which may be effected by the
aid of a good condensing lens, the angle of incidence being
limited by the distance of the object from the objective in the
case of high magnification. As regards objectives, the most
useful are the Zeiss 2 mm., 4 mm. and 24 mm.; two other useful
objectives for low powers being 35 mm. and 70 mm., both of
which are projecting objectives. A projecting eye-piece, prefer-
ably of low power, should be employed with all but the two latter
objectives. The immersion lens, the Zeiss 2 mm., is used with
specially thickened cedar oil, and if the distance from the
objective to the plate is 7 feet, magnifications of over 2000
diameters can easily be obtained. As regards sensitized plates,
excellent results have been obtained with Lumiere plates sensitive
to yellow and green. The various brands of " process " plates
are very serviceable where the contrasts on the specimen are
not great. Some reproductions of photo-micrographs of metals
and alloys will be found in the plate accompanying the article
ALLOYS.
AUTHORITIES. H. C. Sorby, " On Microscopical Photographs
of Various Kinds of Iron and Steel," Brit. Assoc. Report (1864),
?t. ii. p. 189; " Microscopical Structure of Iron and Steel," Journ.
ran and Steel Inst. (1887), p. 255; A. Martens, " Die mikroskopische
Untersuchung der Metalle," Glaser's Annalen (1892), xxx. 201;
H. Wedding, " Das Gefiige der Schienenkopfe," Stahl und Eisen
(May 15, 1892), xii. 478; F. Osmond, " Sur la metallographie
microscopique," Rapport presente a la commission des methoi.es
d'essai des materiaux de construction le 10 fevrier 1892; et ii. 7-17
(Paris, 1895); " Microscopic Metallography," Trans. Amer. Inst.
Mining Eng. xxii. 243; J. E. Stead, " Methods of preparing Speci-
mens for Microscopic Examination," Journ. Iron and Steel Inst.
(i894), P t.i.p.2Q2);
W. C. Roberts-Aus-
ten and F. Osmond,
" On the Structure
of Metals, its Origin
and Causes," Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc.
clxxxvii. 417-432;
and Bull, de la Soc.
d' encouragement
pour I'industrie na-
tionale, 5 serie, i.
1136 (Aofit 1896);
G. Charpy, " Micro-
scopic Study of Me-
tallic Alloys," Bull.
de la soc. d' encouragement pour I'industrie nationale (March, 1897) ; A.
Sauveur, " Constitution of Steel," Technology Quarterly (June, 1898) ;
Metallographist, vol. i. No. 3; " Metallography applied to Foundry
Work," The Iron and Steel Magazine, vol. ix. No. 6, and vol. x. No. i ;
J. E. Stead, " Crystalline Structure of Iron and Steel," Journ. Iron
and Steel Inst. (1898), i. 145; " Practical Metallography," Proc.
Cleveland Inst. of Engineers (Feb. 26, 1900) ; Ewing and Rosenhain,
" Crystalline Structure of Metals," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. cxciii.
353 and cxcv. 279; F. Osmond, " Crystallography of Iron," Annales
des Mines (January 1900); Le Chatelier, Technology of Metallo-
graphy," Metallographist, vol. iv. No. i ; Contribution a I'etude des
alliages. Societe d' encouragement pour I'industrie nationale (1901);
Smeaton, " Notes on the Etching of Steel Sections," Iron and Steel
Magazine, vol. ix. No. 3. (W. C. R.-A.; F. H. NE.)
METALLURGY, the art of extracting metals from their ores;
aside for this purpose. The subsequent focusing is effected by a the term bdng customarily restricted to commercial as opposed
rod, FFF, and gearing attached to the fine adjustment of the tQ laboi - atory met hods. It is convenient to treat electrical
microscope, GA; flap J when raised forms the support of the
lamp used for illumination. As an illuminant an arc light has
many advantages, as the exposure of the plate used will seldom
exceed 10 seconds. The filament of a Nernst lamp can be used
as the source of light; though not so brilliant as the arc it pos-
sesses the great advantage of perfect immobility. For the best
results, especially with high powers, the source of light must be
small, so that its image can be focussed on to the surface of the
object; this advantage is possessed by both of these illuminants.
Next in value comes the acetylene flame, and an incandescent
lamp or a gas lamp with a mantle will give good results, but with
much longer exposure. Actual illumination is best effected by a
Beck vertical illuminator or a Zeiss prism. It is necessary that
the lens used for concentrating the light on the illuminator
laboratory
processes of extraction as forming the subjects of Electro-
chemistry and Electrometallurgy (qq.v.). The following table
enumerates in the order of their importance the metals which our
subject at present is understood to include; the second column
gives the chemical characters of the ores utilized, italics indicat-
ing those of subordinate importance. The term " oxide " includes
carbonate, hydrate, and, when marked with*, silicate.
Metal. Character of Ores.
Iron Oxides, sulphide.
Copper Complex sulphides, also oxides, metal.
Silver Sulphide and reguline metal, chloride.
Gold Reguline metal.
Lead Sulphide and basic carbonate, sulphate, &c.
Zinc Sulphide, oxide.*
Tin . . Oxide.
2O4
METALLURGY
Metal. Character of Ores.
Mercury Sulphide, reguline metal.
Antimony .... Sulphide.
Bismuth Reguline metal.
Nickel and cobalt . . Arsenides.
Platinum, iridium, &c. . Reguline.
General Sequence of Operations. Occasionally, but rarely,
metallic ores occur as practically pure compact masses, from
which the accompanying matrix or " gangue " can be detached
by hand and hammer. In most cases the " ore " (see MINERAL
DEPOSITS; VEINS), as it comes out of the mine or quarry, is
simply a mixture of ore proper and gangue, in which the latter
not unfrequently predominates. Hence it is generally necessary
to purify the ore before the liberation of the metal is attempted.
Most metallic ores are specifically heavier than the accompanying
impurities and their purification is generally effected by reducing
the crude ore to a fine enough powder to detach the metallic
from the earthy part, and then washing away the latter by a
current of water, as far as possible (see ORE-DRESSING).
The majority of ores being chemical compounds, the extraction
of their metals demands chemical treatment. The chemical
operations involved may be classified as follows:
1. Fiery Operations. The ore, generally with some " flux,"
is exposed to the action of fire. The fire in most cases has a
chemical, in addition to its physical, function. Moreover the
furnace (q.v.) is designed so as to facilitate the action of the heat
and furnace gases in the desired direction. It is intended either
to burn away certain components of the ore in which case it
must be so regulated as to contain a sufficient excess of unburned
oxygen; or it is meant to deoxidize (" reduce ") the ore,when tne
draught must be restricted so as to keep the ore constantly
wrapped up in combustible flame gases (carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, marsh-gas, &c.). The majority of the chemical
operations of metallurgy fall into this category, and in these
processes other metal-reducing agents than those naturally
contained in the fire (or blast) are only exceptionally employed.
2. Amalgamation. The ore by itself (if it is a reguline one),
or with certain reagents (if it is not), is worked up with mercury
so that the metal is obtained as an amalgam, which can be separ-
ated mechanically from the dross. The purified amalgam is
distilled, when the mercury is recovered as a distillate while the
metal remains.
3. Wet Processes. Strictly speaking, certain amalgamation
methods fall under this head; but, in its ordinary acceptance, the
term refers to processes in which the metal is extracted either
from the natural ore, or from the ore after roasting or other
preliminary treatment, by an acid or salt solution, and from this
solution precipitated generally in the reguline form by some
suitable reagent.
Few methods of metal extraction at once yield a pure product.
What as a rule is obtained is a more or less impure metal, which
requires to be " refined " to become fit for the market.
Chemical Operations. Amalgamation and wet-way processes
have limited applications, being practically confined to copper, gold
and silver. We therefore here confine ourselves, in the main, to
pyro-chemical operations.
The method to be adopted for the extraction of a metal from its
ore is determined chiefly, though not entirely, by the nature of the
non-metallic component with which the metal is combined. The
simplest case is that of the reguline ores where there is no non-
metallic element. The important case is that of gold.
Oxides, Hydrates, Carbonates and Silicates. All iron and tin ores
proper fall under this heading, which, besides, comprises certain ores
of copper, of lead and of zinc. The first step consists in subjecting
the crude ore to a roasting or calcining process, the object of which
is to remove the water and carbon dioxide, and burn away, to some
extent at least, the sulphur, arsenic or organic matter. The residue
consists of an impure oxide of the respective metal, which in all cases
is reduced by treatment with fuel at a high temperature. Should
the metal be present as a silicate, lime must be added in the smelting
to remove the silica and liberate the oxide.
The temperature required for the reduction of zinc 'lies above the
boiling point of the metal; hence the mixture of ore and reducing
agent (charcoal is generally used) must be heated in a retort combined
with condensing apparatus. In all the other cases the reduction
is effected in the fire itself, a tower-shaped blast furnace being pre-
ferably used. The furnace is charged with alternate layers of fuel
and ore (or rather ore and flux, see below), and the whole kindled
from below. The metallic oxide, partly by the direct action of the
carbon with which it is in contact, but principally by that of the
carbon monoxide produced in the lower strata from the oxygen of
the blast and the hot carbon there, is reduced to the metallic state;
the metal fuses and runs down, with the slag, to the bottom of the
furnace, whence both are withdrawn by opening plug-holes.
Sulphides. Iron, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, silver and antimony
very frequently present themselves in this state of combination, as
components of a family of ores which may be divided into two
sections: (i) such as substantially consist of simple sulphides, as
iron pyrites (FeSa), galena (PbS), zinc blende (ZnS), cinnabar (HgS) ;
and (2) complex sulphides, such as the various kinds of sulphureous
copper ores (all substantially compounds or mixtures of sulphides
of copper and iron) ; bournonite, a complex sulphide of lead, anti-
mony and copper; rothgiltigerz, sulphide of silver, antimony and
arsenic ; fahlerz, sulphides of arsenic and antimony, combined with
sulphides of copper, silver, iron, zinc, mercury, silver; and mixtures
of these and other sulphides with one another.
In treating a sulphureous ore, the first step as a rule is to subject
it to oxidation by roasting it in a reverberatory or other furnace,
which leads to the burning away of at least part of the arsenic and
part of the sulphur. The effect on the several individual metallic
sulphides (supposing only one of these to be present ) is as follows :
1. Those of silver (Ag 2 S) and mercury (HgS) yield sulphur dioxide
gas and metal ; in the case of silver, sulphate is formed at low tem-
peratures. Metallic mercury, in the circumstances, goes off as a
vapour, which is collected and condensed ; silver remains as a regulus,
but pure sulphide of silver is hardly ever worked.
2. Sulphides of iron and zinc yield the oxides Fe 2 O 3 and ZnO as
final products, some basic sulphate being formed at the earlier stages,
especially in the case of zinc. The oxides can be reduced by carbon.
3. The sulphides of lead and copper yield, the former a mixture
of oxide and normal sulphate, the latter one of oxide and basic
sulphate. Sulphate of lead is stable at a red heat ; sulphate of copper
breaks up into oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen. In practice,
neither oxidation process is ever pushed to the end; it is stopped
as soon as the mixture of roasting-product and unchanged sulphide
contains oxygen and sulphur in the ratio of Os : S. The access of
air is then stopped and the whole heated to a higher temperature,
when the whole of the sulphur and oxygen is eliminated. This
method is largely utilized in the smelting of lead from galena and of
copper from copper pyrites.
4. Sulphide of antimony, when roasted in air, is converted into
a kind of alloy of sulphide and oxide; the same holds for iron, only
its oxysulphide is quite readily converted into the pure oxide Fe 2 Oa
by further roasting. Oxysulphide of antimony, by suitable processes
can be reduced to metal, but these processes are rarely used, because
the same end is far more easily obtained by " precipitation," i.e.
withdrawing the sulphur by fusion with metallic iron, forming
metallic antimony and sulphide of iron. Both products fuse, but
readily part, because fused antimony is far heavier than fused
sulphide of iron. A precisely similar method is used occasionally
for the reduction of lead from galena. Sulphide of lead, when fused
together with metallic iron in the proportion of 2Fe : I PbS yields
a regulus ( = lPb) and a " mat " Fe 2 S, which, however, on cooling,
decomposes into the ordinary sulphide FeS, and finely divided iron.
What we have been explaining are special cases of a more general
metallurgic proposition: Any one of the metals, copper, iron, tin,
zinc, lead, silver, antimony, arsenic, in general, is capable of de-
sulphurizing (at least partially) any of the others that follows it in
the series just given, and it does so the more readily and completely
the greater the number of intervening terms. Hence, supposing
a complete mixture of these metals to be melted down under circum-
stances admitting of only a partial sulphuration of the whole, the
copper has the best chance of passing into the " mat," while the
arsenic is the first to be eliminated as such, or, in the presence of
oxidants, as oxide.
Arsenides. Although arsenides are amongst the commonest
impurities of ores generally, ores consisting .essentially of arsenides
are comparatively rare. The most important are certain double
arsenides of cobalt and nickel, which in practice are always con-
taminated with the arsenides or other compounds of foreign metals,
such as iron, manganese, &c. The general mode of working these
ores is as follows. The ore is first roasted by itself, when a part of
the arsenic goes off as such and as oxide, while a complex of lower
arsenides remains. This residue is now subjected to careful oxidiz-
ing fusion in the presence of some solvent for metallic bases. The
effect is that the several metals are oxidized away and pass into the
slag (as silicates) in the following order manganese, iron, cobalt,
nickel ; and at any stage the as yet unoxidized residue of arsenide
assumes the form of a fused regulus, which sinks down through the
slag as a " speis." (This term has the same meaning in reference
to arsenides as " mat " has in regard to sulphides.) By stopping
the process at the right moment, we can produce a speis which
contains only cobalt and nickel, and if at this stage also the flux is
renewed we can further produce a speis which contains only nickel
and a slag which substantially is one of cobalt only. The composi-
tion of the speises generally varies from AsMe s/t to AsMej, where
Me " means one atomic weight of metal in tola, so that in general
i Me = *Fe + yCo + zNi, where x + y + z = i. The siliceous
METAL-WORK
205
cobalt is utilized as a blue pigment called " smalt "; the nickel-speis
is worked up for metal.
Minor Reagents. Besides the oxidizing and reducing agents
present in the fire, and the " fluxes " added for the production of
slags, various minor reagents may be noticed. Metallic iron as a
desulphurizer has already been referred to.
Oxide of lead, PbO (litharge), is largely used as an oxidizing agent.
At a red heat, when it melts, it readily attacks all metals, except
silver and gold, the general result being the formation of a mixed
oxide and of a mixed regulus, a distribution, in other words, of both
the lead and the metal acted on between slag and regulus. More
important is its action on metallic sulphides, which, in general,
results in the formation of three things besides sulphur dioxide, viz.
a mixed oxide slag including the excess of litharge, a regulus of lead
(which may include bismuth and other more readily reducible
metals), and, if the litharge is not sufficient for a complete oxidation,
a " mat " comprising the more readily sulphurizable metals. Oxide
of lead, being a most powerful solvent for metallic oxides generally,
is also largely used for the separation of silver or gold from base
metallic oxides.
Metallic lead is to metals generally what oxide of lead is to metallic
oxides. It accordingly is available as a solvent for taking up
small particles of metal diffused throughout a mass of slag, and
uniting them into one regulus. This leads us to the process of
" cupellation," which serves for the extraction of gold (q.v. ; see
also ASSAYING) and silver from their alloys with base metals.
Fluxes. All ores are contaminated with more or less gangue,
which in general consists of infusible matter, and if left unheeded
in the reduction of the metallic part of the ore would retain more
or less of the metal disseminated through it, or at best foul the
furnace. To avoid this, the ore as it goes into the furnace is mixed
with " fluxes " so selected as to convert the gangue into a fusible
" slag," which readily runs down through the fuel with the regulus
and separates from the latter. The quality and proportion of flux
should, if possible, be so chosen that the formation of the slag sets
in only after the metal has been reduced and molten ; or else part of
the basic oxide of the metal to be extracted may be dissolved by
the slag and its reduction thus be prevented or retarded. Slags
are not a necessary evil ; if an ore were free from gangue we should
add gangue and flux from without to produce a slag, because one
of its functions is to form a layer on the regulus which protects it
against the further action of the blast or furnace gases. Fluxes
may be arranged under the three heads of (l) fluor-spar, (2) basic
fluxes and (3) acid fluxes.
Fluor-spar fuses up at a red heat with silica, sulphates of calcium
and barium, and a few other infusible substances into homogeneous
masses. It shows little tendency to dissolve basic oxides, such as
lime, &c. One part of fluor-spar liquefies about half a part of silica,
four parts of calcium sulphate and one and a half parts of barium
sulphate. Upon these facts its extremely wide application in
metallurgy is founded. Carbonate of soda (or potash) is the most
powerful basic flux. It dissolves silica and all silicates into fusible
glasses. On the other hand, borax may be taken as a type for the
acid fluxes. At a red heat, when it forms a viscid fluid, it readily
dissolves all basic oxides into fusible complex borates. Now the
gangue of an ore in general consists either of some basic material
such as carbonate of Time (or magnesia), ferric oxide, alumina, &c.,
or of silica (quartz) or some more or less acid silicate, or else of a
mixture of the two classes of bodies. So any kind of gangue might
be liquefied by means of borax or by means of alkaline carbonate;
but neither of the two is used otherwise than for assaying; what the
metal-smelter does is to add to a basic gangue the proportion of
silica, and to an acid ore the proportion of lime, or, indirectly, of
ferrous or perhaps manganous oxide, which it may need for the
formation of a slag of the proper qualities. The slag must possess
the proper degree of saturation. In other words, taking SiO 2 +
nMeO (where MeO means an equivalent of base) as a formula for
the potential slag, n must have the proper value. If n is too small,
i.e. if the s]ag is too acid, it may dissolve part of the metal to be
recovered; if n is too great, i.e. the slag too basic, it may refuse to
dissolve, for instance, the ferrous oxide which is meant to go into
it, and this oxide will then be reduced, and its metal (iron in our
example) contaminate the regulus. In reference to the problem
under discussion, it is worth noting that oxides of lead and copper
are more readily reduced to metals than oxide of iron Fe2O3 is to
FeO, the latter more readily to FeO than FeO itself to metal, and
FeO more readily to metal than manganous oxide is. Oxide of
calcium (lime) is not reducible at all. The order of basicity in the
oxides (their readiness to go into the slag) is precisely the reverse.
Most slags being, as we have seen, complex silicates, it is a most
important problem of scientific metallurgy to determine the relations
in this class of bodies between chemical composition on the one
hand and fusibility and solvent power for certain oxides (CaO, FeO,
Fe 2 O 3 , AlzOs, SiO2, &c.) on the other. Their general composition
may be expressed as n(MO+xSiO2)+m[(fe or al)O + *SiO 2 ]
(M=Ca, Mg, Fe, K 2 , &c.; fe = |Fe, al = |Al.) The following
mode of classifying and naming composition in silicates is metallurgi-
cal; scientific chemists designate Class I. as orthosilicates, Class II.
as metasilicates, Class III. as sesquisilicates. In the formulae M
stands for K 2 , Ca, Fe, &c., or for al = |Al, fe = Fe, &c.
Name.
Formula.
Oxygen Ratio.
X
I. Singulo-silicates .
II. Bi-silicates
III. Tri-silicates .
iSiO 2 + iMO
iSiO 2 + iMO
JSiO 2 +iMO
Base. Acid.
i : i
I : 2
i : 3
i
i
1
It should be possible to represent each quality of a silicate as a
function of x, n/m, and of the nature of the individual bases that
make up the MO and (fe or al) O respectively. Our actual knowledge
falls far short of this possibility. The problem, in fact, is very diffi-
cult, the more so as it is complicated by the existence of aluminates,
compounds such as A1 2 O 8 . 3CaO, in which the alumina plays the
part of acid, and the occasional existence of compounds of fluorides
and silicates in certain slags. The formation of slags, or, what comes
to the same thing, of metallic silicates, was especially studied by
Percy, Smith, Bischof, Plattner and others, and in more recent times
by Vogt, Doelter, and at the Geophysical laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution, Washington.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. Roberts-Austen, Introduction to the Study
of Metallurgy; J. A. Phillips and H. Bauerman, Elements of Metallurgy
(1885) ; and L. Babu, Metallurgie generate (Paris, 1906), deal with
the principles of metallurgy. A standard work treating the metal-
lurgy of various metals is Carl Schnabel, Handbuch der Melall-
huttenkunde, i. (1901), ii. (1904), Eng. trans, by H. Louis, i. (1905),
ii. (1907).
METAL-WORK. Among the many stages in the develop-
ment of primeval man, none can have been of greater moment
in his struggle for existence than the discovery of the metals, and
the means of working them. The names generally given to the
three prehistoric periods of man's life on the earth the Stone,
the Bronze and the Iron age imply the vast importance of the
progressive steps from the flint knife to the bronze celt, and lastly
to the keen-edged elastic iron weapon or tool.
The metals chiefly used in the arts have been gold, silver,
copper and tin (the last two generally mixed, forming an alloy
called bronze), iron and lead (see the separate articles on these
metals). Their peculiarities have naturally marked out each of
them for special uses and methods of treatment. The durability
and the extraordinary ductility and pliancy of gold, its power of
being subdivided, drawn out or flattened into wire or leaf of
almost infinite fineness, have led to its being used for works where
great minuteness and delicacy of execution were required; while
its beauty and rarity have, for the most part, limited its use to
objects of adornment and luxury, as distinct from those of utility.
In a lesser degree most of the qualities of gold are shared by silver,
and consequently the treatment of these two metals has always
been very similar, though the greater abundance of the latter
metal has allowed it to be used on a larger scale and for a greater
variety of purposes. The great fluidity of bronze when melted,
the slightness of its contraction on solidifying, together with its
density and hardness, make it especially suitable for casting, and
allow of its taking the impress of the mould with extreme sharp-
ness and delicacy. In the form of plate it can be tempered and
annealed till its elasticity and toughness are much increased,
and it can then be formed into almost any shape under the ham-
mer and punch. By other methods of treatment, known to the
ancient Egyptians, Greeks and others, but now forgotten, it
could be hardened and formed into knife and razor edges of the
utmost keenness. In many specimens of ancient bronze, small
quantities of silver, lead and zinc have been found, but their
presence is probably accidental. In modern times brass has been
much used, chiefly for the sake of its cheapness as compared with
bronze. In beauty, durability and delicacy of surface it is very
inferior to bronze, and, though of some commercial importance,
has been of but little use in the production of works of art. To
some extent copper was used in an almost pure state during
medieval times, especially from the izth to the i5th century,
mainly for objects of ecclesiastical use, such as pyxes, mon-
strances, reliquaries and croziers, partly on account of its soft-
ness under the tool, and also because it was slightly easier to
apply enamel and gilding to pure copper than to bronze (see
fig. i). In the medieval period it was used to some extent in the
shape of thin sheeting for roofs, as at St Mark's, Venice; while
during the i6th and i;th centuries it was largely employed
for ornamental domestic vessels of various sorts.
206
METAL-WORK
Iron* The abundance in which iron is found in so many places,
its great strength, its remarkable ductility and malleability in a
red-hot state, and the ease with which two heated surfaces of
iron can be welded together
under the hammer com-
bine to make it specially
suitable for works on a
large scale where strength
with lightness are required
things such as screens,
window-grills, ornamental
hinges and the like. In its
hot plastic state iron can
be formed and modelled
under the hammer to
almost any degree of re-
finement, while its great
strength allows it to be
beaten out into leaves and
ornaments of almost paper-
like thinness and delicacy.
With repeated hammering,
drawing out and annealing,
it gains much in strength
and toughness, and the
addition of a very minute
quantity of carbon con-
verts it into steel, less
tough, but of the keenest
hardness. The large em-
ployment of cast iron is
comparatively modern, in
England at least only dat-
ing from the i6th century;
it is not, however, in-
capable of artistic treat-
ment if due regard be paid
to the necessities of casting,
and if no attempt is made
to imitate the fine-drawn
lightness to which wrought
iron so readily lends itself.
At the best, however, it is
: - not generally suited for the
?; finest work, as the great
f; contraction of iron in pass-
ing from the fluid to the
solid state renders the cast
somewhat blunt and spirit-
less.
Among the Assyrians,
Egyptians and Greeks the
use of iron, either cast or
wrought, was very limited, bronze being the favourite metal
almost for all purposes. The difficulty of smelting the ore was
probably one reason for this, as well as the now forgotten
skill which enabled bronze to be tempered to a steel-like edge.
It had, however, its value, of which a proof occurs in Homer
(77. xxiii.), where a mass of iron is mentioned as being one of
the prizes at the funeral games of Patroclus.
Methods of Manipulation in Metal-Work. Gold, silver and
bronze may be treated in various ways, the chief of which
are (i) casting in a mould, and (2) treatment by hammering and
punching (Fr. repousse).
The first of these, casting is chiefly adapted for bronze, or
1 Analyses of the iron of prehistoric weapons have brought to
light the interesting fact that many of these earliest specimens of
iron manufacture contain a considerable percentage of nickel. This
special alloy does not occur in any known iron ores, but is invariably
found in meteoric iron. It thus appears that iron was manufactured
from meteorolites which had fallen to the earth in an almost pure
metallic state, possibly long before prehistoric man had learnt how
to dig for and smelt iron in any of the forms of ore which are found
on this planet.
FIG. I . Monstrance of Copper Gilt ;
Italian work of the I5th century.
in the case of the more precious metals only if they are used
on a very small scale. The reason of this is that a repousse
relief is of much thinner substance than if the same design were
cast, even by the most skilful metal-worker, and so a large
surface may be produced with a very small expenditure of
valuable metal. Casting is probably the most primitive method
of metal-work. This has passed through three stages, the
first being represented by solid castings, such as are most
celts and other implements of the prehistoric time; the
mould was formed of clay, sand or stone, and the fluid
metal was poured in till the hollow was full. The next
stage was, in the case of bronze, to introduce an iron core,
probably to save needless expenditure of the more valuable
metal. The British Museum possesses an interesting Etruscan
or Archaic Italian example of this primitive device. It is
a bronze statuette from Sessa on the Volturno, about 2 ft.
high, of a female standing, robed in a close-fitting chiton.
The presence of the iron core has been made visible by
the splitting of the figure, owing to the unequal contraction
of the two metals. The forearms, which are extended, have been
cast separately and soldered or brazed on to the elbows. The
third and last stage in the progress of the art of casting was the
employment of a core, generally of clay, round which the metal
was cast in a mere skin, only thick enough for strength, without
waste of metal. The Greeks and Romans attained to the
greatest possible skill in this process. Their exact method is not
certainly known, but it appears probable that they were acquainted
with the process now called a cire perdue the same as that
employed by the great Italian artists in bronze. Cellini, the
great Florentine artist of the i6th century, has described it
fully in his Trallato delta Scultura. If a statue was to be cast,
the figure was first roughly modelled in clay only rather smaller
in all its dimensions than the future bronze; all over this a'skin
of wax was laid, and worked by the sculptor with modelling tools
to the required form and finish. A mixture of pounded brick,
clay and ashes was then ground finely in water to the consistence
of cream, and successive coats of this mixture were then applied
with a brush, till a second skin was formed all over the wax,
fitting closely into every line and depression of the modelling.
Soft clay was then carefully laid on to strengthen the mould, in
considerable thickness, till the whole statue appeared like a
shapeless mass of clay, round which iron hoops were bound to
hold it all together. The whole was then thoroughly dried, and
placed in a hot oven, which baked the clay, both of the core and
the outside mould, and melted the wax, which was allowed to run
out from small holes made for the purpose. Thus a hollow was
left, corresponding to the skin of wax between the core and the
mould, the relative positions of which were preserved by various
small rods of bronze, which had previously been driven through
from the outer mould to the rough core. The mould was now
ready, and melted bronze was poured in till the whole space
between the core and the outer mould was full. After slowly
cooling, the outer mould was broken away from outside the statue
and the inner core as much as possible broken up and raked out
through a hole in the foot or some other part of the statue. The
projecting rods of bronze were then cut away, and the whole
finished by rubbing down and polishing over any roughness or
defective places. The most skilful sculptors, however, had but
little of this after-touching to do, the final modelling and even
polish which they had put upon the wax being faithfully repro-
duced in the bronze casting. The further enrichment of the object
by enamels and inlay of other metals was practised at a very early
period by Assyrian, Egyptian and Greek metal-workers, as well
as by the artists of Persia and medieval Europe.
The second chief process, that of hammered work (Gr.
er^upi7\oTOs; Fr. repousse), was probably adopted for bronze- work
on a large scale before the art of forming large castings was dis-
covered. In the most primitive method thin plates of bronze
were hammered over a wooden core, rudely cut into the required
shape, the core serving the double purpose of giving shape to and
strengthening the thin metal. A further development in the art
of hammered work consisted in laying the metal plate on a soft
METAL-WORK
207
and elastic bed of cement made of pitch and pounded brick.
The design was then beaten into relief from the back with hammers
and punches, the pitch bed yielding to the protuberances which
were thus formed, and serving to prevent the punch from break-
ing the metal into holes. The pitch was then melted away from
the front of the embossed relief, and apph'ed in a similar way to
the back, so that the modelling could be completed on the face
cf the relief, the final touches being given by the graver. This
process was chiefly applied by medieval artists to the precious
metals, but by the Assyrians, Greeks and other early nations it
was largely used for bronze. The great gates of Shalmaneser II.,
858-823 B.C., from Balawat, now in the British Museum, are a
remarkable example of this sort of work on a large scale, though
FIG. 2. One of the Siris Bronzes.
the treatment of the reliefs is minute and delicate. The " Siris
bronzes," in the same museum, are a most astonishing example
of the skill attained by Greek artists in this repousse work (see
Bronsted's Bronzes of Siris, 1836). They are a pair of shoulder-
pieces from a suit of bronze armour, and each has in very high
relief a combat between a Greek warrior and an Amazon. No
work of art in metal has probably ever surpassed these little
figures for beauty, vigour and expression, while the skill with
which the artist has beaten these high reliefs out of a flat plate
of metal appears almost miraculous. The heads of the figures
are nearly detached from the ground, their substance is little
thicker than paper, and yet in no place has the metal been broken
through by the punch. They are probably of the school of
Praxiteles, and date from the 4th century B.C. (see fig. 2).
Copper and tin have been but little used separately. Copper
in its pure state may be worked by the same methods as bronze,
but it is inferior to it in hardness, strength and beauty of surface.
Tin is too weak and brittle a metal to be employed alone for any
but small objects. Some considerable number of tin drinking-
cups and bowls of the Celtic period have been found in Cornwall
in the neighbourhood of the celebrated tin and copper mines,
which have been worked from a very early period. The use of
lead has been more extended. In sheets it forms the best of all
coverings for roofs and even spires. In the Roman and medieval
periods it was largely used for coffins, which were often richly
ornamented with cast work in relief. Though fusible at a very
low temperature, and very soft, it has great power of resisting
decay from damp or exposure. Its most important use in an
artistic form has been in the shape of baptismal fonts, chiefly
between the nth and the I4th centuries. The superior beauty
of colour and durability of old specimens of lead is owing to the
natural presence of a small proportion of silver. Modern
smelters carefully extract this silver from the lead ore, thereby
greatly impairing the durability and beauty of the metal.
As in almost all the arts, the ancient Egyptians excelled in their
metal-work, especially in the use of bronze and the precious
metals. These were worked by casting and hammering, and
ornamented by inlay, gilding and enamels with the greatest
possible skill. From Egypt perhaps was derived the early skill
of the Hebrews. Further instruction in the art of metal-working
came probably to the Jews from the neighbouring country of
Tyre. The description of the great gold lions of Solomon's
throne, and the laver of cast bronze supported on figures of oxen,
shows that the artificers of that time had overcome the difficulties
of metal-working and founding on a large scale. The Assyrians
were perhaps the most remarkable of all ancient nations for the
colossal size and splendour of their works in metal; whole circuit
walls of great cities, such as Ecbatana, are said to have been
covered with metal plates, gilt or silvered. Herodotus, Athenaeus
and other Greek and Roman writers have recorded the enormous-
number of colossal statues and other works of art for which
Babylon and Nineveh were so famed. The numerous objects of
bronze and other metals brought to light by the excavations in
the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, though mostly on a small scale,
bear witness to the great skill and artistic power of the people who
produced them; while the discovery of some bronze statuettes,
shown by inscriptions on them to be not later than 2200 B.C.,
proves how early was the development of this branch of art among
the people of Assyria.
The Metal-Work of Greece. The early history of metal- working
in Greece is extremely obscure, and archaeologists are divided in
opinion even on so important a question as the relative use of
bronze and iron in the Homeric age. The evidence of Mycenaean
remains, as compared with the literary evidence of Homer, is
both inadequate and inconclusive (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION;
GREEK ART; ARMS AND ARMOUR, Ancient; PLATE; &c.). The
poems of Homer are full of descriptions of elaborate works in
bronze, gold and silver, which, even when full allowance is made
for poetic fancy, show clearly enough very advanced skill in the
working and ornamenting of these metals. Homer's description
of the shield of Achilles, made of bronze, enriched with bands of
figure reliefs in gold, silver and tin, could hardly have been written
by a man who had not some personal acquaintance with works
in metal of a very elaborate kind. Again, the accuracy of his
descriptions of brazen houses such as that of Alcinous, Od. vii.
81 is borne witness to by Pausanias's mention of the bronze
temple of Athena XaXxtoiKos in Sparta, and the bronze
chamber dedicated to Myron in 648 B.C., as well as by the dis-
covery of the stains and bronze nails, which show that the whole
interior of the so-called treasury of Atreus at Mycenae was once
covered with a lining of bronze plates. Of the two chief methods
of working bronze, gold and silver, it is probable that the hammer
process was first practised, at least for statues, among the Greeks,
who themselves attributed the invention of the art of hollow
casting to Theodorus and Rhoecus, both Samian sculptors, about
the middle of the 6th century B.C. Pausanias specially mentions
that one of the oldest statues he had ever seen was a large figure
of Zeus in Sparta, made of hammered bronze plates riveted
together. With increased skill in large castings, and the dis-
covery of the use of cores, by which the fluid bronze was poured
into a mere skin-like cavity, hammered or repouss6 work was
only used in the case of small objects in which lightness was
208
METAL-WORK
desirable, or for the precious metals in order to avoid large
expenditure of metal. The colossal statues of ivory and gold
by Pheidias were the most notable examples of this use of gold,
especially his statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the one of
Zeus at Olympia. The nude parts, such as face and hands, were
of ivory, while the armour and drapery were of beaten gold. The
comparatively small weight of gold used by Pheidias is very
remarkable when the great size of the statues is considered.
A graphic representation of the workshop of a Greek sculptor
in bronze is given on a fictile vase in the Berlin Museum (see
Gerhard's Trinkschalen, plates xii., xiii.). One man is raking out
the fire in a high furnace, while another behind is blowing the
bellows. Two others are smoothing the surface of a statue with
scraping tools, formed like a strigil. A fourth is beating the arm
of an unfinished figure, the head of which lies at the workman's
feet. Perhaps the most important of early Greek works in cast
bronze, both from its size and great historical interest, is the
bronze pillar (now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople) which
was erected to commemorate the victory of the allied Greek
states over the Persians at Plataea in 479 B.C. (see Newton's
Travels in the Levant). It is in the form of three serpents twisted
together, and before the heads were broken off was at least
20 ft. high. It is cast hollow, all in one piece, and has the
names of the allied states engraved on the lower part of the coils.
Its size and the beauty of its surface show great technical
skill in the founder's art. On it once stood the gold tripod
dedicated to Apollo as a tenth of the spoils. It is described
by both Herodotus and Pausanias.
Marble was comparatively but little used by the earlier Greek
sculptors, and even Myron, a rather older man than Pheidias,
FlG. 3. Boss from the Milanese Candelabrum.
seems to have executed nearly all his most important statues in
metal. Additional richness was given to Greek bronze-work by
gold or silver inlay on lips, eyes and borders of the dress; one
remarkable statuette in the British Museum has eyes inlaid with
diamonds and fret-work inlay in silver on the border of the chiton.
The mirrors of the Greeks are among the most important speci-
mens of their artistic metal-work. These are bronze disks, one side
polished to serve as a reflector, and the back ornamented with
engraved outline drawings, often of great beauty (see Gerhard,
Etrusk ische Spiegel, 1843-1867). In metal-work, as in other arts,
the Romans were pupils and imitators of the Greeks. Owing
to the growth of the spirit of luxury, a considerable demand arose
for magnificent articles of gold and silver plate. The finest
specimens of these that still exist are the very beautiful set of
silver plate found buried near Hildesheim in 1869, now in the
Berlin Museum. They consist of drinking vessels, bowls, vases,
ladles and other objects of silver, parcel-gilt, and exquisitely
decorated with figures in relief, both cast and repousse. There
are electrotypes of these in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
When the seat of the empire was changed, Byzantium became
the chief centre for the production of artistic metal-work. From
Byzantium the special skill in this art was transmitted in the
9th and loth centuries to the Rhenish provinces of Germany and
to Italy, and thence to the whole of western Europe; in this way
the 1 8th century smith who wrought the Hampton Court iron
gates was the heir to the mechanical skill of the ancient metal-
workers of Phoenicia and Greece. In that period of extreme
degradation into which all the higher arts fell after the destruc-
tion of the Roman Empire, though true feeling for beauty and
knowledge of the subtleties of the human form remained for
centuries almost dormant, yet at Byzantium at least there still
survived great technical skill and power in the production of all
sorts of metal-work. In the age of Justinian (first half of the
6th century) the great church of St Sophia at Constantinople was
adorned with an almost incredible amount of wealth and splen-
dour in the form of screens, altars, candlesticks and other ecclesi-
astical furniture made of massive gold and silver.
Metal-Work in Italy. It was therefore to Byzantium that
Italy turned for metal-workers, and especially for goldsmiths,
when, in the 6th to the 8th centuries, the basilica of St Peter's
in Rome was enriched with masses of gold and silver for decor-
ations and fittings, the gifts of many donors from Belisarius to
Leo III., the mere catalogue of which reads like a tale from the
Arabian Nights. The gorgeous Pala d'oro, still in St Mark's at
Venice, a gold retable covered with delicate reliefs and enriched
with enamels and jewels, was the work of Byzantine artists
during the nth century. This work was in progress for more
than a hundred years, and was set in its place in 1106 A.D.,
though still unfinished (see Bellomo, Pala d'oro di St Marco,
1847). It was, however, especially for the production of bronze
doors for churches, ornamented with panels of cast work in high
relief, that Italy obtained the services of Byzantine workmen
(see Garrucci, Arte crisliana, 1872-1882). One artist, named
Staurachios, produced many works of this class, some of which
still exist, such as the bronze doors of the cathedral at Amalfi,
dated 1066 A.D. Probably by the same artist, though his name
was spelled differently, were the bronze doors of San Paolo fuori le
Mura, Rome, careful drawings of which exist, though the originals
were destroyed in the fire of 1824. Other important examples exist
at Ravello (1197), Salerno (1099), Amalfi (1062), Atrani (1087);
and doors at Monreale in Sicily and at Trani, signed by an artist
named Barisanos (end of the 1 2th century) ; the reliefs on these
last are remarkable for expression and dignity, in spite of their
early rudeness of modelling and ignorance of the human figure.
Most of these works in bronze were enriched with fine lines inlaid
in silver, and in some cases with a kind of niello or enamel. The
technical skill of these Byzantine metal-workers was soon
acquired by native Italian artists, who produced many important
works in bronze similar in style and execution to those of the
Byzantine Greeks. Such, for example, are the bronze doors of
San Zenone at Verona (unlike the others, of repousse] not cast
work); those of the Duomo of Pisa, cast in nSo by Bonannus,
and of the Duomo of Troia, the last made in the beginning of the
1 2th century by Oderisius of Benevento. Another artist, named
Roger of Amalfi, worked in the same way; and in the year 1219
the brothers Hubertus and Petrus of Piacenza cast the bronze
door for one of the side chapels in San Giovanni in Laterano.
One of the most important early specimens of metal-work is the
gold and silver altar of Sant' Ambrogio [in Milan. In character
of work and design it resembles the Venice Pala d'Oro, but is
still earlier in date, being a gift to the church from Archbishop
Angilbert II. in 835 A.D. (see Du Sommerard, and D'Agincourt,
May en Age). It is signed WOLVINIVS MAGISTER PHABER; nothing
is known of the artist, but he probably belonged to the semi-
Byzantine school of the Rhine provinces; according to Dr Rock
he was an Anglo-Saxon goldsmith. It is a very sumptuous work,
the front of the altar being entirely of gold, with repousse reliefs
and cloisonn6 enamels; the back and ends are of silver, with
gold ornaments. On the front are figures of Christ and the
twelve apostles; the ends and back have reliefs illustrating the
life of St Ambrose.
The most important existing work of art in metal of the i3th
century is the great candelabrum now in Milan Cathedral. It is
of gilt bronze, more than 14 ft. high; it has seven branches for
METAL-WORK
209
candles, and its upright stem is supported on four winged dragons.
For delicate and spirited execution, together with refined grace-
fulness of design, it is unsurpassed by any similar work of art.
Every one of the numerous little figures with which it is adorned
is worthy of study for the beauty and expression of the face, and
the dignified arrangement of the drapery (see fig. 3). The semi-
conventional open scroll-work of branches and fruit which wind
around and frame each figure or group is devised with the most
perfect taste and richness of fancy, while each minute part of this
great piece of metal-work is finished with all the care that could
have been bestowed on the smallest article of gold jewellery.
Though something in the grotesque dragons of the base recalls the
Byzantine school, yet the beauty of the figures and the keen
feeling for graceful curves and folds in the drapery point to a
native Italian as being the artist who produced this wonderful
work of art. There is a cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
FIG. 4. Silver Repousse Reliefs from the Pistoia Retable.
During the i3th and i4th centuries in Italy the widespread
influence of Niccola Pisano and his school encouraged the sculptor
to use marble rather than bronze for his work. At this period
wrought iron came into general use in the form of screens for
chapels and tombs, and grills for windows. These are mostly
of great beauty, and show remarkable skill in the use of the ham-
mer, as well as power in adapting the design to the requirements
of the material. Among the finest examples of this sort of work
are the screens round the tombs of the Scala family at Verona,
1350-1375, a sort of network of light cusped quatrefoils, each
filled up with a small ladder (scala) in allusion to the name of the
family. The most elaborate specimen of this wrought work is
the screen to the Rinuccini chapel in Santa Croce, Florence, of
1371, in which moulded pillars and window-like tracery have
been wrought and modelled by the hammer with extraordinary
skill (see Wyatt, Metal-Work of Middle Ages). Of about the
same date are the almost equally magnificent screens in Sta
Trinita, Florence, and at Siena across the chapel in the Palazzo
Pubblico. The main part of most of these screens is filled in with
quatrefoils, and at the top is an open frieze formed of plate iron
pierced, repousse, and enriched with engraving. In the I4th
century great quantities of objects for ecclesiastical use were
produced in Italy. The silver altar of the Florence baptistery
was begun in the first half of the i4th century, and not completed
till after 1477 (see Caz. des beaux-arts, Jan. 1883). The greatest
artists in metal laboured on it in succession, among them Orcagna,
Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ant. Pollaiuolo and many others. It has
elaborate reliefs in repousse work, cast canopies and minute
statuettes, with the further enrichment of translucent coloured
enamels. The silver altar and retable of Pistoia Cathedral (see
fig. 4), and the great shrine at Orvieto, are works of the same
class, and of equal importance.
Whole volumes might be devoted to the magnificent works in
bronze produced by the Florentine artists of this century, works
such as the baptistery gates by Ghiberti, the statues of Verroc-
chio, Donatello and many others, the bronze screen in Prato
cathedral by Simone, brother of Donatello, in 1444-1461, and
the screen and bronze ornaments of the tomb of Piero and
Giovanni dei Medici in San Lorenzo, Florence, by Verrocchio, in
1472. At the latter part of the isth century and the beginning
of the i6th the Pollaiuoli, Ricci and other artists devoted much
labour and artistic skill to the production of candlesticks and
smaller objects of bronze,
such as door-knockers,
many of which are works
of the greatest beauty.
The candlesticks in the
Certosa near Pavia, and in
the cathedrals of Venice
and Padua, are the finest
examples of these. Nic-
colo Grossi, who worked in
wrought iron under the
patronage of Lorenzo dei
Medici, produced some
wonderful specimens of
metal-work, such as the
candlesticks, lanterns, and
rings fixed at intervals
round the outside of the
great palaces (see fig. 5).
The Strozzi palace in
Florence and the Palazzo
del Magnifico at Siena
have fine specimens of
these the former of
wrought iron, the latter in
cast bronze. At Venice
fine work in metal, such as salvers and vases, was being produced,
of almost Oriental design, and in some cases the work of
resident Arab artificers. In the i6th century Benvenuto Cellini
was supreme for skill in the production of enamelled jewellery,
plate and even larger works of sculpture (see Plon's Ben. Cellini,
1882), and Giovanni de Bologna in the latter part of the same
century inherited to some extent the skill and artistic power
of the great i sth-century artists.
Spain. From a very early period the metal-workers of
Spain have been distinguished for their skill, especially in the
use of the precious metals. A very remarkable set of specimens
of goldsmith's work of the 7th century are the eleven votive
crowns, two crosses and other objects found in 1858 at Guar-
razar, and now preserved at Madrid and in Paris in the Cluny
Museum (see Du Sommerard, Musee de Cluny, 1852). Magnifi-
cent works in silver, such as shrines, altar crosses and church
vessels of all kinds, were produced in Spain from the I4th to
the 1 6th century especially a number of sumptuous tabernacles
(custodia) for the host, magnificent examples of which still
exist in the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville. The bronze
and wrought-iron screens rejas, mostly of the i5th and i6th
centuries to be found in almost every important church in
Spain are very fine examples of metal-work. They generally
have moulded rails or balusters, and rich friezes of pierced
and repousse work, the whole being often thickly plated with
silver. The common use of metal for pulpits is a peculiarity
FIG. 5. Wrought-iron Candle Pricket ;
late 15th-century. Florentine work.
2IO
METAL-WORK
of Spain; they are sometimes of bronze, as the pairs in Burgos
and Toledo cathedrals, or in wrought iron, like those at Zamora
and in the church of San Gil, Burgos. The great candelabrum
or lenebrarium in Seville Cathedral is the finest specimen of
16th-century metal- work in Spain; it was mainly the work
of Bart. Morel in 1562. It is of cast bronze enriched with
delicate scroll-work foliage, and with numbers of well-modelled
statuettes. Especially in the art of metal-work Spain was
much influenced in the isth and i6th centuries by both Italy
and Germany, so that numberless Spanish objects produced
at that time owe little or nothing to native designers. At an
earlier period Arab and Moorish influence is no less apparent.
FIG. 6. Part of the " Eleanor Grill."
England. In Saxon times the English metal-workers,
especially of the precious metals, possessed great skill, and
appear to have produced shrines, altar-frontals, retables and
other ecclesiastical furniture of considerable size and magnifi-
cence. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury (925-988), like
Bernward, bishop of Hildesheim a few years later, and St Eloi
of France three centuries earlier, was himself a skilful worker
in all kinds of metal. The description of the gold and silver
retable given to the high altar of Ely by Abbot Theodwin in
the nth century, shows it to have been a large and elaborate
piece of work decorated with many reliefs and figures in the
round. In 1241 Henry III. gave the order for the great gold
shrine to contain the bones of Edward the Confessor. It was
the work of members of the Otho family, among whom the
goldsmith's and coiner's crafts appear to have been long heredi-
tary. Countless other imporant works in the precious metals
adorned every abbey and cathedral church in the kingdom.
In the 1 3th century the English workers in wrought iron were
especially skilful. The grill over the tomb of Queen Eleanor
at Westminster, by Thomas de Leghton, made about 1294,
is a remarkable example of skill in welding and modelling with
the hammer (see fig. 6). The rich and graceful iron hinges,
made often for small and out-of-the-way country churches,
are a large and important class in the list of English wrought-
iron work. Those on the refectory door of Merton College,
Oxford, are a beautiful and well-preserved example dating from
the i4th century. More mechanical in execution, though still
very rich in effect; is that sort of iron tracery work produced
by cutting out patterns in plate, and superimposing one plate
over the other, so as to give richness of effect by the shadows '
produced by these varying planes. The screen by Henry V.'s
tomb at Westminster is a good early specimen of this kind of
work. The screen to Bishop West's chapel at Ely, and that
round Edward VI.'s tomb at Windsor, both made towards
the end of the 15th century, are the most magnificent English
examples of wrought iron; and much wrought-iron work of
great beauty was produced at the beginning of the i8th century,
especially under the superintendence of Sir Christopher Wren
(see Ebbetts, Iron Work of 17 th and i8th Centuries, 1880).
Large flowing leaves of acanthus and other plants were beaten
out with wonderful spirit and beauty of curve. The gates
from Hampton Court are the finest examples of this class of
work (see fig. 7).
From an early period bronze and latten (a variety of brass)
were much used in England for the smaller objects both of
ecclesiastical and domestic use, but except for tombs and lecterns
were but little used on a large scale till the i6th century. The
full-length recumbent effigies of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor
at Westminster, cast in bronze by the " cire perdue " process,
and thickly gilt, are equal, if not superior, in artistic beauty
to any sculptor's work of the same period (end of the i3th
century) that was produced in Italy or elsewhere. These
FIG. 7. Part of one of the Hampton Court Gates.
effigies are the work of an Englishman named William Torel.
The gates to Henry VII. 's chapel, and the screen round his
tomb at Westminster (see fig. 8), are very elaborate and beautiful
examples of " latten" work, showing the greatest technical
skill in the founder's art. In latten also were produced the
numerous monumental brasses of which a large number still
exist in England (see BRASSES, MONUMENTAL).
In addition to its chief use as a roof covering, lead was some-
times used in England for making fonts, generally tub-shaped,
with figures cast in relief. Many examples exist: e.g. at
Tidenham, Gloucestershire; Warborough and Dorchester
Oxon; Chirton, Wilts; and other places.
METAL-WORK
211
Germany. Unlike England, Germany in the loth and nth
centuries produced large and elaborate works in cast bronze,
especially doors for churches, much resembling the contemporary
doors made in Italy under Byzantine influence. Bernward,
bishop of Hildesheim, 992-1022, was especially skilled in this
FIG. 8. Part of Henry VII.'s Bronze Screen.
work, and was much influenced in design by a visit to Rome in
the suite of Otho III. The bronze column with winding reliefs
now at Hildesheim was the result of his study of Trajan's column,
and the bronze door which he made for his own cathedral
shows classical influence, especially in the composition of the
drapery of the figures in the panels. The bronze doors of
Augsburg (1047-1072) are similar in style. The bronze tomb
of Rudolph of Swabia in Merseburg Cathedral (1080) is another
fine work of the same school. The production of works in
gold and silver was also carried on vigorously in Germany.
The shrine of the three kings at Cologne is the finest surviving
example. At a later time Augsburg and Nuremberg were
the chief centres for the production of artistic works in the
various metals. Hermann Vischer, in the isth century, and
his son and grandsons were very remarkable as bronze founders.
The font at Wittenberg, decorated with reliefs of the apostles,
was the work of the elder Vischer, while Peter and his son pro-
duced, among other important works, the shrine of St Sebald
at Nuremberg, a work of great finish and of astonishing richness
of fancy in its design. The tomb of Maximilian I., and the
statues round it, at Innsbruck, begun in 1521, are perhaps the
most meritorious German work of this class in the i6th century,
and show considerable Italian influence. In wrought iron
the German smiths, especially during the isth century, greatly
excelled. Almost peculiar to Germany is the use of wrought
iron for grave-crosses and sepulchral monuments, of which the
Nuremberg and other cemeteries contain fine examples. Many
elaborate well-canopies were made" in wrought iron, and gave
FIG. 9. Brass Vase, pierced and gilt; ijth century Persian work.
full play to the fancy and invention of the smith. The celebrated
JSth-century example over the well at Antwerp, attributed to
Quintin Matsys, is the finest of these.
France. From the time of the Romans the city of Limoges
has been celebrated for all sorts of metal-work, and especially
for brass enriched with enamel. In the I3th and i4th centuries
many life-size sepulchral effigies were made of beaten copper
or bronze, and ornamented by various-coloured " champleve "
enamels. The beauty of these effigies led to their being im-
ported into England; most are now destroyed, but a fine specimen
still exists at Westminster on the tomb of William de Valence
( 1 296) . In the ornamental iron- work for doors the French smiths
were pre-eminent for the richness of design and skilful treatment
of their metal. Probably no examples surpass those on the
west doors of Notre Dame in Paris unhappily much falsified
by restoration. The crockets and finials on the fleches of
Amiens and Rheims are beautiful specimens of a highly orna-
mental treatment of cast lead, for which France was especially
celebrated. In most respects, however, the development of
212
METAL-WORK
the various kinds of metal-working went through much the
same stages as in England.
Persia and Damascus. The metal-workers of the East,
especially in brass and steel, were renowned for their skill even
in the time of Theophilus, the monkish writer on the subject in
the i^th century. But it was during the reign of Shah Abbas I.
(d. 1628) that the greatest amount of skill both in design and
execution was reached by the Persian workmen. Delicate
pierced vessels of gilt brass, enriched by tooling and inlay of
gold and silver, were among the chief specialties of the Persians
(see fig. 9). A process called by Europeans " damascening "
(from Damascus, the chief seat of the export) was used to produce
very delicate and rich surface ornament. A pattern was incised
with a graver in iron or steel, and then gold wire was beaten
into the sunk lines, the whole surface being then smoothed and
polished. In the time of Cellini this process was copied in
Italy, and largely used, especially for the decoration of weapons
and armour. The repousse process both for brass and silver
was much used by Oriental workers, and even now fine works
of this class are produced in the East, old designs still being
adhered to. (J. H. M.)
Modern Art Metal-Work. The term " art metal-work " is
applied to those works in metal in which beauty of form or
decorative effect is the first consideration, irrespective of whether
the object is intended for use or is merely ornamental; and it
embraces any article from a Birmingham brass bedstead to
works of the highest artistic merit. The term, as definitely
distinguishing one branch of metal-working from another,
is objected to by many on the ground that no such prefix was
required in the best periods of art, and that allied crafts continue
to do without it to the present day. Indeed, as long as metal-
working remained a handicraft in other words, until the
introduction of steam machinery every article, however
humble its purpose, seems to have been endowed with some
traditional beauty of form. The robust, florid and distinctly
Roman rendering of the classic, which followed the refined
and attenuated treatment associated with the architecture
of the brothers Adam, who died in 1792 and 1794, is the last
development in England which can be regarded as a national
style. The massively moulded ormolu stair balustrade of
Northumberland House, now at 49 Prince's Gate; the cande-
labra at Windsor and Buckingham Palace, produced in
Birmingham by the firm of Messenger; the cast-iron railings with
javelin heads and lictors' fasces, the tripods, Corinthian column
standard lamps and candelabra, boat-shaped oil lamps and
tent-shaped lustres with classic mountings, are examples of
the metal-work of a style which, outside the eccentric Brighton
Pavilion and excursions into Gothic and Elizabethan, was
universally accepted in the United Kingdom from the days
of the Regency until after the accession of Victoria. Except
perhaps the silversmiths, no one was conscious of being engaged
in "art metal-working," yet the average is neither vulgar
nor in bad taste, and the larger works are both dignified and
suited to their architectural surroundings.
The introduction of gas as an illuminant, about 1816, at once
induced a large demand and a novel description of metal fitting;
and the craft fell under the control of a new commercial class,
intent on breaking with past traditions, and utilizing steam
power, electro-deposition, and every mechanical and scientific
invention tending to economize metal or labour. But when
all artistic perception in Great Britain appeared lost in admira-
tion of the triumphs of machinery and the expansion of trade,
a new influence in art matters, that of the prince consort, began
to make itself felt. The Great Exhibition, state-aided schools
of design, the South Kensington Museum, and the establishment
of a Science and Art Department under Government, were among
the results of the important art revival which he inaugurated.
He is credited with having himself designed candelabra and
other objects in metal, and he directly encouraged the
production of the sumptuous treatise on metal-work by Digby
Wyatt, which laid the foundations of the revival. To this
work, and that of Owen Jones, can be traced the origin of the
eclecticism which has laid all past styles of art under contri-
bution. The Gothic revival also helped the recognition of art,
without very directly affecting the movement. It was valuable
in teaching how to work within definite limitations, but without
slavish copying; it also emancipated a considerable body of
craftsmen from the tyranny of manufacturers whose sole idea
was that machine-work should supersede handicraft. Its
greatest efforts were the metal chancel-screens designed by Sir
G. G. Scott, that for Hereford Cathedral having been exhibited
in 1862. It does not appear that the influence either of Owen
Jones or Digby Wyatt on metal-working extended beyond
bringing the variety and beauty of past styles to the direct
notice of designers. Neither can the London silversmiths,
though they employed the best talent available, particularly
in the decade following the Great Exhibition of 1851, be credited
with much influencing the art metal revival. They were rivalled
by Elkington of Birmingham, who secured the permanent
assistance of at least one fine artist, Morel Ladeuil, the producer
of the Elcho Challenge Shield. Perhaps the first actual designer
to make a lasting impression on the crafts was Thomas Jeckyll,
some of whose work, including gates for Sandringham, was
exhibited in 1862. Infinitely greater as a designer was Alfred
Stevens, whose influence on English craftsmen might be regarded
as almost comparable to that of Michelangelo on that of his
Italian contemporaries. Stevens's designs certainly directly
raised the standard of production in several metal-working
firms by whom he was employed; whilst in the Wellington
Memorial in St Paul's Cathedral, and in Dorchester House,
his work is seen unfettered by commercial considerations.
Omitting many whose occasional designs have had little influence
on the development of the metal crafts, we come to Alfred
Gilbert, whose influence for a time was scarcely less than that of
Stevens himself. Monumental works, such as his statue of
Queen Victoria at Winchester and his work at Windsor, may
be handed down as his greatest achievements, but judged as
art metal-work, his smaller productions, such as the centre-
piece presented by the army and navy to Queen Victoria on
her Jubilee, have been more important.
The charming bronze statuettes of Onslow Ford, the most
representative of which are in the Tate Gallery; the work of
George Frampton, as seen in the Mitchell Memorial; and the
beautiful bas-reliefs of W. Stirling Lee, examples of which are
the bronze gates of the Adelphi Bank at Liverpool, have all
contributed, especially when applied to architectural decoration,
to a high standard of excellence. Painters also have frequently
designed and modelled for metal-work, for example, Lord
Leighton, who produced bronze statuettes of most refined
character; and Sir L. Alma-Tadema, who designed the grilles
for his studio and entrance hall; -but none so conspicuously
as Professor H. von Herkomer, who, whether working in gold
and enamel, iron, or his favourite alloy, pewter, infuses a fresh-
ness into his designs and methods which displays an unusual
mastery over materials.
The gift of reproducing effects of nature or art by brush
or chisel is not necessarily accompanied by power to design;
but a noteworthy exponent of the dual faculty is G. C. Haite,
whose designs are widely applied.
It is chiefly to architecture that metal-work owes its permanent
artistic improvement. In England buildings of Norman Shaw
and Ernest George demanded quiet and harmonious metal-
work; and the custom of these architects of superintending
and designing every detail, even for interiors, created the supply.
The work of every worthy architect raises the standard of the
crafts; but beyond others Messrs Ashbee, Lethaby and Wilson
have taken an active personal interest in schools of metal-
work. The technical schools have also been of immense service
in creating a class of self-respecting craftsmen, whose wages
enable them to regard their work as worthy occupation abound-
ing in interest. Home industries such as the metal-working
round Keswick (founded in 1884 by Canon and Mrs Rawnsley)
executed during hours of idleness by field labourers and railway
porters, educate the passer-by as well as the worker.
METAL-WORK
PLATE I.
CAST BRONZE GATES, ADELPHI BANK, LIVERPOOL.
Designed by W. D. CAROE, the figures by STIRLING LEE, executed by STARKIE GARDNER AND Co.
xvm.au.
PLATE II.
METAL-WORK
RAIN-WATER HEAD, IN LEAD, FOR THE VICTORIA LAW COURTS, BIRMINGHAM.
Designed by ASTON WEBB and INGRES BELL, and executed by DENT AND HELLIER.
COVERED BRIDGE OF IRON, SHEATHED IN CAST LEAD, GRAND HOTEL, LONDON.
Designed by WILLIAM WOODWARD, and executed by STARKIE GARDNER AND Co.
METAL-WORK
213
British architects and artists who design for the principal
decorating firms are to-day as conversant with the Renaissance
and succeeding styles of France and Italy as medieval revival-
ists were familiar with the Gothic styles with which they made
us so well acquainted. Metal-work more or less based upon
every kind of past style is produced in vast quantities, and in
some cases so skilful are the workers that modern forgeries
and reproductions are almost beyond the power of experts to
detect. This large class of designers and craftsmen, to whom
a thorough knowledge of the history of design is a necessity,
follows and develops traditional lines. The new art school,
on the contrary, breaks wholly with tradition, unless uncon-
sciously influenced by the Japanese, and awards the highest
place to originality in design. It is not to be expected that
an art -revival following on, and in possession of, all the results
of a period of unprecedented activity in scientific research
should proceed with the same restraint as heretofore; but the
unfettered activity, and the general encouragement to abandon
the traditions of art, have no exact parallel in the past, and may
yet prove a danger. It is perhaps the very rapidity of the
movement that is likely to retard its progress, and to fail to
carry with it the wealthy clients and the decorators they employ,
or perhaps even to increase the disposition to cling to the
reproductions of the styles of the iyth and i8th centuries.
The multiplication of art periodicals, lectures, books, photo-
graphs, meetings of societies and gilds, museums, schools of
arts and crafts, polytechnics, scholarships, facilities for travel,
exhibitions, even those of the Royal Academy, to which objects
of applied art are now admitted, not only encourages many
persons to become workers and designers in the applied arts,
but exposes everything to the plagiarist, who travesties the
freshest idea before it has well left the hands of its originator.
Thus the inspirations of genius, appropriated by those who
imperfectly appreciate their subtle beauty and quality, become
hackneyed and lose their charm and interest. The keen desire
to be unconventional in applied art has spread from Great
Britain and the United States to Germany, Austria and other
countries, but without well-defined first principles, or limita-
tions It seems agreed in a general way that the completed
work in metal is to be wholly the conception and, as far as
possible, the actual handiwork of the designer: casting by the
cire-perdue process, left practically untouched from the mould,
and embossing, being the two most favoured processes. The
female figure is largely made use of, and rich and harmonious
colours are sought, the glitter of metal being invariably sub-
dued by deadening its lustre, or by patinas and oxides. Gilding,
stains and lacquers, electro-plating, chasing, " matting,"
frosting, burnishing, mechanically produced mouldings and
enrichments, and the other processes esteemed in the igth
century, are disused and avoided. New contrasts are formed
by the juxtaposition of differently toned metals; or these with
an inlay of haliotis shell, introduced by Alfred Gilbert; or of
coloured wax, favoured by Onslow Ford; or enamelling, per-
fected by Professor von Herkomer; or stained ivory, pearls,
or semi-precious stones. The quality of the surface left by
the skilled artist or artisan is more regarded than symmetry
of design, or even than correct modelling. Frequently only
the important parts in a design are carefully finished and the
rest merely sketched: the mode of working, whether by model-
ling-tools or hammer, being always left apparent.
The newer kinds of art metal-work have, until recently,
reached the purchaser direct from the producer's workshop;
but they may now also be seen in the shops of silversmiths,
jewellers, and general dealers, who are thus helping to transfer
production from large commercial manufactories to smaller
ateliers under artistic control. The production of the larger
household accessories, such as bedsteads, fenders, gas and
electric fittings, clocks, &c., has hardly as yet come under the
iifluence of the art movement. The services rendered by
Ir W. A. S. Benson of Chiswick, who commenced about 1886
revolutionize the production of sheet-brass and copper
utensils, cannot be passed over. The average ecclesiastical
metal-work has rather receded than progressed in merit, except
when designed by architects and executed under their super-
vision. Though the demand for good domestic wrought-iron
work has enormously increased, adaptations from the beautiful
work of the I7th and i8th centuries have been found so suited
to their architectural surroundings, that new departures have
been relatively uncommon. Of such the gates for Sandringham,
by Jeckyll; for Crewe Hall, by Charles Barry; and for the Victoria
and Albert Museum, by Gamble, are the earliest and best known.
Of the vast number designed upon traditional lines may be
cited those for Lambton Castle, Welbeck, Eaton Hall, Twicken-
ham, Clieveden, and the Astor Estate Office on the Victoria
Embankment. Cast iron, brought to perfection by the Coal-
brookdale Company about 1860, but now little esteemed, owing
to the poverty of design which so often counterfeits smiths'
work, presents great opportunities to founders possessing taste
or willing to submit to artistic control. A very large field is
also opening for cast-lead work, whether associated with archi-
tecture, as in the leaden covered-way over Northumberland
Street, in London (see Plate), and the fine rain-water heads
of the Birmingham Law Courts (see Plate), or with the revival
of the use of metal statuary and vases in gardens. The subdued
colour and soft contours of pewter render it once more a favoured
material, peculiarly adapted to the methods of the art revival,
and perhaps destined to supersede electro-plate for household
purposes. In silver-work the proportion of new art designs
exhibited by dealers and others is still relatively small; but
jewellers, except when setting pure brilliants and pearls, are
becoming more inclined to make their jewels of finely modelled
gold and enamel enriched with precious and semi-precious
stones, than of gems merely held together by wholly subordinate
settings.
On the continent of Europe, France was the first to recognize
the merits of its bygone designers and craftsmen, and even
antecedent to the Exhibition of 1851, when art in Great Britain
was dormant, it was possible to obtain in Paris faithful repro-
ductions of the finest ormolu work of the i8th century. At
the same time a most active production of modern designs
was proceeding, stimulated by rewards, with the result that
the supply of clocks, lamps, candelabra, statuettes, and other
ornaments in bronze and zinc to the rest of Europe became
a monopoly of Paris for nearly half a century. In all connected
with their own homes the French adhere to their traditions
far more than other nations, and the attempt at originality
in the introduction of metal-work into the scheme of decoration
of a room is almost unknown. In the domain of bronze and
imitation bronze statuary the originality of the French is abso-
lutely unrivalled. And not only in bronze, but in Paris jewellery,
enamels, silver, pewter and iron work a cultured refinement
is apparent, beside which other productions, even the most
finished, appear crude. The French artist attains his ideal,
and it is difficult to imagine, from his standpoint, that the
metal-work of the present can be surpassed. The best English
metal-worker, on the contrary, is probably not often quite
satisfied with the results he attains, perhaps because in Great
Britain the pursuit of art has for centuries been fitful and
individual, while in France art traditions are hereditary. The
metal- work of Belgium is based at > present entirely on that
of France, without attaining the same standard, unless designed
for ecclesiastical uses. In Holland these. crafts have not pro-
gressed. Italian metal-workers are mainly employed in repro-
duction; but traditions linger in some remote parts, while the
sporadic appearance of craftsmen of a high order is evidence
that the ancient artistic spirit is not wholly extinct. Similarly,
the surprising damascening by Messrs Zuluaga of Madrid in
the monument to General Prim, and that of Alvarez of Toledo,
give hope that the Spanish craftsman only needs to be properly
directed. German and Austrian workers had for years shown
more energy than originality, but they have recently embraced
the newest English developments and carried them to extremes
of exaggeration. For really fresh and progressive indigenous
art we may perhaps have, in the near future, to turn to America
214
METAL-WORK
and to Russia, where, having little artistic past to refer to,
designers and craftsmen display unequalled individuality and
force. It is from the Far East, however, that the most serious
rivalry may be anticipated. The metal-work of China and
Japan, so pleasantly naive and inexpensive, though becoming
undesirably modified as to design through contact with European
buyers, is losing none of its matchless technique, which indeed
in Japan is still being developed. In any history of the art
revival the influence of such firms as Barbedienne and Christofle
in Paris and Tiffany in New York cannot be ignored.
(J. S. G.)
Industrial Metal-Work.
The malleability and ductility of metals lie at the basis of the work
of the gold- and silver-smiths at one extreme, and of the boiler-maker
at the other. Sheet metals can be made to assume almost any
shape under the hammer, or by pressure, provided they are subjected
to annealing to restore the property of malleability. The most
awkward shapes, involving excessive extensions of metal, are pro-
duced by drawing processes between dies of iron and steel in power
presses. All the common domestic utensils in tinned and enamelled
ware, and all the ordinary patterns of the silversmiths, are similarly
done. Frequent annealings are necessary to prevent fracture of
the metal; but with these and the observance of certain other pre-
cautions of a practical character the degree of extension possible
is enormous. Another illustration of the malleability of metal is
afforded by metal spinning. A sheet of metal set revolving at a
high speed in a lathe is bent over into cup-shaped forms, with
numerous mouldings, by a blunt hardened tool. A great deal of
work is done in this way, though this sphere has also been invaded
by the draw presses, whose output would seem incredible to those
not familiar with the work. Objects that do not require annealing
are produced by dozens per minute, and all the movements of feeding
and stamping and removal are often automatic. The ductility of
metals and alloys is utilized in wire and tube-drawing through dies
on long benches. This work also requires frequent annealing, for
otherwise the wires or tubes would rupture. Even hard steel is
treated in this way to form tubes for the highest hydraulic and steam
pressures.
Platers' Work (see BOILER) is distinguished from work in sheet
metals by the fact that plates have considerable thickness, which
sheets have not. Plates range in thickness from i in. to 2 in.,
but for most purposes they do not go beyond J in. or I in. Over
these thicknesses they are used chiefly for the largest marine boilers.
Armour plates which are several inches in thickness do not come
in this group, being a special article of manufacture. Sheets are
of thicknesses of less than | in. This distinction of thickness is
of importance in its bearing on workshop practice. A thin sheet
requires a very different kind of treatment from a thick plate. Not
only is more powerful machinery required for the latter, but in
bending it allowance has to be made for the difference in radius of
outer and inner layers, which increases with increase of thickness.
Short, sharp bends which are readily made in thin sheets cannot
be done in thick plates, as the metal would be stressed too much in
the outer layers. The methods of union also differ, riveting being
adopted for thick plates, and soldering or brazing generally for thin.
Coppersmiths' Work is an important section of sheet-metal working.
It is divided into two great departments, the domestic utensil side,
on which the brazier's craft is exercised; and the engineering side,
which is concerned in some engine-work, locomotive and marine,
and in the manufacture of brewers' utensils. The methods of the
first are allied to those of the tinman, those of the second to the
methods of the plater. Tinsmiths' work resembles the lighter part
of the work of the coppersmith. There is no essential difference
in dealing with tin (i.e. sheets of iron or steel coated with tin) and
copper of the same thickness. Hence the craft of tinmen and
braziers is carried on by the same individuals. There are, however,
differences of treatment in detail, because copper is more malleable
and softer than tin plate. The geometry of sheet-metal work and
of platers' and boiler-makers' work is identical up to a certain stage.
The divergence appears when plates are substituted for sheets. A
thin sheet has for all practical purposes no thickness that is, the
geometrical pattern marked on it will develop the object required
after it is bent. Nearly all patterns are the developments of the
envelopes of geometrical solids of regular or irregular outlines,
few of plane faces; when they are made up of combinations of plane
faces, or of faces curved in one plane only, there is no difference in
dealing with thin sheets or thick plates. But when curving occurs
in different planes at right or other angles (hollowing), the metal
has to be drawn or extended on the outside, and important differ-
ences arise. A typical form is the hemisphere, from which many
modified forms are derived. The production of this is always a
tedious task. It involves details of " wrinkling " and " razing,"
if done by hand-work in copper. In thick plates it is not attempted
by hand, but pressing is done between dies, or segments of the sphere
are prepared separately and riveted together. In tin it is effected
by stamping. In all work done in thick plates the dimensions marked
out must have reference to the final shape of the article. Generally
the dimensions are taken as in the middle of the plate, but they may
be on the inside or outside according to circumstances. But in any
case the thickness must enter into the calculations, whereas in thin
sheets no account is taken of thickness.
Raised Work. All the works in sheet metal that are bent in one
plane only are easily made. The shapes of all polygonal and all
cylindrical and conical forms are obtained by simple development
that is, the envelopments of these bodies are marked out on a flat
Slane, and when cut, are bent or folded to give the required envelopes,
nly common geometrical problems are involved in the case of
sheets of sensible thickness, and allowances are made for thickness.
But in those forms where curving must take place in different
directions the layers or fibres of metal are made to glide over one
another, extension taking place in some layers but not in others,
and this goes on without producing much reduction in the thickness.
This is only possible with malleable and ductile metals and alloys.
As a general rule it is restricted to metals which are not cast, for,
with some slight exceptions, it is impossible to produce relative
movements of the layers in cast iron, steel or cast brass. But most
rolled metals and alloys can be so treated, copper being the best
for the purpose. The methods employed are " raising " by the
hammer, and pressing in dies. But the severity of the treatment
would tear the material asunder if rearrangement of the particles
were not obtained by frequent annealing (q.v.).
If an object has to be beaten into concave form from a flat thin
sheet, the outer portions must be hammered until they occupy
smaller dimensions than on the flat sheet. If a circular disk is
wrought into a hemisphere and the attempt is made to hammer the
edges round, crumpling must occur. This in fact is the first opera-
tion, termed wrinkling, the edge showing a series of flutes. These
flutes have to be obliterated by another series of hammerings termed
razing. The result is that the object assumes a smooth concave
and convex shape, without the thickness of the metal becoming
reduced.
Cast Work. The metals and alloys which are neither malleable
nor ductile can only be worked into required shapes by melting and
casting in moulds. Abundance of remains which date from the
Neolithic period testify to the high antiquity of this class of work,
and also to the great skill which the ancient founders had acquired.
Statue-founding is a highly specialized department of metal-work,
in which the artists of the middle ages excelled. Two methods have
been employed, the cire-perdue, or wax process (see above), and the
present, or all sand method. In the latter the artist provides a
model in plaster from which the founder takes a mould within an
encircling box. This mould must obviously be made in scores of
little separate sections (false cores or drawbacks) to permit of their
removal from the mode! without causing fracture of the sand.
These are subsequently replaced piece by piece in the encircling
frame, and a core made within it, leaving a space of J in. or there-
abouts into which the metal is poured. The advantage of this
process is that the artist's model is not destroyed as in the ctre-perdue,
and if a " waster " results, a second mould can be taken. A large
statue occupies from one to three months in the moulding.
The extreme tenuity of objects which are hammered, drawn or
rolled cannot for obvious reasons be attained by casting. Casting
also is complicated by the shrinkage which occurs in cooling down
from the molten state, and in some alloys by the formation of
eutectics, and the liquation of some constituents. The temperature
of pouring is now known to be of more importance than was formerly
suspected. The after-treatment of castings by annealing exercises
great influence on results in malleable cast iron and steel.
There are many metals and alloys which are malleable and ductile,
and also readily fused and cast. This is the case with gold, silver,
copper, tin, lead and others, and especially with low carbon steel,
which is first cast as an ingot, then annealed and rolled into plates
as well as the thinnest sheets. The ancient wootz, and the products
of the native furnaces of Africa are first cast, then hammered out
thin. Many of the patent bronzes are by slight variations in the
proportions of the constituents made suitable for casting, for forging,
and for rolling into sheets. But in all the great modern manu-
facturing processes it is true that metals and alloys, though of the
same name, have a different composition according as they are
intended for casting on the one hand, or for forging, rolling and
drawing on the other. Wrought or malleable iron has less of carbon
and other elements in its composition than has cast iron. Steel
intended for castings has slightly more carbon and other elements
than the cast-steel ingot intended for rolling into plates. So also
with the numerous bronzes, the phosphor, the delta, the aluminium
and other alloys of copper ; each is made in several grades to render
it suitable for different kinds of treatment.
There are no materials used in manufacture of which the crafts-
man is able to vary the composition and physical qualities so ex-
tensively as the metals and their alloys. Much light has been thrown
on facts which harve long been known in a practical way, by the
labours of the Alloys Research Committee of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers (England). These, together with independent
researches into the heat treatment of steel and iron, have opened
up many unsolved problems fraught with deepest interest and
importance.
One of the most difficult problems with which the metal-worker
METAMERISM
215
who handles constructional forms has to deal is the maintenance
of a due relation between absolute strength and a useful degree of
elasticity. Only after many failures has the fact been grasped that
a very high degree of strength is inconsistent with a trustworthy
degree of elasticity. The reasons were not understood until the
researches of Wohler demonstrated the difference between the effects
of merely dead loads and of live loads, and between repetitions of
stress of one kind only, and the vastly more destructive effects of
both kinds alternating.
The texture of metals and alloys is related to the character of
the operations which can be done upon them. Broadly the malle-
able and ductile metals and alloys show a fibrous character when
ruptured, the fusible ones a crystalline fracture. The difference
is seen both in the workshop and in the specimens ruptured in
testing-machines. A piece of wrought iron, or mild steel or copper,
if torn asunder shows long lustrous fibres, resembling a bundle of
threads in appearance. A piece of cast iron, or steel or bronze,
shows on rupture a granular, crystalline surface destitute of any
fibre. The ductile metals and alloys also extend from 10 to 30%
with reduction of area before they fracture, the crystalline ones
snap shortly without warning. In some instances, however, the
method of application of stress exercises an influence. Wrought
iron and mild steel may be made to show a short and crystalline
fracture by a sudden application of stress, while if drawn asunder
slowly they develop the silky, fibrous appearance. The men who
design and work in metals have to talce account of these vital
differences and characteristics, and must be careful not to apply
treatment suitable to one kind to another of a dissimilar character.
Tools, appliances and methods have little in common. Between
the work of the smith, the sheet-metal worker and the founder,
there is a great gulf. An artistic taste will recognize the essential
differences, and not endeavour, apart from questions of strength,
to graft a design suitable for one on another. It is bad taste to
imitate the tracery of the ductile wrought iron in cast designs, the
foliations of ancient wrought-iron grilles and screens in heavy
cast iron. Severe simplicity is also most in harmony with con-
structional designs in plated work, where stresses occur in straight
lines. From this point of view the lattice-girder bridge is an ideal
design in steel.
One of the most valuable characteristics of the iron alloys is
their capacity for hardening, which they owe in the main to the
presence of certain small percentages of carbon relatively to minute
quantities of other elements: as manganese, tungsten, nickel and
others of less importance. The capacity for hardening is an in-
valuable property not only in regard to cutting-tools, but also in
prolonging the life of parts subjected to severe friction. Great
advances have been made in the utilization of this property as a
result of the growth of the precision grinding-machines, which are
able to correct the inaccuracies of hardened work as effectually as
those of soft materials. It is utilized in the spindles of machine-
tools, in the balls and rollers for high-speed bearings, slides, pivots
and such like.
Methods of Union. The methods of union of works in metal are
extremely varied. An advantage in casting is that the most
complicated shapes are made in one piece. But all other compli-
cated forms have to be united by other means as welding, soldering,
riveting or bolting. The two first-named are trustworthy, but are
evidently unsuitable for the greater portion of engineers' work,
for which riveting and bolting are the methods adopted. Even
the simple elements of rivets and bolts have produced immense
developments since the days when bolts were made by hand,
holes cored or hand-drilled, and rivets formed and closed by hand
labour. Nut- and bolt-making machinery, both for forging and
screw cutting, operates automatically, and drilling machinery is
highly specialized. Hand-riveting on large contracts has been
wholly displaced by power-riveting machines. The methods of
union adopted are not allowed to impair the strength of structures,
which is calculated on the weakest sections through the rivet or
bolt holes. Hence much ingenuity is exercised in order to obtain the
strongest joint which is consistent with security of union. This
is the explanation of all the varied forms of riveted joints, which
to casual observers often appear to be of a fanciful character.
Protection of Surfaces. The protection and coloration of metals
and alloys includes a large number of industries. The engineer
uses paints for his iron and steel. A small amount of work is treated
by the Bower-Barff and allied processes, by which a coating of
magnetic oxide is left on the metal. Hot tar Angus Smith's
process is used for water-pipes. Boiled linseed-oil is employed
as a non-corrosive coating preceding the application of the lead
and iron oxide paints. In steam boilers artificial galvanic couples
are often set up by the suspension of zinc plates in the boiler, so
that the corrosion of the zinc may preserve the steel boiler plates
from waste. Various artificial protective coatings are applied to
the plates of steel ships. Bright surfaces are protected with oil
or with lacquer. The ornamental bronzes and brasses are generally
lacquered, though in engineers' machinery they are as a rule not
protected with any coating. For ornamental work lacquering
divides favour with colouring sometimes done with coloured
lacquers, but often with chemical colourings, of which the copper
and iron salts are the chief basis. (J. G. H.)
LITERATURE. Prehistoric : Worsaae, Nordiske Oldsager i Kjoben-
havn (1854); Perrin, tude prehistorique Age du bronze (1870).
Classical: Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1853); Pliny, Natural
History, bk. xxxiv. ; Brondsted, Den Fikoroniske Cista (1847);
Gerhard, various monographs (1843-1867); Muller, Etrusker, &c.,
and other works; Ciampi, Dell' Antica toreutica (1815); Von Bibra,
Die Bronzen und Kupfer-Legirungen der alten und altesten Volker
(1869); C. Bischoff, Das Kupfer in der vorchristlichen Zeil (1865)
Medieval, &c. : Digby Wyatt, Metal-Work of the Middle Ages
(1849); Shaw, Ornamental Metal-Work (1836); Drury Fortnum,
S.K.M. Handbook of Bronzes (1877); King, Orfevrerie et ouvrages
en metal du moyen Age (1852-1854); Hefner-Alteneck, Serrurerie
du moyen Age (1860); Viollet-le-duc, Diet, du mobilier, " Serrurerie "
and "Orfevrerie, (1858 &c.); Lacroix, Tresor de S. Denis, and
L'Art du moyen age (various dates) ; Karch, Die Rathselbilder an der
Broncethure zu Augsburg (1869) ; Krug, Entwiirfe fur Gold-, Silber-,
und Bronze- Arbeiteri Linas, Orfevrerie merovingienne (1864), and
Orfevrerie du XIII"" siecle (1856) ; Bordeaux, Serrurerie du moyen
Age (1858); Didron, Manuel des asuvres de bronze et d'orfevrerie du
moyen Age (1859); Du Sommerard, Arts au moyen Age (1838-1846),
and Musee de Cluny (1852) ; Rico y Sinobas, Trabajos de metales
(1871); Bock, Die Goldschmiedekunst des Mittelalters (1855), and
Kleinodien des heil.-romischen Reiches; Jouy, Les gemmes et les
joyaux (1865); Texier, Dictionnaire d'orfevrerie (1857); Virgil Solis,
Designs for Gold- and Silversmiths (1512), (facsimile reproduction,
1862); Molinier, Les Bronzes de la Renaissance (1886); Servant,
Les bronzes d'art (1880); Wilhelm Bode, Italian Bronze Statuettes
of the Renaissance (Eng. trans, by W. Gretor, first 2 vols., 1909).
Practical Treatises: Theophilus, Diversarum artium schedula (I2th
cent.), (see Quellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte, VII., Vienna 1877);
Cellini, Trattati dell' oreficeria e della scultura (ed. Milanesi, Florence,
1856); Vasari, Tre arti del disegno, pt. ii. (Milanesi's ed., 1882);
Gamier, Manuel du ciseleur (1859); Haas, Der Metallarbeiter (1902).
METAMERISM (Gr. juerd, after, /tepos, a part), a technical
term used in natural science. In chemistry it denotes the
existence of different substances containing the same elements
in the same proportions and having the same molecular weight;
it is a form of isomerism.
In zoology, metamerism is the repetition of parts in an orga-
nized body, a phenomenon which is, as E. Haeckel, W. Bateson
and others have recognized, only a special case of a tendency
to repetition of structural units or parts which finds one expres-
sion in bilateral symmetry. It occurs in almost every group of
the animal kingdom, but is most conspicuous in segmented
worms, arthropods and vertebrates. In certain worms (the
Cestoidea and some Planarians) metameric segmentation is
accompanied by the separation of the completed metameres
one by one from the older (anterior) extremity of the chain
(strobilation), but it by no means follows that metameric seg-
mentation has a necessary origin in such completion and separa-
tion of the " meres." On the contrary, metamerism seems
to arise from a property of organisms which is sometimes more
(eumerogenesis) and sometimes less (dysmerogenesis) fully
exhibited, and in some groups not exhibited at all. The most
complete and, at the same time, simplest instances of metameric
segmentation are to be seen in the larger Chaetopods, where
some hundreds of segments succeed one another each practically
indistinguishable in structure from the segment in front or
from that behind; muscles, right and left appendage or para-
podium, colour-pattern of the skin, gut, blood-vessels, coelom,
nephridia, nerve-ganglion and nerves are precisely alike in
neighbouring segments. The segment which is least like the
others is the first, for that carries the mouth and a lobe projecting
beyond it the prostomium. If (as sometimes happens) any
of the hinder segments completes itself by developing a pro-
stomium, the chain breaks at that point and the segment which
has developed a prostomium becomes the first or head-bearing
segment of a new individual. Compare such an instance of
metameric segmentation with that presented by one of the
higher Arthropods e.g. the crayfish. Here the somites are
not so clearly marked in the tegumentary structures; neverthe-
less, by examining the indications given by the paired parapodia,
we find that there are twenty-one somites present a limited
definite number which is also the precise number found in all
the higher Crustacea.
We can state as a FIRST LAW 1 of metamerism or somite formation
1 The word " LAW " is used in this summary merely as a convenient
heading for the statement of a more or less general proposition.
2l6
METAMERISM
that it is either indefinite in regard to number of metameres
or somites produced, or is definite. Animals in the first case we
call anomomeristic; those in the second case, nomomeristic. The
nomomeristic condition is a higher development, a specialization,
of the anomomeristic condition.
The SECOND LAW, or generalization, as to metamerism which
must be noted is that the meres or somites (excepting the first with
its prostomium) may be all practically alike or may differ from one
another greatly by modification of the various constituent parts of
the mere or somite. Metamerized animals are either homoeomeric
or heteromeric. The reference of the variation in the form of the
essential parts contained in a " metamere " or " somite " intro-
duces us to the necessity of a general term for these constituent
or subordinate parts; they may be called " merpmes " (/jepoj). The
meromes present in a metamere or somite differ in different annulate
or segmented animals according to the general organization of the
group to which the animal belongs. As a matter of convenience
we distinguish in the Arthropod as meromes, first, the tegumentary
chitinized plates called terga, placed on the dorsal aspect of the
somites ; second, the similar sternal plates. In Chaetoppds we should
take next to these the masses of circular and logitudinal muscular
fibres of the body-wall and the dorso-ventral muscles. The latter
form the third sort of merome present in the Arthropods. The
fourth kind of merome is constituted by the parapodia or appen-
dages ; the fifth by the coelomic pouches and their ducts and external
apertures (coelomo-ducts), whether renal or genital. The sixth by
the blood-vessels of the somite; the seventh by the bit of alimentary
tract which traverses it; and the eighth by the neuromere (nerve
ganglion pair, commissures, connectives and nerve branches).
The THIRD LAW of metamerism is that heteromerism may operate
in such a way as to produce definite regions of like modification of
the somites and their appendages, differing in their modification
from that observed in regions before and behind them. It is
convenient to have a special word for such regions of like meres,
and we call each a tagma (ray^a, a regiment). The word " tagmosis "
is applicable to the formation of such regions. In the Chaetopods
tagmosis always occurs to a small extent so as to form the head.
In some Chaetopods, such as Chaetopterus and the sedentary forms,
there is marked tagmosis, giving rise to three or even more tagmata.
In Arthropods, besides the head, we find very frequently other
tagmata developed. But it is to be noted that in the higher members
of each great class or line of descent, the tagmosis becomes definite
and characteristic just as do the total number of meres or somites,
whilst in the lower grades of each great class we find what may be
regarded as varying examples of tentative tagmosis. The terms
nomotagmic and anomotagmic are applicable with the same kind
of implication as the terms nomomeristic and anomomeristic.
The FOURTH LAW of metamerism (auto-heterosis of the meromes)
is that the meromes of a somite or series of somites may be separately
and dissimilarly affected by heteromerism. It is common enough
for small changes only to occur in the inner visceral meromes whilst
the appendages and terga or sterna are largely changed in form.
But of equal importance is the independent " heterpsis " of these
visceral meromes without any corresponding heterpsis of the body
wall. As instances, we may cite the gizzards of various earthworms
and the special localization of renal, genital and gastric meromes,
with obliteration elsewhere, in a few somites in Arthropoda.
The FIFTH LAW, relating also to the independence of the meromes
as compared with the whole somite, is the law of autorhythmus of
the meromes. Metamerism does not always manifest itself in the
formation of complete new segments; but one merome may be
repeated so as to suggest several metameres, whilst the remaining
meromes are, so to speak, out of harmony with it and exhibit no
repetition. Thus in the hinder somites of the body of A pus the
Crustacean we find a series of segments corresponding apparently
each to a complete single somite; but when the appendages are
examined we find that they have multiplied without relation to
the other meromes of a somite: we find that the somites carry
from two to seven pairs of appendages, increasing in number as we
pass backwards from the genital segment. The appendages are
autorhythmic meromes in this case. They take on a quasi-inde-
pendent metamerism and are produced in numbers which have
no relation to the numbers of the body-rings, muscles and neuro-
meres. This possibility of the independent metameric multiplication
of a single merome must have great importance in the case of
dislocated meromes, and no doubt has application to some of the
metameric phenomena of Vertebrates.
The SIXTH LAW is the law of dislocation of meromes. This is a
very important and striking phenomenon. A merome, such as a
pair of appendages (Araneae) or a neuromere or a muscular mass
(frequent), may (by either a gradual or sudden process, we cannot
always say which) quit the metamere to which it belongs, and in
which it originated, and pass by actual physical transference to
another metamere. Frequently this new position is at a distance
of several metameres from that to which the wandering merome
belongs in origin. The movement is more usual from behind
forwards than in the reverse direction; but this, probably, has no
profound significance and depends simply on the fact that, as a
rule, the head must be tHe chief region of development on account
of its containing the sense organs and the mouth.
In the Vertebrata the independence of the meromes is more fully
developed than in other metamerized animals. Not only do we
get auto-heterosis of the meromes on a most extensive scale, but
the dislocation of single meromes and of whole series (tagmata) of
meromes is a common phenomenon. Thus, in fishes the pelvic
fins may travel forwards to a thoracic and even jugal position in
front of the pectoral fins; the branchiomeromes lose all relation to
the position of the meromes of muscular, skeletal, coelomic and
nervous nature, and the heart and its vessels may move backwards
from their original metameres in higher Vertebrates carrying
nerve-loops with them.
The SEVENTH LAW of metamerism is one which has been pointed
out to the writer by E. S. Goodrich. It may be called the law of
" translation of heterosis." Whilst actual physical transference
of the substance of meromes undeniably takes place in such a case
as the passage of the pelvic fins of some fishes to the front of the
pectorals, and in the case of the backward movement of the opis-
thosomatic appendages of spiders, yet the more frequent rriode
in which an alteration in the position of a specialized organ in the
series or scale of metameres takes place is not by migration of the
actual material organ from somite to somite, but by translation
of the quality or morphpgenetic peculiarity from somite to somite
accompanied by correlative change in all the somites of the series.
The phenomenon may be compared to the transposition of a piece
of music to a higher or lower key. It is thus that the lateral fins
of fishes move up and down the scale of vertebral somites; and
thus that whole regions (tagmata), such as those indicated by the
names cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral, are translated (accom-
panied by terminal increase or decrease in the total number of
somites) so as to occupy differing numerical positions in closely
allied forms (cf. the varying number of cervical somites in allied
Reptiles and Birds).
What, in this rapid enumeration, we will venture to call the
EIGHTH LAW of metamerism is the law of homoeosis, as it is termed
by W. Bateson. Homoeosis is the making of a merome into the
likeness of one belonging to another metamere, and is the opposite
of the process of " heterosis " already mentioned. We cite this
law here because the result of its operation is to simulate the occur-
rence of dislocation of meromes and has to be carefully distinguished
from that process. A merome can, and does in individual cases of
abnormality, assume the form and character of the corresponding
merome of a distant somite. Thus the antenna of an insect has
been found to be replaced by a perfectly well-formed walking leg.
After destruction of the eye-stalk of a shrimp a new growth appears,
having the form of an antenna. Other cases are frequent in Crusta-
cea, as individual abnormalities. They prove the existence in the
mechanism of metamerized animals, of structural conditions which
are capable of giving these results. What those structural con-
ditions are is a matter for separate inquiry, which we cannot even
touch here.
We now come to the questions of the production of new somites
or the addition of new somites to the series, and the converse
problem of the suppression of somites, whole or partial. We state
as the NINTH LAW of metamerism " that new somites or metameres
are added to a chain consisting of two or more somites by growth
and gradual elaboration what is called ' budding ' of the anterior
border of the hindermost somite. This hindermost somite is
therefore different from all the other somites and is called the
' telson.' However long or short or heteromerized the chain may
be, new metameres or somites are only produced at the anterior
border of the telson, except in the Vertebrata." That is the general
law. But amongst some groups of metamerized animals partial
exceptions to it occur. It is probably absolutely true for the
Arthropoda from lowest to highest. It is not so certain that it is
true for the Chaetopoda, and would need modification in statement
to meet the cases of fissiparous multiplication occurring among
Syllids and Naidids. In the Vertebrata, where tagmosis and
heterosis of meromes and dislocation of merones and tagmata are,
so to speak, rampant, new formation of metameres (at any rate as
represented by important meromes) takes place at more than one
point in the chain. Such points are found where two highly diverse
" tagmata " abut on one another. It is possible, though the evi-
dence at present is entirely against the supposition, that at such
points in Arthropoda new somites may be formed. Such new
somites are said to be " intercalated." The question of the inter-
calation of vertebrae in the Vertebrata has received some attention.
It must be remembered that a vertebra even taken with its muscular,
vascular and neural accessories is only a partial metamere a
merome and that, so far as complete metameres are concerned, the
Vertebrata do conform to the same law as the Arthropods. Inter-
calation of meromes, branchial, vertebral and dermal (fin-supports)
seems to have taken place in Vertebrata in the fishes, while in
higher groups intercalation of vertebrae in large series has been
accepted as the only possible explanation of the structural facts
established by the comparison of allied groups. The elucidation
of this matter forms a very important part of the work lying to the
hand of the investigator of vertebrate anatomy, and it is possible
that the application of Goodrich's law (the seventh of our list) may
throw new light on the matter.
In regard to the diminution in the number of somites in the
METAMORPHISM
217
course of the historical development of those various groups of
metamerized animals, which have undoubtedly sprung from ances-
tors with more numerous somites than they themselves possess,
it appears that we may formulate the following laws as the tenth,
eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth laws of metamerism.
The TENTH LAW is that individual somites tend to atrophy and
finally disappear as distinct structures, most readily at the anterior
and the posterior ends of the series constituting an animal body.
This is very generally exhibited in the head of Arthropoda, where,
however, the operation of the law is largely modified by fusion (see
below). With regard to the posterior end of the body, the atrophy
of segments does not, as a rule, affect the telson itself so much as
the somites in front of it and its power of producing new somites.
Sometimes, however, the telson is very minute and nonchitinized
(Hexapoda).
The ELEVENTH LAW may be stated thus: any somite in the
series which is the anterior or posterior somite of a tagma may
become atrophied, reduced in size or partially aborted by the sup-
pression of some of its merpmes; and finally, such a somite may
disappear and leave no obvious trace in the adult structure of its
presence in ancestral forms. This is called the excalatipn of a
somite. Frequently, however, such " excalated " somites are
obvious in the embryo or leave some merome (e.g. neuromere,
muscle or chitin-plate) which can be detected by minute observa-
tion (microscopic) as evidence of their former existence. The
somite of the maxillipede (third post-oral appendage) of Apus
cancriformis is a good example of a somite on its way to excalation.
The third prae-oral and the praemaxillary somites of Hexappd
insects are instances where the only traces of the vanished somite
are furnished by the microscopic study of early embryos. The
praegenital somite of the Arachnida is an example of a somite
which is preserved in some members of the group and partially or
entirely excalated in other cases, sometimes with fusion of its
remnants to neighbouring somites.
The TWELFTH LAW of metamerism might very well be placed in
logical order as the first. It is the law of lipomerism, and asserts
that just as the metameric condition is produced by a change in
the bodies of the descendants of unisegmental ancestors, so highly
metamerized forms -i.e. strongly segmented forms with specialized
regions of differentiated metameres may gradually lose their
metamerized structure and become apparently and practically
unisegmental animals. The change here contemplated is not the
atrophy of terminal segments one by one so as to reduce the size of
the animal and leave it finally as a single somite. On the contrary,
no loss of size or of high organization is necessary. But one by
one, and gradually, the metameric grouping of the bodily structures
disappears. The cuticle ceases to be thickened in rings the
muscles of the body-wall overrun their somite boundaries. Internal
septa disappear. The nerve-ganglia concentrate or else become
diffused equally along the cords; one pair of renal coelomoducts
and one pair of genital coelomoducts grow to large size and remain
the rest disappear. The appendages atrophy or become limited
to one or two pairs which are widely dislocated from their ancestral
position. The animal ceases to present any indication of meta-
meric repetition of parts in its entire structure. Degrees in this
process are frequently to be recognized. We certainly can observe
such a change in the posterior region of some Arthropods, such as
the hermit-crabs and the spiders. Admitting that the Echiurids
are descended from Chaetopoda, such a change has taken place in
them, amounting to little short of complete lipomerism, though
not absolutely complete.
Recent suggestions as to the origin of the Mollusca involve the
supposition that such an effacement of once well-marked meta-
merism has occurred in them, leaving its traces only in a few
structures such as the multiple gill-plumes and shell-shields of the
Chitons and the duplicated renal sacs of Nautilus.
A further matter of importance in this connexion is that when
the old metameres have been effaced a new secondary segmentation
may arise, as in the jointed worm-like body of the degenerate
Acarid, Demodex folliculorum.
Such secondary annulation of the soft body calls to mind the
secondary annulation of the metameres of leeches and some earth-
worms. Space does not permit of more than an allusion to this
subject; but it is worth while noting that the secondary annuli
marking the somites of leeches and Lumbricidae in definite number
and character are perhaps comparable to the redundant pairs of
appendages on the hinder somites of A pus, and are in both cases
examples of independent repetition of tegumentary meromes a
sort of ineffectual attempt to subdivide the somite which only pre-
vails on the more-readily susceptible meromes of the integument.
The last law of metamerism which we shall attempt to formulate
here, as the THIRTEENTH, relates to the fusion or blending of neigh-
bouring somites. Fusion of adjacent somites has often been errone-
ously interpreted in the study of Arthropoda. There are, in fact,
very varying degrees of fusion which need to be carefully distin-
guished. The following generalization may be formulated. " The
homologous meromes of two or more adjacent somites tend to fuse
with one another by a blending of their substance. Very generally,
but not invariably, the fused meromes are found as distinct separated
structures in the embryo of the animal, in which they unite at a
later stage of growth." The fusion of neighbouring meromes is
often preceded by more or less extensive atrophy of the somites
concerned, and by arrest of development in the individual ontogeny.
Thus, a case of fusion of partially atrophied somites may simulate
the appearance of incipient merogenesis or formation of new somites,
and, vice versa, incipient merogenesis may be misinterpreted as a
case of fusion of once separate and fully-formed somites.
A very complete fusion of somites is that seen on the head of
Arthropoda. The head or prosoma of Arthropoda is a tagma
consisting of one, two, or three prosthomeres or somites in front
of the mouth and of one, two, three, up to five or six opisthomeres.
The cephalic tagma or prosoma may thus be more or less sharply
divided into two subtagmata, the prae-oral and the post-oral.
(E. R. L.)
METAMORPHISM (Gr. nerd, change of, and juop^i?,
shape), in petrology, the alteration of rocks in their structural
or mineral characters by which they are transformed into new
types. In the history of rock masses changes of many
kinds are inevitable. Loose sands, clays and heaps of shells
are gradually converted into sandstones, shales and lime-
stones by the action of percolating water and the pressure
of over-lying accumulations. All rocks exposed at the
earth's surface or traversed by waters circulating through
the earth's crust, undergo changes in their component minerals
due to weathering and the chemical action of the atmo-
sphere and of rain. These processes of cementation and
decomposition, though not unlike those of metamorphism,
are not regarded as essentially the same. They are considered,
so to speak, normal episodes in the history of rocks to which
all are subject. When rocks, however, are exposed to the
heat of intrusive masses (granite, &c.) or have been compressed,
folded, crushed, and more or less completely recrystallized,
they assume new characters so different from their original ones
that they are ascribed to a quite distinct class, namely, the
metamorphic rocks. ^
The transformation is always gradual, so that in suitable
districts every stage can be followed from an unaltered or
nearly unaltered sedimentary or igneous rock to a perfectly
metamorphic one. The transition may be slow or rapid, and
the abundance of intermediate forms renders it impossible
to lay down any hard and fast lines of distinction. A black
shale with fossils may in two or three feet pass into a splintery
hornfels; a sandstone or grit becomes a sheared grit, a granulitic
gneiss, and a completely recrystallized gneiss sometimes within
a few hundred yards; in a thoroughly metamorphic hornblende-
schist or chlorite-schist small kernels sometimes occur which
can easily be recognized as little modified dolerites or diabases.
Still, the metamorphic rocks as a class have many well-defined
characteristics, and in perfectly typical development cover
enormous areas of the earth's surface and must be, in the
aggregate, of vast thickness. A great number of them are
recognizably of igneous origin; others are equally certainly
sedimentary. Hence some writers have suggested that they
are not entitled to rank as a separate class, but only as states
or conditions of other rocks. It is generally agreed, however,
that when the primitive structures and the original minerals
of sedimentary or igneous rocks are so transformed as to be no
longer easily recognizable the rock should be included in the
metamorphic class.
Only rarely, however, does metamorphism produce much
difference in the chemical composition of the rocks affected.
Sandstones become quartzites and quartz schists, limestones
are converted into marbles, granite passes into gneiss, and so
on, without their bulk composition being greatly modified.
From all that we know it seems established that however great
the heat and pressure to which metamorphic rocks have been
exposed they have very rarely been melted or reduced to the
liquid state. Hence there has been no opportunity for inter-
mixture by solution or diffusion; the changes, including the
growth of crystals of new-formed minerals, have gone on in
the solid rocks. The chemical molecules already present
have aggregated into new combinations and have built up
new minerals without travelling for more than infinitesimal
distances from the places they occupied in the original rock.
Exceptions to this occur, but they are so few that they do not
2l8
METAMORPHISM
invalidate the general rule. Thin bands of limestone, for
example, may be followed for miles in belts of mica-schist
or gneiss, never losing their identity by blending with the rocks
on either side of them. By tracing out zones such- as these
it is often possible to unravel the highly complicated strati-
graphy of metamorphic regions where the rocks have been greatly
folded and displaced. Another important consequence of
the persistence of the chemical individuality of metamorphosed
rocks is that very often an analysis indicates in the clearest
possible fashion what was the original nature of the rock mass.
Sandstones, limestones, ironstones, shales, granites, dolerites
and serpentines may be totally changed in structure and very
completely also in mineral composition, but their chemical
characters are practically indelible. Confusion arises sometimes
from the fact that two rocks of different origin may have much
the same composition, e.g. a felspathic sandstone may closely
approach a granite, or an impure dolomite may simulate
a basic igneous rock. Individual specimens, consequently,
cannot always be relegated with perfect certainty to sediments
or igneous rocks; but in dealing with a complex containing
a variety of types the geologist is rarely long in doubt as to
their original nature.
Two distinct kinds of metamorphism are recognized, namely
contact or thermal metamorphism, and folding or regional
metamorphism. The former is associated with intrusive masses
of molten igneous rock which were injected at a very high
temperature and produced extensive changes in the surrounding
rocks. The second occurs in districts where earth folding
and the movements attendant on the formation of mountain
ranges have flexured and crushed the strata, probably at the
same time considerably raising their temperature. Although
these processes are very different in their origin, and in the
great majority of cases produce quite different effects on the
rocks they involve, there are instances in which the results
are closely comparable. A sandstone may be converted into
quartzite and a limestone into marble by either kind of meta-
morphism. It is best, however, to describe them as phenomena
essentially different from one another.
Contact Metamorphism (thermo-metamorphism). Any kind of
rock igneous or sedimentary which has come in contact with an
igneous molten magma is likely to show alteration of this type.
The extent and intensity of the changes depend principally on two
factors: (i) the nature of the rock concerned, and (2) the magni-
tude of the igneous mass. It is to be expected that a great intrusion
of granite will produce more extensive effects of this kind than a
narrow dike a few inches or a few feet broad. At the edges of such
dikes only a slight induration may be noticeable in the country
rock, or there may be recrystallization with formation of new
minerals for a few inches. Rarely does the alteration extend
beyond this. Shales are baked and hardened, sandstones are
rendered more compact or occasionally are partly fused, limestones
may be converted into marble containing garnet, wollastonite,
augite or other calc-silicates. A great granite boss, which may be
ten or twenty miles broad, is often surrounded by a wide aureole
of contact alteration. This may be a few hundred yards broad
or a couple of miles; in rare cases the breadth of the aureole is only
a few yards. These variations may have structural causes; thus
when the aureole is narrow the junction of granite with country
rock may be vertical ; when the aureole is broad the granite may be
a flat-topped mass which dips at low angles outwards on each side.
When a broad aureole accompanies a vertical junction we may
suppose that molten rock has flowed upwards along this boundary
line for a prolonged period, and has gradually raised the rocks to
a very high temperature, even at some distance away from the
contact. Where the alteration is slight and local there is usually
something in the composition of the rocks or in their crystalline
state to account for this.
No less important is the nature of the rocks involved. Where
a granite intrudes into a succession of various types of sedimentary
and igneous rocks the differences in their behaviour are often
very marked. Sandstones alter less readily than shales or slates,
and limestones, especially if they be marly or argillaceous, are often
full of new minerals, when purer shales on each side of them are
not visibly affected. Schists and gneisses, being already highly
crystalline, are very resistant to thermal alteration, and may show
it only for a few inches where they are in actual contact with the
granite, or in minute fragments which have been broken off and
surrounded by the invading magma. Igneous rocks, since they
consist of minerals which have formed at very high temperatures,
may show no change whatever. If they are decomposed, however,
their secondary products, including those which fill veins and
amygdaloidal cavities, are often entirely recrystallized -in new
combinations. Instances of this will be given later.
The intensity of the alteration depends very greatly on the
proximity to the intrusive rock. A typical aureole surrounding
a granite boss, for example, consists of rocks in all stages of altera-
tion, the most affected being nearest the granite, while as we travel
outwards we pass over zones of successively diminishing meta-
morphism. Around the granites of Cornwall, the Lake District
and Ireland there are tracts of altered slate which show these
stages very well. The first sign of metamorphism is a slight increase
in hardness and glossiness, making the slate a little brighter and
more brittle. This is due to the formation of mica in small crystalline
plates mostly parallel to the cleavage of the rock. Nearer the
granite a faint spotting is visible on broken surfaces of the slates,
and this becomes more pronounced as we enter the middle part of
the aureole. These spotted slates, in Cornwall for instance, often
occupy a zone a mile in breadth. They are less fissile than the
unaltered slates and have rounded or elliptical spots about a quarter
of an inch across. The spots are usually darker than the body of
the slate, though sometimes paler. Angular, branched, lenticular
and rhomboidal spots sometimes occur. Under the microscope
these rocks consist mainly of brown mica, quartz and organic matters,
iron oxides, &c. ; the spots may be due to aggregation of biotite or
of quartz, but often differ little in composition from the surrounding
rock. Their dark colour is due to abundance of iron oxides or
graphite, with chlorite and biotite. Still closer to the granite a
development of crystals takes place in the slates; the commonest
are andalusite, chiastolite (with cross-shaped dark enclosures),
cordierite, staurolite and garnet. At the same time the minerals
formerly enumerated crystallize in larger individuals (biotite, quartz,
iron oxides, &c.), so that the rock becomes rather more coarse-grained.
At this stage the fis'sility and cleavage structures of the slate tend
to be obliterated, and the rocks are dark, lustrous (from the abun-
dance of mica), hard and splintery. To this type the name hornfels
is given. The innermost zones of the aureole consist mainly of
horrifelses, and where there are slate fragments enclosed in the
granite they usually show these characters in their most pronounced
form.
The nature of the new minerals produced depends principally,
of course, on the chemical composition of the rocks affected. In
pure sandstones only quartz is formed, and pure limestones merely
recrystallize as marbles. Argillaceous rocks are characterized 1 by
abundance of alumina; hence, when thermally altered, they may
contain corundum, or silicates of alumina such as sillimanite, kyanite,
andalusite and chiastolite. Most rock masses, however, are far
from pure and hence the variety of minerals which may arise in
them from contact alteration is very great. Argillaceous limestones,
for example, very frequently contain garnet, vesuvianite, wollaston-
ite, diopside, tremolite, sphene, epidote and feldspar; that is to say,
minerals in which lime is present along with silica, alumina, magnesia
and other substances. Calcareous sandstones yield augite, garnet,
sphene, epidote ; argillaceous sandstones are characterized rather by
biotite, sillimanite and spinel.
In each case the materials already present in the rock have united
to form new mineral combinations. Crystallization has been
stimulated by the rise of temperature, aided, no doubt, by moisture.
Water vapour, even at comparatively low temperatures when the
pressure is considerable, is a powerful mineralizing agent and greatly
facilitates crystallization. Often the rocks acquire ultimately a
pseudoporphyritic or porphyro-blastic structure, as they contain
large or conspicuous crystals scattered through a finer grained
ground-mass; not only these porphyritic ingredients but the body
of the rock shows increased crystallization, for contact alteration
as a rule makes rocks more coarse-grained than before.
In rare instances fusion may take place, but this must be excep-
tional, as the finest original structures are often very perfectly
preserved by rocks which have been in great measure recrystallized.
Finely laminated argillaceous sandstones, for example, may pass
into cordierite or andalusite-^-hornfelses showing a mineral banding
which corresponds exactly with the original lamination. For this
reason the newly developed minerals are not frequently of good
crystalline form. When weathered out of the rock they have mostly
rough, imperfect faces, but exceptions to this occur in garnet,
staurolite, tourmaline and a few others which often produce good
crystals even in these adverse circumstances.
It is only true in a general way that the rocks which are thermally
altered experience no change in their chemical composition. The
new minerals which are substituted for the original ones are such
as are stable at high temperatures. Many of the silicates which
form a large part of sedimentary rocks contain combined water;
examples are chlorite, kaolin and clay. The water, or part of it, is
expelled, forming silicates with little or no water, e.g. biotite, felspar,
andalusite. Carbonic acid may be retained or driven out; in a
siliceous limestone the silica tends to combine with the lime producing
calc-silicates by replacing the carbonic acid. In a 'pure limestone
the carbonate merely recrystallizes as marble. This loss of volatile
ingredients must occasion a diminution in the bulk of the sedi-
mentary mass involved; in cooling there will be contraction, and
fissures are produced which may be filled with igneous dikes or with
METAMORPHISM
veins deposited by ascending hot waters. Hence contact aureoles
are common sites for mineral deposits of economic value.
In some aureoles the sediments or schists have their bedding and
foliation planes wedged apart by the intrusive force of the granite,
and are permeated by igneous material invading them along these
fissures. In this way a melange is produced of sedimentary rock
with threads and veinlets of igneous nature, and to some extent a
blending of the two rocks takes place, though usually each preserves
its identity however intimately mixed. In microscopic sections
veins of granite not more than a tenth of an inch in width may be
traced, sharply distinct from the slate or schist they penetrate.
Cases, however, are described in which the rocks of the aureole have
been felspathized or filled with new felspar derived from the granite ;
this, however, is not common. Shales are often converted, when in
contact with diabase, into pale-coloured, flinty-looking rocks known
as adinoles. These are exceptionally rich in albite and contain as
much as 10 % of soda, an amount which is not met with in unaltered
shales. It seems probable that alkalis have been transferred from
the igneous rock to the sedimentary, perhaps through the medium
of the vapours exhaled. The breadth of the adinole belt is as a rule
only a few inches or a foot or two.
The vapours given off by intrusive igneous masses may contain
substances which combine with the ingredients of the surrounding
rocks and thus modify their composition. Boron, fluorine and
phosphorus are the principal elements which are transferred in this
way, and minerals such as tourmaline, topaz and mica are the
characteristic products in quartzose or argillaceous rocks; while
apatite, fluorspar, axinite, datolite and chondrodite are commonest
in limestones. This is a form of pneumatolytic action (see PNEU-
MATOLYSIS).
Extreme cases of the mutual interaction of the intrusive rock
with the masses invaded by it are provided by the fragments enclosed
in the molten magma (known as xenoliths). These are often rounded
and eroded, as if softened or partly fused and dissolved. Similar
changes are found in the rocks of the aureole for a few feet or yards
where in actual contact with the granite. This belt of indurated
hornfelses often weathers much more slowly than the igneous rock,
and stands out as a prominent, sharp-edged ridge running round the
granite margin.
Where sediments are dissolved in igneous rock we may expect to
find modifications in the chemical composition and in the minerals
produced on crystallization of the magma. Some granites, for
example, which contain many rounded, partly dissolved enclosures
of slate are themselves full of corundum, andalusite, cordierite and
other minerals, which appear to indicate the effect of absorbed slate
material. Much discussion has taken place as to the importance of
such processes in modifying the facies presented by igneous rocks.
Granites are alleged to have absorbed impure limestones and thus
to be changed to diorites (Pyrenees). At the contact of the two
rocks a narrow zone of diorite intervenes between the granite and the
limestone. In this case an acid rock has become basic (or inter-
mediate) in character; similarly, basic rocks such as gabbro are
said to become granitic where they have melted down large quantities
of felspathic quartzite. On the other side it is argued that as
precisely the same modifications of the igneous rocks are known to
occur where these explanations cannot possibly hold good e.g.
zones of diorite at the contact of granite with quartzite or mica-
schist they are really due to chemical segregation or differentiation
in the magma and not to any admixture with foreign material.
Such modifications in the igneous rock at its contacts are often
said to be endomorphic, while those which take place in the aureole
or country rocks are exomorphic. The endomorphic changes are not
always strictly of the nature of contact alteration. The commonest
are the presence of a fine-grained, sometimes glassy, chilled edge
due to rapid solidification from sudden cooling of the magma.
The fine-grained marginal facies is often pprphyritic, while the
interior of the mass is granular or eugranitic. There is often a
tendency to the development of special minerals in the edge of
intrusive masses. Some of these arise probably from absorption
of country rock, e.g. cordierite, andalusite, iron oxides (in granite).
At the same time there may be a great abundance of angular or
rounded enclosures, so that the marginal rock is brecciform. Where
granite penetrates gabbro the fragments of the latter are sometimes
melted down and digested in the granite till only the crystals of
their augite or diallage are left (Skye). Granite margins are not
always more basic than the average of the mass; they may be ex-
ceedingly rich in quartz and at the same time very coarse-grained
or pegmatitic. This seems to arise from the production of fissures
at the contact after the granite has to a large extent solidified.
In these fissures the pegmatites are laid down by escaping vapours.
Metasomatic changes are especially common also in this situation,
and have often formed very valuable mineral deposits along igneous
contacts. There also pneumatolytic processes often concentrate
their attack; schorl-rock, greisen, topaz-rock and china-stone (or
kaolinized granite) are characteristic products, and the active
vapours often transform the sediments around, forming schorl-
schist, calc-silicate rocks and sericite-schists.
Regional Metamorphism. The second kind of metamorphism
i known as " regional " because it is not confined to narrow areas
like contact metamorphism, but affects wide tracts of country.
219
Metamorphic rocks of this kind often cover a large part of a con-
tinent (e.g. the centre of Africa or Scandinavia and Finland). What-
ever the causes be which produced it, they must have been of
widespread operation and connected either with great geophysical
processes or with definite stages of the earth's development. Where
such rocks occur there is generally much evidence of earth move-
ment accompanied by crushing and folding. They are very charac-
teristic of the central axes of great mountain chains, especially
when these have been denuded and their deeper cores exposed.
Most geologists believe that this connexion is causal, holding that
u- "^"traction f tne outer layers of the earth's crust, due to
shrinkage of a nearly rigid shell upon a cooling and contracting
interior, has bent and folded the rocks, and at the same time has
crushed and largely recrystallized them. According to this view
regional metamorphism is the result of pressure and folding; hence
the name dynamo-metamorphism is frequently applied to it.
A great number of observations collected in all regions of the
globe may be adduced in support of this hypothesis, forming a mass
ol evidence so strong as to be almost overwhelming. The structural
features which prove that there has been great folding in these
r u- 1 5 re accom P ame d by microscopic and lithological characters
which demonstrate that extensive crushing has taken place. Through
progressive stages a slate with fossils may be traced into a phyllite,
which becomes a mica-schist, or, in places, a micaceous gneiss.
At first the fossils are distorted or torn apart, but they disappear
as crystallization advances. Limestones under great pressure
flow almost like plastic masses, losing their fossils and becoming
crystalline. Grits, quartzites and granites show the effects of
crushing in the pulverization of their minerals and the breaking
down of their original clastic or igneous textures, fine slabby mylo-
mtes (q.v.) and granulites being produced. Moreover, the degree
of metamorphism in the rock can often be shown to correspond
closely to the extent to which it has been folded and crushed.
Another argument in favour of dynamo-metamorphism, which
has been urged with much insistence by the extreme supporters
of these theories, is the retention of original chemical characters in
the metamorphic rocks. Some of them bear unmistakably 'the
stamp of sedimentary origin, e.g. the limestones and marbles,
quartzites, graphite-schists and aluminous mica-schists. Others
have the normal composition of granites, diorites, gabbros and other
types of plutonic igneous rocks. This leads to the inference that
these were originally normal sediments and intrusives or lavas,
and that their present crystalline state and foliated structure are
the result of agencies which operated on them subsequently to
their formation. Where the degree of metamorphism is not too
high, and the folding and dislocation not too complex, the sand-
stones, shales and limestones may be mapped out, and igneous
bosses, dikes and sills, with their contact aureoles, veins, pegmatites
and segregations, convincingly delineated on the maps. This
shows that a whole complex or terrane, consisting of diverse petro-
logical types of normal sediments and igneous rocks, may be con-
verted by metamorphism into a great series of gneisses and schists.
Although recrystallization has been complete, the original rock
masses still retain their identity in their new state.
The metamorphism in a rock series may be of nearly uniform
intensity over a large area; the sediments, for example, may have
all their clastic and organic structures effaced, and m the igneous
rocks the porphyritic, ophitic, graphic and other textures may
have completely disappeared. This, however, is not always the
case, especially when the metamorphism is not of very intense
degree. Parts of the rock may retain original structures, while
others are typical crystalline schists and gneisses. Kernels, lumps
or phacpids of massive rock are often found embedded in schists,
and it is clear upon inspection that the phacoids represent the
original state of the rock, while the schist is the effect of meta-
morphism. At other times a rock mass, such as an intrusive sill,
is schistose at its edges and surrounded by schistose sediments,
while near its centre it is almost entirely massive. The hard
igneous rock has proved more rigid than the soft and plastic sedi-
ments; in folding, the latter have yielded to the stresses, and
internal movement has produced foliation. The crystalline rock
of the intrusive sheet has been strong enough to withstand the pres-
sures and has folded like a rigid mass. At the junctions the effect
of differential movement is shown by the presence of a belt of rock
which often has a most pronounced schistosity. Some intrusive
dikes show foliation especially marked along their edges; or they
may be traversed by planes of movement, running obliquely or
directly across them, and characterized by the development of
very marked schistosity. Exceedingly sudden transitions between
normal igneous rocks and schists or gneisses have been described
in sheared dikes. A normal dolerite, with ophitic structure and
abundant augite, has been shown to pass in a few feet or inches
into an epidiorite, where hornblende has replaced the primary
augite, and lastly into a perfectly typical hornblende-schist, com-
pletely recrystallized with development of epidote, green horn-
blende, sphene and other minerals of metamorphic facies from the
original constituents of the dolerite. These phenomena are regarded
as establishing that the rock had consolidated as a normal dolerite
before the processes which caused the metamorphism began to act ;
that these processes resulted in internal movement in the rock
220
METAMORPHISM
mass along certain narrow belts; and that recrystallization was set
up along with the development of schistose structure. The operat-
ing cause cannot have been anything but pressure, especially as
the foliated rocks occur not infrequently in lines of dislocation
and shear; in other cases the foliated types are at the margins of
the dike, and the transition from massive igneous rock to meta-
morphic schist may take place within the space of one inch. The
best examples of phenomena of this order are those described by
J. J. H. Teall from Scourie in the north-west of Scotland.
Where rocks of any kind are traversed by powerful dislocations
or thrusts they often present a schistose fades in the immediate
vicinity of the planes of movement. In the Highlands of Scotland
great thrusts occur, along which the rocks are displaced for
distances which may be as much as ten miles; and immediately
adjoining these thrust-planes very perfect foliation is induced in
all kinds of rocks, sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic, which
have been involved in the movements. The minute structure of
these rocks is generally of the mylonitic, granulitic or finely crushed
type. In the same way the serpentine of the Lizard in Cornwall
passes into fine talcose and tremolitic schists along narrow zones
of displacement. Many other examples of this might be cited
from regions where folding and crushing have taken place on a
large scale. As a rule, almost without exception, the foliation
thus produced is parallel to the direction of movement in the rock
masses.
In the mineral transformations which accompany metamorphism
the operation of pressure is no less clearly indicated. There are,
for example, three minerals which consist of silicate of alumina,
viz. andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite. The last of these has the
highest specific gravity. In andalusite-bearing rocks which have
been sheared, with production of foliation, we sometimes find
pseudomorphs of kyanite after andalusite, retaining the character-
istic form of the original mineral. Compression, it seems reasonable
to suppose, would produce that one of the three crystalline silicates
of alumina which has its molecules most closely packed, and con-
sequently the highest specific gravity. This explains the conversion
of andalusite into kyanite. The principle that substances tend to
assume that mineral form which has the least molecular volume
is of wide application among metamorphic rocks. It has been
calculated, for example, that when olivine and anorthite felspar
are replaced by garnet (a change which takes place not infrequently
when basic igneous rocks are metamorphosed) the molecular volume
of the mineral aggregate diminishes from 145 to 121 or about 17%.
On the other hand, when garnet is fused it recrystallizes as a mixture
of olivine and anorthite. This has led to the generalization that
all minerals formed by the crystallization of a fused magma at
high temperatures have a large molecular volume, while those
which are produced in rocks at temperatures below their fusion
points and under great pressures have smaller molecular volumes.
Loewinson Lessing pointed out that some minerals have a greater
molecular volume than the oxides which enter into their composi-
tion; in other minerals the reverse holds good. The former group
are, on the whole, characteristic of igneous rocks and products of
contact alteration, both of which classes have been formed at high
temperatures (e.g. wollastonite, spinel, nepheline, leucite and
andalusite). The minerals of the second group are often of common
occurrence in metamorphic schists and gneisses (e.g. staurolite,
kyanite, hornblende, talc, epidote and garnet). Although there
are exceptions to this rule, there can be no doubt that it expresses
a generalization which is of great value in the study of mineral
paragenesis.
The mineral changes are usually not of so simple a kind as those
above enumerated. Mutual interaction takes place between
adjacent components of the rocks. Titaniferpus iron oxides, for
example, obtain silica and lime from such minerals as augite or
lime felspar and sphene results. Felspar often breaks up into
epidote, quartz and albite; the epidote obtains its iron from adjacent
crystals of augite or hornblende. Equations can be written to
show the transformation of one rock to another; thus, diabase
(labradorite, augite, ilmenite) may be converted into amphibolite
(acid plagioclase, hornblende, garnet, sphene and quartz). In this
case, the molecular volumes are for diabase 671 and for amphi-
bolite 635-6, indicating a diminution on metamorphism. Many
striking illustrations of this principle have been adduced. Caution,
however, is required in applying it to concrete cases; if it was
always strictly correct the metamorphic rocks should have higher
specific gravities than their representatives among sediments and
igneous rocks. Very frequently this is not the case, and there
must be some counteracting process at work. We find this antago-
nistic principle in the tendency for the minerals of metamorphic
rocks to contain water of combination, e.g. epidote, muscovite,
chlorite, hornblende, talc. This indicates that they were formed
at comparatively low temperatures.
We arrive then by many independent lines of reasoning (strati-
graphical, microscopical, chemical and mineralogical evidence being
abundantly available) at the conclusion that pressure acting on
sedimentary and igneous rocks at temperatures below their fusion
points has been able to change them into metamorphic rocks. This
is the theory of dynamo-metamorphism, which has won acceptance
from the majority of geologists who have made the petrology of
metamorphic rocks their special study. It has still, however,
many incisive critics, and in recent years dissent has on the whole
gained strength.
One of the principal objections is that by these processes it is
possible to destroy original structures and to break down the
minerals of which a rock consists, but not to induce crystallization
and build up rock structures of a new type. It is pointed out that
in many regions the rocks though intensely folded are not highly
metamorphic; in other places immense dislocations can be proved
to exist, yet the rocks are only slightly altered or are converted
into fine-grained mylonites and not into typical schists and gneisses.
Conversely, it is argued, there are many districts where meta-
morphism is very intense, yet evidence of folding and pressure is
only slight. It seems clear that another factor must be taken into
account, and in all probability that factor is the action of water in
rocks at a comparatively high temperature. All rock masses
contain interstitial water, and many also consist of minerals in
some of which water exists in combination. Hence all meta-
morphism must be regarded as taking place in presence of water.
It is almost equally certain that metamorphism must be accom-
panied by a rise of temperature in nearly every case in fact it is
difficult to imagine such a process going on without considerable
heat. Now heated water (or water vapour) is a most potent
mineralizer. Crystals of quartz, for example, have been produced
in glass tubes containing a little water, heated in a furnace to a
temperature of about 300 C.
The heat required for the more intense stages of metamorphism
may be derived from more than one source. Most regions of gneiss
and schists contain igneous rocks in the form of great intrusive
masses. These rocks themselves are frequently gneissose, and the
possibility must not be overlooked that they were injected into the
older rocks at a time when folding was going on. The meta-
morphism would then be partly of the contact type and partly the
effect of pressure and movement, " pressure-contact-metamorphism."
The vapours already present would be augmented by those given
out from the igneous rock, and intensely crystalline, foliated masses,
often containing minerals found in contact zones (andalusite,
cordierite, sillimanite, staurolite, &c.), would be produced. Cases
are now known where it is in every way probable that the meta-
morphism is the result of a combination of causes of this order.
Some of the Alpine schists which surround the central granite
gneisses have been referred to this group.
Heat must also have been produced by the crushing of the rock
components. In many metamorphic rocks we find hard minerals
possessing little cleavage (such as quartz) reduced to an exceedingly
fine state of division, and it is clear that the stresses which have
acted on regions of metamorphic rocks are often so powerful that
all the minerals may have been completely shattered. The inter-
stitial movement of the particles must also have generated heat.
There are no experimental data to enable us to say what rise of
temperature may have been produced in this way, but we cannot
doubt that it was considerable. If the crushing was slow the heat
generated may have been conducted away to the surface almost as
fast as it was produced. If the belt of crushing was narrow, heat
would rapidly pass away into the colder rocks beyond. This may
explain why in some rocks there has been much grinding down but
little crystallization. The heat also may be absorbed in promoting
chemical combinations of the endothermal type, but it is not likely
that much was used up in this way. With rising temperature the
rocks would become more plastic and fold more readily. Then if
the crushing and folding ceased, a long period would follow in which
the temperature gradually fell. The minerals would crystallize in
larger grains after the well-known law that the larger particles tend
to grow at the expense of the smaller ones, and finely granulitic
aggregates would be replaced by mosaics of coarser structure. If
there has been a considerable rise of temperature we might expect
analogies in structure and constitution between the folded rocks
and those which come from a contact aureole; this has in fact been
noted by many geologists.
Another factor which must have been of importance is the depth
below the surface at which the rocks lay at the time when they were
folded. In the deeper zones the pressures must have been greater,
and the escape of the heat generated must have been less rapid.
The uppermost members of a complex which was undergoing folding
are under the lowest pressures, are at the lowest temperatures and
probably also contain most moisture. Hence minerals such as
epidote, chlorite, albite, sericite and carbonates, which are often
produced by weathering alone, might be expected to prevail. In
the deepest zones the temperature and pressure are high from the
first and are increased by folding: such minerals as biotite, augite,
garnet, felspar, sillimanite, kyanite and staurolite might be produced
under these conditions. The earth's crust might in this way be
divided into bathymetric zones, each of which was characterized
by distinctive types of mineral paragenesis. Some geologists ascribe
the greatest importance to this conception ; they establish two or
three types of metamorphism, each of which belongs, in their opinion,
to a definite horizon. This is to some extent a resuscitation of the
old idea, now discarded, that the Archean rocks are sediments of
a peculiar kind formed only in the heated waters of the primal globe;
the first deposits were laid down under great heat and pressure and
METAMORPHOSIS
221
are typical gneisses which may resemble igneous rocks; the schists
of later origin exhibit a progressive transition to normal sediments.
Without admitting that it is possible to classify metamorphic rocks
according to the depth at which they were situated when meta-
morphosed, we may admit that there is much reason to believe that
the more intense stages of alteration characterize as a rule the rock
masses which were oldest or most deeply situated during the epoch
of folding.
While rocks near the surface which are under comparatively slight
pressures yield to stress by fracturing, it is conceivable that at
greater depths the minerals would become plastic and suffer deforma-
tion without rupture. For this zone of " flowage," as he terms it,
van Hise estimates a depth of not more than 12 kilometres, depend-
ing on many factors such as the strength of the rocks and nature of
the minerals concerned, the temperature, amount of moisture and
rapidity of the deformation. Between it and the zone of fracture,
which lies above, a gradual transition must take place. Docker,
on the other hand, believes that the depth at which plastic flow
begins must be at least 35 kilometres; it is difficult to imagine that
rocks which have been so profoundly buried can now be exposed at
any part of the earth's surface.
In the attempt to explain the existence of large masses of meta-
morphic rocks which are perfectly foliated, but at the same time
coarsely crystalline, and show no grinding down of their components,
as might be expected on the hypothesis of pure dynamo-meta-
morphism, F. Becke brought into prominence another principle
which may prove to be widely applicable. Although known as
Riecke's law, it was advanced many years ago by Sorby. It enunci-
ates that when minerals are subjected to unilateral pressure (acting
in a definite direction and not like hydrostatic pressure, equally in
all directions) they tend to be dissolved on those sides which face
the pressure, while the sides which are not compressed tend to grow
by additional deposit. Minerals having platy or rod-like forms will
thus be produced, all having a parallel orientation, and the rock
will be schistose, with foliation corresponding in direction to the
extension of the mineral plates, and perpendicular to the stresses
which were in action. The solvents which dissolve the mineral on
one side and deposit it on the other side are the interstitial moisture
and vapours present in the rock. By this means schists and gneisses
will be produced, which are perfectly foliated yet have their minerals
homogeneous and uncrushed. Experimental data are at present
wanting to show how far this principle is operative and what are its
tion.
More interesting still are E. Weinschenk's theories of pressure-
crystallization and piezo-crystallization (pressure-contact action).
He adduces evidence to show that many gneisses are igneous rocks
which were foliated from the first, and a large body of observations
in many European countries confirms his statement. In his opinion
plutonic rocks crystallizing under certain conditions of pressure
necessarily assume a banded structure, and contain minerals which
are not identical with those of igneous rocks but with the components
of schists and gneisses. In the surrounding rocks there is contact
alteration but not of the ordinary type as the recrystallized products
also have a banding or foliation owing to the pressure acting on them
during metamorphism. Bonney urged the hypothesis that many
gneisses are merely plutonic igneous rocks which exhibit a flow
banding and an imperfect idiomorphism of their minerals owing to
their having been injected in a half-solid state; the component
crystals by mutual attrition assume rounded or lenticular forms.
Undoubtedly there is much truth in these hypotheses, yet in both
cases they seem to necessitate the presence of extraordinary earth-
pressures such as accompany mountain building. We know that
heat greatly increases the plasticity of rocks. Assuming that
intrusions take place during an epoch of earth movement, we may
be certain that as solidification goes on the pressures will force
the rock forward, and the structures will be very different from
those assumed by a rock which has crystallized in a condition of
rest.
Lastly, there are many geologists who hold that certain kinds of
gneiss are due to the injection of plutonic igneous rocks as masses
of all sizes into sedimentary schists forming a melange. The igneous
rock veins the sediment in every direction; the veins are often
exceedingly thin and nearly parallel or branch again and again.
In this way a banding or foliation is set up, and the mixed rock has
the appearance of a gneiss. In the sediment, intensely heated, new
minerals are set up. The igneous rock digests or absorbs the
materials which it penetrates; and it is often impossible to say what
is igneous and what is sedimentary. Acid intrusions may in this
way break up and partly assimilate older basic rocks. Very good
examples of this process are known, and they may be much more
common than is at present suspected. Conditions which favour
assimilation at great depths are the enormous pressures and the high
temperature of the earth's crust; the igneous rocks may also be
much above their consolidation points. It is quite reasonable to
believe that at deep levels absorption of sediments by igneous masses
goes on extensively, while in higher zones there is little or none of
this action. (J. S. F.)
METAMORPHOSIS, a term used in zoology in different
senses by different authors, and sometimes in different senses
by the same author. E. Korschelt and K. Heider, in their
work on the development of the Invertebrata, usually apply it
to the whole of the larval development. For instance, in their
account of the Bryozoa, they say (p. 18, part 2, of the English
translation) : " The metamorphosis of a Bryozoan larva comprises
a more or less protracted free-swimming stage during which
no perceptible advance is made in the development of the
larva, and the subsequent somewhat complicated changes
which bring about its transformation into the first primary
zooid of the young Bryozoan colony." Throughout their
account of the Crustacea they use the word in the same sense,
i.e. as applied to the whole of the changes which the larva
undergoes in passing into the adult. On the other hand,
in their account of Mollusca they seem to restrict the term to
the final change by which the larva passes into the adult form
(op. cil., part 4, p. 14). F. Balfour in his great work on Compara-
tive Embryology seems to limit the word to a sudden change
in the larval history. For instance, he says: " The chief point
of interest in the above development is the fact of the primitive
nauplius foi'm becoming gradually converted without any
special metamorphosis into the adult condition " (Comparative
Embryology, 1885, i. 463). "By the free Cypris stage into
which the larva next passes a very complete metamorphosis
has been effected " (op. cit. i. 490). " The change under-
gone by the Tadpole in its passage into the Frog is so con-
siderable as to deserve the name of a metamorphosis "
(op. cit. ii. 137). Finally and most decisively he says in
his general account of larvae: " In the larval type [of develop-
ment] they are born at an earlier stage of development, in a
condition differing to a greater or less extent from the adult,
and reach the adult state either by a series of small steps or
by a more or less considerable metamorphosis " (op. cit. ii. 360).
Here the term will be used in the sense of the last quota-
tions from Balfour and will be regarded as applicable only
to those cases of sudden and marked change which fre-
quently occur at the end of the larval period and sometimes
at more or less frequent intervals during its course (Crustacea).
Some authors (see H. G. Bronn, Thierreich, " Myriapoda," Bd. 5,
Abth. 2, p. 113) have applied the term "metamorphosis" only
to those cases of larval development in which the young leaves the
egg with provisional organs which are lost in the later development.
Such authors apply the term " anamorphosis " to cases in which
the just-hatched young is without provisional organs but differs
from the adult in size, and in the number of segments and joints, &c.
Such writers apply the term " epimorphosis " when there is merely
an acquisition of sexual maturity and increase in size after birth or
hatching.
The essential feature of metamorphosis is the sudden bursting
into function of new organs, whether these organs suddenly
arise or have been gradually formed, without becoming func-
tional in preceding larval stages. Another feature of it is the
disappearance of organs which have been of use to the larva
but which are not required at all or are not required in the
same form in the new environment. The term is only used
in connexion with larval development and is not applied to
the sudden changes, due to a change of environment (e.g. the
passage of the mammalian embryo from the oviduct into the
uterus), which sometimes occur in embryos. Neither is it
used in connexion with the sudden changes of conditions which
occur at the birth or hatching of an embryo, although, especially
in the case of birth, this event is frequently accompanied by
profound morphological alteration.
The most familiar examples of metamorphosis are the abrupt
changes which occur at the end of the larval history of the
frog and of many insects. In both these cases there is a sudden
and great change of environment; there is a sudden demand
for new organs which would have been quite useless in the old
environment, and organs which were of use in the old environ-
ment and are of no use in the new have to be eliminated. The
two examples we have chosen have the advantage of showing
us the two methods by which the crisis in the life-history is met.
222
METAMORPHOSIS
In the frog (fig. i) the structural changes which obtain full
fruition at the metamorphosis take place' gradually during the
previous tadpole life. They relate mainly to the alterations
of the respiratory organs and vascular system which are required
for the purely terrestrial life of the frog, and to the appearance of
the paired limbs. The changes in the respiratory and vascular
After Leuckart and Nitsche's Wandtafeln, by permission of T G. Fisher & Co.
FIG. I. Drawings illustrating the metamorphosis of the frog
(Rana temporaria).
A, Side view of an advanced tadpole with well-developed posterior
limbs; the anterior limbs are present but hidden beneath the
operculum.
B, Ventral view of the same with operculum removed showing
the anterior limbs in situ ; the ventral body wall has also been
removed and the heart (ht) and intestine exposed, (br) Gills;
(KL) spiracle.
C, A frog after the metamorphosis but before the absorption of
the tail.
organs are led up to in the tadpole, which during the greater
part of its aquatic life is a truly amphibious animal, breathing
by lungs as well as by gills; but a sudden change occurs in these
organs at the metamorphosis. The limbs which were slowly
formed during tadpole life the posterior pair visibly, the
anterior under cover of the operculum (fig. i, B) are of no
use to the tadpole and must constitute a pure burden to it. The
principal events of the metamorphosis are the sudden appear-
ance of the anterior limbs, and the complete closure of the gill
aperture (fig. i, C). The appearance of the anterior limbs and
the acquisition of functional importance by both pairs enable
the frog to leave the water and pass on to the land to lead its
terrestrial life. The other larval organs, such as the gills and
the tail, gradually shrink in size and ultimately vanish. In the
case of the gills this shrinkage had begun before the meta-
morphosis, but the tail shows no sign of diminution until the
frog is ready to pass on. to the land.
The distinguishing feature of this type of metamorphosis
is that the animal is burdened for a certain period, both before
and after, with organs which are useless to it. In the next type,
which is exemplified by the metabolous Insecta, this occurs to a
much smaller extent, although the changes of habitat and the cor-
responding changes of structure are more remarkable. In insecta
the change is usually from a terrestrial or aquatic habitat to
an aerial one. The larva of a butterfly is a worm-like organism
which creeps on and voraciously devours the foliage of certain
plants (fig. 2, C). During its life it undergoes much growth,
but no important change in structure. When it leaves the egg
it is adapted to live and feed on a particular species of plant,
on or near which the eggs are deposited by the parent butterfly.
It has powerful biting jaws by which it procures its vegetable
food. The adult, on
the other hand, is a
winged creature which
also lives on plants but
in quite a different way
to the larva (fig. 2, A).
It flies from plant to
plant and obtains its
food by sucking the
juices of flowers and
other parts. The power-
ful mandibles of the
larva have disappeared
and in their place we
find a suctorial proboscis
formed by the first
maxillae [fig. 2, A (4)].
Between the larva and
the adult insect there
is interposed a resting
stage, the so-called pupa
(fig. 2, B), during which
no food is taken, but very
important changes of
structure occur. These
After Leuckart and Nitsche's WantUaJeln, by per-
mission of T. G. Fisher & Co.
FIG. 2. Three stages in the life-
changes consist of two history of the cabbage butterfly, Pieris
processes: (i) histolysis, brassicae, L.
hv whirh mn<sr of the A ' Ima g (female), side view.
by which most , B Pupa fixed fa a cord across the
middle of the body and by the tail.
larval organs are de-
stroyed by the action of C, Caterpillar.
phagocytes; and (2) his- (i) Forewing;
togenesis, by which the ( 2 \
' J (3)
,. ,
corresponding organs of
(5) thoracic legs;
, V>\ h ' nd . wi "S ;
labial palp; (7) the head;
first maxilla; (8) the thorax;
the imago are developed (9) the abdomen, some of the segments
from the imaginal disks. of which in the caterpillar carry a pair
The imaginal disks ap- of prolegs (10).
pear to arise in the embryo in which they develop, some of
them from the epiblast and some from the hypoblast. They
persist practically unchanged through larval life and become
active as centres of growth in the pupa. The pupal stage
in such a metamorphosis may be compared to a second
embryonic stage in which the organs of the adult assume
their final shape. In this kind of metamorphosis the larval
organs are entirely got rid of in the pupal stage, during which
the insect is as a rule incapable of locomotion and takes no food;
and the new formation of organs especially those of locomotion
and alimentation which is necessitated by the totally different
habits of the larva and mature insect, is also accomplished
at the same period, largely, no doubt, at the expense of the
material afforded by the disrupted larval organs. The larva
itself does not form any of these organs and carry them about
during its active life, though it does possess the very minute
centres of growth known as the imaginal disks which burst
into activity after the larval life is over. It must not be sup-
posed that in all insects in which the sexual animal has a different
habitat from the young form, there is a metamorphosis of
the kind just described. In the may-flies and dragon-flies,
in which the larva is aquatic, the change is prepared for some
time before the actual metamorphosis, the organs which are
necessary for the aerial existence being gradually acquired
during larval life. In such cases, the metamorphosis belongs
to our first type and consists of the act by which the organs
previously and gradually acquired suddenly become functional.
We have now considered in detail two typical cases of meta-
morphosis. In the first the change is gradually led up to and
the larva is burdened, in its later stages at least, with organs
which are of no use to it and only become functional at the
metamorphosis. In the other, the change is not led up to. It
is sudden, and a kind of second embryonic period is established
METAMORPHOSIS
223
to enable the important and far-reaching transformation to be
accomplished. It is clear that the two kinds of metamorphosis
A and Baiter Fritz Miiller in Archiv.fiir Nalurgeschich'e, vol. mix., 1863; C, D, and
E after C. Claus, Untersuch. zur Erforschiing Crustacecn-Syslems.
FIG. 3. Drawings showing various stages in the larval history
of Penaeus.
A, Nauplius larva, dorsal v ; ew, showing the three pairs of
appendages and the simple median eye.
B, Protpzoaea larva, dorsal view, the rudiments of the paired eyes
are visible through the cuticle, by which the rudiments of the
maxillae are still covered.
C, Older Protozoaea, dorsal view; the six posterior thoracic
segments are distinct, but the five abdominal segments are still
hidden beneath the skin.
D, Zoaea larva, ventral view, with the rudiments of the thoracic
limbs and the appendages of the sixth abdominal segment.
E, Mysis stage, side view ; the thoracic and abdominal appendages
have been developed.
(9) thorax;
(10) abdomen;
(n) liver;
(12) frontal sense organ, just be-
hind which are the compound
eyes;
(ai) to (a6) the six abdominal
(8) third appendages.
(1) first antenna;
(2) second
(3) mandible;
(4) first maxilla;
(5) second ,,
(6) first maxilliped;
'7) second
only differ in degree and that no line can be drawn between
them.
In the Crustacea, as has already been pointed out, many
authors apply the term metamorphosis to the whole larval
development, which consists of a series of changes leading to
the adult form. But this is in our opinion an incorrect use of
the word. The typical larval development of a Crustacean
consists of a series of small metamorphoses. At each moult
new organs which have been developed since the preceding
moult become manifest and some of them functional. For
instance, the prawn Penaeus leaves the egg as a nauplius larva
(fig. 3, A). It issues from the first moult as a metanauplius
which has a forked tail, a beginning of the cephalo-thoracic
shield, and a large helmet-shaped upper lip. It also possesses
stump-like rudiments of the maxillae and two anterior pairs of
maxillipeds. After the next moult it is known as a protozoaea
(fig. 3, B), in which a cephalo-thoracic shield is well developed,
the posterior part of the body is prolonged into a tail, in the
anterior part of which the thoracic segments are obscurely
indicated, and the four pairs of stump-like rudiments have
become functional appendages [fig. 3, B (4), (5), (6), (7)]. This
passes into a later protozoaea stage (C) in which the rudiments
of the compound eyes and of the abdominal segments are
visible beneath the cuticle and in which certain functional
changes (jointing, &c.) have appeared -in the limbs. This is
succeeded by the zoaea stage (fig. 3, D), characterized by the
stalked and functional condition of the eyes, the increased
size of the abdominal segments, and the appearance of appen-
dages on the sixth of them, the increase of size in the third pair
of maxillipeds (8) which had appeared as small rudiments in
the preceding stage, and the appearance of the five pairs of
posterior thoracic limbs as small biramous appendages. The
zoaea stage is followed by the mysis stage (fig. 3, E) in which
the thoracic feet are biramous, as in Mysis. From this the adult
form proceeds. The transformation is more gradual than
would be gathered from this short description, because moults
After Spence Bate in Annals and
Magazine of Nat. History, vol. 8,
2nd series, 1851.
FIG. 4. Nauplius of Balanus
balanoides.
A, As just hatched;
B, After the first moult.
(1) first pair of nauplius ap-
pendages ;
(2) second ,,
(3) third
(4) upper lip;
(5) frontal sense organ.
Aftei C. Claus, Untersuch. zur Erforschiing
Crustaceen-Systems.
FIG. 5. Metanauplius larva of Bal-
anus (Naples), immediately pre-
ceding the Cypris larva ; ventral
view. The six pairs of biramous
appendages of the Cypris stage
are visible beneath the cuticle.
The median simple eye and the
compound eye are both visible.
(i) first antenna;
(2)
2) second
(3) mandibles;
(4) rudiment of the maxilla ;
(5) first pair of biramous limbs;
(6) sixth
(7) upper lip;
(8) frontal sense organs.
occur during the later stages from each of which the larva
comes with some slight transformation.
In the life-history of a typical Cirripede there may be said
to be two distinct metamorphoses, with gradual developmental
stages taking place between them. The animal is hatched
as a nauplius. This undergoes a series of moults during which
increase in size and slight changes in form occur (fig. 4, A, B).
At the last of them several organs characteristic of the second
224
or Cypris stage are discernible [fig. S (s), (6)1 beneath the cuticle.
When this is moulted the free-swimming cypris larva is liberated
with its six pairs of biramous thoracic legs, its bivalve shell,
and its paired compound eyes (fig. 6) . This is the first metamor-
phosis. After a certain period of free life the Cypris larva
attaches itself by its anterior antennae to some foreign object
and enters upon the pupal stage (fig. 7)- During this the larva
takes no food and ceases to move, and undergoes important
changes of structure and form beneath the larval cuticle,
which invests it like a pupal case. These changes lead to the
METAPHOR MET APH YSI CS
After C. Claus, Schriften ier GcsMxh.
zur Beford. dcr gesammten Natunvissen.
zu Marburg.
FIG. 6. Cypris larva
fascicularis.
(1) first antenna;
(2) compound eye ;
(3) simple eye ;
(4) biramous appendages.
After C. Claus, Unlerstich. zur Erfor-
schung Crustaccen-Syslems.
FIG. 7. Pupa of Lepas pectinata
in optical section.
of Lepas (i) first antenna ; (6) tergum:
(2) compound
eye;
(3) liver;
(4) simple eye;
(5) scutum;
(7) biramous
feet;
(8) carina;
cement
gland.
(9
attainment of the adult form and structure. When they are
completed the cuticle, including the shell-valves, is cast off
and the young cirriped emerges. This is the second and final
metamorphosis, which resembles in its main features the meta-
morphosis of the metabolous Insecta.
Metamorphosis occurs in most groups of the animal kingdom.
It is generally found in attached organisms, for these nearly always
have free-swimming larvae and the metamorphosis occurs when
the change of habit is effected. For the details of the process the
reader is referred to systematic works on zoology. Here only the
most striking instances of it can be mentioned. It occurs in a
remarkable form in some sponges, in which at the metamorphosis
the larval epidermis, which acts as a locomotive organ, is said to
become transformed into the collared flagellated cells of the canal
system, the adult epidermis being a new formation. It occurs in
the Polyzoa, and is, in some of these, characterized by an almost
complete disruption of the larval organs and a subsequent new
formation of the organs of the adult. The metamorphosis in such
cases belongs to our second type, the new organs being new forma-
tions at the metamorphosis and not developed from rudiments
which make their appearance in the earlier larval history. In
Phoronis the metamorphosis of the larva (Actinotrocha), which
occurs on fixation, is gradually led up to, but the mode of destruc-
tion of some of the larval organs is peculiar; the brain and sense
organs of the larva pass into the stomach and are digested. In the
Tunicata, in which fixation of the free larva is effected by the head,
as in Cirripedia and some, if not all, Polyzoa, the metamorphosis
occurs entirely after fixation as a rapid series of developmental
changes which occur ad hoc and are not
prepared for by preceding changes. In Am-
phioxus there is no metamorphosis though
the larval changes are most remarkable and
extensive, but the larval life is a long one
and the development very gradual, the new
organs coming into function as soon as they
are formed.
In most Mollusca there is also a prolonged
and important larval life, marked by very
interesting stages of structure (trochosphere,
veliger, &c.), but it is not usual to speak of a
metamorphosis for the changes are gradual,
each organ developing with great rapidity
and coming into function at once. In certain
forms, however, a metamorphosis occurs, e.g.
in the glochidium larva of Anodonta, which
embeds itself in the skin of a fish and there
(Afier J. Muller.) metamorphoses into the adult.
p._ 8 _ A ,,-_f._,i In the Ecmnodermata there is a particular
vfew of a Vnnaria f ta S e in . the larval history, when the ciliary
nf locomotive apparatus breaks up and is ab-
M star fish sorbed and the animal takes to its
E young star-fish. a(Ju , t ufe Thig metamorphosis ; s
prepared for in the precedent larval development by changes
which ultimately lead to the complete establishment of the adult
radial symmetry. The metamorphosis belongs therefore to our first
type, but it is remarkable for the heavy burden of adult structures
which the larva, in its later stages at least, carries about (fig. 8).
The adult body is, in the main, fashioned out of the larval body,
and it takes over most of the organs of the latter; but as a rule
the adult mouth, oesophagus and anus are new formations, and
the central nervous system of the larva when present shares the
fate of the larval locomotory apparatus. In Asteroids and Crinoids
the metamorphosis is accompanied by fixation to foreign objects,
the fixation being effected as in Cirripedes by the preoral lobe.
In the Vertebrata a metamorphosis occurs in the lamprey and
the Amphibia. The metamorphosis of the lamprey is peculiar.
It lives for three or four years as a sexless larva, known as the ammo-
coete. It then quite rapidly (in three or four days) undergoes a
series of changes and becomes converted into the adult. The
metamorphosis affects the alimentary canal, the eyes, the respiratory
apparatus and other organs, and especially the reproductive organs,
which become mature. The adult lives for a few months only,
spawning soon after the metamorphosis. This metamorphosis
belongs to our second type, but there does not appear to be any
resting stage during the few days in which it is effected. In the
Amphibia the metamorphosis is fairly exemplified by that of the
frog. In many fishes there is a considerable larval development,
but this is perfectly gradual and there does not appear to be any-
thing of the nature of a metamorphosis.
In most cases of metamorphosis those organs of the larva, which
are found also' in the adult, persist through the transformation,
undergoing merely the ordinary modifications of development.
But it sometimes happens that such organs are completely destroyed
and rebuilt during the metamorphosis. This is conspicuously the
case in the metabolous Insecta, in some of which all the internal
organs undergo disruption and are reformed. It happens also in
those nemertine worms which develop by a larva; in these the larval
epidermis is cast off, a new one having been formed. It is possible
that the same phenomenon occurs in sponges. In most Echino-
derms a similar phenomenon is observed with regard to the oeso-
phagus and the mouth and anus. The probable explanation of this
remarkable phenomenon would appear to be that in certain cases
the larval organs become so highly specialized in connexion with the
larval life that they are unable to undergo further change; new
formation is therefore necessary. The phenomenon is one of con-
siderable interest, for it is found in the case of the blastopore, in
cases in which there is no metamorphosis, sometimes even in embry-
onic development. There can be little doubt that the mouth and
anus are both genetically connected with the earlier blastopore and
that the blastopore is homologous in most animals; and yet how
seldom does the blastopore become transformed into the adult
openings and how various is its fate. The hypothesis suggested
above applies completely to this behaviour of the blastopore; that
is to say, it is suggested that the primitive mouth or blastopore
becomes, or has become in some vanished larval history, so highly
specialized in connexion with larval needs that it is unable to give
rise to both mouth and anus, and in some cases to either. (A. SE.*)
METAPHOR (Gr. juera^opA, transfer of sense, from
to carry over), a figure of speech, which consists in the trans-
ference to one object of an attribute or name which strictly
and literally is not applicable to it, but only figuratively and
by analogy. It is thus in essence an emphatic comparison,
which if expressed formally is a "simile" (Lat. similis, like);
thus it is a metaphorical expression to speak of a ship ploughing
her way through the waves, but a simile when it takes the
form of " the ship, like a plough, moves," &c. The " simple "
metaphor, such as the instance given, becomes the " continued "
metaphor when the analogy or similitude is worked out in a
series of phrases and expressions based on the primary metaphor;
it is in such " continued metaphors " that the solecism of
" mixed " metaphors is likely to occur.
METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. fiera, after, <j>vaiKa,
things of nature, <t>vvis, i.e. the natural universe), the accepted
name of one of the four great departments of philosophy (q.v.).
The term was first applied to one of the treatises of Aristotle
on the basis of the arrangement of the Aristotelian canon made
by Andronicus of Rhodes, in which it was placed "after the
physical treatises " with the description TO. jutra rd QvaiKL The
term was used not in the modern sense of above or transcending
nature (a sense which juera cannot bear), but simply to convey
the idea that the treatise so-called comes " after " the physical
treatises. 1 It is therefore nothing more than a literary accident
that the term has been applied to that department or discipline
of philosophy which deals with first principles. Aristotle
himself described the subject matter of the treatise as " First
1 On the true order of the Aristotelian treatises see ARISTOTLE.
SCIENCE OF BEING]
METAPHYSICS
225
Philosophy " or " Theology," which deals with being as being
(Metaph. F. i., iariv imoTrifj.ri TIS r} Otupti ri> ov j\ bv Kai TO.
Tovrip VTrapxovTO. Ka.6' avro). From this phrase is derived the
later term " Ontology " (?..) The misapprehension of the
significance of juera led to various mistaken uses of the term
" metaphysics," e.g. for that which is concerned with the
supernatural, not only by the schoolmen but even as late as
17th-century English writers, and within narrower limits the
term has been dangerously ambiguous even in the hands of
modern philosophers (see below). In the widest sense it may
include both the " first philosophy " of Aristotle, and the theory
of knowledge (in what sense can there be true knowledge?),
i.e. both ontology and epistemology (q.v.), and this is perhaps
the most convenient use of the term; Kant, on the other hand,
would represent metaphysics as being " nothing more than the
inventory of all that is given us by pure reason, systematically
arranged" (i.e. epistemology). The earliest "metaphysicians"
concerned themselves with the nature of being (ontology),
seeking for the unity which they postulated behind the multi-
plicity of phenomena (see IONIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY and
articles on the separate thinkers); later thinkers tended to
inquire rather into the nature of knowledge as the necessary
pre-requisite of ontological investigation. The extent to which
these two attitudes have been combined or separated is discussed
in the ensuing article which deals with the various schools
of modern metaphysics in relation to the principles of the
Aristotelian " first philosophy." 1 (X)
i. THE SCIENCE OF BEING
Side by side with psychology, the science of mind, and with
logic, the science of reasoning, metaphysics is tending gradually
to reassert its ancient Aristotelian position as the science of
being in general. Not long ago, in England at all events,
metaphysics was merged in psychology. But with the decline
of dogmatic belief and the spread of religious doubt as the
special sciences also grow more general, and the natural sciences
become more speculative about matter and force, evolution and
teleology men begin to wonder again about the nature and
origin of things, just as it was the decay of polytheism in Greek
religion and his own discoveries in natural science which impelled
Aristotle to metaphysical questions. There is, however, a
certain difference in the way of approaching things. Aristotle
emphasized being as being, without always sufficiently asking
whether the things whose existence he asserted are really
knowable. We, on the contrary, mainly through the influence
of Descartes, rather ask what are the things we know, and there-
fore, some more and some less, come to connect ontology with
epistemology, and in consequence come to treat metaphysics in
relation to psychology and logic, from which epistemology is an
offshoot.
To this pressing question then What is the world as we know
it? three kinds of definite answers are returned: those of
materialism, idealism and realism, according to the emphasis
laid by metaphysicians on body, on mind, or on both. Meta-
physical materialism is the view that everything known is body
or matter; but while according to ancient materialists soul is
only another body, according to modern materialists mind with-
out soul is only an attribute or function of body. Metaphysical
idealism is the view that everything known is mind, or some
mental state or other, which some idealists suppose to require
a substantial soul, others not; while all agree that body has no
different being apart from mind. Metaphysical realism is the
intermediate view that everything known is either body or soul,
neither of which alone exhausts the universe of being. Aristotle,
the founder of metaphysics as a distinct science, was also the
founder of metaphysical realism, and still remains its main
authority. His view was that all things are substances, in the
sense of distinct individuals, each of which has a being of its
'The article is supplemented by e.g. IDEALISM; PRAGMATISM;
RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, while separate discussions of ancient
and medieval philosophers will be found in biographical articles
and articles on the chief philosophical schools, e.g. SCHOLASTICISM;
NEOPLATONISM.
xvni. 8
own different from any other, whereas an attribute has only the
being of its substance (Met. Z 1-3; Post. An. i. 4); that bodies
in nature are obviously natural substances, and as obviously
not the only kind of substance; and that there is supernatural
substance, e.g. God, who is an eternal, perfect, living being,
thinking, but without matter, and therefore not a body.
At the present day realism is despised on the ground that its
differentiation of body and soul, natural and supernatural,
ignores the unity of being. Indeed, in order to oppose this unity
of being to the realistic duality, both materialists and idealists
describe themselves as monists, and call realists dualists by way
of disparagement. But we cannot classify metaphysics by the
antithesis of monism and dualism without making confusion
worse confounded. Not to mention that it has led to another
variety, calling itself pluralism, it confuses materialism and
idealism. Extremes meet; and those who believe only in body
and those who believe only in mind, have an equal right to the
equivocal term " monist." Moreover, there is no real opposition
between monism and dualism, for there can very well be one
kind of being, without being all body or all soul; and as a matter
of fact, Aristotelian realism is both a monism of substance and a
dualism of body and soul.
It is in any case unfair to decide questions by disparaging
terms, and to argue as if the whole choice were between material-
istic or idealistic monism, leaving realism out of court. In this
case it would also hide the truth of things, which requires two
different kinds of substance, body and soul. The strength of
materialism consists in recognizing nature without explaining
it away, its weakness in its utter inability to explain conscious-
ness either in its nature or in its origin. On the other hand, it
is the virtue of idealism to emphasize the fact of consciousness,
but its vice to exaggerate it, with the consequence of resorting
to every kind of paradox to deny the obvious and get rid of
bodies. There are in reality two species of substances, or
entirely distinct things, those which are impenetrably resisting,
and those which are conscious substances; and it is impossible
to reduce bodies and souls to one another, because resistance
is incompatible with the attributes of spirit, and conscious-
ness inexplicable by the attributes of body. So far true
metaphysics is a dualism of body and soul. But this very
dualism is also monism: both bodies and souls are substances,
as Aristotle said; and we can go farther than Aristotle. Men
are apt to dwell too much on the co-existence and too little on
the inclusiveness of substances. The fact is that many sub-
stances are often in one; e.g. many bodies in the one body, and
both body and soul in the one substance, of man. So far true
metaphysics is a monism of substance, in the sense that all
things are substances and that all substances, however different,
are members of one substance, the whole universe of body and
spirit. In this case metaphysics generally will have to recognize
three monisms, a materialistic monism of body, an idealistic
monism of soul, and a realistic monism of substance, which is
also a dualism of substances. But a term so equivocal, leading
to an antithesis so misleading as that between monism and
dualism, can never represent the real difference between meta-
physical schools. We shall return, then, to the clearer and more
authoritative division, and proceed to discuss materialism,
idealism and realism in their order.
2. MATERIALISM
i. Materialism Proper. Materialism in its modern sense is
the view that all we know is body, of which mind is an attribute
or function. Several causes, beginning towards the end of
the 1 8th century, gradually led up to the materialism of Mole-
schott, Vogt and Biichner, which flourished in the middle of the
i gth century. The first cause was the rapid progress of natural
science, e.g. the chemistry of Lavoisier, the zoology of Lamarck,
the astronomy of Laplace and the geology of Lyell. These
advances in natural science, which pointed to a unity and gradual
evolution in nature, were accompanied by a growth in commerce,
manufactures and industrialism; the same kind of spirit showed
itself in the revolutionary upheaval of 1848, and in the mate-
rialistic publications which immediately followed, while these
226
METAPHYSICS
[MATERIALISM
publications have reacted bn the industrial socialism of our own
time. Meanwhile, philosophic forces to counteract materialism
were weak. Realism was at a low ebb. Idealism was receding
for the moment. Hegelianism had made itself unpopular, and
its confusion of God, nature and man had led to differences
within the school itself (see HEGEL).
These causes, scientific, industrial and philosophical, led to
the domination of materialism in the middle of the loth century
in Germany, or rather to its revival; for in its main position,
that matter and motion are everything and eternal, it was a
repetition of the materialism of the i8th century in France.
Thus Karl Christoph Vogt (q.v.) repeated the saying of the French
physician Cabanis, " The brain is determined to thought as the
stomach is to digestion, or the liver to the secretion of bile,"
in the form, " Thought stands in the same relation to the brain
as the bile to the liver or the urine to the kidneys." But the
new materialism was not mere repetition. J. Moleschott
(1822-1893) made a diligent use of the science of his day in his
Kreislauf des Lebens (1852). Starting from Lavoisier's dis-
coveries, he held that life is metabolism, a perpetual circulation
of matter from the inorganic to the organic world,
Moleschott. anc j k ac k a g a j Hi an d he ur g e d this metabolism against
the hypothesis of vital force. Aristotle had imputed to all
living beings a soul, though to plants only in the sense of a
vegetative, not a sensitive, activity, and in Moleschott's time
many scientific men still accepted some sort of vital principle,
not exactly soul, yet over and above bodily forces in organisms.
Moleschott, like Lotze, not only resisted the whole hypothesis
of a vital principle, but also, on the basis of Lavoisier's discovery
that respiration is combustion, argued that the heat so produced
is the only force developed in the organism, and that matter
therefore rules man. He put the whole materialistic view of
the world into the following form: Without matter no force,
without force no matter. L. Biichner (q.v.) himself said that he
owed to Moleschott the first impulse to composing his important
work Kraft und Staff (1855), which became a kind of
Buchner. ^^^QQ^ o f materialism. Passing from Moleschott
to LyelPs view of the evolution of the earth's crust and later
to Darwin's theory of natural selection and environment, he
reached the general inference that, not God but evolution of
matter, is the cause of the order of the world; that life is a com-
/bination of matter which in favourable circumstances is spon-
taneously generated; that there is no vital principle, because all
forces, non-vital and vital, are movements; that movement
and evolution proceed from life to consciousness; that it is
foolish for man to believe that the earth was made for him, in
the face of the difficulties he encounters in inhabiting it; that
there is no God, no final cause, no immortality, no freedom, no
substance of the soul; and that mind, like light or heat, electri-
city or magnetism, or any other physical fact, is a movement
of matter. Sometimes he spoke of mind as an effect of matter;
but, though his expressions may be careless, nothing is to be
made of the difference, for he called it movement and effect
indifferently in the same context. His definitely expressed
view was that psychical activity is " nothing but a radiation
through the cells of the grey substance of the brain of a motion
set up by external stimuli."
E. Haeckel belongs to a slightly later time than the materi-
alists hitherto mentioned. His book Die Weltrathsel (Eng. trans.
J. M'Cabe, The Riddle of the Universe) identifies
substance with body. Starting like his predecessors
with the indestructibility of matter, Haeckel makes more than
they do of the conservation of energy, and merges the persistence
of matter and energy in one universal law of substance, which,
on the ground that body is subject to eternal transformation,
is also the universal law of evolution. His strong point consists
in inferring the fact of evolution of some sort from the considera-
tion of the evidence of comparative anatomy, palaeontology and
embryology. On the strength of the consilience of arguments
for evolution in the organic world, he carries back the process
in the whole world, until he comes to a cosmology which recalls
the rash hypotheses of the Presocratics.
He supposes that all organisms have developed from the simple
cell, and that this has its origin by spontaneous generation, to
explain which he propounds the " carbon-theory," that protoplasm
comes from inorganic carbonates. He not only agrees with Laplace
and Lyell about the evolution of the solar system, but also supposes
that the affinities, pointed out by Lothar Meyer and Mendeleeff,
between groups of chemical elements prove an evolution of these
elements from a primitive matter (prothyl) consisting of homogeneous
atoms. These, however, are not ultimate enough for him ; he thinks
that everything, ponderable and imponderable or ether, is evolved
from a primitive substance, which condenses first into centres of
condensation (pyknalpms) , and then into masses, which when they
exceed the mean consistency become ponderables, and when they fall
below it become imponderables. Here he stops; according to him
substance is eternal and eternally subject to the law of substance;
and God is the eternal force or energy of substance. What, then, is
the origin of mind or soul? Haeckel answers that it has no origin,
because sensation is an inherent property of all substance. He
supposes that aesthesis and tropesis, as rudimentary sensation and
will, are the very causes of condensation; that they belong to
pyknatoms, to ponderables and imponderables, to chemical atoms
and molecules. Hence, when he returns to organisms, it does not sur-
prise us that he assigns to ova and spermatozoa cell-souls, to the
impregnated ovum germ-soul, to plants tissue-souls, to animals
nerve-souls; or that he regards man's body and soul as born together
in the impregnated ovum, and gradually evolved from the bodies
and souls of lower animals. It appears to his imagination that the
affinity of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen, the attraction
of the spermatozoon to the ovum, and the elective affinity of a
pair of lovers are all alike due to sensation and will.
But has Haeckel solved the problems of mind? When he
applies sensation and will to nature, and through plants to the
lowest animals, he considers their sensation and will to be
rudimentary and unconscious. Consciousness, according to
his own admission, is not found even in all animals, although it
is present not only in the highest vertebrates me'n, mammals,
birds but also in ants, spiders, the higher crabs and molluscs.
He holds indeed that, in accordance with the law of substance,
consciousness must be evolved from unconsciousness with the
development of sense organs and a central nervous organ.
At the same time he admits, firstly, that to mark the barrier
between unconscious and conscious is difficult; secondly, that
it is impossible to trace the first beginning of consciousness in
the lower animals; and, thirdly, that " however certain we are
of the fact of this natural evolution of consciousness, we are,
unfortunately, not yet in a position to enter more deeply into
the question " (Riddle of the Universe, 191). Thus in presence
of the problem which is the crux of materialism, the origin of
consciousness, he first propounds a gratuitous hypothesis that
everything has mind, and then gives up the origin of conscious
mind after all. He is certain, however, that the law of substance
somehow proves that conscious soul is a mere function of brain,
that soul is a function of all substances, and that God is the
force or energy, or soul or spirit, of nature. He, in fact, returns
to ai cient hylozoism (q.v.), which has tended to revive from time
to time in the history of thought. He believes that mind and
soul are inherent attributes of all bodies. Curiously enough,
he supposes that by making mind a universal attribute of matter
he has made his philosophy not materialism, but monism. It is
really both: monistic, because it reduces substance to one kind;
materialistic, because it identifies that one kind of substance
with body or matter, and reduces mind to an attribute'of matter.
It makes no difference to attribute mind to all matter,
so long as it is attributed as an attribute. It is at least as
materialistic to say that unconscious mind is an attribute of
nature as to say that conscious mind is an attribute of brain;
and this is the position of Haeckel. Materialists seem to dread
the word " materialism." Buchner also entreats us " to aban-
don the word ' materialism,' to which (it is not clear why) a
certain scientific odium attaches, and substitute ' monism ' for
it " (Last Words on Materialism, 273). His reason, however, is
different: it is that a philosophy, not of matter as such, but of
the unity of force and matter, is not materialism. But if a
philosophy makes force an attribute of matter only, as his does,
it will recognize nothing but matter possessing force, and will
therefore be materialism as well as monism, and in short material-
istic monism. The point is that neither Buchner nor Haeckel
could on their assumptions recognize any force but force of
MATERIALISM]
METAPHYSICS
227
J body, or any mind but mind of body, or any distinct thing or
substance except body. This is materialism.
2. Materialistic Tendencies. Besides these direct instances
of materialism, there are philosophers to whom the scientific
tendencies of the age have given a materialistic tendency. In
Germany, for example, Eugen Diihring (<?..) was a realist,
whose intention is to prove against Kant a knowledge of the
thing in itself by attributing time, space and categories generally
to the real world. But, under the influence of Trendelenburg's
attempt to reconcile thought and being by assigning motion to
both, his Wirklichkeitsphilosophie, in a similar effort after a unity
of being, lands him in the contention that matter is absolute
being, the support of all reality underlying all bodily and mental
states. So Avenarius (q.v.) was no materialist, but only an
empiricist anxious to reclaim man's natural view of the world
from philosophic incrustations, yet when his Empiriokriticismus
ends in nothing but environment, nervous system, and state-
ments dependent on them, without soul, though within experi-
ence, he comes near to materialism, as Wundt has remarked.
In France, again, positivism is not materialism, but rather the
refusal to frame a metaphysical theory. Comte tells us that man
first gets over theology, then over metaphysics, and finally rests
in positivism. Yet in getting over theology he ceases to believe
in God, and in getting over metaphysics he ceases to believe in
soul. As Paul Janet truly remarked, positivism contains an
unconscious metaphysics in rejecting final causes and an imma-
terial soul. Now, when in surrendering theology and meta-
physics we have also to surrender God and the soul, we are
not free from materialism. Positivism, however, shelters itself
behind the vague word " phenomena." Lastly, in England we
have not only an influence of positivism, but also, what is more
important, the synthetic philosophy of Herbert Spencer. The
/ s encer point of this philosophy is not materialism, but
realism.,. The author himself says that it is trans-
figured realism which is realism in asserting objective existence
as separate from subjective existence, but anti-realism in denying
that objective existence is to be known. In his Principles of
Psychology he twice quotes his point that " what we are conscious
of as properties of matter, even down to its weight and resistance,
are but subjective affections produced by objective agencies
which are unknown and unknowable." This then is his trans-
figured realism, which, as far as what is known goes, is idealism,
but as far as what exists goes, realism of a sort. His First
Principles, his book on metaphysics, is founded on this same
point, that what we know is phenomena produced by an un-
known noumenal power. He himself identifies phenomenon,
appearance, effect or impression produced on consciousness
through any of the senses. He divides phenomena into impres-
sions and ideas, vivid and faint, object and subject, non-ego and
ego, outer and inner, physical and psychical, matter and spirit;
all of which are expressions of the same antithesis among
phenomena. He holds that all the time, space, motion, matter
known to us are phenomena; and that force, the ultimate of
ultimates, is, as known to us, a phenomenon, " an affection
of consciousness." If so, then all we know is these phenomena,
affections of consciousness, subjective affections, but produced
by an unknown power. So far as this main point of transfigured
realism is steadily maintained, it is a compound of idealism and
realism, but not materialism. But it is not maintained, on the
side either of phenomena or of noumena; and hence its tendency
materialism.
In the first place, the term " phenomenon " is ambiguous, some-
imes meaning a conscious affection and sometimes any fact
whatever. Spencer sets himself to find the laws of all phenomena.
He finds that throughout the universe there is an unceasing redis-
tribution of matter and motion, and that this redistribution consti-
tutes evolution when there is a predominant integration of matter
and dissipation of motion, and constitutes dissolution where there
is a predominant absorption of motion and disintegration of matter.
He supposes that evolution is primarily integration, from the inco-
herent to the coherent, exemplified in the solar nebula evolv-
ing into the solar system; secondly differentiation, from the more
homogeneous to the more heterogeneous, exemplified by the
solar system evolving into different bodies; thirdly determina-
tion, from the indefinite to the definite, exemplified^ bythe
solar system with different bodies evolving into an order. He
supposes that this evolution does not remain cosmic, but becomes
organic. In accordance with Lamarck's hypothesis, he supposes
an evolution of organisms by hereditary adaptation to the
environment (which he considers necessary to natural selection), V
and even the possibility of an evolution of life, which, according
to him, is the continuous adjustment of internal to external
relations. Next, he supposes that mind obeys the same law of
evolution, and exemplifies integration by generalization, differen-
tiation by the development of the five senses, and determination
by the development of the order of consciousness. He holds that
we pass without break from the phenomena of bodily life to the
phenomena of mental life, that consciousness arises in the course of
the living being's adaptation to its environment, and that there is a
continuous evolution from reflex action through instinct and memory
up to reason. He throws out the brilliant suggestion that the experi-
ence of the race is in a sense inherited by the individual ; which is
true in the sense that animal organisms become hereditarily better
adapted to perform mental operations, though no proof that any
elements of knowledge become a priori.
Now, Spencer has clearly, though unconsciously, changed the
meaning of the term " phenomenon " from subjective affection of
consciousness to any fact of nature, in regarding all this evolution,
cosmic, organic, mental, social and ethical, as an evolution of
phenomena. The greater part of the process is a change in the facts
of nature before consciousness; and in all that part, at all events,
the phenomena evolved must mean physical facts which are not
conscious affections, but, as they develop, are causes which gradually
produce life and consciousness. Moreover, evolution is defined
universally as an " integration of matter and dissipation of motion,"
and yet mental, social and moral developments are also called evolu-
tion, so that, in accordance with the definition, they are also integra-
tions of matter and dissipations of motion. It is true that the author
did not see that he was passing from transfigured realism into
materialism. He thinks that he is always speaking of phenomena
in' the sense of subjective affections; and in spite of his definition,
he half unconsciously changes the meaning of evolution from a
change in matter and motion, first into a change in states of con-
sciousness, then to a change in social institutions, and finally into
a change in moral motives. He also admits himself that mental
evolution exemplifies integration of matter and dissipation of motion
only indirectly. But here he becomes hopelessly inconsistent,
because he had already said, in defining it, that " evolution is an
integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion "
(First Principles, 145). However, with all the author's disclaimers,
the general effect left on the reader's mind is that throughout the
universe there is an unceasing change of matter and motion, that
evolution is always such a change, that it begins with phenomena
in the sense of physical facts, gradually issues in life and conscious-
ness, and ends with phenomena in the sense of subjective affections
of consciousness.
In the second place, having declared the noumenal power, which
causes phenomena, or conscious affections, to be unknowable, and
having left anybody who pleased to make it a god and an object
of religion, he proceeds to describe it as if it were known force, and
known in two respects as persistent and as resistant force. He
supposes that the law of evolution is deducible from the law of per-
sistent force, and includes in force what is now called energy. Then
having discussed force as something thoroughly material, and laying
special emphasis on resistance, he tells us that " the force of which we
assert persistence is that Absolute Force of which we are indefinitely
conscious as the necessary correlate of the force we know " (First
Principles, 62). Similarly, both in First Principles and in the
Principles of Psychology, he assigns to us, in addition to our definite
consciousness of our subjective affections, an indefinite consciousness
of something out of consciousness, of something which resists, of
objective existence. Thus it turns out that the objective agency, the
noumenal power, the absolute force, declared unknown and unknow-
able, is known after all to exist, persist, resist and cause our sub-
jective affections or phenomena, yet not to think or to will. Such a
noumenon looks very like body or matter. Lastly, when a theory
of the world supposes a noumenal power, a resistcnt and persistent
force, which results in an evolution, defined as an integration of
matter and a dissipation of motion, which having resulted in in-
organic nature and organic nature, further results without break
in consciousness, reason, society and morals, then such a theory
will be construed as materialistically as that of Haeckel by the reader,
whatever the intention of the author.
It may be urged in reply that the synthetic philosophy could be
made consistent by transferring the knowable resistance and persis-
tence of the unknowable noumenon to knowable phenomena on the
one hand, and on the other hand by maintaining that all phenomena
from the original nebula to the rise of consciousness are only
'* impressions produced on consciousness through any of the senses, '
after all. But in that case what will become of Spencer's theory
of evolution? It will have asserted the evolution of man and his
consciousness out of the phenomena of his consciousness. The truth
is that his theory of evolution can be carried through the whole
process without a break, only by giving the synthetic philosophy
a materialistic interpretation, and by adhering consistently to
228
METAPHYSICS
[METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM
Spencer's own materialistic definition of evolution; otherwise there
will be a break at least between life and mind. If everything know-
able is an example of evolution, and evolution is by definition a
transformation of matter and motion, then everything knowable
is an example of a transformation of matter and motion. As an
exponent of universal evolution Haeckel is more consistent than
Spencer.
Huxley (1825-1895) developed views very like those of Spencer, and
similarly materialistic without being materialism, because inconsis-
Haxky tent. He regarded everything known as evolved from
matter, and reduced consciousness to a mere collateral
product (" epiphenomenon ") of cerebral operations without any power
of influencing them. Matter, according to him, impresses the afferent
nervous system, this the brain, this the efferent nervous system, while
consciousness remains a mere spectator. " In man, as in brutes,"
said he, " there is no proof that any state of consciousness is the cause
of change in the nature of the matter of the organism "; so that
" we are conscious automata." But, in spite of these materialistic
tendencies, he followed Hume in reducing matter and everything
knowable to phenomena of consciousness; and, supposing that
nothing is knowable beyond phenomena, concluded that we can
neither affirm nor deny that anything exists beyond, but ought to
take up an attitude which the ancient sceptics called Aphasia, but
he dubbed by the new name of Agnosticism. Thus Huxley first
reduced consciousness to a product of matter, and then matter to a
phenomenon of consciousness. By combining materialism with
idealism he made consciousness a product of itself. Tyndall (1820
Tyadall I ^9?)> a am > came still nearer to materialism, and yet
avoided it. In his Belfast address (1874), while admit-
ting that matter as understood by Democritus is insufficient, because
atoms without sensation cannot be imagined to produce sensation,
he contended, nevertheless, that matter properly understood is
" the promise and potency of all terrestrial life." In thus endow-
ing all matter with sensation like Haeckel he was not avoiding
materialism. But in the very same address, as well as on other occa-
sions, he did not identify mind with matter, but regarded them
as concomitant.
All these materialistic tendencies seem to have one expla-
nation. They emanate from scientific writers who rightly try
to rise from science to metaphysics, but, as Bacon says, build
a universal philosophy on a few experiments. The study of
evolution, without considering how many conditions are required
for " the integration of matter and the dissipation of motion "
to begin, and the undoubted discoveries which have resulted
from the study of inorganic and organic evolution, have led men
to expect too much from this one law of Nature. This tendency
especially prevails in biology, which is so far off the general
principles of natural philosophy that its votaries are often
ignorant of the real nature of body as matter and force. The
close dependency of all mental operations on brain also tempts
them to the conclusion that brain is not only an organ, but the
whole organ of conscious mind. 1 It appears also that Darwin,
having extended his theory of evolution as far as the rational
and moral nature of man, in the Descent of Man, ended in his
Autobiography by declaring his attitude to first and final causes
to be that of an agnostic. Not that he was a materialist, and
shortly before his death, in a conversation with Biichner, he
maintained his agnosticism against his opponent's atheism.
Still, his agnosticism meant that, though he did not assert that
there is no God, he did assert that we cannot know whether there
is or is not. To the evolutionary biologist brain is apt to appear
to be the crowning object of knowledge. On the other hand,
scientific men, such as Herschel, Maxwell and Stokes, who
approach nature from mathematics and mechanics, and there-
fore from the universal laws of motion, have the opposite
tendency, because they perceive that nature is not its own
explanation. In order to exert force, or at all events that force
of reciprocal pressure which we best understand, and on which,
in impact, the third law of motion was founded, there are always
at least two bodies, enduring, triply extended, mobile, each
inert, mutually impenetrable or resistent, different yet similar;
and in order to have produced any effect but equilibrium, some
bodies must at some time have differed either in mass or in
velocity, otherwise forces would only have neutralized one
another. Why do bodies exist, with all these conditions, so similar
yet different that is, in so harmonious an order? Natural
science has no answer: natural theology has an answer. This
essence of bodies, this resemblance in difference, this prevailing
1 Cf. H. Maudesley, Lessons of Materialism (1879).
order of Nature, is the deepest proof of God; and it cannot be
the result of evolution, because it is the condition of natural
force, and therefore of natural evolution. A second argument
for God is the prevailing goodness or adaptation of Nature to the
ends of conscious beings, which might conceivably be explained
by Lamarckian evolution, but has not yet been so explained,
and if it were, would not be inconsistent with a divine design in
evolution. Further, the very existence of conscious beings is
the best proof of the distinct or substantial being of the soul,
existing in man with body, in God as pure spirit. It seems hope-
less to expect that natural science, even with the aid of evolution,
can explain by mere body the origin and nature of this fact of
consciousness. If so, materialism is not the whole truth of
metaphysics.
3. THE RISE or METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM
i. Descartes to Leibnitz. Metaphysical arises from psycho-
logical idealism, and always retains more or less of an epistemo-
logical character. Psychological idealism assumes without
proof that we perceive nothing but mental objects, and meta-
physical idealism draws the logical but hypothetical conclusion
that all we can know from these mental objects of sense is mental
objects of knowledge. But at first this logical conclusion was
not drawn. Descartes, the founder of psychological idealism,
having proceeded from the conscious fact, cogito ergo sum, to
the non sequitur that I am a soul, and all a soul can perceive is
its ideas, nevertheless went on to the further illogical
conclusion that from these mental ideas I can (by the
grace of God) infer things which are extended substances or
bodies, as well as thinking substances or souls. He was a psycho-
logical idealist and a metaphysical realist. This illogicality .could
not last. Even the Cartesian school, as it came more and more
to feel the difficulty of explaining the interaction of body and
mind, and, indeed, any efficient causation whatever, gradually
tended to the hypothesis that the real cause is God, who, on the
occasion of changes in body, causes corresponding changes in
mind, and vice versa. This occasionalism is not idealism, but
its emphasis on the will of God gave it an idealistic tendency.
Thereupon Spinoza advanced a pantheism which supposed that
bodies and souls are not, as Descartes thought, different sub-
stances, but merely attributes the one the extension and the
other the thought of one substance, Nature or God. Taking the
Aristotelian theory that a substance is a thing in
itself, not in Aristotle's sense of any individual existing
differently from anything else, but in the novel meaning of some-
thing existing alone, he concluded, logically enough from this
mere misunderstanding, that there can be only one substance,
and that, as no finite body or soul can exist alone, everything
finite is merely a mode of one of the attributes of the one infinite
substance which alone can exist by itself. Spinozism, however,
though it tramples down the barrier between body and soul, is
not yet metaphysical idealism, because it does not reduce
extension to thought, but only says that the same substance is
at once extended and thinking a position more akin to material-
ism. At the same time Spinoza maintained a parallelism between
extension and thinking so close as to say that the order of ideas
is the same as the order of things, so that any mode of extension
and the idea of it are the same thing expressed in two ways, under
the attribute of extension and under the attribute of thought
(see H. H. Joachim's Study of the Ethics of Spinoza, 1901, p. 72).
It remained, however, for Schelling to convert this parallelism
into identity by identifying motion with the intelligence of God,
and so to transform the pantheism of Spinoza into pantheistic
idealism. Leibnitz, again, having become equally dissatisfied
with Cartesianism, Spinozism and the Epicurean realism of
Gassendi, in the latter part of his life came still
nearer than Spinoza to metaphysical idealism in his
monadology, or half-Pythagorean,half-Brunistic analysis of bodies
into monads, or units, or simple substances, indivisible and
unextended, but endowed with perception and appetite.
He gradually fell under the dominion of two false assumptions.
On the one hand, essentially a mathematician, he supposed that
Splaoza.
Leibnitz.
METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
229
unity is indivisibility, whereas everything known to be one is merely
undivided or individual, and that there must be simple because
there are compound substances, although composition only requires
simpler or relatively simple elements. On the other hand, under
the influence of the mechanics of his day, which had hardly distin-
guished between inertia, or the inability of a body to change itself,
and resistance or the ability of bodies to oppose one another, he
concluded that, as inertia is passive, so is resistance, and refused
to recognize that in collision the mutual resistance of moying bodies
is a force, or active power, of changing their movements in opposite
directions. From these two arbitrary hypotheses about corporeal
motion, that it requires indivisibly simple elements, and that it
offers only passive resistance, he concluded that behind bodies there
must be units, or monads, which would be at once substantial,
simple, indivisible and active. He further supposed that the monads
are " incorporeal automata," not interacting like bodies, but each
perceiving what was passing in the other, and acting in consequence
by appetite, or self-acting. Such mentally endowed substances
might be called souls; but, as he distinguished between perception
and apperception or consciousness, and considered that perceptions
are often unconscious, he preferred to divide monads into un-
conscious entelechies of inorganic bodies, sentient souls of animals,
and rational souls, or spirits, of men; while he further concluded
that all these are derivative monads created by God, the monad of
monads. All derivative monads, he allowed, are accompanied by
bodies, which, however, are composed of other monads dominated
by a central monad. Further, he explained the old Cartesian
difficulty of the relation of body and mind by transforming the
Spinozistic parallelism of extension and thought into a parallelism
between the motions of bodies and the perceptions of their monads ;
motions always proceeding from motions, and perceptions from per-
ceptions; bodies acting according to efficient causes, and souls
according to final causes by appetition, and as if one influenced the
other without actually doing so. Finally, he explained the concomi-
tance of these two series, as well as that between the perceptions
of different monads, by supposing a pre-established harmony
ordained by the primitive monad, God.
Up to this point, then, Leibnitz opened one of the chief avenues
to metaphysical idealism, the resolution of the material into the
immaterial, the analysis of bodies into mental elements. His
theory of bodies involved an idealistic analysis neither into
bodily atoms nor into mathematical units, but into mentally
endowed simple substances. There remained, however, his
theory of the nature of bodies; and here he hesitated between
two alternatives. According to one alternative, which con-
sistently flowed from the psychological idealism of Descartes, as
well as from his own monadism, he suggested that bodies are
real phenomena; phenomena, because they are aggregates of
monads, which derive their unity only from appearing together
to our perceptions; real phenomena well founded, because they
result from real monads. In support of this view, he said that
bodies are not substances, though substantiata; that their apparent
motion and resistance are results of the passions of their monads;
that their primary matter is nothing but passive power of their
monads; that the series of efficient causes between them is
merely phenomenal. According to this alternative, then, there
is nothing but mental monads and mental phenomena; and
Leibnitz is a metaphysical idealist. According to the other
alternative, however, he suggested that at least organic bodies
are compound or corporeal substances, which are not pheno-
mena; but something realizing or rather substantializing pheno-
mena, and not mere aggregates of monads, but something
substantial beyond their monads, because an organic body,
though composed of monads, has a real unity (unio realis).
From this point of view he believed that the real unity of a body
a mnculum substantiate, which gives it its real continuity and
the principle of its actions; that its primary matter is its own
principle of resistance; and that it has not only this passive, but
ilso an active, power of its own. He suggested that this theory
of the substantial unity of a body might explain transubstantia-
tion, by supposing that, while the monads and phenomena of
bread remain, the vinculum substantiate of the body of Christ
is substituted. He feared also whether we can explain the
mystery of the Incarnation, and other things, unless real bonds
or unions are added to monads and phenomena. According to
this alternative, these organic bodies are compound or corporeal
substances, between monads and phenomena; and Leibnitz
is a metaphysical realist. He was held to this belief in the sub-
stantiality of bodies by his Christianity, by the influence of
Aristotle, of scholasticism and of Cartesianism, as well as by his
own mechanics. But the strange thing is that at the very end
of his life and at the very same time, in 1714-1716, he was
writing the idealistic alternative to Remond de Montmort and
Dangicourt, and the realistic alternative to Father des Bosses.
He must have died in doubt. We cannot, therefore, agree with
many recent idealists who regard Leibnitz as one of themselves,
though it is true that, when stripped of its realism, his meta-
physics easily passed into the metaphysical idealisms of Lotze
and of Fechner. It is true, also, that on its idealistic side the
philosophy of Leibnitz is the source of many current views of
panpsychism, of psychophysical parallelism as well as of the
phenomenalism of bodies, and of the analysis of bodies into
mental elements.
2. Locke to Hume. Meanwhile in England, Locke, though
differing from Descartes about the origin of ideas, followed him
in the illogical combination of psychological idealism with
metaphysical realism. He thought that we perceive nothing
but ideas both of primary and of secondary qualities, and yet
that somehow we are able to infer that, while our ideas of
secondary qualities are not, those of primary qualities are, like
the real qualities of external things. Berkeley saw the in-
consistency of this position, and, in asserting that all we perceive
and all we know is nothing but ideas in " mind, spirit, soul, or
myself," has the merit of having made, as Paulsen remarks,
" epistemological idealism the basis of metaphysical idealism."
According to him, a body such as the sun is my idea, your idea,
ideas of other minds, and always an idea of God's mind; and when
we have sensible ideas of the sun, what causes them to arise in
our different minds is no single physical substance, the sun,
but the will of God's spirit. Hume saw that in making all the
objects of perception ideas Berkeley had given as little reason
for inferring substantial souls as substantial bodies. He there-
fore concluded that all we know from the data of psychological
idealism is impressions or sensations, ideas, and associations of
ideas, making us believe without proof in substances and causes,
together with " a certain unknown, inexplicable something as the
cause of our preceptions." We have here, in this sceptical
idealism, the source of the characteristically English form of
idealism still to be read in the writings of Mill and Spencer, and
still the starting-point of more recent works, such as Pearson's
Grammar of Science and James's Principles of Psychology.
3. Kant and Fichte. Lastly, in Germany, partly influenced
by Leibnitz and partly roused by Hume, Kant elaborated his
transcendental or critical idealism, which if not, as he thought,
the prolegomena to all future metaphysics, is still
the starting-point of most metaphysical idealists.
Kantism consists of fou,r main positions, which it will be well
to lay out, as follows:
a. As to the origin of knowledge, Kant's position is that sense,
outer and inner, affected by things in themselves, receives mere
sensations or sensible ideas ( Vorstellungen) as the matter which sense
itself places in the a priori forms of space and time; that thereupon
understanding, by means of the synthetic unity of apperception,
" I think " an act of spontaneity beyond sense, in all consciousness
one and the same, and combining all my ideas as mine in one univer-
sal consciousness and under a priori categories, or fundamental
notions, such as substance and attribute, cause and effect, &c.,
unites groups of sensations or sensible ideas into objects and events,
e.g. a house, one ball moving another; and that, accordingly, per-
ception and experience, requiring both sense and understanding,
are partly a posteriori and partly a priori, and constitute a
knowledge of objects which, being sensations combined by
synthetic unity under a priori forms, are more than mere sensa-
tions, but less than things in themselves. This first position is
psychological idealism in a new form and supported by new reasons;
for, if experience derives its matter from mental sensations and its
form from mental synthesis of sensations, it can apprehend nothing
but mental objects of sense, which, according to Kant, are sensible
ideas having no existence outside our thought, not things in them-
selves ; or phenomena, not noumena.
b. As to the known world, Kant's position was the logical deduc-
tion that from such phenomena of experience all we can know by
logical reason is similar phenomena of actual or possible experience;
and therefore that the known world, whether bodily or mental, is
not a Cartesian world of bodies and souls, nor a Spinozistic world
of one substance, nor a Leibnitzian world of monadic substances
Kant.
230
METAPHYSICS
[METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM
created by God, but a world of sensations, such as Hume supposed,
only combined, not by association, but by synthetic understanding
into phenomenal objects of experience, which are phenomenal
substances and causes a world of phenomena not noumena.
This second position is a new form of metaphysical idealism, contain-
ing the supposition, which lies at the foundation of later German
philosophy, that since understanding shapes the objects out of
sensations, and since nature, as we know it, consists of such objects,
" understanding, though it does not make, shapes nature," as well as
our knowledge. Known nature is a mental construction in part,
according to Kant.
c. As to existence, Kant's position is the wholly illogical one that,
though all known things are phenomena, there are things in them-
selves, or noumena; things which are said to cause sensations of
outer sense and to receive sensations of inner sense, though they are
beyond the category of causality which is denned as one of the notions
uniting phenomena ; and things which are assumed to exist and have
these causal attributes, though declared unknowable by any logical
use of reason, because logical reason is limited bv the mental matter
and form of experience to phenomena; and all this according to
Kant himself. This third position is a relic of ancient metaphysical
realism; although it must be remembered that Kant does not
go to the length of Descartes and Locke, who supposed that from
mere ideas we could know bodies and souls, but suggests that
beneath the phenomena of outer and inner sense the thing in itself
may not be heterogeneous (ungleichartig) . In this form we shall find
the thing in itself revived by A. Riehl.
d. As to the use of reason beyond knowledge, Kant's position is
that, in spite of its logical inability to transcend phenomena, reason
in its pure, or a priori use, contains necessary a priori " ideals "
(Ideen), and practical reason, in order to account for moral respon-
sibility, frames postulates of the existence of things in themselves,
or noumena, corresponding to these " ideals"; postulates of a real
free-will to practise morality, of a real immortality of soul to perfect
it, and of a real God to crown it with happiness.
The fourth position is the coping-stone of Kant's metaphysics.
It is quite inconsistent with its foundation and structure. Kant
first deduced that from the experience of mental phenomena all
logical use of reason is limited to mental phenomena, and then
maintained that to explain moral responsibility practical reason
postulates the existence of real noumena. But what is a postu-
late of practical reason to explain moral responsibility except a
logical use of reason ? Nevertheless, in his own mind Kant's
whole speculative and practical philosophy was meant to form
one system. In the preface to the second edition of the Kritik
he says that it was necessary to limit speculative reason to a
knowledge of phenomena, in order to allow practical reason to
proceed from morality to the assumption of God, freedom, and
immortality, existing beyond phenomena: " Ich musste also das
Wissen aufheben, um zum Clauben Platz zu machen." He forgot
that he had also limited all logical use of reason, and therefore
of practical reason, to phenomena, and thereby undermined the
rationality not only of knowledge, but also of faith.
Fichte now set himself in the Wissenschaflslehre (1794) to
make transcendental idealism into a system of metaphysical ideal-
ism without Kant's inconsistencies and relics of realism.
His point was that there are no tilings in themselves
different from minds or acting on them; that man is no product
of things; nor does his thinking arise from passive sensations
caused by things; nor is the end of his existence attainable in
a world of things; but that he is the absolute free activity
constructing his own world, which is only his own determination,
his self-imposed limit, and means to his duty which allies him with
God. In order to prove this novel conclusion he started afresh
from the Cartesian " I think " in the Kantian form of the
synthetic unity of apperception acting by a priori categories;
but instead of allowing, with all previous metaphysicians, that
the Ego passively receives sensations from something different,
and not contenting himself with Kant's view that the Ego, by
synthetically combining the matter of sensations with a priori
forms, partially constructs objects, and therefore Nature as
we know it, he boldly asserted that the Ego, in its synthetic
unity, entirely constructs things; that its act of spontaneity is
not mere synthesis of passive sensations, but construction of
sensations into an object within itself; and that therefore under-
standing makes as well as shapes Nature.
This construction, or self-determination, is what Fichte called
positing (setzen). According to him, the Ego posits first itself
Fkhte.
(thesis) ; secondly, the non-Ego, the other, opposite to itself (anti-
thesis); and, thirdly, this non-Ego within itself (synthesis), 'so that
all reality is in consciousness. But, he added, as the Ego is not
conscious of this self-determining activity, but forgets itself, the
non-Ego seems to be something independent, a foreign limit, a
thing in itself, or per se. Hence it is the office of the theory of know-
ledge to show that the Ego posits the thing per se as only existing
for itself, a noumenon in the sense of a product of its own thinking.
Further, according to Fichte, on the one hand the Ego posits itself
as determined through the non-Ego no object, no subject; this
is the principal fact about theoretical reason; on the other hand,
the Ego posits itself as determining the non-Ego no subject, no
object; this is the principal fact about practical reason. Hence he
united theoretical and practical reason, which Kant had separated,
and both with will, which Kant had distinguished; for he held that
the -Ego, in positing the non-Ego, posits both its own limit and its
own means to the end, duty, by its activity of thinking which re-
quires will. The conclusion of his epistemology is that we start
with ourselves positing subjective sensations e.g. sweet, red and
refer them as accidents to matter in space, which, though mental, is
objective, because its production is grounded on a law of all reason.
The metaphysics resulting from this epistemology is that the so-
called thing in itself is not a cause of our sensations, but a product
of one's own thinking, a determination of the Ego, a thing known
to the Ego which constructs it. Fichte thus transformed the tran-
scendental idealism of Kant by identifying the thing with the object,
and by interpreting noumenon, not in Kant's sense of something
which speculative reason conceives and practical reason postulates
to exist in accordance with the idea, but in the new meaning of a
thought, a product of reason. This change led to another. Kant
had said that the synthetic unity " I think " is in all consciousness
one and the same, meaning that I am always present to all my ideas.
Fichte transformed this unity of the conscious self into a unity of all
conscious selves, or a common consciousness; and this change enabled
him to explain the unity of anything produced by the Ego by con-
tending that it is not the different objects of different thinkers, but
the one object of a pure Ego or consciousness common to them all.
According to Kant, the objective is valid for all consciousnesses;
according to Fichte it is valid for one consciousness. Here he was
for the first time grappling with a fundamental difficulty in meta-
physical idealism which is absent from realism, namely, the difficulty
of explaining the identity of a thing, e.g. the sun. As long as even
the meagre realism of the Kantian thing in itself is maintained, the
account of there being one sun is simply that one thing causes
different phenomena in different minds. But as soon as the thing
in itself is converted into something mental, metaphysical idealists
must either say that there are as many suns as minds, or that there
is one mind and therefore one sun. The former was the alternative
of Berkeley, the latter of Fichte.
Thus the complete metaphysical idealism of Fichte's Wissen-
schaftslehreformed out of the incomplete metaphysical idealism of
Kant's Kritik, is the theory on its epistemological side that the Ego
posits the non-Ego as a thing in itself, and yet as only a thing existing
for it as its own noumenon, and on its metaphysical side that in
consequence all reality is the Ego and its own determinations, which
are objective, or valid for all, as determinations, not of you or of
me, but of the consciousness common to all of us, the pure or absolute
Ego. Lastly, Fichte called this system realism, in so far as it posits
the thing in itself as another thing; idealism, in so far as it posits
it as a noumenon which is a product of its own thinking; and on the
whole real idealism or ideal realism.
God does not seem to find much place in the Wissenschaflslehre,
where mankind is the absolute and nature mankind's product,
and where God neither could be an absolute Ego which posits
objects in the non-Ego to infinity without ever completing the pro-
cess, nor could be even known to exist apart from the moral order
which is man's destination. Hence in his Philosophical Journal in
1798 Fichte prefaced a sceptical essay of Forberg by an essay
of his own, in which he used the famous words, " The living moral
order is God; we need no other God, and can comprehend no
other." Having, however, in consequence, lost his professorship
at Jena, he gradually altered his views, until at length he
decided that God is not mere moral order, but also reason and
will, yet without consciousness and personality; that not mankind
but God is the absolute; that we are only its direct manifestations,
free but finite spirits destined by God to posit in ourselves
Nature as the material of duty, but blessed when we relapse
into the absolute; that Nature, therefore, is the direct manifes-
tation of man, and only the indirect manifestation of God; and,
finally, that being is the divine idea or life, which is the reality
behind appearances. In this extension of metaphysical idealism
he was influenced by his disciple, Schelling. Nevertheless, he
refused to go as far as Schelling, and could not bring himself to iden-
tify either man or nature with Absolute God. He wanted to believe
in the absolute without sacrificing personality and freedom. God
determines man, and man determines Nature: this is the final out-
come of Fichte's pure idealism.
Fichte completed the process from psychological and epistemo-
logical to metaphysical idealism, which it has been necessary to
NOUMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
231
recall from its beginnings in France, England and Germany, in
order to understand modern idealism. The assertion of absolute
substance by Spinoza incited Schelling and Hegel. The analysis
of bodies into immaterial elements by Leibnitz incited Lotze.
The Spinozistic parallelism of extension and thought, and the
Lelbnitzian parallelism of bodily motion and mental action,
incited Schelling and Fechner. Berkeley and Hume produced
the English idealism of Mill and Spencer, with their successors,
and occasioned the German idealism of Kant. Kant's a priori
synthesis 'of sensations into experience lies at the root of all
German idealism. But Fichte was the most fertile of all. He
carried metaphysical idealism to its height, by not only resolving
the bodily into the mental, but also elevating the action of mind
into absolute mental construction; not inferring things in them-
selves beyond, but originating things from within, mind itself.
By changing the meaning of " noumenon " from the thing
apprehended (vooy/j.tvov) to the thought (vdri/j.a), and in the
hypothesis of a common consciousness, he started the view that
a thing is not yours or my thought, but a common thought of all
mankind, and led to the wider view of Schelling and Hegel that
the world is an absolute thought of infinite mind. In making the
essence of mind activity and construction, in destroying the separa-
tion of theoretical and practical reason, in asserting that mind
thinks things as means to ends of the will, he prepared the way
for Schopenhauer and other voluntarists. In making the
essence of the Absolute not mere reason, but will, action and life,
he anticipated Lotze. In reducing the thing in itself to a thought
he projected the neo-Kantism of Lange and Cohen. In the
doctrine no object, no subject no subject, no object that is,
in the utter identification of things with objects of subjects, he
anticipated not only Schelling and Hegel, but also Schuppe and
Wundt with their congeners. In expanding Kant's act of
synthesis till it absorbed the inner sense and the innermost soul,
he started the modern paradox that soul is not substance, but
subject or activity, a paradox which has been gradually handed
down from Schelling and Hegel to Fechner, and from Fechner to
Paulsen and Wundt. Meanwhile, through holding with Kant
that man is not God, but a free spirit, whose destiny it is to use
his intelligence as a means to his duty, he is still the resort of
many who vindicate man's independence, freedom, conscience,
and power of using nature for his moral purposes, e.g. of Eucken
and Miinsterberg (qq.v.). Kant and Fichte together became the
most potent philosophic influences on European thought in the
igth century, because their emr>hasis was on man. They made
man believe in himself and his mission. They fostered liberty
and reform, and even radicalism. They 'almost avenged man
on the astronomers, who had shown that the world is not made
for earth, and therefore not for man. Kant half asserted, and
Fichte wholly, that Nature is man's own construction. The
\.ritik and the Wissenschaftslehre belonged to the revolu-
tionary epoch of the " Rights of Man," and produced as great a
revolution in thought as the French Revolution did in fact.
Instead of the old belief that God made the world for man,
philosophers began to fall into the pleasing dream, I am every-
thing, and everything is I and even I am God.
4. NOUMENAL IDEALISM IN GERMANY
Noumenal idealism is the metaphysics of those who suppose
that all known things are indeed mental, but not all are pheno-
menal in the Kantian sense, because a noumenon is knowable so
long as by a noumenon we mean some mental being or other
which we somehow can discover beyond phenomena. The
noumenal idealists of Germany assumed, like all psychological
idealists, the unproved hypothesis that there is no sense of body,
but there is a sense of sensations; and they usually accepted
Kant's point, that to get from such sensations to knowledge there
is a synthesis contributing mental elements beyond the mental
data of sense. They saw also the logic of Kant's deduction, that
all we can know from such mental data and mental categories
must also be mental. This was the starting-point of their
metaphysical idealism. But they disagreed with Kant, and
agreed with Fichte about things in themselves or noumena, and
contended that the mental things we know are not mere pheno-
mena of sense, but noumena, precisely because noumena are as
mental as phenomena, and therefore can be known from similar
data: this was the central point of their noumenal idealism.
They rightly revolted against the inconsistencies of Kant's third
and fourth positions about the existence of unknown but postu-
lated things in themselves, hidden from theoretical, but revealed
to practical, reason. In a way they returned to the wider
opinions of Aristotle, which had come down to Descartes and
Locke, that reason in going beyond sense knows more things
than phenomena; yet they would not hear of external bodies,
or of bodies at all. No realists, they came nearer to Spinozistic
pantheism and to Leibnitzian monadism, but only on their
idealistic side; for they would not allow that extension and body
are different from thinking and mind. Their real founder was
Fichte, on account of his definite reduction of the noumenal to a
mental world. This was indeed the very point the knowability
of a noumenal mental world. At the same time it soon appeared
that they could not agree among themselves when they came to
ask what it is, but in attempting to define it seem to have gone
through the whole gamut of mind. Schelling and Hegel thought
it was infinite reason; Schopenhauer, unconscious will; Hart-
.mann, unconscious intelligence and will; Lotze, the activity or
life of the divine spirit; Fechner, followed by Paulsen, a world of
spiritual actualities comprised in the one spiritual actuality,
God, in whom we live and move and have our being.
i. Of these noumenal idealisms the earliest in time and the
nearest to Fichte's philosophy was the panlogism, begun by
Schelling (1775-1854), completed by his disciple g^g,,,,,^
Hegel (1770-1831), and then modified by the master
himself. Starting from Fichte's " Wissenschaftslehre," Schelling
accepted the whole process of mental construction, and the
deduction that noumena are knowable products of universal
reason, the Absolute Ego. But from the first he was bolder
than Fichte, and had no doubt that the Absolute is God. God,
as he thought, is universal reason, and Nature a product of
universal reason, a direct manifestation, not of man, but of God.
How is this Absolute known? According to Schelling it is
known by intellectual intuition. Kant had attributed to God,
in distinction from man's understanding, an intellectual intuition
of things. Fichte had attributed to man an intellectual intuition
of himself as the Absolute Ego. Schelling attributes to man
an intellectual intuition of the Absolute God; and as there is,
according to him, but one universal reason, the common intelli-
gence of God and man, this intellectual intuition at once gives
man an immediate knowledge of God, and identifies man with
God himself.
On Schelling's idealistic pantheism, or the hypothesis that
there is nothing but one absolute reason identifying the opposites
of subjectivity and objectivity, Hegel based his
panlogism. But, while he fully recognized his
indebtedness to his master, he differed from him profoundly
in one fundamental respect. He rightly objected that the system
was wanting in logical proof. He rightly, therefore, rejected
the supposed intellectual intuition of the Absolute. He rightly
contended that, if we are to know anything beyond sense, we
must know it by a process of logical reason. But, unfortunately,
he did not mean the logical inferences described in the Organon
and the Novum organum. He meant a new " speculative "
method, dialectic, founded on an assumption which he had
already learnt from Schelling, namely, that things which are
different but similar can have the same attribute, and therefore
be also the same. With this powerful instrument of dialectic
in hand, he attempted to show how absolute reason differentiates
itself into subjective and objective, ideal and real, and yet is
the identity of both an identity of opposites, as Schelling had
said. By the same dialectic Hegel was able to justify the
gradual transformation of transcendental into noumenal ideal-
ism by Fichte and Schelling. If things different but similar
have the same attributes, and are thereby the same, then in the
first place the Kantian categories, though thoughts of mental
origin and therefore confined to mind, are nevertheless applicable
Hegel.
232
METAPHYSICS
[NOUMENAL IDEALISM
to things, because things, though different from, are the same
as, thoughts, and have the categories of thoughts; in the second
place, the Fichtian Ego of mankind is not the Absolute Reason
of God, and yet is the same Absolute Reason; in the third place,
the Schellingian Nature is the "other " of Spirit, and yet, being a
mere reflex of the Idea of Nature, is identical with Spirit; and as
this Spirit is everywhere the same in God and men, Nature is
also identical with our Spirit, or rather with the Infinite Spirit,
or Absolute Reason, which alone exists. The crux of all meta-
physical idealism is the difficulty of reconciling the unity of
the object with the plurality of subjects. Hegel's assumption
of identity in difference at once enabled him to deal with the
whole difficulty by holding that different subjects are yet one
subject, and any one object, e.g. the sun, is at once different
from, and identical with, the one subject which is also many.
By the rough magic of this modern Prospero the universe of
being is not, and yet is, thought, idea, spirit, reason, God. So
elastic a solution established a dominant Hegelian school, which
is now practically extinct, in Germany, and from Germany
spread Hegelianism to France, England, America, and, in fact,
diffused it over the civilized world to such an extent that it is
still a widespread fashion outside Germany to believe that the
world of being is a world of thought.
The plain answer is to contest the whole assumption. Different
things, however similar, have only similar attributes, and therefore
are never the same. God created man in His own
" image, and the world in the image of the Divine Idea ;
'' but I am not God, and the transitory sun is not the
same as God's eternal idea of it. The creatures, however like,
are not the same as the Creator and His thoughts. Each is a
distinct thing, as Aristotle said. Reality is not Reason. It is
strange that the underlying assumption of panlogism was not at once
contested in this plain way. Nevertheless, objection was soon taken
to the unsatisfactoriness of the system reared upon it. Schelling
himself, as soon as he saw his own formulae exposed in the logic
or rather dialectic of his disciple, began to reconsider his philosophy
of identity, and brought some powerful objections against both the
conclusions and the method of Hegel. Schelling perceived that
Hegel, in reducing everything to infinite mind, absorbed man's
free but finite personality in God, and, in declaring that everything
real is rational, failed to explain evil and sin: indeed, the English
reader of T. H. Green's Prolegomena to Ethics can see how awkward
is the Hegelian transition from " one spiritual principle" to different
men's individual freedom of choice between good and evil. Again,
Schelling urged that besides the rational element there must be
something else; that there is in nature, as natura naturans, a blind
impulse, a will without intelligence, which belongs to the existent ;
and that even God Himself as the Absolute cannot be pure thought,
because in order to think He must have an existence which cannot
be merely His thought of it, and therefore pure being is the prior
condition of thought and spirit. Hence Schelling objected to the
Hegelian dialectic on the ground that, although reason by itself
can apprehend notions or essences, and even that of God, it cannot
deduce a priori the existence either of God or of Nature, for the
apprehension of which experience is required. He now distinguished
two philosophies: negative philosophy starting from notions, and
positive philosophy starting from being; the former a philosophy
of conditions, the latter of causes, i.e. of existence. Hegel, he said,
had only supplied the logic of negative philosophy ; and it must be
confessed that the most which could be extracted from the Hegelian
dialectic would be some connexion of thoughts without proving any
existence of corresponding things. Schelling was right ; but he had
too much affinity with Hegelian assumptions, e.g. the panlogistic
confusion of the essences of things with the notions of reason, to
-onstruct a positive philosophy without falling into fresh mysticism,
which failed to exorcise the effect of his earlier philosophy of identity
in the growing materialism of the age.
2. Meanwhile, by the side of panlogism arose the panthelism
of Schopenhauer (1788-1860). This new noumenal idealism
Scho a- began, like the preceding, by combining psycho-
hauer*" logical idealism with the transcendentalism of Kant
and Fichte. In Die Welt ols Wille und Vorstellung
Schopenhauer accepted Kant's position that the world as
phenomenal is idea ( Vorstellung) ; but he added that the world
as noumenal is will (Wille). He got the hint of a noumenal will
from Kant; but in regarding the noumenal as knowable, because
mental, as well as in the emphasis he laid on the activity of will,
he resembled Fichte. His theory of the nature of will was
his own, and arrived at from a voluntaristic psychology leading
to a voluntaristic metaphysics of his own. His psychological
starting-point was the unproved assumption that the only
force of which we are immediately aware is will; his metaphysical
goal was the consistent conclusion that in that case the only
force we can know, as the noumenal essence of which all else
is phenomenal appearance, is will. But by this noumenal will
he did not mean a divine will similar to our rational desire, a
will in which an inference and desire of a desirable end and
means produces our rational action. He meant an unintelligent,
unconscious, restless, endless will. In considering the force
of instinct in animals he was obliged to divest will 'of reason.
When he found himself confronted with the blind forces of
Nature he was obliged to divest irrational will of feeling. As he
resolved one force after another into lower and lower grades of
will he was obliged to divest will of all consciousness. In short,
his metaphysics was founded on a misnomer, and simply con-
sisted in calling unconscious forca by the name of unconscious
will (Unbewusster Wille). This abuse of. language brought
him back to Leibnitz. But, whereas Leibnitz imputed uncon-
scious perception as well as unconscious appetition to monads,
Schopenhauer supposed unconscious will to arise without per-
ception, without feeling, without ideas, and to be the cause of
ideas only in us. Hence he rejected the infinite intelligence sup-
posed by Fichte, Schelling and Hegel against whom he urged
that blind will produces intelligence, and only becomes conscious
in us by using intelligence as a means to ends. He also rejected
the optimism of Leibnitz and Hegel, and placed the most irra-
tional of wills at the base of the worst possible of worlds (see
further SCHOPENHAUER). This pessimistic panthelism gradually
won its way, and procured exponents such as J. Frauenstadt,
J. Bahnsen, and, more recently, P. Deussen. The accident of
its pessimism attracted F. W. Nietzsche, who afterwards, passing
from the philosophy of will to the theory of evolution, ended by
imagining that the struggle of the will to live produces the
survival of the fittest, that is, the right of the strongest and the
will to exercise power, which by means of selection may here-
after issue in a new species of superior man the U ebermensch.
Finally, Schopenhauer's voluntarism has had a profound effect
on psychology inside and outside Germany, and to a less degree
produced attempts to deduce from voluntaristic psychology
new systems of voluntaristic metaphysics, such as those of
Paulsen and Wundt.
3. The first to modify the pure voluntarism of Schopenhauer
was E. von Hartmann, who (Die Philosophic des Unbewussten,
1869, ist ed.), advanced the view that the world
1.11 . .1,. tinrtmann.
as noumenal is both unconscious intelligence and
unconscious will, thus founding a panpneumatism which forms
a sort of reconciliation of the panlogism of Hegel and the panthel-
ism of Schopenhauer. In his tract entitled Schelling's positive
Philosophic als Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer (1869) he
further showed that, in his later philosophy, Schelling had
already combined reason and will in the Absolute. Indeed,
Fichte had previously characterized the life of the Absolute by
reason and will without consciousness; and, before Fichte,
Leibnitz had asserted that the elements of Nature are monads
with unconscious perception and appetition. Hartmann has
an affinity with all these predecessors, and with Spinoza, with
whom he agrees that there is but one substance unaltered by
the plurality of individuals which are only its modifications.
Following, however, in the footsteps of Schelling, he idealizes
the one extended and thinking substance into one mental being;
but he thinks that its essence consists in unconscious intelli-
gence and will, of which all individual intelligent wills are only
activities. The merit of this fresh noumenal idealism consists
in its correction of the one-sidedness of Schopenhauer: intelli-
gence is necessary to will. But Hartmann's criticism does
not go far enough. He ends by outdoing the paradox of
Schopenhauer, concluding that Nature in itself is intelligent
will, but unconscious, a sort of immanent unconscious God.
As with his master, his reasons for this view are derived, not from
a direct proof that unconscious Nature has the mental attributes
supposed, but from human psychology and epistemology. Like
Leibnitz, he proceeds from the fact that our perceptions are
NOUMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
233
Lotze.
sometimes conscious, sometimes unconscious, to the inconsequent
conclusion, that there are beings with nothing but unconscious
perceptions; and by a similar non sequitur, because there is the idea
of an end in will, he argues that there must be an unconscious idea
of an end in instinctive, in reflex, in all action. Again, in his Grund-
problem der Erkenntnisstheorie (1889) he uses without proof the
hypothesis of psychological idealism, that we perceive psychical
effects, to infer with merely hypothetical consistency the conclusion
of noumenal metaphysical idealism that all we can thereby know is
psychical causes, or something transcendent, beyond phenomena
indeed, yet not beyond mind. But, according to him, this transcen-
dent is the unconscious (Kraftvolles unbewusst ideales Geschehen).
He calls this epistemology "transcendent realism"; it is really
" transcendent idealism. ' On these foundations he builds the
details of his idealistic metaphysics, (a) He identifies matter with
mind by identifying atomic force with the striving of unconscious
will after objects conceived by unconscious intelligence, and by
defining causality as logical necessity receiving actuality through
will, (b) He contends that, when matter ascends to the evolution
of organic life, the unconscious has a power, over and above its
atomic volitions, of introducing a new element, and that in conse-
quence the facts of variation, selection and inheritance, pointed out
by Darwin, are merely means which the unconscious uses for its own
ends in morphological development, (c) He explains the rise of
consciousness by supposing that, while it requires brain as a condi-
tion, it consists in the emancipation of intelligence from will at the
moment when in sensation the individual mind finds itself with an
idea without will. Here follows his pessimism, like to, but differing
from, that of his master. In his view consciousness begins with
want, and pain preponderates over pleasure in every individual life,
with no hope for the future, while the final end is not consciousness,
but the pamlessness of the unconscious (see PESSIMISM). But why
exaggerate? The truth of Nature is force; the truth of will is
rational desire; the truth of life is neither the optimism of Leibnitz
and Hegel, nor the pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, but
the moderatism of Aristotle. Life is sweet, and most men have
more pleasures than pains in their lives.
4. Lotze (1817-1881) elaborated a very different noumenal
idealism, which perhaps we may express by the name " Pan-
teleologism," to express its conclusion that the known
world beyond phenomena is neither absolute thought
nor unconscious will, nor the unconscious at all, but the activity
of God; causing in us the system of phenomenal appearances,
which we call Nature, or bodies moving in time and space; but
being in itself the system of the universal reciprocal actions
of God's infinite spirit, animated by the design of the supreme
good. The Metaphysik of Lotze in its latest form (1879) begins
with a great truth: metaphysics must be the foundation of
psychology. He saw that the theories of the origin of knowledge
in idealistic epistemology are unsound. Like Aristotle, then,
he proposed anew the question, What is being? Nevertheless
he was too much a child of his age to keep things known steadily
before him; having asked the metaphysical question he proceeded
to find a psychological answer in a theory of sensation, which
asserted the mere hypothesis that the being which we ascribe
to things on the evidence of sensation consists in their being
felt. He really accepted, like Kant, the hypothesis of a sense
of sensations which led to the Kantian conclusion that the
Nature we know in time and space is mere sensible appearances
in us. Further, from an early period in his Medicinische Psycho-
logie (1852) he reinforced the transcendental idealism of Kant
by a general hypothesis of " local signs," containing the sub-
ordinate hypotheses, that we cannot directly perceive extension
either within ourselves or without; that spatial bodies outside
could not cause in us spatial images either in sight or in touch;
but that besides the obvious data of sense, e.g. pressure, heat
and colour, there must be other qualitative different excitations
of different nerve-fibres, by means of which, as non-local signs
of localities, the soul constructs in itself an image of extended
space containing different places. This hypothesis of an ac-
quired perception of a space mentally constructed by " local
signs " supplied Lotze and many succeeding idealists, including
Wundt, with a new argument for metaphysical idealism. Lotze
concluded that we have no more reason for supposing an external
space like space constructed out of our perceptions, than we
have for supposing an external colour like perceived colour.
Agreeing, then, with Kant that primary qualities are as mental
as secondary, he agreed also with Kant that all the Nature
we know as a system of bodies moving in time and space is
sensible phenomena. But while he was in fundamental agree-
ment with the first two positions of Kant, he differed from the
third; he did not believe that the causes of sensible phenomena
can be unknown things in themselves. What then are they?
In answering this question Lotze regarded Leibnitz as his guide.
He accepted the Leibnitzian fallacy that unity is indivisibility,
which led to the Leibnitzian analysis of material bodies into
immaterial monads, indivisible and therefore unextended, and
to the theory of monadic souls and entelechies. Indeed, from
the time of Leibnitz such attempts either to analyse or to con-
struct matter had become a fashion. Lotze agreed with Leibnitz
that the things which cause phenomena are immaterial elements,
but added that they are not simple substances, self-acting, as
Leibnitz thought, or preserving themselves against disturbance,
as Herbart thought, but are interacting modifications of the
one substance of God.
In the first place, he resolved the doubt of Leibnitz about bodies
by deciding entirely against his realistic alternative that an organic
body is a substaniia realizans phaenomena, and for his idealistic
alternative that every body is a phenomenon and not a substance at
all. Secondly, he accepted the Leibnitzian hypothesis of immaterial
elements without accepting their self-action. He believed in recipro-
cal action ; and the very essence of his metaphysics consists in sub-
limating the interaction of bodies into the interaction of immaterial
elements, which produce effects on one another and on the soul as
one of them. According to the mechanics of Newton, when two
bodies collide each body makes the other move equally and
oppositely; but it has become a convenient habit to express this
concrete fact in abstract language by calling it the conservation of
momentum, by talking of one body communicating its motion to the
other; as if bodies exchanged motion as men do money. Now
Lotze took this abstract language literally, and had no difficulty
in showing that, as an attribute is not separated from its substance,
this supposed communication of motion does not really take place:
nothing passes. But instead of returning to the concrete fact of the
equivalence of momentum, by which each body moving makes the
other move oppositely, he denied that bodies do reciprocally act on
one another, and even that bodies as mutually resisting substances
press one another apart in collision. Having thus rejected all bodily
mechanism, he had to suppose that reciprocal action somehow
takes place between immaterial elements. This brought him "to
another difference from Leibnitz as well as from Newton. According
to Leibnitz, Vhile each immaterial element is a monadic substance
and self-acting secondary cause, God is the primary cause of all.
According to Lotze, the connexion required by reciprocity requires
also that the whole of every reciprocal action should take place
within one substance; the immaterial elements act on one another
merely as the modifications of that substance interacting within
itself ; and that one substance is God, who thus becomes not merely
the primary but the sole cause, in scholastic language a causa im-
manens, or agent of acts remaining within the agent's being. At
this point, having rejected both the Newtonian mechanism of bodily
substances and the Leibnitzian automatism of monadic substances,
he flew to the Spinozistic unity of substance; except that, according
to him, the one substance, God, is not extended at all, and is not
merely thinking, but is a thinking, willing and acting spirit.
Lotze's metaphysics is thus distinguished from the theism
of Newton and Leibnitz by its pantheism, and from the panthe-
ism of Spinoza by its idealism. It is an idealistic pantheism,
which is a denial of all bodily mechanism, a reduction of every-
thing bodily to phenomena, and an assertion that all real action
is the activity of God. At the same time it is a curious attempt
to restore mechanism and reconcile it with teleology by using
the word " mechanism " in a new meaning, according to which
God performs His own reciprocal actions within Himself by
uniform laws, which are also means to divine ends. It is also an
attempt to reconcile this divine mechanism with freedom. In
his Metaphysik (1879), as in his earlier M ikrokosmus( 1856-1864),
Lotze vindicated the contingency of freedom by assigning to
God a miraculous power of unconditional commencement,
whereby not only at the very beginning but in the course of
nature there may be new beginnings, which are not effects of
previous causes, though once started they produce effects
according to law. Thus his pantheistic is also a teleological
idealism, which in its emphasis on free activity and moral order
recalls Leibnitz and Fichte, but in its emphasis on the infinity
of God has more affinity to Spinoza, Schelling and Hegel.
Hence his philosophy, like the Hegelian, continually torments
one with the difficulty that its sacrifice of the distinct being of
234
METAPHYSICS
[NOUMENAL IDEALISM
all individual substances to the universality of God entails the
sacrifice of the individual personality of men. Our bodies
were reduced by Lotze to the general ruck of phenomenal appear-
ances. Our souls he tried his best to endow with a quasi-
existence, arguing that the unity of consciousness requires an
indivisible subject, which is distinct from the plurality of the
body but interacting with it, is in a way a centre of independent
activities, and is so far a substance, or rather able to produce
the appearance of a substance. But at the end of his Metaphysik,
from the conclusion that everything beyond phenomena is divine
interaction, he drew the consistent corollary that individual
souls are simply actions of the one genuine being. His final
view was that certain actions of the divine substance are during
consciousness gifted with knowledge of themselves as active
centres, but during unconsciousness are non-existent. If so,
we are not persons with a permanent being of our own distinct
from that of God. But in a philosophy which reduces everything
to phenomenal appearance except the self-interacting substance
of God, there is no room for either the bodies or the souls of
finite substances or human persons.
5. Fechner (1801-1887) affords a conspicuous instance of the
idealistic tendency to mysterize nature in his Panpsychism, or
that form of noumenal idealism which holds that the
rvcnner, . .... . -
universe is a vast communion of spirits, souls of men,
of animals, of plants, of earth and other planets, of the sun, all
embraced as different members in the soul of the world, the high-
est spirit God, in whom we live and move and have our being;
that the bodily and the spiritual, or the physical and the psychical,
are everywhere parallel processes which never meet to interact;
but that the difference between them is only a difference between
the outer and inner aspects of one identical psychophysical
process; and yet that both sides are not equally real, because
while psychical and physical are identical, the psychical is what
a thing really is as seen from within, the physical is what it
appears to be to a spectator outside ; or spirit is the self -appear-
ance of matter, matter the appearance of one spirit to another.
Fechner's panpsychism has a certain affinity both to Stahl's
animism and to the hylozoism of materialists such as Haeckel.
But, while it differs from both in denying the reality of body, it
differs from the former in extending conscious soul not only to
plants, as Stahl did, but to all Nature; and it differs from the
latter in the different consequences drawn by materialism and
idealism from this universal animism. According to Haeckel,
matter is the universal substance, spirit its universal attribute.
According to Fechner, spirit is the universal reality, matter the
universal appearance of spirit to spirit; and they are identical
because spirit is the reality which appears. Hence Fechner
describes himself as a twig fallen from Schelling's stem. Schel-
ling's adherent Oken by his Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie
conveyed to his mind the life-long impression that God is the
universe and Nature God's appearance. At the same time,
while accepting the Schellingian parallelistic identity of all
things in God, Fechner was restrained by his accurate knowledge
of physics from the extravagant construction of Nature, which
had failed in the hands of Schelling and Hegel. Besides, he was
deeply impressed by the fact of man's personality and by the
problem of his personal immortality, which brought him back
through Schelling to Leibnitz, whose Monadologie throughout
maintains the plurality of monadic souls and the omnipresence
of perception, sketches in a few sections ( 23, 78-81) a pan-
psychic parallelism, though without identity, between bodily
motions and psychic perceptions, and, what is most remarkable,
already uses the conservation of energy to argue that physical
energy pursues its course in bodies without interacting with
souls, and that motions produce motions, perceptions produce
perceptions. Leibnitz thus influenced Fechner, as in other
ways he influenced Lotze. Both, however, used this influence
freely; and, whereas Lotze used the Leibnitzian argument from
indivisibility to deduce indivisible elements and souls, Fechner
used the Leibnitzian hypotheses of universal perception and
parallelism of motions and perceptions, in the light of the
Schellingian identification of physical and psychical, to evolve
a world-view (W eltansichC) containing something which was
neither Leibnitz nor Schelling.
Fechner's first point was his panpsychism. Emphasizing the
many real analogies between physical and mental agency, but under-
rating the much stronger evidences that all the mental operations of
men and animals require a nervous system, he flew to the paradox
that soul is not limited to men and animals, but extends p aa .
to plants, to the earth and other planets, to the psych i sm ,
sun, to the world itself, of which, according to him, God
is the world-soul. In this doctrine of universal animation he was
like Leibnitz, yet very different. Whereas Leibnitz confined a
large area of the world to wholly unconscious perceptions, and
therefore preferred to call the souls of inorganic beings " Entelechies,"
Fechner extended consciousness to the whole world ; and accordingly,
whereas Leibnitz believed in a supramundane Creator, " au dessus
du Monde " and " dans le Monde,' Fechner, in the spirit of Schelling,
identified God with the soul of the world. Fechner's second point
was that, throughout the animated universe, physical processes
accompany psychical processes without interaction. In this pan-
psychistic parallelism he was again like Leibnitz, and he developed
his predecessor's view, that the conservation of energy prevents
interaction, into the supposition that alongside the physical there
is a parallel psychical conservation of energy. Here, again, he
went much further than Leibnitz, but along with Schelling, in identi-
fying the physical and the psychical as outer and inner sides of the
same process, in which the inner is the real and the outer the appa-
rent. Fechner's third point carried him beyond all his predecessors,
containing as it does the true originality of his " world-view." He
advanced the ingenious suggestion that, as body is in body and all
ultimately in the world-body, so soul is in soul and all ultimately
in the world-soul. By this means he explained immortality and
vindicated personality. His fourth point was connected with this
inclusion of personal spirits in higher spirits and in the highest.
It is his so-called " synechological view " of the soul. Herbart
and Lotze, both deeply affected by the Leibnitzian hypothesis
of indivisible monads, supposed that man's soul is seated at a central
point in the brain; and Lotze supposed that this supposition is
necessary to explain the unity of consciousness. Fechner's supposi-
tion was that the unity of consciousness belongs to the unity of
the whole body; that the seat of the soul is the living body; that
the soul changes its place as in different parts a process rises above the
" threshold of consciousness "; and that soul is not substance but
the single psychical life which has its physical manifestation in the
single bodily life. Applying this " synechological view " to the
supposed inclusion of soul in soul, he deduced the conclusion that,
as here the nature of one's soul is to unite one's little body, so here-
after its essence will be to unite a greater body, while God's spirit
unites the whole world by His omnipresence; and he pertinently
asked, in opposition to the " punctual " view, whether God's soul
is centred in a point. Lastly, the whole of this " world-view " was
developed by Fechner in early life, under the influence of hig religious
training, and out of a pious desire to understand those main truths
of Christianity which teach us that we are children of God, that this
natural body will become a spiritual body, and that, though we are
different individual members, we live and move and are in God:
" in Deo vivimus, movemus, et sumus." It is important to notice
that Fechner maintained this " world-view " in a little book, Das
BucUein vom Leben nach dem Tode, which he originally published
in 1836 under the pseudonym of Dr Mises, but which he afterwards
republished in his own name in 1866, and again in 1887, as a sketch
of his Weltansicht. Afterwards in Nanna (1848) he discussed the
supposed souls of plants, and in Zendavesta (1851) the supposed souls
of the earth and the rest of the world. Then in 1855 he published
his Atomenlehre, partly founded on his physics, but mainly on his
metaphysics. Under the influence of Leibnitz, Boscovich, Kant
and Herbart, he supposed that bodies are divisible into punctual
atoms, which are not bodies, but centres of forces of attraction
and repulsion; that impenetrability is a result of repulsive force;
and that force itself is only law taking as an instance that Newton-
ian force of attraction whose process we do not understand, and
neglecting that Newtonian force of pressure and impact whose
process we do understand from the collision of bodies already ex-
tended and resisting. But, in thus adapting to his own purposes
the Leibnitzian analysis of material into immaterial, he drew his
own conclusions according to his own metaphysics, which required
that the supposed centres of force are not Leibnitzian " monads,"
nor Herbartian " reals," nor divine modifications such as Lotze
afterwards supposed, but are elements of a system which in outer
aspect is bodily and in inner aspect is spiritual, and obeying laws of
spirit. At the same time his synechological view prevented him
from saying that every atom has a soul, because according to him a
soul always corresponds to a unity of a physical manifold. Thus
his metaphysics is Leibnitzian, like that of Lotze, and yet is opposed
to the most characteristic feature of monadology the percipient
indivisible monad.
In 1860 appeared Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik, a work
which deeply affected subsequent psychology, and almost revolu-
tionized metaphysics of body and soul, and of physical and psychical
relations generally. It becomes necessary, therefore, to determine
NOUMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
235
how far Fechner derived his psychophysics from experience, how far
from fallacies of inference, from his romantic imagination and from
his theosophic metaphysics, which indeed coloured his whole book on
psychophysics. At the very outset he started with his previous
metaphysical hypothesis of parallelistic identity without interaction.
He now compared the spiritual and bodily sides of a man to the con-
cave and convex sides of a circle, as inner and outer sides of the same
process, which is psychical as viewed from within and physical as
viewed from without. He also maintained throughout the book that
physical and psychical energy do not interfere, but that the psychical
is, like a mathematical quantity, a function of the physical, depend-
ing upon it, and vice versa, only in the sense that a constant relation
according to law exists, such that we may conclude from one to the
other, but without one ever being cause of the other. By his
psychophysics he meant the exact doctrine of the relations of depen-
dency between physical and psychical. The name was new, but
not the doctrine. From antiquity men had applied themselves to
determine' the relations between the physical stimuli and the so-
called " quality " of sensations. But what was new was the applica-
tion of this doctrine to the relations between the stimuli and the so-
called " intensity " of sensations. He generalized Weber's law (q.v.)
in the form that sensation generally increases in intensity as the
stimulus increases by a constant function of the previous stimulus;
or increases in an arithmetical progression as the stimulus increases
in a geometrical ratio ; or increases by addition of the same amount
as the stimulus increases by the same multiple; or increases as the
logarithm of the stimulus. There are then, at least within the limits
of moderate sensations, concomitant variations between stimuli and
sensations, not only in " quality," as in the intervals of sounds,
which were understood long ago, but also in " intensity "; and the
discovery of the latter is the importance of Weber's and Fechner's
law. By the rules of induction from concomitant variations, we
are logically bound to infer the realistic conclusion that outer physical
stimuli cause inner sensations of sensible effects. But, unfortunately
for Fechner, the very opposite conclusion followed from the pre-
suppositions of his parallelistic metaphysics, and from the Leibnitz-
ian view of the conservation of energy, which he was the first in our
time to use in order to argue that a physical cause cannot produce
a psychical effect, on the ground that physical energy must be
exactly replaced by physical energy.
Having satisfied himself in what he called " outer psychophysics,"
that the stimulus causes only the nervous process and not sensation,
he passed to what he called " inner psychophysics," or the theory
of the relation between nervous and psychical processes. He
rightly argued against the old theory that the continuity of nervous
processes in the brain is interrupted by mental processes of thought
and will : there is a nervous process for every mental process. But
two questions then arose. What is the relation between nervous
process and sensation? What causes sensation? The first question
he answered from his imagination by supposing that, while the
external world is stimulus of the nervous process, the nervous
process is the immediate stimulus of the sensation, and that the
sensation increases by a constant fraction of the previous stimulus
in the nemous system, when Weber's law proves only that it increases
by a constant fraction of the previous stimulus in the external world.
The second question he answered from his parallelistic metaphysics
by deducing that even within the organism there is only a constant
dependency of sensation on nervous process without causation,
because the nervous process is physical but the sensation psychical.
This answer supposed that the whole physical process from the
action of the external stimulus on the nervous system to the reaction
of the organism on the external world is one series, while the con-
scious process beginning with sensation is only parallel and as it were
left high and dry. What then is the cause of the sensation ?
Huxley, it will be remembered, in similar circumstances, answered
this question by degrading consciousness to an epiphenomenon,
or bye-product of the physical process. Fechner was saved from
this absurdity, but only to fall into the greater absurdity of his own
panpsychism. Having long assumed that the whole world is
animated throughout, and that there are always two parallel series,
physical and psychical, he concluded that, while a physical stimulus
is causing a physical nervous process, a psychical accompaniment
of the stimulus is causing the sensation, which, according to him,
is the psychical accompaniment of the nervous process; and that,
as the whole physical and the whole psychical series are the same,
differing only as outer and inner, this identity holds both of stimulus
and its psychical accompaniment and of nervous process and its
accompanying sensation. Accordingly, he calls these and all other
processes " psychophysical " ; and as he recognized two parallel
energies, physical and psychical, differing only as outer and inner
aspects of the same energy, he called this "psychophysical energy."
In such a philosophy all reality is " psychophysical." At the same
time Fechner would not have us suppose that the two sides are equal ;
according to him, the psychical, being the psychophysical as viewed
from within, is real, the physical, being the psychophysical viewed
from without, is apparent ; so in oneself, though nervous process and
psychical process are the same, it is the psychical which is the reality
of which the nervous is mere appearance; and so everywhere, spirit
is the reality, body the appearance of spirit to spirit. Finally, he
supposed that one spirit is in another, and all in the highest spirit,
God. By this means also he explained unconsciousness. In point
of fact, many stimuli are beneath the " threshold " of a man's con-
sciousness. Leibnitz, in the Nouveaux Essais, ii. n, had also said
that we have many " petites perceptions," of which we are un-
conscious, and had further suggested that a perception of which
we are, is composed of a quantity of " petites perceptions " of which
we are not, conscious. Proceeding on this suggestion, and misled
by the mathematical expression which he had given to Weber's law,
Fechner held that a conscious sensation, like its stimulus, consists
of units, or elements, by summation and increments of which
conscious sensations and their differences are produced; so that
consciousness, according to this unnecessary assumption, emerges
from an integration of unconscious shocks or tremors. But by the
hypothesis of the inclusion of spirit in spirit, he was further able to
hold that what is unconscious in one spirit is conscious in a higher
spirit, while everything whatever is in the consciousness of the
highest spirit of God, who is the whole of reality of which the spirits
are parts, while the so-called physical world is merely outer appear-
ance of one spirit to another.
Fechner first confused physics and metaphysics in psychophysics,
and next proceeded to confuse them again in his work on evolution
(Einige Ideen zur Schopfungs und Enturicklungs-geschichle der Organis-
men, 1873). He perceived that Darwinism attributed too much to
accident, and was also powerless to explain the origin of life and
of consciousness. But his substitute was his own hypothesis of
panpsychism, from which he deduced a " cosmorganic evolution
from a " cosmorganic " or original condition of the world as a living
organism into the inorganic, by the principle of tendency to stability.
The world, as he thought, on its physical side, always was a living
body; and on its psychical side God always was its conscious spirit;
and, so far from life arising from the lifeless, and consciousness from
unconsciousness, the life and consciousness of the whole world are
the origin of the lifeless and the unconscious in parts of it, by a kind
of secondary automatism, while we ourselves are developed from our
own mother-earth by differentiation. By thus supposing a psychical
basis to evolution, Fechner, anticipating Wundt, substituted a
psychical development of organs for Darwinian accidental variation.
The difficulty of such speculations is to prove that things apparently
dead and mindless are living souls. Their interest to the metaphysi-
cian is their opposition to physics on the one hand and to theism
on the other. Shall we resign our traditional belief that the greater
part of the world is mere body, but that its general adaptability to
conscious organisms proves its creation and government by God,
and take to the new hypothesis, which, by a transfer of design from
God to Nature, supposes that everything physical is alive, and con-
ducts its life by psychical impulses of its own? Fechner himself
went even further, and together with design transferred God Himself
to Nature. This is the subject of his last metaphysical work, Die
Tagesansicht gegeniiber der Nachtansicht (1879). The " day-view "
(Fechner's) is the view that God is the psychophysical all-embracing
being, the law and consciousness of the world. It resembles the views
of Hegel and Lotze in its pantheistic tendency. But it does not,
like theirs, sacrifice our personality; because, according to Fechner,
the one divine consciousness includes us as a larger circle includes
smaller circles. By this ingenious suggestion of the membership
of one spirit in another, Fechner's " day-view " also puts Nature in
a different position; neither with Hegel sublimating it to the thought
of God's mind, nor with Lotze degrading it to the phenomena of our
human minds, but identifying it with the outer appearance of one
spirit to another spirit in the highest of spirits.
We have dwelt on this curious metaphysics of Fechner because
it contains the master-key to the philosophy of the present
moment. When the later reaction to Kant arose against both
Hegelianism and materialism, the nearly contemporary appear-
ance of Fechner's Psychophysics began to attract experimental
psychologists by its real as well as its apparent exactness, ahd
both psychologists and metaphysicians by its novel way of
putting the relations between the physical and the psychical
in man and in the world. Fechner saw psychology deriving
advantage from the methods, as well as the results, of his
experiments, and in 1879 the first psychological laboratory was
erected by Wundt at Leipzig. But he had also to endure count-
less objections to his mathematical statement of Weber's law,
to his unnecessary assumption of units of sensation, and to his
unjustifiable transfer of the law from physical to physiological
stimuli of sensations, involving in his opinion his parallelistic
view of body and mind. Among psychologists Helmholtz, Mach,
Brentano, Hering, Delboeuf, were all more or less against him.
Sigwart in his Logic has also opposed the parallelistic view itself;
and James has criticized it from the point of view that the soul
selects out of the possibilities of the brain means to its own ends.
Nevertheless, largely under the influence of the exaggeration
236
METAPHYSICS
[PHENOMENAL IDEALISM
of the conservation of energy, many psychologists Wundt,
Paulsen, Riehl, Jodl, Ebbinghaus, Munsterberg, and in England
Lewes, Clifford, Romanes, Stout have accepted Fechner's
psychophysical parallelism, as far at least as men and animals
are concerned. Most stop here, but some go with Fechner to
the full length of his metaphysical parallelism of the physical
and psychical, as psychophysical, throughout the whole world.
This influence extended from Germany to Denmark, where it
was embraced by Hoffding, and to England, where it was accepted
by Romanes, and in a more qualified manner as " a working
hypothesis " by Stout. But the most thorough and most
eloquent of Fechner's metaphysical disciples was F. Paulsen
(g.v.), who spread panpsychism far and wide in his EMeitung in
die Philosophic.
Here reappear all the characteristic points of Fechner's " world-
view " the panpsychism, the universal parallelism with the identi-
. fication of physical and psychical, the inclusion of spirit
' ea ' in spirit, the synechological view of spirit, and the final
" day-view " that all reality is spirit, and body the appearance of
spirit to spirit. But Paulsen tries to supply something wanting in
Fechner. The originality of Paulsen consists in trying to supply an
epistemological explanation of the metaphysics of Fechner, by recon-
ciling him with Kant and Schopenhauer. He borrows from Kant's
"rationalism " the hypothesis of a spontaneous activity of the
subject with the deduction that knowledge begins from sense, but
arises from understanding; and he accepts from Kant's metaphysical
idealism the consequence that everything we perceive, experience
and know about physical nature, ana the bodies of which it consists,
is phenomena, and not bodily things in themselves. But he has a
different theory of human nature and soul, and so does not accept
the Kantian conclusion that things in themselves, in the sense of
things beyond phenomena, are all unknowable. On the contrary,
his contention is that of Fechner that all knowable things are inner
psychical realities beneath outer physical appearances the invisible
symbolized by the visible. Kant, however, had no epistemology
for such a contention, because according to him both outer and
inner senses give mere appearance, from which we could not know
either body in itself, or soul in itself. Parting, then, from Kant,
Paulsen resorts to a paradox which he shares with Fechner and
Wundt. He admits, indeed, Kant's hypothesis that by inner sense
we are conscious only of mental states, but he contends that this
very consciousness is a knowledge of a thing in itself. He agrees
with Fechner and Wundt that there is no substantial soul, and that
soul is nothing but the mental states, or rather their unity thus
identifying it with Kant's synthetic unity. On this assumption
he deduces that in being conscious of our mental states we are
conscious of soul not merely as it appears, but as it is in itself, and
therefore can infer similar souls, other psychical unities, which are
also things in themselves.
But what is the essence of this psychical reality which we thus
immediately and mediately know? Here he appeals to Schopen-
hauer's doctrine that will of some sort is the fundamental fact of
mental life. Taking, then, will to be the essential thing in itself
of which we are conscious, he deduces that we can infer that the
psychical things in themselves beyond ourselves are also essentially
wills." Combining with this the central dogma of Fechner that
spirit extends throughout the world of bodily appearance, he con-
cludes that the realities of the world are " wills, that bodies are
mere appearances of " wills," and that there is one universal and
all-embracing spirit which is " will." His ultimate metaphysics,
then, is this: Everything is spirit, and spirit is " will." Lastly,
by " will " he does not mean rational desire," which is its proper
meaning, but inapplicable to Nature; nor unconscious irrational will,
which is Schopenhauer's forced meaning; nor unconscious intelligent
will, which is Hartmann's more correct meaning, though inapplicable
to Nature. His " will " is instinct, impulsive feeling, a " will to
live," not indeed unconscious, but often subconscious, without idea,
without reasoning about ends and means, yet pursuing ends -in
short, what he calls, after K. E. von Baer, Zielstrebigkeit. How
persistent is ancient animism! Empedocles, Plato and Aristotle;
Telesio, Bruno and Campanella; Leibnitz; the idealists, Schopen-
hauer and Hartmann, Fechner and Paulsen; and the materialist,
Haeckel all have agreed in according some sort of appetition to
Nature. So prone are men to exaggerate adaptation into aim! So
prone are they to transfer to Nature the part played by the
providence of God ! (see Bacon, De augmentis, iii. 4, sub fin.).
Noumenal idealism is not dead in Germany. It died down for
a time in the decline of Hegelianism and the rise of materialism.
It has since revived. The pure idealism of Fichte is at the
bottom of it all. The panlogism of Schelling and Hegel survives
in its influence. So still more does the pantheism of Schopen-
hauer. The three most vital idealisms of this kind at the moment
are the panpneumatism of Hartmann, combining Hegel with
Schopenhauer; the panteleologism of Lotze, reviving Leibnitz;
and the panpsychism of Paulsen, continuing Fechner, but with
the addition of an epistemology combining Kant with Schopen-
hauer. All these systems of metaphysics, differ as they m.ay,
agree that things are known to exist beyond sensible phenomena,
but yet are mental realities of some kind. Meanwhile, the
natural substances of Aristotelian realism are regarded with
common aversion.
5. PHENOMENAL IDEALISM IN GERMANY
Phenomenal idealism is the metaphysics which deduces that,
as we begin by perceiving nothing but mental phenomena of
sense, so all we know at last from these data is also phenomena
of sense, actual or possible. So far it is in general agreement
not only with Hume, but also with Kant in his first two positions.
But it follows Fichte in his revolt against the unknown thing in
itself. On the other hand, as the speculative systems of nou-
menal idealism, starting from Fichte, succeeded one another, like
ghosts who " come like shadows, so depart," without producing
conviction, and often in flagrant opposition to the truths of
natural science, and when, in consequence, a wave of materialism
threatened to submerge mind altogether by reducing it to a
function of matter, many philosophers began to despair of the
ambitious attempts which had been made to prove that there is a
whole world of mind beyond phenomena, as the noumenalists
had supposed. Thus they were thrown back on the limits of
human knowledge prescribed by Kant, but purged of the un-
known thing in itself by Fichte. Phenomenal idealism is the
Kantian contention that Nature, as known to science, is pheno-
mena of experience. Unfortunately, the word " phenomenon "
is equivocal (see Mind, xiv. 309). Sometimes it is 'used for any
positive fact, as distinguished from its cause. But sometimes
also it means what appears, or can appear, to the senses, as
distinguished from what does not appear, but can be inferred
to exist. Now, Kant and his followers start from this second and
narrower meaning, and usually narrow it still more by assuming
that what appears to the senses is as mental as the sensation,
being undistinguishable from it or from the idea of it, and that
an appearance is a mental idea( Vorstellung) of sense; and then
they conclude that we can know by inference nothing but such
mental appearances, actual and possible, and therefore nothing
beyond sensory experience. When, on the other hand, the
objects of science are properly described as phenomena, what is
meant is not this pittance of sensible appearances, but positive
facts of all kinds, whether perceptible or imperceptible, whether
capable of being experienced or of being inferred from, but
beyond, experience, e.g. the farther side of the moon, which
is known to exist only by inference. Hence the doctrine of
Kant, that Nature as known to science is phenomena, means one
thing in Kantism and another thing in science. In the former
it means that Nature is mental phenomena, actual and possible,
of sensory experience; in the latter it means that Nature is
positive facts, either experienced or inferred. It is most impor-
tant also to notice that Kantism denies, but science asserts, the
logical power of reason to infer actual things beyond experience.
But the phenomenal idealists have not, any more than Kant,
noticed the ambiguity of the term " phenomenon "; they fancy
that, in saying that all we know is phenomena in the Kantian
sense of mental appearances, they are describing all the positive
facts that science knows; and they follow Kant in suppos-
ing that there is no logical inference of actual things beyond
experience.
i. The Reaction to Kant. The reaction to Kant(" Zuriick zu
Kant!") was begun by O. Liebmann in Kant und die Epigonen
(1865). Immediately afterwards, in 1866, appeared Lange's
Geschichte des Materialismus. In 1870 J. B. Meyer published his
Kants Psychologie, and in 1871 H. Cohen his more important
Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, which led Lange to modify his
interpretation of Kant in the second edition of his own book.
Lange (17.11.) by his History of Materialism has exercised a pro-
found influence, which is due partly to its apparent success in
answering materialism by Kantian arguments, and partly to
PHENOMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
237
its ingenious attempt to give to Kantism itself a consistency,
which, however, has only succeeded in producing a new
Lange. philosophy of Neo-Kantism, differing from Kantism
in modifying the a priori and rejecting the thing
in itself. Lange to some extent modified the transcen-
dentalism of Kant's theory of the origin of knowledge. A
priori forms, according to Kant, are contributions of the
mental powers of sense, understanding, and reason; but, accord-
ing to Lange, they are rooted in " the physico-psychical organi-
zation." This modification was the beginning of a gradual
lessening of the antithesis of a priori to a posteriori, until at
last the a priori forms of Kant have been transmuted into
" auxiliary conceptions," or " postulates of experience."
But this modification made no difference to the Kantian and
Neo-Kantian deduction from the epistemological to the meta-
' physical. Lange entirely agreed with Kant that a priori forms
can have no validity beyond experience when he says: " Kant is
at any rate so far justified as the principle of intuition in space
and time a priori is in us, and it was a service to all time that he
should in this first great example, show that what we possess a
priori, just because it arises out of the disposition of our mind,
beyond our experience has no longer any claim to validity " (Hist,
of Materialism, trans. E. C. Thomas, ii. 203). Hence he deduced
that whatever we know from sensations arranged in such a priori
forms are objects of our own experience and mental phenomena.
Hence also his answer to materialism. Science, says the mate-
rialist, proves that all known things are material phenomena.
Yes, rejoins Lange, but Kant has proved that material are merely
mental phenomena; so that the more the materialist proves his
case the more surely he is playing into the hands of the idealist
an answer which would be complete if it did not turn on the
equivocation of the word " phenomenon," which in science
means any positive fact, and not a mere appearance, much less a
mental appearance, to sense and sensory experience. Having,
however, made a deduction, which is at all events consistent,
that on Kantian assumptions all we know is mental phenomena,
Lange proceeded to reduce the rest of Kantism to consistency.
But his ardent love of consistency led him far away from Kant
in the end; for he proceeded consistently from the assumption,
that whatever we think beyond mental phenomena is ideal, to
the logical conclusion that in practical matters our moral responsi-
bility cannot prove the reality of a noumenal freedom, because,
as on Kant's assumption we know ourselves from inner sense
only as phenomena, we can prove only our phenomenal freedom.
Lange thus transmuted inconsistent Kantism into a consistent
Neo-Kantism, consisting of these reformed positions: (i) we start
with sensations in a priori forms; (2) all things known from these
data are mental phenomena of experience; (3) everything beyond
is idea, without any corresponding reality being knowable.
" The intelligible world," he concluded, " is a world of poetry."
Our reflection is that there is a great difference between the
essence and the consistency of Kant's philosophy. Its essence,
as stated by Kant, was to reduce the logical use of reason to
mental phenomena of experience in speculation, in order to
extend the practical use of reason to the real noumena, or things
in themselves, required for morality. Its consistency, as deduced
by Lange, was to reduce all use of reason, speculative and
practical, to its logical use of proceeding from the assumed mental
data of outer and inner sense, arranged a priori, to mental
phenomena of experience, beyond which we can conceive ideas
but postulate nothing. As H. Vaihinger, himself a profound
Kantian of the new school, says: " Critical scepticism is the
proper result of the Kantian theory of knowledge."
There is only one Neo-Kantian way out of this dilemma, but it is
to alter the original assumptions of Kant's psychological idealism.
This is the alternative of A. Riehl, who in Der philosophische Kriticis-
Rlehl mus ('876' &c.) proposes the non-Kantian hypothesis
that, though things in themselves are unknowable
through reason alone, they are knowable by empirical intuition, and
therefore also by empirical thought starting from intuition. Like
all true followers of Kant, Riehl prefers epistemplogy to metaphysics ;
yet in reality he founds a metaphysics on epistemology, which he
calls " critical realism," so far as it asserts a knowledge of things
beyond phenomena, and " critical monism," so far as it holds that
these things are unlike both physical and psychical phenomena, but
are nevertheless the common basis of both. He accepts the Kantian
positions that unity of consciousness combines sensations by a
priori synthesis, and that therefore all that natural science knows
about matter moving in space is merely phenomena of outer sense;
and he agrees with Kant that from these data we could not infer
things in themselves by reason. But his point is that the very
sensation of phenomena or appearances implies the things which
appear. Sensory knowledge, he says, " is the knowledge of the
relations of things through the relations of the sensations of things."
f Urt u r ' "' din S tnat ' " ''ke every other perception, the perception
of a human body immediately involves the existence of that body,"
and, ,ike Fichte, believing in a " common consciousness," he con-
cludes that the evidence of sense is verined by " common conscious-
ness of the external world as objective in the Kantian sense of
universally valid. He interprets the external world to be the com-
mon basis of physical and psychical phenomena. He rightly relies
on the numerous passages, neglected by Lange, in which Kant
regards things in themselves as neither phenomena nor ideas, but
things existing beyond both. But his main reliance is on the
passage in the Knttk, where Kant, speaking cf the Cartesian difficulty
of communication between body and soul, suggests that, however
body and soul appear to be different in the phenomena of outer and
inner sense, what lies as thing in itself at the basis of the phenomena
of both may perhaps be not so heterogeneous (ungleichartig) after
all. Riehl elaborates this bare suggestion into the metaphysical
theory that the single basis of physical and psychical phenomena
is neither bodily nor mental, nor yet space and motion. In order
to establish this paradox of " critical monism," he accepts to a certain
extent the psychophysical philosophy of Fechner. He agrees with
Fechner that physical process of nerve and psychical process of
mind are really the same psychophysical process as appearing on
the one hand to an observer and on the other hand to one's own
consciousness; and that physical phenomena only produce physical
phenomena, so that those materialists and realists are wrong who
say that physical stimuli produce sensations. But whereas Fechner
and Paulsen hold that all physical processes are universally accom-
panied by psychical processes which are the real causes of psychical
sensations, Riehl rejects this paradox of universal parallelism io
order to fall into the equally paradoxical hypothesis that something
or other, which is neither physical not psychical, causes both the
physical phenomena of matter moving in space and the psychical
phenomena of mind to arise in us as its common effects. In supposing
a direct perception of such a nondescript thing, he shows to what
straits idealists are driven in the endeavour to supplement Kant's
limitation of knowledge to phenomena by some sort of knowledge
of things.
2. The Reaction to Hume. When the Neo-Kantians, led by
Lange, had modified Kant's hypothesis of a priori forms, and
retracted Kant's admission and postulation of things in them-
selves beyond phenomena and ideas, and that too without
proceeding further in the direction of Fichte and the noumenal
idealists, there was not enough left of Kant to distinguish him
essentially from Hume. For what does it matter to meta-
physics whether by association sensations suggest ideas, and so
give rise to ideas of substance and causation a posteriori, or
synthetic unity of consciousness combines sensations by a priori
notions of substance and causation into objects which are merely
mental phenomena of experience, when it is at once allowed by
the followers of Hume and Kant alike that reason in any logical
use has no power of inferring things beyond the experience of
the reasoner? In either case, the effective power of inference,
which makes us rational beings, is gone. Naturally then the
reaction to Kant was followed by a second reaction to Hume,
partly under the name of " Positivism," which has attracted a
number of adherents, such as C. Goring (1841-1879), author of
an incomplete System der Kritischen Philosophie (1874-1875) and
E. Laas (q.ii.), and partly under the name of the " physical
phenomenology " of E. Mach.
Ernst Mach (q.ii.) is a conspicuous instance of a confusion of
physics and psychology ending in a scepticism like that of Hume.
He tells us how from his youth he pursued physical Macll
and psychological studies, how at the age of fifteen he
read Kant's Prolegomena, and later rejected the thing in itself,
and came to the conclusion that the world with his ego is one
mass of sensations. For a time, under the influence of Fechner's
Psychophysics, he thought that Nature has two sides, a physical
and a psychological, and added that all atoms have feeling. But
in the progress of his physical work, which taught him, as he
thought, to distinguish between what we see and what we
2 3 8
METAPHYSICS
[PHENOMENAL IDEALISM
mentally supply, he soon passed from this noumenalism to a
" universal physical phenomenology." It retains some relics of
Fechner's influence; first, the theory of identity, according to
which the difference between the physical and psychical is not a
dualism, but everything is at once both; and secondly, the substi-
tution of mathematical dependence for physical causality, except
that, whereas Fechner only denied causality between physical
and psychical, Mach rejects the entire distinction between
causality and dependence, on the ground that " the law of
causality simply asserts that the phenomena of Nature are
dependent on one another." He comes near to Hume's substi-
tution of succession of phenomena for real causality. He holds,
like Hume, that nothing is real except our sensations and com-
plexes of sensory elements; that the ego is not a definite, unalter-
able, sharply bounded unity, but its continuity alone is important;
and that we know no real causes at all, much less real causes of
our sensations; or, as he expresses it, bodies do not produce
sensations, but complexes of sensations form bodies. If he has
any originality, it consists in substituting for the association of
ideas the " economy of thinking," by which he means that all
theoretical conceptions of physics, such as atoms, molecules,
energy, &c., are mere helps to facilitate our consideration of
things. But he limits this power of mind beyond sensations
to mere ideas, and like Hume, and also like Lange, holds at last
that, though we may form ideas beyond sensations or pheno-
mena, we cannot know things. If we ask how Mach arrived at
this scepticism, which is contained in his well-known scientific
work Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung (1883; ed. 1908) as
well as in his psychological work on the Analysis of Sensations
(Beitragezur Analyse der Empfindungen, 1886), we find two main
causes, both psychological and epistemological; namely, his
views on sense and on inference. In the first place, he displays
in its most naked form the common but unproved idealistic
paradox of a sense of sensations, according to which touch
apprehends not pressure but a sensation of pressure, sight
apprehends not colour but a sensation of colour, and there is no
difference between the sensory operation and the sensible
object apprehended by any sense, even within the sentient
organism. Hence, according to him, sensations are not appre-
hensions of sensible objects (e.g. pressures felt) from which we
infer similar objects beyond sense (e.g. similar pressures of outside
things), but are the actual elements out of which everything
known is made; as if sensations were like chemical elements.
Within the limits of these supposed sensory elements he accords
more than many psychologists do to sense; because, following
the nativists, Johannes M tiller and Hering, he includes sensations
of time and space, which, however, are not to be regarded as
" pure intuitions " in the style of Kant. But here again he
identifies time and space with the sensations of them (Zeit-
empfindungcn and Raumempfindungen) . On the assumption,
then, that time and space are not objects, but systems, of sensa-
tions, he concludes that a body in time and space is " a relatively
constant sum of touch-and-light-sensations, joined to the same
time-and-space-sensations," that each man's own body is included
in his sensations, and that to explain sensations by motions
would only be to explain one set of sensations from another. In
short, sensations are elements and bodies complexes of these
elements. Secondly, his theory of inference contains the admis-
sion that we infer beyond sensations: he remarks that the space
of the geometer is beyond space-sensations, and the time of the
physicist does not coincide with time-sensations, because it
uses measurements such as' the rotation of the earth and the
vibrations of the pendulum. But by inference beyond sense he
does not mean a process of concluding from sensible things to
similar things, e.g. from tangible pressures to other similar
pressures in the external world. Inference, according to him,
is merely mental completion of sensations; and this mental
completion has two characteristics: it only forms ideas, and it
proceeds by an " economy of thought." In the course of his
learned studies on the history of mechanics he became deeply
impressed with Galileo's appeals to simplicity as a test of truth,
and converted what is at best only one characteristic of thinking
KlKhhott.
into its essence. According to him, whatever inferences we
make, certain or uncertain, are mere economies of thought,
adapting ideas to sensations, and filling out the gaps of experience
by ideas; whatever we infer, whether bodies, or molecules, or
atoms, or space of more than three dimensions, are all without
distinction equally provisional conceptions, things of thought;
and " bodies or things are compendious mental symbols for
groups of sensations symbols which do not exist outside
thought." Moreover, he applies the same scepticism to cause
and effect. " In Nature," says he, " there is no cause and no
effect. " He thinks that repetitions of similar conjunctions
occur in Nature, the connexion of cause and effect only in abstrac-
tion. He refers to Hume as recognizing no causality but only
a customary and habitual succession, but adds that Kant rightly
recognizes that mere observation cannot teach the necessity of
the conjunction. But in reality his theory is neither Hume's
theory of association nor Kant's of an a priori notion of under-
standing under which a given case is subsumed. He thinks that
there is a notion of understanding (Verstandesbegriff), under
which every new experience is subsumed, but that it has been
developed by former experience, instinctively, and by the
development of the race, as part of the economy of thinking.
" Cause and effect are therefore," he concludes, " thought-things
of economical function (Gedankendinge von okonomischer
Function}." His philosophy, therefore, is that all known things
are sensations and complexes of sensory elements, supplemented
by an economy of thinking which cannot carry us beyond ideas
to real things, or beyond relations of dependency to real causes.
It is important to understand that Mach had developed this
economical view of thought in 1872, more than ten years before
the appearance of his work on the history of mechanics
as he tells us in the preface, where he adds that at a
later date similar views were expressed by Kirchhoff in his Vorle-
sungen iiber mathematische Physik (1874). Kirchhoff asserted that
the whole object of mechanics is " to describe the motions occur-
ring in Nature completely in the simplest manner." This view
involves the denial of force as a cause, and the assertion that all
we know about force is that the acceleration of one mass depends
on that of another, as in mathematics a function depends on
a variable; and that even Newton's third law of motion is merely
a description of the fact that two material points determine in
one another, without reciprocally causing, opposite accelerations.
It is evident that Kirchhoff 's descriptive is the same as Mach's
economical view. " When I say," says Mach, " that a body A
exerts a force on a body B, I mean that B, on coming into contra-
position with A, is immediately affected by a certain acceleration
with respect to A." In a word, Mach and Kirchhoff agree that
force is not a cause, convert Newtonian reciprocal action into
mere interdependency, and, in old terminology, reduce mechanics
from a natural philosophy of causes to a natural history of mere
facts. Now, Mach applies these preconceived opinions to
" mechanics in its development," with the result that, though he
shows much skill in mathematical mechanics, he misrepresents its
development precisely at the critical point of the discovery of
Newton's third law of motion.
The true order of discovery, however, was as fol|ows:
(a) Sir Christopher Wren made many experiments before the.
Royal Society, which were afterwards repeated in a corrected form
by Sir Isaac Newton in the Principia, experimentally proving that'
bodies of ascertained comparative weights, when suspended and
impelled against one another, forced one another back by impressing
on one another opposite changes of velocity inversely as their
weights and therefore masses ; that is, by impressing on one another
equal and opposite changes of momentum.
(b) Wallis showed that such bodies reduce one another to a joint
mass with a common velocity equal to their joint momentum
divided by their joint weights or masses. This result is easily
deducible also from Wren's discovery. If m and m' are the masses,
u and v' their initial velocities, and V the common velocity, then
m(v - V) = m'(V - v'), therefore mv + m'v' = (m + m')V, and
hence (mv + m'v')/(m + m') = V.
(c) Wren and Huygens further proved that the law of equal action
and reaction, already experimentally established by the former,
is deducible from the conservation of the velocity of the common
:entre of gravity, which is the same as the common velocity of the
bodies, that is, deducible from the fact that their common centre
PHENOMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
239
of gravity does not change its state of motion or rest by the actions
of the bodies between themselves; and they further extended the
law to bodies, qua elastic.
(d) Hence, first inductively and then deductively, the third law
was originally discovered only as a law of collision or impact between
bodies of ascertained weights and therefore masses, impressing on
one another equal and opposite changes of momentum, and always
reducing one another to a joint mass with a common velocity to
begin with, apart from the subsequent effects of elasticity.
(e) Newton in the Principia, repeating and correcting Wren's
experiments on collision, and adding further instances from attrac-
tive forces of magnetism and gravity, induced the third law of motion
as a general law of all forces.
This order of discovery shows that the third law was generalized
from the experiments of Wren on bodies of ascertained comparative
weights or masses, which are not material points or mass-points.
It shows that the bodies impress on one another opposite changes of
velocity inversely as their weights or masses; and that in doing so
they always begin by reducing one another to a joint mass with a
common velocity, whatever they may do afterwards in consequence
of their elasticities. The two bodies therefore do not penetrate one
another, but begin by acting on one another with a force precisely
sufficient, instead of penetrating one another, to cause them to form
a joint mass with a common velocity. Bodies then are triply
extended substances, each occupying enough space to prevent mutual
penetration, and by this force of mutual impenetrability or inter-
resistance cause one another to form a joint mass with a common
velocity whenever they collide. Withdraw this foundation of
bodies as inter-resisting forces causing one another in collision to
form a joint mass with a common velocity but without penetration,
and the evidence of the third law disappears; for in the case of attrac-
tive forces we know nothing of their modus operandi except by the
analogy of the collision of inter-resisting bodies, which makes us
believe that something similar, we know not what, takes place
in gravity, magnetism, electricity, &c. Now, Mach, though he
occasionally drops hints that the discovery of the law of collision
comes first, yet never explains the process of development from it
to the third law of motion. On the contrary, he treats the law of
collision with other laws as an application of the third law of motion,
because it is now unfortunately so taught in books of mechanics.
He has therefore lost sight of the truths that bodies are triply
extended, mutually impenetrable substances, and by this force
causes which reduce one another to a joint mass with a common
velocity on collision, as for instance in the ballistic pendulum; that
these forces are the ones we best understand; and that they are
reciprocal causes of the common velocity of their joint mass, what-
ever happens afterwards. In the case of this one force we know
far more than the interdependence supposed by Mach and Kirch-
hoff; we know bodies with impenetrable force causing one another
to keep apart. It might have been expected that scepticism on this
subject would not have had much effect. But the idealists-are only
too glad to get any excuse for denying bodily suttstances and causes;
and, while Leibnitz supplied them with the fancied analysis of
material into immaterial elements, and Hume with the reduction
of bodies to assemblages of sensations, Mach adds the additional
argument that bodily forces are not causes at all. In Great Britain
Mach's scepticism was welcomed by Karl Pearson to support an
idealistic phenomenalism derived from Hume, and by Ward to sup-
port a noumenal idealism derived from Lotze. No real advance
in metaphysics can take place, and natural science itself is in some
danger, until the true history of the evidences of the laws of mechani-
cal force is restored ; and then it will soon appear that in the force of
collision what we know is not material points determining one
another's opposite accelerations, but bodies by force of impene-
trable pressure causing one another to keep apart. Mechanics is a
natural philosophy of causes.
3. Dualism within Experience. Besides those philosophies
which are reactions to Kant or to Hume, there are a number of
other modern systems which start with the common hypothesis
that knowledge is experience. The consequence is that whatever
is true of experience they transfer to ah 1 knowledge. One of the
characteristics of actual experience is that its object is, or has
been, present to an experiencing subject; and of possible experi-
ence that it can be present. As a matter of fact, this character-
istic differentiates experience from inference. By inference we
know that things, such as the farther side of the moon, which
neither are, nor have been, nor can be, present to an experiencing
subject on the earth, nevertheless exist. But, on the hypothesis
that knowledge contains no inferences beyond experience, it
follows that all the objects of knowledge, being objects of
experience, are, or have been, or can be, present to an experiencing
subject. Hence it is common nowadays to hold that there is
indeed a difference between knower and known, ego and non-ego,
subject and object, but that they are inseparable; or that all.
known things are objects and subjects inseparably connected in
experience. This view, however, is held in different forms; and
two opposite forms have arisen in Germany, " immanent philo-
sophy " and " empiric-criticism," the former nearer to Kant, the
latter to Hume.
Immanent Philosophy is the hypothesis that the world is not
transcendent, but immanent in consciousness. Among the up-
holders of this view are Anton von Leclair, who expresses ,
it in the formula " Denken eines Seins - gedachtes ? ane "'
Sein," and R. von Schubert-Soldern, who says that*******
every fragment of the pretended transcendent world belongs to the
immanent. But the best known representative of Immanent
Philosophy is W. Schuppe, who, in his Erkenntnistheoretische Logik
1878), and in his shorter Grundriss der Erkenntnistheorie und Logik
(1894), gives the view a wider scope by the contention that the
real world is the common content or object of 'common conscious-
ness, which, according to him, as according to Fichte, is one and the
same in all individual men. Different individual consciousnesses
plainly differ in having each its own content, in which Schuppe
includes each individual's body as well as the rest of the things
which come within the consciousness of each ; but they also as plainly
agree, e.g. in all admitting one sun. Now, the point of Schuppe is
that, so far as they agree, individual consciousnesses are not merely
similar, but the same in essence; and this supposed one and the same
essence of consciousness in different individuals is what he calls
consciousness in general (Bewusstsein uberhaupt). While in this
identification he follows Fichte, in other respects he is more like
Kant. He supposes that the conscious content is partjy a posteriori,
or consisting of given data of sense, and partly a priori, or consisting
of categories of understanding, which, being valid for all objects,
are contributed by the common consciousness. He differs, however,
from Kant, not only because he will not allow that the given data
are received from things in themselves, but also because, like Mach,
he agrees with the nativists that the data already contain a spatial
determinacy and a temporal determinacy, which he regards as a
posteriori elements of the given, not like Kant, as a priori forms of
sense. He allows, in fact, no a priori forms except categories of the
understanding, and these he reduces, considering that the most
important are identity with difference and causality, which in his
view are necessary to the judgments that the various data which
make up a total impression (Gesammteindruck, Totaleindruck) are
each different from the others, together identical with the total
impression, and causally connected in relations of necessary sequence
and coexistence. At the same time, true to the hypothesis of
" immanence," he rigidly confines these categories to the given data,
and altogether avoids the inconsistent tendency of Kant to transfer
causality from a necessary relation between phenomena to a neces-
sary relation between phenomena and things in themselves as their
causes. Hence he strictly confines true judgment and knowledge
to the consciousness of the identity or difference, and the causal
relations of the given content of the common consciousness. From
this epistemology he derives the metaphysical conclusion that the
things we know are indeed independent of my consciousness and of
yours, taken individually, or, to use a new phrase, are " trans-
subjective"; but, so far from being independent of the common
consciousness, one and the same in all of us, they are simply its con-'
tents in the inseparable relation of subject and object. To the
objection that there are objects, e.g. atoms, which are never given
to any consciousness, he returns the familiar Kantian answer that,
though unperceived, they are perceptible. The whole known world,
then according to him, is the perceived and the perceptible content
of common consciousness.
The " empiric-criticism " of R. Avenarius (?..) is the hypothesis of
the inseparability of subject and object, or, to use his own phraseo-
logy, of ego and environment, in purely empirical, or a . .
posteriori form. It is like " immanent philosophy," Jr*. . ~
in opposing experience to the transcendent; but it
also opposes experience to the transcendental, or a priori.
It opposes " pure experience " to " pure reason," while it agrees
with Kant's limitation of knowledge to experience. Avenarius
held a view of knowledge very like that of Mach's view of the
economy of thinking. In his first philosophical treatise, Philosophic
als Denken der Welt gemass dem Princip des kleinslen Kraftmaasses,
Prolegomena zu einer Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1876), he based his
views on the principle of least action, contending that, as in Nature
the force which produces a change is the least that can be, so in mind
belief tends in the easiest direction. In illustration of this tendency,
he pointed out that mind tends to assimilate a new impression to a
previous content, and by generalization to bring as many impressions
under as few general conceptions as possible, and succeeds so far
as it generalizes from pure experience of the given. Nor is there
any objection to this economical view of thought, as long as* we
remember what Avenarius and Mach forget, that the essence of
thought is the least action neither more nor less than necessary to
the point, which is the reality of things. Afterwards, in his Kritik
der reinen Erfahrung (1888-1890), Avenarius aimed at giving a
description of pure experience which he identified with the natural
view of the world held by all unprejudiced persons. What, then, is
this pure experience? " Every human individual," says he,
240
METAPHYSICS
[PHENOMENAL IDEALISM
" originally accepts over against him an environment with manifold
parts, other individuals making manifold statements, and what is
stated in some way dependent upon the environment." Statements
dependent upon the environment are what he means by pure
experience. At first this starting-point looks like dualistic realism,
but in reality the author only meant dualism within experience.
By the environment he meant not a thing existing in itself, but only
a counterpart (Gegenglied) of ourselves as central part (Centralglied).
" We cannot," he adds, " think ourselves as central part away."
He went so far as to assert that, where one assumes that at some
time there was no living being in the world, all one means is
that there was besides oneself no other central part to whom one's
counterparts might also be counterparts. The consequence is that
all the world admitted into his philosophy is what he called the
" empirio-critical essential co-ordination " (empirio-kritische Prin-
zipialkoordination), an inseparable correlation of central part
and counterpart, of ego and environment. Within this essential
co-ordination he distinguished three values: R-values of the envi-
ronment as stimulus ;C~values of the central nervous system; and
E-values of human statements the latter being characterized by that
which at the time of its existence for the individual admits of being
named, and including what we call sensations, &c., which depend
indirectly on the environment and directly on the central nervous
system, but are not, as the materialist supposes, in any way reducible
to possessions of the brain or any other part of that system. This
division of values brings us to the second point in his philosophy,
his theory of what he called " vital series," by which he assayed to
explain all life, action and thought. A vital series he supposed to
be always a reaction of C against disturbance by R, consisting in
first a vital difference, or diminution by R of the maintenance-value
of C, and then the recovery by C of its maintenance-value, in accor-
dance with the principle of least action. He further supposed that,
while this independent vital series of C is sometimes of this simple
kind, at other times it is complicated by the addition of a dependent
vital series in E, by which, in his fondness for too general and far-
fetched explanations, he endeavoured to explain conscious action
and thought. (Thus, if a pain is an E-value directly dependent on
a disturbance in C, and a pleasure another E-value directly depen-
dent on a recovery of C, it will follow that a transition from pain to
pleasure will be a vital series in E directly dependent en an indepen-
dent vital series in C, recovering from a vital difference to its main-
tenance-maximum.) Lastly, supposing that all human processes
can in this way be reduced to vital series in an essential co-ordination
of oneself and environment, Avenarius held that this empirio-critical
supposition, which according to him is also the natural view of pure
experiences, contains no opposition of physical and psychical, of an
outer physical and an inner psychical world an opposition which
seemed to him to be a division of the inseparable. He considered
that the whole hypothesis that an outer physical thing causes a
change in one's central nervous system, which again causes another
change in one's inner psychical system or soul, is a departure from
the natural view of the universe, and is due to what he called " intrp-
jection," or the hypothesis which encloses soul and its faculties in
the body, and then, having created a false antithesis between outer
and inner, gets into the difficulty of explaining how an outer physical
stimulus can impart something into an inner psychical soul. He
concluded therefore that, having disposed of this fallacy of intro-
jection, we ought to return to the view of reality as an essential
co-ordination of ego and environment, of central part and counter-
part, with R-values, C-values and E-values.
It is curious that Avenarius should have brought forward this
artificial hypothesis as the natural view of the world, without
reflecting that on the one hand the majority of mankind believes that
the environment (R) exists, has existed, and will exist, without
being a counterpart of any living being as central part (C) ; and that
on the other hand it is so far from being natural to man to believe
that sensation and thought (E) are different from, and merely depen-
dent on, his body (C), that throughout the Homeric poems, though
soul is required for other purposes, all thinking as well as sensation
is regarded as a purely bodily operation. It is indeed difficult to
assign any rational place to the empirio-criticism of Avenarius.
It is materialistic without being materialism; it is realistic without
being realism. Its rejection of the whole relation of physical and
psychical makes it almost too indefinite to classify among philo-
sophical systems. But its main point is the essential co-ordination
of ego and environment, as central part and counterpart, in experi-
ence. It is therefore nearly connected with " immanent philosophy."
Schuppe, indeed, wrote an article in the Vierteljahrsschrift ol
Avenarius to prove their essential agreement. At the same time
Schuppe's hypothesis of one common consciousness uniting the given
by a priori categories could hardly be accepted by Avenarius as
pufe experience, or as a natural view of the world. His " empirio-
criticism " is idealistic dualism within experience in an a posterior
form, but with a tendency towards materialism.
4. V ' oluntaristic Phenomenalism of Wundt. Wundt's meta
physics will form an appropriate conclusion of this sketch o:
German idealism, because his patient industry and eclectic
spirit have fitted him to assimilate many of the views of his
predecessors. Wundt proves that all idealisms are in a way
me. He starts as a phenomenalist from the hypothesis, which
we have just described, that knowledge is ex- WaaMt
perience containing subject and object in inseparable
:onnexion, and has something in common with the' premature
attempt of Avenarius to develop the hypothesis of dualism
n experience into a scientific philosophy comprehending the
universe in the simplest possible manner. Again he agrees with
:he reaction both to Hume and to Kant in limiting knowledge
.o mental phenomena, and has affinities with Mach as. well as
with Lange. His main sympathies are with the Neo-Kantians,
and especially with Lange in modifying the a priori, and in
extending the power of reason beyond phenomena to an ideal
world; and yet the cry of his phenomenalism is not " back to
Kant," but " beyond Kant." Though no noumenalist, in
many details he is with noumenalists; with Fechner in psycho-
physics, in psychophysical parallelism, in the independence of
;he physical and the psychical chains of causality, in reducing
ahysical and psychical to a difference of aspects, in substituting
impulse for accident in organic evolution, and in wishing to
recognize a gradation of individual spiritual beings; with
Schopenhauer and Hartmann in voluntarism; and even with
Schelling and Hegel in their endeavour, albeit on an artificial
method, to bring experience under notions, and to unite subject
and object in one concrete reality. He has a special relation to
Fichte in developing the Kantian activity of consciousness into
will and substituting activity for substantiality as the essence
of soul, as well as in breaking down the antithesis between
phenomena and things in themselves. At the same time, in
spite of his sympathy with the whole development of idealism
since Kant, which leads him to reject the thing in itself, to
modify a priorism, and to stop at transcendent " ideals," without
postulates of practical reason, he nevertheless has so much
sympathy with Kant's Kritik as on its theories of sense and
understanding to build up a system of phenomenalism, according
to which knowledge begins and ends with ideas, and finally on
its theory of pure reason to accord to reason a power of logically
forming an " ideal " of God as ground of the moral " ideal "
of humanity though without any power of logically inferring
any corresponding reality. He constructs his system on the
Kantian order sense, understanding, reason and exhibits
most clearly the necessary consequence from psychological to
metaphysical idealism. His philosophy is the best exposition
of the method and argument of modern idealism that we
perceive the mental and, therefore, all we know and conceive
is the mental.
Wundt founds his whole philosophy on four psychological
positions: his phenomenalistic theory of unitary experience,
his voluntarism, his acttialistic theory of soul, and his psycho-
logical theory of parallelism. They are positions also which
deeply affect, not only the psychological, but also the meta-
physical idealisms of our time, in Germany, and in the whole
civilized world.
object); we divide this unitary experience into its subjective and
objective factors; and especially in natural science we so far abstract
the objects as to believe them at last to be independent things; but
it is the office of psychology to warn us against this popular dualism,
and to teach us that there is only a duality of psychical and physical,
which are divisible, not separable, factors of one and the same
content of our immediate experience; and experience is our whole
knowledge. His metaphysical deduction from this psychological
view is that all we know is mental phenomena, " the whole outer
world exists for us only in our ideas," and all that our reason can
logically do beyond these phenomena is to frame transcendent
" ideals."
ii. His second position is his voluntarism. He agrees with
Schopenhauer that will is the fundamental form of the spiritual.
He does not mean that will is the only mental operation ; for he
recognizes idea derived from sensation, and feeling, as well as will.
Moreover, he contends that we can neither have idea without feeling
and will, nor will without idea and feeling; that idea alone wants
activity, and will alone wants content; that will is ideating and
activity (vorstellende Thatigkeit), which always includes motives
PHENOMENAL IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
241
and ends and consequently ideas. He is therefore a follower of
Schopenhauer as corrected by Hartmann. Like these predecessors,
and like his younger contemporary Paulsen, in calling will funda-
mental he includes impulse (Trieb). Accordingly he divides will
into two species: on the one hand, simple volition, or impulse,
which in his view requires as motive a feeling directed to an end,
and therefore an idea, e.g. the impulse of a beast arising from hunger
and sight of prey ; on the other hand, complex volition issuing in a
voluntary act requiring decision (Entscheidung) or conscious
adoption of a motive, with or without choice. Like other German
voluntarists, he imputes " impulsive will " to the whole organic
world. He follows Fechner closely in his answer to Darwin. If
he is to be believed, at the bottom of all organic evolution organic
impulses becoming habits produce structural changes, which are
transmitted by heredity ; and as an impulse thus gradually becomes
secondarily automatic, the will passes to higher activities, which
in their turn become secondarily automatic, and so on. As now
he supposes feeling even in " impulsive will " to be directed to an
end, he deduces the conclusion that in organic evolution the pursuit
of final causes precedes and is the origin of mechanism. But at what
a cost ! He has endowed all the plants in the world with motives,
feelings directed to an end, and ideas, all of which, according to
him, are required for impulse ! He apparently forgets that mere
feelings often produce actions, as when one writhes with pain.
But even so, have plants even those lowest impulses from feelings of
pain or pleasure? Wundt, however, having gone so far, there
stops. It is not necessary for him to follow Schopenhauer, Hart-
mann and Fechner in endowing the material universe with will or
any other mental operation, because his phenomenalism already
reduces inorganic nature to mere objects of experiencing subjects.
Wundt's voluntarism takes a new departure, in which, however, he
was anticipated by the paradox of Descartes: that will is required
to give assent to anything perceived (Principle, philosophiae, i. 34).
Wundt supposes not only that all organisms have outer will, the will
to act, but also that all thinking is inner will the will to think.
Now there is a will to think, and Aristotle pointed out that thinking
is in our power whenever one pleases, whereas sense depends on an
external stimulus (De anima, ii. 5). There is also an impulse to
think, e.g. from toothache. jBut it does not follow that thought
is will, or even that there 8 no thinking without either impulse
or will proper. The real source of thinking is evidence. Wundt,
however, having supposed that all thinking consists of ideas, next
supposes that all thinking is willing. What is the source of this
paradox ? It is a confusion of impulse with will, and activity with
both. He supposes that all agency, and therefore the agency of
thinking, is will. In detail, to express this supposed inner will of
thinking, he borrows from Leibnitz and Kant the term " apper-
ception," but in a sense of his own. Leibnitz, by way of distinction
from unconscious perception, gave the name " apperception " to
consciousness. Kant further insisted that this apperception, " I
think," is an act of spontaneity, distinct from sense, necessary to
regarding all my ideas as mine, and to combining them in a synthetic
unity of apperception; which act Fichte afterwards developed into
an active construction of all knowledge, requiring will directed
to the end of duty. Wundt, in consequence, thinking with Kant
that apperception is a spontaneous activity, and with Fichte that
this activity requires will, and indeed that all activity is will, infers
that apperception is inner will. Further, on his own account,
he identifies apperception with the process of attention, and regards
it as an act necessary to the general formation of compound ideas,
to all association of ideas, to all imagination and understanding.
According to him, then, attention, even involuntary attention,
requires inner will; and all the functions imputed by Hume to
association, as well as those imputed to understanding by Kant,
require apperception, and therefore inner will. At the same time
he does not suppose that they all require the same kind of will.
In accordance with his previous division of outer will into impulsive
and decisive, he divides the inner will of apperception into passive
apperception and active apperception. Apperception in general
thus becomes activity of inner will, constituting the process of atten-
tion, passive in the form of impulsive will required for association,
and active in the form of decisive will required for understanding
and judgment. Now, beneath these confusing phrases the point
to be regarded is that, in Wundt's opinion, though we can receive
sensations, we cannot think at all beyond sense, without some will.
This exaggeration of the real fact of the will to think ignores through-
out the position of little man in the great world and at the
mercy of things which drive him perforce to sense and from sense
to thought. It is a substitution of will for evidence as ground of
assent, and a neglect of our consciousness that we often believe
against our will (e.g. that we must die), often without even an
impulse to believe, often without taking any interest, or when
taking interest in something else of no importance. " The Dean
is dead (Pray, what is trumps ?)." Yet many psychologists accept
the universality of this will to believe, and among them James,
who says that " it is far too little recognized how entirely the intellect
is built up of practical interests." We should rather say " far too
much." Wundt, however, goes still farther. According to him,
that which acts in all organisms, that which acts in all thinking,
that \vl.ich divides unitary experience into subject and object,
the source of self-consciousness, the unity of our mental life, " the
most proper being of the individual subject is will." In short, his
whole voluntarism means that, while the inorganic world is mere
object, all organization is congealed will, and all thinking is
apperceptive will. But it must be remembered that these con-
clusions are arrived at by confusing action, reaction, life, excita-
bility, impulse, and rational desire, all under the one word " will,"
as well as by omitting the involuntary action of intelligence under
the pressure of evidence. It may well be that impulsive feeling
is the beginning of mind; but then the order of mind is feeling,
sense, inference, will, which instead of first is last, and implies the
others. To proceed, however, with voluntarism, Wundt, as we
have seen, makes personality turn on will. He does not accept
the universal voluntarism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, but
believes in individual wills, and a gradation of wills, in the
organic world. Similarly, he supposes our personal individual
will is a collective will containing simpler will-unities, and he thinks
that this conclusion is proved by the continuance of actions in
animals after parts of the brain have been removed. In a similar
way he supposes our wills are included in the collective will of
society. He does not, however, think with Schuppe that there
is one common consciousness, but only that there is a collective
consciousness and a collective will; not perceiving that then
the sun in his view a mere object in the experience of every
member of the collection would be only a collective sun. Lastly,
he believes that reason forms the " ideal " of God as world-
will, though without proof of existence. On the whole, his vol-
untarism, though like that of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, is
not the same; not Schopenhauer's, because the ideating will of
Wundt's philosophy is not a universal irrational will; and not
Hartmann's, because, although ideating will, according to Wundt's
phenomenalism, is supposed to extend through the world of
organisms, the whole inorganic world remains a mere object of
unitary experience.
iii. His third position is his actualistic theory of soul, which he
shares with Fichte, Hegel, Fechner and Paulsen. When Fichte
had rejected the Kantian soul in itself and developed the Kantian
activity of apperception, he considered that soul consists in con-
structive activity. Fechner added that the soul is the whole
unitary spiritual process manifested in the whole unitary bodily
process without being a substance. Wundt accepts Fichte's
theory of the actuality, and Fechner's synechological view, of the
soul. Taking substance entirely in the sense of substrate, he
argues that there is no evidence of a substantial substrate beneath
mental operations; that there is nothing except unitary experience
consisting of ideas, feelings, volitions, and their unity of will; and
that soul in short is not substantia, but actus. He does not see that
this unity is only apparent, for men think not always, and will
not always. Nor does he see that a man is conscious not of idea,
feeling, will, experience, but of something conceiving, feeling,
willing and experiencing, which he gradually learns to call himself,
and that he is never conscious of doing all this " minding " without
his body. If, then, these mental operations were merely actuality,
they would be actuality of a man's bodily substance. In truth
there is no sound answer to Materialism, except that, besides bodily
substance, psychical substance is also necessary to explain how
man performs mental actualities consciously (see case Physical
Realism, ch. v.). Wundt, however, has satisfied himself, like
Fechner, that there is no real opposition of body and soul, and
concludes, in accordance with his own phenomenalism, that his
body is only an object abstracted from his unitary experience, which
is all that really is of him.
iv. Hence his fourth point is his psychological theory of parallel-
ism of physical and psychical reduced to identity in unitary experi-
ence. Here his philosophy is Fechnerism phenomenalized. He
accepts Fechner's extension of Weber's law of the external stimuli of
sense, while judiciously remarking that " the physiological inter-
pretation is entirely hypothetical." He accepts psychophysical
parallelism in the sense that every psychical process has a physical
accompaniment, every physiological function has a psychical
meaning, but neither external stimulus nor physiological stimulus
is cause of a psychical process, nor vice versa. Precisely like
Fechner, he holds that there is a physical causality and energy and
there is a psychical causality and energy, parallels which never
meet. He uses this psychical causality to carry out his voluntarism
into detail, regarding it as an agency of will directed to ends,
causing association and understanding, and further acting on a
principle which he calls the heterogony of ends; remarking very
truly that each .particular will is directed to particular ends, but
that beyond these ends effects follow as unexpected consequences,
and that this heterogony produces social effects which we call
custom. But while thus sharply distinguishing the physical and
the psychical in appearance, he follows Fechner in identifying them
in reality; except that Fechner's identification is noumenal,
Wundt's phenomenal. Wundt does not allow that we know beyond
experience any souls of earth, or any other inorganic being. He
does not, therefore, allow that there is a universal series of physical
and psychical parallels. According to his phenomenalism, the
external stimulus and the physiological stimulus are both parallels
of the same psychical process; the external body, as well as
242
METAPHYSICS
[PHENOMENAL IDEALISM
my body, is merely an object abstracted from an idea of my
experience; and what is really known in every case is a unitary
experience; divisible, but not separable, into body and soul, physical
and psychical factors of one and the same unitary experience.
Wundt is confined by his starting-point to his deduction that what
we know is mental phenomena, ideas regarded as objects and
subjects of experience.
With these four positions in hand, Wundt's philosophy consecu-
tively follows, beginning with his psychology. He begins with
psychical elements, sensations and feelings, but he asserts that
these always exist in a psychical compound, from which they can
be discovered only by analysis and abstraction; and his paradox
that a pure sensation is an abstraction is repeated by W. James.
Further, Wundt declares that the psychical compound of sensations,
with which, according to him, we actually start, is not a complex
sensation, but a compound idea; so that I am expected to believe
that, when I hear the chord of D, I am not conscious of single sensa-
tions of D, F, A, and have only a compound idea of the chord as if
the hearing of music were merely a series of ideas! Wundt, how-
ever, has a reason for substituting compound idea for sensation : he
accepts Lotze's hypothesis of local signs, and adds a hypothesis
of temporal signs. He supposes that we have no sensations of space
and time, as the nativists suppose, but that, while local signs give us
spatial ideas, feelings of expectation are temporal signs giving us
temporal ideas, and that these ideas enter into the psychical com-
pound, which is our actual starting-point. It follows that every
psychical compound into which temporal and spatial ideas enter
must itself be an idea ; and, as time at any rate accompanies all our
sensations, it follows that every psychical compound of sensations,
containing as it does, always temporal, if not also spatial, ideas, must
be a compound idea, and not, as nativists suppose, Schuppe for in-
stance, a compound sensation. The next question is, how com-
pounded? Wundt's answer is that inner impulsive will, in the form of
passive apperception, forms compound ideas by association; so that
all these operations are necessary to the starting-point. He prefixes
to the ordinary associations, which descend from Hume, an associa-
tion which he calls fusion ( Verschmelzung) , and supposes that it is a
fundamental process of fusing sensations with spatial and temporal
ideas into a compound idea. But he also recognizes association
by similarity, or assimilation, or " apperception " in Herbart's
more confined sense of the word, and association by contiguity, or
complication. Recognizing, then, three kinds of association in all,
he supposes that they are the first processes, by which inner will,
in the form of passive apperception, generates ideas from sense.
So far his psychology is a further development of Hume's. But
he does not agree with Hume that mind is nothing but sensations,
ideas, and associations, but with Kant, that there are higher
combinations. According to him, inner decisive will, rising to
active apperception, proceeds to what he calls " apperceptive
combinations" (Apperceptionverbindungen); first to simple com-
binations of relating and comparing, and then to complex combina-
tions of synthesis and analysis in imagination and understanding; in
consequence of which synthesis issues in an aggregate idea (Gesammt-
vorstellung), and then at last analysis, by dividing an aggregate idea
into subject and predicate, forms a judgment (see further LOGIC). The
main point of this theory is that, if it were true, we should be for
ever confined to a jumble of ideas. Wundt, indeed, is aware of
the consequences. If judgment is an analysis of an aggregate
idea into subject and predicate, it follows, as he says, that " as
judgment is an immediate, so is inference a mediate, reference of
the members of any aggregate of ideas to one another " (System
der Philosophic, 66, first ed.). He cannot allow any inference of
things beyond ideas. His psychology poisons his logic.
In his logic, and especially in his epistemology, Wundt appears
as a mediator between Hume and Kant, but with more leaning
to the latter. While he regards association as lying at the basis
of all knowledge, he does not think it sufficient, and objects to
Hume that he does not account for necessity, nor for substance
and causation as known in the sciences. He accepts on the whole
the system of synthetic understanding which Kant superimposed
on mere association. Yet he will not proceed to the length of
Kant's transcendentalism. Between Hume's a posteriori and
Kant's a priori hypothesis he proposes a logical theory of the
origin of notions beyond experience. He explains that the arrange-
ment of facts requires " general supplementary notions (Hulfs-
begriffe), which are not contained in experience itself, but are gained
by a process of logical treatment of this experience." Of these
supplementary notions he holds that the most general is that of
causality, coming from the necessity of thought that all our experi-
ences shall be arranged according to ground and consequent. That
sense only gives to experience coexistences and sequences of appear-
ances, as Hume said and Kant allowed, is also Wundt's starting-
point. How then do we arrive at causality? Not, says Wundt,
by association, as Hume said, but by thinking; not, however, by
a priori thinking, as Kant said, but by logical thinking, by applying
the logical principle of ground and consequent (which Leibnitz
had called the principle of sufficient reason) as a causal law to
empirical appearances. Now, Wundt is aware that this is not
always possible, for he holds that the logical principle of ground
belongs generally to the connexion of thoughts, the causal law to
the combination of empirical appearances. Nevertheless he believes
that, when we can apply measures to the combination of empirical
appearances, then we can apply the logical principle as causal law
to this combination, and say that one appearance is the cause of
another, thus adding a notion of causality not contained in the
actual observations, but specializing the general notion of causality.
He quotes as an instance that Newton in this way added to the
planetary appearances contained in Kepler's laws the gravitation
of the planets to the sun, as a notion of causality not contained in
the appearances, and thus discovered that gravitation is the cause
of the appearances. But Newton had already discovered before-
hand in the mechanics of terrestrial bodies that gravitation con-
stantly causes similar facts on the earth, and did not derive that
cause from any logical ground beyond experience, any more than
he did the third law of motion. Wundt does not realize that, though
we can often use a cause or real ground (principium essendi) as
a logical ground (principium cognoscendi) for deducing effects, we
can do so only when we have previously inferred from experience
that that kind of cause does produce that kind of effect (see LOGIC).
Otherwise, logical ground remains logical ground, as in any non-
causal syllogism, such as the familiar one from " All men are mortal,"
which causes me to know that I shall die, without telling me the
cause of death. Wundt, however, having satisfied himself of the
power of mere logical thought beyond experience, goes on to further
apply his hypothesis, and supposes that, in dealing with the physical
world, logical thinking having added to experience the " supple-
mentary notion " of causality as the connexion of appearances
which vary together, adds also the " supplementary notion " of
substance as substratum of the connected appearances. But,
using substance as he does always in the Kantian sense of permanent
substratum beneath changi.ig phenomena, and never in the Aris-
totelian sense of any distinct thing, he proceeds to make distinctions
between the applications of causality and of substance. Even
in the physical, he confines substance to matter, or what Aristotle
would call material causes, thus makes its power to be merely
passive, and limits substantial causality to potential energy, while
he supposes that actual causality is a relation not of substances
but of events. On this false abstraction Sigwart has made an
excellent criticism in an appendix at the end of his Logic, where he
remarks that we cannot isolate events from the substances of which
they are attributes. Motions do not cause motions; one body
moving causes another body to move: what we know is causal
substances. Secondly, when Wundt comes to the psychical,
he naturally infers from his narrow Kantian definition of substance
that there is no proof of a substrate over and above all mental
operations, and falsely thinks that he has proved that there is no
substance mentally operating in the Aristotelian sense. Thirdly,
on the grounds that logical thinking adds the notion of substance,
as substrate, to experience of the physical, but not of the psychical,
and that the most proper being of mind is will, he concludes
that wills are not active substances, but substance-generating
activities (" nicht thatige Substanzen sondern substanzerzeugende
Thatigkeiten," System, 429).
What kind of metaphysics, then, follows from this compound
of psychology and epistemology? As with Kant against
Hume, so with Wundt against Mach and Avenarius, the world
we know will contain something more than mere complexes of
sensations, more than pure experience: with Wundt it will be
a world of real causes and some substances, constituted partly
by experience and partly by logical thinking, or active inner will.
But as with Kant, so with Wundt, this world will be only the
richer, not the wider, for these notions of understanding; because
they are only contributed to the original experience, and, being
mentally contributed, only the more surely confine knowledge
to experience of mental phenomena. Hence, according to
Wundt, the world we know is still unitary experience, distin-
guished, not separated, into subject and object, aggregates of
ideas analysed by judgment and combined by inference, an
object of idea elaborated into causes and substances by logical
thinking, at most a world of our ideas composed out of our
sensations, and arranged under our categories of our under-
standing by our inner wills, or a world of our ideating wills;
but nothing else. It is Wundt's own statement of his solution
of the epistemological problem " that on the one hand the whole
outer world exists for us only in our ideas, and that on the other
hand a consciousness without objects of idea is an empty abstrac-
tion which possesses no actuality" (System, 212-213). There
remains his theory of reason. His pupil, Oswald Ktilpe (1862-
), who bases his Grundriss der Psychologic on the hypothesis
of unitary experience, says in his Einleitung in die Philosophic
(1895; 4th ed. 1907) that Wundt in his System derives the right
of metaphysics to transcend experience from similar procedure
ENGLISH IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
243
within the limits of the special sciences. This is Wundt's
view, but only in the sense that reason passes from ideas to
'' ideals," whether in the special sciences or in metaphysics.
Reason, as in most modern psychologies and idealisms, is intro-
duced by VVundt, after all sorts of operations, too late; and,
when at length introduced, it is described as going beyond
ideas and notions to " ideals " (Ideen), as an ideal continuation
of series of thoughts beyond given experience nothing more.
Reason, according to Wundt, is' like pure reason according to
Kant; except that Wundt, receiving Kantism through Neo-
Kantism, thinks that reason arrives at " ideals " not a priori,
but by the logical process of ground and consequent, and,
having abolished the thing in itself, will not follow Kant in his
inconsequent passage from pure to practical reason in order to
postulate a reality corresponding to " ideals " beyond experience.
Wundt, in fact, agrees with Lange: that reason transcends
experience of phenomena only to conceive " ideals." This
being so, he finds in mathematics two kinds of transcendence
real, where the transcendent, though not actual in experience,
can become partly so, e.g. the divisibility of magnitudes;
imaginary, where it cannot, e.g. w-dimensions. He supposes in
metaphysics the same transcendence in forming cosmological,
psychological, and ontological " ideals." He supposes real as
well as imaginary transcendence in cosmological "ideals";
the former as to the forms of space and time, the latter as to
content, e.g. atoms. But he limits psychological and ontological
" ideals " entirely to imaginary transcendence. The result
is that he confines metaphysical transcendence to " a process
into the imaginary " as regards the substantial and causal
content of cosmological " ideals," and altogether as regards
psychological and ontological " ideals." Thus, according to
him, in the first place reason forms a cosmological " ideal " of
a multitude of simple units related; secondly, it forms a psycho-
logical " ideal " of a multitude of wills, or substance-generating
activities, which communicate with one another by ideas so
that will causes ideas in will, while together they constitute a
collective will, and it goes on to form the moral ideal of humanity
(das sittliche Menschheitsideal); and, thirdly, it forms an ontologi-
cal " ideal " of God as ground of this moral " ideal," and there-
with of all being as means to this end, and an " ideal " of God
as world-will, of which the world is development, and in which
individual wills participate each in its sphere. " Herein,"
says Wundt, " consists the imperishable truth of the Kantian
proposition that the moral order of the world is the single real
proof of the existence of God " (System, 405; cf. 439). " Only,"
he adds, " the expression proof is here not admissible. Rational
' ideals ' are in general not provable." As the same limit is
applied by him to all transcendent rational " ideals," and
especially to those which refer to the content of the notion
of the world, and, like all psychological and ontological "ideals,"
belong to the imaginary transcendent, his conclusion is that
reason, in transcending experience, logically conceives " ideals,"
but never logically infers corresponding realities.
The conclusion that reason in transcending experience can
show no more than the necessity of " ideals " is the only con-
clusion which could follow from Wundt's phenomenalism in
psychology, logic, and epistemology. If knowledge is experience
of ideas distinguished by inner will of apperception into subject
and object in inseparable connexion, if the starting-point is
ideas, if judgment is analysis of an aggregate idea, if inference
is a mediate reference of the members of an aggregate of ideas
to one another, then, as Wundt says, all we can know, and
all reason can logically infer from such data, is in our ideas,
and consciousness without an object of idea is an abstraction;
so that reason, in transcending experience, can show the necessity
of ideas and " ideals," but infer no corresponding reality beyond,
whether in nature, or in Man, or in God. Wundt, starting from
a psychology of unitary experience, deduces a consistent meta-
physics of no inference of things transcending experience through-
out or rather until he came to the very last sentence of his
System der Philosophic (1889), where he suddenly passes from
a necessity of " ideals " (Ideen), to a necessity of " faith "
(Glauben), without " knowledge " (Wissen). He forgets appar-
ently that faith is a belief in things beyond ideas and ideals,
which is impossible in his psychology of judgment and logic of
inference. The fact is that his System may easily seem to prove
more than it does. He describes it as idealism in the form of
ideal realism, because it recognizes an ideating will requiring
substance as substratum or matter for outer relations of pheno-
mena. But when we look for the evidence of any such will
beyond ourselves aud our experience, we find Wundt offering
nothing but an ontological " ideal " of reason, and a moral
" ideal " requiring a religious " ideal," but without any power
of inferring a corresponding reality. The System then ends
with the necessity of an " ideal " of God as world-will, but
provides no ground for the necessity of any belief whatever in
the being of God, or indeed in any being at all beyond our own
unitary experience.
Wundt, however, afterwards wrote an Einleitung in die
Philosophic (1901; 4th ed., 1906), in which he speaks of realism
in the form of ideal realism as the philosophy of the future.
It is not to be idealism which resolves everything into spirit,
but realism which gives the spiritual and the material each
its own place in harmony with scientific consciousness. It is
not to be dualistic but monistic realism, because matter is not
separate from spirit. It is not to be materialistic but ideal
realism, because the physical and the psychical are inseparable
parallels inexplicable by one another. It is to be monistic ideal
realism, like that of Fichte and Hegel; not, however, like theirs
idealistic in method, a Phanlastisches Begriffsgebaude, but
realistic in method, a Wissenschaftliche Philosophic. It is to-
be ideal realism, as in the System. It is not to be a species of
idealism, as in the System but of realism. How are we to-
understand this change of front? We can only explain it by
supposing that Wundt wishes to believe that, beyond the
" ideal," there really is proof of a transcendent, ideating, sub-
stance-generating will of God; and that he is approaching the
noumenal voluntarism of his younger contemporary Paulsen.
But to make such a conversion from phenomenalism plausible,
it is necessary to be silent about his whole psychology, logic,
and epistemology, and the consequent limitation of knowledge
to experience, and of reason to ideas and " ideals," without any
power of inferring corresponding things.
What a pity it is that Wundt had committed himself by his
psychology to phenomenalism, to unitary experience, and to
the limitation of judgment and reason to ideas and ideals t
For his phenomenalism prevents him from consistently saying,
the truth inferred by reason that there is a world beyond
experience, a world of Nature, and a will of God, real as well as
ideal. To understand Wundt is to discover what a mess modern
psychology has made to metaphysics. To understand pheno-
menal idealism in Germany is to discover what a narrow world
is to be known from the transcendental idealism of Kant shorn
of Kant's inconsistencies. To understand noumenal idealism
in Germany and the rise of metaphysical idealism in modern
times is to discover that psychological is the origin of all meta-
physical idealism. If we perceive only what is mental, all that
we know is only mental. But who has proved that psychological
starting-point? Who has proved that, when I scent an odour
in my nostrils, I apprehend not odour but a sensation of odour;
and so for the other senses? Sensation, as Aristotle said,
is not of itself: it is the apprehension of a sensible object in the
organism. I perceive pressure, heat, colour, sound, flavour,
odour, in my five senses. Having felt reciprocal pressures in
touch, I infer similar pressures between myself and the external
world.
6. ENGLISH IDEALISM
i. The Followers of Hume's Phenomenalism. Compared
with the great systems of the Germans, English idealism in the
igth century shows but little originality. It has been largely
borrowed either from previous English or from later German
idealism, and what originality it has possessed has been mainly
shown in that spirit of eclectic compromise which is so dear
to the English mind. The predominant influence, on the whole,
244
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[ENGLISH IDEALISM
has been the phenomenalism of Hume, with its slender store of
sensations, ideas and associations, and its conclusion that all
we know is sensations without any known thinkers or any other
known things. This phenomenalism was developed by James
Mill (1773-1836) and J. S. Mill (1806-1873), and has since
been continued by A. Bain. It also became the basis of the
philosophies of Huxley and of Spencer on their phenomenalistic
side. It is true that Spencer's " transfigured realism" contains
much that was not dreamt of by Hume. Spencer widens the
empirical theory of the origin of knowledge by his brilliant
hypothesis of inherited organized tendencies, which has influ-
enced all later psychology and epistemology, and tends to a kind
of compromise between Hume and Kant. He describes his
belief in an unknowable absolute as " carrying a step farther
the doctrine put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel." He
develops this belief in an absolute in connexion with his own
theory of evolution into something different both from the
idealism of Hume and the realism of Hamilton, and rather
falling under the head of materialism. Nevertheless, as he
believes all the time that everything knowable throughout the
whole world of evolution is phenomena in the sense of subjective
affections of consciousness, and as he applies Hume's distinction
of impressions and ideas as a distinction of vivid and faint
states of consciousness to the distinction of ego and non-ego,
spirit and matter, inner and outer phenomena, his philosophy of
the world as knowable remains within the limits of phenomenal-
ism. Nothing could be more like Hume than his final statement
that what we are conscious of is subjective affections produced
by objective agencies unknown and unknowable. The " anti-
realism," which takes the lion's share in " transfigured
realism," is simply a development of the phenomenalism of
Hume. Hume was also at the bottom of the philosophies of
G. H. Lewes, who held that there is nothing but feelings, and
of W. K. Clifford. Nor is Hume yet dethroned, as we see
from the works of Karl Pearson and of William James, who,
though an American, has exercised a considerable influence on
English thought. The most flourishing time of phenomenalism,
however, was during the lifetime of J. S. Mill. It was
counteracted to some extent by the study at the universities
of the deductive logic of Aristotle and the inductive logic of
Bacon, by parts of Mill's own logic, and by the natural realism
of Reid, Stewart, and Hamilton, which met Hume's scepticism
by asserting a direct perception of the external world. But
natural realism, as finally interpreted by Hamilton, was too
dogmatic, too unsystematic, and too confused with elements
derived from Kantian idealism to withstand the brilliant
criticism of Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's
Philosophy (1865), a work which for a time almost persuaded us
that Nature as we know it from sensations is nothing but per-
manent possibilities of sensation, and oneself only a series of
states of consciousness.
2. The Influence of Kant and Hegel. Nevertheless, there
have never been wanting more soaring spirits who, shocked
at the narrowness of the popular phenomenalism of Hume,
have tried to find a wider idealism. They have, as a rule,
sought it in Germany. Before the beginning of the ipth century,
Kant had made his way to England in a translation of some of
his works, and in an account of the Elements of the Critical
Philosophy by A. F. M. Willich, both published in 1798. After
a period of struggle, the influence of Kant gradually extended,
and, as we see in the writings of Coleridge and Carlyle, of Hamil-
ton and Mansel, of Green and Caird, of Laurie, Martineau and
others, has secured an authority over English thought almost
equal to that of Hume (see IDEALISM). Both philosophers
appeal to the English love of experience, and Kant had these
advantages over Hume: that within the narrow circle of sensible
phenomena his theory of understanding gave to experience
a fuller content, and that beyond phenomena, however incon-
sistently, his theory of reason postulated the reality of God,
freedom and immortality. Other and wider German philo-
sophies gradually followed that of Kant to England. Coleridge
(1772-1834) not only called attention to Kant's distinction
between understanding and reason, but also introduced his
countrymen to the noumenal idealism of Schelling. -In the
Biographia Liter aria (1817) he says that in Schilling's Natur-
philosophie and System des transcendentalen Idealismus he first
found a general coincidence with much that he had toiled out
for himself, and he repeated some of the main tenets of Schelling.
Carlyle (i 795-1881) laid more emphasis on Fichte. At the height
of his career, when between -1840 and 1850 many of Fichte's
works were being translated in the Catholic Series, he called
attention to Fichte's later view that all earthly things are but
as a vesture, or appearance under which the Divine idea of the
world is the reality. Extravagant as this noumenalism is, it
was a healthy antidote to the phenomenalism of the day.
Among other followers of German idealism were J. F. Ferrier
(q.v.), who adopted the hypothesis of Schelling and Hegel that
there is one absolute intelligence (see his Lectures and Philo-
sophical Remains, 1866, i. 1-33; ii. 545-568), and J. Hutchison
Stirling (?..). About the same time Benjamin Jowett (q.v.) had
been studying the philosophy of Hegel; but, being a man
endowed with much love of truth but with little belief in first
principles, he was too wise to take for a principle Hegel's assump-
tion that different things are the same. He had, however,
sown seeds in the minds of two distinguished pupils, T. H.
Green and E. Caird (q.v.). Both proceeded to take Hegelian-
ism seriously, and between them spread a kind of Hegelian
orthodoxy in metaphysics and in theology throughout Great
Britain. Green (Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883)7. H Q nea
tried to effect a harmony of Kant and Hegel
by proceeding from the epistemology of the former to the
metaphysics of the latter. Taken for granted the Kantian
hypothesis of a sense of sensations requiring synthesis by under-
standing, and the Kantian conclusion that Nature as known
consists of phenomena united by categories as objects of experi-
ence, Green argued, in accordance with Kant's first position,
that knowledge, in order to unite the manifold of sensations
by relations into related phenomena, requires unifying intelli-
gence, or what Kant called synthetic unity of apperception,
which cannot itself be sensation, because it arranges sensations;
and he argued, in accordance with Kant's second position, that
therefore Nature itself as known requires unifying intelligence to
constitute the relations of its phenomena, and to make it a
connected world of experience. When Green said that " Nature
is the system of related appearances, and related appearances
are impossible apart from the action of an intelligence," he was
speaking as a pure Kantian, who could be answered only by
the Aristotelian position that Nature consists of related bodies
beyond appearances, and by the realistic supposition that there
is a tactical sense of related bodies, of the inter-resisting members
of the organism, from which reason infers similar related bodies
beyond sense. But now, whatever opinion we may have about
Nature, at all events, as Green saw, it does not come into exist-
ence in the process by which this person or that begins to think.
Nature is not my nature, nor your nature, but one. From this
fact of unity of Nature and of everything in Nature, combined
with the two previous positions accepted, not from Nature, but
from Kant, Green proceeded to argue, altogether beyond Kant,
that Nature, being one, and also requiring unifying intelligence,
requires one intelligence, an eternal intelligence, a single spiritual
principle, prior to, and the condition of, our individual knowledge.
According to him, therefore, Nature is one system of phenomena
united by relations as objects of experience, one system of related
appearances, one system of one eternal intelligence which
reproduces itself in us. The " true account " of the world in
his own words is " that the concrete whole, which may be de-
scribed indifferently as an eternal intelligence realized in the
related facts of the world, or as a system of related facts rendered
possible by such an intelligence, partially and gradually repro-
duces itself in us, communicating piecemeal, but in inseparable
correlation, understanding and the facts understood, experience
and the experienced world." Nobody can mistake the Schellin-
gian and Hegelian nature of this conclusion. It is the Hegelian
view that the world is a system of absolute reason. But it is
ENGLISH IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
245
not a Kantian view ; and it is necessary to correct two confusions
of Kant and Hegel, which have been imported with Hegelianism
by Green and Caird. Ferrier was aware that in Kant's system
" there is no common nature in all intelligence " (Lectures, ii.
568). Green, on the other hand, in deducing his own conclusion
that the world is, or is a system of, one eternal intelligence,
incautiously put it forward as " what may be called broadly
the Kantian view " (Prolegomena, 36), and added that he
follows Kant " in maintaining that a single active conscious
principle, by whatever name it be called, is necessary to consti-
tute such a world, as the condition under which alone phenomena,
i.e. appearances to consciousness, can be related to each other
in a single universe" ( 38). He admitted, however, that Kant
also asserted, beyond this single universe of a single principle, a
world of unknowable things in themselves, which is a Kantian not
a Hegelian world. But Caird endeavoured to break down even
this second barrier between Kant and Hegel. Acqord-
ing to Caird, Kant " reduces the inaccessible thing
in itself (which he at first speaks of as affecting our sensibility)
to a noumenon which is projected by reason itself " (Essays,
ii. 405); and in the Transcendental Dialectic, which forms the
last part of Kant's Kritik, the noumenon becomes the object
of an intuitive understanding " whose thought," says Caird,
"is one with the existence of the objects it knows" (ibid. 412,
413). Kant, then, as interpreted by English Hegelians, already
believed, before Hegel, that there is one intelligence common
to all individuals, and that a noumenon is a thought of this
common intelligence, " an ideal of reason "; so that Kant was
trying to be a Hegelian, holding that the world has no being
beyond the thoughts of one intelligence. But history repeats
itself; and these same two interpretations of Kant had already
been made in the lifetime of Kant by Fichte, in the two Intro-
ductions to the " Wissenschaftslehre," which he published in
his Philosophical Journal in 1797. Now, the curious fact is, that
Kant himself wrote a most indignant letter, dated 7th August
1799 (Kant's Werke, ed. Hartenstein, viii. 600-601), on purpose
to repudiate all connexion with Fichte.- Fichte's " Wissen-
schaftslehre," he said, is a completely untenable system, and a
metaphysics of fruitless apices, in which he disclaimed any
participation; his own Kritik he refused to regard as a pro-
paedeutic to be construed by the Fichtian or any other stand-
point, declaring that it is to be understood according to the
letter; and he went so far as to assert that his own critical
philosophy is so satisfactory to the reason, theoretical and
practical, as to be incapable of improvement, and for all future
ages indispensable for the highest ends of humanity. After
this letter it cannot be doubted that Kant not only differed
wholly from Fichte, both about the synthetic unity of appercep-
tion and about the thing in itself, but also is to be construed
literally throughout. When he said that the act of consciousness
" I think," is in allem Bewusstsein cin und dasselbe, he meant,
as the whole context shows, not that it is one in all thinkers,
but only that it accompanies all my other ideas and is one and
the same in all my consciousness, while it is different in different
thinkers. Though again in the Transcendental Dialect he spoke
of pure reason conceiving " ideals " of noumena, he did not mean
that a noumenon is nothing but a thought arising only through
thinking, or projected by reason, but meant that pure reason
can only conceive the "ideal" while, over and above the
" ideal " of pure reason, a noumenon is a real thing, a thing in
itself, which is not indeed known, but whose existence is postu-
lated by practical reason in the three instances of God, freedom,
and immortality. Consequently, Kant's explanation of the unity
of a thing is that there is always one thing in itself causing in
us many phenomena, which as understood by us are objectively
valid for all our consciousnesses. What Kant never said and
what his whole philosophy prevented his saying, was that a
single thing is a single thought of a single consciousness; either
of men, as in Fichte's philosophy, or of God and man, as in
Hegel's. The passage from Kant to Hegel attempted by Green,
and the harmonv of Kant and Hegel attempted by Green and
Caird, are unhistorical, and have caused much confusion of
thought. The success, therefore, of the works of Green and
Caird must stand or fall by their Hegelianism, which has indeed
secured many adherents, partly metaphysical and partly theo-
logical. Among the former we may mention W. Wallace, the
translator of most of Hegel's Encyklopadic, who had previously
learnt Hegelianism from Ferrier; W. H. Fairbrother, who has
written a faithful account of The Philosophy of Thomas Hill
Green (1896); R. L. Nettleship, D. G. Ritchie, J. H. Muirhead,
J. S. Mackenzie, and J. M. E. M'Taggart, who closes his acute
Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (1901) with " the possibility of
finding, above all knowledge and volition, one all-embracing unity,
which is only not true, only not good, because all truth and all
goodness are but distorted shadows of its absolute perfection
' das Unbegreifliche, weil es der Begriff selbst ist.' "
There are still to be mentioned two English Hegelians, who
have not confused Kant and Hegel as Green did: namely,
Simon Somerville Laurie (1829-1909) and F. H. Bradley
(b. 1846), fellow of Merton College, Oxford.
Laurie wrote Metaphysica, nova et vetusta, a Return to Dualism,
by Scotus Novanticus (1884; 2nd ed., enlarged, 1889). His attitude
to Green is expressed towards the end of his book, where i au rte
he says: " The more recent argument for God which
resolves itself into the necessity of a self-distinguishing one basis
to which nature as a mere system of relations must be referred, is
simply the old argument of the necessity for a First Cause dressed
up in new clothes. Not by any means an argument to be despised,
but stopping short of the truth through an inadequate analytic
of knowledge." His aim is to remedy this defect by psychology,
under the conviction that a true metaphysics is at bottom
psychology, and a true psychology fundamentally metaphysics.
His psychology is founded on a proposed distinction between
" attuition " and reason. His theory of " attuition," by which he
supposes that we become conscious of objects outside ourselves,
is his " return to dualism," and is indeed so like natural realism as
to suggest that, like Ferrier, he starts from Hamilton to end in
Hegel. As, however, he does not suppose that we have a direct
perception cf something resisting the organism, such as Hamilton
maintained, it becomes necessary to state exactly what he means
by " attuition." It is, according to him, something more than
sensation, but less than perception; it is common to us with lower
animals such as dogs; its operation consists in co-ordinating sen-
sations into an aggregate which the subject throws back into
space, and thereby has a consciousness of a total object outside
itself, e.g. a. stone or a stick, a man or a moon. He carries its
operation before reason still farther, supposing that " attuition "
makes particular inferences about outside objects, and that a man,
or a dog, through association " attuites " sequence and invariable-
ness of succession, and, in fact, gets as far in the direction of causation
as Hume thought it possible to go at all. Laurie's view is that a
dog who has no higher faculty than " attuition," can go no farther;
but that a man goes farther by reason. He thinks that " attuition "
gives us consciousness of an object, but without knowledge, and
that knowledge begins with reason. His theory of reason brings
him into contact with the German idealists: he accepts from Kant
the hypothesis of synthesis and a priori categories, from Fichte the
hypothesis that will is necessary to reason, from Schelling and
Hegel the hypothesis of universal reason, and of an identity between
the cosmic reason and the reason of man, in which he agrees also
with Green and Caird. But he has a peculiar view of the powers
of reason; that (l) under the law of excluded middle it states alterna-
tives, A or B or C or D ; (2) under the law of contradiction it negates
B, C, D; (3) under the law of sufficient reason it says " therefore ";
and (4) under the law of identity it concludes, A is A. In working
out this process hp supposes that reason throws into consciousness
a priori categories, synthetic predicates a priori, or, as he also calls
them, " dialectic percepts." Of these the most important is cause,
of which his theory, in short, is that by this a priori category and
the process of reason we go on from sequence to consequence; first
stating that an effect may be caused by several alternatives, then
negating all but one, next concluding that this one as sufficient reason
is cause, and finally attaining the necessity of the causal nexus by con-
verting causality into identity, e.g. instead of " Fire burns wood,"
putting " Fire is comburent, wood is combustible." Lastly, while he
agrees with Kant about a priori categories, he differs about the
knowledge to be got out of them. Kant, applying them only to
sensations, concluded that we can know nothing beyond by their
means. But Laurie, applying them to " attuitions " of objects out-
side, considers that, though they are " reason-born," yet they make us
know the objects outside to which they are applied. This is the
farthest point of his dualism, which suggests a realistic theory of
knowledge, different in process from Hamilton's, but with the
same result. Not so: Laurie is a Hegelian, using Kant's categories,
as Hegel did, to argue that they are true not only of thoughts but
of things; and for the same reason, that things and thoughts are the
same. At first in his psychology he speaks of the attuition"
246
METAPHYSICS
[ENGLISH IDEALISM
and the rational perception of an outside object. But in his
metaphysics founded thereon he interprets the outside object to
mean an object outside you and me, but not self-subsistent ; not
outside universal reason, but only " Beenl reason." He quotes
with approval Schilling's phrase, " Nature is visible Intelligence
and Intelligence visible Nature." He agrees with Hegel that there
are two fundamental identities, the identity of all reason, and
the identity of all reason and all being. Hence he explains, what
is a duality for us is only a " quasi-duality " from a universal
standpoint. In fact, his dualism is not realism, but merely the
distinction of subject and object within idealism. Laurie's meta-
physics is an attempt to supply a psychological propaedeutic to
Hegelian metaphysics.
Bradley's Appearance and Reality (1893) is a more original
performance. It proceeds on the opposite method of making
Bradley metaphysics independent of psychology. " Meta-
physics," says he, " has no direct interest in the origin
of ideas " (254), and " we have nothing to do here with
the psychological origin of the perception " (35). This
metaphysical method, which we have already seen attempted
by Lotze, is the true method, for we know more about
things than about the beginnings of our knowledge. Bradley
is right to go straight to reality, and right also to inquire
for the absolute, in order to take care that his meta-
physical view is comprehensive enough to be true of the
world as a whole. He is unconsciously returning to the meta-
physics of Aristotle in spirit; yet he differs from it toto coelo
in the letter. His starting-point is the view that things as
ordinarily understood, and (we may add) as Aristotle understood
them (though with important qualifications) are self-contradic-
tory, and are therefore not reality but appearances. If they were
really contradictory they would be non-existent. However,
he illustrates their supposed contradictoriness by examples,
such as one substance with many attributes, and motion from
place to place in one time. But he fails to show that a substance
is one and many in the same respect, and that motion requires a
body to be in two places at the same moment of one time. There
is no contradiction (as Aristotle said) between a man being
determined by many attributes, as rational, six-foot-high, white,
and a father, and yet being one whole substance distinct from
any other, including his own son; nor is there any contradiction
between his body being in bed at 8.15 and at breakfast at 8.45
within the same hour. Bradley's supposed contradictions are
really mere differences. So far he reminds one of Herbart, who
founded his " realistic " metaphysics on similar misunder-
standings; except that, while Herbart concluded that the world
consists of a number of simple " reals," each with a simple
quality but unknown, Bradley concludes that reality is one
absolute experience which harmonizes the supposed contra-
dictions in an unknown manner. If his starting-point recalls
Herbart his method of arriving at the absolute recalls Spinoza.
In his Table of Contents, ch. xiii., on the General Nature
of Reality, he says, in true Spinozistic vein, "The Real is one
substantially. Plurality of Reals is not possible." In the text
he explains that, if there were a plurality of reals, they would
have to be beings independent of each other, and yet, as a plurality
related to each other and this again seems to him to be a contra-
diction. Throughout the rest of the work he often repeats that
a thing which is related cannot be an independent thing. Now,
if " independent " means " existing alone " and unrelated the
same thing could not be at once related and independent; and,
taking substance as independent in that sense, Spinoza concluded
that there could only be one substance. But this is not the sense
in which a plurality of things would have to be independent in
order to exist, or to be substances in the Aristotelian sense.
"Independent" (xupiarbv), or "self-subsistent" (naB' avro)
means " existing apart," i.e. existing differently: it does not
mean " existing alone," solitary, unrelated. This existing apart
is the only sense in which a plurality of things need be indepen-
dent in order to be real, or in order to be substances; and it is a
sense .in which they can all be related to each other, as I am not
you, but I am addressing you. There is no contradiction, then,
though Bradley supposes one, between a thing being an indivi-
dual, independent, self-subsistent substance, existing apart as a
distinct thing, and being also related to other things. Accord-
ingly, the many things of this world are not self-discrepant, as
Bradley says, but are distinct and relative substances, as
Aristotle said. The argument, therefore, for one substance in
Spinoza's Ethics, and for one absolute, the Real, which is one
substantially, in Bradley's Appearance and Reality, breaks
down, so far as it is designed to prove that there is only one
substance, or only one Real. ' Bradley, however, having satisfied
himself, like Spinoza, by an abuse of the word " independent,"
that " the finite is self -discrepant," goes on to ask what the one
Real, the absolute, is; and, as he passed from Herbart to
Spinoza, so now he passes from Spinoza to Kant. Spinoza
answered realistically that the one substance is both extended
and thinking. Bradley answers idealistically that the one Real
is one absolute experience, because all we know is experience.
"This absolute," says he, "is experience, because that is really
what we mean when we predicate or speak of anything." But in
order to identify the absolute with experience he is obliged, as
he before abused the words " contradictory " and " indepen-
dent," so now to abuse the word " experience." " Experience,"
says he, " may mean experience only direct, or indirect also.
Direct experience I understand to be confined to the given simply,
to the merely felt or presented. But indirect experience includes
all fact that is constructed from the basis of the ' this ' and the
' mine.' It is all that is taken to exist beyond the bare moment "
(248). This is to substitute " indirect experience " for all
inference, and to maintain that when, starting from any " direct
experience," I infer the back of the moon, which is always turned
away from me, I nevertheless have experience of it; nay, that
it is experience. Having thus confused contradiction and differ-
ence, independence and solitariness, experience and inference,
Bradley is able to deduce finally that reality is not different
substances, experienced and inferred, as Aristotle thought it,
but is one absolute super-personal experience, to which the so-
called plurality of things, including all bodies, all souls, and even
a personal God, is appearance an appearance, as ordinarily
understood, self-contradictory, but, as appearing to one spiritual
reality, somehow reconciled. But how?
3. Other German Influences. Brief reference only can be
made to four other English idealists who have quarried in the
rich mines of German idealism: G. H. Lewes, W. K. Clifford,
G. J. Romanes and Karl Pearson. Lewes (q.v.), starting from
the phenomenalism of Hume, fell under the spell of Kant and
his successors, and produced a compromise between a . HnLewes .
Hume and Kant which recalls some of the later
German phenomenalisms which have been described (see his
Problems of Life and Mind). Rejecting everything in the Kritik
which savoured of the " metempirical," he yet sympathized so
far with Hegel's noumenalism as to accept the identification of
cause and effect, though he interpreted the hypothesis pheno-
menalistically by saying that cause and effect are two aspects of
the same phenomenon. But his main sympathy was with
Fechner, the gist of whose " inner psychophysics " he adopted,
without, however, the hypothesis that what is conscious in us is
conscious in the all-embracing spirit of God. His phenomenal-
ism also compelled him to give a more modified adhesion to
Fechner's " outer psychophysics." It will be remembered that
Fechner regarded every composite body as the appearance of
a spirit; so that when, for example, molecular motion of air is
said to cause a sensation of sound in me, it is really a
spirit appearing as air which causes the sensation in my
spirit. This noumenalism would not do for Lewes, who
says that air is a group of qualities, and qualities are
feelings, and motion is a mode of feeling. What, then, could
he make of the external stimulus? He was obliged by his
phenomenalism to say that it is only one feeling causing another
in me. He ingeniously suggested that the external agent is one
feeling regarded objectively, and the internal effect another
feeling regarded subjectively; " and therefore," to quote his
own words, " to say that it is a molecular movement which
produces a sensation of sound, is equivalent to saying that a
sensation of sight produces a sensation of hearing." Accordingly,
ENGLISH IDEALISM]
METAPHYSICS
247
his final conclusion is that " existence 1 the absolute is known
to us in feeling," and " the external changes are symbolized as
motion, because that is the mode of feeling into which all others
are translated when objectively considered: objective consider-
ation being the attitude of looking at the phenomena, whereas
subjective consideration is the attitude of any other sensible
response." He does not say what happens when we use vision
alone and still infer that an external stimulus causes the internal
sensation. But his metaphysics is an interesting example of a
phenomenalist, sympathizing with noumenalists so different as
Hegel and Fechner, and yet maintaining his phenomenalism.
In this feature the phenomenalism of Lewes is the English
parallel to the German phenomenalism of Wundt. At the same
time, and under the derivative influence of Wundt, rather than
the more original inspiration of Fechner, W. K. Clifford (q.v.) was
working out the hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism to a
conclusion different from that of Lewes, and more allied to that
of Leibnitz, the prime originator of all these hypotheses. Clifford
W. K. advanced the hypothesis that the supposed un-
CHfford. conscious units of feeling, or psychical atoms, are the
" mind-stuff " out of which everything physical and psychical
is composed, and are also things in themselves, such as Kant
supposed when he threw out the hint that after all " the Ding-an-
sich might be of the nature of mind " (see Mind, 1878, p. 67).
As a matter of fact, this " mind-stuff " of Clifford is far more
like the " petites perceptions " of Leibnitz, from which it is
indirectly derived. This hypothesis Clifford connected with the
hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism. He maintained that
the physical and the psychical are two orders which are parallel
without interference; that the physical or objective order is
merely phenomena, or groups of feelings, or " objects," while the
psychical or subjective order is both a stream of feelings of which
we are conscious in ourselves, and similar streams which we infer
beyond ourselves, or, as he came to call them, " ejects "; that,
if we accept the doctrine of evolution at all, we must carry these
ejective streams of feelings through the whole organic world and
beyond it to the inorganic world, as a " quasimental fact ";
that at bottom both orders, the physical phenomena and the
psychical streams, are reducible to feelings; and that therefore
there is no reason against supposing that they are made out of the
same " mind-stuff," which is the thing-in-itself. The resem-
blance of this noumenal idealism to that of Fechner is unmistak-
able. The difference is that Clifford considers " mind-stuff " to
be unconscious, and denies that there is any evidence of con-
sciousness apart from a nervous system. He agrees with du
Bois-Reymond in refusing to regard the universe as a vast brain
animated by conscious mind. He disagrees with Fechner's
hypothesis of a world-soul, the highest spirit, God, who embraces
all psychophysical processes. Curiously enough, his follower
G. J. Romanes (q.v.) took the one step needed to bring Cliffordism
completely back to Fechnerism. In his Rede Lecture on Mind
and Motion (1885), he said that Clifford's deduction, that the
a. J. universe, although entirely composed of " mind-stuff,"
Romanes. j s itself mindless, did not follow from his premisses.
Afterwards, when the lecture was published in Mind and
Motion and Monism (1895), this work also contained a chapter on
" The World as an Eject," in which Romanes again contended
against Clifford that the world does admit of being regarded
as an eject, that is, as a mind beyond one's own. At the same
time, he refused to regard this " world-eject " as personal,
because personality implies limitation. He concludes that the
integrating principle of the whole the Spirit, as it were, of the
Universe must be something akin to, but immeasurably superior
to, the " psychism " of man. Nothing can be more curious than
the way in which a school of English philosophers, which originally
started from Hume, the most sceptical of phenomenalists, thus
gradually passed over to Leibnitz and Fechner, the originators
of panpsychistic noumenalism. The Spirit of the Universe
contemplated by Romanes is identical with the World-soul
ntemplated by Fechner.
Karl Pearson (The Grammar of Science, 1892, 2nd enlarged ed.,
900), starting from Hume's phenomenal idealism, has developed
:
James Ward.
views closely allied to Mach's universal physical phenomenology.
What Hume called repeated sequence Pearson calls " routine "
of perceptions, and, like his master, holds that cause is an ante-
cedent stage in a routine of perceptions; while he also acknow-
ledges that his account of matter leads him very near to John
Stuart Mill's definition of matter as " a permanent possibility of
sensations." His views, in his chapter on the Laws of Motion,
that the physicist forms a conceptional model of the universe by
aid of corpuscles, that these corpuscles are only symbols for the
component parts of perceptual bodies, and that force is a measure
of motion, and not its cause, are the views of Mach. At the end
of this chapter he says that the only published work from the
perusal of which he received any help in working out his
views in 1882 and 1884, was Mach's Die Mechanik in ihrer
Entwicklung (1883). Mach had begun to put them forward
in 1872, and Kirchhoff in 1874. But they may very well have
been developed independently in Germany and in England
from their common source in Hume. Their point is to stretch
Hume's phenomenalism so as to embrace all science, by con-
tending that mechanism is not at the bottom of phenomena,
but is only the conceptual shorthand by aid of which men of
science can briefly describe phenomena, and that all science is
description and not explanation. These are the views of Mach
and of Pearson, as we read them in the latter's Preface. Nor
can we find any difference, except the minute shade that Pearson
takes up a position of agnosticism between Clifford's assertion of
" mind-stuff " and Mach's denial of things in themselves.
James Ward (q.v.), in Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899),
starts from the same phenomenalistic views of Mach and Kirch-
hoff about mechanics; he proceeds to the hypothesis
of duality within experience, which we have traced in"'
the phenomenalisms of Schuppe, Avenarius and Wundt, and to
the hypothesis of one consciousness, which appears variously in
the German idealisms, not of Kant, as Ward thinks, but of Fichte,
Hegel and Schuppe; and somehow he manages to end with the
noumenalistic conclusion that Nature is God's Spirit. Though
this work evinces a thoroughly English love of compromise, yet
it is not merely eclectic, but is animated throughout by the
inspiration of his " old teacher, Lotze." Lotze, as we saw,
rejected bodily mechanism, reduced known bodies to phenomena,
and concluded that reality is the life of God. Ward on the whole
follows this triple scheme, but modifies it by new arguments
founded on later German phenomenalism.
Under the first head he attacks mechanics precisely as Mach
had done (see above) ; if this attack had been consistently carried
out it would have carried him no further than Mach. Under the
second head, according to Ward, as according to Wundt, knowledge
is experience; we must start with the duality of subject and object,
or perpetual reality, phenomenon, in the unity of experience, and
not believe, as realists do, that either subject or object is distinct
from this unity; moreover, experience requires " conation," because
it is to interesting objects that the subject attends; conation is
required for all synthesis, associative and intellective; thinking is
doing; presentation, feeling, conation are one inseparable whole;
and the unity of the subject is due to activity and not to a sub-
stratum. But, in opposition to Wundt and in common with
Schuppe, he believes that experience is (i) experience of the in-
dividual, and (2) experience of the race, which is but an extension
of individual experience, and is variously called, in the course of
the discussion, universal, collective, conceptual, rational experience,
consciousness in general, absolute consciousness, intelligence, and
even, after Caird, " a perfect intelligence." He regards this uni-
versal experience as the result entirely of intersubjective inter-
course, and concludes that its subject is not numerically distinct
from the subject of individual experience, but is one and continuous
with it, and that its conceptions depend on the perceptions of
individual experience. He infers the corollary that universal
experience contains the same duality of subjective and objective
factors without dualism. He thinks that it is the origin of the
categories of causality, which he refers to " conation," and sub-
stance, which he attributes to the interaction of active subjects
with their environment and to their intercourse with each other.
He applies universal experience, as Schuppe does, to explain the
unity of the object, and its independence of individual but not of
universal experience, holding that the one sun, and the whole
world of intersubjective intercourse, or the " trans-subjective "
world, though " independent of the individual percipient as such,"
is " not independent of the universal experience, but the object
of that experience " (ii. 196-197). He applies universal experience
METAPHYSICS
[PERSONAL IDEALISM
to explain how we come, falsely in his opinion, to believe that the
object of experience is an independent thine; and he uses three
arguments, which are respectively those of Schuppe, Avenarius
and Wundt. He supposes first, that we falsely conclude from the
sun being independent of each to being independent of all;
secondly, that by " introjection " we falsely conclude that
another's experience is in him and therefore one's own in one-
self, while the sun remains outside; and thirdly, that by " rein-
cation " of abstractions, natural science having abstracted the
object and psychology the subject, each falsely believes that its
own abstract, the sun or the subject, is an independent thing.
What, then, could we know from this "duality in experience"?
He hardly has a formal theory of inference, but implies through-
out that it only transcends perceptions, and perceptual reali-
ties or phenomena, in order to conclude with ideas, not facts.
When we combine his view of Nature under the first head that
whatever is inferred in the natural sciences is ideas, with his view
of knowledge under the second head that knowledge is experience,
and experience, individual or universal, is of duality of subject
and object in the unity of experience, it follows that all we could
know from the data would be one experience of the race, one subject
consisting of individual subjects, and in Nature single objects in
the unity of this universal experience; and beyond we should be
able to form conceptions dependent on the perceptions of individual
experience in the unity of universal experience : that is all. There
can be no doubt that Mach, Schuppe and Wundt drew the right
phenomenalistic conclusions from such phenomenalistic data.
Not so Ward, who proceeds to a Natural Theology, on the ground
that " from a world of spirits to a Supreme Spirit is a possible
step." He had definitely confined universal experience to the one
experience of the race. But perhaps Caird's phrase " a perfect
intelligence " has beguiled him into thinking that the one subject
of universal experience is not mere mankind, but God Himself.
Under the third head, however, his guide is Lotze. The argument
may be shortly put as follows: As the Nature which is the object
of mechanics and all natural sciences is not natural substances,
but phenomena and ideas ; as mass is not substance, and force is not
cause ; as activity is not in the physical but in the psychical world ;
as the laws of Nature are not facts but teleological conceptions,
and Nature is teleological, as well as not mechanical but kine-
matical ; as the category of causality is to be referred to " conation " ;
as, in short, " mind is active and matter inert," what then? One
subject of universal experience, one with the subjects of individual
experience, you would suppose, and that Nature as a whole is its
one object. Not so, according to Ward; but " God as the living
unity of all," and " no longer things, but the connecting conserving
acts of the one Supreme.' What, then, is the relation of God to
the one universal experience, the experience of the race, which
was under the second head the unity in duality of all know-
ledge ? He does not say. But instead of any longer identifying
the experience of the race and universal experience, he concludes
his book by saying " our reason is confronted and determined by
universal reason." This is his way of destroying Naturalism and
Agnosticism.
4. Personal Idealism. The various forms of idealism which
have been described naturally led in England, even among
idealists themselves, to a reaction against all systems which
involve the denial of personality. English moral philosophy
cannot long tolerate a metaphysics which by merging all minds
in one would destroy personality, personal causation and moral
- responsibility, as James Martineau well said. A new school,
therefore, arose of which the protagonist was Andrew Seth
Pringle-Pattison (b. 1856; professor of logic and metaphysics
at Edinburgh University from 1880) in his Scottish Philosophy
(1885), and Hegelianism and Personality (1887).
" Each of us is a self," he says, and in another passage, " The
real self is one and indivisible, and is unique in each individual.
This is the unequivocal testimony of consciousness." What
makes his vindication of conscious personality all the more inter-
esting is that he has so much in common with the Hegelians; agree-
ing as he does with Hegel that self-consciousness is the highest fact,
the ultimate category of thought through which alone the universe
is intelligible, and an adequate account of the great fact of exist-
ence. He agrees also that there is no object without subject. It
is difficult to see exactly where he begins to differ from Hegel ; but
at any rate he believes in different self-conscious persons; he does
not accept the dialectical method, but believes in beginning from
the personal experience of one's own self -consciousness ; and, though
he is not very clear on the subject, he would have to admit that
a thing, such as the sun, is a different object in each person's con-
sciousness. He is not a systematic thinker, but is too much affected
by the eclectic notion of reconciling all philosophies. F. C. S
Schiller (b. 1864, fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford), in
Riddles of the Sphinx (1891), is a more systematic thinker. He
rejects the difference between matter and spirit. He agrees with
Leibnitz in the analysis of the material into the immaterial, but with
Lotze in holding that the many immaterial elements coexist and
interact. At the same time he differs from Lotze's conclusion that
their union requires one absolute substance. Again, he thinks that
substance is activity; differing from both Leibnitz and Lotze
herein, and still more in not allowing the existence of the many
beyond experience. Hence his personal or pluralistic idealism is
the view that the world is a plurality of many coexisting and inter-
acting centres of experience, while will is the most fundamental
form of experience. 1 In connexion with these views reference
should be made to a work entitled Personal Idealism, Philosophical
Essays by Eight Members of the University of Oxford (1902), edited
by H, Sturt, and numbering Schiller, as well as G. F. Stout,
H. Rashdall and others among its contributors (cf. also H. Sturt,
Idola theatri, 1908). They do not all agree with one another, or
perhaps even with the title. Nevertheless, there is a common ten-
dency in them, and in the university of Oxford, towards the belief
that, to use the words of the editor, " We are free moral agents
in a sense which cannot apply to what is merely natural." There is
indeed much more activity of thought at Oxford than the world sus-
pects. Mansel and Jowett, Green and Caird, Bradley and Bosanquet
arose in quick succession, the predecessors of a generation which
aims at a new metaphysics. The same sort of antithesis between
the one and the many has appeared in the United States. Josiah
Royce (b. 1855, professor of philosophy, Harvard) believes in
the absolute like Green and Bradley, in " the unity of a single
self-consciousness, which includes both our own and all finite
conscious meanings in one final eternally present insight," as he
says in The World and the Individual (1900; see also later works).
G. T. Ladd (q.v.) also believes in " a larger all-inclusive self," and
goes so far as the paradox that perfect personality is only recon-
cilable with one infinite being. While Royce is Hegelian, Ladd
prefers Lotze, but both believe in one mind. William James (q.v.),
on the other hand, in his psychological works shows that the
tendency of recent psychology is to personality, interpreted ideal-
istically; though without a very clear appreciation of what a person
is, and personality means. By a curious coincidence, almost at
the time of the appearance of the Essays on Personal Idealism,
an American writer, G. H. Howison, published The Limits of Evolu-
tion, and otlier Essays illustrating the Metaphysical Theory of Personal
Idealism (1901). In fact there has been an increase of philosophical
intercourse between English and American universities, which is
a hopeful sign of progress.
The advent of personal idealism is a welcome protest against
the confusion of God and man in one mind, and against the
confusion of one man's mind with another's. The school
undoubtedly tends towards realism. I am conscious only of
myself as a person, and of my bodily signs. I know the existence
of other human persons and minds only through their giving
similar bodily signs. If the personal idealist consistently denies
other bodies, then the bodily signs become, according to him,
only part of his experience, which can prove only the existence of
himself. To infer another mind he must infer another body, and
the bodily environment including his and other bodies. Again,
in being conscious of myself, I am not conscious of my mind in the
abstract without my body. I cannot separate touching from my
tactile organs, seeing from my eyes, or hearing from my ears. I
cannot think my body away. Moreover, I am not conscious of
my whole personal life at all. How do I know that I was born,
though I cannot remember it, and that I shall die, though I am
not now conscious of death ? How do I know that I am the
same person from birth to death ? Not by my consciousness,
but by knowing the bodies of others of babies on the one hand,
and of old men on the other hand. It is usual to say that the
body has not enough unity to be part of the person: the objection
is much more true of conscious mind. The truth is that not
the unity of consciousness but the fact of its existence is the
important point. The existence of my consciousness is my evi-
dence for my soul. But it does not prove that I am nothing but
soul. As a human person, I am body and soul ; and the idealistic
identification of the Ego with soul or mind, involving the corollary
that my body belongs to the non-Ego and is no part of myself, is
the reductio ad absurdum of idealism. Lastly, though the
personal idealists are right in rejecting the hypothesis of one
mind, they are too hasty in supposing that the hypothesis is
useless for idealistic purposes. No idealism can explain how
we all know one sun, except by supposing that we all have one
mind. The difficulty of personal idealism, on the other hand, is
to reconcile the unity of the thing with the plurality of thinkers.
The unity of the sun can only be explained either idealistically
1 For Dr Schiller's views, see further PRAGMATISM.
REALISM]
METAPHYSICS
249
by supposing it to be one object of one mind, or realistically by
supposing it to be one thing distinct from the many minds which
think about it. The former alternative is false, the latter true.
Personal idealism, therefore, must end in personal realism.
7. REALISM
i. Metaphysical and Psychological Realism. Realism is the
view that some known things are bodily, and some are mental.
At its best, it is the Aristotelian view that both are substances.
The modern misunderstanding of " substance " has been a main
cause of the confusion of modern thought. Aristotle meant by
it any distinct thing; e.g. I, you, an animal, a plant, the earth, the
moon, the sun, God. He calls each of these, as existing apart, a
thing per se (KaO' euro). It is true that, having divided a natural
substance into form and matter, he called each element " sub-
stance." But these are not primary meanings; and matter, or
supposed substratum, in particular, he says, is not actually
substance (Met. Z 3) or is only potentially substance (Met.tl 1-2).
In modern times, Spinoza, by a mere mistake, changed the
meaning of " substance " from " existing apart " to " existing
alone," and consistently concluded that there is only one.
Locke mistook it to mean " substratum," or support of qualities,
and naturally concluded that it is unknown. Kant, taking it in
the mistaken meaning of Locke, converted it into the a priori
category of the permanent substrate beneath the changes of
phenomena, and even went so far as to separate it from the thing
in itself, as substantia phenomenon from noumenon. When it
had thus lost every vestige of its true meaning, Kant's successors
naturally began to speak of things as being distinct without being
substances. Fichte began this by saying that ego is activity,
and being is life. Hegel said that spirit is not substance but
subject, which to Aristotle would have meant that it is not a
distinct thing, yet is a distinct thing. Fechner, Wundt and
Paulsen have fixed the conclusion in psychology that soul
is not substance but unity of mental life; and Wundt
concludes from the modern history of the term that substance
or " substrate " is only a secondary conception to that of
causality, and that, while there is a physical causality distinct
from that of substance, psychical causality requires no sub-
stance at all.
The result of this confusion is that the moderns have no name
at all for a distinct thing, and, being mere slaves of abstract terms,
constantly speak of mere attributes, such as activity, life, will,
actuality, unity of mental operations, as if they were distinct
things. But an attribute, though real, is not a distinct reality,
but only a determinant of a substance, and has no being of its
own apart from the substance so determined; whereas a substance,
determined by all its attributes, is different from everything
else in the world. Though, for simplicity and universality of
thought, even in science, we must use the abstraction of attri-
butes, and, by the necessity and weakness of language, must
signify what arc not substances by nouns substantive, we must
guard against the over-abstraction of believing that a thing exists
as we abstract it. The point of true realism is Aristotle's point
that the world consists of such distinct, though related, things,
and therefore of substances, natural and supernatural. Again,
the method of true realism is that of Aristotle, and consists in
recognizing the independence of metaphysics. The contrary
method is psychological metaphysics, which makes metaphysics
dependent on psychology, on the ground that the origin of know-
ledge determines its limits. This is the method which, as we
have seen, has led from psychological to metaphysical idealism,
by the argument that what we begin by perceiving is mental, and,
therefore, what we end by knowing is mental. Now, there is no
principle of method superior to that of Aristotle we must
begin with what is known to us. The things best known to man
are the things which he now knows as a man. About these
known things there is some agreement: about the beginnings
of knowledge there is nothing but controversy. We do
not know enough about the origin of knowledge to determine
its limits. Hence, to proceed from psychology to metaphysics
is to proceed from the less to the more known; and the
paradoxes of psychological have caused those of metaphysical
idealism.
The realist, then, ought to begin with metaphysics without
psychological prejudices. He must ask what are known things,
and especially what has been discovered in the sciences; in
mechanics, in order to find the essence of bodies which is neglected
by idealism; in mental science, in order to understand con-
sciousness which is neglected by materialism. With the con-
viction that the only fair way of describing metaphysics has been
to avoid putting forward one system, and even to pay most
attention to the dominant ideah'sm, we have nevertheless been
driven occasionally to test opinions by this independent meta-
physical method. The chief results we have found against
idealism are that bodies have not been successfully analysed
except into bodies, as real matter; and that bodies are known to
exert reciprocal pressure in reducing one another to a joint mass
with a common velocity by being mutually impenetrable, as
real forces. The chief results we have found against materialism
are that bodies evolving account neither for the origin of them-
selves, their nature, and their fundamental order of resemblance
and difference, nor for the nature and origin of consciousness, nor
even as yet for their becoming good for conscious beings. Hence
we come to the realistic conclusions that among known substances
some are bodies, others are souls; that man is body and soul; and
that God is a pure soul or spirit. At the same time, while the
independence of metaphysics leads us to metaphysical realism,
this is not to deny the value of psychology, still less of logic.
Besides the duty of determining what we know, there is the duty
of determining how we know it. But in order to discharge it,
a reform of psychology as well as of metaphysics is required.
Two psychological errors, among many others, constantly meet
us in the history of idealism the arbitrary hypothesis of a sense
of sensations, or of ideas, and the intolerable neglect of logical
inference. Logical inference from sense is a process from sensible
to insensible existence. The former error needs something
deeper than a Kantian critique of reason, or an Avenarian
criticism of experience; it needs a criticism of the senses. We
want an answer to this question What must we know by the
senses in order to enable us to know what we infer by reason in the
sciences? Without here aiming at exhaustiveness, we may bring
forward against the dominant idealism a psychological theory
of sense and reason. By touch I perceive one bodily member
reciprocally pressing another in myself, e.g. lip pressing lip; by
touch again I perceive one bodily member similarly pressing
but not another member in myself, e.g. only one lip pressing;
by inference from touch I infer that it is reciprocally pressing
another body similar to my other bodily member, i.e. another
body similar 'to my other lip. On this theory, then, founded on
the conscious facts of double and single pressure in touch, and
on the logic of inference, we have at once a reason for our know-
ledge of external bodies, and an explanation of the early appear-
ance of that knowledge. The child has only to have its mother's
nipple in its mouth in order to infer something very like the
mutually pressing parts of its own mouth. Having thus begun
by touch and tactile inference, we confirm and extend our
inferences of bodies in Nature by using the rest of the senses.
This is not to forget that the five senses are not our whole stock
or to confine inference to body. We have also the inner sense of
consciousness which is inexplicable by body alone. By combin-
ing, moreover, our knowledge of Nature with our consciousness
of our own works, we can infer that Nature is a work of God.
Next, finding that He gives signs of bodily works, but no signs
of bodily organs, we can infer that God is a Spirit. Finally,
returning to ourselves, we can conclude that, while the conscious
in God is Spirit without Body, in us it is spirit with body. This
final distinction between bodily and spiritual substances we owe
to Descartes.
2. The Undercurrent of Modern Realism. Coming after the
long domination of Aristotelian realism, Descartes and Locke,
though psychological idealists, were metaphysical realists.
Their position was so illogical that it was easily turned into
metaphysical idealism. But their psychological method and
25
METAPHYSICS
[REALISM
idealism produced another mistake the tendency to a modicum
of realism, as much as seemed to this or that author to follow from
psychological idealism. In Germany, since the victory of Kant
over Wolff, realism has always been in difficulties, which we
can appreciate when we reflect that the Germans by preference
apply the term " realism " to the paradoxes of Herbart (1776-
1841), who, in order to avoid supposed contradictions, supposed
that bodies are not substances, but show (Schein), while " reals"
are simple substances, each with a simple quality, and all preserv-
ing themselves against disturbance by one another, whether
physically or psychologically, but not known to be either material
or spiritual because we do not know the simple quality in which
the nature of the real consists. There have indeed been other
realisms in Germany. Trendelenburg (1802-1872), a formidable
opponent of Hegel, tried to surmount Kant's transcendental
idealism by supposing that motion, and therefore time, space and
the categories, though a priori, are common to thought and being.
Duhring, with a similar object, makes matter a common basis.
While these realisms come dangerously near to materialism, that
of the Roman Catholic A. Gunther (1783-1863), " Cartesius cor-
rectus," erected too mystical ar. edifice on the psychological basis
of Descartes to sustain a satisfactory realism. Yet Giintherism
has produced a school, of which the most distinguished repre-
sentative is the Old Catholic bishop in Bonn, Th. Weber, whose
Meiaphysik, completed in 1891, starting from the ego and the
analysis of consciousness, aims at arriving at the distinction
between spirit and nature, and at rising to the spirit of God the
Creator. Other realistic systems are those of J. H. von Kirch-
mann (1802-1884) , author, among other works, of Die Philosophic
des Wissens (1864) and Ueber die Principien des Realismus (1875) ;
Goswin Uphues (b. 1841; professor of philosophy at Halle),
directed against the scepticism of Shute's Discourse on Truth;
and Hermann Schwarz (born 1864), who completes the psycho-
logical view of Uphues that we can know objects as they are, by
the metaphysical view that they can be as we know them. But
German realism lacks critical power, and is little better than a
weed overshadowed by the luxuriant forest of German idealism.
In France, the home of Cartesian realism, after the vicissitudes
of sensationalism and materialism, which became connected in
French the French mind with the Revolution, the spirit of
Keaiism. Descartes revived in the igth century in the spiritual-
istic realism of Victor Cousin. But Cousin's psychological
method of proceeding from consciousness outwards, and the
emphasis laid by him on spirit in comparison with body, pre-
vented a real revival of realism. He essayed to answer Locke
by Kant, and Kant by Reid, Maine de Biran and Schelling.
From Reid he adopted the belief in an external world beyond
sensation, from Biran the explanation of personality by will,
from Schelling the identification of all reason in what he called
" impersonal reason," which he supposed to be identical in God
and man, to be subjective and objective, psychological and
ontological. We start, according to him, from a psychological
triplicity in consciousness, consisting of sensation, personal will
and impersonal reason, which by a priori laws of causality and
substance carries us to the ontological triplicity of oneself as ego
willing, the non-ego as cause of sensation, and God as the abso-
lute cause beneath these relative causes. So far this ontological
triplicity is realism. But when we examine his theory of the
non-ego, and find that it resolves matter into active force and
this into animated activity, identifies law with reason, and calls
God absolute substance, we see at once that this spiritual realism
is not very far from idealism. About 1840, owing largely to the
teaching of E. Saisset in the spiritualistic school, the influence of
Descartes began to give way to that of Leibnitz. Leibnitz has
been used both realistically and idealistically in France. He was
taken literally by spiritual realists, e.g. by Paul Janet (q.v.).
Janet accepted the traditional ontological triplicity God, souls
and bodies and, in answer to Ravaisson, who called this realism
" demi-spiritualisme," rejoined that he was content to accept the
title. At the same time, like Cousin, his works show a tendency
to underrate body, tending as they do to the Leibnitzian analysis
of the material into the immaterial, and to the supposition that
the unity of the body is only given by the soul. His emphasis is
on spirit, and he goes so far as to admit that " no spiritualist is
engaged to defend the existence of matter." The strength of
Janet's position is his perception that the argument from final
causes is in favour of an omnipresent rational will making matter
a means to ends, and not in favour of an immanent mind of
Nature working out her own ends.
The psychological metaphysics of Cousin and of Janet was, how-
ever, too flimsy a realism to withstand its passage into this very
idealism of matter which has become the dominant French meta-
physics. Etienne Vacherot (q.v.) deserted Descartes for Hegel.
He accepted from Hegel " the real is rational " without the Hegelian
method, for which he substituted conscious experience as a revelation
of the divine. Matter he held to be mind at the minimum of its
action, and evolution the "expansion de 1'actiyite incessante dela
cause finale." God, according to his latest view, is the absolute
being as first cause and final end. " Let us leave," says he in defer-
ence to Janet, " the category of the ideal, which applies to nothing
real or living." But the most noticeable passage in Le Nouveau
spiritualisme (1884) is its contrast between the old and the new;
where he says that the old spiritualism opposed spirit to matter,
God to Nature, the new spiritualism places matter in spirit, Nature
in God (p. 377). F. Ravaisson (see RAVAISSON-MOLLIEN), by his
Rapport (prepared for the Exhibition of 1867) on philosophy in
France, gave a fresh impulse to the transition from spiritual realism
to idealism, by developing the Aristotelian l<fc<rts of matter and the
Leibnitzian appetition of monads into "1'amour" as the very being
of things. Jules Lachelier (born 1832) agreed with Ravaisson that
beauty is the last word of things, but, under the influence of Kant
and his successors, put his idealism rather in the form that all is
thought. A. Fouillee (q.v.) rightly objects that we must not thus
impute thought and intention to Nature, and yet does not scruple
to impute to it life, sensation and want. Starting from conscious-
ness, he argues that all known things are phenomena of consciousness.
Then, agreeing with evolutionism, that things are necessarily
determined by forces, but with Leibnitz that body is merely passive,
he infers that force, being active, is psychical a force, which he
describes as " idee-force," and as " vouloir-vivre." In connexion
with the " idees directrices et crganisatrices," supposed by the
French physiologist Claude Bernard, and the universal will supposed
by German voluntarists, Fouillee concludes that the world is a society
of wills. Meanwhile, more under the influence of Kant, C. B. Renou-
vier (.i>.)has worked out an idealism which he calls "Neo-criticisme,"
rejecting the thing-in-itself, while limiting knowledge to phenomena
constituted by a priori categories. Phenomena he identifies with
" representations representatives et representees." But he takes
the usual advantage of this most ambiguous of terms when he
extends it to embrace God, freedom, and immortality required by the
moral law. In his later work, La Nouvelle monadologie (1899), he
maintains that each monad is a simple substance, endowed with
representation, which is consciousness in form, phenomenon in
matter as represented. In order to explain free will, he supposes,
contrarily to Fouillee, that the laws of phenomena are indeterminate,
contingent and liable to exceptions. Here we trace the influence
of Leibnitz and Lotze, which is still more marked in La Contingence
des lois de la nature (1874), by E. Boutroux. Fouillee meets the
mechanics of evolution by the argument that will to live determines
its necessary laws, Boutroux by denying the necessity. His point
is, that the world only appears to be phenomena governed by
necessary laws, and is really a spontaneity which makes new begin-
nings, such as life and consciousness, tending to good. These
examples are enough to show that the psychological metaphysics
of spiritual realism has not been able to withstand the rise and
progress of spiritual idealism in France.
In England, the land of Bacon and Locke, the realistic
tendency has been more active, and is exhibited in Bacon's
Novum organum and De Augmentis sci&ntiarum, English
as well as to a less degree in the Fourth Book of Realism.
Locke's Essay. After the metaphysical idealism, begun by
Berkeley, had eventuated in Hume's reduction of the
objects of knowledge to sensations, ideas and associations, the
Scottish school, applying the Baconian method to the study of
mind, began to inquire once more for the evidences of our
knowledge, and produced the natural or intuitive realism of
T. Reid, Dugald Stewart and Sir William Hamilton, who, having
been followed by H. L. Mansel, as well as by J. Veitch, H.
Calderwood and J. M'Cosh, prolonged the existence of the
school, in which we may venture to place L. T. Hobhouse and
F. W. Bain, author of The Realization of the Possible (1899), down
to our own time.
Its main tenet, that we have an immediate perception of the
external world, is roughly expressed in the following words of
Reid : " I do perceive matter objectively that is, something
REALISM1
METAPHYSICS
251
which is extended and solid, which may be measured and weighed,
_ . . is the immediate object of my touch and sight. And
this object I take to be matter, and not an idea. And,
though I have been taught by philosophers that what I immediately
touch is an idea, and not matter, yet I have never been able to dis-
cover this by the most accurate attention to my own perceptions."
No opposition to idealism could be more distinct. Reid, however,
did not always express himself so distinctly. Moreover, he and his
successors mixed up so many accidents with the essence of their
realism that the whole system broke down under its own weight.
Their psychology contained valuable points. It also contained
much that was doubtful, and much that was ill-adapted to the
metaphysics of realism. Yet they thought it the only avenue to
metaphysics. It is full of appeals to common sense, and of prin-
ciples of common sense, which Reid also called intuitive first prin-
ciples, and self-evident truths. It is spoilt by Locke's hypothesis
that we do not perceive things but qualities implying things. While
it asserted a realism of individuals, it admitted a conceptualism of
universals. Stewart also said that our knowledge of matter and
mind is merely relative. Hamilton went still further; he tried to
combine the oil of Reid with the water of Kant; and converting
... the intuitive into the a priori, he found a further reason
' for the relativity of knowledge. " Our knowledge is
relative," said he, " first, because existence is not cognizable abso-
lutely and in itself, but only in special modes; second, because these
modes thus relative to our faculties are presented to and known by
the mind, only under modification, determined by these faculties
themselves." Not only so, but in his review of Cousin (" Philosophy
of the Unconditioned," in Discussions, pp. 12-15), he made concep-
tion the test of knowledge, argued that " the mind can conceive,
and consequently can know, only the limited, and the conditionally
limited," that " to think is to condition," that all we know either of
mind or matter is " the phenomenal," that " we can never in our
highest generalizations rise above the finite," and concluded that we
cannot conceive or know the unconditioned, yet must believe in its
existence. Nevertheless, in spite of all this Kantism, he adhered
to his natural realism. He vacillated a great deal about our mode
of perceiving the external world; but his final view (edition of
Reid's works, note D*) consisted in supposing that (l) sensation is
an apprehension of secondary qualities purely as affections of the
organism viewed as ego; (2) perception in general is an apprehension
of primary qualities as relations of sensations in the organism
viewed as non-ego; while (3) a special perception of a so-called
" secundo-primary " quality consists in " the consciousness of a
resisting something external to our organism." Hamilton's views
both on the absolute and on perception affected Mansel and Spencer.
They were not, however, received without question even by his
followers. H. Calderwood, in his Philosophy of the Infinite (1854),
made the pertinent objection that, though thought, conception and
CM a knowledge are finite, the object of thought may be
infinite. Hamilton, in fact, made the double mistake
of limiting knowledge to what we can conceive, and confusing the
determinate with the finite or limited. We never know anything
except as determined by its attributes; but that would not prevent
us from inferring something determined as unconditioned, whether
infinite or absolute. J. M'Cosh again, in The Prevailing Types of
Philosophy: Can they logically reach reality? (1891), rightly protests
against Hamilton's combination of Scottish and German schools
M'Cosh w hich will not coalesce, and exhorts the former " to
throw away its crutches of impressions, instincts, sug-
gestions, and common sense, and give the mind a power of seeing
things directly." He has the merit of presenting natural or intuitive
realism in its purity.
The common tenet of the whole school is that without inference
we immediately perceive the external world, at all events as a
resisting something external to our organism. But is it true ?
There are three reasons against it, and for the view that we
perceive a sensible object within, and infer an external object
without, the organism. In the first place, there are great differ-
ences between the sensible and the external object; they differ
in secondary qualities in the case of all the senses; and even
in the case of touch, heat felt within is different from the vibra-
ting heat outside. Secondly, there are so-called " subjective
sensations," without any external object as stimulus, most
commonly in vision, but also in touch, which is liable to formi-
cation, or the feeling of creeping in the skin, and to horripilation,
or the feeling of bristling in the hair; yet, even in " subjective
sensations," we perceive something sensible, which, however,
must be within, and not outside, the organism. Thirdly, the
external world and the senses always act on one another by cause
and effect and by pressure, although we only feel pressure by
touch. Now, when the thing with which touch is in a state of
reciprocal pressure is external, e.g. a table, we feel our organism
pressed and pressing; we do not feel the table pressing and
pressed, but infer it. The Scottish School never realized that
every sensation of the five senses is a perception of a sensible
object in the bodily organism; and that touch is a perception,
not only of single sensible pressure, but also of double sensible
pressure, a perception of our bodily members sensibly pressing
and pressed by one another, from which, on the recurrence of
a single sensible pressure, we infer the pressure of an external
thing for the first time. Intuitive Realism is to be replaced by
Physical Realism.
3. Reaction to Hypothetical Realism. The three evidences,
which are fatal to intuitive realism, do not prove hypothetical
realism, or the hypothesis that we perceive something mental,
but infer something bodily. This illogical hypothesis, which
consists of incautiously passing from the truth that the sensible
object perceived is not external but within the organism to the
non-sequitur that therefore it is within the mind, derived what
little plausibility it ever possessed from three prejudices: the
first, the scholastic dogma that the sensible object is a species
sensibilis, or immaterial sensible form received from the external
thing; the second, the Cartesian a priori argument that the soul
as thinking thing can perceive nothing but its own ideas; the
third, the common assumption of a sense of sensations. But
notwithstanding its illogicality, its tendency to underrate Nature
as inferred from such idealistic premises, and its certain transi-
tion into a consistent idealism, hypothetical realism has, with
little excuse, revived among us in the writings of Shadworth
Hodgson, James Martineau and A. J. Balfour. The cause of
this anachronism has been the failure of intuitive realism and
the domination of idealism, which makes short-sighted men
suppose that at all events they must begin with the psychology
and the psychological idealism of the day, in the false hope that
on the sands of psychological idealism they may build a house of
metaphysical realism.
Shadworth Hollo way Hodgson (born 1832; hon. fellow of
Corpus Christi College, Oxford), whose chief work is The
Metaphysic of Experience (4 vols., 1898), believing
that philosophy is an analysis of the contents of
consciousness, or experience, and that this is metaphysics,
begins, like Kant, with an analysis of experience. Like Kant,
he supposes that experience is concerned with sensations,
distinguishes matter and form in sense, identifies time and
space, eternal time and infinite space, with the formal
element, and substitutes 'synthesis of sensations of touch
and sight for association and inference, as the origin of our
knowing such a solid material object as a bell. Although he
does not agree with Kant that either the formal element in
sense or the synthesis of sensations is a priori, yet in very
Kantian fashion, through not distinguishing between operation
and object, he holds that, in synthetically combining sensations
of touch and sight, we not only have a complex perception of a
solid body, but also know this " object thought of " as itself
the complex of these sensations objectified. Hence he concludes
that " matter is the name for the sensation-elements derived from
both senses, abstracting in thought, so far as possible, from the
extension-elements of both " (i. 296).
Here you would expect him to stop, as the German Neo-Kantism
of Lange stops, with the consistent conclusion that all we know of
Nature from such data is these complexes of sensation-elements, or
phenomena in the Kantian meaning. Not so ; like Kant himself, Hodg-
son supposes something beyond; not, however, an unknown thing in
itself causing sensations, but a condition, or sine qua non, of their
existence, without being a cause of their nature. In order to make
this leap he supposes that we have beyond perceptions a conception
of condition. His account of the origin of this conception is puzzling,
(i. 380). Whatever its origin may be, it could not, any more than a
Kantian category of cause, justify us in concluding anything more
than a relation of perceptions as conditions of one another, seeing
that they were supposed to be the whole data, and matter itself to
be " sensation-elements." But what he proceeds to suppose is
that, having the conception, and finding that the complex of per-
ceptions needs accounting for, we infer a real condition, e.g. the solid
interior of a bell. What we know, however, of this condition,
according to him, has two limits: on the one hand, it is the condition
only of the existence of our perceptions; on the other hand, all we
know of its nature is our perceptions. Matter thus, which had at
first been defined as a complex of perceptions objectified, now turns
252
METAPHYSICS
[HYPOTHETICAL REALISM
out to be a condition without which perceptions would not exist,
but whose nature is known only as a complex of perceptions. Finally,
according to him, having inferred matter as the condition of pur
perceptions, we are entitled to infer that the condition of the exist-
ence of matter is God, whose nature, however, can be inferred only
by practical reason from conscience. He avers that this " meta-
pnysic of experience " is not idealism, or the tenet that consciousness
is the only reality. It is realism but inconsequent and inadequate
realism, something like that of Spencer; according, indeed, more
knowledge of the distinction between Nature as condition of sensa-
tions and God as condition of Nature ; but very like in holding that
all we know of natural forces is our perceptions. We know more,
however, about a body, such as a bell, than either Spencer or Hodgson
allows. We know, from the concomitant variations between its
vibrations and our perceptions, that its vibrations are not mere
conditions but real causes of our perceptions; and that those vibra-
tions are not our perceptions, because we cannot perceive them, but
are real attributes of the bell. It will be objected that they are
merely possible perceptions. But as they really produce our real
perceptions, they are themselves not merely possible, but real or
actual. A possible cause could not actually produce an actual effect.
James Martineau (q.v.) in A Study of Religion (1888), like
Shadworth Hodgson, started from Kant, and tried to found on
transcendental idealism "a return to dualism." If
there is one thing certain in the Kantian philosophy,
it is its author's perception that what is contributed by mind must
not be extended to things beyond mind. Hegel only extended
a priori forms to things by resolving things into thoughts.
Mill also protested " against adducing, as evidence of the truth of
a fact in external nature, the disposition, however strong or how-
ever general, of the human mind to believe it." Yet Martineau
adopted, as his view of the limits of human intelligence, that
Kant was right in making space and time a priori forms of
sense, but wrong in limiting them to sensations. But in order
to make space a form of external things, Martineau had to take
the external in space, by which Kant meant one sensation out
of another, in the very different meaning of the self here and the
not-self there. He facilitated this awkward transition by adding
to Kant's a priori forms of space and time an " a priori form of
alternative causality," or, as he also called it, " an intuition of
causality involved in the elementary exercise of perception,"
which is the key to his whole philosophy. He supposed that this
intuition of causality arises when will is resisted, and, further
supposing that causality requires decision between alternatives,
concluded that the intuition of will resisted is an intuition of
will against will, mine against other (i. 65). To pass over its
confusion of a priori and intuitive, there are two fatal objections
to this view. In the first place, the intuition of causality does
not require will at all, because we often perceive one bodily
member pressing another involuntarily; a man suffering from
lockjaw neither wills nor can avoid feeling the pressure of his
upper and lower jaws against one another. Secondly, though
causality requires alternatives in the material cause, e.g. wax
may or may not be melted, the determination between them is
not always a decision of will, but in physical causation depends
on the efficient cause, e.g. the fire: as Aristotle says, when the
active and passive powers approach, the one must act and the
other suffer, and it is only in rational powers that will decides
(Met. & 5)-
A. J. Balfour, in The Foundations of Belief, being Notes Intro-
ductory to the Study of Theology (1895), begins by maintaining
A. J. that the evidence of the senses is not a foundation
Balfour. o f belief, and then expects us to believe in Nature
and in God. He revives the " Acatalepsia " of the New
Academy. In Part II., ch i., he makes three assumptions
about the senses, and, without stopping to prove them, or
even to make them consistent, deduces from them his thesis
that the evidence of the senses is not a foundation of belief in
Nature. He first assumes an immediate experience of a body,
e.g. a green tree; and then deduces that the evidence of the senses
proves now and then to be fallacious, because we may have
an experience indistinguishable from that of a tree but incorrect;
and further, that our perceptions are habitually mendacious,
because all visual experiences are erroneous, as colour is a sensa-
tion while the thing consists of uncoloured particles. This
argument from a pure assumption is a confusion of sense and
inference. In no case is the evidence of the senses fallacious
or mendacious; the fallacy is in the inference.
He next assumes that we have no immediate experience of
independent things that sense perceives sensations, feelings,
or ideas; while all else, e.g. a tree, is a matter of inference. On
this quite new assumption of a sense of sensations he deduces
that, from a perception of these mental facts, we could not infer
material facts, e.g. a tree; so that again the evidence of the senses
does not afford trustworthy knowledge of the material universe.
His deduction is logical; but he has forgotten to prove the
assumption, and now confuses sensory operation with sensible
object. Vision does not perceive a sensation of colour; it
perceives a visible picture, e.g. green, which is in the organism,
but has never been proved to be a mental fact, or not to be a
material fact. So touch perceives not a sensation of pressure,
but a pressure which is a material fact in the organism. From
a material pressure within we logically infer a material pressure
outside. He thirdly assumes an appendix to the second assump-
tion: he assumes that sense perceives mental sensations with
succession but without causality, because no kind of cause is
open to observation. On this assumption of a sense of sensations,
but not of causality, he deduces that we could not from such data
infer any particular kind of cause, or a bodily cause, e.g. a tree,
or indeed any cause at all, or any event beyond perception,
without assuming the principle of causation that Nature is
uniform in cause and effect over great intervals of time and
space. Nevertheless he gives absolutely no proof of the assump-
tion that there is no sense of causality. There is none in the
subsidiary senses, because none of them perceives the pressures
exerted on them. But the primary sense of touch perceives
one bodily member causing pressure on another, reciprocally,
within the organism, from which we infer similar particular
pressures caused between the organism and the external world;
but without needing the supposed stupendous belief and assump-
tion of the uniformity of Nature, which is altogether ignored
in the inferences of the ordinary man. Finally, as touch per-
ceives reciprocal pressure within, and tactile inference infers it
without, touch is the primary evidence of the senses which is the
foundation and logical ground of our belief in Nature as a system
of pressing bodies. Balfour, however, having from unproved
assumptions denied the evidence of the senses, and the rational
power of using them to infer things beyond oneself, has to look
out for other, and non-rational, foundations of belief. He finds
them in the needs of man. According to him, we believe in
Nature because it satisfies our material needs, and in God because
he satisfies our spiritual needs. But bare need, e.g. a pang of
hunger, is no cause of belief beyond itself; and desire, or need of
something prospective, e.g. a desire of food, is effect, not cause,
of a previous belief that there is such a thing, and of a present
inference that it may again be realized. Moreover, when the
belief or inference is uncertain, need even in the shape of desire
is not in itself a foundation of belief in the thing desired: to
need a dinner is not to believe in getting it; and, as Aristotle said,
" there is a wish for impossibilities." It is fair, however, to
add that Balfour has a further foundation for the belief in
Nature, the survival of the fittest, by which those only would
survive who possessed and could transmit the belief. But here
he fails exactly as Darwin himself failed. Darwin said, given
that organisms are fit, they will tend to survive; but he failed
to show how they become fit. Balfour says, given that men
believe in Nature, they will survive; but he fails to show how
they come to believe in it. Inference from sense is the one
condition of all belief in anything beyond oneself, whether it be
Nature, or Authority, or God; and it is the one condition of all
needs, which are not mere feelings, but desires of things. The
result of undermining this sure foundation emerges in Balfour's
attitude to the beliefs themselves. He holds that space, time,
matter, motion, force, are all full of the insoluble contradictions
supposed by Spencer; and that all our beliefs, in Nature and in
God, stand on the same footing of approximations. Hence his
really valuable arguments from Nature to God sink to the
problematic form there may be Nature; if so, there is God.
CATHOLIC REALISM]
METAPHYSICS
253
Such is the modern " Acatalepsia," which arises from denying
the evidence of the senses, and from citing the transfigured
realism of Spencer instead of the original realism of Aristotle,
about whom Balfour speaks as follows: " It would be diffi-
cult, perhaps impossible, to sum up our debts to Aristotle.
But assuredly they do not include a tenable theory of the
universe."
4. The Past and Future of Metaphysics. Aristotelian realism
is the strong point of Roman Catholic philosophy. As inter-
preted by Thomas Aquinas, it is now in danger of becoming a
dogma. In 1879 Pope Leo XIII. addressed to the bishops the
Encyclica aeterni patris, which contained the words, " Sancti
Thomae sapientiam restituatis et quam latissime propagetis."
From the Roman Catholic point of view this reaction to
" Thomism " was a timely prote'st against modern metaphysics.
It was founded upon a feeling of uneasiness at a growing tendency
among Roman Catholic writers not only to treat theology
freely, but to corrupt it by paradoxes. One cannot but feel
regret at seeing the Reformed Churches blown about by every
wind of doctrine, and catching at straws now from Kant, now
from Hegel, and now from Lotze, or at home from Green, Caird,
Martineau, Balfour and Ward in succession, without ever having
considered the basis of their faith; while the Roman Catholics
are making every effort to ground a Universal Church on a
sane system of metaphysics. However this may be, the power
of the movement is visible enough from the spread of Thomism
over the civilized world, and in England from the difference
between the freer treatment of metaphysics by some Roman
Catholic writers and that which has arisen under the immediate
influence of Thomism. J. H. Newman (1801-1890), maintaining
the authority of conscience and the probabilism of the under-
standing, concluded to the necessity of a higher authority in
the primitive church. W. G. Ward was a philosophical critic
of Mill. St George Mivart, in The Ground-work of Science
(1898), maintained the reality of an active causative power
underlying Nature, and the dignity of human reason, from an
independent point of view. On the other hand, more under
the influence of the Thomist reaction, Thomas Harper published
The Metaphysics of the School (1879, &c.), describing scholasti-
cism, as it appears in the works of Aquinas; and The Manuals
of Catholic Philosophy, edited by R. F. Clarke, include General
Metaphysics (1890), by John Rickaby, who effectively criticizes
Hegel by precise distinctions, which, though scholastic, did not
deserve to be forgotten.
The Thomist reaction has had a good effect in the way of encour-
aging the study of Aristotelian philosophy in itself, and as modified
by Aquinas. Nevertheless, the world cannot afford to surrender
itself to Aristotle, or to Aquinas. Aristotle could not know enough,
physically, about Nature to understand its matter, or its motions,
or its forces; and consequently he fell into the error of supposing
a primary matter with four contrary primary qualities, hot and cold,
dry and moist, forming by their combinations four simple bodies,
earth, water, air and fire, with natural rectilineal motions to or from
the centre of the earth ; to which he added a quintessence of ether
composing the stars, with a natural circular motion round the earth.
Metaphysically, he did not, indeed, as is often supposed, think the
nature of substance to be matter and form, because in his view God
is a substance, yet with no matter; but he did think that every
natural substance or body is a concrete whole, composed of matter
and form different from matter. He thought that besides proximate
matter, or one body as matter of another, there is a primary formless
matter beneath all bodies, capable of becoming all in turn, but
itself potentially, not actually, substance. He thought not only
that a form, or essence, is something different from, and at most
conjoined with, matter in a concrete body, but also that in all
the bodies of one kind, e.g. in all men, there is one undivided form
or essence, e.g. rational animal, communicated from one member
to another member of the kind, e.g. from father to son, by what we
still call, though without any meaning, the propagation of the
species. He thought, in consequence, that the principtum individua-
tionis, which differentiates two members of the kind, e.g. Socrates and
Callias, is their one form or essence only as conjoined with different
matters, e.g. different bones and flesh. He thought, moreover, that
the one form of 'a kind is an original essence (TO ri fin tl^ai), which
is uncreate; and, in order to avoid the " separate forms " supposed
by Plato, he concluded that the world of Nature must be eternal,
in order that each original essence may from eternity always be in
some individual or another of its kind. On this assumption of the
eternity of the world, God could not be a Creator. Aristotle
thought that God is only prime mover, and that too only as the good
for the sake of which Nature moves; so that God moves as motive.
Psychologically, Aristotle applied his dualism of matter and form
to explain the antithesis of body and soul, so that the soul is the form,
or entelechy, of an organic body, and he applied the same dualism
to explain sensation, which he supposed to be reception of the sen-
sible form or essence, without the matter, of a body, e.g. of the form
of white, without the matter, of a white stone. He thought that in
the soul there is a productive intellect and a passive intellect, and
that, when we rise from sense by induction, the productive causes
the passive intellect to receive the universal form or essence, e.g.
of all white things; and he thought that this productive intellect
is our immortal faculty. Lastly, he thought that, while other
operations have, intellect (roDj) has not, a bodily organ ; and hence
he became responsible for the fancy that there is a break in bodily
continuity between sense and will, while intellect is working out
a purely immaterial operation of soul, resulting from the former and
tending to the latter. It is evident that a philosophy containing
so many questionable opinions is not fit to be made into an authorita-
tive orthodoxy in metaphysics.
Now these, on the whole, are the very opinions of Aquinas, except
so far as they were clearly inconsistent with the Christian faith.
Aquinas thought, as an article of faith, that the world began, and
that God is its Creator. This involved a change of detail in the
theory of essences and of universals generally. Aquinas thought
that before the creation the one eternal essence of any kind was an
abstract form, an idea in the intellect of God, like the form of a house
in the mind of a builder, ante rem; that after the creation of any kind
it is in re, as Aristotle supposed; and that, as we men think of it,
it is post rem, as Aristotle also supposed. Of this view the part
which was not Aristotle's, the state of " universalia ante rem," was
due to the Neoplatonists, who interpreted the " separate forms "
of Plato to be ideas in intellect, and handed down their interpreta-
tion through St Augustine to the medieval Realists like Aquinas,
who thus combined Neoplatonism with Aristotelianism. Hence
too Aquinas opposed essence to existence much more than Aristotle
did. Lastly, as a Christian, he supposed the whole soul to be im-
mortal, and to form for itself a new body after death. But, with
these modifications he accepted the general physics of Aristotle,
the metaphysical dualism of matter and form, and the psychology
founded upon it. The Thomism, therefore, of our day is wrong,
from a metaphysical point of view, so far as it elevates Aristotelian-
ism, as seriously modified but not fundamentally corrected by
Aquinas, into an authoritative orthodoxy in metaphysics.
Centuries elapsed after Aquinas before Galileo and his suc-
cessors reformed natural science, and before Bacon destroyed the
metaphysical dualism of matter and form by showing that a
form in Nature is only a law of the action of matter, and that, as
the action of a body is as individual as the body, the form is
eternal only in thought (ratione). The psychology of Aristotle
and Aquinas thus became impossible; for, if the form of a body
is only a mode of matter, to call one's soul the form of one's
body is to reduce it to only a mode of matter, and fall into
materialism. Hence Descartes began the reform of psychology
not only by the appeal to consciousness, " I think," but also by
opposing body and soul, no longer as matter and form, but as
different substances. These great improvements, due to the
genius of Galileo, of Bacon, of Descartes, are the fresh beginnings
of modern thought, from which we dare not turn back without
falling into obscurantism. What, then, is the future of meta-
physics? We must return not to the authority but to the study
of Aristotle. The independence of metaphysics as the science
of being, the principles of contradiction and excluded middle
with their qualifications, the distinction without separation
between substance and attributes, the definition of substance as
a distinct individual thing, the discovery that the world consists
of substances existing apart but related to one another, the
distinction between material and efficient causes or matter and
force, the recognition both of the natural and of the super-
natural all these and many other half-forgotten truths are the
reasons why we must always begin with the study of Aristotle's
Metaphysics. But their incompleteness shows that we must
go forward from Aristotle to Bacon and modern science, and
even pass through the anarchy of modern metaphysics, in
the hope that in the future we may discover as complete an
answer as possible to these two questions:
1. What is the world of things we know?
2. How do we know it?
For authorities see the works quoted above, and the references
in the articles on philosophers and philosophical subjects. (T. CA.)
254
METAPONTUM METASOMATISM
METAPONTUM (Gr. MeramWioi', mod. Metaponto), an
ancient city of Magna Graecia situated on the Gulf of Tarentum,
near the mouth of the river Bradanus, and distant about 24 m.
from Tarentum and 14 m. from Heraclea. It was founded by an
Achaean colony from Sybaris and Crotona about 70x5 B.C.
Metapontum was one of the cities that played a conspicuous
part in the troubles arising from the introduction of the Pytha-
gorism into Magna Graecia, and it was there that Pythagoras
died in 497 B.C. His tomb was still shown in the time of
Cicero.
At the time of the Athenian expedition to Sicily (415 B.C.)
Metapontum appears to have been an opulent and powerful
city, whose alliance was courted by the Athenians; but it con-
tented itself with a very trifling support. In 332 B.C., at the
time of the expedition of Alexander, king of Epirus, into Italy,
it was one of the first cities to enter into an alliance with him.
The Second Punic War gave a fatal blow to its prosperity.
After the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C. it was among the first
cities in the south of Italy to declare in favour of Hannibal,
and became for some years the headquarters of Hannibal.
Hence, when the defeat of Hasdrubalat the Metaurus(207 B.C.)
compelled him to abandon this part of Italy, the inhabitants of
Metapontum abandoned their city, and followed him in his retreat.
From this time Metapontum sank; though it was still existing
in the days of Cicero, Pausanias tells us that in his time nothing
remained of it but a theatre and the circuit of the walls.
Metapontum has the remains of two temples, both of which
seem to belong to the period 510-480 B.C. (Koldewey and Puch-
stein, Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien,
Berlin, 1899, pp. 35-41). The so-called Chiesa di Sansone, which
lay within the ancient town, and was probably dedicated to
Apollo Lycius, was a peripteros measuring 186 by 91 f ft., of
which only the foundations are left. The capitals were 3! ft.
in diameter. The temple was decorated with finely painted
terra-cottas. Of the other temple, the so-called Tavole Paladine,
which lay outside the area of the ancient city, and was a perip-
teros with 6 columns, 3^ ft. in diameter, in front and 12 ft. at the
sides, 15 columns are standing, with the lower portion of the
epistyle. It measured 105 ft. by 49 ft. without the steps. There
are also traces of the town walls, which have served for the
construction of farmhouses, of tombs, and of a harbour by the
shore. Pliny speaks of a temple of Juno at Metapontum
supported by columns of vinewood (Hist. not. xiv. 9). An
archaic treasure-house dedicated at Olympia by the people of
Metapontum has been discovered there. The railway station
is the junction of the line from Battipaglia (and Naples) with
that from Taranto to Reggio. (T. As.)
See M. Lacava, Topografia e storia di Metaponto (Naples, 1891).
METASOMATISM (Gr. fiera, change, owjua, body), in petro-
logy, a process of alteration of rocks by which their chemical
composition is modified, new substances being introduced
while those originally present are partly or wholly removed
in solution. For example a limestone may be converted into
a siliceous chert, a dolomite, an ironstone, or a mass of metalli-
ferous ores by metasomatic alteration. The process is usually
incomplete, greater or smaller portions of the original rock
remaining. The agencies of metasomatism are in nearly all
cases aqueous solutions; probably they were often at a high
temperature, as metasomatic changes are especially liable to
occur in the vicinity of igneous intrusions (laccolites, dikes
and necks) where large quantities of water were given off by
the volcanic magma at a time when it had solidified but was not
yet cold. Metasomatism also usually goes on at some depth,
so that we may readily believe that it is favoured by increase
of pressure. On the other hand, there are many instances
in which these processes cannot be shown to have taken place
at temperatures or pressures above those which normally exist
in the upper part of the earth's crust (e.g. dolomitization and
silicification of many limestones). There are also cases of
metasomatism in which steam and other vapours are supposed
to have been operative; the temperatures were probably above
the critical temperature of water. Changes of this sort are
described as pneumatolytic, being induced by gases (see
PNEUMATOLYSIS) .
By metasomatism new minerals replace the primitive ones;
at the same time the original rock-structures may be completely
obliterated. An igneous rock for example may be entirely
replaced by crystalline massive quartz, a fossiliferous limestone
by granular crystalline dolomite. It is equally common,
however, to find that the structure of the original rock is
preserved though its substance has been entirely altered. An
oolitic limestone may become an oolitic ironstone or chert
(see PETROLOGY, PI. IV. fig. 5.) and casts of the fossils which the
limestone contained may be formed of siderite or of chalcedony.
In this case the rock resembles a pseudomorph, which is the
term applied to a mineral which has been entirely replaced
by another mineral without losing its original crystalline form.
As a result of metasomatism rocks usually become more
crystalline, especially those which have been in large part built
up of fossil organic remains; this is a consequence of the new
substances having been deposited by purely inorganic processes
from solution in water.
The chemical change is often complete, as when a limestone
is replaced by chert or otherwise silicified, but it is probably
more usually incomplete, part of the substance of the original
rock having been retained though possibly in new mineral
combinations. When a limestone is replaced by ironstone
(e.g. carbonate of iron or siderite) part at least of the carbonic
acid may be that of the limestone. A dolomite, formed from
a limestone, contains more than one-half of its weight of car-
bonate of lime presumably derived from the limestone itself;
yet in this case the mineral transformation may be perfect,
as the dolomite retains none of the calcite of which the lime-
stone was formed; it is all present as the double carbonate
of lime and magnesia (or dolomite). When a granite is con-
verted by emanations containing fluorine and boron into a
quartz-tourmaline rock (schorl rock, q.v.) or a quartz mica
rock (greisen, q.v.) it can be proved by analysis that there
has been very little modification of the chemical composition
of the original mass. This resembles paramorphism in minerals,
in which one mineral is substituted for another having the
same chemical composition (e.g. kyanite for andalusite) .
The relations between metamorphism and metasomatism are
very close; in fact some authors regard metasomatism as a variety
of metamorphism. It is generally true, however, that in meta-
morphic changes there is little chemical alteration; sandstones pass
into quartzites, clays into mica-schists and gneisses, limestones into
marbles without any essential modification in chemical composition,
for the original minerals new ones being substituted and new
structures being produced at the same time. In metasomatism,
on the other hand, chemical alteration is supposed by most
geologists to be an essential feature; new minerals appear, but the
original structures are sometimes retained.
The facility with which a rock undergoes metasomatism depends
partly on its nature, and partly on the circumstances in which it is
placed. Limestones, being readily soluble under natural conditions,
are especially liable. The Cleveland iron ores of Yorkshire are
limestones replaced by siderite and limonite; the Whitehaven iron
ores are metasomatic replacements of limestone by haematite.
The former are of Mesozoic, the latter of Palaeozoic age, but both
have been changed in very much the same way by percolating
solutions containing salts of iron. In some cases limonite and
magnetite are the principal ores. Often the changes have taken
place very irregularly, along bedding planes, faults and fractures.
An ironstone may in many places be traced laterally into a limestone,
the amount of iron in the rock gradually diminishing. Some iron-
stones (Carboniferous, Jurassic, &c.) retain the oolitic structures
of the original limestone ; others show corals, shells and other calcare-
ous fossils replaced by iron ores. When beds of shale or sandstone
are intercalated among the limestones they usually show little change,
a fact which indicates that the ready solubility of the calcareous
rocks was a dominating factor in determining the metasomatic
deposits. It is believed that the Whitehaven iron ores may be
derived from the ironstones of the Coal-Measures which once covered
the limestone districts.
Dolomitization of limestones is even more common than replace-
ment by iron ores. That it is going on at the present day is evident
from the fact that cores obtained by boring in recent coral reefs
have shown that these may be extensively dolomitized in their
deeper parts, and the older limestones such as the Triassic of the
Alps, the Carboniferous Limestone of England and the Cambrian
METASTASIO
255
Limestone of Scotland are sometimes converted into dolomite over
wide areas. There has been an introduction of magnesia, with
sometimes a little silica and iron; the rock recrystallizes owing to
the formation of small rhombohedra of dolomite; it frequently
becomes porous and full of drusy cavities, owing to the contraction
in volume which takes place, and the fossils and other organic
structures of the original rock disappear. The change proceeds
outwards from fissures and bedding planes and spreads gradually
through the mass of the limestone; often the transformation is
complete and no unaltered rock remains. Silicification or the
replacement of limestone by chalcedony, chert or quartz, is often
exhibited on a large scale. The formation of flint nodules and chert
bands is of this nature; the silica is not really an introduction from
without, but is merely the material of the fine siliceous skeletons of
sponges, radiolaria and other organisms, which at first were widely
scattered through the limestone and at a later time were dissolved by
percolating waters, percolated through the rock and were deposited
in certain situations as bands, nodules and tabular masses of crypto-
crystalline silica. In limestones extensive deposits of zinc ore may
occur, usually calamine. These are important sources of the metal
and there is little room for doubt that they have formed by a process
of metasomatic replacement, e.g. Carthagena, Raibl (in Carinthia)
and Belgium. In many parts of western North America (Nevada,
Arizona, &c.) great deposits of copper, lead and silver ores are worked
in crystalline limestones. They are often highly silicified, and as-
sociated with them are intrusive igneous rocks such as granite,
dacite, porphyry and diabase. The ores occur not only in veins and
shoots, but also in great masses replacing the limestone, and the
geologists who have examined these mining districts are nearly
unanimous as to the metasomatic nature of a large part of these
deposits. Other rocks such as tuff, volcanic breccia, shale, porphyry
and granite may also be impregnated with metalliferous ores, but
the largest ore bodies are found in the limestones. Secondary
enrichment has often taken place on a considerable scale. The
constant presence of igneous rocks indicates that they are connected
with the introduction of the metals, and the deposits are often of
such a kind as to show that post-volcanic discharges of magmatic
gases and water have been the actual mineralizing agents. Bisbee,
Clifton and the Globe district in Arizona, Flagstaff in Utah, and the
Eureka district in Nevada are good examples of the deposits in
question.
As indicated above, shales, sandstones and igneous rocks may be
silicified and mineralized under suitable conditions. Rhyolites and
rhyolitic tuffs are often impregnated with silica to such an extent
that they become almost massive quartz, and the fluidal, porphy-
ritic, spheroidal and other igneous structures of the original rock
may be retained in the siliceous pseudomorph. There are many
examples of this in North Wales and the Pentland Hills. In andesitcs,
serpentines and trachytes silicification is frequently found in circum-
stances indicating that the changes are not due to weathering but
are the effect of post-volcanic emanations of heated waters. Silicified
shales may accompany mineral deposits, e.g. in the Cornish tin mines
the killas or grey slate may be converted into quartz and brown
tourmaline and contains small quantities of tin stone. In the
copper mines of Parys Mountain, Anglesey, formerly of great
importance as producers of this metal, there are large areas of
silicified slate and silicified porphyry. White mica, kaolin,
gilbertite, chlorite and epidote are frequently present in silicified
igneous rocks. As a further instance of mineral deposition in
metasomatized igneous rocks we may quote the Cripple Creek gold-
field in Colorado, where syenites, latites, phonolites, breccias, &c.,
have been filled with pyrite, dolomite, fluorite, calaverite and other
new minerals together with quartz.
Another type of metasomatic alteration is phosphatization.
This is most common in limestones, and many of the most im-
portant bedded phosphate deposits are of this origin. Trachytes
and other igneous rocks are occasionally phosphatized. The source
of the phosphate is for the most part the skeletons of animals,
vertebrate bones and teeth, shells of certain brachiopods, trilobites
and other organisms. Guano, the excreta of birds, is rich in phos-
phates and these are washed downwards by rain producing meta-
somatic changes in the underlying rocks. Phosphatized limestones
are obtained in great quantities in Christmas Island, Sombrero,
Curacoa and other uninhabited limestone islands. (J. S. F.)
METASTASIO (1698-1782). Pietro Trapassi, the Italian
poet who is better known by his assumed name of Metastasio,
was born in Rome on the I3th of January 1698. His father,
Felice Trapassi, a native of Assisi, came to Rome and took service
in the Corsican regiment of the papal forces. He subsequently
married a Bolognese woman, called Francesca Galasti, and
established himself in business as a grocer in the Via dei Cap-
pellari. Two sons and two daughters were the fruit of this
marriage. The eldest son, Leopoldo, must be mentioned, since
he played a part of some importance in the poet's life. Pietro,
while quite a child, often held a crowd attentive in the streets
while he recited impromptu verses on a given subject. It so
happened that, while he was thus engaged one evening in the
year 1709, two men of distinction in Roman society stopped to
listen to his declamation. These were Gian Vincenzo Gravina,
famous for legal and literary erudition, famous no less for his
dictatorship of the Arcadian Academy, and Lorenzini, a critic of
some note. Gravina was at once attracted by the boy's poetical
talent and charm of person, interested himself in the genius he
had accidentally discovered, made Pietro his protege, and in the
course of a few weeks adopted him. Felice Trapassi was glad
enough to give his son the chance of a good education and intro-
duction into the world under auspices so favourable. Gravina
hellenized the boy's name Trapassi into Metastasio; and
intended his adopted son to be a jurist like himself. He there-
fore made the boy learn Latin and begin the study of law. At
the same time he cultivated his literary gifts, and displayed the
youthful prodigy both at his own house and in the Roman
coteries. Metastasio soon found himself competing with the
most celebrated improvisator! of his time in Italy. Days spent
in severe studies, evenings devoted to the task of improvising
eighty stanzas at a single session, were fast ruining Pietro's
health and overstraining his poetic faculty. At this juncture
Gravina had to journey into Calabria on business. He took
Metastasio with him, exhibited him in the literary circles of
Naples, and then placed him under the care of his kinsman
Gregorio Caroprese at a little place called Scalea. In country
air and the quiet of the southern seashore Metastasio's health
revived. It was decreed by Gravina that he should never
improvise again, but should be reserved for nobler efforts, when,
having completed his education, he might enter into competition
with the greatest poets.
Metastasio responded to his patron's wishes. At the age of
twelve he translated the Iliad into octave stanzas; and two years
later he composed a tragedy in the manner of Seneca upon a
subject chosen from Trissino's Italia liberata Gravina's
favourite epic. It was called Giuslino. Gravina had it printed
in 1713; but the play is lifeless; and forty-two years afterwards
we find Metastasio writing to his publisher, Calsabigi, that he
would willingly suppress it. Caroprese died in 1714, leaving
Gravina his heir; and in 1718 Gravina also died. Metastasio
inherited house, plate, furniture and money, which amounted
to 15,000 scudi, or about 4000. At a meeting of the Arcadian
Academy, he recited an elegy on his patron, and then settled
down, not it seems without real sorrow for his loss, to enjoy what
was no inconsiderable fortune at that period. Metastasio was
now twenty. During the last four years he had worn the
costume of abbe, having taken the minor orders without which
it was then useless to expect advancement in Rome. His
romantic history, personal beauty, charming manners and
distinguished talents made him fashionable. That before two
years were out he had spent his money and increased his reputa-
tion for wit will surprise no one. He now very sensibly deter-
mined to quit a mode of life for which he was not born, and to
apply himself seriously to the work of his profession. Accord
ingly he went to Naples, and entered the office of an eminent
lawyer named Castagnola. It would appear that he articled
himself as clerk, for Castagnola exercised severe control over
his time and energies. While slaving at the law, Metastasio in
1721 composed an epithalamium, and probably also his first
musical serenade, Endimione, on the occasion of the marriage
of his patroness the Princess Pinelli di Sangro to the Marchese
Belmonte Pignatelli. But the event which fixed his destiny
was the following. In 1722 the birthday of the empress had to
be celebrated with more than ordinary honours, and the viceroy
applied to Metastasio to compose a serenata for the occasion.
He accepted this invitation, but it was arranged that his author-
ship should be kept secret. Under these conditions Metastasio
produced Gli orti esperidi. Set to music by Porpora, it won
the most extraordinary applause. The great Roman prima
donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, called La Romanina from her birth-
place, who had played the part of Venus in this drama, spared
no pains until she had discovered its author. La Romanina
forthwith took possession of him, induced him to quit his
256
METASTASIO
lawyer's office, and promised to secure for him fame and indepen-
dence, if he would devote his talents to the musical drama.
In La Romanina's house Metastasio became acquainted with
the greatest composers of the day with Porpora, from whom he
took lessons in music; with Hasse, Pergolese, Scarlatti, Vinci,
Leo, Durante, Marcello, all of whom were destined in the future
to set his plays to melody. Here too he studied the art of
singing, and learned to appreciate the style of such men as
Farinelli. Gifted himself with extraordinary facility in compo-
sition, and with a true poetic feeling, he found no difficulty in
producing plays which, while beautiful in themselves, judged
merely as works of literary art, became masterpieces as soon
as their words were set to music, and rendered by the singers of
the greatest school of vocal art the world has ever seen. Reading
Metastasio in the study, it is impossible to do him justice. But
the conventionality of all his plots, the absurdities of many of
his situations, the violence he does to history in the persons of
some leading characters, his " damnable iteration " of the theme
of love in all its phases, are explained and justified by music.
Metastasio resided with La Romanina and her husband in
Rome. The generous woman, moved by an affection half
maternal half romantic, and by a true artist's admiration for
so rare a talent, adopted him more passionately even than
Gravina had done. She took the whole Trapassi family
father, mother, brother, sisters into her own house. She
fostered the poet's genius and pampered his caprices. Under
her influence he wrote in rapid succession the Didone abban-
donata, Catone in Utica, Ezio, Alessandro nelV Indie. Semiramidc
riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. These dramas were set to
music by the chief composers of the day, and performed in the
chief towns of Italy. But meanwhile La Romanina was growing
older; she had ceased to sing in public; and the poet felt himself
more and more dependent in an irksome sense upon her kindness.
He gained 300 scudi (about 60) for each opera; this pay, though
good, was precarious, and he longed for some fixed engagement.
In September 1729 he received the offer of the post of court poet
to the theatre at Vienna, with a stipend of 3000 florins. This he
at once accepted. La Romanina unselfishly sped him on his way
to glory. She took the charge of his family in Rome, and he set
off for Austria.
In the early summer of 1730 Metastasio settled at Vienna in
the house of a Spanish Neapolitan, Niccolo Martinez, where
he resided until his death. This date marks a new period in his
artistic activity. Between the years 1730 and 1740 his finest
dramas, Adriano, Demetrio, Issipile, Demofoonte, Olimpiade,
Clemenza di Tito, AchilleinSciro, Temistocle and Attilio Regolo,
were produced for the imperial theatre. Some of them had to be
composed for special occasions, with almost incredible rapidity
the Achille in eighteen days, the Ipermnestra in nine. Poet,
composer, musical copyist and singer did their work together in
frantic haste. Metastasio understood the technique of his
peculiar art in its minutest details. The experience gained at
Naples and Rome, quickened by the excitement of his new career
at Vienna, enabled him almost instinctively, and as it were by
inspiration, to hit the exact mark aimed at in the opera.
At Vienna Metastasio met with no marked social success.
His plebeian birth excluded him from aristocratic circles. But,
to make up in some measure for this comparative failure, he
enjoyed the intimacy of a great lady, the Countess Althann,
sister-in-law of his old patroness the Princess Belmonte Pigna-
telli. She had lost her husband, and had some while occupied
the post of chief favourite to the emperor. Metastasio's liaison
with her became so close that it was even believed they had been
privately married. The even tenor of his existence was broken
in the year 1734 by the one dark and tragic incident of his
biography. It appears that La Romanina had at last got tired
of his absence. Could not Metastasio get her an engagement
at the court theatre? The poet at this juncture revealed his
own essential feebleness of character. To La Romanina he
owed almost everything as a man and as an artist. But he was
ashamed of her and tired of her. He vowed she should not come
to Vienna, and wrote dissuading her from the projected visit.
The tone of his letters alarmed and irritated her. It is probable
that she set out from Rome, but died suddenly upon the road.
All we know is that she left him her fortune after her husband's
life interest in it had expired, and that Metastasio, overwhelmed
with grief and remorse, immediately renounced the legacy.
This disinterested act plunged the Bulgarelli-Metastasio house-
hold at Rome into confusion. La Romanina's widower married
again. Leopoldo Trapassi, and his father and sister, were
thrown upon their own reso'urces.
As time advanced the life which Metastasio led at Vienna,
together with the climate, told upon his health and spirits.
From about the year 1745 onward he wrote but little, though the
cantatas which belong to this period, and the canzonet Ecco quel
fiero istante, which he sent to his friend Farinelli, rank among the
most popular of his productions. It was clear, as Vernon Lee
has phrased it, that " what ailed him was mental and moral
ennui." In 1755 the Countess Althann died, and Metastasio
was more than ever reduced to the society which gathered
round him in the bourgeois house of the Martinez. He sank
rapidly into the habits of old age; and, though his life was
prolonged till the year 1782, very little can be said about it.
On the 1 2th of April he died, bequeathing his whole fortune of
some 130,000 florins to the five children of his friend Martinez.
He had survived all his Italian relatives.
During the long period of forty years in which Metastasio
overlived his originality and creative powers his fame went on
increasing. In his library he counted as many as forty editions
of his own works. They had been translated into French,
English, German, Spanish, even into modern Greek. They had
been set to music over and over again by every composer of
distinction, each opera receiving this honour in turn from several
of the most illustrious men of Europe. They had been sung by
the best virtuosi in every capital, and there was not a literary
academy of note which had not conferred on him the honour of
membership. Strangers of distinction passing through Vienna
made a point of paying their respects to the old poet at his
lodgings in the Kohlmarkt Gasse. But his poetry was intended
for a certain style of music for the music of omnipotent
vocalists, of thaumaturgical soprani. With the changes effected
in the musical drama by Gluck and Mozart, with the development
of orchestration and the rapid growth of the German manner, a
new type of libretto came into request. Metastasio's plays fell
into undeserved neglect, together with the music to which he
had linked them. Farinelli, whom he styled " twin-brother,"
was the true exponent of his poetry; and, with the abolition of
the class of singers to which Farinelli belonged, Metastasio's
music suffered eclipse. It was indeed a just symbolic instinct
which made the poet dub this unique soprano his twin-brother.
The musical drama for which Metastasio composed, and in
working for which his genius found its proper sphere, has so
wholly passed away that it is now difficult to assign his true place
to the poet in Italian literary history. His inspiration was
essentially emotional and lyrical. The chief dramatic situations
are expressed by lyrics for two or three voices, embodying the
several contending passions of the agents brought into conflict
by the circumstances of the plot. The total result is not pure
literature, but literature supremely fit for musical effect.
Language in Metastasio's hands is exquisitely pure and limpid.
Of the Italian poets, he professed a special admiration for Tasso
and for Marini. But he avoided the conceits of the latter, and
was no master over the refined richness of the former's diction.
His own style reveals the improvisatore's facility. Of the
Latin poets he studied Ovid with the greatest pleasure, and irom
this predilection some of his own literary qualities may be
derived. For sweetness of versification, for limpidity of diction,
for delicacy of sentiment, for romantic situations exquisitely
rendered in the simplest style, and for a certain delicate beauty
of imagery sometimes soaring to ideal sublimity, he deserves to
be appreciated so long as the Italian language lasts.
There are numerous editions of Metastasio's works. That by
Calsabigi (Paris, 1755, 9 vols. 8vo) published under his own superin-
tendence, was the poet's favourite. Another of Turin (1757) and a
METAURUS METCALFE
257
third of Paris (1780) deserve mention. The posthumous works
were printed at Vienna, 1795. The collected editions of Genoa
(1802) and Padua (1811) will probably be found most useful by the
general student. An edition of the letters, by Cardacci, was published
at Bologne in 1883. Metastasio's life was written by Aluigi (Assisi,
1783); by Charles Burney (London, 1796); and by others; but by
far the most vivid sketch of his biography will be found in Vernon
Lee's Studies of the i8th Century in Italy (London, 1880) a work
which throws a flood of light upon the development of Italian
dramatic music, and upon the place occupied by Metastasio in the
artistic movement of the last century. (J. A. S.)
METAURUS (mod. Metauro; the form Mataurus is later, and
is more frequent in inscriptions of the imperial period), a river
of Italy, which flows into the sea a little south-east of Fanum
Fortunae (mod. Fa.no). On its banks Hasdrubal, while marching
to the aid of Hannibal in 207 B.C., was defeated and slain by the
Roman army, this being the decisive battle of the Second Punic
War. The exact site of the battle is uncertain; tradition places
it between Fossombrone and the Furlo Pass, but it is probable
that it occurred nearer the sea-coast.
METAXAS, ANDREAS (1786-1860), Greek politician, was
born in the island of Cephalonia. During the latter part of the
War of Independence (1824-1827) he accompanied Capo d'Istria
to Greece, and was appointed by him minister of war. When
Capo d'Istria was murdered in 1831 Metaxas became a member
of the provisional government which held office till the accession
of King Otho in 1833. During the minority of Otho he was
named privy councillor and minister at Madrid and Lisbon. In
1840 he was recalled and appointed minister of war. In 1843-
1844 he was president of the council of ministers, and he
subsequently held the post of ambassador at Constantinople
from 1850 to 1854. He died at Athens on the igth of
September 1860.
METAYAGE SYSTEM, the cultivation of land for a proprietor
by one who receives a proportion of the produce. The system
has never existed in England and has no English name, but in
certain provinces of Italy and France it was once almost univer-
sal, and is still very common. It is also not unusual in Portugal,
in Greece, and in the countries bordering on the Danube. In
Italy and France, respectively, it is called mezzeria and metayage,
or halving the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil
between landowner and landholder. These expressions are
not, however, to be understood in a more precise sense than that
in which we sometimes talk of a larger and a smaller half. They
merely signify that the produce is divisible in certain definite
proportions, which must obviously vary with the varying fer-
tility of the soil and other circumstances, and which do in prac-
tice vary so much that the landlord's share is sometimes as much
as two-thirds, sometimes as little as one-third. Sometimes the
landlord supplies all the stock, sometimes only part the cattle
and seed perhaps, while the farmer provides the implements;
or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer
finding the other halves taxes too being paid wholly by one or
the other, or jointly by both.
English writers were unanimous, until J. S. Mill adopted a
different tone, in condemning the metayer system. They
judged it by its appearance in France, where it has never worn
a very attractive aspect. Under the ancien regime not only were
all direct taxes paid by the metayer, the noble landowner being
exempt, but these taxes, being assessed according to the visible
produce of the soil, operated as penalties upon all endeavours
to augment its productiveness. No wonder, then, if the metayer
fancied that his interest lay less in exerting himself to augment
the total to be divided between himself and his landlord, than
in studying how to defraud the latter part of his rightful share;
nor if he has not yet got rid of habits so acquired, especially
when it is considered that he still is destitute of the fixity
of tenure without which metayage cannot prosper. French
metayers, in Arthur Young's time, were " removable at pleasure,
and obliged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords,"
and so in general they are still. Yet even in France, although
metayage and extreme rural poverty usually coincide, there are
provinces where the contrary is the fact, as it is also in Italy.
Indeed, to every tourist who has passed through the plains of
xvm. 9
Lombardy with his eyes open, the knowledge that metayage
has for ages been there the prevailing form of tenure ought to
suffice for the triumphant vindication of metayage in the ab-
stract. An explanation of the contrasts presented by metayage
in different regions is not far to seek. Metayage, in order to be
in any measure worthy of commendation, must be a genuine
partnership, one in which there is no sleeping partner, but in the
affairs of which the landlord, as well as the tenant, takes an
active part. Wherever this applies, the results of metayage
appear to be as eminently satisfactory, as they are decidedly the
reverse wherever the landlord holds himself aloof.
In France there is also a system termed metayage par groupes,
which consists in letting a considerable farm, not to one metayer,
but to an association of several, who work together for the
general good, under the supervision either of the landlord him-
self, or of his bailiff. This arrangement gets over the difficulty
of finding tenants possessed of capital enough for any but very
small farms.
See further the section Agriculture in the articles FRANCE, GREECE,
ITALY, &c.; and consult). Cruveilhier, tude sur le m&tayage (Paris,
1894).
METCALF, WILLARD LEROY (1858- ), American artist,
was born at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the ist of July 1858. He
was a pupil of the Boston Normal Art School, of the Boston Art
Museum School, and of the Academic Julien, Paris. After early
figure-painting and illustration, he became prominent as a land-
scape painter. He was one of the " Ten American Painters "
who in 1897 seceded from the Society of American Artists.
For some years he was an instructor in the Woman's Art School,
Cooper Union, New York, and in the Art Students' League,
New York. In 1893 he became a member of the American
Water Colour Society, New York.
METCALFE, CHARLES THEOPHILUS METCALFE, BARON
(1785-1846), Indian and colonial administrator, was born at
Calcutta on the 30th of January 1785; he was the second son
of Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe, then a major in the Bengal
army, who afterwards became a director of the East India
Company, and was created a baronet in 1802. Having been
educated at Eton, he in 1800 sailed for India as a writer in the
service of the Company. After studying Oriental languages
as the first student at Lord Wellesley's College of Fort William,
he, at the age of nineteen, was appointed political assistant to
General Lake, who was then conducting the final campaign of
the Mahratta war against Holkar. In 1808 he was selected by
Lord Minto for the responsible post of envoy to the court of
Ranjit Singh at Lahore; here, on the 2Sth of April 1809, he con-
cluded the important treaty securing the independence of the
Sikh states between the Sutlej and the Jumna. Four years
afterwards he was made resident at Delhi, and in 1819 he received
from Lord Hastings the appointment of secretary in the secret
and political department. From 1820 to 1825 Sir Charles (who
succeeded his brother in the baronetcy in 1822) was resident at
the court of the nizam, and afterwards was summoned in an
emergency to his former post at Delhi. In 1827 he obtained a
seat in the supreme council, and in March 1835, after he had
acted as the first governor of the proposed new presidency of
Agra, he provisionally succeeded Lord William Bentinck in the
governor-generalship. During his brief tenure of office (it
lasted only for one year) he carried out several important
measures, including that for the liberation of the press, which,
while almost universally popular, complicated his relations
with the directors at home to such an extent that he resigned
the service of. the Company in 1838. In the following year he
was appointed by the Melbourne administration to the governor-
ship of Jamaica, where the difficulties created by the recent
passing of the Negro Emancipation Act had called for a high
degree of tact and ability. Sir Charles Metcalfe's success in
this delicate position was very marked, but unfortunately his
health compelled his resignation and return to England in 1842.
Six months afterwards he was appointed by the Peel ministry
to the governor-generalship of Canada, and his success in carrying
out the policy of the home government was rewarded with a
5
258
METELLUS
peerage shortly after his return in 1845. He died at Malshanger,
near Basingstoke, on the 5th of September 1846.
See J. W. Kaye's Life and Correspondence of Charles Lord Metcalje
(London, 1854).
METELLUS, the name of a distinguished family of the
Caecilian (plebeian) gens in ancient Rome. The following are
the most important:
1. Lucius CAECILIUS METELLUS, general during the first
Punic War. Consul in 251 B.C., he was sent to Sicily, and gained
a decisive victory over Hasdrubal, who, trusting to his numeri-
cally superior forces and the alarm inspired by his elephants,
ventured to attack him. Metellus's victory was in great measure
due to a panic caused amongst the elephants by his clever
manoeuvring. A number of these animals were sent in specially
constructed rafts to adorn his triumph, and from this time the
elephant frequently occurs as a device on the coins of the
Metelli. In 241, when the temple of Vesta was destroyed by
fire, Metellus succeeded in bringing out the Palladium uninjured,
but lost his eyesight. As a reward, he was granted permission
to ride to the senate-house in a carriage, a privilege hitherto
unheard of. But the story of his blindness is doubtful, since it
is hardly consistent with his appointment as dictator in 224
" for the purpose of holding the comitia," nor is any mention
made of it in the extract [Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 43 (45)] from the
funeral oration pronounced over him by his son.
2. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, son of (i), became consul
in 206 as a reward for his services at the Metaurus. In 205 he
was dictator for holding the comitia; in 201 one of the com-
missioners for dividing the public land in Samnium and Apulia
amongst the Roman veterans; in 186 he conducted an embassy
to Macedonia, afterwards proceeding to Peloponnesus to inves-
tigate the quarrel between Sparta and the Achaeans. He is
the Metellus who caused the poet Naevius (q.v.) to be imprisoned
and exiled for having attacked him on the stage.
3. Lucius CAECILIUS METELLUS, possibly son of (i), when
the disastrous news of the battle of Cannae (216) reached Rome,
proposed to a number of young nobles that they should leave
Italy and offer their services to some foreign ruler, but they
were prevented by the threats of the younger Scipio from carry-
ing out their purpose. For this offence, when quaestor two years
later, he was degraded by the censors from his tribe to the class
of aerarii. Nevertheless, he was elected one of the tribunes for
the following year, but his attempt to call the censors to account
for their action proved unsuccessful in the face of the opposition
of his colleague.
4. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS MACEDONICUS (d. 115 B.C.),
praetor 148 B.C., defeated the usurper Andriscus (q.v.) in Mace-
donia and forced him to surrender. Under his superintendence
the country was made a Roman province. In 146, he attacked
the Achaeans to avenge an insult offered to a Roman embassy
at Corinth. He gained decided successes over them at Scarpheia
and Chaeroneia, but was superseded by L. Mummius. On his
return to Italy he received the honour of a triumph and the
title of Macedonicus. Consul in 143, he reduced the Celti-
berians in northern Spain to obedience. In 131, when censor
with Q. Pompeius (they were the first two plebeian censors),
he proposed that all citizens should be compelled to marry.
He expelled a number of senators, one of whom, the tribune
C. Atinius Labeo, proposed that he should be hurled from the
Tarpeian rock; his life was only saved through the intervention
of another tribune. He was an opponent of the Gracchi,
although not averse from moderate reform. He was a strict
disciplinarian, a good general, and a type of the ancient Roman
both in public and private life. He erected a splendid colonnade
in the Campus Martius, and two temples dedicated to Jupiter
Stator and Juno.
5. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS NUMIDICUS, consul 109,
and commander in the Jugurthine War. He defeated Jugurtha
(q.v.) by the river Muthul, and after a difficult march through the
desert took his stronghold, Thala. Marius, however, who had
been intriguing for the command, accused Metellus of protracting
the war, and received the consulship for 107 with the province
of Numidia. Metellus received a splendid triumph and the
title of Numidicus. Saturninus, whom as a censor he tried to
remove from the senate, passed in looan agrarian law, inserting
a provision that all senators should swear to it within Sve days.
All complied but Metellus, who retired to Asia. After Satarn-
inus was killed he returned, and died (probably in 91). He ,vas
a man of the highest integrity, a strict and efficient general, and
one of the chief leaders of the aristocratic party. He was a man
of education and learning, and Cicero speaks highly of him as an
orator.
6. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS Pius, so called from his
efforts to bring about the recall of his father Numidicus from
exile. He was one of the commanders in the Social War, and
defeated Q. Pompaedius Silo, the Marsian leader (88). Sulla,
on his departure for Asia, gave him proconsular command over
south Italy. When Marius returned to Italy and joined Cinna,
the soldiers, who had no confidence in the consul Gnaeus Octa-
vius, wished Metellus to take command, but he refused. The
soldiers deserted in large numbers, and considering it impossible
to defend Rome, Metellus retired to Africa and afterwards to
Liguria, resuming his former proconsular command on Sulla's
return. In the war against Marius he gained several important
successes, and after his victory over C. Norbanus at Faventia
(82) he subdued the whole of upper Italy. Consul in So with
Sulla, he went to Spain next year against Sertorius, who pressed
him hard till the arrival of Pompey in 76. Next year Metellus
defeated Sertorius's lieutenant Hirtuleius at Italica and Segovia,
and joining Pompey rescued him from the consequences of a
check at Sucro. From this time Sertorius grew weaker till his
murder in 72. In 71 Metellus returned to Rome and triumphed.
He became pontifex maximus, and died probably at the sud of
64. He was an upright man, of moderate ability.
7. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS CELER, legate of Pompey
in Asia 65 B.C., praetor 63. He was despatched to cut off the
retreat of Catiline to the north by blocking the passes, and in
62 went into the province of Cisalpine Gaul with the title of
proconsul, although he did not become consul till 60. A strong
supporter of the optimates and an enemy of Pompey, he strenu-
ously opposed the agrarian law brought forward by the tribune
Lucius Flavius, to provide for Pompey's veterans, and stood
firm even though imprisoned; the law had to be given up. He
also tried, though fruitlessly, to obstruct Caesar's agrarian law
in 59. He died suddenly in the same year it was usually
supposed from poison administered by his wife Clodia.
8. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS NEPOS, son of a Metellus
of the same name, so called because he was the grandson of (4).
He was legate to Pompey in the war against the Mediterranean
pirates (67), and took part in the Syrian campaign. In 63 he
returned to Rome, to assist Pompey in carrying out his plans.
He violently attacked Cicero, and refused to allow him to deliver
the customary speech on laying down office as consul; he even
threatened to impeach him for having executed Roman citizens
(referring to the Catilinarian conspirators) without a trial. In
62 his proposal that Pompey should be summoned to Italy to
restore order was bitterly opposed by Cato, and on the day set
down for the bill a fight took place in the forum. Metellus fled
to Pompey, but soon returned with him to Rome. In 60, when
praetor, he proposed a law for the abolition of the vecligalia in
Italy. In 57 he was consul, but offered no opposition to the
return of Cicero from exile. In 56 he was governor of Hither
Spain, where he was engaged in hostilities against the Vaccaei
with indifferent success. He appears to have died in Rome in
the following year. He was a mere creature of Pompey.
9. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS Pius SCIPIO, son of P.
Scipio Nasica, was adopted by (6). He was accused of bribery
in 60 B.C., and defended by Cicero, to whom he had rendered
valuable assistance during the Catilinarian conspiracy. In
August 52, he became consul through the influence of Pompey,
who had married his daughter Cornelia. In 49 he proposed
that Caesar should disband his army within a definite time,
under pain of being declared an enemy of the state. After the
outbreak of the civil war, the province of Syria was assigned to
METEMPSYCHOSIS
259
him, and he was about to plunder the temple of Artemis at
Ephesus when he was recalled by Pompey. He commanded
the centre at Pharsalus, and afterwards went to Africa, where by
Cato's influence he received the command. In 46 he was
defeated at Thapsus; while endeavouring to escape to Spain he
fell into the hands of P. Sittius, and put himself to death. His
connexion with two great families gave him importance, but he
was selfish and licentious, wanting in personal courage, and his
violence drove many from his party.
10. QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, surnamed Creticus,
Roman general. Consul in 69 B.C., he was appointed to the
command of the war against Crete, the headquarters of the
pirates of the Mediterranean. Its subjugation proceeded
slowly but surely until 67, when Pompey claimed the control of
affairs in virtue of the powers conferred upon him by the Gabinian
law. Thereupon the Cretans, who had been treated with
great harshness by Metellus, offered to surrender to Pompey,
who enjoyed a reputation for leniency towards the conquered.
Pompey accepted the offer and sent instructions to Metellus
to suspend operations. Metellus refused and completed the
conquest of the island, which was annexed to Cyrene and became
a Roman province. On Metellus's return to Rome the partisans
of Pompey succeeded in keeping him out of a triumph until
after the Catilinarian conspiracy, when he made his entry into
the city and received the name Creticus in honour of his achieve-
ments. Metellus naturally joined the senatorial party in their
opposition to Pompey, and had the satisfaction of preventing
the ratification of what he had done in Asia. He was one of a
commission of three sent (60) to investigate the state of affairs
in Gaul, where disturbances were apprehended. He appears
to have been alive in 54, but nothing further is known of him.
On the family of the Metelli generally, see M. Wende, De Caeciliis
Metellis, i. (Bonn, 1875), for its history up to the time of the Gracchi
the new edition by P. Grobe of Drumann's Geschichte Roms, ii. ; and
the article s.v. " Caecilius " by F. Miinzer in Pauly-Wissowa's
Realencyclopddie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, iii. pt. I (1897).
METEMPSYCHOSIS (Gr. /iere/i^uxwo-w), or TRANSMIGRATION
OF THE SOUL, the doctrine that at death the soul passes into
another living creature, man, animal, or even plant. This
doctrine, famous in antiquity and still held as a religious tenet
by certain sects of the civilized world, has its roots far back in
primitive culture. It is developed out of three universal
savage beliefs: (i) that man has a soul, connected in some
vague way with the breath, which can be separated from his
material body, temporarily in sleep, permanently at death;
(2) that animals and even plants have souls, and are possessed
to a large extent of human powers and passions; (3) that souls
can be transferred from one organism to another. Innumerable
examples might be mentioned of the notion that a new-born
child is the reincarnation of someone departed, as in Tibet the
soul of the Dalai-Lama is supposed to pass into an infant born
nine months after his decease. Transmigration of human souls
into non-human bodies is implied in totemism (q.v.), for, as
Professor Frazer says, " it is an article of faith that as the clan
sprang from the totem, so each clansman at death reassumes
the totem form." All these savage notions are to be regarded
as presuppositions of metempsychosis, rather than identified
with that doctrine itself as a reasoned theory.
Till full investigation of Egyptian records put us in possession
of the facts, it was supposed that the Egyptians believed in
metempsychosis, and Herodotus (ii. 123) explicitly credits them
with it. We now know that he was wrong. All that they
believed was that certain privileged souls might in the other
world be able to assume certain forms at pleasure, those of a
sparrow-hawk, lily, &c. Herodotus misunderstood the Egyp-
tians to hold beliefs identical with those which were current in
his day in Greece. In India, on the contrary, the doctrine was
thoroughly established from ancient times; not from the most
ancient, as it is not in the Vedas; but onwards from the Upani-
shads. In them it is used for moral retribution: he who kills a
Brahman is, after a long progress through dreadful hells, to be
reborn as a dog, pig, ass, camel, &c. This we always find in
metempsychosis as a reasoned theory. It is formed by combina-
tion of two sets of ideas which belong to different planes of
culture: the ideas of judgment and punishment after death
elaborated in a relatively cultured society by a priestly class
are combined with ideas, like that of totem-transmigration,
proper to a savage society. In India we may explain the whole
phenomenon as an infusion of the lower beliefs of the non-Aryan
conquered races into the higher religious system of their Aryan
conquerors. In later Hinduism metempsychosis reached a
monstrous development; according to Monier-Williams it was
believed that there were 8,400,000 forms of existence through
which all souls were liable to pass before returning to their
source in the Deity. Buddhism appeared as a reaction against
all this, and sought by a subtle modification to harmonize
the theory with its own pessimistic view of the world. According
to Buddhism there is no soul, and consequently no metem-
psychosis in the strict sense. Something, however, is trans-
mitted, i.e. Karma (character), which passes from individual to
individual, till in the perfectly righteous man the will to live is
extinguished and that particular chain of lives is brought to an
end.
We do not know exactly how the doctrine of metempsychosis
arose in Greece; it cannot, as was once supposed, have been
borrowed from Egypt and is not likely to have come from India.
It is easiest to assume that savage ideas which had never been
extinguished were utilized for religious and philosophic purposes.
The Orphic religion, which held it, first appeared in Thrace upon
the semi-barbarous north-eastern frontier. Orpheus, its legen-
dary founder, is said to have taught that " soul and body are
united by a compact unequally binding on either; the soul is
divine, immortal and aspires to freedom, while the body holds it
in fetters as a prisoner. Death dissolves this compact, but only
to re-imprison the liberated soul after a short time: for the wheel
of birth revolves inexorably. Thus the soul continues its jour-
ney, alternating between a separate unrestrained existence and
fresh reincarnation, round the wide circle of necessity, as the
companion of many bodies of men and animals. To these
unfortunate prisoners Orpheus proclaims the message of libera-
tion, that they stand in need of the grace of redeeming gods and
of Dionysus in particular, and calls them to turn to God by ascetic
piety of life and self -purification: the purer their lives the higher
will be their next reincarnation, until the soul has completed
the spiral ascent of destiny to live for ever as God from whom
it comes." Such was the teaching of Orphism which appeared
in Greece about the 6th century B.C., organized itself into private
and public mysteries at Eleusis and elsewhere, and produced a
copious literature.
The earliest Greek thinker with whom metempsychosis is
connected is Pherecydes; but Pythagoras, who is said to have
been his pupil, is its first famous philosophic exponent. Pytha-
goras probably neither invented the doctrine nor imported it
from Egypt, but made his reputation by bringing Orphic
doctrine from North-Eastern Hellas to Magna Graecia and by
instituting societies for its diffusion.
The real weight and importance of metempsychosis is due to
its adoption by Plato. Had he not embodied it in some of his
greatest works it would be merely a matter of curious investiga-
tion for the anthropologist and student of folk-lore. In the
eschatological myth which closes the Republic he-tells the story
how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the
twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other
world. After death, he said, he went with others to the place
of Judgment and saw the souls returning from heaven and from
purgatory, and proceeded with them to a place where they chose
new lives, human and animal. " He saw the soul of Orpheus
changing into a swan, Thamyras becoming a nightingale,
musical birds choosing to be men, the soul of Atalanta choosing
the honours of an athlete. Men were seen passing into animals
and wild and tame animals changing into each other." After
their choice the souls drank of Lethe and then shot away like
stars to their birth. There are myths and theories to the same
effect in other dialogues, the Phaedrus, Meno, Phaedo, Timaeus
and Laws. In Plato's view the number of souls was fixed;
260
METEOR
birth therefore is never the creation of a soul, but only a trans-
migration from one body to another. Plato's acceptance of the
doctrine is characteristic of his sympathy with popular beliefs
and desire to incorporate them in a purified form into his system.
Aristotle, a far less emotional and sympathetic mind, has a doc-
trine of immortality totally inconsistent with it. In later Greek
literature the doctrine appears from time to time; it is mentioned
in a fragment of Menander (the Inspired Woman) and satirized
by Lucian (Callus 18 seq.). In Roman literature it is found as
early as Ennius, who in his Calabrian home must have been
familiar with the Greek teachings which had descended to his
times from the cities of Magna Graecia. In a lost passage of his
Annals, a Roman history in verse, Ennius told how he had seen
Homer in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul
which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a pea-
cock. Persius in one of his satires (vi. 9) laughs at Ennius for
this: it is referred to also by Lucretius (i. 124) and by Horace
(Epist. II. i. 52). Virgil works the idea into his account of the
Underworld in the sixth book of the Aeneid (w. 724 sqq.). It
persists in antiquity down to the latest classic thinkers, Plotinus
and the other Neoplatonists.
Attempts have been made with little success to find metem-
psychosis in early Jewish literature. But there are traces of it in Philo,
and it is definitely adopted in the Kabbala. Within the Christian
Church it was held during the first centuries by isolated Gnostic
sects, and by the Manichaeans in the 4th and 5th centuries, but was
invariably repudiated by orthodox theologians. In the middle ages
these traditions were continued by the numerous sects known col-
lectively as Cathari. At the Renaissance we find the doctrine in
Giordano Bruno, and in the I7th century in the theosophist van
Helmont. A modified form of it was adopted by Swedenborg.
During the classical period of German literature metempsychosis
attracted much attention : Goethe played with the idea, and it was
taken up more seriously by Lessing, who borrowed it from Charles
Bonnet, and by Herder. It has been mentioned with respect by
Hume and by Schopenhauer. Modern theosophy, which draws
its inspiration from India, has taken metempsychosis as a cardinal
tenet; it is, says a recent theosophical writer, " the master-key to
modern problems," and among them to the problem of heredity.
Outside the somewhat narrow circle of theosophists there is little
disposition to accept the doctrine: but it may be worth while to
point out that there are two fatal objections to it. The first is that
personal identity depends on memory, and we do not remember
pur previous incarnations. The second is that the soul, whatever
it may be, is influenced throughout all its qualities by the qualities
of the body : modern psychology discredits the idea that the soul is
a metaphysical essence which can pass indifferently from one body
to another. If (to suppose the impossible) the soul of a dog were
to pass into a man's body it would be so changed as to be no longer
the same soul; and so, in a less degree, of change from one human
body to another.
See A. Bertholet, The Transmigration of Souls (trans, from the
German by H. J. Chaytor); E. Rohde, Psyche. (H. ST.)
METEOR (Gr. nertupa, literally " things in the air," from nera,
beyond, and atiptiv, to lift up), a term originally applied
by the ancient Greeks to many atmospheric phenomena
rainbows, halos, shooting stars, &c. but now specially restricted
to those luminous bodies known as shooting stars, falling stars,
fireballs and bolides. Though these objects only become visible
in the atmosphere they are extra-terrestrial planetary bodies,
and properly belong to the domain of astronomy. The extra-
terrestrial bodies which happen to find a resting-place on the
earth are studied under the name of meteorites (q.v.).
In ancient times meteors were supposed to be generated in
the air by inflammable gases. Isolated fireballs and star
showers had been occasionally observed, but instead of being
attentively watched they .had been neglected, for their appari-
tions had filled mankind with dread, and superstition attributed
to them certain malevolent influences. It was the brilliant
exhibition in November 1833 that, in modern times particularly,
attracted earnest students to investigate the subject of meteors
generally, and to make systematic observations of their appari-
tions on ordinary nights of the year. Historical records were
searched for references to past meteoric displays, and these
were tabulated and compared. The attention devoted to the
matter soon elucidated the phenomena of meteors, and proved
them to be small planetary bodies, practically infinite in numbers
and illimitable in the extent and variety of their orbits.
The various kinds of meteors are probably but different
manifestations of similar objects. Perhaps the most important
meteors are those which, after their bright careers and loud
detonations, descend upon the earth's surface and can be sub-
mitted to close inspection and analysis (see METEORITES). The
fireball or bolide (Gr. /SoXts, a missile) comes next in order from
its size and conspicuous effects. It may either be interspersed
with many smaller meteors in a shower or may be isolated.
The latter usually move more slowly and approach rather near
to the earth. The ordinary shooting stars vary from the brilli-
ancy of a first- to a sixth-magnitude star. They exhibit a great
dissimilarity in paths, motions and colours. The smallest and
most numerous class are the telescopic meteors invisible to the
naked eye. They range from the yth magnitude to the smallest
object perceptible in large telescopes.
The altitudes at which these bodies are visibly presented to us
differ in individual cases. More than a thousand observations
in duplicate have been made of the paths of identical meteors
seen from two stations many miles apart. These pairs of obser-
vations have shown a parallax from which the elevation of the
objects above the earth, the lengths and directions of their
courses, &c. could be computed. The average heights are from
80 to 40 m. A few, however, first appear when higher than
80 m. and some, usually slow-moving meteors, descend below
40 m. But altitudes beyond 100 and within 20 m. are
rare :
Average Heights.
Length of
Velocity
Beginning.
Ending.
Path.
per sec.
Swift fireballs .
85 m.
50 m.
55 m.
38 m.
Slow fireballs.
66,,
25 ..
116
15 ..
Slow fireballs
(radiants near
horizon) . .
59 ..
48,,
121
13 -
Swift shooting
stars ...
81
56,,
4 2
41 ..
Slow shooting
stars ....
63,,
49,-
36,,
17-
30 of the November Leonids give a mean height of 84! to 57^ m:
40 of the August Perseids ,, ,, ,, 80 to 54 m.
When the length of a meteor's course is known and the
duration of its flight has been correctly estimated it is easy to
compute the velocity in miles. The visible life of an ordinary
shooting star is, however, comprised within one second, and it is
only rarely that such short time intervals can be accurately
taken. The real velocities derived from good observations are
rarely, if ever, under 7 or 8 m. per second, or over 60 or 70 m.
per second. In a few exceptional cases abnormal speed has
been indicated on good evidence. The slower class of meteors
overtaking the earth (like the Andromedids of November) have
a velocity of about 8 or 10 m. per second, while the swifter
class (meeting the earth like the Leonids of November) have a
velocity of about 44 m. per second.
When the members of a shower are observed with special
regard to their directions it is seen that they diverge from a
common focus. The apparent scattering or diversity of the
flights is merely an effect of perspective upon objects really
traversing parallel lines. The centre upon which the observed
paths converge is called the radiant point or, shortly, the radiant.
On every night of the year there are a great number of these
radiants in action, but the large majority represent very attenu-
ated showers. In 1876 the number of radiants known was 850,
but about 5000 have been determined up to the present time.
These are not all the centres of separate systems, however:
many of the positions being multiple observations of the same
showers. Thus the August Perseids, the returns of which have
been witnessed more frequently than those of any other meteoric
stream have had their radiant point fixed on more than 250
occasions.
There appear to be moving and stationary radiants, contracted
and diffused radiants, and long-enduring and brief radiants.
The Perseids are visible from about the nth of July to the 2Oth
METEOR
261
of August, the radiant having a daily motion of about i R.A. to
E.N.E. The Lyrids also vary in the position of their radiant,
but the Orionids form a stationary position from about the gth
to the 24th of October. A large proportion of the ordinary
feeble showers also appear to be stationary.
Solid bodies (chiefly stone or stone and iron) enter the atmo-
sphere from without at all conceivable angles and at a velocity
of about 26 m. per second, while the earth's orbital velocity is
about i8j m. per second. In thus rapidly penetrating the
air heat is generated, the meteor becomes incandescent, and the
phenomena of the streak or train is produced. Before the object
can pierce the dense lower strata of air its material is usually
exhausted, but on rare occasions it withstands the fiery ordeal,
and fragments of the original mass fall upon the earth.
Multitudes of meteors infest space. On a clear moonless
night one person may count eight or ten shooting stars in an
hour. But there are more than twice as many visible in the
early morning hours as in the evenings, and during the last half
of the year there are also more than twice as many visible as
during the first half. It is computed that twenty millions of
meteors enter the atmosphere every day and would be visible
to unassisted vision in the absence of sunlight, moonlight and
clouds, while if telescopic meteors are included the number will
be increased twentyfold. Ordinary meteors, in the region of
the earth's orbit, appear to be separated by intervals of about
250 m. In special showers, however, they are much closer.
In the rich display of the i2th of November 1833, the average
distance of the particles was computed as about 15 m., in
that of the 27th of November 1885 as about 20 m., and in that
of the 27th of November 1872 as about 35 m.
The meteors, whatever their dimensions, must have motions
around the sun in obedience to the law of gravitation in the
same manner as planets and comets that is, in conic sections
of which the sun is always at one focus. The great variety in
the apparent motions of meteors proves that they are not
directed from the plane of the ecliptic; hence their orbits are
not like the orbits of planets and short-period comets, which are
little inclined, but like the orbits of parabolic comets, which
often have great inclinations.
Historical records supply the following dates of abundant
meteoric displays:
902, Oct. 13.
931, Oct. 14.
934, Oct. 14.
1002, Oct. 15.
noi, Oct. 17.
1202, Oct. 19.
1366, Oct. 23.
1533, Oct. 25.
1602, Oct. 28.
1698, Nov. 9.
1799, Nov. 12.
1832, Nov. 13.
1833, Nov. 13.
1866, Nov. 14.
1867, Nov. 14.
1868, Nov. 14.
These showers occurred at intervals of about one-third of a
century, while the day moved along the calendar at the rate of
one month in a thousand years. The change of style is, however,
responsible for a part of the alteration in date. The explanation
of these recurring phenomena is that a great cloud or distended
stream of meteors revolves around the sun in a period of 333
years, and that one portion of the elliptical orbit intersects that
of the earth. As the meteors have been numerously visible in
five or six successive years it follows they must be pretty densely
distributed along a considerable arc of their orbit. It also
follows that, as some of the meteors are seen annually, they must
be scattered around the whole orbit. Travelling at the rate of
26 m. per second, they encounter the earth moving i8j m.
per second in an opposite direction, so that the apparent velocity
of the .meteors is about 44 m. per second. They radiate from
a point within the Sickle of Leo and are termed Leonids. In
1867 the remarkable discovery was made that Tempel's comet
(1866 : 1.) revolved in an orbit identical with that of the Leonids.
That the comet and meteors have a close physical association
seems certain. The disintegrated and widely dispersed material
of the comet forms the meteors which embellish our skies on
aid-November nights.
Fine meteoric showers occurred in 1798 (Dec. 7), 1838 (Dec.
), 1872 (Nov. 27), 1885 (Nov. 27), 1892 (Nov. 23) and 1899
(Nov. 23 and 24), and the dates indicate an average period of
6-7 years for fifteen returns. The meteors move very slowly,
as they have to overtake the earth, and their apparent velocity
is only about 9 m. per second. They are directed from a point
in the sky near the star j Andromedae. Biela's comet of 1826,
which had a period of 6-7 years, presented a significant resem-
blance of orbit with that of the meteors, but the comet has not
been seen since 1852 and has probably been resolved into the
meteoric stream of Andromedids.
Rich annual displays of meteors have often been remarked
on about the loth of August, directed from Perseus, but they do
not appear to have exhibited periodical maxima of great strength.
They are probably dispersed pretty evenly along a very extended
ellipse agreeing closely in its elements with comet 1862 : III. But
the times of revolution are doubtful; the probable period of the
comet is 121 years and that of the meteors 105^ years. This
shower of Perseids is notable for its long duration in the
months of July and August and for its moving radiant.
There was a brilliant exhibition of meteors on the zoth of
April 1803, and in other years meteors have been very abundant
on about the igth to the 2ist of April, shooting from a radiant
a few degrees south-west of a Lyrae. The display is appar-
ently an annual one, though with considerable differences in
intensity, and the cycle of its more abundant returns has not
yet been determined. A comet which appeared in 1861 had a
very suggestive agreement of orbit when compared with that of
the meteors, and the period computed for it was 415 years.
Apart from the instances alluded to there seem few coinci-
dences between the orbital elements of comets and meteors.
Halley's comet conforms very well, however, with a meteoric
shower directed from Aquarius early in May. But there are
really few comets which pass sufficiently near the earth to give
rise to a meteoric shower. Of 80 comets seen during the 20
years ending 1893, Professor Herschel found that only two,
viz. Denning's comet of 1881 and Finlay's of 1886, approached
comparatively near to the earth's path, the former within
3,000,000 m. and the latter within 4,600,000 m.
Radiants of Principal Showers. The following is a list of
the chief radiant points visible during the year:
Date.
Radiant
R.A. Dec.
Date.
Radiant
R.A. Dec.
Jan. 2-3
23<>+53
July Sept.
47 +43
Feb. 10-15
75+4i
Sept. 5-15
62+ 37
March 1-4
166+ 4
Sept. 3-22
74 +41
March 24
i6i+58
Oct. 2 .
230 +52
April 19-22
27i+33
Oct. 4 .
3io+79
April-May
193 +58
Oct. 15-24
92 + iS
May 1-6
338- 2
Oct. 20-25
loo' + iS
May 11-18
23I+27
Oct. 3O-Nov. I
43+22
May-July
252-2I
Nov. 2 .
58+ 9
June 13 .
3io+6i
Nov. 14-16
I5I+22
July 15-19
3i4+48
Nov. 16-28
1 54 +40
July 28-30
339-"
Nov. 20-23
6 3 +22
Aug. 9-13
45+57
Nov. 17-23
25+43
Aug. 10-15
290+53
Dec. 4 .
i62+58
Aug. 21-25
29i+6o
Dec. 9-12
io8+33
Many meteors exhibit the green line of magnesium as a
principal constituent. Professor N. von Konkoly remarked in
the fireball of 1873 (July 26) the lines of magnesium and
sodium. Other lines in the red and green have been detected
and found by comparison with the lines of marsh gas. Bright
meteors often emit the bluish-white light suggestive of burning
magnesium. In addition to magnesium and sodium the lines
of potassium, lithium and also the carbon flutings exhibited in
cometary spectra, has been seen.
Meteoric observation has depended upon rough and hurried
eye estimates in past years, but the importance of attaining
greater accuracy by means of photography has been recognized.
At several American observatories, and at Vienna, fairly suc-
cessful attempts were made in November 1898 to photograph
a sufficient number of meteor- trails to derive the Leonid radiant,
and the mean position was at R.A. 151 33' Dec. + 22 12'.
But the materials obtained were few, the shower having
proved inconspicuous. The photographic method appears to
have practically failed during recent years, since there has
262
been no brilliant display upon which to test its capacity.
Really large meteors can be satisfactorily photographed, but
small ones leave no impression on the plates.
Meteors look larger than they are, from the glare and flaming
effect due to their momentary combustion. The finer meteors
on entering the air only weigh a few hundred or, at most, a
few thousand pounds, while the smallest shooting stars visible
to the eye may probably be equal in size to coarse grains of
sand, and still be large enough to evolve all the light presented
by them. (W - F ; D '>
METEORA, a group of monasteries in Thessaly, in the
northern side of the Peneius valley, not quite 20 m. N.E.
of Trikkala, and near the village of Kalabaka (the ancient
Aeginium, medieval Stagus or Stagoi). From the Cambunian
chain two masses of rock are thrust southward into the plain,
surmounted by isolated columns from 85 to 300 ft. high,
" some like gigantic tusks, some like sugar-loaves, and some like
vast stalagmites," but all consisting of iron-grey or reddish-
brown conglomerate of gneiss, mica-slate, syenite and green-
stone. The monasteries stand on the summit of these pinnacles ;
they are accessible only by aid of rope and net worked by a
windlass from the top, or by a series of almost perpendicular
ladders climbing the cliff. In the case of St Stephen's, the peak
on which it is built does nor rise higher than the ground behind,
from which it is separated by a deep, narrow chasm, spanned by
a drawbridge. Owing to the confined area, the buildings are
closely packed together; but each monastery contains beside
the monks' cells and water-cisterns, at least one church and a
refectory, and some also a library. At one time they were
fourteen in number, but now not more than four (the Great
Monastery, Holy Trinity, St Barlaam's and St Stephen's) are
inhabited by more than two or three monks. The present
church of the Great Monastery was erected, according to Leake's
reading of the local inscription, in 1388 (Bjornstahl, the Swedish
traveller, had given 1371), and it is one of the largest and hand-
somest in Greece. A number of the manuscripts from these
monasteries have now been brought to the National Library at
Athens. Aeginium is described by Livy as a strong place, and
is frequently mentioned during the Roman wars; and Stagus
appears from time to time in Byzantine writers.
See W. M. Leake, Northern Greece (4 vols., London, 1835) ; Professor
Kriegk in Zeitschr. f. allg. Erdk. (Berlin, 1858); H. F. Tozer, Re-
searches in the Highlands of Turkey (1869) ; L. Heuzey and H. Daumet,
Mission archeologique de Muckdoine (Paris, 1876), where there is a
map of the monasteries and their surroundings; Guide- Joanne;
Grece, vol. ii. (Paris, 1891).
METEORITE, a mass of mineral matter which has reached
the earth's surface from outer space. Observation teaches
that the fall of a meteorite is often preceded by the flight of a
fireball (see METEOR) through the sky, and by one or more loud
detonations. It was inferred by Chladni (1794) that the fire-
ball and the detonations result from the quick passage of the
meteorite through the earth's atmosphere.
The fall of stones from the sky, though not credited by
scientific men till the end of the i8th century, had been again
and again placed on record. One of the most famous of meteor-
ites fell in Phrygia and was worshipped there for many genera-
tions under the name of Cybele, the mother of the gods. After an
oracle had declared that possession of the stone would secure to
the Romans a continual increase of prosperity, it was demanded
by them from King Attalus about the year 204 B.C., and
taken with great ceremony to Rome. It is described by the
historian as "a black stone, in the figure of a cone, circular below
and ending in an apex above." Plutarch relates the fall of a
stone in Thrace about 470 B.C., during the time of Pindar, and
according to Pliny the stone was still preserved in his day, 500
years afterwards. Both Diana of the Ephesians " which fell
down from Jupiter," and the image of Venus at Cyprus, appear
to have been conical or pyramidal stones. One of the holiest
relics of the Moslems is preserved at Mecca, built into a corner
of the Kaaba; its history goes back far beyond the 7th century;
the description of it given to Dr Partsch suggests that the stone
had fallen from the sky. The oldest existing meteorite of which
METEORA METEORITE
Place.
Date.
In England.
Wold Cottage, Thwing, York-
shire . . .
Dec. 13, 1795.
Launton, Oxfordshire
Feb. 15, 1830.
Aldsworth, Gloucestershire
Aug. 4, 1835.
Rowton, Shropshire
April 20, 1876.
Middlesbrough, Yorkshire
March 4, 1881.
In Scotland.
High Fossil, Glasgow
April 5, 1804.
Perth ....
May 17, 1830.
In Ireland.
Mooresfort, Tipperary .
Aug. 1810.
Adare, Limerick
Sept. 10, 1813.
Killeter, Tyrone
April 29, 1844.
Dundrum, Tipperary
Aug. 12, 1865.
Crumlin, Antrim .
Sept. 13, 1902.
the fall is known to have been observed is that which fell at
Ensisheim in Elsass on the toth of November 1492. It was seen
to strike the ground and was immediately dug out; it had
penetrated to a depth of 5 ft. and was found to weigh 260 Ib.
It was long suspended by a chain from the roof of the parish
church, and is now kept in the Rathhaus of the town.
It was not till scientific men gave credence to the reports of
the fall of heavy bodies from the sky that steps were taken for
the formation of meteorite collections. The British Museum
(Natural History) at South Kensington now contains specimens
belonging to 566 distinct falls; of these falls 325 have been
actually observed; the remaining specimens are inferred to have
come from outer space, because their characters are similar to
those of the masses which have been seen to fall. Of these
meteorites the following twelve have fallen within the British
Isles:
Meteoritic falls are independent of thunderstorms and all
other terrestrial circumstances; they occur at all hours of the
day and night, and at all seasons of the year; they favour no
particular latitudes. The number of stones which reach the
ground from one fireball is very variable. In each of the two
Yorkshire falls only one stone was found; the Guernsey County
meteor yielded 30; at Toulouse, as many as 350 are estimated
to have fallen; at Hessle, over 500; at Knyahinya, more than
1000; at L'Aigle, from 1000 to 2000; at both Pultusk and
Mocs no fewer than 100,000 are estimated to have reached the
earth's surface. The largest single mass seen to fall is one of
those which came down at Knyahinya, Hungary, in 1866, and
weighed 547 Ib; but far larger masses, inferred from their char-
acters to be meteorites, have been met with. The larger of the
Cranbourne masses, now in the British Museum (Natural
History), before rusting weighed 35 tons; the largest of the
masses brought by Lieut. Peary from western Greenland
weighs 365 tons. A mass found at Bacubirito in Mexico is 13 ft.
long, 6 ft. wide and 5 ft. thick, and is estimated to weigh 50
tons.
From observations of the path and time of flight of the lumi-
nous meteor it is calculated that meteorites enter the earth's
atmosphere with absolute velocities ranging from 10 to 45 m.
a second; but the speed of a meteorite after the whole of the
resisting atmosphere has been traversed is extremely small and
comparable with that of an ordinary falling body. According to
Professor A. S. Herschel's experiments, the meteorite which fell
at Middlesbrough must have struck the ground with a velocity
of only 412 ft. a second. In the case of the Hessle fall, several
stones fell on the ice, which was only a few inches thick, and
rebounded without breaking the ice or being broken themselves.
The depth to which a meteorite penetrates depends on the speed,
form, weight and density of the meteorite and on the nature
of the ground. At Stannern a meteoric stone weighing 2 Ib
entered to a depth of only 4 in.; the large Knyahinya stone
already mentioned made a hole n ft. deep.
The area of the earth's surface occupied by towns and villages
being comparatively small, the probability of a shower of stones
falling within a town is extremely minute; the likelihood of a
living creature being struck is still more remote. The first
Yorkshire stone, that of Wold Cottage, struck the ground only
10 yds. from a labourer; the second, that of Middlesbrough, fell
on the railroad only 40 yds. away from some platelayers at
METEORITE
263
work; a stone completely buried itself in the highway at Kaba;
one fell between two carters on the road at Charsonville, throwing
the ground up to a height of 6 ft.; the Tourinnes-la-Grosse
meteorite broke the pavement and was broken itself; the
Krahenberg stone fell within a few paces of a little girl;
the Angers stone fell close to a lady standing in her garden;
the Braunau mass went through the roof of a cottage; at
Macao, in Brazil, where there was a shower of stones, some oxen
are said to have been killed; at Nedagolla, in India, a man was
so near that he was stunned by the shock; while at Mhow, also
in India, a man was killed in 1827 by a stone which is a true
meteorite, and is represented by fragments in museum collections.
Though the surface of a meteoric stone becomes very hot
during the early part of the flight through the air, it is cooled
again during the later and slower part of the flight. Meteorites
are generally found to be warm to the touch if immediately dug
out; at the moment of their impact they are not hot enough to
char woody fibre on which they chance to fall, nor is the surface
then soft, for terrestrial matter with which the surface comes into
contact makes no impression upon the meteorite. Where many
stones fall at the same time they are generally distributed over
a large area elongated in the direction of the flight of the luminous
meteor, and the largest stones generally travel farthest. At
Hessle, for instance, the stones were distributed over an area of
10 m. long and 3 m. broad.
Meteorites are almost invariably found to be completely
covered with a thin crust such as would be caused by intense
heating of the material for a short time; its thinness shows the
slight depth to which the heat has had time to penetrate. They
are presumably cold and invisible when they enter the earth's
atmosphere, and become heated and visible during their passage
through the air; doubtless the greater part of the superficial
material flicks off as the result of the sudden heating and is left
behind floating in the air as the trail of the meteor. The crust
varies in aspect vith the mineral composition of the meteorite;
it is generally black; it is in most cases dull but is sometimes
lustrous; more rarely it is dark-grey in colour. Each stone of a
shower is in general completely covered with crust; but occasion-
ally, as in the case of the Butsura fall, stones found some miles
apart fit each other closely and the fitting surfaces are uncrusted,
showing that a meteorite may break up during a late and cool
stage of the flight through the atmosphere. A meteorite is
generally covered with pittings which have been compared
in size and form to thumbmarks; the pittings are probably
caused by the unequal conductivity, fusibility and frangibility
of the superficial material. As picked up, complete and covered
with crust, meteorites are always irregularly-shaped fragments,
such as would be obtained on breaking up a rock presenting
no regularity of structure.
About one-third, and those the most common, of the chemical
elements at present recognized as constituents of the earth's
crust have been met with in meteorites; no new chemical
element has been discovered. The most frequent or plentiful
in their occurrence are: aluminium, calcium, carbon, iron,
magnesium, nickel, oxygen, phosphorus, silicon and sulphur;
while less frequently or in smaller quantities are found
antimony, arsenic, chlorine, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen,
lithium, manganese, nitrogen, potassium, sodium, strontium,
tin, titanium, vanadium. The existence of minute traces of
several other elements has been announced; of these special
mention may be made of gallium, gold, iridium, lead, platinum
and silver. Iron occurs chiefly in combination with nickel,
and phosphorus almost always in combination with both nickel
and iron (schreibersite) ; carbon occurs both as indistinctly
crystallized diamond and as graphitic carbon, the latter generally
being amorphous, but occasionally having the forms of cubic
crystals (cliftonite) ; free phosphorus has been found in one
meteorite; free sulphur has also been observed, but may have
resulted from the decomposition of a sulphide since the fall of the
stone.
Of the mineral constituents of meteorites, the following are by
many mineralogists regarded as still unrepresented among native
terrestrial products: cliftonite, a cubic form of graphitic carbon;
phosphorus ; various alloys of nickel and iron ; moissanite, silicide of
carbon; cohenite, carbide of iron and nickel (corresponding to
cementite, carbide of iron, found in artificial iron) ; schreibersite,
phosphide of iron and nickel ; troilite, protosulphide of iron ; oldhamite,
sulphide of calcium : osbornite, pxysulphide of calcium and titanium
or zirconium ; daubrtelite, sulphide of iron and chromium ; lawrencite,
protochloride of iron; asmanite, a species of silica; maskelynite, a
singly refractive mineral with the chemical composition of labrador-
ite; weinbergerite, a silicate intermediate in chemical composition
to pyroxene and nepheline.
Of these troilite is perhaps identical with some varieties of
terrestrial pyrrhotite; asmanite has characters which approach
very closely to those of terrestrial tridymite ; maskelynite, according
to one view, is the result of fusion of labradorite, according
to another view, is an independent species chemically related to
leucite. Other compounds are present corresponding to the follow-
ing terrestrial _ minerals: olivme and forsterite; enstatite and
bronzite ; diopside and augite ; anorthite, labradorite and oligoclase ;
magnetite and chromite; pyrites; pyrrhotite; breunnerite. Quartz
(silica), the most common of terrestrial minerals, is absent from the
stony meteorites; but from the Toluca meteoric iron microscopic
crystals have been obtained of which some have certain resem-
blances to quartz, and others to zircon. Free silica is present in
the Breitenbach meteorite but as asmanite. In addition to the
above there are several compounds or mixtures of which the nature
has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained.
Meteorites are conveniently distributed into three classes,
which pass more or less gradually into each other: the first
(siderites or meteoric irons) includes all those which consist
mainly of metallic iron alloyed with nickel; only nine of them
have been actually seen to fall; the second (siderolites) includes
those in which metallic iron (alloyed with nickel) and stony
matter are present in large proportion; few of them have been
seen to fall; those of the third class (aerolites or meteoric stones)
consist almost entirely of stony matter; nearly all have been
seen to fall.
In the meteoric irons the iron generally varies from 80 to
95% and the nickel from 6 to 10%; the latter is generally alloyed
with the iron, and several alloys or mixtures have been distin-
guished by special names (kamacite, taenite, plessite). Troilite
is frequently present as plates, veins or large nodules, sometimes
surrounded by graphite; schreibersite is almost always present,
and occasionally also daubrdelite. The compositeness and
the structure of meteoric iron are well shown by the figures
generally called into existence when a polished surface is etched
by means of acids 01 bromine- water; they are due to the inequality
of the etching action on thick and thin plates of various con-
stituents, the plates being composed chiefly of two nickel-iron
materials (kamacite and taenite). A third nickel-iron material
(plessite) fills up the spaces formed by the intersection of the
joint plates of kamacite and taenite; it is probably not an
independent substance but an intimate intergrowth of kamacite
and taenite. The figures were first observed in 1808 and are
generally termed " Widmanstatten figures " in honour of their
discoverer; the plates which give rise to them are parallel to
the faces of the regular octahedron, and such masses have
therefore an octahedral structure. A small number of the
remaining masses have cubic cleavage; instead of Widmanstatten
figures they yield fine linear furrows when etched; the furrows
were found by Neumann in 1848 to have directions such as
would result from twinning of the cube about an octahedral
face; they are known as " Neumann lines." For meteoric
irons of cubic structure the percentage of nickel is lower than
6 or 7 ; for those of octahedral structure it is higher than 6 or 7 ;
the plates of kamacite are thinner, and the structure therefore
finer the higher the percentage of that metal. A considerable
number of meteoric irons, however, show no crystalline structure
at all, and have percentages of nickel both below and above 7;
it has been suggested that each of these masses may once
have had crystalline structure and that it has disappeared
as a result of prolonged heating throughout the mass while
the meteorite has been passing near a star.
An investigation of the changes of the magnetic permeability
of the Sacramento meteoric iron with changing temperature
led Dr S. W. J. Smith to infer that the magnetic behaviour
can only be explained by imagining the meteorite to consist
264
METEOROLOGY
largely of plates of nickel-iron containing about 7% of nickel
(kamacite), separated from each other by thin plates of a
nickel-iron constituent (taenite), containing about 27 A <
nickel and having different thermomagnetic characters from
those of kamacite; he suggests, however, that taemte is not
a definite chemical compound but a eutectic mixture of
kamacite and a nickel-iron compound containing not less than
37% of nickel.
About eleven out of every twelve of the known meteoric
stones belong to a division to which Rose gave the name " chon-
dritic " (xhSpof, a grain); they present a very fine-grained
but crystalline matrix or paste, consisting of olivine and enstatite
or bronzite, with more or less nickel-iron, troilite, chromite,
augite and triclinic feldspar; through this paste are disseminated
round chondrules of various sizes and generally with the same
mineral composition as the matrix; in some cases the chondrules
consist wholly or in great part of glass. Some meteorites
consist almost solely of chondrules; others contain only few;
in some cases the chondrules are easily separable from the
surrounding material. In mineral composition chondritic
meteorites approximate more or less to terrestrial Iherzolites.
A few meteorites belonging to the chondritic division are
remarkable as containing carbon in combination with hydro-
gen and oxygen; those of Alais and Cold Bokkeveld are good
examples.
The remaining meteoric stones are without chondrules and contain
little or no nickel-iron; of these the following may be mentioned
as illustrative of the varieties of mineral composition: Juvinas,
consisting essentially of anorthite and augite; Petersburg, of anor-
thite, augite and olivine, with a little chromite and nickel-iron (both
Juvinas and Petersburg may be compared to terrestrial basalt) ;
Sherghotly, chiefly of augite and maskelynite; Angra dos Reis, almost
wholly of augite, but olivine is present in small proportion; Bustee,
of diopside, enstatite and a little triclinic feldspar, with some nickel-
iron, oldhamite and osbornite ; Bishopville, of enstatite and triclinic
feldspar, with occasional augite, nickel-iron, troilite and chromite;
Roda, of olivine and bronzite ; and Chassigny, consisting of olivine
with enclosed chromite, and thus mineralogically identical with
terrestrial dunite.
Almost all meteoric stones appear to be made up of irregular
angular fragments, and some of them bear a close resemblance
to volcanic tuffs. In the large group of chondritic stones,
chondrules or spherules, some of which can only be seen under
the microscope while others reach the size of a walnut, are
embedded in a matrix apparently made up of minute splinters
such as might result from the fracture of the chondrules them-
selves. In fact, until recently it was thought by some mineralo-
gists that the chondrules owe their form, not to crystallization,
but to friction, and that the matrix was actually produced by
the wearing down of the chondrules through frequent collision
with each other as oscillating components of a comet or during
repeated ejection from a volcanic vent of some small celestial
body. Chondrules have been observed, however, presenting
forms and crystalline surfaces incompatible with such a mode
of formation, and others have been described which exhibit
features resulting from mutual interference during their growth.
The chondritic structure is different from anything which has
yet been observed in terrestrial rocks, and the chondrules are
distinct in character from those observed in perlite and obsidian.
It is now generally believed that the structural features of
meteoric stones are the result of hurried crystallization.
No organized matter has been found in meteorites and they
have brought us, therefore, no evidence of the existence of
living beings outside our own world.
AUTHORITIES. The literature consists chiefly of memoirs dis-
persed through the journals of scientific societies. The following
separate works may be consulted: A. Brezina, Die Meteoriten-
Sammlung d. k-k. min. Hofkabinetes in Wien (Vienna, 1896); A.
Brezina u. E. Cohen, Die Structur und die Zusammensetzung der
Meteoriten (Stuttgart, 1886-1887) : P- S. Bigot de Morogues, Memoire
historique et physique sur les chutes des pierres (Orleans, 1812)
Chladni, Ueber den Ursprung der von Pallas gefundenen und anderer
ihr dhnlicher Eisenmassen (Riga, 1794), and Ueber Feuer-Meteore
und uber die mil denselben herabgefallenen Massen (Vienna, 1819) ; E,
Cohen, Meteoritenkunde (Stuttgart, 1894-1905); L. Fletcher, An
Introduction to the Study of Meteorites, loth ed. (London, 1908)
E King, Remarks concerning Stones said to have fallen from the Clouds
both in these Days and in Ancient Times (London, 1796) ; S. Meunier,
Meteorites (Paris, 1884); C. Rammelsberg, Die chemische Natur der
Meteoriten (Berlin, 1870-1870,); G. Rose, Beschreibung und Ein-
theilung der Meteoriten (Berlin, 1864); G. Tscherrnak, Die mikro-
skopische Bescha/enheit der Meteoriten (Stuttgart, 1883-1885) ; E. A.
Wulfing, Die Meteoriten in Sammlungen und ihre Literatur (Tubingen,
1897). (L- F.)
METEOROLOGY (Gr. fjwfupa, and Xo-yos, i.e. the science
of things in the air), the modern study of all the pheno-
mena of the atmosphere of gases, vapours and dust that
surrounds the earth and extends to that unknown outer surface
which marks the beginning of the so-called interstellar space.
These phenomena may be studied either individually or col-
lectively. The collective study has to do with statistics and
general average conditions, sometimes called normal values,
and is generally known as Climatology (see CLIMATE, where the
whole subject of regional climatology is dealt with). The study
of the individual items may be either descriptive, explanatory,
physical or theoretical. Physical meteorology is again sub-
divided according as we consider either the changes that depend
upon the motions of masses of air or those that depend upon
the motions of the gaseous molecules; the former belong to
hydrodynamics, and the latter are mostly comprised under
thermodynamics, optics and electricity.
History. The historical development of meteorology from
the most ancient times is well presented by the quotations
from classic authors compiled by Julius Ludwig Ideler (Meteoro-
logia veterum graecorum et romanorum, Berlin, 1832). We owe
to the Arabian philosophers some slight advance on the know-
ledge of the Greeks and Romans; especially as to the optical
phenomena of the atmosphere. The Meteorologia of Aristotle
(see Zeller, Phil, der Griechen) accords entirely with the
Philosophic/I of Thomas Aquinas, the poetic songs of the
troubadours, and the writings of Dante (see Kuhn's Treatment
of Nature in Dante's Divina Commedia; London, 1897). Dante's
work completed the passage from the ancient mythological
treatment of nature to the more rational recognition of one
creator and lawgiver that pervades modern science. The
progress of meteorology has been coincident with the progress
of physics and chemistry in general, as is shown by considering
the works of Alhazen (1050) on twilight, Vitellio (1250) on the
rainbow, Galileo (1607) on the thermometer and on the laws
of inertia, on attractions and on the weight of the air, Toricelli
(1642) on the barometer, Boyle (1659) on the elastic pressure
of the air in all directions, Newton (1673) on optics; Cavendish
(1760), elastic pressure of aqueous vapour; Black (1752), separa-
tion of carbonic acid gas from ordinary air; Rutherford (1772),
separation of nitrogen; Priestley and Scheele (1775) and Caven-
dish (1777), separation of oxygen; Lavoisier (1783), general
establishment of the character of the atmosphere as a simple
mixture of gases and vapour; De Saussure's measurement
of relative humidity by the accurate hair hygrometer (1780),
Dalton's measurement of vapour tension at various temperatures
(1800), Regnault's and Magnus's revision of Dalton's tension
of water vapour (1840), Marvin's and Juhlins's measurements
of tension of ice vapour (1891), and the isolation of argon by
Rayleigh and Ramsay (1804).
Theoretical meteorology has been, and always must be, wholly
dependent on our knowledge of thermodynamics and on mathe-
matical methods of dealing with the forces that produce the
motions within the atmosphere. Progress has been due to
the most eminent mathematicians at the following approxi-
mate dates: Sir Isaac Newton (1670), Leonhard Euler (1736),
Pierre Simon Laplace (1780), Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
(1785), Simon Denis Poisson (1815), Sir George Gabriel- Stokes
(1851), Hermann von Helmholtz (1857), Lord Kelvin (1860),
C. A. Bjerknes (1868), V. Bjerknes (1906), and to their many
distinguished followers.
The earliest systematic daily record of local weather
phenomena that has survived is that kept by William Merle,
rector of Driby, during seven years 1331-1338: the manuscript
is preserved in the Digby MS., Merton College, Oxford, and
HISTORY]
METEOROLOGY
265
was published in facsimile by George G. Symonsin 1891. Doubt-
less many similar monastic diaries have been lost to us. In
1653 Ferdinand II. of Tuscany organized a local system of
stations and daily records which extended over and beyond
northern Italy. This was the first fairly complete meteorological
system in Europe. The records kept during the years 1655-1670
at the Cloister Angelus near Florence were reduced by Libri,
professor of mathematics at Pisa, and published in 1830.
The history of meteorology is marked by the production of
comprehensive treatises embodying the current state of our
knowledge. Such were Louis Cotte's Traits de meteorologie
(Paris, 1774) and his Memoires sur la meteorologie, supplement
au traite (1788); Ludwig Kamtz's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie
(Halle, 1831-1836) and his Vorlcsungsn (1840; French 1842,
English 1845); Sir John Herschel's Meteorology .(London,
1840); the splendid series of memoirs by H. W. Brandes in
Gehler's Physikalisches Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1820-1840); E. E.
F. W. Schmid's Grundriss der Meteorologie (Leipzig, 1862);
Ferrel's Recent Advances in Meteorology (Washington, 1885);
the great works of Julius Hann, as summarized in his Handbuch
der Klimalologie (1883; 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1897; vol. i. English
1903) and his Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (Leipzig, 1901, 2nd ed.
1906); the extensive studies of J. E. Woeikoff (Voeikof), as
presented in his Klima der Erde (Russian 1883, German 1885)
and his Meleorologie (Russian 1904).
The development of this science has been greatly stimulated
by the regular publication of special periodicals such as the
Zeitschrift of the Austrian Meteorological Society, 1866-1885,
vol. 21 appearing with vol. 3 of the Meteorologische Zeitschrift
of the German Meteorological Society in 1886, and since that
date this journal has been jointly maintained by the two societies.
The analogous journals of the Royal Meteorological Society,
London, 1850 to date, the Scottish Meteorological Society,
1860 to date, the Meteorological Society of France, 1838 to
date, the Italian Meteorological Society, and the American
Meteorological Journal, 1885-1895, have all played important
parts in the history of meteorology. On the other hand, the
Annals of the Central Meteorological Office at Paris, the Archiv
of the Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg, the Annals and the
Repertorium of the Central Physical Observatory at St Peters-
burg, the Annales of the Central Meteorological Office at Rome,
Bulletin of International Simultaneous Met. Obs. and the Monthly
Weather Review of the Weather Bureau at Washington, the
Abhandlungen of the Royal Prussian Meteorological Institute
at Berlin, the Meteorological Papers of the Meteorological
Office, London, and the transactions of numerous scientific
societies, have represented the important official contributions
of the respective national governments to technical meteorology.
The recent international union for aerial exploration by
kites and balloons has given rise to two important publications,
i.e. the Verdjfentlichungen of the International Commission
for Scientific Aerostatics (Strassburg, 1905, et seq.), devoted to
records of observations, and the Beitrdge zur Physik der freien
Atmosphdre (Strassburg, 1904, et seq.), devoted to research.
The necessity of studying the atmosphere as a unit and of
securing uniform- accuracy in the observations has led to the
formation of a permanent International Meteorological Com-
mittee ( of which in 1909 the secretary was Professor Dr G. Hell-
mann of Berlin, and the president Dr W. N. Shaw of London).
Under its directions conferences and general congresses have
been held, beginning with that of 1872 at Leipzig. Its Inter-
national Tables, Atlas of Clouds, Codex of Instructions, and
Forms for Climatolpgical Publications illustrate the activity and
usefulness of this committee.
Modern meteorology has been developed along two lines
if study, based respectively on maps of monthly and annual
averages and on daily weather maps. The latter study seems
to have been begun by H. W. Brandes in Leipzig, who first,
about 1820, compiled maps for 1783 from the data collected
in the Ephemerides mannheimensis, and subsequently published
maps of the European storms of 1820 and 1821. Simultane-
ously with Brandes we find William C. Redfield in New York
compiling a chart of the hurricane of 1821, which was published
in 1831, and was the first of many memoirs by him on hurricanes
that completely established their rotary and progressive motion.
Soon after this Piddington and Sir William Reid began their
great works on the storms of the Orient. About 1825 James
Pollard Espy, in Philadelphia, began the publication of his views
as to the motive power of thunderstorms and tornadoes, and
in 1842 was appointed " Meteorologist to the U.S. govern-
ment " and assigned to work in the office of the surgeon-general
of the army, where he prepared daily weather maps that were
published in his four successive " Reports." In 1848 the three
American leaders united in letters to Professor Joseph
Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, urging that
the telegraph be used for collecting data for daily maps and
weather predictions. Favourable action was taken in 1849,
the Smithsonian maps began to be compiled about 1851 and
were displayed in public from 1853 onwards. Meanwhile in
England James Glaisher, with the help of the daily press,
carried out similar work, publishing his first map in 1851 as
soon as daily weather maps of sufficient extent could be promptly
prepared by the help of the telegraph. The destructive storm of
the i4th of November 1854, in the Crimea gave U. J. J. Le Ver-
rier, at Paris, an opportunity to propose the proper action, and
his proposals were immediately adopted by the secretary of
war, Marshal Vaillant. On the i7th of February 1855 the
emperor ordered the director-general of government telegraph
lines to co-operate completely with Le Verrier in the organization
of a bureau of telegraphic meteorology. The international
daily bulletin of the Paris Observatory began to be printed
in regular form on the ist of January 1858, and the daily map
of isobars was added to the text in the autumn of 1863. The
further development of this bulletin, the inclusion of British
and ocean reports in 1861, the addition of special storm warnings
in 1863, the publication of the Atlas des mouvements gtniraux
covering the Atlantic in 1865, the study of local thunderstorms
by Hippolyte Marie-Davy, Sonrel, Fron, Peslin, in France,
and the work of Fitzroy, Buys-Ballot, Buchan, Glaisher and
Thomson in Great Britain, parallel the analogous works of the
American students of meteorology and form the beginnings
of our modern dynamic meteorology.
The details of the historical development of this subject are well
given by Hugo Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and Leon Teisserenc
de Bort in their joint work, Les Bases de la meteorologie dynamique
(Paris, 1898-1907). The technical material has been collected by
Hann in his Lehrbuch. Many of the original memoirs have been
reproduced by Brillouin in his Memoires originaux (Paris, 1900), and
in Cleveland Abbe's Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere (vol. i., 1891 ;
vol. ii., 1909).
The publication of daily weather charts and forecasts is now
carried on by all civilized nations. The list of government bureaux
and their publications is given in Bartholomew's Atlas (vol. iii.,
London, 1899). Special establishments for the exploration of the
upper atmospheric conditions are maintained at Paris, Berlin,
Copenhagen, St Petersburg, Washington and Strassburg.
The general problems of climatology (1900) are best presented in
the Handbook of Dr Julius Hann (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1897). The
general distribution of temperature, winds and pressure over
the whole globe was first given by Buchan in charts published by
the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1868, and again greatly revised and
improved in the volume of the Challenger reports devoted to meteoro-
logy. The most complete atlas of meteorology is Buchan and
Herbertson's vol. iii. of Bartholomew's A tlas (London, 1899). Exten-
sive works of a more special character have been published by the
London Meteorological Office, and the Deutsche Seewarte for the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Daily charts of atmospheric
conditions of the whole northern hemisphere were published by the
U.S. Weather Bureau from 1875 to 1883 inclusive, with monthly
charts; the latter were continued through 1889. The physical
problems of meteorology were discussed in Ferrel's Recent Advances
in Meteorology (Washington, 1885). Mathematical papers on this
subject will be found in the author's collection known as The
Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere; the memoirs by Helmholtz
and Von Bezold contained in this collection have been made the
basis of a most important work by Brillouin (Paris, 1898), entitled
Vents contigus et nuages. A general summary of our knowledge
of the mechanics and physics of the atmosphere is contained in the
Report on the International Cloud Work, by F. H. Bigelow (Washing-
ton, 1900). The extensive Lehrbuch (Leipzig, 1901; 2nd ed., 1906)
by Dr Julius Hann is an authoritative work. The optical
266
METEOROLOGY
phenomena of the atmosphere are well treated by E. Mascart in
his Traitt d'optique (Paris, 1891-1898). and by J. M. Penter, Meteoro-
logische Optik ( 1 904- 1 907) . Of minor treatises especially adapted to
collegiate courses of study we may mention those by Sprung (Berlin,
1 88s) ' W. Ferrel (New York, 1890) ; Angot (Paris, 1898) ; W. M.Davis,
(Boston, 1893); Waldo (New York, 1898); Van Bebber (Stuttgart,
1890); Moore (London, 1893); T. Russell (New York), 1895. T - he
brilliant volume by Svante Arrhenius, Kosmtsche Physik (Leipzig,
1900) contains a section by Sandstrom on meteorology, in which the
new hydrodynamic methods of Bjerknes are developed.
I. FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL DATA
There can be no proper study of meteorology without a
consideration of the various physical properties of the atmo-
spheric gases and vapours, each of which plays an independent
part, and yet also reacts upon its neighbours.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, aqueous
vapour, carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), ammonia, argon, neon,
helium, with slight traces of free hydrogen and hydro-carbons.
The proportions in which these gases are present are quite
constant, except that the percentage of aqueous vapour is subject
to large variations. In an atmosphere that is saturated at
the temperature of 90 F., as may occur in such a climate as
that of Calcutta, the water may be i\/ of the whole weight
of any given volume of air. When this aqueous vapour is
entirely abstracted, the remaining dry gas is found to have a
very uniform constitution in all regions and at all altitudes
where examination has been carried out. In this so-called
dry atmosphere the relative weights are about as follows:
Oxygen, 23-16; nitrogen and argon, 76-77; carbonic acid, 0-04;
ammonia and all other gases, less than o-oi in the lower half
of the atmosphere but probably in larger percentages at great
altitudes. Of still greater rarity are the highly volatile gases,
argon (q.v.), neon, krypton and helium (q.v.).
Outer Limit. These exceedingly volatile components of the atmo-
sphere cannot apparently be held down to the earth by the attraction
of gravitation, but are continually diffusing through the atmosphere
outwards into interstellar space, and possibly also from that region
back into the atmosphere. There are doubtless other volatile gases
filling interstellar space and occasionally entering into the atmosphere
of the various planets as well as of the sun itself; possibly the hydro-
gen and hydro-carbons that escape from the earth into the lower
atmosphere ascend to regions inaccessible to man and slowly diffuse
into the outer space. The laws of diffusion show that for each gas
there is an altitude at which as many molecules diffuse inwards a
outwards in a unit of time. This condition defines the outer limit
of each particular gaseous atmosphere, so that we must not imagine
the atmosphere of the earth to have any general boundary. The only
intimation we have as to the presence of gases far above the surface
of the globe come from the phenomena of the Aurora, the refraction
of light, the morning and evening- twilight, and especially from the
shooting stars which suddenly become luminous when they pass
into what we call our atmosphere. (See C. C. Trowbridge, On
Luminous Meteor Trains " and " On Movements of the Atmosphere
at Very Great Heights," Monthly Weather Review, Sept. 1907.)
Such observations are supposed to show that there is an appreci-
able quantity of gas at the height of too m., where it may have
a density of a millionth part of that which prevails at the earth's
surface. Such matter is not a gas in the ordinary use of that
term, but is a collection of particles moving independently of each
other under those influences that emanate from sun and earth,
which we call radiant energy. According to Stormer this radiant
energy is that of electrons from the sun, and their movements in
the magnetic field surrounding the earth give rise to our auroral
phenomena.
According to Professor E. W. Morley, of Cleveland, Ohio, the rela-
tive proportions of oxygen and nitrogen vary slightly at the surface of
the earth according as the areas of high pressure and low pressure
alternately pass over the point of observation ; his remarkably exact
work seems to show a possible variation of a small fraction of I %, and
he suggests that the air descending within the areas of high pressure
is probably slightly poorer in oxygen. The proportion of carbonic
acid gas varies appreciably with the exposure of the region to the
wind, increasing in proportion to the amount of the shelter; it is
greater over the land than over the sea, and it also slightly increases
by night-time as compared with day, and in the summer and winter
as compared with the spring and autumn months. During the
Fjar 1896 Professor S. Arrhenius in the Phil. Mag., and in 1899
rofessor T. C. Chamberlin in the A mer. Geol. Jour. , published memoirs
in which they argued that a variation of several per cent, in the
proportion of carbonic acid gas is quite consistent with the existence
of animal and vegetable life and may explain the variations of
climate during geological periods. But the specific absorption of
this gas for solar radiations is too small (C. G. Abbot, 1903) to
[PHYSICAL DATA
support this argument. The question whether free ozone exists
in the atmosphere is still debated, but there seems to be no satis-
factory evidence of its presence, except possibly for a few minutes
in the neighbourhood of, and immediately after, a discharge of
lightning. The general proportions of the principal gases up to
considerable altitudes can be calculated with close approximation
by assuming a quiescent atmosphere and the ordinary laws of
diffusion and elastic pressure; on the other hand, actual observations
show that the rapid convection going on in the atmosphere changes
these proportions and brings about a fairly uniform percentage of
oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid gas up to a height of 10 m.
A queous Vapours. The distribution of aqueous vapour is controlled
by temperature quite as much as by convection and has very little to
do with diffusion; the law of its distribution in altitude has been well
expressed by Hann by the simple formula: log e - log e c ^6517
where h is the height expressed in metres and e and e are the
vapour pressures at the upper station and sea-level respectively.
Hann's formula applies especially to observations made on moun-
tains, but R. J. Suring, Wissenschaftliche Luftfahrten, III. (Berlin,
1900) has deduced from balloon observations the following formula
for the free air over Europe
log e=log e -
.
He has also computed the specific moisture of the atmosphere or
the mixing ratio, or the number of grams of moisture mixed with
i kilogram of dry air for which he finds the formula
logw = log m -h(i +3^/40)79000.
The relative humidity varies with altitude so irregularly that it
cannot be expressed by any simple formula. The computed values
of e and m are as given in the following table :
Altitude
Metres.
h.
Relative
Vapour Pressure.
Relative
Specific Moisture.
o
IOOO
2OOO
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
IOOO
665
431
266
158
91
50
27
H
IOOO
759
555
391
264
172
108
65
38
In addition to the gases and vapours in the atmosphere, the
motes of dust and the aqueous particles that constitute cloud, fog
and haze are also important. As all these float in the air, slowly de-
scending, but resisted by the viscosity of the atmosphere, their whole
weight is added to the atmosphere and becomes a part of the baro-
metric record. When the air is cooled to the dew-point and con-
densation of the vapour begins, it takes place first upon the atoms
of dust as nuclei ; consequently, air that is free from dust is scarcely
to be found except within a mass of cloud or fog.
Mass. According to a calculation published in the U.S. Monthly
Weather Review for February 1899, the total mass of the atmo-
sphere is 1/1,125,000 of the mass of the earth itself but, according
to Professor R. S. Woodward (see Science for Jan. 1900), celestial
dynamics shows that there may possibly be a gaseous envelope
whose weight is not felt at the earth's surface, since it is held in
dynamic equilibrium above the atmosphere; the mass of this outer
atmosphere cannot exceed jsVoth of the mass of the earth, and is
probably far less, if indeed it be at all appreciable.
Conductivity. Dry air is a poor conductor of heat, its co-
efficient of conduction being expressed by the formula: o-ooo 0568
(1+0-00190 /) where the temperature (t) is expressed in centigrade
degrees. This formula states the fact that a plate of air I centimetre
thick can conduct through its substance for every square centimetre
of its area, in one second of time, when the difference of tempera-
ture between two faces of the plate is i C., enough heat to warm
i gram of water o-ooo 0568 C., or i gram of air o-ooo 239 C., or a
cubic centimetre of air o- 1 850 C., if that air is at the standard density
for 760 millimetres of pressure and p C. The figure 0-1850 C.
is the thermometric coefficient as distinguished from the first or
calorimetric coefficient (o-ooo 0568 C.), and shows what great effect
on the air itself its poor conductivity may have.
Diathermancy. Dry air is extremely diathermanous or transparent
to the transmission of radiant heat. For the whole moist atmo-
sphere the general coefficient of transmission increases as the waves
become longer: and for a zenithal sun it is about 0-4 at the violet
end of the spectrum and about 0-8 at the red. By specific absorp-
tion many specific wave-lengths are entirely cut off by the vapours
and gases, so that in general the atmosphere may appear to be mere
transparent to the short wave-lengths or violet end of the spectrum,
but this is not really so. When the zenithal sun's rays fall upon
a station whose barometric pressure is 760 mm., then only from 50
to 80% of the total heat reaches the earth's surface, and thus the
general coefficient of transmission for the thickness of one atmosphere
is usually estimated at about 60%. Of course when the rays are
more oblique, or when haze, dust or cloud interfere, the transmission
PHYSICAL DATA]
METEOROLOGY
267
is still further diminished. In general one half of the heat received
from the sun by the illuminated terrestrial hemisphere is absorbed
by the clearest atmosphere, leaving the other half to reach the
surface of the ground, provided there be no intercepting clouds.
The thermal conditions actually observed at the immediate surface
of the globe during hazy and cloudy weather are therefore of minor
importance in the mechanism of the whole atmosphere, as compared
with the influence of the heat retained within its mass.
The transmission of solar radiation through the earth's atmosphere
is the fundamental problem of meteorology, and has been the subject
of many studies, beginning with J. H. Lambert and P. Bouguer.
The pyrheliometer of C. S. M. Pouillet gave us our first idea of the
thermal equivalent of solar radiation outside of our atmosphere or
the so-called " solar constant," the value of which has been variously
placed at from 2 to 4 calories per sq. cm. per minute. At present the
weight of the argument is in favour of 2-1, with a fair presumption
that both the intensity and the quality of the solar radiation as it
strikes the upper layers of our atmosphere are slightly variable. It
is also likely that this " constant " does not represent the sun proper,
but the remaining energy after the sunbeam has sifted through
masses of matter between the sun and our upper atmosphere, so that
it may thus come to have appreciable variations.
The coefficients of absorption for specific wave-lengths were first
determined by L. E. Jewell, of Johns Hopkins University, for numer-
ous vapour lines in 1892 (see W. B, Bulletin, No. 16). In 1904 C. G.
Abbot published a table based on holograph work at Washington
showing the coefficient of atmospheric transmission for solar rays
passing through a unit mass of air namely, from the zenith to the
ground. He showed that this coefficient increased with the wave-
length ; hence any change in the quality of the solar radiation will
affect the general coefficient of transmission. The following table
gives his averages for the respective wave-lengths, as deduced from
ten clear days in 1901-1902 and nine clear days in 1903:
Wave Length.
Coefficient of Atmospheric Transmission (Abbot).
1901-1902.
1903-
Mean by Weights.
microns.
0-40 violet
0-484
o-45
o-557
0-50
0-765
0-627
0-700
0-60
0-769
0-692
0-730
0-70
0-857
0-753
0-808
0-80 red
0-897
0-797
0-847
0-90
0-910
0-825
0-856
I-OO
0-921
0-847
0-884
i -20
0-933
0-874
0-903
i -60
0-930
0-909
0-920
2-OO
0-950
0-912
0-919
Any variation in the energy that the atmosphere receives from
the sun will have a corresponding influence on meteorological
phenomena. Such variations were simultaneously announced in
1903 by Charles Dufour in Switzerland and H. H. Kimball in Wash-
ington (Monthly Weather Review, May 1903) ; the latter was then
conducting a series of observations with Angstrom's electric com-
pensation pyrheliometer, and his conclusions have been confirmed
by the work of L. Gorczynski at Prague (1901-1906) and C. G. Abbot
at Washington. Kimball's pyrheliometric work on this problem
is still being continued ; but meanwhile Abbot and Fowle from their
bolometric observations at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa-
tory have deduced preliminary values of the observed total energy,
or the solar constant, for numerous dates when the sky was very clear,
as follows (see Smithsonian Mis. Coll., xlv. 78 and xlvii. 403, 1905) :
Date.
Abbot.
Calories.
Fowle.
Calories.
1902 Oct. 9
2-19
2-19
15
2-19
,, 22
2-16
1903 Feb. 19
2-28
2-27
19
2-25
March 3
2-26
25
2-27
2-23
26
2-10
26
2-07
2-09
April 17
1-99
2-18
28
2-27
.. 29
1-97
1-96
,, July 7
2-14
Oct. 14
1-96
Dec. 7
1-94
,, 23
1-99
1904 Jan. 27
Feb. II
2 -O2
2-26
May 28
2-O9
Oct. 5
2-32
,, Nov. 16
I-98
If the relative accuracy of these figures is I %, as estimated by Abbot,
then they demonstrate irregular fluctations of 5%. But different
observers and localities vary so much that Abbot estimates the
reliability of the mean value, 2-12, to be about 10%. The causes
of this variation apparently lie above our lower atmosphere and
move slowly eastward from day to day, and as the variability is
comparable with that of other atmospheric data, therefore con-
servative meteorologists at present confine their attention to the
explanation of terrestrial phenomena under the assumption of a
constant solar radiation, ihe large local changes of weather and
climate are not due to changes in the sun, but to the mechanical
and thermpdynamic interactions of earth and ocean and atmosphere.
Excellent illustrations of this principle are found in the studies of
Blanford, Eliot and Walker on the monsoons of India, of Sieger
(1892) on the contrasts of temperature between Europe and North
America, of Hann (1904) on the anomalies of weather in Iceland,
of Meinardus. (1906) on periodical variations of the icedrift near
Iceland.
The absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere is apparently
explained by the laws of diffuse reflection, selective diffusion and
fluorescence in accordance with which each atom and molecule and
particle becomes a new centre for the diffusion in all directions of
the energy represented by some specific wave-length. The specific
influences of carbon dioxide and water vapour are less than those
of the liquid particles (and of cloud and rains) and of the great mass
of oxygen and nitrogen that make up the atmosphere.
Specific Heat. The capacity of dry air for heat varies according
as the heat increases the volume of the air expanding under constant
pressure, or the pressure of the air confined in constant volume.
The specific heat under constant pressure is about 1-4025 times the
specific heat under constant volume. The numerical value of the
specific heat under constant pressure is about 0-2375 that is to say,
that number of gram-calories, or units of heat, is required to change
the temperature of I gram of air by 1 C. This coefficient holds
good, strictly speaking, between the temperatures 30 and +10 C.,
and there is a very slight diminution for higher temperatures up
to 200. The specific heat of moist air is larger than that of dry
air, and is given by the expression C p " = (0-2375 + 0-4805 x)
where * is the number of kilograms of vapour associated with
i kilogram of dry air. As x does not exceed 0-030 (or 30 grams) the
value of Cp" may increase up to 0-2519. The latent heat evolved
in the condensation of this moisture is a matter of great importance
in the formation of cloud and rain.
Radiating Power. The radiating power of clean dry air is so small
that it cannot be measured quantitatively, but the spectroscope
and bolometer demonstrate its existence. The coefficient of radia-
tion of the moisture diffused in the atmosphere is combined with that
of .the particles of dust and cloud, and is nearly equal to that of an
equal surface of lamp-black. From the normal diurnal change in
temperature at high and low stations, it should be possible to deter-
mine the general coefficient of atmospheric radiation for the average
condition of the air in so far as this is not obscured by the influence
of the winds. This was first done by J. Maurer in 1885, who obtained
a result in calories that may be expressed as follows: the total
radiation in twenty-four hours of a unit mass of average dusty and
moist air towards an enclosure whose temperature is 1 lower is
sufficient to lower the temperature of the radiating air by 3-31 C.
in twenty-four hours. This very small quantity was confirmed
by the studies of Trabert, published in 1892, who found that I gram
of air at 278 absolute temperature radiates 0-1655 calories per
minute toward a black surface at the absolute zero. The direct
observations of C. C. Hutchins on dry dusty air, as published in
1890, gave a much larger value -evidently too large. Slight changes
in water, vapour and carbon dioxide affect the radiation greatly.
The investigation of this subject prosecuted by Professor F. W.
Very at the Allegheny Observatory, and published as " Bulletin G "
of the U.S. Weather Bureau, shows the character and amount of
the radiation of several gases, and especially the details of the process
going on under normal conditions in the atmosphere.
Density. The absolute density or mass of a cubic centimetre
of dry air at the standard pressure, 760 millimetres, and temperature
oC.,iso-ooi 293O5grams; that of a cubic metre is I -29305 kilograms;
that of a cubic foot is 0-08071 ft avoirdupois. The variations
of this density with pressure, temperature, moisture and gravity
are given in the Smithsonian meteorological tables, and give rise
to all the movements of the atmosphere; they are, therefore, of
fundamental importance to dynamic meteorology.
Expansion. The air expands with heat, and the expansion of
aqueous vapour is so nearly the same as that of dry air that the
same coefficient may be used for the complex atmosphere itself.
The change of volume may be expressed in centigrade degrees by
the formula V=V (i +0-000 36650, or in Fahrenheit degrees
V = V (i +0-000 237<).
Elasticity. The air is compressed nearly in proportion to the
pressure that confines it. The pressure, temperature and volume
of the ideal gas are connected by the equation pv = RT, where T
is the absolute temperature or 273 plus the centigrade temperature
p is the barometric pressure in millimetres and v the volume of a
unit mass of gas, or the reciprocal of the density of the gas. The
constant R is 29-272 for dry atmospheric air when the centimetre,
268
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL DATA
the gram, the second and the centigrade degrees are adopted as
units of measure, and differs for each gas. For aqueous vapour
in a gaseous state and not near the point of condensation K has the
value 47-061. For ordinary air in which * is the mass of the aqueous
vapour that is mixed with the unit mass of dry air, the above
equation becomes pv = (29-272 +47-061*) T. This equation is
sometimes known as the equation of condition peculiar to the
gaseous state. It may also be properly called the equation ol
elasticity or the elastic equation for gases, as expressing the fact
that the elastic pressure p depends upon the temperature and the
volume. The mose exact equations given by Van der Waals,
Clausius, Thiesen, are not needed by us for the pressures that occur
in meteorology.
Diffusion. In comparison with the convective actions ot the
winds, it may be said that it is difficult for aqueous vapour to diffuse
in the air. In fact, the distribution of moisture is carried on
principally by the horizontal convection due to the wind and the
vertical convection due to ascending and descending currents.
Diffusion proper, however, comes into play in the first moments
of the process of evaporation. The coefficient of diffusion for
aqueous vapour from a pure water surface into the atmosphere
is 0-18 according to Stefan, or 0-1980 according to Winkelmann;
that is to say, for a unit surface of I sq. centimetre, and a unit
gradient of vapour pressure of one atmosphere per centimetre, as
we proceed from the water surface into the still dry air, at the
standard pressure and temperature, and quantity of moisture
diffused is 0-1980 grams per second. This coefficient increases
with the temperature, and is 0-2827 at 49-J> C. But the gradient
of vapour pressure, and therefore rate of diffusion, diminishes very
rapidly at a small distance from the free surface of the water, so
that the most important condition facilitating evaporation is the
action of the wind.
Viscosity. When the atmosphere is in motion each layer is a
drag upon the adjacent one that moves a little faster than it does.
This drag is the so-called molecular or internal friction or viscosity.
The coefficient of viscosity in gases increases with the absolute
temperature, and its value is given by an equation like the follow-
ing; o-ooo 248 (i+o-oo^ 66s/) jj, which is the formula given by
Carl Barus (Ann. Phvs., 1889! xxxvi.). This expression implies
that for air whose temperature is the absolute zero there is no
viscosity, but that at a temperature (t) of o C., or 273 on the
absolute scale, a force of o-ooo 248 grams is required in order to
push or pull a layer of air I centimetre square past another layer
distant from it by I centimetre at a uniform rate of I centimetre
per second.
Friction. The general motions of the atmosphere are opposed
by the viscosity of the air as a resisting force, but this is an exceed-
ingly feeble resistance as compared with the obstacles encountered
on the earth's surface and the inertia of the rising and falling masses
of warm and cold air. The coefficient of friction used in meteoro-
logy is deduced from the observations of the winds and results
essentially not from viscosity, but from the resistances of all kinds
to which the motion of the atmosphere is subjected. The greater
part of these resistances consists essentially in a dissipation of the
energy of the moving masses by their division into smaller masses
which penetrate the quiet air in all directions. The loss of energy
due to this process and the conversion of kinetic into potential
energy or pressure, if it must be called friction, should perhaps
be called convective friction, or, more properly, convective-
resistance.
The coefficient of resistance for the free air was determined by
Mohn and Ferrel by the following considerations. When the
winds, temperatures and barometric pressures are steady for a
considerable time, as in the trade winds, monsoons and stationary
cyclones, it is the barometric gradient that overcomes the resist-
ances, while the resulting wind is deflected to the right (in the
northern hemisphere) by the influence of the centrifugal force of
the diurnal rotation (u) of the earth. The wind, therefore, makes
a constant angle (o) with the direction of the gradient (G). There
is also a slight centrifugal force to be considered if the winds are
circulating with velocity v and radius (r) about a storm centre,
but neglecting this we have approximately for the latitude
G sin a = 200 sin <t>, G cos a = K,
where (*) is the coefficient connecting the wind-velocity (v) with
the component of the gradient pressure in the direction of the wind.
These relations give K = 2o> sin #/tan a. The values of o and v as
read off from the map of winds and isotherms at sea level give us
the data for computing the coefficients for oceanic and continental
surfaces respectively, expressed in the same units as those used
for G and v. The extreme values of this coefficient of friction
were found by Guldberg and Mohn to be 0-00002 for the free ocean
and 0-00012 for the irregular surface of the land. For Norwegian
land stations Mohn found <t> = 61 a = 56-5 K = 0-0000845. For
the interior of North America Elias Loomis found <t> = 37-5 a = 42-2
K '= 0-0000803.
Gravity. The weight of the atmosphere depends primarily upon
the action of gravity, which gjves a downward pressure to every
particle. Owing to the elastic compressibility of the air, this
downward pressure is converted at once into an elastic pressure
in all directions. The force of gravity varies with the latitude and
the altitude, and in any exact work its variations must be. taken
into account. Its value is well represented by the formula due to
Helmert, 2=980-6 (1-0-0026 cos 2*) X (i - jh), where <t>
represents the latitude of the station and h the altitude. The
coefficient/ is small and has a different value according as the station
is raised above the earth's surface by a continent, as, for instance,
on a mountain top, or by the ocean, as on a ship sailing over the
sea, or in the free air, as in a balloon. Its different values are
sufficiently well known for meteorological needs, and are utilized
most discreetly in the elaborate discussion of the hypsometric
formula published by Angot in 1899 in the memoirs of the Central
Meteorological Bureau of France.
Temperature at Sea-Level. The temperature of the air at the
surfaces of the earth and ocean and throughout the atmosphere
is the fundamental element of dynamic meteorology. It is best
exhibited by means of isotherms or lines of equal temperature
drawn on charts of the globe for a series of level surfaces at or
above sea-level. It can also be expressed analytically by spherical
harmonic functions, as was first done by Schoch. The normal
distribution of atmospheric temperature for each month of the
year over the whole globe was first given by Buchan in his charts
of 1868 and of 1888 (see also the U.S. Weather Bureau " Bulletin A,"
of 1893, and Buchan's edition of Bartholomew's Physical Atlas,
London, 1899). The temperatures, as thus charted, have been
corrected so as to represent a uniform special set of years and the
conditions at sea-level, in order to constitute a homogeneous
system. The actual temperature near the ground at any altitude
on a continent or island may be obtained from these charts by
subtracting o-5C. for each 100 metres of elevation of the ground
above sea-level, or i F. for 350 ft. This reduction, however,
applies specifically to temperatures observed near the surface of
the ground, and cannot be used with any confidence to determine
the temperature of points in the free air at any distance above the
land or ocean. On all such charts the reader will notice the high
temperatures near the ground in the interior of each of the con-
tinents in the summer season and the low temperatures in the
winter season. In February the average temperatures in the
northern hemisphere are not lowest near the North Pole, but in
the interiors of Siberia and North America; in the southern hemi-
sphere they are at the same time highest in Australia, and Africa
and South America. In August the average temperatures are
unexpectedly high in the interior of Asia and North America, but
low in Australia and Africa.
Temperature at Upper Levels. The vertical distribution of tem-
perature and moisture in the free air must be studied in detail in
order to understand both the general and the special systems of
circulation that characterize the earth's atmosphere. Many
observations on mountains and in balloons were made during the
igth century in order to ascertain the facts with regard to the
decrease of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere; but it is
now recognized that these observations were largely affected by
local influences due to the insufficient ventilation of the thermo-
meters and the nearness of the ground and the balloon. Strenuous
efforts are being directed to the elimination of these disturbing
elements, and to the continuous recording of the temperature of
the free air by means of delicate thermographs carried up to great
heights by small free " sounding balloons," and to lesser heights by
means of kites. Many international balloon ascents have been made
since 1800, and a large amount of information has been secured.
The development of kite-work in the United States began in
October 1893, at the World's Columbian Congress at Chicago,
when Professor M. W. Harrington ordered Professor C. F. Marvin of
the Weather Bureau to take up the development of the Hargrave or
box kite for meteorological work. At that time W. A. Eddy of
Bayonne, New Jersey, was applying his " Malay " kite to raising and
displaying heavy objects, and in August 1894 (at the suggestion of
Professor Cleveland Abbe) he visited the private observatory of
A. L. Rotch at Blue Hill and demonstrated the value of his Malay
kite for aerial research. The first work done at this observatory
with crude apparatus was rapidly improved upon, while at the same
time Professor Marvin at Washington was developing the Hargrave
kite and auxiliary apparatus, which he brought up to the point
of maximum efficiency and trustworthiness. When he reported his
apparatus as ready to be used by the Weather Bureau on a large
scale, Professor Willis L. Moore, as the successor of Professor Har-
rington, ordered its actual use at seventeen kite stations in July 1898.
This was the first attempt to prepare isotherms for a special hour
over a large area at some high level, such as I m., in the free air.
Daily meteorological charts were prepared for the region covered
by these observations; but it became necessary to discontinue
them, and nothing more was done by the Weather Bureau in this
line of work until the inauguration of kite work at Mount Weather
in 1906. Meanwhile a special method for the reduction and study
of such observations was devised by Bjerknes and Sandstrom,
and was published in the Trans. American Philosophical Society
(Philadelphia, 1906). The general average results as to temperature
gradients were compiled by Dr H. C. Frankenfield and published in
the United States Weather Bureau "Bulletin F.": from these
PHYSICAL DATA]
METEOROLOGY
269
were deduced the following tables, published in the Monthly Weather
Review:
Mean Temperature Gradients in degrees Fahrenheit per 1000 ft.
from the ground up to the respective altitudes.
Stations.
IOOO
ft.
1500
ft.
2000
ft.
3000
ft.
4000
ft.
5000
ft.
6000
ft.
Washington, D.C.
O
5-6
o
4'4
o
4-O
O
o
3-2
o
3-0
o
Cairo, 111. ....
9.7
6-6
6-0
4'9
4-7
4'3
Cincinnati, O.
13-0
6-3
6-9
5-8
5-6
4'7
4-2
Fort Smith, Ark. . .
7-2
7-0
6-7
3-8
Knoxville, Tenn.
8-4
6-2
6-6
5-4
Memphis, Tenn.
7-8
6-8
5-0
3-8
3-7
3-5
Springfield, 111. . . .
7-6
5-7
5-1
4.4
4-0
3-7
3-6
Cleveland, O. . . .
57
4-1
3-6
3-5
4-1
4-1
4'3
Duluth, Minn. .
5-2
4-8
4-6
4-6
4'3
3-8
4-6
Lansing, Mich. .
7-5
6-0
47
4-1
3-9
3-8
Sault Ste Marie, Mich. .
6-6
6-2
5-2
4-5
3'9
Dodge, Kans.
6-3
5-2
4-8
3'7
3-2
3-2
Dubuque, Iowa
6-9
5'9
4-6
3'5
3'2
3'3
North Platte, Neb. . .
6-8
6-5
5-9
5-2
4-4
4-7
5-4
Omaha, Neb.
5-4
4'9
3-6
3-5
3-8
Pierre, S. Dak. . . .
5-9
5-1
4-8
4'3
3-7
4.4
4-0
Topeka, Kans. .
7-4
6-2
4.9
4-0
3-8
3'9
4-5
Average ....
7'4
5-8
5-2
4.4
4-0
3-8
4-1
Stations
Altitude.
Temperature.
Feet.
Gradient.
Reduction.
Washington
2IO
3-00
15-2
Cairo
315
4-30
25-6
5-15
27- S
Fort Smith
S27
\J *J
r
Knoxville
*)^/
990
5-00
21-5
Memphis
319
3-50
17-3
684.
V8S
17-7
Cleveland
wtf.
705
O V *J
4-10
* / /
18-8
Duluth
1197
4-30
17-6
Lansing
869
3-85
17-0
Sault Ste Marie ....
722
3'45
15-7
Dodge
2473
4-10
n-6
Dubuque
894
3-3
14-5
North Platte
2811
5.40
13-3
Omaha
1241
3-20
12-9
Pierre .
1595
3.90
14-4
Topeka
972
3-83
-16-5
In this table the second column gives the altitude of the ground
at the reel on which the kite wire was wound. The third column
shows the average gradient in degrees Fahrenheit per loop ft.
between the reel at the respective stations, and a uniform altitude
5280 ft. above sea-level. The fourth column shows the total
reduction to be applied to the temperature at the reel in order
to obtain the temperature at the I m. level above sea. These
gradients and reductions are based upon observations made only
during the six warm months from May to October 1898.
The kite- work at the Blue Hill Observatory has
been published in full in the successive Annals of the
Harvard College Observatory, beginning with 1897,
vol. xlii. It has been discussed especially by H. H.
Clayton with reference to special meteorological
phenomena, such as areas of high and low pressure,
fair and cloudy weather, the winds and their
velocities at different elevations, insolation, radi-
ation, &c., and has served as a stimulus and model
for European meteorologists. Kite-work has also
been successfully prosecuted at Trappes, Hamburg,
Berlin, St Petersburg, and many other European
stations. The highest flights that have been attained
have been about 8000 metres.
ii and 14 km.; this is the " thermal zone " as discovered and so
called by him.
Altitude.
Winter.
Dec., Jan., Feb.
Spring.
Mar.,Apl., May.
Summer.
June, July, Aug.
Autumn.
Sept., Oct., Nov.
Km.
C.
C.
C.
C.
Ground
+ 1-9
+ 5-1
+ 13-0
+ 7-5
o-5
+ 1-4
+ 47
+ 13-6
+ 7-7
I'O
0-2
+ 2-4
+ II-8
+ 6-1
1-5
0-2
+ O-I
97
+ 4-0
2-O
- 1-4
2-1
7'3
+ 2-2
2-5
- 37
- 4-3
5-o
+ 0-4
3-o
- 6-0
- 6-4
2-1
- i'7
3-5
- 8-7
- 9-3
+ 0-2
- 4-2
4-0
10-9
12-2
- 2-7
- 6-5
4-5
-14-2
-15-2
- 5-3
- 9-3
5-o
-17-0
-18-5
- 8-3
-12-4
6-0
-237
-25-2
-14-8
-18-7
7-0
-31-5
-32-0
-21-7
-25-8
8-0
-39-0
-39-0
-29-3
-33-5
9-0
-46-9
-46-7
-38-0
-41-4
IO-O
-54-6
-52-7
45-3
-48-3
I I'O
-57-9
-53-6
50-3
-54-4
I2-O
-57-9
-53-1
52-7
-57-1
13-0
-56-9
-52-2
51-5
-57-1
I4'O
-55-5
-52-5
-51-3
-57-1
It is evident that the annual average vertical gradient of tempera-
ture over Paris is between 4 and 6 C. per 1000 metres of
ascent in the free air, agreeing closely with the value 5 per 1000
metres, which has come into extensive use since the year 1890, on
the recommendation and authority of Hann, for the reduction of
land observations to sea-level. The winter gradients are less than
those for summer, possibly owing to the influence of the condensa-
tion into cloud and rain during the winter season in France; the
same value may not result from observations in the United States,
where the clouds and precipitation of winter do not so greatly
exceed those of summer. The work at Trappes is therefore not
necessarily representative of the general average of the northern
hemisphere, but belongs to a coastal region in which during the
summer time, at great heights, the air is cooler' than in the winter
time, since during the latter season there is an extensive flow of
warm south winds from the ocean over the cold east winds from
the land. Sounding balloons have also been used elsewhere with
great success. The greatest heights attained by them have been
25,989 metres at Uccle, Belgium, on the 5th of September 1907,
and 25,800 metres at Strassburg, August 1905.
The most extensive meteorological explorations of the free
atmosphere have been those accomplished in Germany by Richard
Assmann and Arthur Berson, beginning (1887) in co-operation with
the German Verein for the Promotion of Aeronautics and the Aero-
nautic Section of the German Army, afterwards under the auspices
of the Prussian Meteorological Office, but later as a wholly inde-
pendent institution at Lindenberg. All the details of the work
during 1887-1889 and the scientific results of seventy balloon
voyages were published in three large volumes, Wissenschaftliche
Luftschiffahrten (Berlin, 1900). The work done at Tegel at the
Aeronautical Observatory of the Berlin Meteorological Office,
the 1st of October 1899 to April 1905, was published in three volumes
of Ergebnisse. But the location at Tegel had to be given up and
Annual Temperatures and Wind.
Tegel, 1903.
Tegel, 1904.
Lindenberg, 1905.
Lindenberg, 1905.
Altitude.
Ground
500 m.
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
Days.
365
363
344
252
170
98
55
c.
9-2
6-7
4-3
2-0
O-O
-1-8
-3'9
Days.
366
364
361
279
1 86
132
79
C.
9-1
6-5
4-2
2-2
O-2
3?
Days.
365
365
352
294
242
179
119
C.
!' 5
6-2
4-0
2-6
o-5
i-i
-2-8
Days.
3 ^ 5
362
356
306
257
195
127
Metres per sec.
4-65
8-6 5
8-85
8-55
9-5
IO-O
10-7
The great work of L. Teisserenc de Bort began with 1897, when
he founded his private observatory at Trappes near Paris devoted
to the problems of dynamic meteorology. His results are pub-
lished in full in the Memoirs of the Central Meteorological Bureau
of France for 1897 and subsequent years. Beginning with the
sounding balloons devised by Hermite, he subsequently added
kite work as supplementary to these. In the Comptes rendus
(1904), he gives the mean temperatures as they result from five
years of work, 1899-1903, at Trappes. Out of 581 ascensions of
sounding balloons there were 141 that attained 14 km. or more,
and the following table gives the average temperatures recorded
in these ascensions. It will be seen that there is a slow decrease
in temperate up to 2 km.; a rapid decrease thence up to 10 km.,
and a slow decrease, almost a stationary temperature, between
a new independent establishment, the " Royal Prussian Aeronautic
Observatory," was founded at Lindenberg, under the direction of
Dr Assmann, who has published the results of his work in annual
volumes of the Ergebnisse of that institution, considering it as a
continuation of the work done at Berlin and Tegel. In addition
to these elaborate official publications various summaries have been
published, the most instructive of which is the chart embodying
daily observations with corresponding isotherms at all attainable
altitudes, published monthly since January 1903 in Das Wetter.
The growth of this aerial work and the reliability of the results
may be inferred from a statement of the number of ascensions
made each year : 1899,6; 1900,39; 1901, 169; 1902, 261 ; 1903,481;
I 95. 5I3- This large number, combined with 581 voyages of
Teisserenc de Bort at Trappes and many others made in England,
270
Holland and Russia, amounting in all to over 2000, enabled Assmann
to compute the monthly and annual means of temperature and
wind velocity for each altitude; the German results are given in
table at foot of page 269.
The results of these numerous ascents, during tne-e six years,
have also been grouped into monthly means that have a reliability
proportionate to the number of days on which observations were
obtained at a given level, and we are now able to speak of the annual
and even of the diurnal periodicity of temperature at different
altitudes in the free air with considerable confidence.
Some of the most important conclusions to be drawn trom the
best recent work were published by Hann either in special memoirs
or in his Lehrbuch, from which we take the following table. The
actual temperatures given in this table have only local importance,
but the differences or the vertical gradients doubtless hold good
over a large portion of Europe if not of the world.
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL DATA
Temperature in Free Air over Europe 1899-1904.
Annual Averages.
International.
All
Altitude.
Berlin.
15 Ascents.
Inter-
national.
130 Ascents.
Manned
balloons.
36 Ascents.
Trappes.
581 Ascents.
countries
combined.
Feb.
Aug.
Km.
o
C.
C.
8-3
C,
C
"C.
+ 0-3
+ 18-2
C.
i
+ 5'4
6-0
+ 5-5
+ 5'3
- 1-4
+ 15-1
5'
2
i
+ 0-5
1-7
+ 0-3
+ 0-7
- 3-6
+ 10-2
o-5
3
- 3'3
- 4'4
- 4-0
- 8-7
-\- 4-8
- 4-0
4
10-3
- 9-0
-10-3
- 9-4
-14-7
I-O
- 9-2
5
-16-6
-15-3
-16-5
-15-4
21-9
7-1
-15-4
6
24-2
22-1
-23-0
21-9
-28-9
-13-3
22 -O
8
-30-2
37'4
-29-1
-36-2
-30-2
-37-o
29-0
-36-2
-36-1
-437
-19-5
-27-1
29-0
-36-2
9
-46-4
-43-5
-50-1
-33-8
-43-2
10
-49-0
-49-3
-55-4
-39-5
-49-2
The differences of temperature between any layer and those
above it and below it, or the vertical gradients at each level go
through annual periodical changes quite analogous to those derived
frp,m- mountain observations; the most rapid falls of temperature,
orjjre largest vertical gradients in the free air occur on the following
dsffes over Europe :
Altitude.
Over
Germany.
Over
Trappes.
i, 2, 3 km.
3. 4. 5
5. 6, 7
7. 8, 9
9, 10, II
May, June
March
April
July
May 15
Feb. 15
Jan. 27
July 28
Sept. 14
The values above given as deduced from 141 high ascensions at
Trappes show that between 1 1 and 14 km. there was no appreciable
diminution of temperature, in other words, the air is warmer than
could be expected and therefore has a higher potential temperature.
This fact was first confirmed by the Berlin ascensions, and is now
recognized as wellnigh universal. The altitude of the base of this
warm stratum is about 12 km. in areas of high pressure and
IO km. in areas of low pressure. It is higher as we approach the
tropics and above ordinary balloon work near the equator if indeed
it exists there. At first this unexpected warmth was considered
as possibly a matter of error in the meteorographs, but this idea is
now abandoned. Assmann suggested that the altitude is that of
the highest cirrus, from which Cleveland Abbe inferred that it had
something to do with the absorption of the solar and terrestrial
heat by dissolving cirri. But the most plausible explanation is that
published simultaneously in September 1908 by W. J. Humphreys
of Washington, and Ernest Gold of London.
The daily diagrams in Das Wetter show that both the irregular
and the periodic and the geographic variations of temperature in
the upper strata are unexpectedly large, almost as large as at the
earth^ surface, so that the uniform temperature of space that was
formerly supposed to prevail iri the upper air must be looked for,
if at all, far above the level to which sounding balloons have as
yet attained. It is evident that both horizontal and vertical
convection currents of great importance really occur at these
great altitudes. These upper currents cannot be due to any very
local influence at the earth s surface, but only to the interchange of
the air over the oceans and continents or between the polar and equa-
torial regions. They constitute the
important feature of the so-called
general circulation of the atmo-
sphere, which we have hitherto-
mistakenly thought of as confined
to lower levels; their general direc-
tion is from west to east over all
parts of the globe as far as yet
known, showing that they are con-
trolled by the rotation of the earth.
It is likely that masses of air having
special temperature conditions or
clouds of vapour dust such as came
from Krakatoa, may be carried in
these high currents around the globe
perhaps several times before being
dissipated.
The average eastward movement
or the west wind at 3 km. above
Germany is 10-7 m. per sec. or i of
longitude (at 45 latitude) in 42-4
minutes, or such as to describe
the whole circumference of this small circle in 10-5 days. At the
equator above the calm belt the velocity westward or the east
wind as given by Krakatoa volcanic-dust phenomena was 34-5 m.
per sec., on 30 of a great circle daily, or around the equator in
ir-j -, while its poleward movement was only iper day or
I'S^metre per second. The average motion of the storm centres
moving westward in northern tropical and equatorial regions but
eastward in the north temperate zone is at \.he rate of one circum-
ference or a small circle at latitude 45 in 19 days. Observations
of the cloud movements gave Professor Bigelow the following
results for the United States:
Altitude.
Moving
eastward.
Moving
westward.
10-0 km.
7'5
5-0
3'0
I-O
36 m. p.s.
35
26
20
8
4
2-0 m. p.s.
2-0
1-5
I-O
o-5
Evidently, therefore, the great west wind (that James H. Coffin
deduced from his work on the winds of the northern hemisphere and
that William Ferrel deduced from his theoretical studies) repre-
sents with its gentle movement poleward a factor of fundamental
importance. We must consider all our meteorological phenomena
except at the equator as existing beneath and controlled, if not
Average temperature gradient
per 100 metres.
Total Fall of Temperature from Ground upward.
Altitude
Month.
Altitudes.
(metres).
October to March.
April to September.
From o to
From 1000 to
Cloudiness
Cloudiness
Cloudiness
Cloudiness
1000 metres.
2000 metres.
0-7.
8-10.
0-7.
8-10.
c.
C
C.
C.
C.
C.
January
February
O-II
o-39
0-58
0-30
2000
1800
8-24
7-22
8
6-60
15-33
14-20
14-18
12-97
March
o-33
0-40
1600
6-28
6-04
13-01
"75
April
0-73
0-48
1400
5-35
5-15
11-66
10-59
May . . . .
0-90
0-66
1 200
4.48
4-35
10-32
9.32
June '.
uly
August
September
October
November
0-99
0-96
0-86
0-77
o-57
0-36
0-30
0-72
0-67
0-62
0-58
o-43
o-53
o-53
IOOO
800
600
400
200
o
3-62
2-2O
1-54
0-65
o-35
o-oo
3-52
2-82
2-33
1-85
1-05
0-00
9-13
7-55
5-77
3-88
1-88
0-00
7-96
6-65
5-23
3-63
1-76
o-oo
December
Year
0-61
o-53
PHYSICAL DATA]
METEOROLOGY
271
caused, by this general deep swift upper current of air that began as an
ascending east wind above the calm equatorial air but speedily over-
flowed as west wind settling down to the sea-level in the temperate
and polar regions as great areas of high pressure and dry clear
-cool weather containing air on its return passage to the equator.
The upper air is thrown easily into great billows, and wherever it
rises the warm equatorial wind flows in beneath it, but when it
descends we have blizzards and dry clear weather. It is a covering
for the lower strata of air, it flows over them in standing waves
and sometimes mixes with them at the surface of contact. _ It
receives daily accessions from below and gives out corresponding
accessions to the lower strata, by a process of overturning such as
has been studied theoretically by Margules and Bigelow.
At the fifth conference of the International Committee on Scientific
Aeronautics (Milan, October 1906) Rykatchef presented the results
of kite-work during 1904 and 1905 at Pavlosk, near St Petersburg,
from which we select the results for these two years given in table
at foot of page 270.
Many inversions occur during January below 1000 metres.
The decrease is more rapid in summer than in winter and in clear
weather than in cloudy, but of course these observations did not
extend above the upper level of the cumulus cloud layer. A general
survey of the existing state of knowledge of the upper atmosphere
is given in the Report of the British Association for 1910.
Distribution of Aqueous Vapour. The distribution of aqueous
vapour is best shown by lines of equal dew-point or vapour tension,
though for some purposes lines of equal relative humidity are con-
venient. The dew-point lines are not usually shown on charts,
partly because the lines of vapour pressure are approximately
parallel to the lines of mean temperature of the air, and partly
because the observations are of very unequal accuracy in different
portions of the globe. In general we may considu any isotherm
as agreeing with the dew-point line for dew-points a few degrees
lower than the temperature of the air. The distribution of moisture
is quite irregular both in a horizontal and in a vertical direction.
On charts of the world we may draw lines based on actual observa-
tions to represent equal degrees of relative humidity, or equal dew-
points and vapour pressures; but as regards the distribution of
moisture in a vertical direction we are, in the absence of specific obser-
vations, generally forced to assume that the vapour pressure at any
altitude h follows the average law first deduced from a limited num-
ber of observations by Hann, and expressed by the logarithmic
equation, log e = log o A/6517, which is quite analogous to
the elementary hypsometric formula, log p = log poh/iS^oo.
Therefore, in general, the ratio between the pressure of the vapour
and the pressure of the atmosphere at any altitude is represented
by the approximate formula, log e/p = log eo/poh/ioo^i. Of
course these relations can only represent average or normal
conditions, which may be departed from very widely at any
moment; they have, however, been found to agree remarkably
with all observations which have as yet been published. The average
results are given in the following table, which is abbreviated from
one published by Hann, but with the addition of the work done by
the U.S. Weather Bureau, as reduced by Dr Frankenfield in 1899.
The vapour constituent of the atmosphere is not distributed accord-
ing to the law of gaseous diffusion, but, like temperature and the
ratio between oxygen and nitrogen, is controlled by other laws
prescribed by the winds and currents, namely convection.
Diminution of the Relative Vapour Pressure with Altitude.
Authority.
Kites.
(U.S.W.B.)
Balloons.
(Hammon.)
Balloons.
(Hazen.)
Balloons.
(Hann.)
Mountains
(Hann.)
Computed
by Hann.
1500
ft.
0-82
0-97
0-89
0-84
0-83
0-85
2OOO
ft.
0-78
O-96
0-83
0-80
0-81
0-81
3000
ft.
0-70
0-87
0-80
0-66
0-80
0-72
4000
ft.
0-61
0-68
0-78
0-61
0-66
0-65
5000
ft.
0-52
0-44
0-67
0-50
0-61
0-58
6000
ft.
0-49
o-59
0-46
o-54
0-58
0-52
7000
ft.
o-39
0-44
0-41
0-55
0-47
8000
ft.
0-44
o-37
0-47
0-42
No.
Ohs.
1123
4
2
15
6
Note. The vapour pressure at any altitude is supposed to be
expressed as a fraction of that observed at the ground. When the
altitudes are given in ft. Hann's formula becomes log e/eo = ^29539
From 78 high balloon voyages in Germany, 1887-1899, Siiring
deduced the average vapour pressure in millimetres as found in
Diminution of Pressure of Aqueous Vapour in the Free Air.
the first line of the table at foot of this page (see Wissenschaftliche
Luflffahrten,Bd.lU., and Hann, Lehrbuch, 1906, p. 169). The obser-
vations on mountains gave Hann the pressures in the second
line. Siiring's figures result from the use of Assmann's ventilated
psychrometer and are therefore very reliable.
The vapour pressure in mm. in free air over Europe is best given
by Suring's formula
where the altitude is to be expressed in kilometres. From this
formula we derive the " specific moisture " or the mass of vapour
contained in a kilogram of moist air as given in the following table
whose numbers do not appreciably differ from " the mixing ratio "
or quantity of moisture associated with a kilogram of dry air.
The relative humidities vary irregularly depending on convection
currents, but in clear weather when descending currents prevail
they have been observed in America and over Berlin as shown in
the third and fourth columns of the following table :
Observed Specific Moisture and Relative Humidity.
Alt.
Specific
moisture.
Relative Humidity.
U.S.A.
Berlin.
Km.
%
%
o-o
I-OO
77
o-5
65
71
I-O
0-76
65
7i
i-5
0-65
59
62
2-0
o-55
59
57
2-5
0-47
45
58
3-o
o-39
55
3-5
49
4-0
0-26
53
4-5
54
5-o
0-17
5-6
O-II
5-7
0-07
5'8
0-04
The total amount of vapour in the atmosphere, according to Hann's
formula, is between one-fourth and one-fifth of the amount re-
quired by Dalton's hypothesis, as is illustrated by the following
table taken from an article by Cleveland Abbe in the Smithsonian
Report for 1888, p. 410:
Total Vapour in a Vertical Column that is saturated at its base.
Altitude.
Feet.
Relative
Tension
=c/m.
Actual Weight Gr. per
Cubic Foot.
Total Vapour in the
Columns expressed as
Inches of Rain.
I 80 F.
70 F.
60 F.
50 F.
80 F
70 F
60 F.
soF
I-OOO
j 10-95
7'99
5-76
4-09
O-O
0-0
0-0
o-o
6OOO
0-524
5-75
4-19
3-02
2-14
1-3
I-O
0-7
o-5
I2.OOO
0-275
3-oi
2-2O
I -58
I-I2
2-1
i-5
i-i
0-8
l8,OOO
0-144
1-58
i-i.S
0-83
o-59
2-5
1-8
1-3
0-9
24,000
0-075
0-82
0-62
o-43
0-31
2-7
2-0
1-4
I-O
3O,OOO
0-040
o-43
0-32
0-23
0-16
2-8
2-1
i-5
i-i
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
km.
Alt. .
o-5
I-O
1-5
2-0
2-5
3-0
3'5
4-0
4'5
5-0
6-0
7-0
8-0
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
Siiring .
Hann .
0-83
0-83
0-68
0-70
0-51
0-58
0-41
0-48
0-34
0-40
0-26
o-34
O-2O
0-28
0-17
0-23
0-14
0-19
O-II
0-16
0-054
0-028
0-013
A heavy rainfall results from the precipitation of only a small
percentage of the water contained in the fresh supplies of air brought
by the wind; if all moisture were abstracted from the atmosphere
it could only affect the barometer throughout the equatorial regions
by 2-8/13-6 inches, or about two-tenths of an inch, while at the
polar regions the diminution would be much less than one-tenth.
Evidently, therefore, it is idle to argue that the fall of pressure in
an extensive storm is to be considered as the simple result of the
condensation of the vapour into rain.
Barometric Pressure. The horizontal distribution of barometric
pressure over the earth's surface is shown by the isobars, or lines
of equal pressure at sea-level ; it can also be expressed by a system
of complex spherical harmonics. As the indications of the mercurial
barometer must vary with the variation of apparent gravity,
whereas those of the aneroid barometer do not, it has been agreed
by the International Meteorological Conventions that for scientific
purposes all atmospheric pressures, when expressed as barometric
readings, must be reduced to one standard value of gravity, namely,
its value at sea-level and at 45 of latitude. In this locality its
value is such as to give in one second an
acceleration of 980-8 centimetres, or 32-2
English ft. per second. The effect of the
variation of apparent gravity with latitude is
therefore to make the mercurial barometer
read too high, between 45 and the equator,
and too low, between 45 and the pole. The
gravity-correction to be applied to any mer-
curial barometric-reading at or near sea-level,
in order to get the atmospheric pressure in
272
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL DATA
standard units, should be given on the edge of a meteorological
chart, unless the isobars shown thereon already contain this correc-
tion. On such charts it will be perceived that the barometric pressure
at sea-level is by no meansjuniform over the earth's surface, and daily
weather charts show very great fluctuations in this respect, the
lowest pressures being storm centres and the highest pressures
areas of clear cool dry weather. But even the normal average
charts show high pressures over the continents in the winter and
low pressures over the oceans, these conditions being reversed in
the summer time; moreover, Schoutt (Po^g.Ann., 1 832) first demon-
strated that the average pressure in the neighbourhood of the equator
is slightly less than under either tropic, and that there is a still
more remarkable diminution of pressure from either tropic towards
its pole. The exact statement of these variations of pressure with
latitude was subsequently worked out very precisely by Ferrel,
and forms the basis of his explanation of the general circulation of
the earth's atmosphere and its influence on the barometer. The
series of monthly charts for the whole globe, compiled by Buchan
and published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1868, as well
as Buchan's later and more perfect charts in the meteorology of the
" Challenger " Expedition, Edinburgh, 1889, and in Bartholomew's
Atlas, first revealed clearly the fact that the distinct areas of high
and low pressure which are located over the continents and the
oceans vary during the year in a fairly regular manner, so that the
pressure is higher over the continents in the winter season and
lower in the summer season, the amount of the change depending
principally upon the size of the continent. A part of this annual
variation in pressure is undoubtedly introduced by the methods
of reduction to sea-level ; indeed, if the data of the lower stations
are reduced up to the leve) of 10,000 or 15,000 ft., we sometimes
find the barometric conditions quite reversed. These annual
changes are intimately connected as cause and effect with the annual
changes of temperature, moisture and wind ; it is quite erroneous
to say that the observed charted pressures control the winds;
there is a reaction going on between the wind and the barometric
gradient, the resistance and rotation of the earth's surface, such
that the true relation between these factors is a complex but funda-
mental problem in the mechanics of the atmosphere.
The vertical distribution of pressure as deduced from observation
shows a rate of diminution with increasing altitude very_closely
but not entirely accordant with the laws of static equilibrium, as
first elaborated by Laplace in his hypsometric formula. The
departures from this law of static equilibrium are sufficient to show
that, if our atmosphere is really in a state of equilibrium, it must
be a matter of dynamics and not of statics. The general average
relation of the density of the air to the altitude and temperature,
and the total pressure of the superincumbent atmosphere, are
shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. l), which is taken from
a memoir on the equations of motion by Joseph Cottier, published
in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for July 1897. The diminu-
tion of pressure with altitude, as shown in this diagram for average
conditions, but not for the temporary conditions that continually
occur, follows a logarithmic law, and can undoubtedly be extended
upwards for the normal atmosphere only to a height of 20 or 30 m.,
owing to our uncertainty as to the actual conditions in the
upper portions of the atmosphere. This diagram is based upon
the assumption that the atmosphere is in a state of convective
equilibrium such that the ascending and descending masses expand
and cool as they ascend, or contract and warm up as they descend,
nearly but not quite in accordance with the adiabatic law of the
change of temperature in pure gases.
The departure of atmospheric temperatures from the strictly
adiabatic law, as shown bv Cottier, is undoubtedly due largely to
the heat absorbed by and radiated from moist or hazy or dusty
air. In 1890, Abbe showed that a very moderate rate of radiation
from the atmosphere suffices to explain the coolness of slowly
descending air. The absorption by the atmosphere of radiations
from the earth and sun, or the balance between warming by
absorption and cooling by radiation, is the basis of the arguments
of W. J. Humphreys (Astrophysics, Jan. 1909), and E. Gold (Proc.
Roy. Sac., 1908, Ixxxii., 45 A.), explaining the existence of the
" thermal layer."
The direct evaluation of this radiation and absorption has been
attempted by many. The genuine law a(q-p) is adopted by Gold as
closely representing nature, whence it follows that (l) the adiabatic
rate of cooling in convection currents must cease at a height corre-
sponding to one-half of the barometric pressure at sea-level; (2) an
isothermal layer must exist at the level where the absorption of
solar radiation equals that of the terrestrial and atmospheric radia-
tion ; (3) within this thermal layer convection is difficult or impossible ;
(4) above this region the vertical temperature gradient must depend
essentially on radiation ahd is less than that needed for convective
equilibrium; () below this level the atmospheric radiation exceeds
the atmospheric absorption and vertical currents can only be kept
up by the convection of heat or aqueous vapour from the earth's
surface to the adjacent layer of air.
Limit of the Atmosphere. The limiting height of the atmosphere
must be at some unknown elevation above 20 m. where the tempera-
ture falls to absolute zero. But the uncertainty of the various
hypotheses as to the physical properties of the upper atmosphere
forbids us to entertain any positive ideas on this subject at the
present time. If we define the outer limit of the atmosphere as
that point at which the diffusion of gases inwards just balances
the diffusion outwards, then this limit must be determined not by
the hypsometric formula, but by the properties of gases at low
temperatures and pressures under conditions as yet uninvestigated
by physicists.
Cloudiness. It is evident that the clouds (q.v.) are formed from
clear transparent air by_the condensation of the invisible moisture
therein into numerous minute par-
ticles of water, ice or snow. Not-
withstanding their transparency,
these individual globules and
crystals, when collected in large
masses, disperse the solar rays by
reflection to such an extent that
direct light from the sun is unable
to penetrate fog or cloud, and
partial darkness results. In a
general survey of the atmosphere
the geographical distribution of
the amount of cloudy sky is im-
portant. When the solar heat
falls upon the surface of the cloud
it is so absorbed and reflected
that, on the one hand, scarcely
any penetrates to the ground
beneath, while on the other hand
the upper surface of the cloud
becomes unduly heated. Even if
this upper surface is completely
evaporated, it may continually be
renewed from below, and, more-
over, the evaporated moisture
mixing with the air renders it
very much lighter specifically than
it would otherwise be. Hence the
upper surface of the cloud replaces
the surface of the ground and of
fractional Parts of normal Prttsura
a"d Dfntftu at Sio-lavl
FIG. i.
the ocean ; the air in contact with it acquires a higher temperature
and greater buoyancy, while the ground and air beneath it remain
colder than they would be in sunshine. The average cloudiness
over the globe is therefore intimately related to the density and
circulation of the atmosphere; it was first charted in general terms
by L. Teisserenc de Bort of Paris, about 1886. The manifold
modifications of the clouds impress one with the conviction that,
when properly understood and interpreted, they will reveal to us
the most important features of the processes going on in the atmo-
sphere. If the farmer and sailor can correctly judge of the weather
several hours in advance by a casual glance at the clouds, what
may not the professional meteorologist hope to do by a more careful
study? Acting on this idea, in 1868 Abbe asked from all of his
correspondent observers full details as to the quantity, kind and
direction of motion of each layer of clouds; these were telegraphed
daily for publication in the Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati
Observatory, and for use in the weather predictions made at that
time. Since January 1872 similar data have been regularly tele-
graphed for the use of the U.S. Weather Bureau in preparing fore-
casts, although the special cloud maps that were compiled thrice
daily have not been published, owing to the expense. These data
were also published in full in the Bulletin of the International Simul-
taneous Meteorological Observations for the whole northern hemi-
sphere during the years 1875-1884. Abbe's work on the U.S.
Eclipse Expedition to the West Coast of Africa in 1889-1890 was
wholly devoted to the determination of the height and motions
of the clouds by the use of his special form of the marine nephoscope.
The use of such a nephoscope is to be strongly recommended, as
it gives the navigator a means of determining the bearing of a
storm centre at sea by studying the lower clouds, better than he
can possibly do by the observation of the winds alone. The im-
portance of cloud study has been especially emphasized by the
International Meteorological Committee, which arranged for a
complete year of systematic cloud-work by national weather
bureaus and individual observatories throughout the world from
May 1896 to June 1897. In this connexion H. H. Clayton of
Blue Hill Observatory published a very comprehensive report on
cloud forms in 1906. The complete report by Professor F. H.
Bigelow on the work done by the U.S. Weather Bureau forms a
part of the annual report for 1899, and constitutes a remarkable
addition to our knowledge of the subject. Some preliminary
account of this work was published in the American Journal of
Science for December 1899.
Although all the international cloud-work of 1896-1897 has now
been published in full by the individual institutions, as in the case
of the International Polar Research Work of 1883, yet a compre-
hensive study of the results still remains to be made. Some of these
have, however, been brought together in Mohn's discussion of the
observations by Nansen during the voyage of the ' ' Fram "and also in
Hann's Lehrbuch and in Bigelow's Report on Cloud-work. The mean
altitudes of cirrus and strato-cumulus clouds resulted as follows.
APPARATUS AND METHODS]
METEOROLOGY
273
Place.
Lati-
tude.
Cirrus.
St. cu.
Highest
Cirrus.
Lowest
Cirrus.
kU.
kil.
kil.
kil.
Cape Thordsen .
78-5
7
3
2'5
Bossekop, 1838-1842 .
70
8
3
'3
u-8
5-5
Storlien
63-5
8
3
1-8
Upsala, 1884-1885. .
60
8-9
2-3 1
1896-1897. .
60
8
2
1-8 \
13-4
3'"
Pavlosk
60
8
8
1-9
11-7
4'7
Dantzig
54-5
IO-O
2-2
Irkutsk
52-3
IO-9
2'3
Blue Hill, 1890-1891 .
42-5
9
o
3'2
Potsdam, summer.
52
9
i
2-2
winter
52
8
i
1-4
Blue Hill, summer.
winter .
42-5
9
8
5
6
12 I
1-6 ;
15-0
5-4
Toronto, summer . )
6
10
9
2-O
winter . \
-TO D
10
o
j . e (
Washington, summer )
,, winter )
39
IO
9
4
5
2-9 i
2-4 ',
16-5
5-o
Allahabad ....
25-5
12-4
3'5
Manila . . . . _ .
15
10-9
2-0
18-0
4-0
The annual average velocity of hourly movement in metres
per second without regard to direction may be summarized as
follows :
500-2000
2-4000. <
6-8000. 8-10,000. 10-12,000
12-14,000.
m.
m.
m.
m. m. m.
Bossekop .
6-5
7-3
12-5
15-4 19-0 24-4
Upsala
9-1
8-7
16-0
20-4 26-6
Potsdam .
9-3
10-3
16-9
20-8 25-4
Blue Hill . .
9-8
14-2
17-1
34-3 34-2 (33)
Toronto
9.4
17-1
18-4
32-0 30-8 28-8
Washington l
(8-6)
14-6
17-3
26-3 25-8 (28-9)
26-8
Allahabad
3-4
6-4
13-0
17-6 22-3 20-7
34-o
Manila
5'5
7-1
6-5
8-0 13-6 13-0
13-4
The movements of the upper clouds are more rapid in winter
than in summer at these northern stations, but among the median
and lower clouds a retardation takes place apparently due to the
ascending currents that form rain and snow: Above 8000 metres
at Upsala the average velocity in winter exceeds 30 metres per
second, whereas in summer it is 20; at Toronto and Blue Hill the
absolute velocities are larger but in the same ratio. In the United
States the maximum velocities from the west attain 100 metres
per second and over 80 or 70 metres per second are not rare, but in
Europe the corresponding figures are 70, 60, 50. (See also CLOUD.)
II. METEOROLOGICAL APPARATUS AND METHODS
The observational basis of meteorology is the frequent and,
if possible, continuous record of the temperature, moisture
and barometric pressure at different altitudes in the free
atmosphere, the direction and velocity of the wind, the rain
and snow-fall, and the kind, amount and motion of the clouds.
For Europe these data have been furnished with more or less
accuracy and continuity by thousands of observers ever since
1653, when Ferdinand II., grand duke of Tuscany, organized
a system of daily observations in Italy under the general super-
vision of Luigi Antinori. During the igth century great efforts
were made to obtain equally full records from all parts of the
land and ocean, and thousands of navigators were added to the
great corps of observers. Other matters have also been investi-
gated, the most important being the intensity of radiation
from the earth at night-time and from the sun by day-time,
the optical phenomena of the sky, the amount of dust in the
air, the electrical condition and the chemical constitution of
the atmosphere. Although all the instruments used belong
to the category of physical apparatus, yet certain points must
be considered as peculiar to their use in connexion with
meteorology.
Thermometer. In using the thermometer to determine the
temperature of the free air it is necessary to consider not
nerely its intrinsic accuracy as compared with the standard
gas thermometer of the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Paris, but especially its sluggishness, the influence
of noxious radiations, the gradual change of its zero point with
time, and the influence of atmospheric pressure.
P We have here inserted the Washington data as interpolated
from the figures given by Hann, Lehrbuch, 1906, p. 282.]
Sensitiveness. The thermometer indicates the temperature of
the outside surface of its own bulb only when the whole mass of
the instrument has a uniform temperature. Assuming that by
appropriate convection we can keep the surface of the thermometer
at the temperature of the air, we have still to remember that ordin-
arily this itself is perpetually changing both in rapid oscillations
of several degrees and in diurnal periods of many degrees, while
the thermometer, on account of its own mass or thermal inertia,
always lags behind the changes in the temperature of its own
surface. On the other hand, radiant heat passes easily through
the air, strikes the thermometer, and raises its temperature quite
independently of the influence of the air whose temperature we
wish to measure. The internal sluggishness or the sensitiveness
of the thermometer is usually different for rising and for falling
temperatures, and is measured by a coefficient which must be deter-
mined experimentally for each instrument by observing the rate at
which its indications change when it is plunged into a well-stirred
bath of water whose temperature is either higher or lower than its
own. This coefficient indicates the rate per minute at which the
readings change when the temperature of the surface of the bulb
is one degree warmer or colder than the temperature of the bath.
Such coefficients usually vary between ^th of a degree centigrade
for sluggish thermometers, and one or two degrees for very sensitive
thermometers. Suppose, for instance, that the coefficient is one-
half degree, then when the rate of change in the temperature of
the air is one degree per minute this is exactly the same as the rate
of change which the thermometer itself undergoes when its own
temperature is two degrees different from that of the air; conse-
quently, the thermometer will lag behind the air temperature to
that extent and by the corresponding amount of time, assuming
that the air itself flows fast enough to keep the surface of the bulb
at the air temperature. When the air temperature ceases to rise
or fall, and begins to change at the same rate in the opposite direc-
tion, the thermometer will fail to record the true maximum or
minimum temperature by an appreciable error depending upon the
rapidity of the change, and will follow the new temperature changes
with the same lag. For example, in the case just quoted, if a rising
temperature suddenly changes to a falling temperature, the error
of the thermometer at the maximum temperature will be two
degrees, and yet the thermometer may be absolutely correct as
compared with the standard when it is allowed five or ten minutes'
time to overcome the sluggishness. It is very difficult to obtain
the temperature of the free air at any moment within ^th of a
degree Centigrade, owing to the sluggishness of all ordinary thermo-
meters and the perpetual variations in the temperatures of the
atmospheric currents.
Radiation. When a thermometer bulb is immersed in a bath of
liquid all radiant heat is cut off, but when hung in the open air it
is subject to a perpetual interchange of radiations between itself
and all its surroundings; consequently its own temperature has
only an indirect connexion with that of the air adjacent to it. One
of the most difficult problems of meteorology is so to expose a
thermometer as to cut off noxious radiations and get the true
temperature of the atmosphere at a specific place and time. The
following are a few of the many methods that have been adopted
to secure this end: Melloni put the naked glass bulbs within open
sheltering caps of perforated silver paper. Flaugergues used a
protection consisting of a simple vertical cylinder of two sheets of
silver paper enclosing a thin layer of non-conducting substance,
like cotton or wool. The influence of radiation upon a thermometer
depends upon the radiating and absorbing powers of its own surface;
a roughened surface of lamp-black radiates and absorbs perfectly;
one of chalk powder does nearly as well; glass much more im-
perfectly; while a polished silver surface reflects with ease, but
radiates and absorbs with the greatest difficulty. Fourier pro-
posed to use two thermometers side by side, one of plain glass
and the other of blackened glass; the difference of these would
indicate the effect of radiation at any moment; but instead of
plain glass he should have used polished silver. His method was
quite independently devised and used by Abbe in 1865 and 1866 at
Poulkova, where the thermometers were placed within a very light
shelter of oiled paper. In order to use this method successfully,
both the black and the silvered thermometers should be whirled
side by side inside the thermometer shelters (see Bulletin of the
Philosophical Society of Washington for 1883). Various forms of
open lattice-work and louvre screens have been devised and used
by Glaisher, Kupffer, Stevenson, Stowe, Dove, Renou, Joseph
Henry and others, in all of which the wind is supposed to blow
freely through the screens, while the latter cut off the greater part
of the direct sunshine and other obnoxious radiations by day, and
also prevent obnoxious radiation from the thermometer to the sky
by night. The Italian physicist Belli first proposed a special
artificial ventilation drawing the fresh air from the outside and
making it flow rapidly over the thermometer. Even before his
day de Saussure, Espy, Arago and Bravais whirled the thermometer
rapidly either by a small whirling machine, or by attaching it to
a string and swivel and whirling it like a sling. When this whirling
is done in a shady place excellent results are obtained. Renou
and Craig placed the thermometer in a thin metallic enclosure or
shelter, and whirled the latter. Wild established the thermometer
274
METEOROLOGY
[APPARATUS AND METHODS
in a fixed louvre shelter, but by means of a ventilating apparatus
drew currents of fresh air from below into the shelter, where they
circulated rapidly and passed out. In Germany, since 1885, Dr
Assmann has developed the apparatus known as the ventilated
psychrometer, in which the dry-bulb thermometer is placed within
a double shelter of thin metallic tubing, and the air is drawn in
rapidly by means of a small ventilating fan. In the observations
made by Abbe on the cruise of the " Pensacola " to the West Coast
of Africa, the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers were enclosed within
bamboo tubes and rapidly whirled. The inside of the wet-bulb
tube was kept wet, so that its surface, being cooled by evaporation,
could not radiate injuriously to the thermometer. In the system
of exposure adopted by the U.S. Weather Bureau the dry and
wet bulbs are whirled by a special apparatus fixed within the
louvred shelter, which is about 3i ft. cube, and is placed far
enough above the ground or building to ensure free exposure to
the wind. In using the whirling and ventilating methods it is
customary to take a reading after whirling one minute, and a
second reading at the end of the second minute, and so on until
no appreciable changes are shown in the thermometer. Of course
in perfectly calm weather these methods can only give the tempera-
ture of the air for the exact locality of the thermometer. On the
other hand, when a strong wind is blowing the indicated tempera-
ture is an average that represents the long narrow stream of air
that has blown past the thermometer during the few minutes
that are necessary in order that its bulb may obtain approximately
the temperature of the air.
Chanee of Zero. All thermometers having glass bulbs, especially
those of cylindrical shape, are sensitive to changes of atmospheric
pressure. The freezing-point, determined under a barometric
pressure of 30 in., or at sea-level, stands higher on the glass
tube than if it had been determined under a lower pressure on a
mountain top. Therefore delicate thermometers, when transported
to great heights, or even during the very low pressure of a storm
centre, read too low and need a correction for pressure. The zero-
point also changes with time and with the method of treatment that
the bulb has received as to temperature. Owing to the slow ad-
justment of the molecules of the glass bulb to the state of stable
equilibrium, their relations among themselves are disturbed when-
ever the bulb is freshly heated. At this time the freezing-point is
temporarily depressed to an amount nearly proportional to the
heating. The normal method of treatment consists in first deter-
mining the boiling-point of the thermometer, and, after a few
minutes, the freezing-point. If this method is uniformly followed
the two fiducial points will stay in permanent relation to each other.
A thermometer that has been used for many years by a faithful
meteorological observer has almost inevitably been going through
a steady series of changes; in the course of ten years its freezing-
point may have risen by 2 or 3 F., and, moreover, it changes by
fully a tenth of a degree between summer and winter. The only
way completely to eliminate this source of error from meteorological
work is to discard the mercurial thermometer altogether; but
instead of adopting that course, the use is generally recommended
of thermometers whose bulbs are made of a special glass, upon
which heating and cooling have comparatively very little influence.
Any argument as to secular changes in the temperature of the
atmosphere is likely to be greatly weakened by the unknown influ-
ence of this source of error, as well as by changes in the methods of
exposure and in the hours of observation.
Barometer. The barometer (q.v.) indicates the elastic pressure
prevailing in gas or liquid at the surface of the mercury in the
open tube or cistern, provided that the fluid at that point is
in a state of quiet relative to the mercury.
Any motion of the air will have an influence upon the reading
quite independently of the prevailing elastic pressure. The pressure
within a mass of gas at any point is the summation of the effects
due to the motions of the myriad molecules of the gas at that point ;
it is the kinetic energy of the molecules striking against each other
and the sides of the enclosure, which in this case is the surface of
the mercury in the cistern of the instrument. If the barometer
moves with respect to the general mass of the gas there is a change
in the pressure on the mercurial surface, although there may be
none in the general mass of the free gas, and a barometer giving
correctly the pressure of the air at rest within a room will give a
different indication if the instrument or the air is set in rapid motion
so that the air strikes violently against it. If the barometer moves
with the air it will indicate the elastic pressure within the air.
When the wind blows against an obstacle the air pressure is increased
slightly on the windward side and diminished on the leeward side.
It is thus obvious that in determining the pressure within the free
atmosphere the exposure of the barometer must be carefully con-
sidered. The influence of a gale of wind is to raise the elastic
pressure within a room whose window faces to the windward, but
to lower the pressure if the window faces to the leeward. The
influence of the draught up chimney, produced by the wind blowing
over its summit, is to lower the pressure within the room. The
maximum effect of the wind in raising the pressure is given by the
formula, P P =0-000 038 3 X V 2 , where the pressure is given
in inches and the velocity in miles per hour. This amounts to
about one-tenth of an inch in a $o-m. wind, and to nearly four-
tenths in a loo-m. wind. The diminution by a leeward window
or a draught up chimney is usually less than this amount. This
alteration in pressure, due to the local effect of wind, does not
belong to the free atmosphere but to the method of exposure of
the barometer, and can be eliminated only by methods first de-
scribed by Abbe in 1882: it is a very different matter from the
general diminution of pressure in the atmosphere produced by the
movement of the wind over a rotating earth and by the centrifugal
force within a vortex. The latter is an atmospheric phenomenon,
independent of instruments and locality, which in hurricanes and
tornadoes may amount to several inches of the mercurial column.
It is, however, quite common to find in the continuous records of
pressure during a hurricane evidence of the fact that the low pressure
due to the hurricane and the special diminution due to the exposure
of the barometer are combined together, so that when the calm
centre of a hurricane passes over a station the pressure temporarily
rises by the amount due to the sudden stoppage of the wind and
the local exposure effect.
The other sources of error that give rise to discrepancies in
meteorological work relate to the temperature of the instrument,
the sluggishness of the movement of the mercury, and the inevitable
large secular changes in the correction for capillarity, due principally
to the changes in the condition of the surfaces of the glass and the
mercury, especially those that are exposed to the open air. The
international comparisons of barometers show that discrepancies
exist between the best normals or standards, and that ordinary
barometers must always be compared with such standards at the
temperatures and pressures for which they are to be used.
Anemometer. The wind is measured either by means of its
pressure against any obstacle or by revolving apparatus that
gives some idea of the velocity of its movement. The pressure
is supposed to interest the engineer and navigator, but the
velocity is the fundamental meteorological datum; in fact,
the pressure of the wind varies with the nature of the obstacle,
the method of exposure, the density of the air, and even the
mass of rain carried along with it.
Pressure anemometers date from the pendulous tablet devised
by Sir Christopher Wren about 1667, and such pressure plates
continue to be used in an improved form by Russian observers.
Normal pressure plates are used at a few English and Continental
stations. The windmill anemometers devised by Schober and
Woltmann were modified by Combes and Casella so as to make an
exceedingly delicate instrument for laboratory use; another modifi-
cation by Richard is extensively used by French observers. In
the early part of the igth century Edgeworth devised and Robinson
perfected a windmill system in which hemispherical cups revolved
around a vertical axis, and these have come into general use in both
Europe and America. Many studies have been made of the exact
ratio between the velocity of the wind and the rotations of the
Robinson anemometer. The factor 3 is usually adopted and in-
corporated into the mechanism of the apparatus, but in ordinary
circumstances this factor is entirely too large, and the recorded
velocities are therefore too large. The whirling cups do not revolve
with any simple relation to the velocity of the wind, even when
this is perfectly steady. The relation varies with the dimensions
of the cups and arms and the speed of the wind, but especially
with the steadiness or gustiness of the wind. The exact ratio
must always be determined experimentally for each specific type of
instrument ; in most instruments in actual use the factor for steady
wind varies between 2-4 and 2-6. When the wind is gusty the moment
of inertia of the moving parts of the instrument necessitates an
appreciable correction; thus, when the gust is at its height the re-
volving parts receive an impetus that lasts after the gust has gone
down, so that the actual velocity of the cups is too high. For
this reason, also, comparisons and studies of anemometers made in
the irregular natural winds of a free air are unsatisfactory. For
the average natural and gusty winds at Washington, D.C., and on
Mount Washington, N.H., and the small type of Robinson's
anemometer used in the U.S. Weather Bureau Service, Professor C.
F. Marvin deduced the table (see p. 275) for reduction from recorded
to true velocity. This table involves the moment of inertia of the
revolving parts of the instrument and the gustiness of the winds
at Washington, and will therefore, of course, not apply strictly to
other types of instruments or winds, for which special studies must
be made.
About 1842 a committee of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences experimentally determined, for a large variety of chimney
caps, or cowls, or hoods, the amount of suction that produces the
draught up a chimney, and shortly afterwards a similar committee
made a similar investigation at Philadelphia (see Proc. Amer. Acad.
i. 307, and Journal of Franklin Institute, iv. 101). These investi-
gations showed that the open end of the chimney, acting as an
obstacle in the wind, is covered by a layer of air moving more
rapidly than the free air at a little distance, and that therefore
between this layer and the aperture of the chimney there is a space
APPARATUS AND METHODS]
METEOROLOGY
275
within which barometric pressure is less than in the neighbouring
free air. The draught up the chimney is due to the pressure of the
air at the lower end or fireplace pushing up the flue into this region
of low pressure, quite as much as it is due to the buoyancy of the
heated air within the flue. From such experiments as these there
has been developed the vertical suction-tube anemometer, as devised
by Fletcher in 1867, re-invented by Hagemann in 1876, and intro-
duced into England by Dines. In his Meteorological Apparatus
Marvin' s Table for the Reduction of Velocities, given by the small-
sized Robinson's Anemometer in gusty winds.
Indicated
Velocity.
True Velocity.
Miles.
o
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
O
5-i
6-0
6-9
7-8
8-7
10
Q-6
IO-4
I I '3
I2-I
12-9
13-8
14-6
15-4
16-2
17-0
2O
17-8
18-6
19-4
2O-22
2I-O
21-8
22-6
23-4
24-2
24-9
30
2,V7
20-5
27-5
28-0
28-8
29-6
30-3
3I-I
31'S
32-6
40
33'3
34-1
34'
35-6
36-3
37-J
37-8
3'5
39-3
40-0
5
40-8
4i-5
42-2
43-0
43-7
44-4
45-i
4.V9
46-6
47-3
60
48-0
48-7
49.4
50-2
50-9
Si -6
52-3
53-
53 '
54-5
70
S-,-2
,S,V9
56-6
57-3
58-0
5-7
59-4
60- 1
60-8
61-5
80
62-2
62-9
63-6
64-3
65-0
65-8
66-4
67-1
67-8
68-5
90
69-2
_
and Methods (Washington, 1887) Abbe gives the theory of this
class of anemometers and develops the following additional forms:
Two vertical tubes, whose apertures are respectively directed to the
windward and the leeward, and within which are two independent
barometers, give the means of determining the barometric pressure
plus the wind pressure and minus the wind pressure respectively,
so that both the velocity of the wind and the true barometric
pressure can be determined. If instead of a simple opening at the
top of the tube we place there horizontally the contracted Venturi's
tube, we obtain a maximum wind effect, which gives an accurate
measure of the wind velocity, and is the form recommended by
Bourdon as an improvement on that of Arson. In all anemometers
of this class the inertia of the moving parts is reduced to a minimum,
and the measurement of rapid changes in velocity and of the maxi-
mum intensity of gusts becomes feasible. On the other hand,
these researches have shown how to expose a barometer so that
it shall be tree from the dynamic or wind effect even in a gale.
It has only to be placed within a room or box that is connected
with the free air by a tube that ends in a pair of parallel plane
plates. When the wind blows past the end of this tube it flows
between these plates in steady linear motion, and can produce
no disturbance of pressure at the mouth of the tube if the plates
are at a suitable distance apart. This condition of stable flow, as
contrasted with permanent flow, was first defined by Sir William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (see Phil. Mag., Sept. 1887). Such a pair
of small circular plates can easily be applied to a tube screwed
into the air-hole at the back of any aneroid barometer, and thus
render it independent of the influence of the wind.
As to the exposure of the anemometer, no uniform rules have
as yet been adopted. Since the wind is subject to exceedingly great
disturbances by the obstacles near the ground, an observer who
estimates the force of the wind by noticing all that goes on over
a large region about him has some advantage over an instrument
that can only record the wind prevailing at one spot. The practice
of the U.S. Weather Bureau has been to insist upon the perfectly
free exposure of all anemometers as high as can possibly be attained
above buildings, trees and hills; but, of course, in such cases they
give records for an elevated point and not for the ground. These
are therefore not precisely appropriate for use in local climatological
studies, but are those needed for general dynamic meteorology, and
proper for comparison with the isobars and the movements of the
clouds shown on the daily weather map.
Hygrometer. Moisture floats in the atmosphere either as
invisible vapour or as visible haze, mist and cloud. The presence
of the latter generally assures us that the air is fully saturated.
The total amount of both visible and invisible vapour contained
in a unit volume of cloud or mist is directly determined by
the Schwackhofer or Svenson hygrometer, or it may be ascer-
tained by warming a definite portion of the air and fog and
neasuring the tension of the vapour by Edelmann's apparatus.
Both these methods, however, are in practice open to many
sources of error. If only invisible aqueous vapour is present
we may determine its amount by several methods: (a) the
chemical method, by absorbing and weighing it; (6) the dew-
point method, by cooling the air down to the temperature
where condensation begins; (c) Edelmann's method, by absorbing
the moisture chemically and measuring the change in vapour
tension; (d) by adding vapour until the air is saturated,
and measuring either the increased tension or the quantity of
evaporation; (e) the psychrometric method, by determining the
temperature of evaporation.
The wet -bulb thermometer, which is the essential feature of the
last method, was used by Baume in 1758 and de Saussure in 1787,
but merely as giving an index of the dryness of the air. The correct
theory of its action was elaborated by many early investigators:
Ivory, 1822; August, 1825; Apjohn, 1834; Belli, 1838; Regnault,
1845. From the last date until recent years no important progress
was made in our knowledge of the subject, and it was supposed
that the psychrometer was necessarily crude and unsatisfactory;
but in its modern form it has become an instrument of much greater
orecision, probably quite as trustworthy as the dew-point apparatus
or other method of determining atmospheric moisture. In order
to secure this accuracy the two bulbs must be of the same size,
style and sensitiveness; the wet bulb must be covered with thin
muslin saturated with pure water; both . thermometers must be
whirled or ventilated rapidly, but at the definite prearranged rate
for which the tables of reduction have been computed ; and, finally,
both thermometers must be carefully sheltered against obnoxious
radiations. In order to attain these conditions European observers
tend to adopt Assmann's ventilated psychrometer, but American
observers adopt Arago's whirled psychrometer, set up within an
ordinary thermometer shelter. By either method the dew-point
should be determined with an accuracy of one-tenth degree C.
or two-tenths F. As a crude approximation, we may assume
that the temperature of the dew-point is below the temperature
of the wet bulb as far as that is below the dry bulb. A greater
accuracy can be attained by the use of Ferrel's or Marvin's psychro-
metric tables or Grossman's formula. But the vapour tension
over ice and over water as measured by Marvin and by Juhlin must
be carefully distinguished and allowed for. The Smithsonian
Meteorological Tables (ed. of 1908) and the new psychrometer
tables by Bjerkeland for temperatures below freezing (Christiania,
1907) represent the present condition of our knowledge of this
subject. Glaisher deduced empirically from a large mass of ob-
servations certain factors for computing the dew-point, but these
do not represent the accuracy that can be attained with the whirled
psychrometer, nor are they thoroughly satisfactory when used
with Regnault's tables and the stationary psychrometer. Especially
should their use be discarded when the wet bulb is greatly depressed
below the dry bulb and the atmosphere correspondingly dry. For
occasional use at stations, and especially for daily use by travellers
and explorers, nothing can exceed the convenience and accuracy
of the sling psychrometer, especially if the bulbs are protected
from radiation by a slight covering of non-conducting material,
or even metal, as was done by Craig in 1866-1869 f r the stations
of the U.S. Army Surgeon-General. The hair hygrometer gives
directly the relative humidity or the ratio between the moisture
in the air and that which it would contain if saturated. The
very best forms perform very well for a time, and are strongly
recommended by Pernter, and must be used in self-recording
apparatus for balloons and kites; they are standardized by com-
parison with the ventilated psychrometer, which itself must be
dependent on the standard dew-point apparatus.
Rain and Snow Gauge. The simple instrument for catching
and measuring the quantity of rain, snow or hail that falls
upon a definite horizontal area consists essentially of a vertical
cylinder and the measuring apparatus. The receiving mouth
of the cylinder is usually terminated by a cone or funnel, so that
the water running down through the funnel and stored in the
cylinder is protected from evaporation or other loss. The
cylinder is firmly attached to the ground or building, so that
the mouth is held permanently at a definite altitude.
The sources of error in its use are the spattering into it from the
ground or neighbouring objects, and the loss due to the fact that
when the wind blows against the side of the cylinder it produces
eddies and currents that carry away drops that would otherwise
fall into the mouth, and even carries out of the cylinder drops
that have fallen into it. As a consequence all the ordinary rain-
gauges catch and measure too little rainfall. The deficit increases
with the strength of the wind and the smallness or lightness of
the raindrops and snowflakes. If we assume that the correct
rainfall is given by a gauge whose mouth is flush with the level of
the ground and is surrounded by a trench wide enough to prevent
any spatter, then, on the average of many years and numerous
observations with ordinary rain-gauges in western Europe, and for
the average character of the rain in that region and the average
strength of the attending winds, the deficit of rain caught by a
rain-gauge whose mouth is I metre above the ground is 6% of the
proper amount; if its elevation is I ft. above ground, the deficit
will be 3 J %. This deficit increases as the gauges are higher above
the ground in proportion approximately to the square root of the
altitude, provided that they are fully exposed to the increase of
wind that prevails at those altitudes. It is evident that even for
276
METEOROLOGY
[APPARATUS AND METHODS
altitudes of 5 or 10 ft. the records become appreciably discrepant
from those obtained at the surface of the ground. The following
table shows in the last column the observed ratio between the
catches of gauges at various altitudes and those of the respective
standards at the level of the ground. Unfortunately, there are no
records of the force of the wind to go with these measurements;
but we know that in general, and on the average of many years,
corresponding with those here tabulated, the velocity of the wind
increases very nearly as the square root of the altitude. Although
this deficit with increasing altitude has been fully recognized for
a century, yet no effort has been made until recent years to make
a proper correction or to eliminate this influence of the wind at
the mouth of the gauge. Professor Joseph Henry, about 1850,
recommended to the observers of the Smithsonian Institution the
use of the " pit-gauge." About 1858 he recommended a so-called
shielded gauge, namely a simple cylindrical gauge 2 in. in diameter,
having a wide horizontal sheet of metal like the rim of an inverted
hat soldered to it. This would undoubtedly diminish the obnoxious
currents of air around the mouth of the gauge, but the suggestion
seems to have been overlooked by meteorologists. In 1878 Prof. F. E.
Nipher of St Louis, Missouri, constructed a much more efficient
shield, consisting of an umbelliform screen of wire-cloth having
about sixty-four meshes to the square inch. This shield seems to
have completely annulled the splashing, and to have broken up
the eddies and currents of wind. With Nipher's shielded gauges
at different altitudes, or in different situations at the same altitude,
the rain catch becomes very nearly uniform; but the shield is not
especially good for snow, which piles up on the wire screen. Since
1885 numerous comparative observations have been made in Europe
with the Nipher gauge, and with the " protected gauge " devised
by Boernstem, who sought to prevent injurious eddies about the
mouth of the gauge by erecting around it at a distance of 2 or 3 ft.
an open board fence with its top a little higher than the mouth of
the gauge. The boards or slats are not close together, but apparently
afford as good a protection as the shield of Professor Nipher, and
give good results with both snow and rain.
Altitude and Relative Catch of Ratn.
Situation and Size of Gauge.
Years of
Record.
Altitude.
Relative
Catch.
Metres.
o/
/o
o
IOO
Calne, 5-in. and 8-in. .
41
i
90
Castleton, 5-in. and 8-in. .
|l
2
88
Rotherham, 5-in
- 3
86
St Petersburg: Central Physical
1
4
85
Observatory, lo-in. .
loJ
5
85
(.6
84
London: Westminster Abbey
i
9-1
77
Emden
2
ii
72
St Petersburg: Central Physi-
cal Observatory ....
I
13
68
York: Museum
3
'3
80
Calcutta : Alipore Observatory
7
15
87
Woodside : Walton-on-Thames
i
15
73
Philadelphia : Frankford
Arsenal
3
16
95
Sheerness: Waterworks
3
21
52
Whitehaven: St James's
Church
10
24
66
St Petersburg : Central Physical
Observatory
10
25
59
Paris : Astronomical Observa-
tory
4
27
81
Dublin: Monkstown
6
27
64
Oxford : Radcliffe Observatory
Copenhagen : Observatory
London : Westminster Abbey .
8
4
i
34
36
46
59
67
52
Chester: Leadworks
2
49
61
Wolverhampton : Waterworks
3
55
69
York Minster
3
65
60
Boston: St Botolph's Church
2
79
47
In general it is now conceded by several high authorities that
the measured rainfall must be corrected for the influence of the
wind at the gauge, if the latter is not annulled by Nipher's or
Boernstein's methods. A practicable method of measuring and
allowing for the influence of the wind, without introducing any very
hazardous hypothesis, was explained by Abbe in 1888 (see Symons's
Meteorological Magazine for 1889, or the U.S. Monthly Weather
Review for 1899). This method consists simply in establishing
near each other several similar gauges at different heights above
the ground, but in otherwise similar circumstances. On the
assumption that for small elevations the diminution of the wind,
like that of the rainfall, is very nearly in proportion to the square
root of the altitude, the difference between the records for two
different altitudes may be made the basis of a calculation which
gives the correction to be applied to the record of the lower gauge
in order to obtain the rainfall that would have been caught if there
were no wind. It is only when the catch of the gauge has been
properly corrected for the effect of the wind on the gauge that we
obtain numbers that are proper to serve for the purpose of deter-
mining the variation of the rainfall with altitude and locality, the
influence of forests and the periodical changes of climate. Methods
of measuring dew, frost, hail, sleet, glatteis and other forms of
precipitation still remain to be devised; each of these has its ther-
modynamic importance and must eventually enter into our
calculations.
It has been common to consider that the rain-gauge cannot be
properly used on ships at sea, owing to the rolling and pitching of
the vessel and the interference of masts and rigging; but if gauges
are mounted on gimbals, so as to be as steady as the ordinary
mariner's compass, their records will be of great importance.
Experimental work of this sort was done by Mohn, and afterwards
in 1882 by Professor Frank Waldo; but the most extensive inquiry
has been that of Mr W. G. Black (see Journal Manchester Geographical
Society, 1898, vol. xiv.), which satisfactorily demonstrates the
practicability and importance of the marine rain-gauge.
Evaporometer. The moisture in the atmosphere comes from
the surface of the earth or ocean by evaporation, a process
which goes on continually, replacing the moisture that is pre-
cipitated as rain, hail, snow and dew, and maintaining the
total quantity of the moisture in the atmosphere at a very uniform
figure. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature,
the dryness, and the velocity of the wind. It is not so important
to meteorologists to know where the moisture comes from as
to know its amount in the atmosphere, and in fact no method
has yet been devised for determining how much moisture
is given up by any specific portion of the earth, or ocean, or
forest. Our evaporometers measure the quantity of moisture
given off by a specific surface of water, but it is so difficult to
maintain this water under conditions the same as obtain in
nature that no conclusions can be safely deduced as to the actual
evaporation from natural surfaces. The proper meteorological
use of these evaporometers is, as integrating hygrometers, to
give the average humidity of the air, the psychrometer giving
the conditions prevailing at any moment.
Among the many forms of evaporometer the most convenient
is that devised by Piche, which may be so constructed as to be ex-
ceedingly accurate. The Piche evaporometer consists essentially
of a glass tube, whose upper end is closed hermetically, whereas
the lower end is covered by a horizontal disk of bibulous paper,
which is kept wet by absorption from the water in the tube. As
the water evaporates its descent in the tube is observed, whence
the volume evaporated in a unit of time becomes known. So long
as the paper remains clean, and the water is pure, the records of
the instrument depend entirely upon the evaporating surface, the
dryness of the air, and the velocity of the wind. Careful com-
parisons between the Piche and the various forms of absolute
evaporometers were made by Professor Thomas Russell, and the
results were published in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for
September 1888, pp. 235-239. By placing the Piche apparatus
upon a large whirling machine he was able to show the effect of
the wind upon the amount of evaporation. This important datum
enabled him to explain the great differences recorded by the
apparatus established at eighteen Weather Bureau stations; based
upon these results, he prepared a table of relative evaporation
within thermometer shelters at all stations. The actual evapora-
tions from ground and water in the sunshine may run parallel to
these, but cannot be accurately computed. It is probable that
Professor Russell's computations are smaller than the evaporations
from shallow bodies of water in the sunshine, but larger than for
deep bodies, like the great lakes, and tor running rivers. Recent
elaborate studies of evaporation have been undertaken in Egypt
and in South Africa but perhaps the most interesting case occurs
in southern California. Here the Colorado river, having broken
through its bounds, emptied itself into a great natural depression
and formed the so-called " Salton Sea," about 80 m. long, 20 wide
and loo ft. deep, before it could be brought under control. This
sea is now isolated, and will, it is hoped, dry up in eight or ten years.
Meanwhile the U.S. Weather Bureau has established a large
number of evaporation stations in and around it, and has
begun the study not only of the relation between evaporation,
wind and temperature, but of the eventual disposition of this
evaporation throughout the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of
the sea (see the Reports of Professor F. H. Bigelow in U.S.
Monthly Weather Renew, 1907-1909, as also the elaborate biblio-
graphy of evaporation in the same volumes). Although the
influence of the evaporation on local climate is scarcely appreciable
to our hygrometric apparatus, yet it is said to be so in the develop-
ment and ripening and drying of the dates raised on the U. S.
government experimental '' date farm " a few miles north-east of
the Salton Sea.
APPARATUS AND METHODS]
METEOROLOGY
277
Nephoscope. The direction and apparent velocity of the
motion of a cloud are best observed by means of the nephoscope,
which has now become a necessary item in the outfit of any
first-class meteorological station. Among the various forms
of this instrument are the nephodoscope of Fornioni, the marine
nephoscope of Fineman, the simple mirror with attachments
used by Clayton, the cloud camera of Vettin, and the alt-
azimuths of Mohn and Lettry. The most perfect form for
use on land is that devised by Professor Marvin in 1896 for
the U.S. Weather Bureau stations (see fig. 2); while the
most convenient for use at sea is that devised and used
FIG. 2. Marvin's Nephoscope.
in 1889 by Professor Abbe on the cruise of the U.S. ship
" Pensacola " to the west coast of Africa, but first described
in the report of the International Meteorological Congress
held at Chicago in August 1893.
The construction of this instrument is shown in figs. 3, 4, 5. In
using it the observer looks down upon a horizontal mirror and
observes the reflection of the cloud. By moving his eye he brings
any cloudy point into coincidence with the reflection of a small
fixed spherical knob K above the mirror, and keeps the images
of the knob and the cloud coincident as they pass from the centre
of the mirror to its edge. This line of motion shows the azimuth of
the horizontal component of the cloud's motion. The course of
the vessel is shown by the compass card and lubber line AF seen
below the mirror. The apparent angular velocity of the cloud, as
it would be if the cloud started from the zenith, is obtained by
counting the seconds that elapse between its passage from the centre
to the edge, or to a small circle inscribed within the edge. With
Marvin's nephoscope two observers a short distance apart may easily
determine the apparent altitude, and azimuth, and motion of any
cloud, whence its true altitude and velocity may be computed.
But when the observer uses Abbe's marine nephoscope on a vessel
which is itself in motion he observes the resultant of his own motion
and that of the cloud. If his vessel is under his control, so that
he may change its velocity or direction at will, he easily determines
this resultant for two different courses, and obtains data by which
he is enabled to calculate the real altitude and velocity of the cloud
in terms of his own velocity. As the marine nephoscope can be
used on a wagon moving rapidly over a smooth road, or in a small
boat on a smooth pond, almost as well as on a larger sea-going vessel,
it becomes an instrument of universal application for cloud study.
It is also equally convenient for observing the positions of auroras,
halos, meteors, and other special phenomena. For the international
work undertaken during the year 1898 the photographic camera
established upon an alt-azimuth mounting, or the so-called photo-
gram-meter, was especially developed. In this apparatus photo-
graphs of the clouds are taken simultaneously at two or more
stations, and in each case the centre of the photographic plate has
its altitude and azimuth determined. From this centre one can
measure on the plate the additional angles required in order to fix
the altitude and azimuth of any point that is photographed, and
thus the dimensions of the whole visible cloud and its internal or
differential motions can be determined, as well as its general motion.
During the years 1896-1898 about twenty stations were occupied
throughout the world for the purpose of determining accurately
the altitudes and motions of every layer of cloud.
Sunshine Recorder. The ordinary meteorological record
specifies the proportion of sky that appears to be covered with
cloud, or the so-called cloudiness, usually expressed in tenths.
The observer generally confines his attention to that portion
of the sky within sixty degrees of the zenith, and ignores the
lower zone, since the clouds that are found therein are often
at so great a distance from him that their record is not supposed
to belong to his locality. As the cloudiness or its reciprocal,
the sunshine is supposed to be the most important item in
agricultural climatology, and is certainly very important for
dynamic meteorology, it is usually considered desirable to obtain
more complete records than are given by only one or two
specified hours of observation. To this end apparatus for
recording sunshine, or, rather, the effect of cloudiness, is widely
adopted. At least three forms are worth describing as being
extensively used.
The Jordan photographic sunshine recorder consists of a cylinder
enclosing a sheet of sensitive paper; the sun's rays penetrate through
a small aperture, and describe a path from sunrise to sunset, which
appears on this sheet after it has been properly washed with the
fixing solution. Any interruption in this path, due to cloudiness
or haze, is of course clearly shown, and gives at once the means of
estimating what percentage of the day was clear and what cloudy.
The modified form of the instrument devised by Professor Marvin
has been used for many years at about forty Weather Bureau stations,
but the original construction is still employed by other observers
throughout the world. The Stokes- Campbell recorder consists of a
globe of glass acting as a burning-glass. A sheet of pasteboard or
a block of wood at the rear receives the record, and the extent of
the charring gives a crude measure of the percentage of full or strong
sunshine. Many of these instruments are used at stations in Great
Britain and the British colonies. The Marvin thermometric sunshine
recorder consists of a thermometer tube, having a black bulb at the
lower end and a bright bulb at the other. The excess of temperature
in the black bulb causes a thread of mercury to move upwards, and
for a certain standard difference of temperature of about 5 F., such
as would be produced by the sun shining through a very thin cloud
or haze, a record is made by an electric current on a revolving drum,
and simply shows when during the day sunshine of a certain inten-
sity prevailed, or was prevented by cloudiness. D. T. Maring, in
the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for 1897, described an ingenious
combination of the thermometer and the photographic register of
cloudiness which is worthy of further development. It gives both
the quantity of cloudiness and intensity of the sunshine on some
arbitrary relative scale.
The intensity of the sunshine, as sometimes employed in general
agricultural studies, is crudely shown by Violle's conjugate bulbs,
which are thin copper balls about 3 in. in diameter, one of them
being blackened on the outside and the other gilded. When exposed
to the sunshine the difference in temperature of the two bulbs in-
creases with the intensity of the sunshine, but as the difference is
dependent to a considerable extent on the wind, the Violle bulbs
have not found wide application. The Arago-Davy actinometer,
or bright and black bulbs in vacua, constitutes a decided improve-
ment upon the Violle bulbs, in that the vacuous space surrounding
the thermometers diminishes the effect of the wind. The physical
theory involved in the use of the Arago-Davy actinometer was fully
developed by Ferrel, and he was able to determine the coefficient
of absorption of the earth's atmosphere and other data, thereby
showing that this apparatus has considerable pretensions to accuracy.
In using it as contemplated by Arago and Davy and by Professor
Ferrel, we read simply the stationary temperature attained by the
bright and black thermometers at any moment, whereas the best
method in actinometry consists in alternately shading and exposing
any appropriate apparatus so as to determine the total effect of the
solar radiation in one minute, or some shorter unit of time; this
method of using the Arago-Davy actinometer was earnestly recom-
mended by Abbe in 1883, and in fact tried at that time; but the
apparatus and records were unfortunately burned up. This so-called
dynamic, as distinguished from the static, method was first applied
by Pouillet in 1838 in using his pyrheliometer, which was the first
apparatus and method that gave approximate measures of the
radiant heat received from the sun. In order to improve upon
Pouillet's work more delicate apparatus has been constructed, but
the fundamental methods remain the same. Thus Angstrom_ has
applied both Langley's bolometer and his own still more sensitive
thermoelectric couple and balance method ; Violle uses his absolute
actinometer, consisting of a most delicate thermometer within a
polished metal sphere, whose temperature is kept uniform by the
flow of water; while Crova, with a thermometer within an enclosure
of uniform temperature, claims to have attained an accuracy of one
part in a thousand. Chwolson has reviewed the whole subject
of actinometry, and has shown the greater delicacy of his own ap-
paratus, consisting of two thin plates alternately exposed to and
shielded from sunshine, whose differences of temperature are
measured by electric methods.
As none of the absolute methods for determining the solar radia-
tion in units of heat lend themselves to continuous registration, it
is important to call attention to the possibility of accomplishing
this by chemical methods. The best of these appears to be that
devised by Marchand, by the use of a device which he calls the
Phot-antitupimeter. In this the action of the sunlight upon a
solution of ferric-oxalate and chloride of iron liberates carbonic acid
278
METEOROLOGY
[APPARATUS AND METHODS
gas, the amount of which can be measured either continuously or
every hour; but in its present form the apparatus is affected by
several serious sources of error.
FIG. 3. Abbe's Marine Nephoscope.
Mirror.
Horizontal Projection of
The electric compensation pyrheliometer, as invented by Knut
Angstrom (Ann. Phys,, 1899), offers a simple method of determin-
ing accurately the quantity of radiant energy. He employs two
blackened platinum surfaces, one of which receives the radiations to
FIG. 4. Abbe's Marine Nephoscope. Horizontal Projection of
Compass.
be measured, while the other is heated by an electric current. The
difference of temperature between the two disks is determined by
a thermocouple, and they are supposed to receive and lose the same
amount of energy when their temperatures are the same. A Hefner
Section
on line a' b'
FIG. 5. Abbe's Marine Nephoscope. Vertical Section.
lamp is used as an intermediate standard source of radiation, and
alternate observations on any other source of radiant heat give the
means of determining their relation to each other. By means of
two such instruments Angstrom secured simultaneous observations
on the intensity of the solar radiation at two points respectively,
*6o and nsa metres above sea-level, and determined the amount
of heat absorbed by the intermediate atmosphere. An accuracy
of i-iooo appears to be attainable, and this apparatus is now being
widely used. The records of 1901-1905 have already given rise to
the belief that there is a variation in our insolation that may
eventually be traced back to the sun's atmosphere.
Meteorograph. The numerous forms of apparatus designed
to keep frequent or continuous register of the prevailing pressure,
temperature, moisture, wind, rainfall, sunshine, evaporation,
and other phenomena are instruments that belong peculiarly
to meteorology as distinguished from laboratory physics. Such
apparatus may be broadly divided into several classes according
as the records are obtained by the help of photography, or
electricity, or by direct mechanical action. The prevailing
tendency at present is in favour of apparatus in which the
work of the recording pen is done by a falling weight, whose
action is timed and limited by the making and breaking of electric
currents by the meteorological apparatus proper. The most
serious defect in such instruments, even when kept in good
working order, is a want of sensitiveness commensurate with
the desired openness of scale. It is very important that a
fraction of a minute of time should be as recognizable as one-tenth
of a degree of temperature; one thousandth of an inch of
barometric pressure, and velocities of one hundred miles per
hour, as well as rapid changes in all these elements, must be
measurable. But instruments whose scales are large enough to
record all these quantities are usually so sluggish as regards
lime that the comparison of the records is very unsatisfactory.
In order to study the relationships between temporary and
fleeting phenomena, it is necessary that all instruments should
record upon the same sheet of paper, so that the same time-scale
will answer for all.
The instruments that respond most nearly to the general needs
of meteorology are the various forms of meteorographs devised
by Wild for use at St Petersburg, by Sprung and Fuess for use at
Hamburg and Berlin, and by Marvin for Washington. The photo-
graphic systems for pressure and temperature introduced many
years ago at stations in Great Britain and the British colonies are
not quite adequate to present needs. The portable apparatus
manufactured by Richard Freres at Paris is in use at a very large
number of land stations and on the ocean, and by giving special
care to regular control-observations of time, pressure and tempera-
ture, important results may be obtained; but in general the time-
scales are too small, and the unknown sources of error too uncertain,
to warrant implicit reliance upon the records.
Polarimeter. The brightness and blueness of the sky light,
and especially its polarization, have been observed with
increasing interest, as it seems possible from these elements to
ascertain something with regard to the condition and amount
of the moisture of the air. With a simple Nicol's prism held
in the hand and turned slowly about the axis of vision one can
quickly recognize the fact that the sky light is polarized, and that
the polarization is largely due to the air or dust lying between
us and the clouds in the distant horizon. Arago, with a more
delicate form of polariscope, determined the existence of a so-
called neutral region near the sun. Babinet located a neutral
point or zone about as far from the anti-sun as was Arago's
from the sun itself. Brewster discovered a neutral point near
the sun and horizon, disappearing when the sun is more than
15 above the horizon. Finally, Brewster explored the sky
sufficiently to draw lines of equal polarization, which he published
in Johnston's Physical Atlas, and which were confirmed by
Zantedeschi in 1849. Since those days far more delicate work
has been done first by Bosanquet of Oxford, afterwards by
Prof. E. C. Pickering of Harvard University and Prof. A. W.
Wright of Yale University. A later contribution to the subject
is by Jensen (see Met. Zeit. for Oct. -Dec. 1899), who has
observed the brightness as well as the polarization, and thus
completed the data necessary for testing the various physical
theories that have been proposed for the explanation of this
phenomenon. We owe to Tyndall the discovery that when
a beam of white light penetrates a mass of fine aqueous mist
the latter sends off at right angles a delicate blue light, which
is almost wholly polarized in a plane at right angles to the plane
APPARATUS AND METHODS]
METEOROLOGY
279
of reflection. As the particles of mist grow larger, the blue
light becomes whiter and the polarization disappears. The
original vapour particles are undoubtedly so small as to be
comparable in size with a fraction of the wave-length of ordinary
light, and Rayleigh was able to show that molecular as well
as minute particles must have a power of selection, and that
the diffused sky light comes to us by selective reflection. On
this basis we should expect that in the driest air at great heights,
where the temperature is low and condensation has but just
begun, and the dust particles are rare, there would occur the
smallest aqueous particles reflecting light of the feeblest
intensity but the largest percentage of polarization. Rayleigh
has shown that it is quite possible that the molecules of oxygen
and nitrogen constituting the atmosphere may also exercise
a diffuse selective reflection, and contribute to the brightness
and polarization that are mainly due to aqueous vapours.
(See SKY.)
We thus see the theoretical importance of adding photometry
and polarimetry to the work of a meteorological observatory. The
apparatus to be used in this connexion will vary somewhat with
the exact character of the observations to be made. The most
extensive researches that have yet been carried out in this line with
a meteorological application in view are those of Jensen, Crova,
Cornu, Pickering, Kimball, Nichols, and especially Rubenson, who
in fact recommended that polarimetry and photometry should go
hand in hand. In order to measure the position of the plane of
polarization the Arago polariscope may be used, but, in order to
measure the percentage of polarized light, Mascart's modification
of the Savart is better. In order to measure the general brightness
of a spot in the sky, Jensen has used a slight modification of the
Weber photometer, and in fact Weber himself has applied the same
method to the measurement of the daylight. The complete work
of Jensen was published in the Schriften of the Scientific Association
of Schleswig-Holstein in 1899, and, like the memoir published by
Rubenson in 1863, it gives the meteorological conditions in full as
a basis for the investigation of the connexion between sky light and
the moisture in the atmosphere. In his work during 1906^-1909 with
Angstrom's pyrheliometer Mr A. H. Kimball of Washington has
advantageously used the Pickering polarimeter, and has shown that
the transparency of the air and the polarization of light go hand in
hand.
Cyanometer. The cyanometer devised by Arago to measure
the blueness of the sky consisted of an arbitrary scale of blues
on a strip of porcelain, with which one could compare the blue
of the sky. This comparison, however, is open to many sub-
jective errors. A more satisfactory apparatus is Zollner's
photometer, or some equivalent, in which a patch of white
surface is illuminated by any particular tint or combination
that may be desired. In fact, Maxwell's colour-box admits
of ready application to the analysis of sky light, and reveals
at once the proportions of red, yellow, and blue that may be
contained therein.
Dust-counter. The importance of observing the dustiness
of the atmosphere has been especially realized since the invention
and use of various forms of apparatus for counting the number
of particles of dust in a small volume of air. These inventions
are due to Mr John Aitken, of Edinburgh.
The latest form of his apparatus is the very convenient " pocket
dust-counter." In this the air contained in a small receiver is
rendered dustless by repeated expansions; the cooling due to expan-
sion forces the vapour to condense upon the dust, which, becoming
heavy, falls to the bottom, so that in a short time all is removed.
A small stop-cock is now turned, so as to allow a definite small
quantity of air to enter and mix with the dustless air in the receiver.
The dusty and the dustless airs are now thoroughly mixed, and
again the whole quantity within the receiver is expanded, and the
dust nuclei fall down by the condensation of vapour upon them.
Assuming that every particle of dust is represented by a minute
droplet of water, we have but to count the latter; this is easily done
by causing all the drops to fall upon a polished plate of black glass,
which is divided into small squares by fine lines ruled with a diamond
point. Usually each of these squares represents a small fraction
of a cubic centimetre of air; thus in one case the number of fog
particles averaged 2-6 per square millimetre of the glass plate, and,
as the multiplying factor was 100, this corresponded to 260 particles
of dust in a cubic centimetre of air. The cleanest air has been found
in the West Highlands of Scotland, where 16 particles per cubic
centimetre was once recorded as the minimum, while 7600 was the
maximum. On the Rigi Kulm, in Switzerland, the cleanest air
gave 210, and the dustiest 16,500. On comparing the records of
the dust-counter with the record of the apparent state of the air,
Mr Aitken found that 500 particles per cubic centimetre corresponded
to clear air, and 1900 to a thick haze in which distant mountain
tops were hidden. In the cities the particles of soot and effluvia
of all kinds act as dust, and both in London and Paris the numbers
ran as high as 80, 1 16, 150 and 210 thousand per cubic centimetre.
Electrical Apparatus. The electrical phenomena of the atmo-
sphere undoubtedly belong to meteorology, and yet the methods
of observation have been so unsatisfactory and the difficulty
of interpreting the results has been so baffling that regular
observations in electricity are only carried out at a very few
meteorological institutions. A general summary of our know-
ledge of the subject was prepared by J. Elster and H. Geitel
for the International Congress held at Chicago in 1893, but
since that date the methods and apparatus of observation
have received important modifications.
In general the water-dropping collector of Lord Kelvin, arranged .
for continuous record by Mascart, continues to be the best apparatus
for continuous observation at any locality, and a portable form of
this same apparatus is used by explorers and in special series of local
observations. In order to explore the upper air the kite continues to
be used, as was done by A. J. McAdie for the Weather Bureau in 1885
and by Weber at Kiel in 1889. The difference of potential between
the upper and lower end of a long vertical wire hanging from a
balloon has been measured up to considerable altitudes by Elster
and Tuma. In general it is known that negative electricity must
be present in the upper strata just as it is in the earth, while the
intervening layer of air is positively electrified. The explanation of
the origin of this condition of affairs is given in the recent researches
of Sir J. J. Thomson (Phil. Mag., Dec. 1899), and his interpretation
FIG. 6. Marvin-Hargrave Kite, with Meteorograph in position.
is almost identical with that now recognized by Elster (see Terrestrial
Magnetism, Jan. 1900, iv. 213). According to these results, if
positive and negative ions exist in the upper strata and are carried
up with the ascending masses of moist air, then the condensation
of the moisture must begin first on the negative ions, which are
brought down eventually to the earth's surface; thus the earth
receives its negative charge from the atmosphere, leaving a positive
charge or an excess of positive ions in the middle air. (See G. C.
Simpson, " Atmospheric Electricity," Monthly Weather Review, Jan.
1906, p. 16.)
The observations of atmospheric electricity consist essentially in
determining the amount and character of the difference of potential
between two points not very far distant from each other, as, for
instance, the end of the pipe from which the water-drops are dis-
charged, and the nearest point of the earth or buildings resting on
the earth. The record may have only an extremely local value,
thus the investigations of Professor John Trowbridge of Harvard
University, made in conjunction with the U.S. Weather Bureau in
1882-1885, show that the differences vary so much with the winds, the
time of day, and the situation of the water-dropper that the mere
comparison of records gives no correct idea of the general electrical
relationships. It has been suggested that possibly daily telegrams
of electric conditions and daily maps of equipotential curves over the
North American continent would be of help in the forecasting of
storms, but it is shown to be useless to attempt any such system
until some uniform normal exposure can be_ devised. _Indeed it has
not yet been shown that atmospheric electricity is of importance in
dynamic meteorology. (See ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.)
Aerial Research. The exploration of the upper atmosphere is
to be regarded as the most important field of research at the
present time; the kite and the balloon enable ob-
servers and apparatus to be carried to considerable
heights, though by no means so far as is desirable. The kite
was first used in meteorological work by Alexander Wilson
at or near Glasgow in 1749, and has since then been frequently
used by English observers. It was used in 1867 by Abbe in
studying the winds under a thundercloud, and in 1877 in
28o
METEOROLGY
[APPARATUS AND METHODS
studying the depth of the ocean breeze on the coast of New
Jersey but the later revival of interest in the subject
dates from the work done
in England in 1882 by
E. D. Archibald, who used
the kite to carry up anemo-
meters to very considerable
heights, and thereby deter-
mined the relative move-
ment of the air in the free
atmosphere. In 1883 Alex-
ander McAdie used the kite
in his studies of atmospheric
electricity, Professor Cleve-
land Abbe proposed to use
it for a complete explora-
tion as to temperature,
moisture and wind, but
W. A. Eddy of New York
first forced its varied capa-
bilities upon public atten-
tion, and accepted the
suggestion of Professor
Cleveland Abbe to employ
for meteorological work.
Having flown his kites
at the Blue Hill Observatory, and having carried up with
them the self-registering apparatus devised by Mr Ferguson,
Eddy left the further prosecution of this work to Mr Rotch,
who has made this a prominent feature of the work at his
observatory, having carried up meteorographs to the height
of 15,000 feet by means of a series of kites flying in tandem.
The officials of the U.S. Weather Bureau have developed the
admirable cellular kite, invented by Hargrave of Australia,
and Professor Marvin's works on the theory and construction
of this form are well known.
The general appearance of the Marvin or Weather Bureau kite,
his reel and other apparatus that go with it, and his meteorograph,
are shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8. The size ordinarily used carries about
68 sq. ft. oi supporting surface of muslin tightly stretched on a
light wooden frame. The line, made ot the best steel piano-wire, is
wound and unwound from a reel which keeps an automatic record
. r, , f .
FIG. r.-MamnK-te Reel for hand
FIG. 8. Marvin Kite Meteorograph.
of the intensity and direction of the pull. The reeling in and put
may be done by hand, but ordinarily demands a small gas-engine.
The observer at the reel makes frequent records of the temperature,
pressure and wind, the apparent angular elevation of the kite, and
the length of wire that is played out. At the kite itself the Marvin
meteorograph keeps a continuous record of the pressure, tempera-
ture humidity and velocity of the wind. The meteorograph, with
its aluminium case, weighs about two pounds, and is so securely
lashed behind the front cell of the kite that no accident has ever
happened to one, although the kites sometimes break loose and settle
to the ground in a broken country many miles away from the reel.
On four occasions the line has been completely destroyed by slight
discharges of lightning; but in no case has the kite, the observer, or
the reel been injured thereby. Of course, such lightning is preceded
bv numerous rapidly increasing sparks of electricity from the lower
end of the wire, which warn the observer of danger. During the
six months from May to October 1898, seventeen kite stations were
maintained by the U.S. Weather Bureau in the region of the lakes,
the Upper Mississippi and the Lower Missouri valleys, in order to
obtain data for the more thorough study of atmospheric conditions
over this particular part of the country. During these months 1217
ascents were made, and as no great height was attempted they were
mostly under 7000 or 8000 feet. There was thus obtained a large
amount of information relating to the air within a mile of the earth's
surface The general gradients of temperature, which were promptly
deduced and published by H. C. Frankenfield in 1899 in a bulletin of
the Weather Bureau, gave for the first time in the history of
meteorology trustworthy observations of air temperatures in the
free atmosphere in numbers sufficient to indicate the normal
condition of the air.
The kite and meteorograph have now been adopted for use by all
meteorologists. The highest flight seems to be that of the 3rd of
October 1907, at Mt Weather in Virginia, when 23,110 ft. above
sea-level or 21,385 ft. above the reel was attained by the use of
37,300 ft. of wire and 8 kites tandem.
The balloon was used for the scientific exploration of the
atmosphere quite freely during the igth century. The first
important voyages were those of Gay-Lussac and
Biot at Paris in August and September of 1804.
The next important ascent was that of Bixio and Barral in
1850 at Paris. The most remarkable high ascents have been
those of James Glaisher, and of September 1862, and Berson
at Berlin in 1889; on both of these occasions the aeronauts
attained altitudes of from 30,000 to 35,000 feet. Systematic
ascents at many points in Europe simultaneously on pre-arranged
dates were made during the years 1895-1899, and led to the
development of a general international system of ascension on
pre-arranged days of the year that is now a very important
feature in the study of the atmosphere.
Balloon.
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FIG. 9. Chart of Isotherms in Free Air above Trappes.
This diagram shows the height at which the isotherms of
o, 25, 40, 50 C. were encountered on the respective dates.
Below the ground-line are given both the dates and the tempera-
tures of the air observed at the ground when the balloon started
on each ascent. The isotherms of -40 and -50 are not given for
certain ascents, because in these the balloon did not rise high
enough to encounter those temperatures.
Owing to the great risk of human life in these high ascents and
especially to the fact that we desire records from still greater heights,
efforts have been made to devise self-recording apparatus that may
be sent up alone to the greatest heights attainable by free hydrogen
balloons carrying the least possible amount of ballast. The pioneer
in this new field of work was Leon Teisserenc de Bort of Paris.
As these ascensions are made with great velocity, and therefore as
nearly vertical as possible, he called them " soundings," because
of their analogy to the mariner's usage at sea, and his balloon is
called a " sounding balloon." The balloons of silk collapse, those of
india-rubber explode, and descend about as rapidly as they ascended,
PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL]
METEOROLOGY
281
Such balloon soundings have been made not only individually, but,
by pre-arranged system, simultaneously in combination with the
ascent of free-manned balloons above referred to ; and at some places
kites have been simultaneously used in order to obtain records for
the lower atmosphere. The first experiments in simultaneous work
were made in 1896 and 1897, when ascents were made at eight or
more points in France, Germany and Russia. These experiments
and the discussions to which they gave rise have emphasized the
importance of increasing the sensitiveness of the self-recording
apparatus, and as far as practicable the rapidity of the ventilation
of the thermometers, and of providing more perfect protection
against radiation from the sun or to the sky. It is believed that
accurate records may be attained up to at least 30,000 metres, but
as yet only 26,000 has been attained, and the records brought back
are still under considerable criticism on account of instrumental
defects. In general the wind that supports a kite also furnishes
sufficient ventilation for the thermometer; but in the case of the
sounding balloon, which as soon as its rapid rate of ascent diminishes
floats along horizontally in the full sunshine, a strong artificial
ventilation must be provided. Moreover, the sluggishness of the
best thermometers is such that during the rapid rise the records
of temperature that are being made at any moment really belong
to some altitude considerably below the balloon, and a most critical
interpretation of the records is required. Notwithstanding all
criticisms, however, the balloon work in all localities agrees in showing
the existence of a region above the 10,000- metre level, where tempera-
tures cease to diminish rapidly, and may even become stationary.
III. PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL METEOROLOGY
The ultimate aim of those who are devoted to any branch
of science is to penetrate beyond the phenomena observed on
the surface to their ultimate causes, and to reduce the whole
complex of observations and empirical rules based upon limited
experiences to a simple deductive system of mechanics in which
the phenomena observed shall be shown to flow naturally from
the few simple laws that underlie the structure of the universe.
A correct " theoria " or physical and logical argumentation
deducing from primary laws all the phenomena constitutes
the noblest achievement of man in science. It is by such works
that Newton and Laplace distinguished themselves in astronomy.
The development of the true physical and mechanical theories
of atmospheric phenomena has made great progress, but is still
inferior in completeness to astronomical work, owing to the
great complexity of the meteorological problems. The optical
and the thermal phenomena have been very satisfactorily
elucidated, the electrical phenomena promise to become clear,
but the phenomena of motion or aerodynamics have only been
elucidated to a limited extent. We must, however, introduce
the reader to some of the works that have been published on
the subject, in the hope that thereby he will himself be persuaded
to further study and stimulated to contribute to our knowledge.
Between the years 1853 and 1861 Professor William Ferrel pub-
lished in Gould's Astronomical Journal, Runkle's Mathematical
Monthly, and the American Journal of Science several treatises on
the motions of solids and fluids relative to the earth's surface. His
work resulted in the elucidation of the problems of the atmosphere,
and in ingenious ways, applicable approximately to such complex
cases, and analytically equivalent to the arithmetical method of
quadratures or the graphic methods of geometry, he deduced im-
portant relations between the density of the air, the barometric
pressure, and the attending winds. His essays seemed to show that
it might be possible to treat the complex problems of meteorology
logically and deductively by analytical, numerical and graphic
processes, and his memoirs were the first in which observed average
meteorological conditions were properly co-ordinated with the
fundamental formulae of mechanics. A beautiful memoir on the
steady motions of the atmosphere was published in 1868 in the
Astronomische Nachrichten by Professor Adolph Erman, and is
now reprinted in vol. ii. of Abbe's Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere.
Espy's, Coffin's, Henry's and Ferrel's ideas were made the basis of
the system of daily weather predictions published by the present
writer in 1869 in the Daily Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati
Observatory. Subsequently this work was taken up by the govern-
ment, and greatly enlarged during 1871-1891 by the chief signal
officers of the army, and after 1891 by the chiefs of the U.S. Weather
Bureau. Ferrel's writings first attracted the attention of European
meteorologists in consequence of reviews published by Hann in the
Zeitschrift of the Austrian Meteorological Society in January 1875,
but especially after they had been reprinted in a convenient form
by the U.S. Signal Office as " Bulletin No. VIII." In 1881 Ferrel,
after finishing his works on the tides for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, began a new and extensive series of meteorological con-
tributions, three of which were published by the U.S. Coast Survey
and the rest by the Signal Office. Stimulated by the urgent needs
of the modern weather bureaus throughout the world, and by the
beauty of the mathematical problems presented, numerous mathe-
maticians have lately taken up the study of the earth's atmosphere,
so that the literature of the subject is now far more extensive than
is generally supposed, including memoirs by Helmholtz, Kelvin,
Bjerknes and other famous men.
In_ addition to the purely mechanical problems, the numerous
physical problems have also been carefully treated, both experi-
mentally and mathematically. The problems of radiation have
been elucidated by Langley, Hutchins, Angstrom, Paschen, Violle,
Maurer, Crova, Chwolson, Very, Homin, Tamura, Trabort and
Coblendz. The thermodynamic problems have been especially
developed by Kelvin, Hertz, von Bezold, Ferrel, Brillouin, Neuhoff,
Bigelow and Margules. The physical problems involved in the
formation of rain-drops have been studied by an optical method
by Carl Barus, and with brilliant success, from an electrical point
of view, by C. T. R. Wilson and Sir J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish
Laboratory, Cambridge, England.
In a complete study of the mechanics of the earth's atmosphere
we naturally begin by expressing in .simple analytic formulae all
the various conditions and laws according to which every particle
of the air must move. Some of these conditions are local, depending
upon the resistances at various points of the earth's surface; others
are of the nature of discontinuous functions, as, for instance, when
the ascent of moist air above a certain level suddenly gives rise to
condensation and clouds, to the evolution of latent heat, to the
precipitation of rain, to the shading of the air and the ground below
the clouds, and to the sudden interception of all the solar heat at
the upper surface of the cloud. It seems, therefore, incredible that
the problems of the atmosphere can ever be resolved by purely
analytical methods ; there must be devised combinations of numerical
and graphical, and possibly even mechanical methods to reproduce
the conditions and give us special solutions adapted to particular
cases. But even these special methods can only be perfected in
proportion as we attain approximate solutions of the simpler
problems, and it is in this preliminary work that a good beginning
has already been made.
The present state of theoretical 'physical and mechanical
meteorology cannot be fully presented in non-technical English
text. It is necessary to employ algebraic formulae, or numerical
tables, or graphic diagrams, the former being certainly the least
cumbersome and the most generally available. The uniform
system of notation devised by Professor F. H. Bigelow, and a
very complete summary of the formulae of physical meteorology
expressing the results of many recent students will be found
in chapters x. and xi. of his Report on the International
Cloud Observations, published as vol. ii. of the annual report
of the chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau for 1898-1899.
The fundamental laws to which the atmosphere is subject
are as follows:
A. The Equation of Elastic Pressure. The pressure shown and
measured by the barometer is an elastic pressure acting in all direc-
tions equally at the point where it is measured. By virtue of this
elastic pressure a unit volume of air will expand in all directions if
not rigidly enclosed, but will cool in so doing. On the other hand,
if forcibly compressed within smaller dimensions, it will become
warmer. For a given temperature and pressure a unit volume of
air of a prescribed chemical constitution will have a prescribed
definite weight. The general relations between absolute temper-
ature, pressure and volume are expressed by the formula
pa = RT (i)
where T expresses the absolute temperature, p the elastic pressure,
v the volume, and R is a constant which differs for each gas, being
29-2713 for ordinary pure dry air and 47-060 for pure aqueous
vapour, if we use as fundamental units the kilogram, metre and
centigrade degree. This equation is sometimes called the law of
Boyle and Charles, or of Gay-Lussac and Marriotte, and it is also
known as the equation of condition for true gases, meaning thereby
that it expresses the fact that the ideal gas would change its volume
directly in proportion to its absolute temperature and inversely
in proportion to its elastic pressure. All gases depart from this law
in proportion as they approach the vaporous condition on the one
hand, which is brought about by great pressure and low temperature,
or the ultra-gaseous condition on the other hand, which obtains
under high temperatures and low pressures. The more accurate
law of Van der Waals would complicate our problems too much.
In place of the absolute temperature T we may substitute the
expression 273 C. X (i + a /), where a is the coefficient of volu-
metric expansion of the gas for a unit degree of temperature = 0-00367
and t is the temperature expressed on the centigrade scale.
B. Hypsometric Conditions. The pressure of the atmosphere at
any place depends primarily on the weight of the superincumbent
mass of air, and therefore diminishes as we ascend to greater heights.
If the air is in motion, that and other considerations come in to
affect the pressure; but if the air is quiet relative to the earth's
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METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL
surface, then the pressure at any altitude is expressed by the so-called
barometric or hypsometric formula
p-fa-ogdh (2)
where a is the density and g the 'apparent gravity for each layer of
air whose vertical thickness is dh. The integral of this tormula
depends upon the vertical distribution of temperature, and moisture,
and gravity; but under the simplest possible assumptions as to
these vertical gradients, the following formula was deduced by
Laplace and is generally known as his hypsometric formula:
*-/!, = 18400(1 +0-003670(1 +0-378 I) (i + 0-0026 cos 2<t>)
(i +0-00157) log
(23)
In this formula t is the average temperature, e the average vapour
tension of the layer of air, p the barometric pressure at the top of
the layer, p a the pressure at the bottom, < the latitude of the station,
h the elevation above sea-level of the lower limit of the stratum, and
h, that of the upper limit. The modifications which this formula
needs in order to adapt it to other hypotheses representing more
nearly the actual distribution of temperature, moisture and gravity,
have been elaborately investigated by Angot in a memoir published
in 1899 in Part I. of the Memoirs of the Central Meteorological
Bureau of France for the year 1896. Angot, Hergesell and Rykat-
cheff have also shown that for hypsometric work of any pretensions
to accuracy it is simplest and best to use Laplace's formula for
successive thin strata of air, and add together the individual results,
rather than attempt a more complex single formula for the whole
stratum; yet the latter seems to be essential for work in aero-
dynamics.
C. Thermodynamic Relations. The temperature of the air is due
to the quantity of molecular energy that is present in the form of
heat, but usually there is also present a quantity of molecular energy
that is spoken of as latent heat. This latent heat is said to do
internal work, such as melting ice or boiling water, while the sensible
heat does external work, such as expanding and pushing in all
directions. These molecular energies can be transformed into each
other over and over again without appreciable loss, and this power
of transformation is expressed by the various equations of thermo-
dynamics, of which the fundamental one lor our purpose is
dQ, = CJt + Apdv = Cdt + ART dv/v. (3)
This equation expresses the fact that when a quantity of heat
measured in calories, dQ, is added to or taken from a mass of dry air,
there may result both a change of temperature, dt, corresponding
to one portion of the heat, C,dt, and a quantity of external work
corresponding to the remaining portion of the heat (Apdv). It
usually happens that the quantity of heat in a given mass of air
does not remain the same for any length of time; it is diminished
by radiation or is increased by absorption, and a certain quantity
is lost when rain, snow or hail drops down from the air, while
a quantity is added to the atmosphere when moisture evaporates
and mixes with the dry air as invisible vapour, even the passage
of rain-drops down through a lower layer alters the thermal con-
ditions appreciably. The changes due to increase and diminution
of moisture are usually small as compared with the great gain
due to absorption and convection of solar heat or with the
loss by radiation. If these losses and gains are to be taken
account of, then the quantity dQ in the above equation is finite
and important. On the other hand, in some cases atmospheric
processes go on so rapidly or under such peculiar circumstances
for instance, in the interior of a cloud that the change in
the quantity of heat may be considered as temporarily negligible.
In these cases dQ is zero; the changes in temperature balance the
changes in external work, and the thermal process is said to be
adiabatic.
D. The Condition of Continuity. When a mass of liquid or gas
goes through several motions and changes without being disrupted
or otherwise broken into smaller portions, and without the formation
of either local condensations into solid or liquid masses or of bubbles
and vacuous spaces in its interior, and when all the changes that
go on proceed by gradual continuous processes as to time, then the
mass of the fluid is subject to the law of continuity as to mass, and
the motion of the fluid is continuous as to velocity. These condi-
tions are assumed in elementary hydrodynamics, and are implied
in the process of integration, and in the equation of continuity
dp , d(pu) , flfpff) . d(ffiv) _ ,
dt * ~dx dy~ + ~dT " (4)
where p is the density, t is the time and d the ordinary symbol for
partial differentiation.. But the fact is that meteorologists have
to deal entirely with discontinuous external forces such as insolation
ceasing at sunset and renewed daily; radiations of heat changing
abruptly with land and ocean and cloudiness and snow covering;
discontinuous boundary conditions and resistances at the earth's
surface altering at every change from mountains to plains; dis-
continuous masses changing with additions and abstractions of
moisture, rain and snow all which lead to discontinuous vortex
motions and overturnings and rearrangements of the atmospheric
strata. The only factors that ar*e continuous for any length of time
or extent of area are the rotation of the earth and the attraction
of gravitation. In the presence of such difficulties as these we must
at present confine ourselves to the solution of very special local
definite problems or to the general statistical problems of our
atmosphere.
E. Conditions as to Energy and Motion. When the total quantity
of heat,, both latent and sensible, remains constant .or changes
in a continuous manner, and when the motions are continuous,
the mechanical and thermal processes are expressible by ordinary
differentials and integrals. Motions of fluids involve both energy
and inertia, and are subject to conditions expressed by the following
equations of hydrodynamics:
a. Equations of energy. Let the kinetic energy be T, the
potential energy V, the intrinsic energy W: /, m, n, be cosines of
the angle between the pressure p, and S the inwardly directed normal
to the boundary surface. Then will
=ffp(lu + mv + nv)dS. (5)
b. Equations of acceleration and inertia. Let P be the potential
of the external forces acting on a unit mass of the atmosphere; p, be
the coefficient of viscosity or internal friction. Then will
dx p dx
.-.
dy pdy
dP
I^UJ/ _uu; . i^J-j; -Ljj, ZH
pdz dt^ dx T *y T dz
(6)
Approximate Assumptions and Solutions. After introducing into
the preceding system of fundamental equations (1-6) the actual
conditions as accurately as they are known relative to gravity, solar
radiation, the rotation of the earth, the viscosity of the air, its mass
or inertia, its absorption and radiation of heat, its variable content
of moisture, the precipitation of rain and cloud, the mutual inter-
conversions of latent and sensible heat, a special difficulty occurs
when we attempt to integrate these equations, because we have still
to express analytically the initial conditions of the atmosphere as
to pressure and temperature, and its boundary conditions as between
the rough earth surface on its lower side and the unknown outward
surface on its upper side. As the true earth's surface cannot be
represented by any simple algebraic formula, it is customary to
assume that it is a uniform sphere, neglecting at least partially, if
not wholly, the spheroidal shape. We may first assume that there
is no friction between the earth and the air, but must afterwards
make allowance for its influence. Thirdly, we assume that the
action of the earth's surface to heat the air and to throw moisture
by evaporation into the atmosphere is perfectly uniform. Finally,
in many cases we go so far as to assume that the atmosphere is an
incompressible rare liquid having a uniform density and a uniform
depth of about 8000 metres, corresponding to the average standard
density of dry air under a pressure of 760 millimetres and a temper-
ature of o C. Even under these simplifications the analytic diffi-
culties have been too great to admit of rigorous solutions, except
in a few of the simplest cases.
The treatment of atmospheric problems by Ferrel was followed by
an equally ingenious mathematical treatment by Professors Guldberg
and Mohn, of Christiana, in two papers published by them in 1876
and 1880 respectively. These authors, like Ferrel, treat isolated
portions of the atmosphere and obtain special solutions, which,
however, have not the generality that must eventually be demanded
in a rigorous and general discussion of the atmosphere movements.
Elegant mathematical solutions of our problems were first given in
1882 by Qberbeck, of the university of Halle, in the Ann. Phys. xvii.
128. But even Oberbeck's solutions are obtained under various
simplifying assumptions that restrict their satisfactory application
to the daily weather conditions. Oberbeck's first memoir treats
of the mechanics of stationary cyclonic movements. Assuming
that the isobars are concentric circles, and that in the outer portion
of a cyclone the air has only horizontal movements, while in the
inner portion it has only vertical movements, he solves his system
of equations for the inner and outer regions of the cyclone separately.
He shows that in general the pressure increases on all sides out-
wards from the centre; the gradient also increases from the centre
outwards to the limit of the inner region, whence it diminishes in the
outer region and at a great distance becomes inappreciable. In both
regions the paths of the wind are curved lines, logarithmic spirals,
which cue the isobars or the radial gradient everywhere at the same
angle; therefore the movement of the air can be considered as a
spiral inflow from all sides towards the centre. But the angle
between the wind and the gradient follows different laws in the outer
and inner regions, depending in the former on the rotation of the
PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL]
METEOROLOGY
283
earth and the friction, but in the latter also on the intensity of the
ascending current of air. In passing from the outer to the inner
surface the wind experiences a sudden change of angle, so that the
directions of the winds are not continuous, although the movement
and the barometric pressures are assumed to be continuous. This
latter peculiarity does not occur in nature, and is undoubtedly an
analytical result peculiar to Oberbeck's method of treating the
fundamental equations.
An improvement in the mathematical analysis was introduced
by Dr F. Pockels of Gottingen in a memoir published in the Met.
Zeit., 1893, pp. 9-19. He deduces equations showing the continuous
changes of temperature, pressure, gradient, wind direction, and
velocity from the centre of the cyclone to the outer edge of the anti-
cyclone, or, more properly, the peri-cyclone; these, therefore, may
reasonably be supposed to have their counterparts in nature. Such
mathematical solutions, however, are based upon the assumption
that we are dealing with a comparatively small portion of the earth's
surface, which may be considered as a plane having a uniform diurnal
rotation and a uniform coefficient of friction. Moreover, the move-
ments in the cyclones and anti-cyclones are assumed to be steady
and permanent by reason of the perfect balance of all the forces
involved therein. Of course these conditions are not exactly
fulfilled, but in general Pockels shows that his theoretical results
agree fairly well with the observed conditions as to wind and pressure.
He computes the actual distribution of these elements under the
assumption that the centre of the anti-cyclone is at latitude 55-5,
and that the coefficient of friction is 0-00008, whereas viscosity
proper would require only 0-0002. An elegant mathematical pre-
sentation of these studies in cyclonic motion is given by W. Wien,
Lehrbuch der Hydrodynamik (Leipzig, 1900).
Notwithstanding the fact that these difficult mathematical
investigations still lead us to unsatisfactory results, they are yet
eminently instructive as showing the methods of interaction of the
various forces involved in the motions of the atmosphere. We
must therefore mention the interesting attack made by Oberbeck
upon the problem of the general circulation of the atmosphere.
His memoir on this subject was published in the Sitzungsberichte
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1888. The fundamental
assumption in this memoir implies that there is a general and simple
system of circulation between the equatorial and the polar regions,
but the eventual solution of the problem leads Oberbeck to two
independent systems of winds, an upper and a lower, without any
well-defined connexion at the polar and equatorial ends of these
two currents, so that after all they are not rigorously re-entrant.
Among the hypotheses introduced in the course of his mathematical
work, the most important, and perhaps the one most open to objec-
tion, is that the distribution of temperature throughout the atmo-
sphere in both the upper and lower strata can be represented by
the equation T = A+B (l 3 cos' 9). Undoubtedly this equa-
tion represents observations in the lower strata near the surface of
the earth, but the constants that enter into it, if not the form itself,
must be changed for the upper strata. The solution arrived at by
Oberbeck gives the following equations representing the components
of the movement of the atmosphere toward the zenith V, toward
the north N, and toward the east O:
V = C (I -3 cos 2 0) fa
N = 6 C cos 6 sin 6 <t> a
O = D [sin 6 (l -3 cos 2 0) ga + 6 cos 2 6ya].
In accordance with these equations he deduces the general circu-
lation of the atmosphere as follows: In the lower current the air
flows from the polar regions eastward until it reaches the parallel
of 30 or 40 ; it then turns directly towards the equator, and eventu-
ally westward, until at the equator it becomes a strong east wind
(or a so-called west current). In the upper layer the movement
begins as an east wind, turns rapidly to the north at latitude 20
or 30, and then becomes a south-west wind (or north-eastern current)
in the northern hemisphere, but a north-west wind (and south-
eastern current) in the southern hemisphere. Of course in the higher
strata of air the currents must diminish in strength. In a second
paper in the same year, 1888, Oberbeck determines the distribution
of pressure over the earth's surface as far as it is consistent with his
system of temperatures and winds. His general equation shows
that as we depart from the equator the pressure must depend upon
the square and the fourth power of the cosine of the polar distance
or the sine of the latitude, and in this respect harmonizes with
Ferrel's work of 1859, although more general in its bearings. By
comparing his formulae with the observed mean pressure in different
latitudes, Oberbeck obtains the general angular velocity of the air
relative to the earth, i.e. 0-0292 (sin 2 < 0-0836), which is quite
small and is a maximum (4-6 metres per second)at latitude S. 56 27'.
H. Hildebrandsson (1906) showed that observations do reveal an
east wind prevailing above the equatorial belt of calms.
Contemporary with Oberbeck's admirable memoirs are those by
Professor Diro Kitao, of the university of Tokyo, who, as a student
of mathematics in Germany, had become an expert in the modern
treatment of hydrodynamic problems. In three memoirs published
by the Agricultural College of the university of Tokyo in the German
language in the years 1887, 1889 and 1895, he develops with great
patience many of the minutiae of the movement of the earth's
atmosphere and cyclonic storms. The assumptions under which
he conducts his investigations do not depart from nature quite so
far as those adopted by other mathematicians. Like Ferrel, he
adheres as closely as possible to the results of physical and meteoro-
logical observations; and although, like all pure mathematicians,
he considers Ferrel as having departed too far from rigorous mathe-
matical methods, yet he also unites with them in acknowledging that
the results attained by Ferrel harmonize with the meteorology of
the earth.
The fact is that the solution of the hydrodynamic equations is
not single, but multiplex. Every system of initial and boundary
conditions must give a solution appropriate and peculiar to itself.
The actual atmosphere presents us with the solution or solutions
peculiar to the conditions that prevail on the earth. Entirely
different conditions prevail on Jupiter and Saturn, Venus and Mars,
and even on the earth in January and July, and therefore a wholly
new series of solutions belongs to each case and to each planet of
the solar system. It matters not whether we attempt to resolve
our equations by introducing terrestrial conditions expressed by
means of analytical algebraic formulae, and integrate the equations
that result, or whether we adopt a graphic process for the repre-
sentation of observed atmospheric conditions and integrate by
arithmetical, geometrical or mechanical processes. In all cases
we must come to the same result, namely, our resulting expressions
for the distribution of pressure and wind will agree with observations
just as closely as our original equations represented the actual
temperatures, resistances and other attending conditions.
In the last portion of Kitao's third memoir he gives some attention
to the interaction of two cyclonic systems upon each other when
they are not too far apart in the atmosphere, and shows how the
influence of one system can be expressed by the addition of a certain
linear function to the equations representing the motions of the other.
He even gives the basis for the further study of the extension of
cyclonic storms into higher latitudes where conditions are so different
from those within the tropics. Finally, he suggests in general terms
how the resistances of the earth's surface, in connexion with the
internal friction or viscosity of the air, are to be taken into considera-
tion, and shows under what conditions the assumptions that underlie
his own solutions may, and in fact must, very closely represent the
actual atmosphere.
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere. If the meteorologist
had a sufficient number of observations of the motions of the air to
represent both the upper and lower currents, he would long since have
been able to present a satisfactory scheme showing the average
movement of the atmosphere at every point of its course, and the
paths of the particles of air as they flow from the poles to the equator
and return, but hitherto we have been somewhat misled by being
forced to rely mainly on the observed movements of clouds. This
motion has been called the general circulation of the atmosphere;
it would be a complex matter even if the surface of the earth were
homogeneous and without special elevations, but the actual problem
is far different. Something like this general circulation is ordinarily
said to be shown by the monthly and annual charts of pressure,
winds and temperature, such as were first prepared and published
by Buchan in 1868, and afterwards in Bartholomew's Physical Atlas
of 1899. We must not, however, imagine that such charts of
averages can possibly give us the true path of any small unit mass
of air. The real path is a complex curve, not re-entrant, never
described twice over, and would not be so even if we had an ideal
atmosphere and globe. It is a compound of vertical and undulatory
movements in three dimensions of space, variable as to time, which
cannot properly be combined into one average.
The average temperatures, winds and pressures presented on these
charts suggest hypothetical problems to the student's mind quite
different from the real problems in the mechanics of the atmosphere
problems that may, in fact, be impossible of solution, whereas
those of the actual atmosphere are certainly solvable. The mo-
mentary condition presented on any chart of simultaneous obser-
vations constitutes the real, natural and important problems of
meteorology. The efforts of mathematicians and physicists have
been devoted to the ideal conditions because of their apparent
simplicity, whereas the practical problems offered by the daily
weather chart are now so easily accessible that attention must be
turned towards them. The most extensive system of homogeneous
observations appropriate to the study of the dynamics of the atmo-
sphere is that shown in the Daily Bulletin of International Simultane-
ous Observations, published by the U.S. Signal Service in the years
1875-1884, with monthly and annual summaries, and a general
summary in " Bulletin A," published by the U.S. Weather Bureau
in 1893. The study of these daily charts for ten years shows how
the general circulation of the atmosphere differs from the simple
problems presented in the idealized solutions based on monthly
and annual averages. The presence of a great and a small continent,
and a great and small ocean, and especially of the moisture, with its
consequent cloud and rain, must enter into the_ study of the problem
of the general circulation. The most prominent features of the
general circulation of the atmosphere are the system of trade winds,
north-easterly in the northern tropics and south-easterly in the
southern tropics, the system of westerly winds beyond the trade-
wind region, namely, north-westerly in the north temperate and
south-westerly in the south temperate zone, and again the system
284
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL
of upper winds shown by the higher clouds, namely, south-westerly
in thenorthern hemisphere and north-westerly in the southern.
Halley in 1680, and Hadley in 1735, gave erroneous or imperfect
explanations of the mechanical principles that bring about these
winds As some errors in regard to this subject are still current,
it is necessary to say that it is erroneous to teach that atmospheric
air weighs less on being heated, or by reason of the infusion of
more moisture, and that therefore the barometer falls. The addition
of more moisture must increase its weight as a whole; heat, being
imponderable, cannot directly affect its weight either way. We are
liable to disseminate error by the careless use of the world lighter,
since it means both a diminution in absolute weight and a diminution
in relative weight or specific gravity. Heat and moisture may.
diminish the specific gravity of a given mass of air by increasing
its volume, or of a given volume by diminishing its mass, but neitnc
of them can of themselves affect the pressure shown by the barometer
so far as that is due to the weight of the atmosphere. It is not
proper to say that by warming the air, thereby diminishing its
specific gravity and causing it to rise, so that colder air flows in to
take its place, we thereby diminish the barometric pressure. It is
easily seen that in the expression = RT/, which, as we have before
said, is the law of elasticity, T and v may so vary as to counterbalance
each other, and allow the pressure p to remain the same. Within
any given room or other enclosure hot air may rise on one side, flow
over to the opposite, cool and return, and the circulation be kept
up indefinitely without any necessary change in pressure. The
problem of the relation between wind and pressure in the free
atmosphere is more complex than this, and involves the considera-
tion of the inertia of the masses of air that are in motion with the
earth around its axis. The air is so extremely mobile that it moves
quickly in response to slight differences in pressure that cannot
be detected by ordinary barometric measurement. The gradients
or differences of pressure that are shown on meteorological charts
are not directly, but only very indirectly, due to buoyancy, as caused
by heat and moisture. The pressure gradients, so-called, are not
merely the prime causes of the winds, but are equally and essentially
the results of the winds. They are primarily due to the fact that
the atmosphere is rapidly revolving with the surface of the earth
around the earth's axis, while at the same time it may be circulating
about a storm centre. Inappreciable differences of pressure start
the winds in motion, and the air moves towards the region of low
pressure, just as in the pneumatic despatch tubes the flow of air
towards the low pressure carries the packages along. But in the
free air, where there are less important resistances to be overcome,
the freedom of motion is greater than in these pneumatic tubes.
No sooner is the atmosphere thus set in motion by pressure from
all sides towards the central low pressure than it rapidly acquires
a spiral circulation, and thereby there is superimposed (in the
northern hemisphere) a decided diminution of pressure on the left
hand side of the wind, and an equally rapid increase on the right
hand side. The gradient of pressure in the direction of the wind
overcomes resistances, but the gradient of pressure, perpendicular
to the direction of the wind, is far greater than that in the direction
of the wind, and is that which produces the areas of decided low
pressures that appear as storm centres on the daily weather map.
Therefore, in general, the wind cuts across the charted isobars in
oblique directions and at angles which are nearly 90 for the feeble
winds far removed from the centres, but which are almost zero for
the most violent winds near the low centre. The winds acquire
this spiral circulation for two reasons (a) all straight line] gusts
or jets in fluids, subject to any form of resistance, necessarily break
up into rotating spirals whenever the velocity exceeds a certain limit,
because the resistances deprive some particles of the fluid of a little
more of their original velocity and energy than the other particles
near by them, and thus the whole series is drawn away from linear
into curvilinear paths; (b) in addition to their rectilinear motions
the particles of air have a rapid circular motion in common with the
whole atmosphere diurnally around the earth's axis. Therefore
every particle of moving air comes under the influence of a set of
forces depending on its own rate of motion relative to the earth's
surface and its position relative thereto. If the particles are moving
eastward, viz. in the same direction as the earth's diurnal rotation,
then the result is as though the atmosphere were rotating more
rapidly than does the earth at present; consequently the particles
of wind push toward the equator as though the atmosphere were
trying to adopt a more flattened spheroidal figure corresponding
to its greater velocity of rotation. If the particles are moving
westward, on the other hand, it is as though the atmosphere were
revolving less rapidly than the earth, and as thopgh the flattened
spheroid of revolution due to the present rate of rotation were more
decidedly flattened than need be; consequently the particles of air
push towards the poles. If the winds blow toward either pole, then
their initial moment of inertia about the earth's axis, due to the
initial radius and the eastward movement of the air, must be re-
tained; consequently, as the air advances into higher latitudes and
to smaller circles of diurnal rotation its velocity must increase, and
must carry the particles to the east of their initial meridians. II
the wind blow towards the equator its initial moment of inertia
must be applied to a larger radius, and its velocity correspondingly
diminished, so that it is left behind or falls away somewhat to the
west " The reasoning of those who in attempting to explain the
trade winds assume that the atmosphere in moving toward or from
: he equator has a tendency to retain the same original linear velocity
s erroneous "(Ferrel's Movements of Fluids, 1859). In general the
winds tend to retain their moments of inertia, and in the northern
lemisphere must necessarily always be deflected continuously
toward the right hand. The exact amount of this deflection was
5rst distinctly stated by Poisson, 1 as applied to the movements of
projectiles; it was also announced by Tracy of New Haven in 1843,
but was first applied to the atmosphere by Ferrel, who deduced its
meteorological consequences. This law is not to be confounded
with that of Buys Ballot, who in 1861 deduced from his observations
in Holland the rule that the gradient of pressure between two
stations for any day would be followed in twenty-four hours by a
wind perpendicular to that gradient, and having the lower pressure
on the left hand. Buys Ballot's law was in the nature of a rule for
prediction, and was modified by Buchan 1868, who enunciated the
following: "The wind blows towards the regions of low pressure,
but is inclined to the gradient at an angle which is less than 90."
In this form Buchan's law was an improvement upon the laws
current among cyclonologists, who had assumed that, in a rough
way, the wind blew in circles around the low centre, and was there-
fore sensibly at right angles to the gradient. It ought, however,
to be said that Redfield throughout the whole course of his studies,
from 1831 to 1857, never gave adherence to this view, and in fact
for the severer portions of hurricanes determined the average
inclination of the movements of the lower clouds at New York City
to be about 7 inwards as compared with the truly circular theory.
Now Ferrel's law explains mechanically the reason why the winds
do not blow either radially or circularly, and gives the means for
determining their inclination to the isobars in all portions of the
cyclone and for various degrees of resistance by the earth's surface.
The general proposition that the barometric gradients on the weather
map are not those that cause the wind, but are, properly speaking,
the result of the combined action of the wind, the rotation of the
earth, and the resistances at the earth's surface, as first explained
by Ferrel, seems to have been neglected by meteorologists until
brought to their attention repeatedly by Professor Abbe between
1869 and 1875, and especially by Professor Hann in a review of
Ferrel's work (see Met. Zeit. 1874). The independent investigations
of Sprung, Koeppen, Finger, and especially Guldberg and Mohn,
confirm in general the correctness of Ferret's law.
It is quite erroneous to imagine that the low pressures in storm
areas and in the polar regions, and especially the belt of low pressure
at the equator are due simply to the diminution of the density and
weight of the air by the action of its warmth or its moisture, or to
the abundant rainfall as relieving the atmosphere of the weight of
water. It has been clearly shown that none of these operations can
directly affect the barometric pressure to any appreciable extent,
but that high and low pressure areas, as we see them on the weather
map, owe their existence entirely to the mechanical interaction of
the diurnal rotation of the earth and the motions of the atmosphere.
The demonstration of this point by Ferrel in 1857 is considered to
have opened the way for modern progress in theoretical meteorology.
Both Espy and Hann have abundantly shown that the formation
and downfall of rain do not produce any low barometric pressure
unless they produce a whirling action of the wind that, in fact,
the latent heat evolved by the condensation of vapour into rain
may so warm up the cloud as to produce a temporary rise in pressure
even at the surface of the ground, due to the outward push produced
by the sudden expansion of the cloud. [The details of the thermo-
dynamics of this operation have been elucidated by Wm. von
Bezold.] The force with which the wind presses to the right or
tends to be deflected in that direction is 2rt v sin <t>, while the curvature
of the path of the wind is measured by its radius of curvature,
which is /2 sin <t>, where v is the velocity of the wind, n is the
equatorial velocity of the earth's rotation, and tj> is the latitude.
It will be seen from this that there is no deflection at the equator;
therefore, as Ferrel stated, there is no tendency to the formation
of great whirlwinds at the equator, hence hurricanes and typhoons
are rarely found within 10 of the equator.
Ferrel frequently speaks of an anti-cyclone, whereby he means
the area of high pressure just outside of a strong cyclonic whirl;
the expression pen-cyclone would have been more appropriate and
is sometimes substituted. The term anti-cyclone, as first introduced
by Gallon in 1863, is applied to a system of winds blowing out from
a central area of high pressure, and this is the common usage of the
term in modern meteorology. The term cyclone among meteoro-
logists and throughout English literature, except only a few cases
in the United States, is equivalent to the older usage of whirlwind,
and it is unfortunate that misunderstandings often arise because
local usages in America apply the 'word cyclone to what has for
centuries been called a tornado. The mechanical principles discussed
by Ferrel led him to an algebraic relation between the barometric
gradient G, the wind velocity t>, the radius of curvature of the isobar
r, and the inclination i between the wind and the isobar, which is
1 Recherche sur le mouvement des projectiles dans I'air en ayant
egardd I' influence dumouvementdiurnede la terre; dated 1837, printed
Paris, 1839.
PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL]
METEOROLOGY
285
expressed by the following formula for the pressures that prevail
at sea-level:
G = [(2n sin 0+cos iv/r)v sec i]/[83,ooo,ooo).
A popular exposition of this and other results of Ferret's work is
given by Archibald in Nature (May 4, 1882), and still better in
Ferrel's Treatise on the Winds (New York, 1889, and later editions).
The charts of mean annual pressure, temperature and wind above
referred to show certain broad features that embrace the whole
system of atmospheric circulation, viz. the low pressures at the
equator and the poles, the high pressures under the tropics, the
trade winds below and the anti-trades above, with comparative
calms under the belts of equatorial low pressure and tropical high
pressure. The first effort of the mathematician was to explain how
these mean average conditions depend upon each other, and to
devise a system of general circulation of the wind consistent with
the pressures, resistances and densities. But, as we have already
said, such a system may be very far from that presented by the
real atmosphere, and little by little we are being led to a different
view of the question of the general circulation. The earlier students
of storms generally accepted one of two views as to the cause of
whirlwinds. They were either (i) formed mechanically between two
principal currents of air flowing past each other, the so-called polar
and equatorial currents ; or (2) they were due to the ascent of buoyant
air while the heavier air flowed in beneath, the whirling motion being
communicated by the influence of the rotation of the earth, or by
the greater resistances on one side than on the other. In order
to explain why hurricanes and typhoons exist continuously for
many days, or even weeks, it is necessary that there should be a
source of energy to maintain a continued buoyancy and rising
current at the centre, and this was supposed to be fully provided
for by Espy's proof of the liberation of latent heat consequent on
the formation of cloud and rain. To this latter consideration Abbe
in 1871 added the important influence of the sun's heat intercepted
at the upper surface of the cloud. At this stage of the investigation
the whirlwind is but an incident in the general circulation of the
atmosphere, but further consideration shows that it ought rather
to be regarded as an essential portion of that circulation, and that
when temperature gradients and density gradients exceed a certain
limit the formation of great whirlwinds is inevitable. Therefore
an atmosphere containing several whirlwinds is just as trulyasystem
of general circulation in the one case as an atmosphere without a
whirlwind is in the other. The formation of rain, the evolution
of latent heat, and even the absorption of heat at the upper surface
of the cloud really constitute a normal general circulation in this
special case. We may therefore consider a system of vortices, which
is a system of discontinuous motions, as the most natural solution
of the equations of motion but the mathematical treatment of this
form of motion has not yet been sufficiently well developed, for the
discontinuity relates not only to the motion but to the thermal
conditions and the interchange of vapour and water.
In 1890 Professor Hann published a careful analysis of the actual
temperature conditions prevailing over an extensive area of high
pressure in Europe, and showed that the temperatures of the upper
strata in both high and low areas, namely, in anti-cyclones and
cyclones are often directly contrary to those supposed to prevail
by Espy and Ferrel. This study necessitated a more careful ex-
amination into the radiation of heat from the dust and moisture of
the atmosphere, and Professor Abbe seems to have shown that
in areas of high pressure and clear weather a very slow descending
movement throughout each horizontal layer gives time for a radia-
tion of heat that explains the anomalies of temperature, but the
dynamic phenomena still remained unexplained. On the other
hand, von Helmholtz in several memoirs of 1888-1891 showed that
waves or billows may be formed in the atmosphere of great extent
at the dividing surface between upper and lower strata moving in
different directions and with different velocities. Under specific
conditions these billows may become like the breakers and caps of
waves of the ocean when driven by the wind. The hypothesis that
these aerial breakers correspond to our troughs of low pressure
and the storms experienced in the lower atmosphere seemed very
plausible. As these billows are formed between upper and lower air
currents of great extent, which themselves represent a large portion
of the horizontal circulation between the poles and the equator, it
results that if von Helmholtz's suggestion and Hann's hypothesis
are correct then all general storms must be considered as essentially
a part of the general circulation rather than as caused by the vertical
circulation over any locality. It must occur to everyone to adopt
the intermediate view that, on the one hand, the local vertical
circulation, with its clouds, rain, hail and snow, and evolution of
latent heat, and, on the other hand the waves and whirls in the
general circulation, mutually contribute toward our storms and fair
weather. It only remains to allot to each its proper importance
in any special case.
Undoubtedly aerial oillows, and the clouds that must frequently
accompany them, exist everywhere in the earth's atmosphere.
Perhaps their extent and importance are not properly appreciated.
A voyage around the Atlantic Ocean in 1889-1890, made by Professor
Abbe, specifically to study cloud phenomena, revealed many re-
markable cases, such as the cumulus rolls that extend in a
remarkably symmetrical series from the island of Ascension west-
wards for 100 m. in the south-easterly trades, or the delicate
fields of cirro-cumuli that extend from the islands of Santa Lucia
and Barbados for 200 m. eastwards under favourable conditions.
The mixtures and vorticose motions going on within aerial
billows to form these clouds have been interpreted by Brillouin.
In the further elucidation of the mechanism of storms Hann showed
that every study of observational material confirms the conclusion
that the descent of denser cool dry air is as important as the ascent
of warm moist air, and that although the evolution of latent heat
within the clouds of a storm may explain the local cloud phenomena,
yet it will not explain the storm as a whole. The first " norther
or blizzard " that was charted at Washington in November 1871
was at once seen to be a case of the underflow of a thin layer of cold
dry air descending from high altitudes above Canada on the eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains, but driven southward by an excess
of centrifugal energy added to a moderate barometric gradient. It
was seen that in such grand overturnings the descent of masses
implies energy communicated by the action of gravity, but the whole
mechanics of this process was not clear until the publication by
Margules of his memoir Vber die Energie der Slurnte (Vienna, 1905),
which will be referred to hereafter.
Mathematics have, almost without exception, assumed a so-called
steady condition in the motion of the atmosphere in order to achieve
a successful integration of the general equations of motion. The
restrictions within which Helmholtz and others have worked, and
the limits within which their results are to be accepted, have been
analysed by Dr E. Herrmann in a memoir of which a translation is
published in the bulletin of the American Mathematical Society for
June 1896. Of course Herrmann's own investigation is also based
upon certain simplifying hypotheses, such as the absence of outside
disturbing forces and of viscosity and friction, a homogeneous
ellipsoidal surface, and a uniform initial temperature and rate of
revolution corresponding to an initial state of equilibrium. If now
the initial static equilibrium be disturbed by introducing a different
distribution of temperature, viz. one that varies with altitude and
latitude, but is uniform in longitude along any circle of latitude,
then the first question is whether the atmosphere can settle down
to a new state of static equilibrium. Herrmann shows that in general
it cannot do so, but that the new state and the future states can only
be those of motion and dynamic equilibrium. If, however, there
be no external forces acting on the atmosphere, then in one case
static equilibrium relative to the earth can occur, namely, when the
new temperatures are so distributed in the atmosphere as to satisfy
the equation
in addition to the ordinary equations of elasticity, inertia and
continuity previously given, and to those representing the boundary
conditions, M being the total amount of inertia of the atmosphere
relative to the axis of rotation. In general, the movements in the
atmosphere must consist not only of an interchange between the
poles and the equator, but also of east and west motions, and there
must therefore be a different rate of diurnal rotation for each stratum.
The second step in this inquiry is, Can these movements become
perfectly steady with this unvarying or steady distribution of
temperature? In other words, Can the temperature and the
movements be so adjusted to each other that each shall remain
invariable within any given zone of latitude ? The reply to this is,
that if they are to become thus adjusted they must satisfy a certain
differential equation, which itself shows that steady motions and
stationary temperatures cannot exist if there be any north or south
component. Apart from the fact that Herrmann assumes no
friction, it would seem that he has proved that steady motions and
stationary pressures cannot exist in the atmosphere over a homo-
geneous spherical surface, and presumably the same result would
follow of a rotating globe for the irregular surface of the actual globe.
The motions of the real atmosphere must therefore consist of irregular
and periodic oscillations and discontinuous whirls and rolls super-
imposed upon more uniform, regular progressions, but never repeat-
ing themselves. Consequently, the conclusions deduced by those
who have assumed that steady conditions are possible must depart
more or less from meteorological observations. There is a general
impression that the belt of low pressure at the equator and the low
areas at the poles and the high pressures under the tropics are
pseudo-stationary, and really represent what wouk^ be steady
conditions if we had an ideal smooth globe ; but Herrmann's researches
show that the unsteadiness observed to attach to these areas under
existing conditions would also attach to them under ideal conditions.
They really have and must have irregular motions, and we, by
taking annual averages, obtain an ideal annual distribution of
pressure, temperature and wind that does not represent any specific
dynamic problem. The averages represent what is considered proper
in climatology, but are quite improper and misleading from a
dynamic point of view, and have no logical mechanical connexion
with each other.
Closely connected with this study of steady motions under a
constant supply and steady distribution of solar heat comes the
further question as to what regular variations in atmospheric
pressure and wind can be produced by regular seasonal variations
286
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL
in the heat received from the nun; for instance, what varia-
tion in the earth's atmosphere corresponds to the periodic
variations of the solar spots. The general current of Helmholtz s
investigations shows that no periodic change in the earth s atmo-
sphere can be maintained for any length of time by a given periodic
influence outside of the atmosphere. On the other hand, it is barely
possible that wave and vortex phenomena on the sun]s surface may
have the same periodicities as regular phenomena in the earth s
atmosphere, so that there may be a parallelism without any direct
connexion between the two.
An important paper on the application of hydrodynamics to
the atmosphere is that by Professor V. Bjerknes, of Stockholm,
Sweden, which was read in September 1809 at Munich, and is now
published in an English translation in the U.S. Monthly Weather
Review, Oct. 1900 (" On the Dynamic Principle of Circulatory
Movements in the Atmosphere "). In this memoir Bjerknes applies
certain fundamental theorems in fluid motion by Helmholtz,
Kelvin and Silberstein, and others of his own discovery to the
atmospheric circulation. He simplifies the hydrodynamic concep-
tions by dealing with density directly instead of temperature and
pressure, and uses charts of " isosteres," or lines of equal density,
very much as was proposed by Abbe in 1889 in his Preparatory
Studies, where he utilized lines of equal buoyancy or " isostaths,"
and such as Elkholm published in 1891 as " isodenses " and which
were called " isopyks by Miiller-Hauenfels. Bjerknes has thus
made it practicable to apply hydrodynamic principles in a simple
manner without the necessity of analytically integrating the equa-
tions, at least for many ordinary cases. He also gives an important
criterion by which we may judge in any given case between the physi-
cal theory, according to which cyclones are perpetually renewed, and
the mechanical theory, according to which they are simply carried
along in the general atmospheric current. Bjerknes's paper is
illustrated by another one due to Mr Sandstrom, of Stockholm, who
has applied these methods to a storm of September 1898 in the
United States. 1 The further development of Bjerknes's methods
promises a decided advance in theoretical and practical meteorology.
His profound lectures at Columbia University in New York and in
Washington in December 1905 aroused such an interest that the
Carnegie Institution at once assigned the funds needed to enable
him to complete and publish the applications to meteorology of the
methods of analysis given in detail in Bjerknes's Vorlesungen
(Leipzig, i. 1900, ii. 1902), and in his Recherche sur les champs de
force hydrodynamiques (Stockholm), Ada Matemalica (Oct. 1905).
In his lectures of 1905 at Columbia University Bjerknes treated
the atmosphere as a continuous hydrodynamic field of aerial sole-
noids and forces acting on them, to which vector analysis can be
applied, as was done by Heaviside for electric and magnetic problems.
Every material point is a small spherical mass of air free to extend
or contract with pressure, temperature or moisture; free to rotate
about each of three movable axes passing through its centre and to
move along and revolve about three fixed axes through the centre
of the earth. These numerous degrees of freedom are easily ex-
pressed in Bjerknes's notation and by his typical equations of motion.
The density at any point is recognized as the fundamental "dimen-
sion " controlling inertia and movement. The observed atmospheric
condition at any moment is shown by a series of isodense surfaces
intersecting potential surfaces of equal gravity and thus forming a
continuous mass of unit solenoids. This field becomes either an
electric, magnetic or hydrodynamic field according to the interpreta-
tion assigned to the notations in either case the analytical pro-
cesses are identical. The analogies or homologies of these tnree
sets of phenomena are complete throughout, and those of one field
elucidate or illustrate those of the two other fields. This is the out-
come of the study of such analogies begun by Euler, Helmholtz,
Hoppe,and extensively furthered by Maxwell and Kelvin, but espe-
cially by C. A. Bjerknes. The homologies or analogies by V. Bjerknes
are given at p. 122 of his Recherche (1905), and include the following
six triads:
velocity of unit mass
magnetic induction
electric induction
intensity of the field
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
C Hydrodynamics
J Magnetics .
I Electrics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetics
Electrics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetics
Electrics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetics .
Electrics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetics .
Electrics
Hydrodynamics
Magnetics
Electrics
velocity of energy
intrinsic magnetic polarization
,, electric
velocity of expansion per unit volume
density of the true magnetic mass
electric
density of the dynamic vortex
,, ,, steady magnetic current
,, ,, magnetic
specific volume
magnetic permeability
dielectric constant
" On the Construction of Isobaric Charts for High Levels in the
Earth's Atmosphere and their Dynamic Significance," Trans. Am.
Phil. Soc. (1906).
which have been slightly rectified by Dr G. H. Ling, Am. Jour.
Math. (1908). In the application of Bjerknes's methods of study to
the daily weather map Sandstrom draws special maps to represent
the solenoids and the forces. Barometric pressures are reduced
from the observing stations not only down to sea-level but up to
other level surfaces of gravity. The differences between these level
surfaces represent the work done in raising a unit mass from one level
to the next (see Bjerknes and Sandstrom, A Treatise on Dynamic
Meteorology and Hydrography, Washington, 1908).
The Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Periodicities in Barometic Pressure.
For a long time attempts were made to explain the periodic
variations of the barometer by a consideration of static conditions,
but it is now evident that this problem, like that of the circulation
of the atmosphere, is a question of aerodynamics. A most extensive
series of researches into the character of the phenomena from an
observational point of view has been made by Hann, who gave a
summary of our knowledge of the subject in the Met. Zeit. for 1898,
translated by R. H. Scott in the Quart. Jour. Roy. Met. Soc. (Jan.
1899) (see also an important addition by Hann and Trabert in the
Met. Zeit., Nov. 1899, and the summary of his results as given in
his Lehrbuch, 1906). Hann has shown that at the earth's surface
three regular periodic variations are established by observation,
viz. the diurnal, semi-diurnal and ter-diurnal. On the higher moun-
tains these variations change their character with altitude. (l) At
the equator the diurnal variation is represented by the formula
0-30 mm. sin (5+*), where x is the local hour angle of the sun.
In higher latitudes either north or south the coefficient AI =0-30 mm.
diminishes, but the phase angle, 5, varies greatly, generally growing
larger. It is therefore evident that this diurnal oscillation depends
directly on the hour angle of the sun, and probably, therefore,
principally on the amount of heat and vapour received by the atmo-
sphere from the ocean and the ground at any locality and season of
the year. It is apparently but little affected by the wind, but some-
what by altitude above sea; the amplitude diminishes to zero at a
certain elevation, and then reappears and increases with the opposite
sign; the phase angle does not change. (2) Superimposed upon this
diurnal oscillation is a larger semi-diurnal one, which goes through
its maximum and minimum phases twice in the course of a civil day.
The amplitude of this variation is largest in equatorial regions, and
is expressed by the formula A 2 = (0-988 mm. 0-573 mm - sm V)
cos *<j> as given by Hann, or Aa = ( 0*92 mm. O'495 sin V> ) cos 2 <
as revised by Trabert. This amplitude also may be considered as
variable along each zone of latitude having a maximum value on
certain central local meridians. The times at which the semi-diurnal
phases of maximum and minimum occur are subject to laws different
from those for the diurnal period. Within the tropics the phase
angle is 160 and at 50 N. it is 147, and between these limits it
seems to be the same over the whole globe, so that the phase does not
depend clearly upon the hour angle of the sun or on the local time.
The amplitudes appear to depend on the excess of land in the
northern hemisphere as compared with the water and cloud of the
southern hemisphere. The amplitude also varies during the year,
being greatest at perihelion and least at aphelion. Hann suggests
that this is an indirect effect of the sun's heat on the earth, as the
northern hemisphere is hotter when the earth is in aphelion than is
the southern hemisphere when the earth is in perihelion, owing to
the preponderance of land in the north and water in the south.
(3) The ter-diurnal oscillation has the approximate value shown by
the formula 0-04 mm. sin (355+3). The phase angle is sensibly
the same everywhere, and the amplitude varies slightly with the
latitude. Both phase and amplitude have a pronounced annual
period which is as remarkable as that of the semi-diurnal oscillation ;
the maximum amplitude occurs in January in the northern hemi-
sphere, and in July in the southern.
The physics of the atmosphere has not yet been explored so
exhaustively as to explain fully these three systematic barometric
variations, but neither have we as yet any necessity for appealing
to some unknown cosmic action as a possible cause of their existence.
The action of the solar heat upon the illuminated hemisphere, and
the many consequences that result therefrom, may be expected to
explain the barometric periods. The variations of sunshine and cloud
must inevitably produce periodic variations of temperature, moisture,
pressure and motion, whose exact laws we have not as yet fathomed.
Among the many methods of action that have been studied or sug-
gested in connexion with the barometric variations the most impor-
tant of all is the so-called tidal wave of pressure due to temperature.
Laplace applied his investigations on the tides to the gravitational
tide of the ocean, and when he passed to the corresponding solar and
lunar gravitational tides of the atmosphere he was able to show that
they must be inappreciable, unless, indeed, certain remarkable
relations existed between the circumference of the earth and the
depth of the atmosphere. As these relations do not exist, it is
generally conceded as certain that the gravitational tides, both
diurnal and semi-diurnal, cannot exceed a few thousandths of an
inch of barometric pressure. On the other hand, the same process
of mathematical reasoning enables us to investigate the action of the
sun's heat in producing a wave of pressure that has been called a
pressural tide, due to the expansion of the lower layer of air on the
illuminated half of the globe. The laws that must govern these
pressural tides have been investigated by Kelvin, Rayleigh (Phil.
PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL]
METEOROLOGY
287
Mag., Feb. 1890), and especially by Margules (Vienna Sitz. Ber.
1890-1893). The two latter have shown the truth of a proposition
enunciated by Kelvin in 1882, without demonstration, to the effect
that the free oscillation produced by a relatively small amount of
tide-producing force will have an amplitude that is larger for the
half-day term than for the whole-day term. They therefore explain
the diurnal and semi-diurnal variations of the barometric pressure
as simple pressural tides or waves of expansion, originally produced
by solar heat, but magnified by the resonance between forced and
free waves in an atmosphere and on a globe having the specific
dimensions of our own. The analytical processes by which Laplace
and Kelvin arrived at this 'special solution of the tidal equation were
objected to by Airy and Ferrel, but the matter has been, as we think,
most fully cleared up by Dr G. H. Ling, in a memoir published in the
Annals of Mathematics in 1896. He seems to have shown that,
although a literally correct result was attained by Laplace in his
first investigation, yet his methods as presented in the Mecanique
celeste were at fault from a rigorous analytical point of view. The
process by which a diurnal temperature wave produces a semi-
diurnal pressure oscillation, as explained by Rayleigh and Margules,
may be stated as follows: The diurnal temperature wave having a
twenty-four hours period is the generating force of a diurnal pressure
tide, which is essentially a forced and small oscillation. The natural
period of the free waves in the atmosphere agrees much more nearly
with twelve than with twenty-four hours. In so far as the forced
and the free waves reinforce each other, the semi-diurnal waves are
reinforced far more than the other, so that a very small semi-diurnal
term in the temperature oscillations will produce a pressure oscilla-
tion two or three times as large as the same term would in the diurnal
period. These reinforcements, however, depend upon the elastic
pressure within the atmosphere, just as does the velocity of sound.
If the prevailing barometric pressures were slightly increased, the
adjustment of the twelve-hours free wave of pressure to the forced
wave of temperature could be so perfect that the barometric wave
would increase to an indefinite extent. For the actual temperatures
the periodicity of the free wave is about thirteen hours, or somewhat
longer than the forced wave of temperature, so that the barometric
oscillation does not become excessive. It would seem that we have
here a suggestion to the effect that if in past geological ages the aver-
age temperature at any time has been about 268 C. on the absolute
scale, then the pressure waves could have been so large as to produce
remarkable and perhaps disastrous consequences, involving the loss
of a portion of the atmosphere. A modification of this idea of
resonance has been developed by Dr Jaerisch, of Hamburg (Met.
Zeit., 1907), but the general truth of the Kelvin-Margules-Rayleigh
theorem still abides.
The Thermodynamics of a Moist Atmosphere. The preceding
section deals with an incompressible gas, and therefore with simple,
pure hydrodynamics. If now we introduce the conception ot an
atmosphere of compressible gas, whose density increases with alti-
tude, so that rising and falling currents change their temperatures
by reason of the expansion and compression of the masses of air,
we take the first step in the combination of thermodynamic and
hydrodynamic conditions. If we next introduce moisture, and
take precipitation into consideration, we pass to the difficult prob-
lems of cloud and rain that correspond more nearly to those which
actually occur in meteorology. This combination has been eluci-
dated by the works of Espy and Ferrel in America, Kelvin in England,
Hann and Margules in Austria, but especially by Hertz, Helmholtz,
and von Bczold in Germany, and by Brillouin in France. A general
review of the subject will be found in Professor Bigelow's report on
the cloud work of the U.S. Weather Bureau and his subsequent
memoirs " On the Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere " (Monthly
Weather Review, 1906-1909).
The proper treatment of this subject began with the memoir of
Kelvin on convective equilibrium (see Trans. Manchester Phil. Soc.,
1861). The most convenient method of dealing approximately
with the problems is graphic and numerical rather than analytical,
and in this field the pioneer work was done by Hertz, who published
his diagram for adiabatic changes in the atmosphere in the Met. Zeit.
in 1884. He considers the adiabatic changes of a kilogram of mixed
air and aqueous vapour, the proportional weights of each being X
and n respectively. In a subsequent elaborate treatment of the
same subject by von Bezold in four memoirs published during 1889
and 1899, the formulae and methods are arranged so as to deal easily
with the ordinary cases of nature which are not adiabatic ; he there-
fore prepares diagrams and tables to illustrate the changes going
on in a unit mass of dry air to which has been added a small quantity
of aqueous vapour, which, of course, may vary to any extent. Both
Hertz and von Bezold consider separately four stages or conditions of
atmosphere : (A) The dry stage, where aqueous vapour to a limited
extent only is mixed with the dry air. (B) The rain stage, where both
saturated vapour and liquid particles are simultaneously present.
(C) The hail stage, where saturated aqueous vapour, and water, and
ice are all three present. (D) The snow stage, where ice vapour and
snow itself, or crystals of ice, are present. The expressions aqueous
vapour and ice vapour do not occur in Hertz's article, but are now
necessary, since Marvin, Fischer and Juhlin have been able to show
that vapour from water and vapour from ice exert different elastic
pressures, and must therefore represent different modifications of
If.
V
.0!,"
liquid water. According to Hertz, we may easily follow this mass
of moist air as it rises in the atmosphere, if by expansion it cools
adiabatically so as to go successively through the four preceding
stages. For a few thousand feet it remains dry air. It then becomes
c oudy and enters the second stage. Next it rises higher until the
cloudy particles begin to freeze into snow, sleet or hail, which charac-
terizes the third stage. When the water has frozen and the cloud
has ascended higher, it contains only ice particles and the vapour of
ice, a condition which characterizes the fourth or snow stage. If
in this condition we give it plenty of time the precipitated ice or snow
may settle down, and the cloudy air, becoming clear, return to the
nrst stage; but the ordinary process in nature is a circulation by
which both the cloud and the air descend together slowly, warming
up as they descend, so that eventually the mixture returns to the
first stage at some level lower than the clouds, though higher than
the starting-point.
The exact study of the ordinary non-adiabatic process can be
carried out by the help of Professor Bigelow's tables, and especially
by the very ingenious tables published by Neuhoff (Berlin, 1900) but
the approximate adiabatic study is so helpful that in fig. 10 we have
traced a few lines from Hertz's
diagram sufficient to illustrate its
use and convenience. The reader
will perceive a horizontal line at
the base representing sea-level;
near the middle of this line is zero
centigrade; as we ascend above
this base into the upper regions
of the air we come under lower
pressures, which are shown by
the figures on the left-hand side. ,
The scale of pressures is logar-
ithmic, so that the corresponding
altitudes would be a scale of
equal parts. The temperature
and pressure at any height in
the atmosphere are shown by
this diagram. If the air be satur-
ated at a given temperature, then
the unit volume can contain only -*<fc. -10
a definite number of grams of Alter Hertz.
water, and this condition is repre- FIG. 10. Diagram for Graphic
sented by a set of moisture lines, Method of following Adiabatic
indicated by short dashes, show- Changes,
ing the temperature and pres-
sure under which 5, 10 or 20 grams of water may be contained in
the saturated air. Let us now suppose that we are following the
behaviour of a kilogram mass of air rising from near sea-level, where
it has a pressure of 750 millimetres, a temperature of 27 C., and
a relative humidity of 50%. A pointer pressing down upon the
diagram at 750 millimetres and 27 C. will represent this initial con-
dition. A line drawn through that point parallel to the moisture
lines will show that if this air were saturated it would contain about
22 grams of water; but inasmuch as the relative humidity is only
50 %, therefore it actually contains only 1 1 grams of water, and an
auxiliary moisture line may be drawn for this amount. If now the
mass rises and cools by expansion, the relation between pressure and
temperature will be shown by the line a a. When this line inter-
sects the inclined moisture line for 1 1 grams of water we know that
the rising mass has cooled to saturation, and this occurs when the
pressure is about 640 millimetres and the temperature 13-2 C.
By further rise and expansion a steady condensation continues,
but by reason of the latent heat evolved the rate of cooling is dimin-
ished and follows the line /3 ft. The condensed vapour or cloud
particles are here supposed to be carried up with the cooling air,
but the temperature of freezing or zero degrees centigrade is soon
attained as the diagram shows when the pressure is about 472
millimetres. At this point the special evolution of latent heat of
freezing comes into play; and although the air rises higher and more
moisture is condensed, the temperature does not fall because the
water already converted into vapour and now becoming ice is giving
out latent heat sufficient to counteract the cooling due to expansion.
This illustration from Hertz's diagram therefore shows that the
curve for cooling temperature coincides with the vertical line for
freezing, and is represented on the diagram by the short piece /3 y.
By this expansion due to ascent the volume is increased while the
temperature is not changed; therefore, the quantity of aqueous
vapour has increased. When the ascending mass has reached the
level where the pressure is 463 millimetres it has also reached the
moisture line that represents this increase in aqueous vapour. As
this shows that the aqueous particles have now all been frozen, and
as the air is now continuously rising, while its temperature is always
below freezing-point, therefore at levels above this point the vapour
that condenses from the air is supposed to pass directly over into the
condition of solid ice. Therefore from this point onwards the falling
temperatures follow along the line y y, and continue along it in-
definitely. From these considerations it follows that the clouds
above the altitude of freezing temperatures are essentially snow
crystals, and if the air rises slowly there may be time for the water
and ice to settle down towards the ground ; in this case the quantity
288
METEOROLOGY
[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL
of snow left within the clouds must be very small, and the cloud
has the delicate appearance peculiar to cirrus. Hertz s original
diagram is quite covered by these systems of o, 0, y and 4 lines, and
the moisture lines. The lines show the density of the moist air at
any stage of the process. The improved diagram by Neuhoff , pub-
lished in 1900, is reprinted in the second volume of Abbe's Mechanics
of the Earth's Atmosphere, and its arrangements help to solve many
problems suggested by the recent progress of aerial research.
In von Bezold's treatment of this subject only illustrative diagrams
are published, because the accurate figures, drawn to scale, are
necessarily too large and detailed. He presents graphically the exact
explanation of the cooling by expansion, the loss of both mass and
heat by the rainfall and snowfall, and the warmth of the remaining
air when it descends as foehn winds in Switzerland and chinook
winds in Montana. Even in the neighbourhood of a storm over low
lands and the ocean, the warm moist air in front, after being carried
up to the rain or snow stage, flows away on the upper west wind
until a corresponding portion of the latter descends drier and warmer
on the opposite side of the central low pressure. In order to have
a convenient term expressive of the fact that two masses of air in
different portions of the atmosphere having different pressures,
temperatures and moistures, would, if brought to the same pressure,
also necessarily attain the same temperature, von Bezold introduced
the expression " potential temperature," and devised a simple dia-
gram by which the potential temperature may be determined for
any mass of air whose present temperature, pressure and moisture
are known. In an ascending mass of air, from the beginning of the
condensation onwards, the potential temperature steadily increases
by reason of the loss of moisture, but in a descending mass of air it re-
mains constant at the maximum value attained by it at the highest
point of its previous path. In general the potential temperatures
of the upper strata of the atmosphere are higher than those of the
lower. In general the so-called vertical temperature gradient is
smaller than would correspond to the adiabatic rate fof the dry
stage. This latter gradient is 0-993 C. per hundred metres for the
dry stage, but the actual atmospheric observations give about 0-6.
Apparently this difference represents primarily the latent heat
evolved by the condensation of vapour as it is carried into the upper
layers, but it also denotes in part the effect of the radiant heat
directly retained in the atmosphere by the action of the dust and the
surfaces of the clouds. Passing from simple changes due to ascent
and descent, von Bezold next investigated the results of the mixture
of different masses of air, having different temperatures and
humidities, or different potential temperatures. The importance of
such mixtures was exaggerated by Hutton, while that of thermo-
dynamic processes was maintained by Espy, but the relative
significance of the two was first clearly shown by Hann as far as it
relates to the formation of rain, and further details have been con-
sidered by von Bezold. The practical tables contained in Professor
Bigelow's report on clouds, and those of Neuhoff as arranged for the
use of those who follow up von Bezold's train of thought, complete
our methods of studying this subject.
A most important application of the views of von Bezold, Hertz
and Helmholtz was published by Brillouin in his memoir of 1898.
Just as we have learned that the motions of the atmosphere are
not due either to the general distribution of heat or to local influences
exclusively, but in part to each, and just as we have learned that the
temperature of the air is not due either to radiation and absorption
or to dynamic processes exclusively, but to both combined, so in the
phenomena of rain and cloud the precipitation is not always due to
the cooling by mixture, or to the cooling by expansion, or to radia-
tion, but is in general a complex result of all. The effect of the
evaporation of cloudy particles in the production of descending
cold 'currents has always been understood in a general way, but was
first brought to prominence by Espy in 1838, and perhaps equally
forcibly by Faye in 1875. Helmholtz, in his memoirs on billows in
the atmosphere, showed how contiguous currents may interact on
each other and mix together at their boundary surface; but Brillouin
explains how these mixtures produce cloud and rain not heavy
rains, of course, but light showers, and spits of snow and possibly hail.
He says: " When the layers of clear or cloudy air are contiguous,
but moving with very different velocities, their motion, relative
to the earth because of the rotation of our globe, assumes a much
more complicated character than that which obtains when the air
has no horizontal but only a vertical motion. We know in a general
manner what apparent auxiliary forces must be introduced in order
to take into account this rotation, and numerous meteorologists
have published important works on the subject since the first memoirs
by Ferrel. But their points of view have been very different from
mine. The subjects that I desire to study are the surfaces of
discontinuity as to velocity, temperature and cloudiness in one
special case only. Analytical methods permit us to resolve complex
questions only for limited areas in longitude and for contiguous
zones within which the movements are steady, but not necessarily
uniform nor parallel. But it is evident that one can learn much as
to the condition of permanence or destruction of annular zones
having uniform and parallel movements. Thus simplified, the
questions can be treated by elementary geometric methods, by means
of which we at once rediscover and complete the results given by
Helmholtz for zones of clear air and discover a whole series of new
results for zones of cloudy air." Among Brillouin's results are the
following theorems:
A If the atmosphere be divided into narrow zonal rings, each
extending completely around the globe, thus covering a narrow zone
of latitude, and if each is within itself in convective equilibrium
so that the surfaces of equal pressure shall be surfaces of revolution
around the axis of rotation, then within any such complete ring
in convective equilibrium the angular velocity of any particle of the
air will vary in inverse ratio of the square of its distance from the
axis of rotation, or or 2 is constant ; that is to say, the air will not move
like a rotating solid, but will have a variable angular velocity, smaller
far from the axis and greater near to it.
B. The surfaces of equal pressure are more concave towards the
centre than is the surface of the globe itself, and they are tangent
to the latter only along the parallel where calms prevail.
C. A heavy gaseous atmosphere resting upon a rotating friction-
less globe divides itself into concentric rings whose angular move-
ments increase as we pass from the polar region towards the equa-
torial ring ; the central globe rotates more rapidly than the equatorial
atmospheric ring.
D. The surface of separation between two contiguous concentric
rings must be such that the atmospheric pressure shall have the
same value as one approaches this surface from either direction, and
the surface of separation is stable if the differences of pressure in
different parts of this surface are directed towards the surface of
equilibrium. As the distribution of pressure along a line parallel
to the axis of rotation is independent of the velocity of rotation,
the ordinary condition of stability, viz. that the gas of which the lower
ring is composed shall be denser than that above, will hold good
for this line. In general, any inclination of the surface of separation
to the horizon amounting to 10 must be associated with very small
differences of density and large differences of velocity; in practice
the inclinations are far less than 10.
E. If the surfaces of equal pressure or isobars are nearly horizontal,
as in ordinary cases, the calculations are comparatively easy to
make. Let the inclination of the isobaric surface ascending towards
the pole be <t>; let hi be a distance counted along the axis of the earth,
and Hi the distance measured in the direction of the attraction of
gravity; then the angle of inclination of the isobaric surface is given
by the equation
HI h t sin X
** A.cosX
where X is the complement of the angle between the direction of
gravity and the line drawn to the poles, or the axis of rotation of
the earth. The surface of separation is that over which the pressure
is the same in two contiguous masses or zones, and is identical
with a vertical plane only when the densities and velocities in the
two layers have certain specific relations to each other. It can never
lie between the isobaric surfaces that Brillouin designates as I and 2.
In order that the equilibrium maybe stable, it is necessary that when
ascending in the atmosphere along a line parallel to the polar axis
one should traverse layers of diminishing density. In the midst
of any zone there cannot exist another zone of limited altitude;
it must extend upwards indefinitely. Whenever there is any zone
of limited altitude it must necessarily have, near its highest or lowest
point, an edge by which it is attached to the surface of separation
of two other neighbouring zones. In other words, the surfaces of
separation of the three zones, of which one is limited and the other
two are indefinite, must all run together at a common point or edge,
very much as in the problem of the equilibrium of thin films.
F. When the contiguous zones are cloudless the mixtures take
place under the following conditions: Starting from the stable
conditions, the cloudless mixture ascends on the polar side when the
west wind which prevails on the equatorial side of the surface of
separation is warmer, but descends between the pole and the equa-
torial side of the horizon when the west wind which prevails on the
equatorial side x>f the surface of separation is colder. The mixtures
of cloudless air rapidly occupy the whole height of the two layers that
are mixing. When they form along a surface that becomes unstable
the whirlwind that is thus engendered is sensibly cylindrical at first,
but finally becomes extremely conical. This whirlwind may be
limited as to height when the two contiguous masses that are mixing
are surmounted by a third clear or cloudy layer which intersects
the other two and whose lower surface is stable. (Brillouin suggests
that possibly this corresponds to the formation of water-spouts and
tornadoes.)
G. When the contiguous zones are cloudy and the mixtures
produce decided condensations, and sometimes even precipitation,
the study of these must follow closely in the train of thought followed
out by von Bezold. When the contiguous winds are feeble, but the
temperatures are very different and the zones are near the equator,
then the position of the mixture can be inverted by condensation,
since the influence of difference of pressure becomes predominant.
At the equator, whatever may be the difference of temperature, a
mixture that is. accompanied by condensation always rises if the
surface of separation is stable. The condensation increases by the
expansion, each zone of mixture being an outburst of ascend-
ing cumuli. At the equator, whatever may be the difference of
PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL]
METEOROLOGY
289
temperature, a mixture accompanied by condensation always
descends when the surface of separation is unstable; moreover, the
adiabatic compression rapidly evaporates the mixture.
In the last three chapters of his memoir, Brillouin applies these
principles and other details to almost every observed variety of
mixtures due to the pressure of one current of air against another.
Fig. ii, prepared for the U.S. Monthly Weather Review (Oct.
Light fia/'f? . Very ca/J.
3
Very ivarrm Ware
C/ear
CoJd Wave.
sion is counterbalanced by redistribution of potential energy and by
the work done in the interchange of locations. The idea that baro-
metric pressure gradients make the storm-winds is seen to be erron-
eous and the primary importance of gravity gradients is brought
to light. " The source of a storm is to be sought only in the poten-
tial energy of position and in the velocity of ascent and descent,
although these are generally lost sight of owing to the great horizon-
tal and small vertical dimensions of the storm areas The horizontal
distribution of pressure seems to be a forced transformation within
the storm areas at the boundary surface of the earth, by reason of
which a small part of the mass of air acquires a greater velocity than
it could by ascending in the coldest or sinking in the warmest
part of the storm areas. But here we come to problems that cannot
be solved by considering the energy only."
This latter quotation emphasizes the necessity of returning to
the equations of motion. The thermodynamics and hydrodynamics
of the atmosphere must be studied in intimate connexion they can
no longer be studied separately. Apparently we may expect this
next step to be taken in the above-mentioned work promised by
V. Bjerknes, but meanwhile Professor F. H. Bigelow has success-
fully attacked some features of the problem in his " Studies on the
Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere " (Monthly Weather Review,
Jan.-Dec. 1906). In ch. iii. of his studies (Monthly Weather Review,
March 1906) Bigelow establishes a therrnodynamic formula applic-
able to non-adiabatic processes by introducing a factor n so that the
pressure (P) and absolute temperature (T) are connected by the
formula
After Brillouin.
FIG. ii. Diagram illustrating Clouds due to Mixture.
i897)> gives five of the cases elucidated by Brillouin. In each of
these the left-hand side of the diagram is the polar side, the air
being cold above and the wind from the east, while the right-hand
side is the equatorial side, the air being warm above
and the wind from the west. The reader will see that
in each case, depending on the relative temperatures
and winds, layers of cloud are formed of marked in-
dividuality. As none of these clouds appear in the
International Cloud Atlas or the various systems of
notation for clouds, one is all the more impressed
with the importance of their study and the success
with which Brillouin has opened up the way for future
investigators. " We have no longer to do with per-
sonal and local experience, but with an analytical
description of a small number of characteristics easy
to comprehend and applicable at every locality
throughout the globe."
From a therrnodynamic point of view the most
important study is that published by Margules, Ueber
die Energie der Sturme (Vienna, 1905). This work
considers only the total energy and its adiabatic trans-
formations within a mass of air constituting a closed
system. Truly adiabatic changes in closed systems
do not occur within any special portion of the earth's
atmosphere, neither can our entire atmosphere be
considered as one such system but Margules' results are approxi-
mately applicable to many observed cases and complete the demon-
stration of the general truth that we must not confine our studies
to the simpler cases treated by Espy, Reye, Sohncke, Peslin, Ferrel,
Mohn. All imaginable combinations of conditions exist in our
atmosphere, and a method must be found to treat the whole subject
comprehensively and rigorously.
The three equations of energy on which Margules bases his work
are:
R+5(K+P)+aA=o
I-A = Q
R+8(K+P)+I=Q
where R= energy lost by friction or converted into heat; K =
kinetic energy due to velocity of moving masses; P = potential energy
due to location and gravity and pressure heat; A = work done by
internal forces when air is expanding or contracting; I = internal
energy due .to the existing pressure and temperature; Q= quantity
of heat or thermal energy added or lost during any operation and
which is zero during adiabatic processes only.
These equations are applied to cases in which masses of air of
different temperatures and moistures are superposed and then left
free to assume stable equilibrium. It results in every case that there
is no free energy developed. Any condensation of moisture by expan-
xvni. 10.
In our fig. i above given, Cottier has assumed n = i -2, but as the
values have now been computed for all altitudes from the observa-
tions given by balloons and kites, and have a very general importance
and interest, we copy them from Bigelow's Table 1 6 as below:
The existence of such large values of n shows the great extent to
which non-adiabatic processes enter into atmospheric physics.
Heat is being radiated, absorbed, transferred and transformed on all
occasions and at all altitudes. Knowing thus the therrnodynamic
structure of areas of high and low pressure we find the modifications
needed in the energy formula for non-adiabatic processes and
Bigelow applies the resulting formula most satisfactorily to a famous
waterspout of the igth of August 1896 over Nantucket Sound, for
which many photographs and measurements are available. The
therrnodynamic study of this waterspout being thus accomplished,
it was followed by a combined thermohydrodynamic study of all
Values of n between successive levels.
Altitudes.
America.
Europe.
Both A. and E.
All.
Winter.
Summer.
Winter.
Summer.
Winter.
Summer.
kil.
16-14
3-4
2-82
3-04
3-59
3-04
3-20
3-12
14-12
4-39
2-82
4-39
3'4
4-39
2-93
3-66
12-10
2-08
72
2-08
64
2-08
68
88
lo- 9
52
47
52
41
52
44
48
9- 8
39
41
41
32
40
36
38
8- 7
41
52
41
41
41
46
44
7-6
45
67
41
52
43
60
52
6- 5
52
52
41
62
46
57
52
5- 4
79
41
67
70
73
56
64
4- 3
97
32
79
94
88
63
76
3- 2
2-IO
65
2-OI
3
2-06
98
2 -O2
2- I
3-52
83
2-24
67
2-88
i'75
2-32
I- O
2-30
83
2-47
64
2-38
1-74
2-O6
storms (Monthly Weather Review, November igo7-March 1909)
with considerable success.
We have thus passed in review the steady progress of mathe-
matical physicists in their efforts to unravel the complex dynamics
of our atmosphere. The profound importance of this subject to
governmental weather bureaus, and through them to the whole
civilized world, stimulates diligent effort to overcome the inherent
difficulties of the problems. An elaborate system of study and
laboratory experimentation leading up to research in meteorology
has been devised by Cleveland Abbe, culminating in experiments
on models of the atmosphere as a whole by which to elucidate
both the local and the general circulations on globes whose oro-
graphy and distribution of land and water is as irregular as that
of the earth.
The Formation of Rain. Not only has dynamic meteorology
made the progress delineated in the previous sections, but one of
the most important questions in molecular physics is _in process
of being cleared up. The study of atmospheric nuclei and con-
densation and the formation of clouds in their relation to daily
meteorological work began with the appointment of Dr Carl Barus in
1891 as physicist to the U.S. Weather Bureau, and his work has been
laboriously continued and extended in his laboratory at Providence,
Rhode Island. The formation of rain, from a physical point of view.
290
METEOROLOGY
[COSMICAL
\a the ultimate step in the formation of cloud. The cloud consists,
like fog, of extremely small particles, so light that they float in-
definitely in the air; rain and snow represent those particles that
have grown to be too large and heavy to be any longer sustained
by the air that is to say, their rate of fall through the air is greater
than the ascending component of the air in which they float. The
process by which larger drops are formed out of the lighter particles
that constitute a cloud has not yet been satisfactorily explained.
It is probable that either one of several processes contributes to
bring about this result, and that in some cases all of these conspire
together. The following paragraphs represent the hypotheses that
have marked the gradual progress of our knowledge:
A. Cloud particles may be driven together by the motions imparted
to them by the wind, and may thus mechanically unite into larger
ones, which, as they descend more rapidly, overtake the smaller
ones and grow into rain-drops.
B. The particles on the upper boundary of a cloud may at night-
time, or in the shade, cool more decidedly than their neighbours
below them, either by radiation or by mixture; then the air in their
immediate vicinity becomes correspondingly cold, the particles and
their envelopes of cold air sink more rapidly, overtaking, and there-
fore uniting, with other particles until the large rain-drops are formed.
C. Some cloud particles may be supposed to be electrified posi-
tively and others negatively, causing them to attract each other
and run together into larger ones, or, again, some may be neutral
and others charged, which may also bring about attraction and union.
D. When any violent agitation of the air, such as the sound waves
due to thunder, or cannonading, or other explosions, sets the particles
in motion, they may be driven together until brought into contact,
and united into larger drops.
E. The air or, properly speaking, the vapour between cloudy
particles that is to say, within fog or cloud, is generally in a state
of supersaturation; but if it is steadily rising to higher altitudes,
thereby expanding and cooling, the supersaturation must increase
steadily until it reaches a degree at which the molecular strain gives
way, and a sudden violent condensation takes place, in which
process both the vapour and the cloud particles within a compara-
tively large sphere are instantaneously gathered into a large drop.
The electricity that may be developed in this process may give
rise to the lightning flash, instead of the reverse process described
in the preceding paragraphs (C and D).
F. However plausible the preceding five hypotheses have seemed
to be, it must be confessed that no one has ever yet observed pre-
cipitation actually formed by these processes. The laborious
observations of C. T. R. Wilson of Cambridge, England, probably
give us our first correct idea as to the molecular processes involved
in the formation of rain. After having followed up the methods
inaugurated by Aitken showing that the particles of dust floating
in the air, no matter of what they may be composed, become by pre-
ference the nuclei upon which the moisture begins to condense when
air is cooled by expansion, Wilson then showed that in absolutely
dustless air, having therefore no nuclei to facilitate condensation,
the latter could only occur when the air is cooled to a much greater
extent than in the case of the presence of dust ; in fact, dustless air
requires to be expanded more than dusty air in the ratio of 4 to 3,
or 1 5 times more. The amount of this larger expansion may vary
somewhat with the temperature, the moisture and the gases. More
remarkable still, he showed that dustless air, having no visible or pro-
bable nuclei, acquired such nuclei when a beam of ultra-violet light,
or of the rontgen rays, or the uranium radiation, or of ordinary
sunlight (which possibly contains all of these radiations), was allowed
to pass through the moist air in his experimental tube. In other
words, these rays produce a change in the mixed gas and vapour
similar to the formation of nuclei, and condensation of aqueous
vapour takes place upon these invisible nuclei as readily as upon
the visible dust nuclei. Further, the presence of certain metals within
the experimental tube also produces nuclei; but the amount of
expansion, and therefore of cooling, required to produce condensa-
tion upon these metallic nuclei is rather larger than in the case of
dust nuclei. The nuclei thrown into the experimental tube by the
discharge of electricity from a pointed metal wire produced very dense
fogs by means of expansions slightly exceeding those required for
ordinary dust. Finally, Wilson has been able to show that when
dust particles are electrified negatively their tendency to condense
vapour upon themselves as nuclei is much greater than when they
are electrified positively, and he suggests that the descent of the
rain-drops to the ground, carrying negative electricity from the
atmosphere to the earth, may perhaps explain the negative charge
of the earth and the positive electricity of the atmosphere.
At this point we come into contact with the views developed by
J. J. Thomson as to the nature of electricity and the presence of
negative and positive nuclei in the atmosphere. According to him
I he molecules made up of what chemists call atoms must be still
further subdivided, and the atoms must be conceived as made up
of corpuscles; the mass of a corpuscle is the same as the mass of the
negative ion in a gas at low pressure. In the normal atom this
semblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrical and
neutral. Though the individual corpuscles behave like negative
ions, yet when they are assembled in a neutral atom the negative
eitect is balanced by something which causes the space through which
the corpuscles are spread to act as if it had a charge of positive
electricity equal in amount to the sum of the negative charges on the
corpuscles. I regard electrification of a gas as due to the splitting
up of some of the atoms of the gas, resulting in the detachment
of a corpuscle from such atoms The detached corpuscles behave
like negative ions, each carrying a constant negative charge which
we shall call the unit charge, while the part of the atom left
behind behaves like a positive ion with the units positively charged
but with a mass that is large compared with that of the negative
ion. In a case of the ionization of the gas by rontgen or uranium
rays, the evidence seems to be in favour of the view that not more
than one corpuscle can be detached from any one atom. Now tha
ions by virtue of their negative charges act as nuclei around which
drops of water condense when moist dust-free gas is suddenly
expanded. . . . C. T. R. Wilson has shown that it requires a con-
siderably greater expansion to produce a cloud in dust-free air on
positive ions than on negative ones, when the ions are produced by
rontgen rays." It would therefore appear that the moist atmo-
sphere above us may, through the action of sunlight or the lightning
flash as well as by other means, become ionized. The negative ions
attract moisture to themselves more readily than the positive; they
grow to be larger drops, and descending to the earth with their
negative charges give it negative electricity, while the atmosphere
is left essentially either positive or neutral. (See also ATMOSPHERIC
ELECTRICITY.)
IV. COSMICAL METEOROLOGY
Under this title have been included all possible, plausible
or imaginary relations between the earth's atmosphere and
interplanetary space or the heavenly bodies. The diffusion
to and fro at the outer limit of the atmosphere, the bombard-
ment by ions from the sun, the explanation of auroral lights
and of magnetic storms, the influence of shooting stars and
comet tails, the relation of the zodiacal light and the Gegen-
schein to the atmosphere, the parallelisms between terrestrial
phenomena and the variations of the solar spots and protuber-
ances, the origin of long or short climatic periods, the cause
of special widespread cold days, the existence of lunar or solar
gravitation tides analogous to oceanic tides, the influence of
slow changes in the earth's orbit or the earth's axis of rotation
all are grouped under cosmical meteorology.
But, in the writer's judgment these matters, while curious
and interesting, have no appreciable bearing on the current
important questions of atmospheric mechanics. There seem
to be many widespread delusions and mistakes in regard to
these problems, analogous to the popular errors in regard to
astrology, and it is hardly necessary to do more than allude to
them here. The leading meteorologists have relegated such
questions to the care of theoretical astronomers and physicists
until our knowledge is more firmly established. Undoubtedly
the earth does come under other influences than that of the
radiation from the sun; but in ihe present stage of dynamic
meteorology we consider only this latter, and, assuming it to
be constant as regards quantity and quality, we find the variable
selective absorptions and reflections within our own atmosphere,
and its complex internal mechanism afford us a bewildering
maze of problems such that so long as these are unsolved it
would be folly to spend time on those.
V. METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS
During the latter half of the igth century the prosecution
of work in meteorology gradually passed out of the hands of
individuals into the control of large national organizations.
This was the natural result of the discovery that, by the spread
of the electric telegraph and ocean cables, it had become possible
to compile daily weather-maps for large portions of the globe
and make predictions of the weather and the storms for a day
or two in advance, of sufficient accuracy to be of the greatest
importance to the material interests of civilized nations. The
development of wireless telegraphy since 1900 has even made it
possible for isolated ships at sea to exchange weather telegrams,
compile daily maps and study surrounding storms. One by
one every civilized nation has established either .a weather
bureau or a meteorological office, or a bureau of hydrography
and marine meteorology, or an elaborate establishment for
aerial explorations according as its special interests demanded.
These governmental bureaus usually pursue both climatology
and theoretical meteorology in addition to their daily practical
METER, ELECTRIC
291
work of telegraphy, forecasting, and publication of charts.
Although, of course, in most cases, the so-called practical work
absorbs the greater part of the labour and the funds, yet every-
where it is recognized that research and the development of a
correct theory of the motions of the atmosphere are essential
to any important progress in the art of forecasting. Among
other important general works in which the official weather
bureaus have united, we may enumerate the International
Meteorological Congresses, of which the first was held in 1853 at
Brussels, the second in 1873 at Vienna, and others more frequently
since that date; the establishment of an International Com-
mittee, to which questions of general interest are referred;
the organization of a systematic exploration of the polar regions
in the years 1882 and 1883; the general extension of the meteoro-
logical services to include terrestrial magnetism as an essential
part of the physics of the globe; the systematic exploration
of the upper atmosphere by means of kites and balloons; and
the universal co-operation with the U.S. Weather Bureau in
the contribution of simultaneous data for its international
bulletin and its daily map of the whole northern hemisphere.
The hydrographic offices and marine bureaus of the principal
commercial nations have united so far as practicable in the daily
charting of the weather, but have especially developed the study
of the climatology of the ocean, not only along the lines laid
down by Maury and the Brussels Conference of 1853, but also
with particular reference to the tracks of storm centres and
the laws of storms on the ocean. The condition of these
governmental organizations was discussed in the annual address
of the Hon. F. Campbell Bayard, delivered before the Royal
Meteorological Society of London in January 1899, and in the
text accompanying Bartholomew's Physical Alias, vol. iii.
The development of meteorology, in both its scientific and
its practical aspects, is intimately dependent upon the progress
of our knowledge of physics, and its study offers innumerable
problems that can be solved only by proper combinations of
mathematical theory and laboratory experimentation. The
professors in colleges and universities who have hitherto lectured
on this subject have not failed to develop some features of
dynamic meteorology, although most of their attention has been
given to climatology. In fact, many of them have been engrossed
in the study of general problems in molecular physics, and could
give meteorology only a small part of their attention. The
early textbooks on meteorology were frequently mere chapters
or sections of general treatises on physics or chemistry. The
few prominent early cases of university professorships devoted to
meteorology are those of the eminent Professor Heinrich Wilhelm
Dove at Berlin, Professor Adolphe Quetelet at Brussels and
Professor Ludwig Friedrich Kaemtz at Halle and Dorpat. In
modern times we may point to Professor Wilhelm von Bezold
and George Hellmann at Berlin, Professor Julius Hann at Vienna
and Gratz, Professor Josef Maria Pernter at Linz and Vienna,
Professor Alexander Woeikof at St Petersburg, Professors Hugo
Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson at Upsala, Henrik Mohn at Chris-
tiania, Elias Loomis at New Haven, Connecticut, W. M. Davis
and R. de C. Ward at Cambridge, Massachusetts, Alfred Angot
and Marcel Brillouin at Paris, Hugo Hergesell at Strassburg,
Arthur Schuster at Manchester, Peter Polis at Bonn, and
Richard Bornstein at the School of Agriculture in Berlin. With
these exceptions the great .universities of the world have as yet
given but little special encouragement to meteorology; it has
even been stated that there is no great demand for higher
education on the subject. On the other hand, the existence
of thousands of voluntary observers, the profound interest in
the weather actually taken by every individual, and the numer-
ous schemes for utilizing our very limited knowledge of the
subject through the activities of the large weather bureaus of
the world demonstrate that there is a demand for knowledge
perhaps even higher than the universities can offer. It would
be very creditable to a nation or to a wealthy patron of science
if there should be established meteorological laboratories in
I connexion with important universities, at which not only in-
; st.ruction but especially investigation might be pursued, as is
done at the magnificent astronomical observatories that are so
numerous throughout the world. Every atmospheric pheno-
menon can be materially elucidated by exact laboratory
experiments and measurements: theory can be confronted with
facts; and the student can become an original investigator in
meteorology.
The great difficulties inherent to meteorology should stimulate
the devotion of the highest talent to the progress of this branch
of science. The practical value of weather predictions justifies
the expenditure of money and labour in order to improve them
in every detail.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Those who desire recent additions to our know-
ledge should consult first Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1906) as being a systematic encyclopaedia. Of equal impor-
tance is the Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Berlin and Vienna, 1866 to
date). The Atlas of Meteorology (Bartholomew, 1900), the Quarterly
Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society (London) and the
Monthly Weather Review (Washington) are the works most con-
venient to English readers and abound with references to current
literature. The Physical Review Science Abstracts and the Forl-
schritte der Physik contain short notices of all important memoirs
and will serve to direct the student's attention toward any special
topic that may interest him. (C. A.)
METER, ELECTRIC. In the public supply of electric energy
for lighting and power it is necessary to provide for the measure-
ment of the electric energy or quantity by devices which are
called electric meters. Those in use may be classified in several
ways: (i) according to the kind of electric supply they are
fitted to measure, e.g. whether continuous current or alternating
current, and if the latter, whether monophase or polyphase;
(ii) according to whether they record intermittently or> con-
tinuously; (iii) according to the principle of their action, whether
mechanical or electrolytic; (iv) according to the nature of the
measurement, whether quantity or energy meters. The last
subdivision is fundamental. Meters intended to measure
electric energy (which is really the subject of the sale and
purchase) are called joule meters, or generally watt-hour meters.
Meters intended to measure electric quantity are called coulomb
meters and also ampere-hour meters; they are employed for the
measurement of public electric supply on the assumption that
the electromotive force or pressure is constant. Most of the
practical meters in use at the present time may be classified under
the following five heads: electrolytic meters, motor meters,
clock meters, intermittent registering meters and induction
meters.
Electrolytic Meters are exclusively ampere-hour meters, measuring
electric quantity directly and electric energy only indirectly, on
the assumption that the pressure of the supply is constant. The first
electrolytic house meter in connexion with public electric supply
was described by St. George Lane- Fox. He was followed by F. J.
Sprague and T. A. Edison, the last-named inventor elaborating a
type of meter which he employed in connexion with his system of
electric lighting in its early days. The Edison electric meter, like
those of Sprague and Lane-Fox, was based upon the principle that
when an electric current flows through an electrolyte, such as sul-
phate of copper or sulphate of zinc, the electrodes being plates of
copper or zinc, metal is dissolved off one plate (the anode) and
deposited on the other plate (the cathode). It consisted of a glass
vessel, containing a solution of sulphate of zinc, in which were placed
two plates of pure amalgamated zinc. These plates were connected
by means of a german-silver shunt, their size and the distance be-
tween them being so. adjusted that about y^V^ part of the current
passing through the meter travelled through the electrolytic .cell
and -fffiz of the current passed through the shunt. Before being
placed in the cells the zinc plates were weighed. The shunted
voltameter was then inserted in series with the electric supply mains
leading to the house or building taking electric energy, and the cur-
rent which passed dissolved the zinc jfrom one plate and deposited
it upon the other, so that after a certain interval of time had elapsed
the altered weight of the plates enabled the quantity of electricity
to be determined from the known fact that an electric current of
one ampere, flowing for one hour, removes 1-2133 grammes of zinc
from a solution of sulphate of zinc. Hence the quantity in ampere-
hours passing through the electrolytic cell being known and the
fraction of the whole quantity taken by the cell being known, the
quantity supplied to the house was determined. To prevent tem-
perature from affecting the shunt ratio, Edison joined in series with
the electrolytic cell a copper coil the resistance of which increased
with a rise of temperature by the same amount that the electrolyte
decreased. Owing to the cost and trouble of weighing a large
number of zinc plates, this type of meter fell into disuse.
2Q2
A more modern type of electrolytic meter is that due to C. O.
Bastian. 1 The whole current supplied to the house flows through
an electrolytic cell consisting of a glass tube containing two platinum
electrodes; the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid covered with a
thin layer of oil to prevent evaporation. As the current flows it
decomposes the liquid and liberates oxygen and hydrogen gases,
which escape. The quantity of electricity which is passed is esti-
mated by the diminution in the volume of the liquid. A third
electrolytic meter of the shunted voltameter type is that of A.
Wright. In this meter the electrolyte is a solution of mercurous
nitrate which is completely enclosed in a glass tube of a particular
form, having a mercury anode and a platinum or carbon cathode.
The current is determined by measuring the volume of the mercury
delivered at the cathode. In the Long-Schattner electrolytic meter
a solution of sulphate of copper is electrolyzed.
Motor Meters. Amongst motor meters one well-known type be-
longing to the ampere-hour species is that of S. Z. Ferranti, who
introduced it in 1883. It consists of an electromagnet within the
iron core of which is a flat disk-like cavity containing mercury,
the sides of the cavity being stamped with grooves. The thin disk
of mercury is therefore traversed perpendicularly by lines of magnetic
force when the magnet is excited. The current to be measured
is passed through the coils of the electromagnet, then enters
the mercury disk at the centre, flows through it radially in all direc-
tions, and emerges at the periphery. The mass of mercury is thus
set in motion owing to the tendency of a conductor conveying an
electric current to move transversely across lines of magnetic force;
it becomes in fact the armature of a simple form of dynamo, and
rotates with a speed which increases with the strength of the current.
The roughness of the surface of the cavity serves to retard it. The
rotation of the mercury is detected and measured by means of a
small vane of platinum wire immersed in it, the shaft of this vane
being connected by an endless screw with a counting mechanism.
The core of the electromagnet is worked at a point far below magnetic
saturation (see MAGNETISM) ; hence the field is nearly proportional
to the square of the current, and the resistance offered to the rotating
mercury by the friction against the sides of the cavity is nearly pro-
portional to the square of the speed. It follows that the number of
the revolutions the mercury makes in a given time is proportional
to the quantity of electricity which is passed through the meter.
In order to overcome the friction of the counting train, Ferranti
ingeniously gave to the core of the electromagnet a certain amount of
permanent magnetism. Another well-known motor meter, working
on a somewhat similar principle, is that of Chamberlain and Hookham.
In its improved form this meter consists of a single horseshoe
permanent magnet formed of tungsten-steel having a strong and
constant field. Two air-gaps are made in this field parallel to
each other. In one of these a copper disk, called the brake disk,
revolves, and in the other a copper armature disk. The latter is
slit radially, and the magnetic field is so arranged that it perforates
each half of the disk in opposite directions. The armature is im-
mersed in a shallow vessel filled with mercury, which is insulated
from the vessel and the armature, except at the ends of the copper
strips. The current to be measured passes transversely across the
disk and causes it to revolve in the magnetic field ; at the same time
the copper brake, geared on the same shaft, revolves in the field and
has local or eddy currents produced in it which retard its action.
The principle of the meter is to make the breaking and driving action
so strong that the friction of the train becomes immaterial in
comparison. This meter is an ampere-hour meter and applicable
only to continuous current circu'ts. Another form of motor meter
which is much used is that of Elihu Thomson. It takes the form of
a small dynamo having an armature and field magnets without any
iron core. The armature carries on its shaft a commutator made of
silver slips, and the current is fed into the armature by means of
brushes of silver wire. The current to be measured passes through
the fixed field-coils, whilst through the armature passes a shunt
current obtained by connecting the brushes across the supply
mains through a constant resistance. The driving force is balanced
against a retarding force produced by the rotation of a copper disk
fixed on the armature shaft, which rotates between the poles of a
permanent magnet. Induced or eddy currents are thus created in
the copper disk, and the reaction of these against the magnetic field
offers a resistance to the rotation of the disk. Hence when a current
is passed through the meter, the armature rotates and increases its
speed until the driving force is balanced against the retarding force
due to the eddy currents in the copper brake disk. In these cir-
cumstances the number of rotations made by the armature in a
given time is proportional to the product of the strength of the
current flowing through the armature and that flowing through the
field-coils, the former being the current to be measured. Hence the
meter is a watt-hour meter and measures electric energy. In order
to overcome the friction of the train the field-coils are wound with an
auxiliary shunt coil which supplies a driving force sufficient to over-
come the friction of the counting train. This last is geared to the
shaft of the armature by an endless screw, and the number of revolu-
tions of the armature is reckoned by the counting-dials, which are
'See Electrician, 41, 112, and Journ. Inst. Elec. Enf^ (London,
1898), 27, 547.
METER, ELECTRIC
so arranged as to indicate the consumption in Board-of-Trade units
(l Board-of-Trade unit = 1000 watt-hours). A modification of the
above meter with some mechanical improvements has been devised
by S. Evershed. 2
Clock Meters. Among clock meters the best known is that of
H. Aron, which is based upon a principle described by W. E. Ayrton
and J. Perry in 1882. It can be constructed to be either an ampere-
hour meter or a watt-hour meter, but is usually the latter. Its
principle is as follows: Suppose there are two pendulum clocks,
one having an ordinary pendulum and the other having a pendulum
consisting of a fine coil of wire through which a current is passed
proportional to the potential difference of the supply mains in
other words, a shunt current. Below this pendulum let there be
placed another coil through which passes the current to be measured ;
then when currents pass through these coils the pendulum of
the second clock will be either accelerated or retarded relatively
to the other clock, since the action ot gravity is supplemented by that
of an electric attraction or repulsion between the coils. Hence the
second clock will gain or lose on the other. The two clock motions
may be geared to a single counting mechanism which records the
difference in the rates of going of the two clocks. If the difference
of the number of oscillations made by the two pendulums in a given
time is small compared to the number made by either of them separ-
ately, then it is easy to* show that the power given to the circuit is
measured by the gain or loss of one clock over the other in a given
time, and can therefore be indicated on a counting mechanism or
registering dials. By the use of a permanent magnet instead of a
shunt coil as the bob of one pendulum, the meter can be made up as
an ampere-hour meter. In this form it has the advantage that it
can be used for either continuous or alternating currents.
In Intermittent Registering Meters some form of ampere-meter or
watt-meter registers the current or power passing into the house;
and a clock motion electrically driven is made to take readings of
the ampere-meter or watt-meter at definite intervals say, every five
minutes and to add up these readings upon a set of registered dials.
The arrangement therefore integrates the ampere-hours or watt-
hours. These meters, of which one well-known form is that of
Johnson and Phillips, have the disadvantage of being unsuited
for the measurement of electric supply in those cases in which it is
irregular or intermittent as in a theatre or hotel.
Induction Meters are applicable only in the case of alternating
current supply. One of the most widely used forms is the Westing-
house-Shallenberger. It consists of a disk of aluminium, the axis
of which is geared to a counting mechanism and which runs between
the poles of permanent magnets that create eddy currents in it
and therefore exert a retarding force. In proximity to the upper
side of the disk is placed a coil of wire having an iron core, which
is a shunt coil, the ends of the coil being connected to the terminals
of the supply mains. Under the disk are two other coils which
are placed in series with the supply. When these last coils are
traversed by an alternating current they induce local or eddy
currents in the disk. The current in the shunt coil lags 90 degrees
behind the impressed electromotive force of the circuit to be
measured; hence if the main current is in step with the potential
difference of the terminals of the supply mains, which is the case
when the supply is given wholly to electric lamps, then the field
due to the main coil differs from that due to the shunt coil by
90 degrees. Since the eddy currents induced in the disk are 90
degrees in phase behind the inducing field, the eddy currents pro-
duced by the main coil are in step with the magnetic field due to
the shunt coil, and hence the disk is driven round by the revolution
due to the action of. the shunt coil upon the induced currents in
the disk. Hence the disk will be accelerated until the driving
force is balanced by the retarding force due to the induced currents
created in the disk by the permanent magnets. When this is the
case, the number of revolutions of the meter in a given time is a
measure of the watt-hours or energy which is passed through the
meter. The counting mechanism and dials may be so arranged
as to indicate this energy directly in watt-hours. The meter is
made up also in a form suitable for use with two or three fixed
electric currents. (See ELECTROKINETICS.)
Requirements of a good House Meter. A gas meter which has an
error of more than 2% in favour of the seller or 3% in favour of
the customer is not passed for use. An electricity meter should
therefore have approximately the same accuracy. As a matter
of fact, it is difficult to rely upon most electric meters to register
correctly to tess than 4% even between quarter-load and full
load. Out of nearly 700 current motor meters of various makes
tested at Munich in 1902, only 319 had an error of less than 4%,
whilst 259 had errors varying from 44 to 10%. If possible, how-
ever, the departures from absolute accuracy should not be more
than 2% at quarter-load, nor more than 3% at a full load. The
accuracy of a meter is tested by drawing calibration curves showing
the percentage departure from absolute accuracy in its reading for
various decimal fractions of full load. Such a test is made by
determining with an accurate ammeter or watt-meter the current
or power supplied to a circuit for a period measured by a good
clock and comparing with this the actual reading of the meter
8 See Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. Land. (1899), 29, 743.
METHODISM
293
during the same time. A common source of trouble is the short
circuiting of the shunt coils owing to the shellaced cotton covering
of the wire becoming moist.
A good meter should start with a current which is not more than
2% of its full load current. With a supply pressure of 200 volts
a 5 c.p. carbon filament lamp takes only o-l ampere; hence unless
a meter will begin to register with ^ ampere it will fail to record
the current consumed by a single small incandescent lamp. In
a large supply system such failure would mean a serious loss of
revenue. The resistance of the meter coils causes a fall in voltage
down the series coil which reduces the supply pressure to the con-
sumer. On the other hand the resistance of the shunt coil absorbs
energy which generally varies from I to 3 watts and is a loss either
to the consumer or to the supply company, according to the manner
in which the shunt coil is connected. In those meters which are
compounded that is, have a shunt coil wound on the field magnets
to compensate for the friction of the train it is important to notice
whether the meter will operate or continue operating when there
is no current in the series coil, since a meter which " runs on the
shunt " runs up a debt against the consumer for which it gives no
corresponding advantage.
Generally speaking, the price of the meter is a subordinate
consideration. Since the revenue-earning power of a supply
station depends entirely upon its meters, inaccuracy in meter
record is a serious matter. The cost of measuring current by the
aid of a meter is made up of three parts: (l) the prime cost of
the meter, which varies from 2 to 6 for an ordinary 25-light
house electric meter; (2) the capital value of the energy absorbed
in it, which if the cost of the energy is taken at 2d. per Board-of-
Trade unit, with interest and depreciation at 6 %, may amount to
10 per customer; and (3) the annual working costs for repairs
and also the wages of the staff of meter men, who take the required
monthly or quarterly readings. In the case of small and irregular
consumers, such as the inhabitants of model dwellings and flats
inhabited chiefly by working-class tenants, coin-in-the-slot meters
are much employed. The customer cannot obtain current for
electric lighting until he has placed in a slit a certain coin say, a
shilling entitling him to a certain number of Board-of-Trade units
say, to 2 or 4, as the case may be. In the Long-Schattncr electrolytic
meter, the insertion of the coin depresses a copper plate or plates
into an electrolytic cell containing a solution of sulphate of copper;
the passage of the current dissolves the copper off one of the plates,
the loss in weight being determined by the quantity of the electricity
passed. As soon as the plate has lost a certain amount of weight
corresponding to the value of the electric energy represented by
the coin, the plate rises out of the liquid and cuts off the current.
AUTHORITIES. H. G. Solomon, Electricity Meters (London, 1906) ;
C. H. W. Gerhardi, Electricity Meters: their Construction and
Management (London, 1906); L. C. Reed, American Meter Practice
(New York, 1904); J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical
Laboratory and Testing Room (London, 1904); T. P. Wilmshurst,
" Electricity Meters," Electrician (1897), 39, 409; G. W. D. Ricks,
" On the Variation of the Constants of Electricity Supply Meters,
ith Temperature and Current," Electrician (1897), 39, 573.
(J- A. F.)
METHODISM, a term 1 denoting the religious organizations
which trace their origin to the evangelistic teaching of John
Wesley. The name " Methodist " was given in derision to those
Oxford students who in company with the Wesleys used to meet
together for spiritual fellowship; and later on when John Wesley
had organized his followers into " societies " the name was
applied to them in the same spirit. It was however accepted by
him, and in official documents he usually styles them " the
people called Methodists." The fact that standards of Methodist
doctrine are laid down as consisting of " Mr Wesley's Notes on
the New Testament and the ist Series of his Sermons " (fifty-
three in number), might seem to indicate a departure from
existing systems, but it was not so. He fully accepted the
recognized teaching of the Church of England, and publicly
appealed to the Prayer Book and the Thirty-nine Articles
in justification of the doctrines he preached. Methodism
began in a revival of personal religion, and it professed
to have but one aim, viz. " to spread Scriptural holiness
over the land." Its doctrines were in no sense new. It was
the zeal with which they were taught, the clear distinction
which they drew between the profession of godliness and the
enjoyment of its power added to the emphasis they laid upon
the immediate influence of the Holy Spirit on the consciousness
"Methodism" is derived from "method" (Gr. ptBo&os), a
le. A " methodist " is one who follows a " method," the term
being applied not only to the Wesleyan body, but earlier to the
Amyraldists, and in the 1 7th century to certain Roman Catholic
apologists.
of the Christian which attracted attention, gave them dis-
tinction, and even aroused ridicule and opposition. Wesley and
his helpers, finding the Anglican churches closed against them,
took to preaching in the open air; and this method is still
followed, more or less, in the aggressive evangelistic work of all the
Methodist Churches. As followers rapidly increased they were
compelled to hold their own Sunday services, and this naturally
led them to appoint as preachers godly laymen possessing the
gift of exhortation. These followed their ordinary avocations
on week-days, but on Sundays preached to congregations in their
own immediate neighbourhood, and hence were called local
preachers as distinguished from travelling preachers. The extent
to which the employment of the local preacher is characteristic
of Methodism may be seen from the fact that in the United
Kingdom while there are only about 5000 Methodist ministers,
there are more than 18,000 congregations; some 13,000 con-
gregations, chiefly in the villages, are dependent on local
preachers.
In the organization adopted to foster spiritual life the very
characteristic " Class-meetings for Christian fellowship " take a
prominent place. Membership in the church depends solely
upon being enrolled as a member of one of these meetings for
Christian fellowship, and thus placing oneself under pastoral
oversight.
The Wesleyan Methodists now represent the original body as
founded by John Wesley in Great Britain and Ireland; but in
America those who looked upon him as their founder adopted
the episcopal mode of Church government after the War of
Independence, and have since that time been known as Episcopal
Methodists (see below). It should be noted that the Welsh
Calmnistic Methodists are only slightly connected with the original
body.. They were indirectly the outcome of the evangelistic
efforts of Howell Harris and Rowlands. Their work received
the sympathy of Wesley and liberal financial help from the
Countess of Huntingdon (see CALVINISTIC METHODISTS). For a
time Whitefield was leader, and we find a reference to the
" Whitefieldian and Wesleyan Methodists " in the Supplement
to the Gentleman's Magazine for 1747, p. 619. The theological
views of these teachers proved quite incompatible with the
Arminianism of Wesley, and a definite breach between them and
him took place in 1770. The Welsh Calmnistic Methodists are
now a branch of the Presbyterian Church. Other divisions have
been formed at various times by secessions from the Wesleyan
Methodists (see separate articles). They are: Methodist New
Connexion (founded 1797-1798); Bible Christians (1815); United
Methodist Free Churches 2 (about 1836); Primitive Methodists
(founded 1807-1810); Independent Methodist Churches (about
1806); Wesleyan Reform Union (1850, reorganized 1859).
These bodies have separated solely on matters of Church govern-
ment and not on points of doctrine. The Primitive Methodists
in Ireland were a small body who in 1817 seceded because they
wished to maintain that close connexion with the Church of
England which existed at the time of Wesley's death, but in 1878
they rejoined the parent body. Methodism has always been
aggressive, and her children on emigrating have taken with them
their evangelistic methods. (For the American branches see
below.)
The statistics given in the following table (not including Junior
Society Classes) are from the Minutes of the Conference of the
Wesleyan Methodist Church for 1909. At the death of Wesley the
figures were: 313 preachers, 119 circuits and mission stations, and
76,968 members. In the United States : 97 circuits, 198 preachers
and 43,265 members.
In 1837 the membership in Great Britain and Ireland was 318,716;
in foreign mission stations, 66,007; m Upper Canada, 14,000; while
the American Conferences had charge of 650,678 members. Total
for the world: 1,049,401, with 4478 ministers.
Three Oecumenical Conferences have been held two at City
Road, London, in 1881 and 1901, and one at Washington in 1891.
The statistics presented at the last showed that the Church during
the preceding decade had gained about a million members and three
million adherents. At the same time there has been a steadily
1 These first three were joined in 1907 under the name of the
United Methodist Church.
294
crowing feeling in favour of union. Canada and Australasia led
the way, for in these countries the Methodist Church was undivided,
and the sentiment was greatly strengthened by the formation in
the United Kingdom of the United Methodist Church in 1907.
See A New history of Methodism, ed. W. J. Townsend H. B.
Workman, George Eayrs (2 vols., London, 1909)-
METHODISM
local and travelling preachers, and the organization of local
societies with class leaders, stewards and trustees. The intention
was to make American Methodism a facsimile of that in England,
subject to Wesley and the British Conference a society and not
a Church. Pilmoor and others objected to Asbury's strict
Denomination.
Ministers.
Lay
Preachers.
Church
Members and
Probationers.
Sunday
Schools.
Officers
and
Teachers.
Sunday
Scholars.
Churches,
&c.
Wesleyan Methodists:
2,454
19,826
520,868
7,589
132-186
987,953
8,606'
A T A 2
246
621
29,531
353
2,557
25,969
414
617
4-965
143.467
1,754
7-65 1
91,113
3-52
French Conference
South African Conference .
35
253
1,178
89
5,797
16,158
1,675
117,146
212,168
70'
788
4,155
142
2,893
59,557
1,996
39,329
465,531
127
3,930
5,148
_ T QO
United Methodist Church . . .
Wesleyan Reform Union ....
Independent Methodist Churches .
Australasian Methodist Church . .
United States:
Methodist Episcopal* . . _ . .
Union American Methodist Episcopal
African Methodist Episcopal .
African Union Methodist Protestant
African Methodist Episcopal Zion.
Methodist Protestant ....
Wesleyan Methodist
Methodist Episcopal (South) . .
! Congregational Methodist .
Congregational Methodist(coloured)
New Congregational Methodist .
Zion Union Apostolic ....
Coloured Methodist Episcopal
Primitive Methodist ....
Free Methodist
891
21
424
975
19,421
138
6,070
200
3-912
i,55i
524
6,978
415
238
30
2,673
72
1,126
6,183
527
4-576
14-743
15-885
750
1,520
i,i35
4,800
2,786
138
1,299
186,905
8,489
9,442
150-751
3,376,888
18,500
850,000
4,000
578,310
183,894
19,064
1,673,892
24,000
319
4,022
2,346
219,739
7,oi3
31,435
2,404
181
153
3,973
34.619
350
2,034
2,034
465
14,892
4.007
1 08
1,175
43-i 6 9
2,762
3,041
24,322
361,667
900
14,404
16,680
"J\I37
7,098
7.376
323,675
22,312
27,219
231,553
3,068,248
2,770
122,467
126,031
18,344
1,084,238
79,876
".754
40,660
3,108
196
156
6,418
29,765
255
6,815
125
3,241
2,242
598
15.496
425
5
417
32
2,619
104
1,117
Independent Methodist
Evangelistic Missionary
Canadian Methodist Church .
Japan Methodist Church 5
8
92
2,384
47
27
3,809
35
2,569
5,oi4
329,904
4,083
3.556
121
35,323
544
1,200
305,649
11,136
15
47
3,789
28
Totals ....
52,978
105,669
8,715,434
84,781
833.409
7,089,023
98,820
METHODISM IN THE UNITED STATES
There are in the United States sixteen distinct Methodist
denominations, all agreeing essentially in doctrine. John Wesley
had been conducting his United Societies for more than twenty
years before the movement took root in North America.
A. Episcopal Methodist Churches.
Philip Embury (1720-1775), a Wesleyan local preacher,
emigrated in 1760 from Limerick to New York. Robert Straw-
bridge (?-i78i), a local preacher and native of Ireland, settled
in Maryland. In 1766 Embury was stimulated by his relative,
Mrs Barbara Heck, to begin Methodist preaching, and a society
was soon formed, which grew rapidly. Embury was. reinforced
by the arrival of Thomas Webb (1724-1796), an English local
preacher and a captain in the British army. Webb and Thomas
Taylor, a layman of superior ability, appealed to Wesley to
send over missionaries, and the 26th annual British Conference,
held in 1768, sent to the society in New York 50 and furnished
passage money for two missionaries, Richard Boardman and
Joseph Pilmoor (1739-1825). Three years later Francis Asbury
was sent over, and was made assistant superintendent. Mean-
while Strawbridge had been preaching with success in Maryland
and in Virginia.
These " advance agents " of this spiritual propaganda brought
with them Wesley's Arminian Theology. They brought also
" the means of grace " on which Wesley placed the greatest
stress; such as personal testimony in private and public, class
and prayer meetings, watch-nights, love-feasts, the direct and
fervent preaching of the Gospel and the singing of Wesleyan
hymns, carried on by means of circuits and stations, exhorters,
1 Seating accommodation, 2,374,425.
1 Other preaching-places, 1561. 3 Sunday and Thursday Schools.
* Methodism is also represented in several European countries by
Conferences and Missions affiliated to the Methodist Episcopal Church
of America, and their membership is included in the figures given
discipline, and Wesley, hearing of the disagreement, in 1773
appointed Thomas Rankin (c. 1738-1810) superintendent of the
entire work of Methodism in America.
The First American Conference. The first American Confer-
ence was held in 1773, and consisted of ten preachers, all of whom
were born in England or Ireland. Asbury came to America to
remain permanently; bui Rankin, unable to identify himself
with its people, to take the test oaths required in the Revolution,
or to sympathize with the colonies, returned to England, as did
all the English preachers except Asbury. By May 1776 there
were 24 preachers and 4921 members; but in the first year of
the Revolution there was a loss of 7 preachers and nearly 1000
members. The next year saw extensive revivals, in sections
removed from the seat of war, which added more than 2600 to
the number of members.
The preachers in the South determined upon administration
of the sacraments, and a committee was chosen whose members
ordained themselves and others. The Northern preachers opposed
this step and for several years the Connexion was on the verge
of disruption. An agreement was finally made to suspend the
administration until Wesley's desires and judgment could be
ascertained. He perceived that the society would disintegrate
unless effective measures were speedily taken, and, aided by two
presbyters of the Church of England, early in 1784 he ordained
Thomas Coke (1747-1814), already a presbyter of that Church, as
superintendent. He likewise ordained two of his lay preachers
as deacons and elders, to accompany Coke, whom Wesley sent
to America as his commissioner to establish, for the Methodist
Society, a system of Church government, which should include
the administration of Baptism and of the Lord's Supper. Coke
above. The 1908 returns are: Bulgaria, 546 members; Denmark,
3771; Finland and St Petersburg, 1367; France, 221; Italy, 3669;
North Germany, 12,886; Norway, 6054; South Germany, 11,808;
Sweden, 15,430; Switzerland, 9419.
5 Western Conference only.
METHODISM
295
was furnished by Wesley with a document setting forth the
grounds on which he had taken this step. Wesley also appointed
Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury " to be joint superintendents
over our brethren in North America." Soon after Coke and his
companions arrived they met Asbury and fifteen preachers, and
a special conference was called, which opened on the 24th of
December 1784, in the suburbs of Baltimore, Maryland. This
convention organized itself into a Methodist Episcopal Church,
in which the liturgy sent by Wesley should be read, and the sacra-
ments should be administered by superintendents, elders and
deacons, these elders and deacons to be ordained by a presbytery
using the episcopal form. Coke and Asbury were unanimously
elected superintendents, Coke, aided by his clerical companions
from England, ordaining Asbury as deacon and elder and formally
consecrating him a general superintendent. Several elders were
ordained. This convention adopted the first Discipline of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. It adopted the existing doctrinal
standards, consisting chiefly of Wesley's Sermons and his Notes
on the New Testament; also twenty-five of the Articles of
Religion of the Church of England, modified so as to eradicate
all trace of High Church ritualism, Anglican or Roman, and the
distinctive doctrines of Calvinism.
The Church thus established began its ecclesiastical career
with 18,000 members, 104 travelling preachers, about the same
number of local preachers, and more than 200 licensed exhorters.
There were 60 chapels and 800 regular preaching places.
The energy of Asbury, and the position of Coke in the Church
of England, his wealth, culture, and preaching power, greatly
reinforced the efforts of the preachers. The administration of
the sacraments brought peace; and many who would not unite
with the " Society " asked admission to the Church. Within
five years the number of preachers swelled to 227, and the
members to 45,949 (white) and 11,682 (coloured).
To bind the whole body the existing method required the con-
currence of each Annual Conference with every proposition.
This was inconvenient and occasioned much loss of time; there-
fore a General Conference was established to meet once in four
years. The first was held in 1792, and therein arose a sharp con-
flict. James O'Kelly (1735-1826), a Presiding Elder in control
of a large district, proposed that, when the list of appointments
was read in the Conference, if any preacher was not pleased
with his assignment he might appeal to the Conference. The
motion being lost, O'Kelly and several other preachers seceded.
The Conference in 1804 limited the power of the Bishops by
forbidding them to appoint any pastor for more than two con-
secutive years in charge of the same church. As all " travelling
preachers " were eligible, without election, to seats in General
Conferences, widespread dissatisfaction prevailed among the
distant Conferences. The era of the steamboat and the railway
not having arrived, it was possible for two Annual Conferences,
adjacent to the seat of the General Conference, to out-vote all
others combined. This led to a demand for the substitution
of a delegated General Conference, which was conceded by the
Conference of 1808 to take effect four years later. The office
then known as the Presiding Eldership had become powerful:
Bishops appointed the pastors to churches, Presiding Elders to
districts; but it was the purpose of the majority to transfer to the
Annual Conferences the power of appointing Presiding Elders.
The change, though discussed for many years, has not been
accomplished.
Several issues had been settled; but one, that of slavery, had
be faced. The storm burst on the Conference of 1844. Bishop
James Osgood Andrew (1794-1871), a native of the South, had,
by inheritance and marriage, become a slaveholder. After
debates of many days, he was requested " to desist from the
exercise of the office of Bishop while this impediment remained."
The Southern members declared that the infliction of such a
stigma upon Bishop Andrew would make it impossible for them
to maintain the influence of Methodism in the South, and a
tentative plan of separation was adopted by the Conference by an
almost unanimous vote. The result was that the Methodist
Episcopal Church was bisected, and when the General Conference
Tl
ac
Ta
of 1848 convened it represented 780 travelling preachers and
532,290 members fewer than it had numbered four years
before.
After the Civil War the increase in membership was note-
worthy. The quadrennial Conference of 1868 represented
222,687 members more than its predecessor; of this gain 117,326
were in the Southern States. In 1872 lay representatives were
admitted, the Constitution having been amended so as to make
it legal. It was not, however, an equal representation, for though
ministerial Conferences were represented according to. their
number, in no circumstances could there be more than two lay
representatives from one Annual Conference. Not till 1900 were
lay and clerical representation equalized. In 1864 the time limit
of pastorates was lengthened to three years, and in 1888 to
five years. This limit was taken off in 1900, and pastors can be
reappointed at the will of the Bishop.
Five women presented credentials as lay delegates in 1888.
Their eligibility was questioned; and they were denied admis-
sion. For the next four General Conferences the struggle for the
admission of women recurred. In 1900-1904 a general revision
of the Constitution took place, and the words " lay members "
were substituted for " laymen " in that part of the Constitution
which deals with the eligibility of delegates to the General
Conference.
The General Conference has power to make rules and regu-
lations for the Church, subject only to restrictions which protect
the Standards of Doctrine, the General Rules, the disposition
of the property of the Book Concern and its income, the income
of the Chartered Fund, and the right of ministers to trial before
a jury of their peers, an appeal, and similar rights of the laity.
By a two-thirds vote of a General Conference, and two-thirds
votes of the members of the Annual Conference, and of the
members of the Lay Electoral Conferences, present and voting,
what is said in these " Restrictive Rules " can be altered or
repealed, except that which deals with the Articles of Religion
and " the present existing and established Standards of
Doctrine." In the Annual Conferences the Bishop is the sole
interpreter of law, subject to appeal to the General Conference.
When presiding in the General Conference, a Bishop has no
authority to decide questions of law, but may decide questions
of order subject to an appeal to the body. The district super-
intendent visits each charge several times annually, presiding
in the Quarterly Conference, the highest local authority in the
Church, and he is expected to conserve the unity of the denomin-
ation and a regard for laws enacted by the supreme body. In
the absence of a Bishop the district superintendent represents
him, and may transfer any ministers within the bounds of his
district.
Connexional Institutions. The Book Concern, established in
1789, publishes the necessary devotional books of the Church, .such
as hymnal, discipline, theological works, religious experience, and
numerous magazines and papers.
The Board of Foreign Missions carries on extensive operations
in China, Japan, Korea, India and Malasia, Italy, South America
and Mexico. It assists the Methodist Churches organized in Norway,
Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Germany and Switzerland, and has
recently established missions in Russia and France.
The Board of Home Missions and Church Extension supplies
the foreign peoples domiciled in the United States with ministers
of their own tongue. It assists all English-speaking churches in
need of help, and secures, by gifts and time loans, the erection of
churches wherever needed. Invaluable coadjutors of these Boards
are the Women's Foreign Missionary and the Women's Home
Missionary societies.
The Board of Education, with the aid of a University Senate,
assists young people to obtain education, and raises the standard
of seminaries, colleges and universities. The Church, in the United
States, supports 54 colleges and universities and 10 theological
seminaries. The Freedmen's Aid Society is devoted to the educa-
tional needs of the negro race in the United States, in which work
it has been very successful.
The Sunday School Union, Epworth League, Methodist Brother-
hood, hospitals, homes for the aged, deaconess homes and
children's institutions are maintained by an increasing army of
workers.
The whole number of ministers (exclusive of foreign missions)
in 1907, was 17,694; churches, 27,691 ; communicants, 2,984,261.
296
METHODISM
The Methodist Episcopal Church South. After the adjourn-
ment of the General Conference of 1844, the representatives of
thirteen Conferences covering the states holding slaves appealed
to their constituents to determine what should be done to prevent
Methodism in the South from being deprived of its influence over
the whites and of the privilege, till then fully accorded, of preach-
ing the Gospel and teaching its precepts to slaves. In 1845 a
representative Convention was called; this body, with the ap-
proval and participation of Bishop Andrew, organized the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church South. At its first General Conference,
in 1846, the senior Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
Joshua Soule (1781-1867), offered himself to the Church, which
accepted him in his episcopal capacity. William Capers (1790-
1855) and Robert Paine (1790-1882) were elected to the Episco-
pacy. The Church thus founded began with 460,000 members,
of which 2972 were Indians, 124,961 coloured, and 1519 travel-
ling ministers.
A difficulty arose on the division of the property of the Book
Concerns, which the Methodist Episcopal Church maintained
involved a change in the Constitution. A vote to authorize the
division failed, and the Methodist Episcopal Church South,
hopeless of relief, brought two suits, one against the Book Concern
in New York, and the other against the Book Concern in Cincin-
nati. The former was decided in favour of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church South, and the latter in favour of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. In the latter case an appeal was taken by
the Methodist Episcopal Church South to the Supreme Court of
the United States, which body unanimously decided that the
Methodist Episcopal Church South was an integral part of the
Methodist Episcopal Church which owned the Book Concerns,
and ordered that the Southern Church should receive a pro-
portionate part of the property of both Book Concerns. The
amount ordered by the Court was in due time received.
The membership of the Church in 1860 was more than three-
quarters of a million; but the Church was doomed to feel the
force of the destructive elements of the Civil War. In April 1862
New Orleans was in possession of the Federal Government,
rendering it impossible to hold the General Conference due at that
time and place.
At the close of the war the Missionary Society of the Church
was $60,000 in debt, the Publishing House practically in ruins,
and of the more than 200,000 coloured members in 1860 there
remained fewer than 50,000. The Conference of 1866 convened
in New Orleans. Radical changes in polity were effected.
Attendance upon class meetings, which, from the origin of the
Church had been obligatory, was made voluntary, and the rule
was repealed which required a probation of six months before
admission into full membership. The time limit on the con-
tinuation of pastorates was extended from two to four years.
The most radical change was the introduction into the General
Conference of a number of lay representatives equal to
the number of clerical, and the admission into each Annual
Conference of four lay delegates for each Presiding Elder's
district.
The coloured people, with the consent of the Church, withdrew
in 1870, and formed a new Church called the Coloured Methodist
Episcopal Church.
The most striking denominational effort in its history was the
maintenance of the solvency of the Publishing House, which
was seized by the Federal Troops, and used as a United States
printing office; with the damage done, and debts incurred in
rebuilding, after a fire, interest, &c., the liabilities were $35,000,
with debts $125,000 in excess of assets. The concern was
declared insolvent; but the necessary funds were forthcoming,
and the honour of the Church was maintained.
Education has received unceasing attention. The titles to 175
institutions are held by the Church, and the list of colleges and
their character is a credit to the denomination. The most important
is Vanderbilt University, at Nashville, Tennessee, founded in 1872,
and largely endowed by members of the family whose name it
bears. The chief foreign missions are in China, Mexico, Brazil,
Japan, Korea and Cuba. Its mission in Japan and the mission of
the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Church of
Canada were united in 1907 in a new organization entitled the
Methodist Church of Japan. A distinguishing feature " of this
church is a practical veto power possessed by the bishops, to be
exercised when the conference adopts any measure which in their
opinion is unconstitutional. They have the right to present
written objections and should the General Conference, by two-
thirds vote adhere to its action, the proposal is sent down to the
Annual Conference for ratification'; otherwise it is void. Fraternal
relations between the two great Episcopal Methodist Churches
were fully established in 1876, and have broadened in spirit and
scope from that time.
The Methodist Episcopal Church South in 1907 had 6774 ministers,
16,156 churches and 1,631,379 communicants.
The African Methodist Episcopal Church, This body originated
in strained relations between the white and coloured Methodists of
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the result of which was, that the coloured
people organized themselves, in 1816, into an independent body.
They adopted as their standards the doctrines of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, and, with a few modifications, its form of govern-
ment. The Church steadily prospered, but for several years not
proportionately in the department of education. Daniel Alexander
Payne (1811-1893), who had studied in the Gettysburg Theological
Seminary, led a reform, which involved a marked elevation of the
qualifications for ministers, and from that time the body has con-
stantly risen in public estimation. One of its peculiarities is that
the bishops are members of the General Conference. It sustains
Wilberforce University (at Wilberforce, Ohio) and other educational
institutions, and has missions in Africa, South America, the West
Indies and Hawaii. Notable orators have risen up among its
members, who have added greatly to the respect felt for their
race and Church. The African Methodist Episcopal Church, the
largest Christian denomination consisting wholly of the Negro
race, in 1907 comprised 6190 ministers, 5321 churches, and 842,023
communicants.
The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Some of the
coloured people in the city of New York, " feeling themselves op-
pressed by caste prejudice, and suffering the deprivation of Church
privileges permitted to others," organized among themselves, in
1796, and in the year 1800 built a church and named it Zion.
For twenty years the Methodist Episcopal Church supplied this
church with pastors. Then the members induced three white
ministers to ordain as elders three of their brethren, already deacons.
Since they had Methodist precedents for such ordination, these
proceeded to ordain others, and established churches in Phila-
delphia and New Hampshire. The elders ordained one of their
number a bishop. As late as 1863 the Church had only 92 ministers
and 5000 members, but in twelve years it doubled its membership
more than five times. In th^s Church the sexes are equally eligible
to all positions. Its educational operations at first were failures,
but gradually became successful. Its foreign missions were made
a separate department in 1884. This Church had, in 1907, 3871
ministers, 3206 churches and 573,107 communicants.
The Coloured Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1866 the General
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church South authorized
the bishops to organize its coloured members into an independent
ecclesiastical body, if it should appear that they desired it. The
bishops formed a number of Annual Conferences, consisting wholly
of coloured preachers, and in 1870 these Conferences requested
the appointment of five commissioners of the Caucasian part of
the Church to meet five of their own number to create an inde-
pendent Church. Two Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church
South presided, and ordained to the Episcopacy two coloured
elders, selected by the eight coloured conferences. The coloured
people by vote named the organization the Coloured Methodist
Episcopal Church.
The Union American Methodist Episcopal Church agrees in
doctrines and usages with other Methodist bodies. It is divided
into Conferences and elects its Bishops for life. It had in 1907,
18,500 members, 138 ministers and 255 churches.
B. Non-Episcopal Methodist Churches.
The Methodist Protestant Church. In 1821 ministers and lay-
men of the Methodist Episcopal Church began to criticize its
polity, and when their utterances became aggressive the ad-
herents to the regular order replied with equal vigour. During
the General Conference of 1824, held in Baltimore, a Convention
of " Reformers " met, and established a periodical entitled The
Mutual Rights of the Ministers and Members of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, and made arrangements to organize Union
Societies. Travelling and local ministers and laymen were
expelled for schism and spreading incendiary publications. Prior
to the Conference those expelled, and their sympathizers,
formed themselves into a society named " Associate Methodist
Reformers." These sent memorials to the General Conference
of 1828, and issued addresses to the public. After a powerful
and painful discussion, the appeals of the expelled members of
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION METHODIUS
297
Conferences were rejected. The controversy centred upon lay
representation, the episcopacy and the presiding eldership.
A General Convention was held on the 2nd of November 1830,
a Constitution was adopted, and a new organization was estab-
lished, styled the Methodist Protestant Church. Within eight
years it had accumulated 50,000 members, the majority of whom
were in the South and bordering states. The Methodist Protestant
Church has a presbyterial form of government, the powers being
in the Conference. There is no episcopal office or General
Superintendent ; each Annual Conference elects its own chairman.
Its General Conference meets once in four years. Ministers and
laymen equal in number are elected by the Annual Conferences,
in a ratio of one delegate for 1000 members. The General
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church of 1908 sent
delegates to the Conference of the Methodist Protestant Church,
making overtures toward an organic union, but formal negotia-
tions have not been instituted. This Church had, in 1907, 1551
ministers, 2242 churches and 183,894 communicants.
The Wesleyan Methodist Connection or Church of America. In
the Methodist Episcopal Church slavery was always a cause of
contention. In 1842 certain Methodist abolitionists conferred
as to the wisdom of seceding. Among the leaders were Orange
Scott (1800-1847), Jotham Horton and Le Roy Sunderland(i8o2-
1885) and in a paper, which they had established, known as The
True Wesleyan, they announced their withdrawal from theChurch ,
and issued a call for a convention of all like-minded, which met
on the 3ist of May 1843, at Utica, New York, and founded the
Wesleyan Methodist Connection or Church of America. The
enterprise started with 6000 laymen and 22 travelling ministers
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and nearly as many more
from the Methodist Protestant Church and other small bodies of
Methodist antecedents. Its General Conference has an equal
number of ministers and laymen. In less than eighteen months
this body had gained in members 250%; but as the Methodist
Episcopal Church had purged itself from slavery in 1844, and
slavery itself was abolished in 1862, a' large number of ministers
and thousands of communicants, connected with this body,
returned to the Methodist Episcopal Church. It had in 1907
539 ministers, 609 churches and 18,587 communicants.
The Congregational Methodists originated in Georgia in 1852; but
in polity they are not strictly Congregational. Appeals from the
decision of the Lower Church may be taken to a District Conference,
thence to the State Conference, and ultimately to the General
Conference. This Church had, in 1907, chiefly in Southern states,
24,000 members, 415 ministers and 425 churches.
The Free Methodist Church, This body was organized in August
1860, and was the result of ten years of agitation. A number of
ministers and members within the bounds of the Genesee Confer-
ence, in Western New York, in 1850, began to deplore and denounce
the decline of spirituality in the Methodist Episcopal Church. The
Rev. B. T. Roberts, the ablest among them, was reprimanded by the
Bishop presiding in the Annual Conference, and next year he was
expelled. Similar proceedings were taken against others, who
appealed to the General Conference of 1860, but their expulsion
was confirmed. It was the purpose of the founders to conserve
the usage and the spirit of primitive Methodism. The government
pf the Church is simple, in all but the Episcopacy and its adjuncts
resembling that of the Church whence it sprang. The Free Methodist
Church had, in 1907, 1032 ministers, 1106 churches, and 31,376
communicants.
Minor Methodist Churches. The Primitive Methodist Church,
as it exists in the United States, came from England. In 1907
it reported 7013 communicants. The Independent Methodists are
composed of congregations in Maryland, Tennessee and the District
of Columbia. They had fewer than 3000 members in 1907. The
Evangelist Missionary Church comprises ministers and members
in Ohio, who in 1886 withdrew from the African Methodist Episcopal
Zion Church. They had in 1907 about 5000 members. The New
Congregational Methodists in 1881 withdrew from the Methodist
Episcopal Church South, in Georgia. They had 4022 members in
1907. The African Union Methodist Protestant Church dates from
1816, and differed from the African Methodist Episcopal Church
in opposing itinerancy, " paid ministers," and episcopacy. In
1907 it had 3867 members in eight states. The Zion Union Apos-
tolic Church was organized in 1869, in Virginia. It was reported
in 1890 to have 2346 communicants, and shows no gain at the
present time.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gross Alexander, History of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South (New York, 1894), being vol. xi. of the
"American Church History Series"; John Atkinson, Centennial
History of American Methodism (New York, 1884); Francis Asbury,
Journal (3 vols., New York, 1852); Nathan Bangs, A History of the
Methodist Episcopal Church from its Origin in 1776 to the General
Conference 0/1840 (4 vols., New York, 1839-1842) ; Henry B. Bascom,
Methodism and Slavery (Nashville) ; A. H. Bassett, History of the
Methodist Protestant Church (Pittsburg, 1878, revised, 1882, 1887);
Thomas E. Bond, Economy of Methodism, Illustrated and Defended ;
T. M. Buckley, History of Methodism in the United States (1897) ;
H. K. Carroll, Religious Forces of the United States (New York, 2nd ed.
1896) ; David W. Clark, Life and Times of Elijah Heading (New York,
1855); Daniel Dorchester, Christianity in the United States (New
York, 1895); Edward J. Drinkhouse, History of Methodist Reform
2 vols., Baltimore, 1899); Robert Emory, History of the Discipline
of the Methodist Episcopal Church (New York, 1843); William L.
Harris, Constitutional Powers of the General Conference (1860);
J. W. Hood, One Hundred Years of the African Methodist Episcopal
Zion Church (New York, 1895); Jesse Lee, A Short History of the
Methodists in the United States of America (Baltimore, 1810);
John Lednum, History of the Rise and Progress of Methodism in
America (1859); Alexander McCaine, History and Mystery of Metho-
dist Episcopacy (Baltimore, 1829); Holland N. McTyeire, A History
of Methodism (Nashville, 1884); Joel Martin, The Wesleyan Manual,
or History of Wesleyan Methodism (Syracuse, N.Y., 1889); Lucius
C. Matlack, Anti-Slavery Struggle and Triumph in the Methodist
Episcopal Church (New York, 1881); Stephen M. Merrill, A Digest
of Methodist Law (New York, revised ed., 1888); Thomas D. Neely,
A History of the Origin and Development of the Governing Conference
in Methodism (New York, 1892); id. The Evolution of Episcopacy
and Organic Methodism (New York, 1888); Robert Paine, Life and
Times of William McKendree (2 vols., Nashville, 1869; revised,
1874); Daniel A. Payne, History of the African Methodist Episcopal
Church (1891); James Porter, Comprehensive History of Methodism
(New York, 1876) ; A. H. Redford, History of the Organization of the
Methodist Episcopal Church South (Nashville, 1871); J. M. Reid,
Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church
(New York, 1895), revised by J. T. Gracey; David Sherman,
History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal
Church (New York, 3rd ed., 1890); Abel Stevens, History of Metho-
dism (3 vols., New York, 1858); id. History of the Methodist
Episcopal Church (4 vols., New York, 1864); id. The Centenary of
American Methodism (New York, 1866); John J. Tigert, A Con-
stitutional History of American Episcopal Methodism (Nashville,
1894) ; J. B. Wakeley, Lost Chapters Recovered from the Early History
of American Methodism (New York, 1858); Thomas Ware, Sketches
of His Own Life and Travels (New York, 1839); and the Discipline
and Journals of the various American Methodist Churches. And the
Proceedings of the Centennial Methodist Conference (1884); of the
First Ecumenical Conference (1881); of the second Ecumenical
Conference (1891); and of the third Ecumenical Conference (1901).
(J. M. Bu.)
METHODIST NEW CONNEXION, a Protestant Nonconformist
Church, formed in 1797 by secession from the Wesleyan Metho-
dists, and merged in 1907 into the United Methodist Church
(q.v.). The secession was led by Alexander Kilham (q.v.), and
resulted from a dispute regarding the position and rights of the
laity, Kilham and his party desiring more power for the members
of the Church and less for the ministers. In its conferences
ministers and laymen were of equal number, the laymen being
chosen by the circuits and in some cases by " guardian repre-
sentatives " elected for life by conference. Otherwise the
doctrines and order of the Connexion were the same as those of
the Wesleyans. At the time of the union with the Bible Chris-
tians and the United Methodist Free Church in 1907 the
Methodist New Connexion had some 250 ministers and 45,000
members.
METHODIUS (c. 825-885), the apostle of the Slavs, was a native
of Thessalonica, probably by nationality a Graecized Slav. His
father's name was Leo, and his family was socially distinguished;
Methodius himself had already attained high official rank in the
government of Macedonia before he determined to become a
monk. His younger brother Constantine (better known as Cyril,
the name he adopted at Rome shortly before his death) was a
friend of Photius, and had earned the surname " the Philosopher "
in Constantinople before he withdrew to monastic life. Con-
stantine about 860 had been sent by the emperor Michael III. to
the Khazars, a Tatar people living north-east of the Black Sea, in
response to their request for a Christian teacher, but had not
remained long among them; after his return to within the limits
of the empire, his brother and he worked among the Bulgarians
of Thrace and Moesia, baptizing their king Bogoris in 861.
About 863, at the invitation of Rastislav, king of " Great
Moravia," who desired the Christianization of his subjects, but
298
METHUEN METHYL ALCOHOL
at the same time that they should be independent of the Germans,
the two brothers went to his capital (its site is unknown), and,
besides establishing a seminary for the education of priests, suc-
cessfully occupied themselves in preaching in the vernacular and
in diffusing their translations of Scripture lessons and liturgical
offices. Some conflict with the German priests, who used the
Latin liturgy, led to their visiting Pope Nicholas I., who had just
been engaged in his still extant correspondence with the newly
converted Bulgarian king; his death (in 867) occurred before
their arrival, but they were kindly received by his successor
Hadrian II. Constantine died in Rome (in 869), but Methodius,
after satisfying the pope of his orthodoxy artd obedience, went
back to his labours in " Moravia " as archbishop of Syrmia
(Sirmium) in Pannonia. His province appears to have been,
roughly speaking, co-extensive with the basins of the Raab,
Drave and Save, and thus to have included parts of what had
previously belonged to the provinces of Salzburg and Passau.
In 871 complaints on this account were made at Rome, nominally
on behalf of the archbishop of Salzburg, but really in the interests
of the German king and his Germanizing ally Swatopluk, Rasti-
slav's successor; they were not, however, immediately successful.
In 879, however, Methodius was again summoned to Rome by
Pope John VIII., after having declined to give up the practice
of celebrating mass in the Slavonic tongue; but, owing to the
peculiar delicacy of the relations of Rome with Constantinople,
and with the young church of Bulgaria, the pope, contrary to all
expectation, ultimately decided in favour of a Slavonic liturgy,
and sent Methodius (880) back to his diocese with a suffragan
bishop of Neitra, and with a letter of recommendation to
Swatopluk. This suffragan, a German named Wiching, unfor-
tunately proved the reverse of helpful to his metropolitan, and
through his agency, especially after the death of John VIII. in
882, the closing years of the life of Methodius were embittered by
continual ecclesiastical disputes, in the course of which he is said
to have laid Swatopluk and his supporters under the ban, and the
realm under interdict. The most trustworthy tradition says that
Methodius died at Hardisch on the March, on the 6th of April
885. He was buried at Welehrad (probably Stuhlweissenburg).
The Greek Church commemorates St Cyril on February 14 and
St Methodius on May n; in the Roman Church both are com-
memorated on March 9. Their canonization (by Leo XIII. in
1881) is noteworthy, in view of the fact that Gregory VII. and
several other popes condemned them as Arians. After the death
of Methodius much of his work was undone; his successor
Gosrad, a Slav, was expelled, with all the Slav priests, and
the Latin language and liturgy supplanted the vernacular. On
the sth of July 1863 a millennial celebration of the two brother
apostles was held by the people of Bohemia and Moravia.
See Schafarik's Slawische Allerlhumer; L. K. Gotz, Geschichte
der Slavenapostel Konstantinus und Methodius (Gotha, 1897);
N. Bonwetsch, Cyrill und Methodius, die Lehrer der Sloven (Erlangen,
r885), and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. fur prot. Theol.
iv. 384, where the literature is cited ; G. F. Maclear, Conversion of
the Slavs (London, 1879).
METHUEN, BARONY OF. The English title of Baron
Methuen of Corsham (Wilts) was created in 1838 for Paul
Methuen (1779-1849), who had been a Tory member of parlia-
ment for Wilts from 1812 to 1819, and then sat as a Whig for
North Wilts from 1833 to 1838. His father, Paul Methuen, was
the cousin and heir of the wealthy Sir Paul Methuen (1672-1757),
a well-known politician, courtier, diplomatist and patron of art
and literature, who was the son of John Methuen (c. 1650-1706),
Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1697-1703) and ambassador to
Portugal. It was the last-named who in 1703 negotiated the
famous " Methuen Treaty," which, in return for the admission
of English woollens into Portugal, granted differential duties
favouring the importation of Portuguese wines into England to
the disadvantage of French, and thus displaced the drinking
of Burgundy by that of port. He and his son were both buried
in Westminster Abbey. The ist baron was succeeded in the
title by his son Frederick Henry Paul Methuen (1818-1891), and
the latter by his son Paul, 3rd baron (b. 1845), a distinguished
soldier, who became a major-general in 1890, and general officer
commanding-in-chief in South Africa in 1907. The 3rd baron
joined the Scots Guards in 1864, served in the Ashanti War of
1874 and the Egyptian War of 1882, and commanded
Methuen's Horse in Bechuanaland in 1884-85, and the first
division of the ist Army Corps in the South African War of
1899-1902. (See TRANSVAAL.)
METHUSELAH, in the Old Testament, the seventh in descent
from Adam, and father of Larhech. According to Genesis v. 2 1 he
lived 969 years (see BIBLE: Old Testament, 5, " Chronology ").
The name itself has been much discussed. Holzinger interprets
it as " man of the javelin ": Hommel prefers " man of Selah,"
Selah being the Hebraized form of the Babylonian Sarrahu (i.e.
the god Sin), and identifies it with the 'A^e/u^wos of Berossus.
The form Methushael, used by the author of Gen. iv. 18 and by
some commentators preferred for Gen. v. 21, is variously ex-
plained as meaning " man of El " (Ball), or as a transcription
(Sayce) of the Babylonian Mutu-sa-ili (possibly, " man of the
goddess ").
METHVEN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 7! m.
W. by N. of Perth by the Caledonian Railway. Pop. of parish
(1901), 1699. Only an aisle remains of the collegiate church
founded in 1433 by Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437).
One mile east of the village, Methven Castle, dating partly from
1680, occupies a fine situation in a park in which stands the
Pepperwell oak, 18 ft. in circumference. At Dronach Haugh
near the banks of the Almond, which bounds the parish on the
N., the earl of Pembroke defeated Robert Bruce in 1306. At
Lynedoch, his estate on the Almond, Thomas Graham (1748-
1843), the Peninsular general, afterwards Lord Lynedoch,
carried on many experiments in farming and stock-breeding.
He formerly owned Balgowan House, about 3 m. south-west
of Methven, where many years after his death the proprietor
discovered, during certain alterations, the portrait of Lord
Lynedoch's wife, the Hon. Mrs Graham (a daughter of the
9th Lord Cathcart), one of Gainsborough's masterpieces, now
in the National Gallery in Edinburgh; 45 m. north-west of
Methven, occupying a beautiful position in Glenalmond, is
Trinity College, a public school on the English model, the first
of its kind in Scotland, founded in 1841 through the efforts of
W. E. Gladstone, J. R. Hope-Scott, Dean Ramsay and others,
and opened in 1847. In 1851 Charles Wordsworth, the first
warden, afterwards bishop of St Andrews, added the chapel. At
Tibbermore, or Tippermuir, about 3 m. south-east of Methven,
Montrose won the first of a series of battles over the Covenanters
on the ist of September 1644.
METHYL ALCOHOL (CHjOH), the simplest aliphatic alcohol;
an impure form is known in commerce as wood-spirit, being
produced in the destructive distillation of wood. The name
methyl, from Gr. iixfiv, wine, v\rj, wood, explains its origin.
Discovered by Boyle in 1661, it was first carefully studied by
Dumas and Peligot in 1831; its synthesis from its elements
(through methane and methyl chloride) was effected by Berthelot
in 1858. It is manufactured by distilling wood in iron retorts
at about 500 C., when an aqueous distillate, containing methyl
alcohol, acetone, acetic acid and methyl acetic ester, is obtained.
This is neutralized with lime and redistilled in order to remove
the acetic acid. The distillate is treated with anhydrous calcium
chloride, the crystalline compound formed with the alcohol
being separated and decomposed by redistilling with water.
The aqueous product is then dehydrated with potash or lime.
To obtain it perfectly pure the crude alcohol is combined with
oxalic, benzoic or acetic acid, and the resulting ester separated,
purified, and finally decomposed with potash. Methyl alcohol is
also obtained in the dry distillation of molasses. The amount
of methyl alcohol present in wood spirit is determined by con-
verting it into methyl iodide by acting with phosphorus iodide;
and the acetone by converting it into iodoform by boiling with an
alkaline solution of iodine in potassium iodide; ethyl alcohol is
detected by giving acetylene on heating with concentrated
sulphuric acid, methyl alcohol, under the same circumstances,
giving methyl ether.
Pure methyl alcohol is a colourless mobile liquid, boiling at
METICULOUS METROCLES
299
66-67, and having a specific gravity of 0-8142 at o C. It has
a burning taste, and generally a spirituous odour, but when
absolutely pure it is said to be odourless. It mixes in all pro-
portions with water, alcohol and ether. Its compound with
calcium chloride has the formula CaCl2-4CH3-OH, and with
barium oxide BaO-2CHsOH. Oxidation gives formaldehyde,
formic acid and carbonic acid; chlorine and bromine react, but
less readily than with ethyl alcohol. The chief industrial
applications are for making denatured alcohol (?..), and as a
solvent, e.g. in varnish manufacture; it is also used for a fuel; a
purer product is extensively used in the colour and fine chemical
industries.
Methyl chloride CH 3 C1, is a gas, boiling at -23, obtained by
chlorinating methane, or better, from methyl alcohol; wood spirit
is treated with salt and sulphuric acid, or hydrochloric acid gas
conducted into the boiling spirit in the presence of zinc chloride,
the evolved gas being washed with potash and dried by sulphuric
acid. It is also prepared by heating trimethylamine hydrochloride.
Alcohol dissolves 35 volumes and water 4. Methyl bromide is a
liquid, specific gravity 1-73, boiling point 13; methyl iodide has
a specific gravity of 2-19, and boils at 43.
METICULOUS (through Fr. mtticuleux, from Lat. meticulosus,
timid, cautious; metus, fear), a term meaning pedantically or
excessively careful of details, over-scrupulous, laying too much
stress on minutiae.
METOCHITA, THEODORE [THEODOROS METOCHITES], a
Byzantine author, man of learning and statesman, who flourished
during the reign of Andronicus II. Palaeologus (1282-1328).
After the deposition of his patron by Andronicus III., Metochita
was deprived of his office of great logothete (chancellor) and sent
into exile. He was soon recalled, but retired from political life
to a convent, where he died in 1332. He was a man of very great
learning, only surpassed by Photius and Michael Psellus. His
pupil Nicephorus Gregoras, who delivered his funeral oration,
calls him a " living library."
Only a few of his numerous works have been preserved. The
best known is TjrojivijMaTioTioI nal oiuui&atn yvoifiuiai, Miscellanea
philosophica ei historica (ed. C. G. Miiller and T. Kiessling,
1821), containing some 120 essays; for a list of them see Fabricius,
Bibliotheca graeca (ed. Harles), x. 417; in these he chiefly made
use of Synesius. Of his rhetorical pieces two have been published
by C. N. Sathas in Meffaiwi/iK?} /3i,SXto0i7/<7; (1872), and two poems
on religious subjects by M. Treu (1895). The poems, dealing
mainly with contemporary and personal matters, are written in
hexameter, not in the usual " political " verse. Metochita was
also the author of works on philosophical and astronomical subjects.
METONIC CYCLE, in chronology, a period of 19 years during
which there are 235 lunations, so called because discovered by
Melon. Computation from modern data shows that 235 luna-
tions are 6939 days, 16-5 hours; and 19 solar years, 6939 days,
14-5 hours. The relation between integral numbers of months
and years expressed by Melon's rule therefore deviates only two
hours from the truth. Since 19 Julian years make 6939 days,
1 8 hours, the relation errs by only 1-5 hour when the Julian
year is taken. Meton was an Athenian astronomer (fl. 432 B.C.).
METONYMY (Gr. /tereowjua, change of name, from y.era.
denoting change, and ovo^a, name), a figure of speech, in
which the name of one thing is changed for that of another, to
which it is related by association of ideas, as having close re-
lationship to one another. Thus " sceptre," " throne," " crown,"
are used for royal power or authority, " hearth and home " is
used for " country," &c.
" Synecdoche " (Gr. ffvveKSox'n, from 0wic6exe0#ai, to join
in receiving) is a rhetorical figure similar to metonymy, in
which the part is used for the whole or vice versa, thus " hands "
is used for the members of the crew of a vessel; a regiment of
infantry is said to number so many " bayonets," &c.
METOPE (Gr. i^eroinj, a middle space), a term in archi-
tecture for the square recess between the triglyphs in a Doric
frieze, which is sometimes filled with sculpture.
METRE (jj.tr pitch, sc. r'exvr}, from Gr. i^rpov, measure),
in prosody, the harmonious and regulated disposition of
syllables into verse. Metrical form is distinguished from prose
by the uniformity of corresponding lines in relation to the
number of syllables and the similarity of final sound (rhyme or
assonance), by the repetition of certain letters at regular intervals
(in alliterative measure), or merely by the regular succession of
ups and downs of intonation. In ancient classic poetry the
measure which creates the metrical form consists only of this last
quantitative element, which is rhythm.
For the rules and djvisions of the various metrical systems, see
VERSE. For the restricted use of " metre " as a unit of measure-
ment, see METRIC SYSTEM below.
METRIC SYSTEM (adapted from Gr. plerpov, measure),
that system of weights and measures of which the metre is the
fundamental unit. The theory of the system is that the metre
is a TffTnsVroTr part of a quandrant of the earth through Paris;
the litre or unit of volume is a cube of tV metre side; the gramme
or unit of weight is (nominally) rrsW of the weight of a litre of
water at 4 C. The idea of adopting scientific measurements
had been suggested as early as the I7th century, particularly by
the astronomer Jean Picard (1620-1682), who proposed to take
as a unit the length of a pendulum beating one second at sea-
level, at a latitude of 45. These suggestions took practical shape
by a decree of the National Assembly in 1790 appointing a
committee to consider the suitability of adopting either the
length of the seconds pendulum, a fraction of the length of the
equator or a fraction of the quadrant of the terrestrial meridian.
The committee decided in favour of the latter and a commission
was appointed to measure the arc of the meridian between
Dunkirk and Mont Jany, near Barcelona. Another commis-
sion was also appointed to draw up a system of weights and
measures based on the length of the metre and to fix the nomen-
clature, which on the report of the commission was established
in 1795. It was not until 1799 that the report on the length of
the metre was made. This was followed by the law of the
loth of December 1799 fixing definitely the value of the
metre and of the kilogramme, or weight of a litre of water, and
the new system became compulsory in 1801. It was found
necessary however to pass an act in 183 7, forbidding as and from
the ist of January 1840, under severe penalties, the use of any
other weights and measures than those established by the laws
of 1795 and 1799. The metric system is now obligatory in
Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, France,
Germany, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Peru,
Portugal, Rumania, Servia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland. Its use
is legalized in Egypt, Great Britain, Japan, Russia, Turkey and the
United States. In 1875 there was constituted at Paris the Inter-
national Bureau of Weights and Measures, which is managed by
an international committee. The object of the Bureau is to
make and provide prototypes of the metre and kilogramme, for
the various subscribing countries.
In England action has frequently been taken both by individuals
and by associations of commercial men for the purpose of endeavour-
ing to make the metric system compulsory. A Decimal Association
was formed in 1854, but did not make very much headway.
A bill was introduced into parliament in 1864 to make the metric
system compulsory for certain purposes, but owing to government
objections a permissive bill was substituted and subsequently
became law as the Metric Act 1864. It was, however, repealed
by the Weights and Measures Act 1878. In 1871 another bill for
compulsory adoption was rejected by the House of Commons on
the second reading by a majority of five. In 1893 a representative
delegation of business men pressed its adoption on the chancellor
of the exchequer (Sir W. V. Harcourt), but he declined. But in
1897 a statute was passed, the Weights and Measures (Metric
System) Act, which legalized the use in trade of the metric system,
and abolished the penalty for using or having in one's possession
a weight or measure of that system.
See also DECIMAL COINAGE and WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
METROCLES, a Greek philosoper of the Cynic school, was
a contemporary of Crates, under whose persuasion he deserted
the views of Theophrastus. It was his sister, Hipparchia,
whose romantic attachment to Crates is a fascinating sidelight
on the almost truculent asceticism of the Cynics. He was a
man of peculiar strength of character, and esteemed the joys
of life so low that he was deterred from an early suicide only
by the influence of Crates. His philosophical views, which were
identical with those of Crates (q.v.), he expounded by precept
and example with great success, and had among his pupils
METRODORUS METROPOLITAN
300
Menippus of Sinope. Having weighed the probable pains and
pleasures of approaching old age, he decided that life had nothing
left for which he greatly cared, and drowned himself. He is
said to have written several works, which he afterwards burnt.
Of one, entitled Xpticu, Diogenes preserves a single line (vi. 6).
METRODORUS, the name of five philosophers.
1. METKODORUS of Athens was a philosopher and painter who
flourished in the 2nd century B.C. It chanced that Paullus
Aemilius, visiting Athens on his return from his victory over
Perseus in 168 B.C., asked for a tutor for his children and a painter
to glorify his triumph. The inhabitants suggested Metrodorus
as capable of discharging both duties, and it is recorded that
Aemilius was entirely satisfied (see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxv. 135).
2. METRODORUS of Chios was an important member of the
Atomistic school. A pupil of Nessus, or, as some accounts
prefer, of Democritus himself, he was a complete sceptic. He
accepted the Democritean theory of atoms and void and the
plurality of worlds, but held a theory of his own that the stars
are formed from day to day by the moisture in the air under the
heat of the sun. His radical scepticism is seen in the first
sentence of his Ilepi 4>iroj, quoted by Cicero in the Academics
ii- 23 73. He says, " We know nothing, no, not even whether
we know or not!" and maintains that everything is to each
person only what it appears to him to be. Metrodorus is
especially interesting as the teacher of Anaxarchus, the friend
of Pyrrho, and, therefore, as the connecting link between atomism
proper and the later scepticism. It cannot be decided whether
a work entitled the Tpwi'/cd quoted by Atheriaeus (iv. 184 a) is
by this, or another, Metrodorus. The same difficulty is found
in the case of the Ilepl loropias referred to by the scholiast on
Apollonius.
3. METRODORUS of Lampsacus was the disciple and intimate
friend of Epicurus, and is described by Cicero (de Fin. ii. 28. 92)
as " almost a second Epicurus." He died in 277 B.C. at the age
of fifty-three, seven years before his master, who adopted his
children and in his will commended them to the care of his pupils.
The wife of Metrodorus was Leontion, herself, like many other
women of the time, a member of the Epicurean society. Athen-
aeus (vii. 279 F.) quotes from the words of Metrodorus showing
that he was in entire agreement with Epicurus, and was, if
possible, even more dogmatic in his doctrine of pleasure. He
censures his brother, Timocrates, who, though professedly
Epicurean, maintained the existence of pleasures other than those
of the body.
4. Another METRODORUS of Lampsacus was a pupil of
Anaxagoras, and one of the earliest to attempt to interpret
Homer allegorically. He explained not only the gods but also
the heroes Agamemnon, Achilles, Hector, as representing
primary elements and natural phenomena.
5. METRODORUS of Stratonice was a pupil, first of Apollodorus,
and later of Carneades. He flourished about no B.C., and is
reputed to have been an orator of great power. His defection
from the Epicurean school is almost unique. It is explained by
Cicero as being due to his theory that the scepticism of Carneades
was merely a means of attacking the Stoics on their own ground.
Metrodorus held that Carneades was in reality a loyal follower of
Plato.
METRONOME (Gr. fikrpov, measure, and vopos, law), an
instrument for denoting the speed at which a musical composition
is to be performed. Its invention is generally, but falsely,
ascribed to Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, a native of Ratisbon
(1772-1838). It consists of a pendulum swung on a pivot; below
the pivot is a fixed weight, and above it is a sliding weight that
regulates the velocity of the oscillations by the greater or less
distance from the pivot to which it is adjusted. The silent
metronome is impelled by the touch, and ceases to beat when this
impulse dies; it has a scale of numbers marked on the pendulum,
and the upper part of the sliding weight is placed under that
number which is to indicate the quickness of a stated note, as
M.M. (Maelzel's Metronome) 0=60, or ^=72, or=io8, or the
like. The number 60 implies a second of time for each single
oscillation of the pendulum numbers lower than this denoting
slower, and higher numbers quicker beats. The scale at first
extended from 50 to 160, but now ranges from 40 to 208. A more
complicated metronome is impelled by clock-work, makes a
ticking sound at each beat, and continues its action till the works
run down; a still more intricate machine has also a bell which
is struck at the first of any number of beats , willed by the
person who regulates it, and so signifies the accent as well as the
time.
The earliest instrument of the kind, a weighted pendulum of
variable length, is described in a paper by Etienne Loulie (Paris,
1696; Amsterdam, 1698). Attempts were also made by Enbrayg
(1732) and Gabory ( 1 77 1 )- Harrison, who gained the prize awarded
by the English government for his chronometer, published a de-
scription of an instrument for the purpose in 1775. Davaux (1784),
Pelletier, Abel Burja (1790) and Weiske (also 1790) described
their various experiments for measuring musical time. In 1813
Gottfried Weber, the composer, theorist and essayist, proposed a
weighted ribbon graduated by inches or smaller divisions, which
might be held or otherwise fixed at any desired length, and would
infallibly oscillate at the same speed so long as the impulse lasted.
Stockel and Zmeskall produced each an instrument; and Maelzel
made some slight modification of that by the former, about the
end of 1812, which he announced as a new invention of his own,
and exhibited from city to city on the Continent. It was, as
nearly as can be ascertained, in 1812 that Winkel, a mechanician
of Amsterdam, devised a plan for reducing the inconvenient length
of all existing instruments, on the principle of the double pendulum,
rocking on both sides of a centre and balanced by a fixed and a
variable weight. He spent three years in completing it, and it is
described and commended in the Report of the Netherlands Academy
of Sciences (Aug. 14, 1815). Maelzel thereupon went to Amsterdam,
saw Winkel and inspected his invention, and, recognizing its great
superiority to what he called his own, offered to buy all right and
title to it. Winkel refused, and so Maelzel constructed a copy of the
instrument, to which he added nothing but the scale of numbers,
took this copy to Paris, obtained a patent for it, and in 1816 estab-
lished there, in his own name, a manufactory for metronomes.
When the impostor revisited Amsterdam, the inventor instituted
proceedings against him for his piracy, and the Academy of Sciences
decided in Winkel's favour, declaring that the graduated scale was
the only point in which the instrument of Maelzel differed from his.
Maelzel's scale was needlessly and arbitrarily complicated, proceed-
ing by twos from 40 to 60, by threes from 60 to 72, by fours from
72 to 120, by sixes from 120 to 144 and by eights from 144 to 208.
Dr Crotch constructed a time measurer, and Henry Smart (the
violinist, father of the composer of the same name) made another
in 1821, both before that received as Maelzel's was known in
England. In 1882 James Mitchell, a Scotsman, made an ingenious
amplification of the Maelzel clock-work, reducing to mechanical
demonstration what formerly rested wholly on the feeling of the
performer.
Although " Maelzel's metronome " has universal acceptance, the
silent metronome and still more Weber's graduated ribbon are
greatly to be preferred, for the clock-work of the other is liable to
be out of order, and needs a nicety of regulation which is almost
impossible; for instance, when Sir George Smart had to mark the
traditional times of the several pieces in the Dettingen Te Deum,
he tested them by twelve metronomes, no two of which beat together.
The value of the machine is exaggerated, for no living performer
could execute a piece in unvaried time throughout, and no student
could practise under the tyranny of its beat; and conductors of
music, nay, composers themsejves, will conduct the same piece
slightly slower or quicker on different occasions, according to the
circumstances of performance.
METROPOLIS (Gr. j^njp, mother, ir6Xw, city), properly a
mother-city, and so the name of the parent state from which
colonies were founded in ancient Greece (see GREECE, sect.
History, Ancient). The word was used in post-classical Latin for
the chief city of a province, the seat of the government, and in
particular ecclesiastically for the seat or see of a metropolitan
bishop (see METROPOLITAN). It is thus used now for the capital
of a country, which contains the various official buildings of the
administrative departments, the Houses of Parliament, &c. In
the case of London, the term " metropolitan " is sometimes
applied to the whole area including the " City of London,"
e.g. "Metropolitan Asylums Board"; and sometimes, as in
" Metropolitan Police," excludes the City, which has its own
police force (see LONDON).
METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr.
in the Christian church, the title of a bishop who has the over-
sight over bishops of subordinate sees. In the Western church
METSU METTERNICH
301
the metropolitan is practically the same as the archbishop (q.v.);
in the Eastern church he ranks above the archbishop, but below
the patriarch (q.v.). Metropolitans first appear in the East in the
4th century as presiding over a province (provincia or tirapxio.),
and their see is fixed in the principal town (jUTjrpoTroXtj) of
the province, which remains the normal custom both in East and
West. In Africa, however, the metropolitan jurisdiction was
exercised by the senior bishop (primas, primae sedis episcopus,
senex) for the time being, a custom which prevailed for a time
also in Spain. Thus, too, in the Scottish Episcopal Church
and the Protestant Episcopal Church of America there are no
metropolitans, the primas being the senior bishop.
METSU, GABRIEL (1630-1667), Dutch painter, was the son
of Jacob Metsu, who lived most of his days at Leiden, where he
was three times married. The last of these marriages was cele-
brated in 1625, and Jacomma Garnijers, herself the widow of a
painter, gave birth to Gabriel in 1630. According to Houbraken
Metsu was taught by Gerard Dow, though his early works do not
lend colour to this assertion. It is certain, however, that he was
influenced in turn by Jan Steen, Rembrandt, and Hals. Metsu
was registered among the first members of the painters' corpora-
tion at Leiden; and the books of the gild also tell us that he
remained a member in 1649. In 1 6 50 he ceased to subscribe, and
works bearing his name and the date of 1653 give countenance
to the belief that he had then settled at Amsterdam, where he
probably continued his studies under Rembrandt. One of his
earliest pictures is the " Lazarus " at the Strassburg Museum,
painted under the influence of Jan Steen. Under the influence
of Rembrandt he produced the " Woman taken in Adultery," a
large picture with the date of 1653 in the Louvre. To the same
period belong the " Departure of Hagar," formerly in the Thore
collection, and the " Widow's Mite " at the Schwerin Gallery.
But he probably observed that sacred art was ill suited to his
temper, or he found the field too strongly occupied, and turned to
other subjects for which he was better fitted. That at one time
he was deeply impressed by the vivacity and bold technique of
Frans Hals can be gathered from Lord Lonsdale's picture of
" Women at a Fishmonger's Shop." What Metsu undertook
and carried out from the first with surprising success was the low
life of the market and tavern, contrasted, with wonderful
versatility, by incidents of high life and the drawing-room. In
no single instance do the artistic lessons of Rembrandt appear
to have been lost upon him. The same principles of light and
shade which had marked his schoolwork in the " Woman taken
in Adultery " were applied to subjects of quite a different kind.
A group in a drawing-room, a series of groups in the market-
place, or a single figure in the gloom of a tavern or parlour,
was treated with the utmost felicity by fit concentration and
gradation of light, a warm flush of tone pervading every part,
and, with that, the study of texture in stuffs was carried as far
as it had been by Ter Borch or Dow, if not with the finish or
the brio of De Hooch.
Metsu went to Amsterdam before 1655, married in 1658, and
became a citizen of that city in 1659. One of the best pictures of
Metsu's manhood is the " Market-place of Amsterdam," at the
Louvre, respecting which it is difficult to distribute praise .in fair
proportions, so excellent are the various parts, the characteristic
movement and action of the dramatis personae, the selection of
faces, the expression and the gesture, and the texture of the things
depicted. Equally fine, though earlier, are the " Sportsman "
(dated 1661) and the " Tavern " (also 1661) at the Hague and
Dresden Museums, and the " Game-Dealer's Shop," also at
Dresden, with the painter's signature and 1662. Among the five
examples of the painter at the Wallace Collection, including
" The Tabby Cat," " The Sleeping Sportsman," which cost Lord
Hertford 3000, is an admirable example technically considered.
Among his finest representations of home life are the " Repast "
at the Hermitage in St Petersburg; the " Mother nursing her
Sick Child " of the Steengracht Gallery at the Hague; the
" Amateur Musicians " at the Hague Gallery; the " Duet " and
the " Music Lesson " at the National Gallery, and many more
examples at nearly all the leading European galleries.
METTERNICH-WINNEBURG, CLEMENS WENZEL LOTHAR.
PRINCE (1773-1859), Austrian statesman and diplomatist, was
born at Coblenz on the isth of May 1773. His father, Count
Franz Georg Karl von Metternich- Winneburg za Beilstein 1
(d. 1818), was a diplomatist who had passed from the service of
the archbishop-elector of Trier to that of the court of Vienna;
his mother was Countess Maria Beatrix Aloisia von Kagenegg.
At the time of Clemens Metternich's birth, and for some time
subsequently, his father was Austrian ambassador to the courts
of the three Rhenish electors, and the boy was thus from the
first brought up under the influence of the tone and ideas which
flourished in the small German courts that lay within the sphere
of influence of the France of the ancien regime.. In 1 788 he went
to the university of Strassburg, where he studied German
constitutional law; but the outbreak of the French Revolution
caused him to leave after two years. Metternich was a witness
of the excesses of the mob in Strassburg, and he ascribed his
life-long hatred of political innovation to these early experiences
of the victory of liberal ideas. In 1790, by way of striking
contrast, he was deputed by the Catholic bench of the West-
phalian college of counts to act as their master of the ceremonies
at the coronation of the Emperor Leopold II. at Frankfort, a
function which he again performed at the coronation of Francis
II. in 1792. The intervening time he spent at Mainz, attending
the university and frequenting the court of the archbishop-
elector, where his impressions of the Revolution were strength-
ened by his intercourse with the French emigres who had made
it their centre. The outbreak of the revolutionary war drove
him from Mainz, and he went to Brussels, where he found
employment in the chancery of his father, at that time Austrian
minister to the government of the Netherlands. Here, in
August 1794, he issued his first publication, a pamphlet in
which he denounced the " shallow pates " of the old diplomacy
and argued that the only way to combat the French revolution-
ary armies was by a levee en masse of the populations on the
frontier of France singular views for the statesman who was
destined to be the last great representative of the old diplomacy
and the greater part of whose life was to be spent in combating
the national enthusiasms by which the revolutionary power of
France was ultimately overthrown.
After a long stay in England, where he made the acquaintance
of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), Metternich went
to Vienna; and on the 27th of September 1795 he married at
Austerlitz the Countess Eleonore von Kaunitz, a grand-daughter
of that Austrian chancellor who in many respects was his
prototype. This alliance not only brought him great estates
in Austria, but introduced him into the most exalted circles of
Viennese society. Here he was well qualified to hold his own
by reason of his handsome presence, the exquisite courtesy of
his address and a certain reputation for gallantry. He was
far, however, from being a mere carpet diplomatist. His
interests were many and varied, and he found time for the
serious study of natural science and medicine. In December 1797
he was chosen by the Westphalian counts as their representative
at the congress of Rastadt, where he remained till 1799. This
was his first experience of the great world of practical politics
and especially of those rough diplomatists of the Revolution of
whom in his letters he has left so vivid a description. In
January 1801 he was appointed Austrian envoy to the elector
of Saxony. His two years' stay at the court of Dresden was
mainly useful to him by bringing him into touch with the many
Russian and Polish families of importance; his serious diplomatic
career did not begin till his appointment, in November 1803, as
ambassador at Berlin. His instructions at the outset were to
1 The family of Metternich, originally established in the county
of Jillich, can trace its descent to the middle of the 14th century.
In 1637 they received from the archbishop of Trier the countships
of Winneburg and Beilstein. These were confiscated in 1803, and
the lands of the suppressed abbey of Ochsenhausen, with the title
of prince of the Empire, were granted by the edict as compensation.
The new principality was " mediatized " in 1806 in favour of Wtirt-
temberg; but in virtue of their short tenure of it the descendants
of Prince Metternich enjoy the privileges of mediatized princes.
302
METTERNICH
prevent Prussia from joining the alliance of Russia and Great
Britain against the French Republic and to make himself
agreeable to the representative of France; but shortly afterwards
his part was exactly reversed, owing to the shifting of political
forces which led to the war of the third coalition, and he laboured
to secure the adhesion of Prussia to the alliance of Austria,
Russia and Great Britain against Napoleon. His diplomacy was
not successful; for though Prussia ultimately signed the treaty
of the 5th of November 1805 with Austria and Russia, the
influence of the emperor Alexander and the wound given to
her pride by Napoleon's contemptuous violation of her territory
had more to do with Prussia's decision than Metternich's veiled
threats. His reward was the grand cross of the order of St
Stephen and the appointment of ambassador at St Petersburg;
but his commission to make himself agreeable to the French
ambassador at Berlin was carried out to such excellent effect
that, as a result of M. Laforest's reports, Napoleon requested
that he might be appointed to represent Austria at the
Tuileries, and in August 1806 Metternich took up his residence
as ambassador in Paris.
This was the beginning of his ever growing influence in
European affairs. Established in the diplomatic character of
an " honourable spy " in the very centre of Napoleon's power,
he used his exceptional gifts of fascination not only to become a
persona grata at the Tuileries, but to establish relations with
those elements in the society of the empire which were already
intriguing against Napoleon's power. His intimacy with Talley-
rand and with Caroline Murat, Napoleon's sister, was destined to
produce notable results later. Though on the look-out, however,
for any chance of weakening the French emperor's power,
Metternich was not at first sanguine of success, for he believed
Napoleon to be invincible. For Austria the best policy seemed
to him to be to temporize; he was willing, therefore, to co-operate
with France in the agreement made between Napoleon and
Alexander I. of Russia at Tilsit for the partition of the Ottoman
Empire; failing the success of the efforts of Austrian diplomacy
to break the Franco-Russian alliance, this would at least secure
for the Habsburg monarchy a share of the spoils. With the
postponement of Napoleon's Oriental schemes, however, the
situation was once more changed. During the summer of 1808
Metternich had reason to suspect fresh designs of the French
emperor against Austria, and his suspicions appeared to be
confirmed when, during an interview on the 1 5th of August,
Napoleon indulged in one of his violent tirades, denouncing
Count Stadion's action in strengthening the Austrian armaments.
In November Metternich was at Vienna, urging the Austrian
government to an early declaration of war for which the
moment seemed to him opportune owing to the French losses
in Spain, of which he had received exaggerated reports. On
the ist of January 1809 he was back in Paris, but no longer as a
persona grata. At the outbreak of the war he was placed under
arrest, in retaliation for the action of the Austrian government
in interning two members of the French embassy in Hungary;
and in June, on Napoleon's capture of Vienna, he was conducted
there under military guard. In July he was exchanged at
Komarom for the French diplomatists, and he was present with
the emperor Francis at the battle of Wagram. At a council
held on the 7th of July it was decided, on Metternich's initiative,
to open negotiations for peace; next day Stadion tendered his
resignation, which was provisionally accepted. Stadion was
sent as diplomatic adviser to the headquarters of the archduke
Charles, while Metternich took his place at the emperor's side.
On the 4th of August Metternich was named minister of state,
and soon afterwards was sent with Count Nugent to the peace
conference at Altenburg, where Chamagny attended as Napoleon 's
representative. The conference, however, dragged on without
result, and the emperor Francis decided to open negotiations
with Napoleon direct. Count Bubna was accordingly sent to
Schonbrunn; the result was the French ultimatum which issued
in the treaty of Schonbrunn (Vienna), signed by Prince Liechten-
stein on behalf of the emperor Francis on the i4th of October
1809. With the negotiation and signature of this humiliating
instrument Metternich therefore had nothing to do, though
on the 8th of October he had been definitely appointed minister
for foreign affairs, an office he was destined to hold for nearly
forty years.
The position of the new minister was no easy one. By the
treaty of Schonbrunn Austria was reduced to the position of a
second-rate power, and by secret articles undertook during the
continuance of the maritime war to limit her force of all arms
to 150,000 men, and to dismiss from her service all officers or
civil officers born in the territories of ancient France, Piedmont
or the former Venetian republic. Weak as she had become, the
menace of the future seemed even more disquieting. To the
south she was divided from the French dominions by the Save;
to the west and north the vassal states of France, traditionally
her enemies, lay along the frontier; to the east was Russia,
which as the reward for her alliance with Napoleon had received
a portion of East Galicia as her share of the spoils, and to all
appearance was firmly established in the Danubian princi-
palities. Austria seemed hopelessly cut off by Napoleon from
any chance of re-asserting her traditional preponderance in
Germany, by Russia from any prospect of obtaining compensa-
tion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. One false move
on the part of those who guided its destinies, and the Habsburg
monarchy might easily have ceased to exist altogether.
The saving factor in the situation was the improbability
of the alliance between Napoleon and Alexander continuing,
and the immediate task of Metternich was to hasten its dis-
solution, while securing Austria's safety in the East by bringing
about the end of the Russo-Turkish War. It was a task of
extreme delicacy; for any revelation of its true tendency might
have thrown the emperor Alexander into the arms of France
and plunged Austria into an unequal struggle for life and death
with Russia on the banks of the Danube. Metternich was
helped by the rapid development of the causes of disagreement
between the French and Russian emperors. Early in 1810
Europe was full of contradictory rumours of war between France
and Russia, of a marriage of Napoleon with a Russian grand
duchess. Then suddenly came Napoleon's formal request for
the hand of the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. A proposal
so nicely calculated to forward Metternich's plans was suspected
of being due to his inspiration; certainly it was his influence
that decided the emperor Francis to agree to an alliance which
could not but be distasteful to him and was resented as a
crowning humiliation by the proud aristocrats of Vienna.
On the I3th of March 1810 Metternich left Vienna for Paris
in company with the archduchess. His object was to use so
favourable an occasion for obtaining the abrogation of some
of the more onerous articles of the treaty of Schonbrunn, and
for coming to some arrangement whereby the serious incon-
venience caused in Austria by Napoleon's coercion of the pope
might be obviated. His diplomacy, however, met with but
slight success. His efforts to persuade Pius VII. to purchase
a measure of liberty of action by concessions to Napoleon broke
down on the gentle old man's refusal to traffic with his principles.
From Napoleon he extracted a lame apology for the execution
of Andreas Hofer, the reversal of a few sequestrations and, as
a crowning grace, the abrogation of the article of the Schonbrunn
treaty limiting Austrian armaments. In the matter of restoring
the access of Austria to the Adriatic, Napoleon would make no
concession; his answer to Metternich's representations was only
a commercial treaty which failed to obtain ratification at
Vienna. Anything further, e.g. an exchange of the Illyrian
provinces for Galicia, must depend on the attitude of Austria
in the forthcoming Russian war which, in an interview of the
2oth of September, Napoleon declared to be now inevitable.
On the loth of October Metternich was back in Vienna, where
his presence was urgently needed. The policy of a Franco-
Austrian entente was popular with the public and the army,
resentful of the treacherous attitude of Russia in the late war,
but in the powerful circles of the court it had scarce an adherent.
Prince Metternich himself, who had acted as foreign secretary
during his son's absence, favoured an understanding with Russia,
METTERNICH
303
and was even believed to be intriguing to retain the portfolio
of foreign affairs, which would have meant the victory of the
Russian party. On the other hand, the French party were
clamouring for the speedy conclusion of a definite alliance
with Napoleon. By an admirably clear expose of the situation
Metternich won over the emperor Francis to that middle
course, the policy of armed abstention, which was to be the
basic principle of his diplomatic action during the crisis of the
coming years. An alliance with Russia, he argued, would
be worse than useless; Austria would at any time obtain better
terms from the tsar's growing needs. An alliance with France
would be one with " a power whose exclusive object is the
destruction of the old order of things, which has hitherto found
its defence in Austria." Alone of European Powers Austria
still had the possibility of choice; let her work for the preserva-
tion of peace and at the same time remain free, should war
break out, to make her own terms. It would little serve Austria's
interests to become the ally of Russia, merely to serve as a
barrier behind which the emperor Alexander could carry out
his designs on Turkey in safety. In an interview with Count
Shuvalov, the Russian agent, Metternich roundly declared that
the maintenance of the integrity of Turkey was for Austria the
question of supreme interest.
With the approach of the Russo-French War the situation
became increasingly difficult. The partisans of a Russian
alliance remained powerful and clamorous; but Metternich did
not share the doubts as to the outcome of Napoleon's invasion
of Russia, which he believed would leave Austria, if she remained
neutral, isolated amid a huge European confederation. To
him the only safe course seemed to be to offer the French
emperor substantial assistance, stipulating for some quid pro quo
in the settlement to follow the war. The emperor Francis
shared this view; and on the I4th of March a treaty of alliance
was signed by which Austria agreed to support the French army
with an army corps of 30,000 men operating from Galicia. This
treaty was ratified at Vienna on the 2Sth of March, the day
of Napoleon's passage of the Niemen. It was characteristic of
Metternich's diplomacy that the Austrian generals in Galicia
were ordered to act only on the defensive, and that the
court of St Petersburg was informed that Austria would only
take part in the war as a principal should Russia force her to
do so.
This cautious attitude was soon justified by the astounding
developments of the Moscow campaign. When the full extent
of the catastrophe that had overwhelmed Napoleon's army
became known, Metternich realized the advantageous position
in which Austria lay for exploiting the changed situation. His
first idea was that France should commission Austria to mediate
a peace in Russia and in England (Despatch of Otto, Novem-
ber 10); but, as affairs developed, this was replaced by the
policy of temporizing until Austria should be in a position to
intervene with decisive effect. Napoleon's demand that Austria
should raise her contingent from 30,000 to 100,000 men was,
indeed, from Metternich's point of view doubly opportune: for
it enabled him quietly to assume that the treaty of the I4th of
March, which stipulated only for an " alliance limitee," had
been abrogated by Napoleon's own act; that Austria had
reverted to a position of neutrality; and that, should she take
part in the war, it would no longer be in a subordinate character
but as a principal. "Le passage de la neutralite a. la guerre,"
said Metternich to the emperor Francis, " ne sera possible que
par la mediation armee"; which meant in effect that Austria
required time to complete her armaments. To gain this time
was, during the weeks that followed, the object of his diplomacy.
For this purpose he encouraged Napoleon to believe that Austria
was prepared for a settlement on terms very favourable to the
French emperor; with the result that Napoleon, though he
would not hear of a " mediation," not only consented to, but
pressed for, Austrian "intervention" (entremise). But Metter-
nich had made up his mind that the only chance of an effective
restoration of the Habsburg influence in Europe lay in using
this opportunity for destroying or limiting Napoleon's power,
and he had already opened negotiations with the allied courts,
with a view to enforcing a common agreement as to a basis of
peace, when the indecisive battle of Liitzen (May 2) gave him
the opportunity of making his policy of mediation effective.
Count Stadion was now sent to the emperor Alexander .to lay
before him the terms on which Austria was prepared to mediate;
he was also to " agree to the bases of an active military co-opera-
tion on our part, in the event of the non-success of our efforts
on behalf of peace." On the zoth of March Napoleon gained
another indecisive victory at Bautzen, which still further
strengthened Metternich's position; for Napoleon allowed him-
self to be persuaded into signing the ill-omened armistice of
Pleiswitz (Poischwitz), on the 4th of June, and to become en-
tangled in the insincere negotiations of the congress of Prague.
Austria thus had time to complete her armaments. Meanwhile,
on the I4th and isth of June, were signed at Reichenbach the
treaties of alliance between Great Britain, Russia and Prussia,
by which the signatory Powers agreed neither to negotiate nor
to conclude treaty or truce with Napoleon except by common
consent. In an interview with the emperor Alexander, Metter-
nich now presented the terms which he proposed to offer to
Napoleon, and on this basis a treaty between Austria, Russia
and Prussia was agreed to, Austria contracting to put 150,000
men into the field, should Napoleon reject the ultimatum, and
not to make peace without the consent of Russia and Prussia
which in effect involved that of Great Britain also.
Before this second treaty of Reichenbach was signed (June 27),
Metternich went on Maret's invitation to Dresden, where on the
26th he had the famous interview with Napoleon. The whole
scene was on his part a masterpiece of Machiavellian diplomacy.
The terms he offered to the emperor were so favourable that
he has been denounced by every Prussian historian since as
the enemy of Germany; while French historians have enlarged
on Napoleon's infatuation in rejecting them. In spite of the
fact that the draft of the treaty of Reichenbach was in his
pocket, he posed as the impartial " mediator," with a leaning
in favour of Napoleon, assuring the emperor " on his honour
as a German count " that Austria was still " free from all
engagements," which was true only in so far as the treaty was
not signed till the next day. Metternich's object was, in fact,
only to gain an extension of the armistice till the loth of August,
on which date Schwarzenberg had declared that he would be
ready to take the offensive. As for the terms offered to Napoleon
his acceptance of them need not hamper the plans of the Allies;
for the consent of Great Britain would have to be obtained,
and, moreover, Napoleon was sure before long to provide an
excuse for a fresh breach; his rejection of them, on the other
hand, would be a blow to his waning popularity in France.
The interview was long and stormy; Napoleon struggled vainly
in the toils; in his excitement he dropped his hat, which the
imperturbable Metternich did not condescend to pick up;
" Napoleon," he records in his Memoirs, " seemed to me small."
Metternich, however, gained his immediate point; the armistice
was extended to the loth of August. At midnight on that
date, Napoleon not having come to terms, Metternich gave
orders for the lighting of the beacons that signalled to the
Austrian army in Silesia the outbreak of the war.
Napoleon's victory at Dresden (Aug. 26 and 27) for the
moment brought discord into the counsels of the Allies and
threatened the ruin of Metternich and his plans; but the suc-
cessive defeats of Vandamme at Kulm (Aug. 28), of Macdonald
at Katzbach (Aug. 29) and Oudinot at Grossbeeren (Aug. 30)
completely altered the aspect of affairs; and on the pth of
September Metternich signed at Toplitz a treaty with Russia
which committed Austria yet more closely to the policy of the
Allies. Then followed the battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16-18) and
the advance of the Allies into France. The diplomatic situation
throughout the campaign was, from the Austrian point of view,
one of extreme delicacy. The necessity of curbing the power
of Napoleon and rendering him for ever incapable of again
oversetting the balance of Europe was practically the only
object Austria had in common with her allies. She did not
METTERNICH
share the implacable resentment with which Great Britain
pursued Napoleon; she watched with alarm the development
of the ambitions of Alexander I., which threatened to substitute
a Russian for a French supremacy in Europe; she was far from
sympathizing with the noisy enthusiasm of the patriots of the War
of Liberation for a united Germany, in which the traditional
influence of the Habsburgs would be balanced or overshadowed
by that of Prussia. Metternich had no wish to see the husband
of Marie Louise ousted in favour of the Bourbons, who had
little reason to be grateful to Austria; still less did he desire
to see on the throne of France Alexander's protegfe Bernadotte,
whose name was being whispered in the Paris salons as the
destined saviour of his native country. But if Napoleon was
to remain sovereign of France, it must be not by his own force,
but by grace of his father-in-law, and hedged round with limita-
tions which would have made him little more than the lieutenant
of the Habsburg monarchy. This was the secret of the moderate
terms of accommodation ostentatiously offered by Metternich
to Napoleon at various stages of the campaign. From Frankfort
he sent, through General de Saint-Aignan, a diplomatist on
whose indiscretion he could rely, an informal offer of peace on
the basis of France's " natural frontier," the Rhine, the Alps
and the Pyrenees. The famous manifesto of Frankfort, issued
on behalf of the Allies (Dec. 4, 1813), contained no such offer of
acceptable terms; but Metternich's object was attained; for
Napoleon refused to be drawn into the trap, and the French
people cursed the emperor's infatuation in refusing a settlement
which, from what had leaked out of Saint-Aignan's mission,
they believed would have satisfied the legitimate ambitions of
France. On the other hand, Metternich did his best to oppose a
too rapid advance of the allied forces on Paris, which would have
played into the hands of Russia and Prussia ; and it was to his
initiative that the conferences of Chatillon were due. Only when
the breakdown of the negotiations made it clear that Napoleon
had seen through his plans, and preferred the chances of war to
the certainty of ruin or of surviving only as the puppet of Austria,
did Metternich join with Castlereagh in pressing upon the tsar
the necessity for restoring the Bourbons. On the ist of March
1814, he set his hand to the treaty of Chaumont, of which the
immediate object was the restoration and preservation of the
old dynasty in a France reduced to her " legitimate frontier."
In other respects, however, the treaty was a triumph for Metter-
nich; for it laid down that at the final settlement Germany was
to be reconstituted as a confederation of sovereign states, and it
also did much to temper the fear of a Russian dictatorship by
consecrating the principle of that concerted action of the Great
Powers, in affairs of international interest, which after Napoleon's
fall was to govern the European system. On the loth of April
Metternich arrived at Paris, ten days after its occupation by
the Allies. He was now at the height of his reputation; on the
2oth of October 1813, two days after Leipzig, he had been
created an hereditary prince of the Austrian Empire; he now
received from the emperor Francis a unique honour: the
right to quarter the arms of the house of Austria-Lorraine
with those of Metternich. At the same time (April 21) the
countship of Daruvar was bestowed upon him. On the
30th of May Metternich set his signature to the treaty of
Paris, and immediately afterwards accompanied the emperor
Alexander and King Frederick William on a visit to England.
On the 1 8th of July he was back in Vienna, where the great
congress was to meet in the autumn. The dignity of
a Hungarian magnate was bestowed upon him before it
assembled.
At the congress Metternich's charm of manner and great
social gifts gave him much personal influence; the ease and
versatility with which he handled intricate diplomatic questions,
too, excited admiration; at the same time he was blamed for his
leaning to intrigue and finesse and for a certain calculated
disingenuousness which led to an open breach with the emperor
Alexander, who roundly called him a liar. In the difficult
questions of Poland and Saxony the honest and conciliatory
attitude of Castlereagh was of more avail in reaching an accept-
able settlement than all Metternich's cleverness. If in the
Italian and German questions, however, Austria's .views
triumphed, this was due to the foresight displayed in Metternich's
diplomacy during the campaigns and to the address with which
he handled the questions at issue at the congress. The com-
placency of Hardenberg had allowed Austria alone to negotiate
with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine with a view
to detaching them from Napoleon ; and he had used this oppor-
tunity to render impossible the idea of a united Germany. On
the 8th of October 1813 he had signed with Bavaria the treaty
of Ried, which in the event of the liberation of Germany
guaranteed to Bavaria a sovereign and independent status.
This instrument, which was reinforced by a secret treaty signed
at Paris on the 3rd of June 1814, served as a model for similar
agreements with other courts; and the principle involved was,
as mentioned above, included in the treaty of Chaumont. Thus
all the unionist ideals, represented at the congress by Stein,
were sterilized from the outset; and the Act of Confederation
embodied in the Final Act of Vienna gave to Germany exactly
the form desired by Metternich as best calculated to perpetuate
Austrian preponderance (see GERMANY: History). The same
was true of the settlement of Italy. The question here was
complicated by the treaty of alliance signed by Metternich
with Murat as the price of his treason to Napoleon. But
Metternich from the first had known that the treaty was but a
temporary expedient; that Great Britain would never recognize
" the person at the head of the government of Naples "; and
that sooner or later Murat himself would afford excuse enough
for tearing the treaty up. Not Murat's dream of an Italy united
under his own rule, but the traditional Austrian policy of
possession in the north and preponderance throughout the
Peninsula was Metternich's goal, and this he secured at the
congress. Murat, in view of Austria's engagements, was suffered
to survive for the time being; he himself shattered the alliance
during the Hundred Days; and the Bourbons returned to
Naples, pledged by a secret agreement to attune their policy
to that of Vienna (see NAPLES: History).
Metternich, then, emerged from the congress of Vienna
confirmed in the confidence of his sovereign, and therefore
supreme in Germany and in Italy. To him had been due the
marvellous recovery of the Habsburg monarchy; in spite of
Gentz's lament that in the latter stages of the campaign of 1814
"Europe" had been substituted for "Austria" in his diplomacy,
Metternich had acted throughout first and foremost in the
interests of Austria, as he was bound to do. This, too, gives
the key to his policy after 1815, the policy of using the European
concert, established by the treaty of Chaumont and the Paris
treaty of the zoth of November 1815, as an instrument for
ensuring the "stability" of Europe by suppressing any "revolu-
tionary " manifestations by which the settlement made at
Vienna might be endangered.
After the campaign of Waterloo and Napoleon's second
downfall Metternich was again in Paris, where he co-operated
with the emperor Alexander and Castlereagh in securing
tolerable terms of peace for France. A few days after the signing
of the two treaties of the 2oth of November 1815, he left Paris for
Milan, where he met the crown prince Louis of Bavaria and
Baron von Rechberg, with whom he came to terms on certain
outstanding questions between Austria and Bavaria, terms
embodied in the treaty of Munich of the I4th of April 1816.
During his visit to Italy, which he repeated in 1816 and 1817,
Metternich could not but be impressed with the general signs of
discontent with Austrian rule. Neither was he blind to the
true causes of this discontent: the atrophy of the administration
owing to its rigid centralization at Vienna, and the policy of
enforcing Germanism on the Italians by a ruthless police system.
He made half-hearted proposals for removing something of both
these grievances; but his terror of revolution from below made
him fearful of reforms from above. While therefore in Prussia
king and ministers were labouring hard to remodel and consoli-
date the monarchy, Metternich did next to nothing to reform
the most obvious abuses of the Austrian Empire. Yet the fault
METTERNICH
305
was not wholly, or mainly, his. Sir Robert Gordon, 1 in a letter
to Castlereagh (dated Florence, July n, 1819), gives the true
reason for this attitude: " How much is it to be desired that
the superior talents of Prince Metternich were more occupied
with the revision and improvement of the administration of
affairs in his own country. He is too enlightened not to perceive
its most palpable defect ... He might have courage to sacri-
fice himself for the institution of effective remedies, but he fears
that the confiding benignity of his Sovereign might afterwards
be dissuaded from the just and vigorous application of them."
(P.O. Austria. Gordon. Jan.-Dec., 1819.) Metternich's power,
after all, was limited by the goodwill of his master, the emperor
Francis, and Francis trusted him precisely because he seemed
to share his own fanatical hatred of all change. It is this fact
that seems to explain Metternich's feverish anxiety to justify
his obscurantist attitude to himself and to the world. It suited
him to ascribe the general discontent, of which the causes were
not obscure, to the wanton agitation of the " sects," and his
agents all over Europe earned their pay by supplying him with
plentiful proof of the correctness of his contention. The result
was well summed up in another letter of Gordon to Castlereagh
(ibid. No. 26, Florence, July 12, 1819). "Nothing," he writes,
" can surpass Prince Metternich's activity in collecting facts and
information upon the inward feelings of the people; with a habit
of making these researches he has acquired a taste for them. . . .
The secrecy with which this task is indulged leads him to attach
too great importance to his discoveries. Phantoms are conjured
up and magnified in the dark, which probably if exposed to-
light would sink into insignificance; and his informers naturally
exaggerate their reports, aware that their profit is to be com-
mensurate with the display of their phantasmagoria." The
judgment is instructive, coming as it does from a diplomatist
in intimate touch with Metternich and in general sympathy
with his views.
There was, none the less, method in this madness. Behind
the agitations of the " sects " loomed the figures of the emperor
Alexander and of his confidant Capo d'lstria, " the Coryphaeus
of Liberalism," whose agents, official or unoffical, were intriguing
in every country in Europe, and not least in Italy. The
factor, then, that determined Metternich's attitude was not
so much a dread of revolutions in themselves as of revo-
lutions exploited by the " Jacobin " tsar to establish his
own preponderance in Europe. Metternich's object, then,
in respect of the revolutionary agitations, was twofold: he
wished to impress Alexander with the peril of this imperial
coquetting with democratic forces; he wished to convince the
" sects " that they could not rely on the tsar's support. He
succeeded in both these objects during the period from the
congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 to that of Verona in 1822.
(See ALEXANDER I. OF RUSSIA; EUROPE: History.)
On his way to the congress of Aix, Metternich spent a few days
at Frankfort, where his presence was sufficient to settle the
difficult question of the constitution of the federal forces. It
was a signal triumph. "You can have no idea of the effect
produced by my appearance at the diet," he wrote exultingly
to his wife, " I have become a species of moral power in Germany
and, perhaps, even in Europe " (Mem. iv. 64). This self-
complacency was characteristic of the man; but, if we accept
his view of " morality," the boast scarce seems exaggerated.
In the main questions debated at Aix, indeed, it was Castlereagh's
influence rather than that of Metternich which prevailed; the
abolition of the supervision of French affairs by the committee
of ambassadors was, for instance, carried against his opinion.
But it was at Aix that Metternich was not only reconciled with
Alexander, but laid the foundations of that personal influence
over the tsar that was to bear notable fruit later; from Aix,
too, where he arrived at a complete understanding with King
Frederick William III. and the Prussian ministers, dates his
preponderant influence in German affairs.
The outlook in Europe at the beginning of 1819 seemed to
1 Sir Robert Gordon (1791-1847), brother of the 4th earl of
Aberdeen, was between 1815 and 1821 associated with Wellington
as minister plenipotentiary at Vienna.
Metternich particularly gloomy. In France the ministry of
Decazes was, in his opinion, under the inspiration of the Russian
ambassador Pozzo di Borgo, heading straight for a new revolu-
tion; in Italy Russian agents were openly carrying on a Liberal
propaganda; Germany, and notably the Prussian bureaucracy,
was honeycombed with revolutionary ideas. Then came the
news of the murder of Kotzebue (March 23). Metternich was
in Italy at the time; but he determined at once to take advantage
of this senseless crime to carry his views in the matter of muzzling
the Liberal agitation in Germany. In the summer he met King
Frederick William and Prince Hardenberg at Toplitz; a con-
ference that resulted in the indefinite postponement of the
Prussian constitution and in a secret agreement (Aug. i) on the
proposals to be laid before a conference of German ministers to
be held at Carlsbad in the same month. The result of this were
the famous Carlsbad Decrees (<?..), by which liberty of speech
and of the press was abolished throughout Germany. The
Vienna conferences that followed in November and issued in
the Final Act of the isth of May 1820, was not so complete a
triumph for Metternich; but his diplomacy, none the less, had
succeeded in riveting on Germany the yoke of the Austrian
system, which it was to bear with but partial and temporary
relaxations for nearly thirty years (see GERMANY: History).
The year 1820 was marked by critical events which drew
Metternich's attention once more from the affairs of Germany
to those of Europe at large. The revolution in Spain, with which
Austria had no immediate concern, interested him little; but
his attitude towards it is characteristic and illuminating. The
emperor Alexander for whom the idea of the confederation of
Europe was an article of faith, proposed a European intervention
and offered to march a Russian army through northern Italy
into Spain. Metternich, to whom the remedy seemed far worse
than the disease, covered his dissent from this proposal with a
great display of principle. The ills of Spain were " material,"
those of Europe at large " moral"; and the European Alliance
was there to deal with moral, not material, troubles. The
revolution that followed in Naples, however, necessitated a
different attitude. Strictly speaking, it concerned Austria
alone; but Metternich was anxious to range Alexander openly
against Italian Liberalism, and he therefore consented to the
question being laid before a congress to be assembled at Troppau.
The congresses of Troppau (1820) and Laibach (1821) are dealt
with elsewhere (see EUROPE: History; ITALY: History, and the
articles .y. v.). For Metternich they represented a signal triumph.
Not only did he complete his ascendancy over the emperor
Alexander; but he openly committed all the Powers to an
approval of the Austrian system in Italy, a success that out-
weighed his failure to win over Great Britain to the general
principle of intervention enunciated in the Troppau Protocol.
His attempt, however, to crown his system in Italy by setting
up a central committee on the model of the Mainz commission
was defeated at the congress of Verona (1822) by the opposition
of the Italian princes headed by the pope and the grand duke
of Tuscany.
The sort ot moral dictatorship which Metternich had acquired
on the continent was shattered by the developments of the
Eastern Question. At first, indeed, the peril of a Russian attack
on Turkey had drawn Austria and Great Britain closer together,
and in a meeting at Hanover in October 1821 Metternich and
Castlereagh had come to an understanding as to using the Holy
Alliance to prevent Alexander from acting independently of
the concert. But Metternich's hope that the Greek revolt
would burn itself out " beyond the pale of civilization " was
belied by events; and even before Castlereagh's death it was
clear that Great Britain would have sooner or later to adopt a
policy of intervention opposed to all Metternich's ideas. The
breach was hastened by the accession to office of George Canning,
who hated Metternich and all his ways. At Verona in 1822 the
withdrawal of Great Britain from the system of the continental
Allies was proclaimed to all the world; in March 1823 Canning
recognized the Greek flag. This opened up the whole Eastern
Question in the precise form that Metternich had sought to
306
METTERNICH
avoid; for the action of Great Britain involved a move on the
part of Russia, jealous of her prestige in the Levant, and thus
led ultimately to a rearrangement of the relations of the Powers
which, so far as the affairs of the Ottoman empire were concerned,
left Austria isolated. It is impossible here even to outline
Metternich's diplomacy during the eleven years between the
outbreak of the Greek revolt and the signature of the treaty
of London (1832) by which the kingdom of Greece was estab-
lished. The principles that guided it are, however, sufficiently
simple. In common with Great Britain he desired to maintain
the integrity of the Ottoman Empire as a barrier against Russian
domination in the Balkan peninsula; he wished also to avert a
Russo-Turkish war, not only for the above reason, but also
because this would involve the breakdown of the system by
which he hoped to curb the revolutionary forces in the West.
He therefore attempted, and for a while successfully, to persuade
the tsar that the Greeks were only " ordinary rebels against
legitimate authority." But, when this expedient failed, he was
the first to suggest the complete independence of Greece, which
seemed to him less dangerous to Austrian interests than a
tributary principality on the model of Moldavia and Wallachia.
In the end his attitude was one of abstention and protest, since he
rightly considered that the action of the Powers which culminated
in the treaty of London was fatal to the doctrine of legitimacy,
on which his system was based.
The Greek question was not finally settled when the outbreak
of the revolutions of 1830 threatened the overthrow of the whole
structure of 1815 in the West. Events which seemed to involve
the complete ruin of Metternich's system gave it in effect,
however, a new lease of lite. Austria, isolated by the events
in the East, was once more brought into touch with Russia by
a crisis that concerned both Powers equally. On the receipt
of the news of the July revolution in Paris Metternich hastened
to meet Count Nesselrode at Carlsbad; and, though the Russian
statesman refused to commit himself to the idea of an immediate
reconstitution of a league of the three autocratic Powers, a
common basis of action was agreed upon, and the foundations
were laid for that cordial understanding that ripened in the
meeting of Miinchengratz three years later. Meanwhile, though
his language was still " European," Metternich's attitude
towards the revolutions was wholly Austrian. He preached
the sacred duty of intervention, but he refused to intervene,
save where the interests of the Habsburg monarchy were directly
concerned. He was even the first to recognize the revolutionary
government of Louis Philippe (Sept. 8) ; he answered the appeal
of the king of Holland for help with an ironical reference to the
geographical situation of Austria; he did not even interfere
with the revolutions in Germany and Poland. But when in
Italy revolts broke out that threatened the Austrian hegemony,
he acted with promptitude and decision, in spite of the threaten-
ing attitude of France; in the spring of 1831 Austrian bayonets
restored order in Parma, Modena and the Papal States. Yet
even here Metternich showed an unwonted moderation: not
only did he soon withdraw the Austrian troops from Ancona,
but he took the initiative in impressing on the papal government
the urgent necessity for drastic reform. This attitude was,
indeed, mainly determined by the uncertainty as to the relations
of the three autocratic courts on whose co-operation the effective-
ness of a policy of repression ultimately depended; and Metter-
nich's next work was to attempt to re-cement the broken
alliance. With Prussia he had little difficulty; the timidity of
King Frederick William III. had increased with years and the
events of 1830, and the Prussian and Austrian governments
came to ccoiplete understanding on a common policy in Germany.
Its first fru'ts were the additional articles appended by the
Federal Diit (June 28, 1832) to the Vienna Final Act, by which
the control of the diet over the state legislatures was increased.
As for Russia, Count Nesselrode at first maintained the reticent
attitude he had adopted at Carlsbad; but finally, in 1833,
Metternich met the emperor Nicholas I. himself at Munchen-
gratz and by adroit flattery won him over to his views. The
Berlin convention of the isth of October 1833, which reaffirmed
the divine right of intervention, was a fresh triumph for Metter-
nich's diplomacy. This had been rendered possible by the
change in Russia's attitude towards the Turkish question after
1829, which made a co-operation of Austria and Russia possible
in the East (see MEHEMET An) ; and in its turn it made possible
the maintenance for a while longer of the Austrian system in
Germany.
The convention of Berlin marked the last conspicuous inter-
vention of Metternich in the general affairs of Europe. " The
Holy Alliance of the East," as Palmerston called it, served the
immediate purpose of securing " stability " in the countries
immediately subject to the Powers composing it; it made no
attempt at more than " moral " intervention in questions,
e.g. that of Spain, that lay beyond its own sphere of influence;
and the development of the Eastern Question, leading to the
rapprochement between Russia and Great Britain, though
Austria joined the Quadruple Alliance of 1840, tended to loosen
the cordial ties between the courts of Vienna and St Petersburg.
The Straits Convention of 1841, by which France was formally
readmitted to the concert, was due largely to Metternich's
initiative; so, to, was the ill-judged effort of the continental
Powers in 1847 to interfere in favour of the Sonderbund in
Switzerland. But, on the whole, the growing crisis within the
Habsburg monarchy itself was sufficient to deter Metternich
from foreign adventures. So long as the emperor Francis
lived all question of reform was impossible, and when he died,
in 1835, the rusty machinery of the Austrian administration
was too completely out of gear to be set right by anything
short of a complete reconstruction, to which Metternich was
too old to set his hand, even had he had the inclination to do
iso. He was too experienced not to realize the sickness of the
state, but he was content to veil it from himself and to attempt
to veil it from others. The world was not deceived; but it was
not until the Vienna mob, in 1848, was thundering at the door
of his cabinet that Metternich himself realized the truth to which
he had tried to blind himself. With his fall his system also fell;
and his flight from Vienna was the signal for the revolutions
by which in 1848 all the countries under Habsburg influence
were convulsed.
The resignation of Prince Metternich, handed in on the I3th
of March 1848, was accepted by the emperor on the i8th, and
the prince and his family at once left for England. Here he
lived in great retirement, at Brighton and London, until October
1849, when he went to Brussels. In May 1851 he went to his
estate of Johannesberg, where he was visited by King Frederick
William IV. and Bismarck; in September he returned to Vienna.
The events of 1848 had not shaken his self-complacency; they
seemed to him rather to confirm the soundness of his own political
principles, which would have scotched the evil betimes had
not the weakness of others allowed the forces of disorder to
gather strength. But though, in his own opinion, triumphantly
vindicated, he did not again take office; he maintained, none
the less, as a critic and adviser no mean influence on the counsels
of the Austrian court, though it was contrary to his advice
that Austria signed the treaty of the 2nd of December 1854
with France and Great Britain. He lived to see the beginning
of the struggle 6f France and Italy against Austria, dying on
the nth of June 1859.
Probably no statesman of all time has, in his own day, been
more beslavered with praise and bespattered with abuse than
Metternich. By one side he was reverenced as the infallible
oracle of diplomatic inspiration, by the other he was loathed
and despised as the very incarnation of the spirit of obscurantism
and oppression. The victories of democracy brought the latter
view into fashion, and to the Liberal historians of the latter
part of the igth century the name of Metternich was synonymous
with that of a system in which they could recognize nothing
but a senseless opposition to the forces of enlightenment. A
juster estimate of the man and his work has, however, become
possible as the age has moved farther away from the smoke of
controversy. On the whole, history has tended to endorse the
sane judgment on Metternich pronounced by Castlereagh when
METZ
307
he was first brought into diplomatic contact with him. Writing
from Chaumont to Lord Liverpool, on the 26th of February 1814,
he said: " Austria both in army and government is a timid Power.
Her minister is constitutionally temporizing he is charged
with more faults than belong to him, but he has his full share,
mixed up, however, with considerable means for carrying forward
the machine, more than any other person I have met with at
Head Quarters " (F. O. 2 France, From Lord Castlereagh}. This
gives the key to Metternich's character and policy: Austria
was a timid Power, and Metternich was an Austrian minister.
His policy of " stability," so necessary for the Habsburg
monarchy, at least secured a long period of peace for Europe
at large. Europe, her strength renewed, passed a severe
judgment on the statesman who acted on the assumption that
what the generality of people wanted was peace, not liberty;
and justly, in so far as his pessimism led him to convert what
might have been legitimate as a temporary counsel of expediency
into an immutable principle. But, as Demelitsch points out,
it will be time for Austrians to condemn him when Austria shall
have survived half a century of constitutional experiment under
the dual monarchy.
Of the technique of diplomacy Metternich was a master. His
despatches are models of diplomatic style. If they have any
fault, it is that they are often over-elaborate, the work of a man
who evidently loves diplomacy for its own sake and glories
in the fine turn of a phrase. In this respect they are comparable
to those of Canning, who modelled himself upon Chateaubriand;
they are in vivid contrast to the crabbed businesslike letters
of Castlereagh. Metternich almost invariably begins his des-
patches and his reports with a broad discussion of the principles
involved in the case in point, and argues from these down to
the facts. In this again he is in sharp contrast with Castlereagh,
who, with characteristic British practical sense, politely sweeps
the principles aside and prefers to argue upward from the facts.
Yet Metternich's phrase-making was often the result of astute
calculation. His diplomatic genius was never so well displayed
as in disguising perilous issues in phrases that soothed even
when they did not convince; and, like Gladstone after him, when
the occasion demanded it, he was master of the art of appearing
to say much when in fact he said nothing. When he wished
to make his meaning plain, no one could do so more clearly;
when he wished to be reticent, no reticence could have been
more pleasingly eloquent.
In private life Metternich was a kind, if not always faithful,
husband and a good father, devoted to his children, of whom
he had the misfortune to lose several before his death. He was
three times married. His second wife, Baroness Antonie von
Leykam, Countess von Beilstein, died in 1829; his third wife,
Melanie, Countess Zichy-Ferraris, died on the 3rd of March 1854.
Of his sons three survived him: Richard Clemens Lothar (1829-
1895), his son by his second marriage, who was Austrian ambas-
sador in Paris from 1859 to 1871; Prince Paul (1834-1906), and
Prince Lothar (1837-1904), his sons by his third marriage. His
grandson Prince Clemens (b. 1869), son of Prince Paul, married
in 1905 Isabella de Silva Carvajal, daughter of the marquis de
Santa Cruz.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A vast mass of unpublished material for the
life of Prince Metternich exists in public and private archives; to
some of those in the F.O. Records references are given in the biblio-
graphy to chap. i. of vol. x. of the Cambridge Mod. Hist. Of
published documents the most important are in the collection Atis
Melternichs nachgelassenen Papieren (8 vols., 1880-1884), edited by
his son, Prince Richard Metternich. There is a complete French
translation issued contemporaneously, and an English version, of
which only five volumes (down to 1835) have been published, under
the title Memoirs, &c. (London, 1880-1882). These Memoirs,
especially the autobiographical parts, must be read with considerable
reserve; even the official letters and documents, which are their
most valuable contents, have been to a certain extent " edited."
See also Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (the younger) Aus dem
NacUass von Prokesch-Osten (2 vols., Vienna, 1881) ; the writings and
correspondence of Friedrich von Gentz (q.v.), especially as collected
under the title Oesterreichs Theilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen;
Wilhelm Oncken, Osterreich und Preussen im Befreiungskriege
(1876-1879); A. Beer, Zehn Jahre osterreichischer Politik, 1801-1810
(1877); Die Finanzen Osterreichs (1883); Die orientalische Politik
Osterreichs seit 1774 (1883); T. T. de Martens, Recueil des trailes,
Sfc., vols. iii. and iv. ; Thiers, Hist, du consulat el de I 'empire,
which was frequently commended by Metternich himself as giving
an accurate account of his policy, a statement, however, contro-
verted by Albert Sorel, whose I Europe et la revolution franc,aise,
gives a detailed and masterly account of Metternich's share in the
overthrow of Napoleon. Fedor von Demelitsch's Furst Metternich
und seine auswdrtige Politik, vol. i., to 1812 (Munich, 1898), is an
elaborate and useful analysis of Metternich's foreign policy, based
on a large mass of unpublished archives. The best short biography
of Metternich is that by A. Beer in Der neue Plutarch (1877),
vol. v. ; but both this and Colonel G. B. Malleson's Life of Metternich
(London, 1888) were written before the publication of the important
works of Demelitsch and Sorel. (W. A. P.)
METZ, a town, first-class fortress and episcopal see of
Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, capital of
(German) Lorraine, on the Moselle, 99 m. N.W. of Strassburg by
rail, and at the radiation of lines to Luxemburg, Coblenz and
Noveant, on the French frontier (io| m. W.). Pop. (1905),
60,396. The general appearance of the town is quaint and
irregular, but there are several handsome modern streets. The
Moselle, which is here joined by the Seille, flows through it in
several arms, and is crossed by fourteen bridges. In the south-
west corner of the town is the esplanade, with an equestrian
statue of the emperor William I., and monuments to Prince
Frederick Charles and Marshal Ney, commanding a fine view of
the " pays messin," a fertile plain lying to the south. Of the
ten city gates the most interesting are the Porte d'Allemagne,
or Deutsche Tor, on the east, a castellated structure erected in
1445 and still bearing traces of the siege by Charles V.; the Porte
Serpenoise, or Romer Tor, on the south, and the Porte Franchise,
or Franzosische Tor, on the west. Among its ecclesiastical
edifices (nine Roman Catholic and four Protestant churches)
the most noteworthy is the Roman Catholic cathedral, with huge
pointed windows, slender columns and numerous flying but-
tresses, which, begun in the i3th century and consecrated in
1546, belongs to the period of the decadence of the Gothic style.
The Gothic churches of St Vincent and St Eucharius, and the
handsome Protestant garrison church, completed in 1881, also
deserve mention. Among secular buildings the most important
are the town-hall, the palace of justice, the theatre, the governor's
house, and the various buildings for military purposes. The
public library contains 40,000 volumes, including an extensive
collection of works relating to the history of Lorraine. In the
same building is the museum, which contains a picture gallery,
a numismatic cabinet, and a collection of specimens of natural
history. Metz also possesses several learned societies, charitable
institutions and schools, and a military academy. The cemetery
of Chambiere contains the graves of 7200 French soldiers who
died here in 1870. The chief industries are tanning and the
manufacture of weapons, shoes, cloth, hats and artificial flowers.
There is a trade in wine, beer, wood and minerals.
As a fortress, Metz has always been oflthe highest importance,
and throughout history down to 1870 it had never succumbed
to an enemy, thus earning for itself the name of La pucelle. It
now ranks with Strassburg as one of the two great bulwarks of
the west frontier of Germany. The original town walls were
replaced by ramparts in 1550, and the citadel was built a few
years later. By 1674 the works had been reconstructed by
Vauban. Under Napoleon III. the fortress was strengthened
by a circle of detached forts, which, after 1870, were modified and
completed by the Germans, who treated the fortress as the
principal pivot of offensive operations against France. The
plans in FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT (fig. 43) show Metz as
it was about 1900; in the years following a new outer chain of
defences was constructed, which extends as far as Thionville
on the north side and has its centre in front of Metz on the
Gravelotte battleground. The old enceinte (which includes
Cormontaingne's forts Moselle and Bellevroix) is doomed to
demolition, and has in part been already removed. The
garrison, chiefly composed of the XVI. Army Corps, numbers
about 25,000. (See GERMANY: Army.)
History. Metz, the Roman Divodurum, was the chief town
of the Mediomatrici, and was also called by the Romans
3 o8
METZ
Mediomatrica, a name from which the present form has been
derived by contraction. Caesar describes it as one of the oldest and
most important towns in Gaul. The Romans, recognizing its
strategical importance, fortified it, and supplied it with water by
an imposing aqueduct, the remains of which still exist. Under
the Roman emperors Metz was connected by military roads
with Toul, Langres, Lyons, Strassburg, Verdun, Reims and Trier.
Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century of our era. In
the middle of the sth century the town was plundered by the
Huns under Attila; subsequently it came into possession of the
Franks, and was made the capital of Austrasia. On the parti-
tion of the Carolingian realms in 843 Metz fell to the share of
the emperor Lothair I. as the capital of Lorraine. Its bishops,
whose creation reaches back to the 4th century, now began to be
very powerful. Metz acquired the privileges of a free imperial
town in the I3th century, and soon attained great commercial
prosperity. Having adopted the reformed doctrines in 1552 and
1553, it fell into the hands of the French through treachery,
and was heroically and successfully defended against Charles V.
by Francis duke of Guise. It now sank to the level of a French
provincial town, and its population dwindled from 60,000 to
about 22,000. At the peace of Westphalia in 1648 Metz, with
Toul and Verdun, was formally ceded to France, in whose pos-
session it remained for upwards of two centuries. The battles of
August 1870, and the investment and capture of the army of
Metz which followed, are described below. By the peace of
Frankfort .on the loth of May 1871 Metz was again united to the
German Empire.
See Westphal, Geschichte der Stadt Metz (1875-1877); Georg
Lang, Metz und seine Umgebungen (1883), the Statistisch-topograph-
isches Handbuch fur Lothringen; Albers, Geschichte der Stadt Metz
(Metz, 1902); G. A. Prost, Etudes sur I'hisloire de Metz (1897); and
Tauber, Die Schlachtfelder von Metz (Berlin, 1902). (See also FRANCO-
GERMAN WAR: Bibliography.)
BATTLES AROUND METZ, IN THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR, 1870
i. Colombey-Borny (August 14). The French army under
Marshal Bazaine was in and about Metz. The German I. and
II. armies, on the march from the Saar, were heading for the
Moselle between Metz and Pont-a-Mousson, and on the morning
of the I4th of August the German I. Army (I., VII. and VIII.
Corps, under General v. Steinmetz) lay on and east of the French,
with outposts well to the front, watching the French camps east
of Metz, which were little more than i m. to the front. Stein-
metz had received from headquarters overnight instructions
that on the i4th of August the I. Army would maintain the
positions occupied during the i3th, and merely passed on these
orders to his corps commanders. In Metz, meanwhile, Bazaine
had decided to retreat, and during the morning orders to
that effect reached his corps commanders, who commenced
preparations for their execution. The 2nd Corps (Frossard) and
6th (Canrobert) began to retire about midday, the 3rd (Leboeuf),
4th (Ladmirault) and Imperial Guard (Bourbaki) were to follow.
These preparations being observed, the German outposts got
under arms. General von der Goltz, in command of the VII.
Corps (7 battalions, 4 squadrons, 2 batteries) hearing from a
passing officer that the I. Corps on his right was preparing to
attack, and noting personally signs of retreat in the enemy's
lines, determined at 3 p.m. to advance his whole command to the
ridge between Colombey and Borny (which was still occupied by
French outposts), in order to clear up the situation. The ridge
was captured with little resistance, but the sound of the firing at
once set all the neighbouring troops in motion, and fortunately
so, for the French had immediately retaliated on von der Goltz's
audacious attack. Between 4 and 6 p.m. there was continuous
heavy fighting on the front from Borny to Mey, as both sides
brought fresh troops into the field. The convex slopes falling
from the Prussian position towards Metz gave plenty of cover to
the French, and the setting sun shone full in the faces of the
Prussian artillerymen. Thus the Prussian infantry encountered
unusually obstinate resistance and the troops engaged rapidly
slipped from all superior control. The above front was held by
the French 3rd Corps. Shortly before 6.30 the 4th Corps (Ladmi-
rault) suddenly began to deploy on the high ground to the north-
west beyond Mey, thus threatening the right flank of the Prussian
I. Corps (General v. Manteuffel) . To meet this danger Manteuff el
was compelled to direct his corps artillery and reserves, which
were now rapidly coming up, away from the hard-pressed centre
towards the oncoming infantry masses of Ladmirault. These,
with the sun now almost at their backs, were shooting better
than usual, and Manteuffel was compelled to call on the VIII.
Corps for assistance, which its commander, under positive orders
from Steinmetz, refused to give. Meanwhile Steinmetz had
been sending peremptory orders to the battlefield to stop the
battle, but neither of the corps commanders was able to enforce
them. Fortunately for the Prussians, Bazaine had issued
similar orders to his subordinates, who, having their men better
in hand, were able to obey; and as night began to close in the
French broke off the action and retired under the guns of the
Metz forts, convinced that at last they had " broken the spell "
of German success.
Finding that, in spite of his orders, the firing at the front
continued increasing in intensity, Steinmetz at length rode to
the front himself. Meeting Manteuffel near the Brasserie of
Noisseville, he overwhelmed him with reproaches, and at the
crisis of this scene the bands struck up " Heil dir im Siegeskranz " !
In this action the Germans brought 30,500 rifles and 150 guns
on to the battlefield only out of more than 100,000 with 300
guns which could have been engaged before darkness. Bazaine
actually deployed 50,700 rifles and 206 guns to oppose them.
He might, however, had he been so minded, have struck with
his whole army nearly three times this force, and, judging
from the course events actually took, we can have little doubt as
to the result of such a blow. The losses on either side were in
killed and wounded French about 3600, Germans about 4800.
The chain of causation in this action is particularly worthy of
attention: A young reserve officer, seeing some troops of the
I. Corps standing to arms, reported to von der Goltz that the
corps was standing to arms and about to attack. Von der Goltz
thereupon decided to go forward and discover what was actually
going on, and this action unchained the whole battle power of
all the troops within call. When, on the following morning,
Steinmetz reported von der Goltz and the commander of the
I. Corps for disobedience, the king thanked Manteuffel warmly
for the part he had played, and then turned to the young
brigadier who had disobeyed orders and congratulated him
on having twice distinguished himself in the first fortnight of
the war.
2. The Battle of Viomnlle Mars-la-Tour (August 16).
On the following day (isth) the II. German Army approached
the Moselle above and below Pont-a-Mousson, with a view tb
overtaking and heading off Bazaine in his presumed retreat to
the Meuse (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). So far, however, from
being ahead of the Germans on the road to Verdun, the French
were actually, late in the afternoon of the isth of August,
bivouacked on the plateau of Rezonville, and there their outposts
were placed, not where they could see the surrounding country,
but at the regulation distances of 600 to 1000 paces from the
bivouacs. Friendly inhabitants kept Bazaine well informed as
to the magnitude of the danger threatening him from the south,
and a special telegram from Paris, the true origin of which has
never been traced, led him to believe that the I. German Army
was crossing the Moselle near Thionville and about to descend on
him from the north. This telegram might have exercised the
most prejudicial influence on the course of the battle had not
Ladmirault (4th Corps), nearer to the seat of the imaginary
danger, taken upon himself to disregard the warning transmitted
to him by headquarters. At daybreak on the i6th, no Prussians
being reported in sight by the outposts, the troops began non-
chalantly to prepare for the resumption of the march.
On the Prussian side, von Alvensleben's Corps (III.) shortly
after daybreak was moving north-westward from the Moselle in
two columns, on the right the sth division, via Gorze and Fla-
vigny on Vionville, on the left the 6th division with corps artillery
by Arnaville on Mars-la-Tour, von Alvensleben himself riding
METZ
309
a little in advance between the two. The 6th cavalry division
was ordered to precede' the right column and scout towards
Rezonville. No one was aware of the dangerous proximity of
the French army.
About 9 a.m. the sth cavalry division, reinforced by two
horse artillery batteries (flank guard of the X. Corps from
Thiancourt), and accompanied by von Caprivi (chief of staff,
X. Corps, and afterwards chancellor of the German Empire),
were trotting up the western slopes of the ridge which runs
between Tronville and Vionville. Reaching its summit they
from Gorze towards Vionville, whence he could overlook the
whole country to the north and west, had met von Rheinbaben
(commanding the 5th cavalry division) and had seen the surprise
of the French camps. The sound of the heavy firing coming from
the eastward convinced him of what had been gradually dawning
on him that with barely 30,000 men he was in the presence of
the whole French army, whose attitude at this moment suffi-
ciently indicated their determination to fight.
In a few moments his decision was taken. Calling on the
X. Corps, away to the south-westward, for support, he determined
METZ BATTLEFIELDS
(Western)
Scale, t: 160.000
suddenly found themselves in face of at least 40,000 French
troops, which were not under arms, but busied with miscella-
neous camp duties. The temptation proved too great for the
artillery, who promptly fired into the midst of the cavalry camp
(Forton's division) which lay nearest to them. The momentary
result was a wild panic, especially among the horses; but this
panic gave the alarm to the infantry all along the road, and these
(Frossard's 2nd Corps) at once stood to arms and moved forward,
deployed for attack one division to the west, another division,
from Rezonville, to the south. The latter almost at once en-
countered the heads of the 6th cavalry division, at that moment
just clearing the defile leading up to the Rezonville plateau from
Gorze. The Prussian cavalry promptly bore away to cover
to the westward, and reported what they had seen to superior
authority, but not to the advanced guard of the sth infantry
division, which, emerging in its turn from the defile, ran right
against the deployed French infantry moving to meet them. So
sudden was the collision that the Prussian advanced guard
battery had to fire case to clear its own front.
Meanwhile von Alvensleben himself, riding on the field track
to screen his own weakness by a vigorous attack. By universal
consent this is approved as the boldest resolution arrived at by
an independent commander throughout the war. Orders were
forthwith despatched to the. 6th infantry division, at that
moment between Puxieux and Tronville, to wheel in to their
right and attack, and, their movement being still hidden from
the enemy, these troops were formally drawn up for action and
sent forward as a whole. The French meanwhile had occupied
Vionville and Flavigny, and other troops were moving down the
slopes from Rezonville to their support, but the united onset of
this whole German division overbore all resistance, and the
French began to retire eastward, suffering terribly from the shell
fire of the Prussian batteries.
Marshal Bazaine had meanwhile arrived on the scene, and
ordering forward fresh troops to relieve (not to reinforce) those
already engaged, he rode forward with a horse artillery battery
to watch the operations. The retreating French troops belonged
to Frossard's command, and as they were in considerable con-
fusion Frossard called on du Preuil's brigade of the imperial
guard cavalry to charge. He gave no objective, and when the
310
METZ
brigadier pointed out that the enemy was still beyond the
striking radius of his horses, Frossard reiterated the order, which
was obeyed to the letter.
The result was disastrous. The Prussians, having seen the
cavalry whilst yet at a distance, ceased firing, formed their
skirmishers into groups, and the closed supports standing in
deployed lines, two deep, shattered the cavalry with volleys and
file-firing, as with blown and exhausted horses they endeavoured
to close with their adversaries. When in addition two hussar
regiments struck them in flank they were driven back in wild
disorder upon Rezonville. Jn the dust and confusion of the
charge a group of the hussars approached Bazaine and his horse
artillery battery, and almost carried off the marshal.
Alvensleben, mistaking the withdrawal of the French for the
beginning of a retreat, had meanwhile sent orders to the 6th
cavalry division to charge in pursuit towards Rezonville; but
before it could reach the field the French relieving troops had
forced their way through the stragglers and showed such a bold
front to the Prussian horsemen that an attack held no promise
of success, more especially since they had lost their intervals in
their advance and had no room for a proper deployment. To
steady the young soldiers, the cavalry commander (Ca,rl von
Schmidt) halted his men, made them correct their intervals and
dressing as in peace, though under a heavy fire from the French
infantry, and then withdrew them behind the cover of the
nearest hill at a walk.
The threat of the charge had, however, induced caution on
the French side, and for about two hours there was a lull in the
fighting, which the Prussians utilized on their right in bringing
up reinforcements through the Bois des Ognons. On their left,
however, no fresh troops were as yet available, and on being
informed, about 2-30 p.m., that French cavalry seemed to be
about to charge the exhausted 6th division, Alvensleben ordered
Bredow's cavalry brigade to charge, and if necessary to sacrifice
itself, to save the infantry. Bredow's command (six squadrons
of the i6th Ulans and 7th Cuirassiers) was at that moment drawn
up under cover about half a mile west of Vionville, and from its
position could see nothing of the events in progress on the battle-
field. Nettled by the form in which the order was conveyed to
him, Bredow drew his sword and ordered his trumpeter to sound
the " trot," the brigade moving off in line of squadron columns
at close interval in the direction in which they happened at the
moment to be facing. Near Vionville they took ground to
their left, opening to full intervals as they did so, and then
ascended the gentle incline which still hid them from their
enemy.
Arrived at the summit, Bredow sounded " line to the front,"
but at that moment a storm of French bullets swept down on
them, and the men, no longer to be restrained, dashed forward,
before the line could be completed, almost due east against long
lines of infantry and artillery which they now saw for the first
time about 1 200 yards in front of 'them.
This distance was covered at the fullest extended speed of
the horses, and reaching the infantry they swept over them
" like hounds over a fence " in the words of an eyewitness.
So sudden had been their onset that very few were hit until the
infantry had been passed; then the latter, recovering from the
shock, turned and fired into the cavalry from behind, whilst a
whole fresh division of French horsemen charged them in flank.
After a desperate melee of some minutes, the rally was sounded,
and the survivors of the charge, breaking their way a second
time through the French infantry, eventually reached the shelter
of their own lines, having lost rather more than half their
numbers, but having saved the situation momentarily for their
own army. Again there was a lull in the operations.
Meanwhile, unknown to Alvensleben, a fresh storm was
brewing on his left rear.
Ladmirault, commanding the French 4th" Corps had seen,
during the afternoon of the isth, the terrible crowd and confu-
sion prevailing in the defiles leading to Gravelotte, and resolved
to disobey his orders and to move direct from his bivouacs by
the road from Woippy to St Privat, disregarding altogether the
alleged danger from the Prussians supposed to be advancing
from Thionville. Thus, about noon on the i6th he reached the
high ground between St Privat and Amanvillers, and still without
instructions he determined to direct his corps on Bruville and
Doncourt, whence he could judge from the drift of the smoke-
clouds whether he could fall on the Prussian left.
Much time was lost owing to the heat of the day and the
fatigue of the troops, but shortly after 3 p.m. he reached a
position north of the Tronville copses whence his guns could
fire into the left rear of the long line of Prussian guns (6th
division and corps artillery) on the heights above Vionville
and Flavigny. Their fire threw the latter into serious confusion
and he had already decided to attack with his nearest division
(de Cissey) in the direction of the steeple of Vionville, when his
attention was caught by the outbreak of heavy firing in the
copses below him, and the entry of fresh Prussian guns into
action.
This diversion was brought about by the arrival of the corps
artillery of the X. Corps and of the 4oth brigade, which latter
had been at once ordered into the Tronville copses to check
portions of Tixier's division of the French 3rd Corps, which under
cover of these copses had gradually worked round the Prussian
flank. Seeing then that the troops before him could hold their
own, Ladmirault continued his preparations for his counter-
stroke, and Cissey's division had begun to move into its prescribed
alignment, facing towards Vionville, when the sudden apparition
of a closed mass of Prussian troops detaching itself from the
low dust-cloud of a slow-moving infantry column, and forming
to the south of Mars-la-Tour, again arrested his attention.
Unanimously he and his staff agreed that this fresh enemy
could only be the advanced guard of a large Prussian force,
possibly, it was suggested, of the crown prince's army, from
Alsace and Nancy, and a fresh delay arose while the situation
was investigated. Actually this body consisted only of the 38th
brigade (von Wedell), forming part of the X. Corps. It had no
knowledge of the state of affairs on the battlefield, or in the
direction of Bruville, though Prussian cavalry had been observing
the approach of Ladmirault's corps for some hours. It was now
ordered to deploy and to co-operate with the 4oth brigade in an
attack on the Tronville copses. This meanwhile had been
delivered, and had more or less failed.
The deployment completed, about 4 p.m. the 38th brigade
began its advance on the north-west corner of the Tronville
copses, this direction taking them diagonally across the front
METZ
of Cissey's division, still out of their sight but moving due south.
Hardly had they stepped off when Cissey's first line, catching
sight of them, opened a devastating fire upon their left flank,
and to meet this fresh danger the Prussians endeavoured to
change front half-left whilst still on the move. Without pausing
to fire, the men raced onward, but the French striking their
outer wing rolled up the whole line in succession, the actual
collision occurring in and near the Bruville ravine, a deep-cut
natural trench which, starting from the Tronville copses, here
intersects the plateau from west to east. Against the weight of
French numbers, nearly three to one, the Prussians were unable
to stand, and presently they broke and drifted backwards,
completely routed. Then the ist Guard Dragoons (since known
as Queen Victoria's regiment), after a brilliant manoeuvre under
heavy fire, to get into the best position for delivering a charge,
rode down the whole French line of pursuers from left to right,
and by their heroic self-sacrifice relieved the remnants of the
infantry from further pursuit.
This was the scene which for the moment held the attention
of Prince Frederick Charles when at length he reached the
battlefield from Pont-a-Mousson. All along the rest of the line
the Prussians were still holding their own, and on the extreme
right fresh troops from the IX. Corps were streaming up through
the woods against the French left wing. But on the left there
was every sign of incipient disaster, and to avert this only the
cavalry were at hand. Sending, therefore, hasty orders to the
5th and 6th cavalry divisions to concentrate to the west of Mars-
la-Tour, the prince ordered them from there to sweep round on
the right rear of the French army. The same idea had, however,
occurred to Ladmirault, and he had called on the two nearest
French cavalry divisions to put it into execution, and as the
Prussians began to reach the plateau west of Mars-la-Tour and
the Yron brook from the south, the French were deploying across
it some two thousand yards to the north.
Then followed a duel the one great cavalry duel of the war
between upwards of two thousand horsemen a side. But it was
delivered by both sides in a series of regimental charges, and in
result was singularly indecisive. For about half an hour great
crowds of riders, hidden by dense clouds of dust, drifted aimlessly
about the plain, till at length the charge of a single squadron
of the Oldenburg Dragoons (who had joined in on their own
initiative) delivered on the outer French flank, brought the whole
mass into motion north-eastward, and, both sides sounding the
rally, the engagement gradually ceased.
It was now about 7 p.m. and night was coming on. Seeing
the dust-clouds drifting away northward, and noting the lethargy
which seemed to have settled over the whole French line, Prince
Frederick Charles decided to assert his own independent will to
conquer by a final assault along his whole front. Guns, cavalry,
infantry, everything that could still stand were to take part in it.
Weary as they all were, his indomitable will put fresh life into
the whole army. With drums beating and colours flying, every
unit within call went forward for the final effort. It was almost
dark when the Prussians approached the French position between
Rezonville and the woods to the northward, and the troops soon
lost direction in the smoke and became involved in the direst
confusion; the firing again blazed out for a few moments, only to
die away as utter exhaustion at length put an end to the Prussian
advance. Then the wearied troops, for the most part, lay down
and slept in the positions they had reached.
Thus closed the hardest fought battle of the Franco-German
War. From 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. only 23,700 rifles, 8100 sabres
and 126 guns had been brought into action by the Germans
against 59,100 rifles, 6700 sabres, and 300 guns on the French
side, and even at the close of the day the former had only
deployed 47,100 rifles, 8300 sabres and 222 guns against 83,000
rifles, 8000 sabres and 432 guns including 24 mitrailleuses. The
chief characteristic of the day's fighting was the terrible effective-
ness of the Prussian artillery, which was handled in masses and
not, as on the French side, by batteries. The manoeuvring power
of the latter attracted the admiration of the Germans, but
arriving singly on the field they were generally reduced to silence
in a few minutes. Deprived of their support, not all the gallantry
of the French infantry could avail anything. . Again and again,
particularly on their left wing, they chased the German infantry
before them, but the moment the retreat of the latter downhill
uncovered the pursuing French to the Prussian guns, a tornado
of shells shattered their order and compelled them to retreat.
Though the cavalry were freely engaged, the training of both
was so far beneath the standard of the present day that the
most that can be credited to them in respect of results is that
they from time to time averted imminent disaster, but failed
altogether to achieve such a decision as was well within their
potential capacities.
3. Gravdotte St Priiiat (August 18). The position on to
which the French army fell back from the field of Vionville is
formed by a ridge some six miles long running from Rozerieulles
almost due north to Roncourt, a little village overhanging the
steep and wooded banks of the Orne, and connected with the
general plateau between the Meuse and Moselle by a gentle
saddle running from about Amanvillers nearly due west through
the Bois de la Cusse towards Doncourt. North of this saddle
the slopes show a slight concavity, but are passable by troops of
all arms in close order. To the south the rivulet of the Mance
soon forms a formidable obstacle as its bed cuts its way through
the sandstone. Scrub and woods with dense undergrowth line
both its banks, and, except by the great chaussee from Metz to
Verdun, access to the French side becomes impossible to troops
in ordered bodies.
It does not appear that the position had been systematically
examined, or apportioned to the several corps in accordance
with any predetermined plan. The army merely swung back-
wards, pivoting on its left wing, the corps preserving their
relative order as it had been on the i6th, with the exception
that the Imperial Guard was withdrawn to the spur on which
Fort Plappeville stands, and the 6th Corps (Marshal Canrobert)
crossed the line of march of the 3rd and 4th Corps in order to
gain St Privat la Montagne. No lines of march were assigned
to the several units, consequently the confusion became so great
that though the distance to be traversed in no case exceeded six
miles, only the right wing and centre reached their destinations
as night was falling. Many of them had so little idea of the
general situation that they actually placed outposts to the north
and east, whilst the whole of the enemy's army lay to the south
and west. No attempt was made to entrench the position syste-
matically, but on the left the 2nd and 3rd Corps made some
disconnected shelter trenches and gun-pits, while the 4th Corps
in the centre began to improve available cover about an hour
before the battle began, and the 6th corps on the right, not yet
having received any entrenching tools, could do no more than
improvise a few loopholes in the walls of the villages of St Privat
and Roncourt with such tools as the sappers could obtain from
the inhabitants.
Fortunately for the French the Germans were too exhausted
by the battle of the i6th to attempt to interfere with these
movements. At daybreak on the morning of the i8th the royal
headquarters (which now for the first time arrived at the front)
still had no certain knowledge as to whether the French main
army was in retreat covered by the force which they could
see on the high ground north of the Metz road or whether they
had taken up a position in order to fight.
Hence the orders issued overnight on the presumption that
the main force of the French was retreating to the north and
west were allowed to stand, and the whole II. Army (Prince
Frederick Charles) moved off in echelon from left to right, the
I. army under Steinmetz, consisting for the day of the I., II. and
VII. Corps, being left in observation of the troops visible on their
front and of the garrison of Metz itself. The I. Corps was kept
back beyond the Moselle on the east side of Metz, the II. was not
due to arrive at Rezonville before 4 p.m., hence the VII. only
was immediately available if the enemy counter-attacked.
But Steinmetz had not ordered, nor had von Zastrow, the corps
commander, undertaken, any preparations to meet an emergency.
About 10 a.m. the corps had reached the following positions:
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METZ
VIII. Corps, Rezonville; XI. near St Marcel; Guard approaching
Doncourt; XII. towards Jarny; the III. and X., which had been
so heavily engaged on the :6th, still in their bivouacs preparing
to move. The cavalry of the Saxons had established the fact
that the French had not retreated northward, but though scouts
from the Guard had already seen the enemy on the heights of
St Privat, this information had not yet reached headquarters,
nor had it been transmitted to the IX. Corps, which it most
closely concerned.
Shortly after 10 a.m. Moltke, still under the impression that
the French right extended no farther than La Folie (2 m.
north of the Metz road), determined to attack with the IX. and
VIII. Corps whilst the Guard executed a turning movement via
Habonville against the French right. The IX. Corps was to
engage, but not to push its attack home until the Guard could
co-operate. The XII. Corps was left to its own devices, but for-
tunately the crown prince of Saxony, who commanded it, had
ridden forward and, seeing the French in force towards Roncourt
had issued orders which in the event proved decisive.
In pursuance of his instructions von Manstein, commanding
the IX. Corps, set his two divisions in motion towards La Folie
and the Bois de la Cusse, and advanced to reconnoitre the French
position. From the eastern edge of the above-named copses he
suddenly descried the camp of a whole French Corps (the 4th),
evidently ignorant of their danger, on the slopes trending west-
ward from Amanvillers. Unmindful of the experience of the
1 6th, he decided to execute an artillery surprise on a grand scale,
and sent orders to his corps artillery to come into action on the
long spur overlooking the French camps from the westward.
At noon, just as the French infantry were falling in for midday
roll-call, sufficient guns were in position, and suddenly opened
fire. But the effect was disappointing. The French infantry
ran to their arms, piled along the front of their positions, and
moved forward to attack, covering their advance by a hail of
bullets. Simultaneously the French artillery also took up the
challenge, and from the heights near St Privat the 6th Corps,
whose presence had been unsuspected by the Prussians, joined in
the fight.
In a few minutes the batteries on the extreme Prussian left
were completely overwhelmed, and suddenly dense lines of
French skirmishers emerged from a fold in the ground upon their
flank and front, and the gunners were compelled to resort to
case-shot, so imminent was their danger. But at this critical
moment the leading companies of the Hessian infantry arrived,
re-established the equilibrium (though not before four Prussian
batteries had been temporarily overrun by the enemy), and a
most obstinate fight ensued.
Prince Frederick Charles now rode forward to a point north-
east of Verneville, whence the southern boundary of St Privat
could be seen. But the northern side of the village and the
country towards Roncourt was hidden from his view by the high
poplars bordering the Metz-Briey road. Seeing the Hessians
hard pressed, he now brought forward the 2nd division of the
Guard to their assistance, sending in the 3rd brigade immediately,
and holding the 4th brigade in reserve. The ist division,
warned by their own scouts that French troops were in Ste
Marie, deployed to attack this village, and were assisted in their
endeavour by a brigade of Saxons detached by the crown prince
of Saxony, who from his position could see behind the poplar
screen that limited the view of the commander-in-chief. Hence
he was already aware that the French position extended to Ron-
court at least, and had despatched a whole division down the
valley of the Orne to outflank them. No news of this movement,
however, appears to have reached Prince Frederick Charles.
The French troops in Ste Marie were only an outpost of the
6th corps, and seeing themselves outnumbered, they withdrew
about 2.30, the Prussians rushing the village immediately after-
wards. Considerable confusion arose from the convergence of
these three brigades upon one village, and more than an hour
passed before the troops could be disentangled and massed for
further operations. The leaders of the two Guard brigades,
still ignorant of the extent of the French position, rallied their
men on the main bodies of their commands (which had not been
engaged) and then lay down facing exactly as they had done
when brought forward to the attack. Thus the ist brigade
lay, facing about east-south-east, south of the chaussee and
some five hundred yards west of the village. The 2nd brigade
lay south-west of the village about three hundred yards away
from it and facing nearly north-east.
The Saxons were on the left rear of the ist brigade, but took
longer to recover themselves than the Guards. With the
Hessians and the IX. Corps the action still dragged; the 3rd
brigade of the Guards had become involved in the fight, and
notwithstanding the arrival of the corps artillery of the III.
Corps in the centre the situation was still critical. From the
south also came the thunder of guns and no encouraging news
from that quarter had as yet reached the prince's headquarters.
About 4.30 p.m. the prince therefore had to consider how
long it would take to obtain a decision. To postpone it till
the morrow seemed undesirable: to achieve it before nightfall
was only possible At the cost of immediate effort.
He therefore decided to assault St Privat. with all the Guards
available, and called up the III., X. and Saxons to assist them.
The 4th brigade of the Guards now received their orders to
attack Jerusalem (a hamlet a little south of St Privat), and
the ist division was ordered to assault St Privat itself.
Von Pape, commanding the latter division, pointed out
that no artillery force adequate to prepare the way for him
was as yet on the ground, and that the Saxons were still a long
way to the rear. But his orders were imperative, and the
4th brigade was already moving off and had to be supported
at any cost. Actually all available batteries had already
been sent for and were trotting forward from every quarter
towards the objective. He accordingly transmitted his orders,
and the 2nd brigade was the first to attempt their execution.
It had to wheel half-right in mass to bring it in the required
direction, and then to advance till its rear was clear of the
obstruction formed by the gardens of St Marie. By the time
(5.30) it had sufficiently cleared this village it became apparent
that the 4th brigade in its extension for attack would overlap
the front assigned to the 2nd, hence a further (half-left) wheel,
still in mass, had to be undertaken before room for deployment
could be obtained. Almost as the commands were given,
the French suddenly opened an overwhelming long-range fire
and their bullets swept like hail through the crowded mass of
the German troops. Nevertheless the wheel was effected,
the fresh direction taken, the troops extended for attack, and
then the whole brigade dashed towards the houses assigned
them as their objective. Meanwhile the ist brigade had moved
round the north of the village and carried out its extension
without serious hindrance. But emerging from the hollow
running north from St Marie, they came under a heavy fire
not only from St Privat but also from Roncourt, which latter
village they now saw for the first time. Instinctively a portion
of their line worked to the left to face this new menace, and
the front thus became dangerously extended. They were,
however, now abreast of the 2nd brigade, and the whole line
raced forward to reach the effective range of their very
inferior weapons, which were about equal at 200 yds. to the
French rifle at 600. But the losses of the 2nd brigade, partic-
ularly in officers, had been too heavy, and the rush died out
whilst still 500 yds. from the two' villages. .
It was now about 6 p.m. and a long pause ensued, while the
220 guns, which Iby degrees had* unlimbered behind them,
brought St Privat and Roncourt under fire. About 7 p.m.
the Saxon turning-movement took effect: their infantry from
the Orne valley attacked Roncourt from the north, and about
7.15 the village was carried.
Neither Prince Frederick Charles nor the troops in the fighting-
line could see what had taken place; but the former seeing
other Saxons moving towards Montois and the masses of the
III. and X. Corps approaching, whilst the rain of shells into
St Privat exceeded anything hitherto seen on any battlefield,
decided to call on the whole of his force to attack. He was in
METZ
3*3
the act of issuing his orders when a psychological wave swept
through the fighting-line, and the men rose and rushed the
village at the point of the bayonet. It was now about eight
o'clock, and the light was rapidly failing.
The French artillery had already evaded the coming blow,
and had changed position, " right back," to cover the flank of
the rest of the army, and the Prussian and Saxon artillery
trotting forward conformed to this new front, their shells
sweeping the ground for 2000 yds. to the south of Aman-
villers. The confusion in and around St Privat, where troops
from four several corps were all intermingled, became so extreme
that no further infantry-advance could be attempted; so under
cover of the fierce artillery duel the remnants of the unfortunate
6th corps drifted away towards Metz down the many ravines
leading into the river valley. The " annihilation " of the
Guard at St Privat has become historic. Yet, heavy as were
the losses of the ist Guard division they were not excessive
compared to those previously endured. In round numbers
one-third of their effectives had fallen most of them in the
first great rush forward at 5.30 p.m.; but actually they had
been more or less under fire since about 2 p.m., and many were
hit by French shells plunging into the turmoil about St Privat
from 8 to 10 p.m. But the legend cannot be justified when
the facts are compared with the slaughter of the Seven Years'
War, of Napoleon's battles, the Crimea, and the American
Civil War, or with the horrible punishment of von Wedell's
brigade (38th) only two days before.
It is now time to return to the southern theatre of the battle-
field, where an entirely independent engagement had been
raging all the afternoon. Von Goeben with the VIII. Corps
was standing massed about Rezonville when von Manstein's
guns opposite Amanvillers suddenly made themselves heard.
Wheeling his corps to face the French to the eastward he imme-
diately sent forward his artillery and prepared to support his
comrade. Von Zastrow with the VII. Corps followed his example.
Both corps took as their primary objective the farms of St
Hubert and Point du Jour, standing just above the defile made
by the Verdun-Metz road where it climbs out of the Mance
ravine towards the French position. About 3-30 p.m. St
Hubert was carried by a confused mass of some 49 companies,
and von Steinmetz, believing the main French position to have
been pierced, ordered the 4th cavalry division to cross the ravine
by the chaussee and pursue. Simultaneously von Zastrow,
under the same impression, had ordered his corps artillery
to advance by the same road, and von Goeben, thinking his
troops in front required support, had sent forward an infantry
brigade by the same line of road.
Presently all these columns converged upon the defile and
a hopeless entanglement ensued. Three batteries succeeded
in struggling through the mass, and, in coming into action,
their left resting on St Hubert. But the remainder of the
troops had to be withdrawn, and confusion breaking out in
their rear, exposed to all the random bullets and shells of the
French, a panic ensued, thousands of men breaking away and
flying in wildest confusion through Gravelotte towards the
west. Hardly had they melted away when the French made
a most brilliant counter-attack from their main position between
the farms of Leipzig and Moscow. This was stopped almost
entirely by the Prussian artillery fire; but the news of its coming
spread through the stragglers in the ravine south of the great
road, and a wave of panic again swept through the mass, many
thousands bolting right upon the front of their own batteries,
thus masking their fire at the most critical moment, and some-
thing like a crisis in the battle arose. Fortunately the II.
Corps was now rapidly approaching (about 6 p.m.), and the
king, against Moltke's advice, now ordered von Steinmetz
(to whom the II. Corps had been allotted for the day) to attack
again with all his forces. Meanwhile a third panic broke out
which delayed the preliminary movements and it was now
growing dark in the ravine. At length the II. Corps, together
with all of the VII. that could be collected, moved down into
the valley. Just as the leading German troops were approaching
St Hubert the French again began to fire, their bullets plunging
down among the fresh arrivals, who knowing nothing of what
had taken place about St Hubert (where the remnant of their
own infantry were still offering a desperate resistance) opened
fire into the backs of their own men, and a fourth panic began
which soon spread to the stragglers crowding the Mance ravine.
Fortunately, by the superb gallantry of some of the company
officers and men, the new arrivals were induced to recognize
their mistake, and by degrees about 10 p.m. the whole of the
II. Corps succeeded in reaching the plateau between St Hubert
and Point du Jour, where the debris of the VII. and VIII.
Corps had gathered. But in the darkness and confusion no
forward movement against the French (only 400 yds. to their
front) could be initiated, therefore the whole mass passed the
night where they stood until daylight disclosed that the French
had retreated.
Meanwhile the king, Moltke, and Bismarck, had ridden back
behind Gravelotte where they passed two hours of intense
anxiety. From the flash of the rifles, it was clear that the
French main position was still intact, and as every body of
troops within thirty-six hours' call had been engaged there
seemed little prospect of renewing the struggle next morning.
No news too had come in from Prince Frederick Charles. Ulti-
mately about midnight the welcome tidings of the capture of
St Privat arrived, and all anxiety was at an end.
4. The Investment of Metz (Aug. ip-Oct. 14). During the
night following the battle of Gravelotte the French army
withdrew within the line of the forts round Metz. The 6th
Corps only was severely shaken, the 4th (the best in the
whole army), though it had fought hard twice within forty-
eight hours, losing nearly 30% of its strength, was still well
in hand, and the 3rd, 2nd and Imperial Guards were almost
intact. A fresh issue of ammunition and food was all the
men needed to make them a thoroughly efficient fighting force
comprising some 100,000 troops capable, with a resolute leader
and an efficient staff, of crossing over to the right bank of
the Moselle, overrunning the I. German Corps, the only one
in their direct path, and then fighting their way across the
communications of the II. and III. German Armies until they
regained touch with the French railways to the south-west
about Troyes.
The mere fact of the effort being made would have given
the battle of Gravelotte the moral effect of a victory, and the
reaction in the German ranks from the feeling of over-confidence,
which had mastered them after the early successes of Spicheren
and Woerth, must have had most far-reaching consequences.
Bazaine, however, withdrew entirely under cover of the forts,
and set about the reorganization of his troops in the most
leisurely manner. The Metz forts, though neither sufficiently
armed nor even completely finished in some cases, were never-
theless, with their deep ditches and self-protecting bastion
trace, far too formidable for any field army to attempt without
the aid of a siege train of some 200 guns, which for the moment
were not available. Of this fact the Germans were well aware,
and hence they decided from the first to reduce the place by
hunger, calculating that with the extra 150,000 men thrown
back upon the fortress, its food supplies could not last very
long. On the morning of the igth the German army was far
too exhausted for further efforts. Except the I. Corps, which
had been summoned overnight from its position about Cour-
celles towards the battlefield of Gravelotte and had almost
reached the Moselle before this move could be counterordered,
the remainder kept their places of the previous night, only
following the French retreat with a screen of outposts. They
were sufficiently occupied in collecting the wounded and clearing
up the confusion resulting from an accumulation of trains and
transport in the defiles of Gorze and about Noveaut. No
eastward movement could have taken place that day. In
the course of the afternoon of the igth the royal headquarters,
creating a new army under the crown prince of Saxony (Guard,
IV. and XII. (Saxons) Corps) for field operations towards the
Meuse, assigned the remainder of the II. Army, and the whole
3 '4
MEUDON MEULEN
of the I., to Prince Frederick Charles as commander-in-chief
of the army of investment. 1 This brought the strength of
his command up to eight corps, numbering some 220,000 men;
an enormous mass to feed in a district swept bare of supplies
by the operations of the preceding week, and with only one
railway line, terminating at Courcelles, to depend upon.
For the moment the chief care of the Prince was to guard
against an attempt of the French army to break out to the
westward. The I. Army Corps with Rummer's Landwehr
division (which arrived during the night of the i9th-2oth of
August) were to occupy a position to cover the rail head at
Courcelles-Remilly, and the remainder were disposed in the
following order: The X. Corps was on the north, with a bridge
head at Hauconcourt-sur-Moselle, the II., VIII. and VII'.
along the eastern slopes overlooking the Moselle valley, the
latter having also a fortified bridge head at Ars-sur-Moselle.
The III. and IX. were cantoned almost on the battlefield of
the i8th, between Caulre Farm and Roncourt, ready to move
off to the left and support the X. Corps in the event of an attempt
on the part of the French to break out towards Thionville.
The positions were fortified with a light outpost line, behind
which was drawn a main position on which every art of the
engineer was expended. Ample arrangements were made for
obtaining and circulating intelligence, and all lateral com-
munications were improved and supplemented to the utmost.
A light field-railway from Remilly to Pont a Mousson (14 m.)
was also put in hand, but progress on this was very slow. The
water-supply of the town was promptly interrupted, but the
river water was quite drinkable.
Meanwhile, the French in Metz had been diligently at work.
There was no real deficiency of ammunition and stores in the
fortress, and provisions for forty days were reported in hand.
Bazaine was still in communication with the outside world,
though return messages came in sparingly. On the afternoon of
the 25th he decided to break out to the northward by the
right bank of the river, and orders to this effect were duly issued.
Many delays arose in their execution, and it was not till 2 p.m.
on the 26lh that the troops were formed up ready for action.
But at the last moment the marshal wavered. Calling a council
of war on the heights of Fort St Julien, he asked the opinion
of his subordinates, who were unanimously against the proposed
sortie, principally because the artillery " had only ammunition
enough for a single battle!" Besides, the Germans had long
since become aware of the movement in progress, and all chance
of surprise was past. It was also raining very heavily. Accord-
ingly the scheme was abandoned.
On the 2gth of August Bazaine received a despatch, dated
the zyth, from MacMahon, according to which his army should
have been at Stenay on the Meuse and farther to the south
by the 3oth. The marshal accordingly determined to renew
the attempt of the 26th, and orders almost a repetition of those
of the previous occasion were issued.
At this moment (Aug. 31) the positions of von Manteuffel's
command (I. Corps and 3rd Landwehr division) were most
dangerously extended, and a surprise at daybreak might have
had far-reaching results. But the habit of excessive bugling
and band-playing betrayed the French design even before
daybreak. Not until 1.30 p.m. was the concentration completed,
and Bazaine again assembled his commanding officers to give
them their final instructions. This time he adhered to his
decision, and about 4 p.m. the attack opened (battle of Servigny
or Noisseville); but his opportunity had been allowed to slip,
and though his first onset overwhelmed the German outposts,
their main line held good, and masses of guns unlimbering
over a front of some 4 m. rendered all further attempts
to break the German cordon abortive. Firing only ceased as
darkness fell, and next morning the fighting was again renewed.
But the whole French army was disheartened. It was obvious
that what they had failed to do by surprise was hopeless now
that twenty-four hours had been given in which the Germans
'Steinmetz was shortly afterwards relieved of his command
and returned to Germany.
could make counter-preparations. Therefore about noon a
general retirement under the guns of the forts took place, and
the last serious hope of the French army had vanished. Some
120,000 men with 528 guns had been engaged against 60,000
Germans with 222 guns, and had been beaten off with a loss of
3500 men. The Germans had lost about 3000.
The investment now resumed its regular course. The Ger-
mans, secure in the strength of their position on the left bank
of the Moselle, drew more troops over to the right, and added
to their defences and communications. The idea was even
mooted of damming up the river near Hauconcourt, and thus
flooding out the whole of the civil population of Metz; but
expert civil engineers, who were sent for from Germany, reported
against the proposal.
As time wore on the conditions in Metz and the surrounding
camps became deplorable. The hospitals and private houses
had been crowded with wounded from the first, and now, owing
to the persistent wet weather, smallpox and dysentery became
epidemic. Towards the close of September rations had to
be reduced, and the troops began slaughtering the cavalry
horses for food. Probably to cheer the men by a semblance
of activity, Marshal Bazaine attempted a sortie on a large
scale on the ist of October in the direction of Ladorchamps,
and fighting continued into the 2nd, but without prospect
of success, and the profound depression following on defeat
sent up the sick list rapidly. One other sortie towards Noisse-
ville followed on the 7th, the alleged reason for which was the
hope of obtaining provisions in the neighbouring villages.
But it was beaten off with the utmost ease by the investing
troops, who were well fed and cared for; and as by this time
even the gun-teams had followed the cavalry horses to the
slaughter-house, the French army as an army i.e. a combination
of the three arms had ceased to exist. On the recognition of
this fact negotiations for the capitulation of Metz were begun on
the i3th of October, and on the I4th the Army of the Rhine sur-
rendered. Had it held out even forty-eight hours longer events
before Paris and Orleans might have taken a different turn.
The investment of Metz had lasted 54 days, and the death-
roll of the civil population had risen to 3587 against 1200 in
the corresponding period of a normal year. The army itself
had only lost from sickness 2600 men, or barely 2% of its
full effective. (F. N. M.)
MEUDON, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine-et-Oise, 6 m. E. of Versailles by rail and about 25 m.
S.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906), 9597. The remains of a castle
(i7th century) burned during the siege of Paris in 1871 have
since been adapted as an observatory. Its terrace commands
a fine view of Paris. The handsome Galliera Institutions,
on the hill of Fleury, were founded by the duchess of Galliera
for the reception of aged persons and orphans. The buildings
were completed in 1885, at a cost of 560,000. The town has
a monument of Rabelais, who was cure there in 1553, and manu-
factures munitions of war for the artillery, and in the neighbour-
ing park of Chalais is the Government military ballooning
establishment. In the i6th century the cardinal, Charles
of Lorraine, built at Meudon a magnificent chateau, which was
destroyed in 1803. The present remains belong to a building
erected by the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. The wood of Meudon
lies for the most part to the west of the town.
MEULEN, ANTONY FRANCIS VAN DER (1634-1690),
Flemish paSnter, born in Brussels, was called to Paris about
1666 by Colbert, at the instance of Le Brun, to fill the post
of battle painter to Louis XIV. His paintings during the
campaigns of Flanders (1667) so delighted Louis that from
that date Van der Meulen was ordered to accompany him in
all his expeditions. In 1673 he was received into the French
Academy, attained the grade of councillor in 1681, and died
full of honours in Paris in 1690. He is best represented by the
series of twenty-three paintings, mostly executed for Louis
XIV., now in the Louvre. The show that he always retained
his Flemish predilections in point of colour, although his style
was modified by that of the French school.
MEUNIER MEUSE
MEUNIER, CONSTANTIN (1831-1905), Belgian painter and
sculptor, was born at Etterbeek, Brussels. His first exhibit
was a plaster sketch, " The Garland," at the Brussels Salon
in 1851. Soon afterwards, on the advice of the painter Charles
de Groux, he abandoned the chisel for the brush. His first
important painting, " The Salle St Roch " (1857), was followed
by a series of paintings including " A Trappist Funeral " (1860),
" Trappists Ploughing " (1863), in collaboration with Alfred
Verwee, " Divine Service at the Monastery of La Trappe "
(1871) and episodes of the Peasants' War (1878). About
1880 he was commissioned to illustrate those parts of Camille
Lemonnier's description of Belgium in Le Tour du monde
which referred to miners and factory-workers, .and produced
" In the Factory," " Smithery at Cockerill's," " Melting Steel at
the Factory at Seraing " (1882), " Returning from the Pit,"
and " The Broken Crucible " (1884). In 1882 he was employed
by the government to copy Pedro Carnpana's " Descent from the
Cross " at Seville, and in Spain he painted such characteristic
pictures as " The Cafe Concert," " Procession on Good Friday,"
and " The Tobacco Factory at Seville " (Brussels Gallery).
On his return to Belgium he was appointed professor at the
Louvain Academy of Fine Arts. In 1885 he returned to statuary
and produced "The Puddler," "The Hammerer" (1886),
" Firedamp " (1889, Brussels Gallery), " Ecce Homo " (1891),
" The Old Mine-Horse " (1891), " The Mower " (1892), " The
Glebe " (1892), the monument to Father Damien at Louvain
(1893), " Puddler at the Furnace " (1893), the scheme of decora-
tion for the Botanic Garden at Brussels in collaboration with the
sculptor Charles van der Stappen (1893), " The Horse at the
Pond," in the square in the north-east quarter of Brussels, and
two unfinished works, the " Monument to Labour " and the Zola
monument, in collaboration with the French sculptor Charpentier.
The " Monument to Labour," which was acquired by the State
for the Brussels Gallery, comprises four stone bas-reliefs, " In-
dustry," " The Mine," " Harvest," and the " Harbour "; four
bronze statues, " The Sower," " The Smith," " The Miner," and
the " Ancestor "; and a bronze group, " Maternity," Meunier
died at Brussels on the 4th of April 1905.
MEURICE, FRANCOIS PAUL (1818-1905), French dramatist,
was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1818. In 1848 he
became the editor of the &enement, founded by Victor Hugo,
and in 1869 he was one of the promoters of the Rappel, a journal
on similar lines. He was the literary executor of Victor Hugo,
and edited his works (1880-1885). In collaboration with Auguste
Vacquerie and Theophile Gautier, he produced Falstaff (1842),
a play in imitation of Shakespeare, and in 1843 an imita-
tion of the Antigone; and with Alexandre Dumas a Hamlet
(1847). He also wrote Benvenuto Cellini (1852), Schamyl
(1854), Stntensec (1893), and dramatic versions of Les Miserabks
(1878), Notre Dame de Paris (1876), Quatre-vingt-treize (1881).
He died on the i2th of December 1905.
MEURSIUS [JOHANNES VAN MEURS] (1579-1639), Dutch
classical scholar and antiquary, was born at Loosduinen, near
the Hague. He was extremely precocious, and at the age
of sixteen produced a commentary on the Cassandra of Lyco-
phron. In 1610 he was appointed professor of Greek and
history at Leiden, and in the following year historiographer
to the states-general. In consequence of the disturbed state
of his country he welcomed the offer (1625) of Christian IV.
of Denmark to become professor of history and politics at
Soro, in Zealand, combined with the office of historiographer
royal. He died at Soro on the 2oth of September 1639. Meur-
sius was the author of classical editions and treatises, many
of which are printed in J. F. Gronovius's Thesaurus antiqui-
lalum graecarum. Their lack of arrangement detracts from their
value, but they are a storehouse of information, and Meursius
does not deserve the epithets of " pedant " and " ignoramus "
which Scaliger applied to him. Meursius also wrote on the
troubles in the Netherlands and the history of Denmark.
Complete edition of his works by J. Lami (1741-1763). See Van
der Aa's Biographisch Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1869), and
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Scholarship (1908), ii. 311.
MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE, a department of north-eastern
France, formed in 1871 out of those parts of the old departments
of Meurthe and Moselle which continued French. Before 1790
it belonged to Lorraine, or to one or other of the bishoprics
of Toul, Metz and Verdun. Pop. (1906), 517,508. Area 2038
sq. m. It is bounded E. by Lorraine, N. by Belgium and the
grand-duchy of Luxemburg, W. by the department of Meuse,
and S. by that of Vosges. Meurthe-et-Moselle is of a hilly
character, the highest elevation, the Grand Rougimont (2041 ft.),
being in the Vosges. The valley of the Moselle runs through
it from south to north. Extensive forests, the chief of which
is the Forest of Haye, are found in the south-western region.
Only a small part of the drainage of Meurthe-et-Moselle flows
into the Meuse, by far the greater part reaching the Rhine
by way of the Moselle. The principal affluents of the Moselle
are the Madon and the Orne on the left, and on the right, besides
the Meurthe, the Seille, which in one part of its course forms
the boundary of Alsace-Lorraine. The principal tributary
of the Meuse within the department is the Chiers. Climatologi-
cally Meurthe-et-Moselle belongs to the Vosgian region, and
has hot summers and severe winters. Its mean annual tempera-
ture is between 48 and 49 F., being 2 lower than that of
Paris (which has the same latitude). The annual rainfall
averages between 28 and 32 in. The department possesses
much fertile land, the chief crops being cereals and potatoes,
together with cloven mangel-wurzels, tobacco, hops and beet-
root. The vine is also cultivated, its best products being those
of the Toul district. The most common fruit trees are the pear,
the apple, the walnut, the cherry and the plum. Of forest
trees the oak and the wych-elm are most frequent in the west
of the department, the beech and the fir in the Vosges. The
French school of forestry has its seat at Nancy. The salt-
workings (the chief of which lie between Nancy and St Nicolas,)
and the iron-mines (round Nancy and Longwy) of Meurthe-et-
Moselle are the most productive in France. Other important
industries are the manufacture of boots and shoes, straw and
felt hats, pottery, and tanning and brewing (at Tantonville).
Cotton and wool spinning, and the manufacture of cotton goods,
hosiery, embroidery, chemicals (at Dombasle, close to Nancy),
soap, tobacco, matches, crystal (at Baccarat, which has a popula-
tion of 5617), mirrors (Cirey), glass, army clothing and paper
may also be mentioned. The department is served by the
Eastern railway, the chief line being that from Paris to Strass-
burg through Nancy. The main waterway is formed by the
canal between the Marne and the Rhine. This canal communi-
cates with the Moselle, which is navigable from Frouard down-
wards, and with the Eastern canal, which unites the Meuse
and the Moselle with the Saone and the Rhone. The depart-
ment constitutes the diocese of Nancy, has its court of appeal at
Nancy, and forms a part of the district of the VI. army corps
(Chalons-sur-Marne), and of the academic (educational division)
of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements (Nancy, Briey, Lune-
ville and Toul), 29 cantons and 598 communes. The principal
towns of the department are Nancy, the capital, Luneville,
Toul, Longwy, Pont-a-Mousson and St Nicolas. Other places
of interest are Preny, with ruins of an important stronghold
(i2th and i3th centuries) of the dukes of Lorraine; and Vaude-
mont, seat of a famous countship, with ruins of a stronghold
of the 1 2th and I4th centuries.
MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas), a river rising at Pouilly,
in the department of Haute Marne, France. After passing
through a great part of Belgium and Holland it flows into the
Waal channel of the Rhine at Fort Loevenstein. A few miles
below Gorinchem the Meuse, or Waal as it is then called,
divides into two branches. The northern flows almost due
west, and joins the Lek (Rhine) above Rotterdam, and enters
the North Sea at the Hook of Holland. Ocean-going steamers
for Rotterdam use, however, the New Waterway (Nieuwe
Waterweg), a little north of the Meuse. The southern branch
turns south, crosses the marsh of Biesbosch by the canalized
channel of New Merwede, enters the Hollandsch Diep, and
reaches the sea by the arms called Haringvliet and Krammen
316
MEUSE MEWS, P.
The length of the Meuse is nearly 560 m., of which 360 are
navigable, and probably its traffic is only exceeded by that of
the Rhine. Near Bazeilles it disappears under ground for a
distance of over 3 m. The Chiers, the Semois, the Lesse, the
Sambre, the Ourthe and the Roer are its most important
tributaries. In Belgium it is canalized between Liege and
Vise, and the Dutch are engaged on the same operation below
Maestricht. The principal towns on the Meuse are: in France,
Verdun, S6dan, Mezieres and Givet; in Belgium, Dinant,
Namur, Huy, Lie'ge and Maeseyck; in Holland, Maestricht,
Roermond, Venlo, Dordrecht and Rotterdam.
MEUSE, a department of north-eastern France, formed out of
a part of Lorraine (portions of the Three Bishoprics, and the
Barroisand Clermontais) and Champagne. Pop. (1906), 280,220.
Area, 2409 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Belgium and the depart-
ment of Ardennes, E. by that of Meurthe-et-Moselle, S. by those
of Vosges and Haute-Marne, and W. by those of Marne and
Ardennes. About one-half belongs to the b'asin of the river
Meuse, which is enclosed on the west by the wooded region
of Argonne, on the east by the hills known as the Cotes de
Meuse. On the north-east it is watered by the Orne, a tributary
of the Moselle, and the Chiers, which runs by Montmedy to
join the Meuse. The other half sends its waters to the Seine
by the Aire, a tributary of the Aisne, both of which take their
rise here, and by the Ornain, an affluent of the Saulx, the two
last being tributary to the Marne. The highest elevation
(1388 ft.) occurs to the south-west, on the line of the ridge
which separates the basin of the Meuse from that of the Seine.
The heights gradually sink from south to north, but seldom fall
below loco ft. The hills of the Argonne similarly sink rapidly
down to the valley of the Saulx, where the lowest level of the
department (377 ft.) is reached. Its winters are less severe
than those of the Vosges, but it is not so temperate as the Seine
region. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in. The
chief crops of the department are wheat, oats, rye, barley,
clover, potatoes and mangel-wurzels. The vine is cultivated
to some extent, the best growths being those of Bar. The
forests, occupying more than a quarter of the area, are principally
of oak, and are rich in game, as are the rivers in fish. Basket-
making is prosecuted in the Argonne. The mineral wealth
of the department includes good freestone (Euville, Lerouville).
It has iron and steel works, wire-works, and manufactories
of files, hardware and edge tools. Ligny-en-Barrois (pop. 4879)
manufactures scientific instruments. There are cotton-spinning,
wool-weaving, and hemp, flax and jute factories, saw-mills,
carriage works, leather manufactures, glassworks, paper-
mills, distilleries and flour-mills. The department is served
by the Eastern railway, the principal lines being that from
Paris to Strassburg through Bar-le-Duc and Commercy, that
from Paris to Metz through Verdun, and the branch line of the
Meuse valley. The chief waterways are the canal connecting
the Marne with the Rhine and the Eastern canal along the
Meuse valley; the two together have a length of 145 miles.
Ecclesiastically the department forms the diocese of Verdun;
it has its court of appeal at Nancy, and constitutes part of the
district of the army corps of Chalons-sur-Marne, and of the
educational division of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements
Bar-le-Duc, Commercy, Montmedy and Verdun 28 cantons
and 586 communes. The principal places in the department
are Bar-le-Duc, the capital, Commercy, Verdun and St Mihiel,
which receive separate treatment. Other places of interest
are Avioth, which has a church of the I4th and isth centuries
with a beautiful chapel of the i5th century adjoining it, and
Rembercourt-aux-Pots with a fine church of the isth century.
MEUSE-LINE, the chain of French forts closing the passages
of the Meuse between Verdun and Toul. The total length of
the line is 31 m., and the forts d'arrlt are disposed along
the right bank. The forts are: between Verdun and St Mihiel,
Genicourt and Troyon; near St Mihiel, Les Paroches (left bank)
and Camp des Romains; and near Commercy Liouville St
Agnant, Gironville and Jouy-sous-les-C6tes. Above the circle
of the Toul defences there are barrier forts on the Upper Meuse
at Pagny (la-BIanche-C&te) and near Neufchateau ; but these
last are practically in second line, and between Toul and Epinal
the frontier districts are designedly left open. At Epinal
the " Moselle-Line " begins. These lines form part of the
defensive scheme adopted by France in 1873-1875. Their
general design is that of the French fort illustrated in FORTI-
FICATION AND SIEGECRAFT, fig. 43, though they are varied in
accordance with the site.
MEVANIA (mod. Bevagna), an ancient town of Umbria,
on the river Clitumnus and on the Via Flaminia, 8 m. W.S.W.
of Forum Flaminii, and 5 m. W. of Fulginium (Foligno), 738 ft.
above sea-level. There are remains of a temple near the north
gate, and of an amphitheatre built into the modern houses.
The wails, which have disappeared, were, according to Pliny
(Hist. Nat. xxxv. 173), built of unbaked bricks. In 310 B.C.
the consul Fabius broke the Umbrian forces here; but other-
wise it is not mentioned until the ist century A.D. In 69 the
army of Vitellius awaited here the advance of Vespasian. Its
pastures near the river and its white oxen are mentioned by
Propertius, whose family belonged to Asisium (mod. Assisi)
and after him by Silius Italicus, Lucan and Statius. The town
was a municipium. The churches of S. Michele Arcangelo
and S. Nicolo are Romanesque buildings of the i2th century.
MEW. (i) An imitative word, also spelled miaou, repre-
senting the cry of a cat or of sea-birds. The name mew, usually
sea-mew, as applied to the Larus canus, or common sea-gull,
is, according to Skeat, also imitative. As the name of the
sea-bird it appears in Du. meeuiv, Ger. Miiwe, and other lan-
guages. (2) (Through Fr. muer, from Lat. mutare, to change),
a term originally applied in French to the moulting of a hawk
or falcon, and then to the caging of the bird during that period;
thus " to mew up " has come to mean to confine. The English
word chiefly survives in the plural form mews, applied to a
stable-yard, coach-houses, stalls for horses, and living accommo-
dation, found in narrow streets in large towns. This use was
due to the Royal Mews at Charing Cross, where the royal hawks
were kept from 1377 to 1537, when the building became the
royal stables.
MEWS, PETER (1619-1706), English royalist and divine,
was born at Caundle Purse in Dorset on the 25th of March
1619, and was educated at the Merchant Taylors' school, and
at St John's College, Oxford, of which he was scholar and fellow.
When the Civil War broke out in 1642 he joined the Royalist
army, and, having been made a captain, was taken prisoner
at Naseby; but he was soon released and in 1648 sought refuge
in Holland. He became friendly with Charles I.'s secretary,
Sir Edward Nicholas, and being skilful at disguising himself
was very useful to the Royalists during the rule of Oliver
Cromwell, undertaking two journeys to Scotland in 1653. Before
this Mews had been ordained. Taking the degree of D.C.L. and
regaining his fellowship at Oxford after the Restoration, he
became archdeacon of Huntingdon, vicar of St Mary's, Reading,
and chaplain to the king; then, having obtained two other
livings, he was made canon of Windsor, canon of St David's,
and archdeacon of Berkshire. In 1667, when at Breda arranging
peace between England and Holland, he was chosen president
of St John's College, Oxford, in succession to his father-in-law,
Dr Richard Baylie, afterwards becoming vice-chancellor
of the university and dean of Rochester. Appointed bishop
of Bath and Wells in 1672, Mews resigned his presidency in
1673, an d in 1684 he was elected bishop of Winchester, a position
which this " old, honest cavalier," as Thomas Hearne calls
him, filled until his death on the gth of November 1706. The
bishop is buried in Winchester cathedral. Mews lent his
carriage horses to pull the cannon at a critical moment during
the battle of Sedgemoor, where he was wounded whilst accom-
panying the royal army. He was, however, in sympathy
with the seven bishops, and was only prevented by illness
from attending their meeting; and as visitor of Magdalen
College, Oxford, he supported the fellows in their resistance
to James II., admitted their nominee, John Hough, to the
presidency, and restored the ejected fellows in October 1688.
PHYSIOGRAPHY]
MEXBOROUGH MEXICO
3'7
He took the oaths to William and Mary in 1689. In the absence
of Compton, bishop of London, Mews took the chief part at the
consecration of Tillotson as archbishop of Canterbury in 1691.
See S. H. Cassan, Lives of the Bishops of Winchester (1827); and
the Nicholas Papers, edited by G. F. Warner (1886-1897).
MEXBOROUGH, an urban district in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, England, on the Don, n m. N.E. of Sheffield on the
Great Central and Midland railways. Pop. (1891), 7734;
(1901), 10,430. The Don affords water communication with
the Humber. The church of St John the Baptist has Early
English portions. The large industrial population is mainly
employed in glass, pottery and iron works, and in the neigh-
bouring stone-quarries. The Castle Hill is crowned with some
fine earthworks of uncertain date.
MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,) officially styled Estados
Unidos Mexicanos and Republica Mexicana, a federal republic
of North America extending from the United States of America
southward to Guatemala and British Honduras, and lying
between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Gulf of Mexico
and Caribbean Sea on the east. Its northern boundary line
was fixed by the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty of 1848 and the
Gadsden treaty of 1853; it follows the Rio Grande del Norte
from its mouth north-westward to lat. 31 47' N., thence on
that parallel W. 100 m., thence S. to lat. 31 20' N., thence
due W. to the mth meridian, thence in a straight line (nearly
W.N.W.) to a point on the Colorado river 20 m. below the mouth
of the Gila river, thence northward to the mouth of the Gila,
and thence, nearly due W., along the old line between Upper
and Lower California to a point on the Pacific coast one marine
league S. of the southernmost point of San Diego Bay; this
line has a total length of 1810 m., of which the Rio Grande
comprises 1136 and the land route 674 m. The boundary
line with Guatemala, for a long time in dispute, was fixed by
the treaties of 1882 and 1895. It is an arbitrary line and follows
only two natural lines of demarcation the Suchiate river
from the Pacific coast to its source, and the Chixoy and Usuma-
cinta rivers from near the i6th parallel N.W. to a point on the
latter 25 kilometres, S. of Tenosique (Tabasco). Between these
rivers the boundary line is determined by the peaks of Tacana,
Buenavista and Ixbul, and from the Usumacinta eastward
it follows two parallels of latitude, one on the point of departure
from that river, and the other, the longer, on that of 1 7 49'
to the British Honduras frontier. The boundary with British
Honduras was determined by a treaty of 1893 and is formed
in great part by the Hondo river dcwn to the head of Chetumal
Bay, and thence through that bay to the Boca Bacalar Chica
the channel separating Yucatan from Ambergris Cay. Geo-
graphically, Mexico extends from 14 30' 42" (the mouth of
the Suchiate) to 32 42' N. lat., and from 86 46' 08" to 117
07' 31" W. long. Approximately its greatest length from
N.W. to S.E. is 1900 m., its greatest width 750 m., and its
least width a little short of 140 m. In outline it is sometimes
compared to a huge cornucopia with its small end curving S.E.
and N. The interior curve formed by the Gulf of Mexico is
comparatively regular and has a coast-line of about 1400 m.
The Caribbean coast-line is about 327 m. long, exclusive
of indentations. The outer curve facing the Pacific is less
regular, is deeply broken by the Gulf of California, and has
a coast-line of 4574 m., including that of the. Gulf. The
peninsula of Lower California (q.t>.) lies parallel with the mainland
coast and extends southward to about 22 52' N. lat., a distance
of nearly 760 m. The area of Mexico is commonly given by
English authorities as 767,005 sq. m., by German statisticians
as 1,987,201 sq. kiloms. (767,290 sq. m.), and by H. H. Bancroft,
who quotes official figures, as 1,962,899 sq. kiloms. (757,907
sq. m.).
Physiography. The surface features consist of an immense
elevated plateau with a chain of mountains on its eastern and
western margins, which extends from the United States frontier
southward to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec; a fringe of lowlands
(tierras calientes) between the plateau and coast on either side;
a detached, roughly mountainous section in the south-east, which
belongs to the Central American Plateau, and a low sandy plain
covering the greater part of the Isthmus of Yucatan. The peninsula
of Lower California is traversed from north to south by a chain
of barren mountains which covers the greater part of its surface.
The slopes are precipitous on the east coast, but on the west they
break down in hills and terraces to the Pacific. This range may
be considered a southward continuation of the Californian Sierra
Nevada. The great plateau of Mexico is very largely of volcanic
origin. Its superstructure consists of igneous rocks of all descrip-
tions with which the original valleys between its marginal ranges
have been filled by volcanic action. The remains of transverse
and other ranges are to be seen in the isolated ridges and peaks
which rise above the level of the table-land, in some cases forming
well-defined basins; otherwise the surface is singularly uniform in
character and level. The two noteworthy depressions in its sur-
face, the Valley of Mexico and Bolson de Mapimi, once contained
large bodies of water, of which only small lakes and marshy lagoons
now remain. The highest part of this great plateau is to be found
in the states of Mexico and Puebla, where the general elevation is
about 8000 ft. Southward the slope is broken into small basins
and terraces by transverse ranges, and is comparatively abrupt.
Northward the slope is gentle, and is broken by several transverse
ridges. At Ciudad Juarez (adjoining El Paso, Texas), on the north-
ern frontier, the elevation is 3600 ft., which shows a slope of only
4 J ft. to the mile. Less is definitely known of the elevated regions
of Chiapas, on the border of Guatemala, which are separated from
the great Mexican Plateau by the low Isthmus of lehuantepec
(718 ft. at the highest point of the transisthmian railway), but
their general elevation is much lower, and they are broken by wooded
sierras and eroded by water-courses.
The mountain ranges which form part of the great Mexican
Plateau consist of two marginal chains known as the Sierra Madre
Occidental, on the west, the Sierra Madre Oriental, on the east,
and a broken, weakly-defined chain of transverse ranges and .ridges
between the i8th and 2Oth parallels known as the Cordillera de
Anahuac. All these chains are known locally under diverse names.
The Sierra Madre Occidental consists of several parallel ranges in
the north, where a broad belt of country is coveted with a labyrinth
of ridges and valleys. The most eastern of these are known as the
Sierra Tarahumare and Sierra del Durango, and the most western
as the Sierra del Nazareno, Sierra Yaqui and Sierra Fuerte. These
converge in southern Sinaloa and Durango to form the Sierra de
Nayarit. Near the 2Oth parallel the great chain again divides,
the eastern part crossing the southern end of the plateau, and the
western, or Sierra Madre del Sur, following the shore line closely
to Tehuantepec. The Sierra Madre Occidental has but few note-
worthy elevations, its culminating points being the Nevado de
Colima (14.363 ft.) and Volcan de Colima (12, 750 ft.) in the state of
Jalisco. In the Sierra de Nayarit the Cerro Pimal rises to an eleva-
tion of 11,319 it., and in the extreme south the Cerro del Leone
to 10,302 ft. These sierras lying near the coast have an imposing
appearance from the lowlands, but when seen from the plateau
their general elevation is so dwarfed as to render them compara-
tively inconspicuous. The Sierra Madre Oriental consists of a
broken chain of ranges extending along the eastern margin of the
plateau from the great bend in the Rio Grande south-eastward to
about the igth parallel. In the north these ranges are low and
offer no great impediment to railroad building. South of Tampico,
nowever, they are concentrated in a single lofty range. This range
extends south-eastward along the western frontier of Vera Cruz
(state) and includes the snow-capped cone of Orizaba or Citlaltepetl
(18,209 ft.), and the Cofre de Perote, or Nanchampapetl (13,^19 ft.).
The eastern slopes are abrupt and difficult, and are a serious impedi-
ment to communication with the coast. Rising from the open
plateau half way between this range and the city of Mexico is the
isolated cone of Malinche, or Malintzin (14,636 ft.). Crossing the
highest part of the Mexican Plateau is a broken series of ranges,
which form the water-parting between its northern and southern
slopes. To a part of these ranges has been given the name of
Cordillera de Anahuac, but there is no true Cordillera across this
part of Mexico. In a general sense these ranges may be considered
part of the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre Occidental, which
turns eastward on the 2Oth parallel and crosses the plateau in a
south by east direction. Southward the plateau is traversed by
many low ranges and breaks down in terraces, forming one of the
most fertile and attractive parts of the republic. Close to the
capital are the Sierra de Ajusco, whose highest point is 13,078 ft.
above sea-level, the Nevado de Toluca (15,168 ft.), in a range which
separates the valleys of Mexico and Toluca, the Monies de las
Cruces, and that volcanic, spur-like range, running northward at
right angles to the axis of the other ranges, whose culminating
points, some 20 m. south-east of the city, are the gigantic, snow-
clad volcanoes of Popocatepetl (Smoking Mountain) and Ixtacci-
huatl (White Woman). Both of them are extinct and Popocatepetl
no longer smokes. Their elevations, according to the Comision
Geografica Exploradora, are 17,888 and 17,343 ft. respectively,
that of Ixtaccihuatl being the highest of its three crests. This
part of Mexico is highly volcanic in character, the transverse ridge
[ lust described having a large number of extinct volcanoes and at
least three (Colima, Jorullo and Ceboruco) that are either active
or semi-active. Colima was in a state of eruption as late as 1900,
3 i8
MEXICO
[PHYSIOGRAPHY
Torullo (4262 ft.) is said to date from 1759. when its cone was formed,
ind Ceboruco (7100 ft.) in the territory of Topic, shows occasional
signs of activity. Near the coast in the state or Vera Cruz is San
Martin or Tuxtla (9708 ft.), which has been quiescent since its
vioTen^eruption of & 2nd of March I 7 93- Orizaba* sometimes
included among the semi-active volcanoes, but this is a mistake.
It has been quiescent since 1566, and is now completely extinct.
Earthquakes are common throughout the greater part of the republic,
especially on the western coast. They are most violent from ban
Bias southward to the Guatemala frontier, and some of the Spanish
towns on or near this coast have suffered severely. Chilpancingo,
in Guerrero, was badly shattered in 1902, and in 1907, and in 1909
was reduced to a mass of ruins. The earthquake shocks of the
loth and 3ist of July 1909 were unusually severe throughout
southern Mexico, reducing Acapulco and Chilpancingo to rums
and shaking the city of Mexico severely. In Acapulco a tidal wave
followed the shock. Slight shocks, or temblores, are of almost daily
occurrence. According to Humboldt's theory there is a deep rent
in the earth's crust about the igth parallel through which at different
periods the underground fires have broken at various points betwee
the largest of this class, and has the town and port of Carmen at
its western extremity. On the northern coast of Yucatan is the
small, inhabited island of Holbox or Holboy, and on the eastern
coast the islands of Mujeres, Cancum and Cozumel, of which the
first and last have a considerable population and good ports. On
the Pacific coast there are a number of islands off the rocky shores
of Lower California and in the Gulf of California most of them
barren and uninhabitable like the adjacent coast. The largest of
these, some of them inhabited, are: Guadalupe about 75 m. west
of the coast on the zgth parallel; which is fertile and stocked with
cattle; Cerros, off Viscaino Bay, and Santa Margarita, which partly
shelters Magdalena Bay, on the Pacific side; and Angel de la Guarda,
Tiburon, San Marcos, Carmen, Monserrate, Santa Catalina, Santa
Cruz San Jose, Espiritu Santo and Cerralvo m the Gulf. Lying
off San Bias in the broad entrance to the Gulf are the Tres Marias,
and" directly west of Colima, to which it belongs, is the scattered
volcanic group of Revillagigedo.
The peculiar surface formation of Mexico a high plateau imlt
in by mountain barriers, and a narrow lowland region between it
and the coast does not permit the development of large river
'State boundaries State capitals
Railways
C. Ciudad Ruini..^ :
the Gulf of Mexico and the Revillagigedo Islands. " Only on the
supposition that these volcanoes, which are on the surface connected
by a skeleton of volcanic rocks, are also united under the surface by
a chain of volcanic elements in continual activity, may we account
for the earthquakes which in the direction mentioned cause the
American continent, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean,
to oscillate at the same time " (Eglofl stein, p. 37).
The lowland or tierra caliente region, which lies between the
sierras and coast on both sides of Mexico, consists of a sandy zone
of varying width along the shore-line, which is practically a tide-
water plain broken by inland channels and lagoons, and a higher
belt of land rising to an elevation of about 3000 ft. and formed in
great part by the debris of the neighbouring mountain slopes. On
the Pacific side there arc places where the mountain spurs extend
down to the coast, but in general this lowland region ranges from
30 to 40 m. in width, except in southern Vera Cruz, Tabasco,
Campeche and Yucatan, where it extends farther into the interior.
The talus zone of this region, especially at elevations of 1000 to
3000 ft., is noted for its great fertility and the luxuriance of its
vegetation.
There are no large islands on the coast of Mexico, and most of
the smaller ones are unimportant. Many of those that fringe the
Gulf coast are sand-keys, or parts of a new coast formation. They
are commonly barren and uninhabitable. The Isla del C&rmen,
which partly shuts in the Laguna de Terminos (Campeche), is one of
basins. Add to this the light rainfall on the plateau and a lack of
forests, and we have conditions which make large rivers impossible.
The hydrography of Mexico, therefore, is of the simplest description
a number of small streams flowing from the plateau or mountain
slopes eastward to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to. the Pacific.
Most of these are little more than mountain torrents, but one has
a course exceeding 500 m., and few have navigable channels. The
principal watershed is formed by the sierras of the state of Mexico,
from which streams flow north-east to the Gulf of Mexico, north-
west to the Pacific and south-west to the same coast below its great
eastward curve. The Rio Grande del Norte, or Rio Bravo, on the
northern frontier, is practically an American river, as it rises in
American territory and receives very little water from the Mexican
side. Its larger Mexican tributaries are the Rio de los Conchos,
Salado and Pesqueria. Of the Suchiate and Hondo, which form
part of Mexico's southern boundary, the first is a short, impetuous
mountain torrent flowing into the Pacific, and the other a sluggish
lowland stream rising in north-eastern Guatemala and flowing
north-east through a heavily forested region to Chetumal Bay.
The peninsula of Yucatan has no rivers, and that of Lower California
only a few insignificant streams in the north. This is due to the
porosity of the soil in the former, and the very limited rainfall in
the latter. The largest rivers of Mexico are: the Rio Grande de
Santiago, called the Lerma above Lake Chapala, rising in the state
of Mexico and flowing westward across Guanajuato, Jalisco and
GEOLOGY : CLIMATE]
MEXICO
319
Tepic to the Pacific coast, with a total length of 540 m., celebrated
for its deep canyons and waterfalls ; the Rio de las Balsas, or Mescala,
which rises in Tlaxcala and flows south and west to the Pacific
with a course of 426 m. ; the Yaqui, which rises in western Chihuahua
and, after breaking through the northern ranges of the Sierra
Madre Occidental, flows south-westerly across Sonora to the Gulf
of California, with a length of 390 m. ; the Grijalva, also called the
Chiapas on its upper course, which has its sources in the state of
Chiapas and flows north-west, and north across Tabasco to the
Gulf of Mexico, with a total length of 350 m. ; the Fuerte, which
rises in southern Chihuahua and, after breaking through the sierras,
flows south-west across Sinaloa to the Gulf of California, with a
course of 340 m. ; the Usumacinta, which is formed by the confluence
of the Chixoy and Pasion on the east frontier of Chiapas, and flows
north-west across Tabasco to the Grijalva, with a course of 330 m.;
and the Panuco, which has its source in the north-west of the state
of Mexico and flows north-eastward to the Gulf of Mexico. The
rivers of the Pacific coast have no navigable channels worth mention-
ing, but many on the Gulf coast are navigable for considerable
distances. The more important of these are in Tabasco the
Grijalva, navigable for about 93 m., and the Usumacinta, for about
270 m. The country about the Laguna de Terminos is low and
flat, and is traversed in all directions by deep, sluggish streams.
Many of the rivers crossing the lowlands bordering the Gulf have
short navigable channels, the most important of which is the
Panuco and its tributaries. The Rio Grande is navigable for small
vessels up to Matamoros (31 m.), and for smaller craft 65 m. farther.
Nearly all the Gulf coast rivers, however, are obstructed by bars
owing to the quantity of silt brought down from the sierras and
the prevailing winds and currents on the coast.
The lakes of Mexico are small and few in number. They may be
divided into two classes; those of the plateau region which occupy
lacustrine depressions and receive the drainage of the surrounding
country; and the tide-water lagoons of the coast formed by the
building up of new sand beaches across the indentations in the
coast-line. Of the former, the best known are the lakes of the
Valley of Mexico Texcoco, Chalco, Xochimilco, Zumpango,
Xaltocan and San Cristobal which are probably the remains of
a lake once occupying the whole valley. They receive considerable
surface drainage, but are slowly diminishing in area. Some of
them, like Xochimilco, will eventually disappear. The largest,
Texcoco, has an area of about lij sq. m. (30 sq. kiloms.), but it
covered a much larger area at the time of the Spanish conquest.
Its surroundings are bleak and sterile and its waters brackish and
polluted with the drainage of the neighbouring city for nearly four
centuries. The other lakes are wholly different in character and
surroundings, especially Chalco and Xochimilco. Texcoco is now
connected with the new drainage works of the capital and is no
longer a menace to its population through inundations and pesti-
lential fevers. Another group of lakes is to be found in the Laguna
district of south-western Coahuila, where the Tlahualila, Mairan,
Parras and others occupy a large lacustrine depression and receive
the waters of the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers from the south-west
(Durango). The size of this isolated drainage basin is very large,
the Nazas River alone having a length of about 370 m. The great
Mapimi desert of western Coahuila is another lacustrine depression,
but only ma.'shy lagoons remain. In eastern Coahuila, near
Mpnclova, are the Agua Verde and Santa Maria lakes, and in eastern
Chihuahua there is a similar group. The largest and most attractive
of the plateau lakes is Chapala, in the state of Jalisco, about 80 m.
long by 10-35 m - wide, which receives the waters of the Lerma
and discharges into the Pacific through the Santiago. On the
lower terraces of Michoacan are Patzcuaro and Cuitzeo lakes, and
elsewhere among the sierras are numerous other small bodies of
water. Among the tide-water lagoons, of which there are many
along the Gun coast, the best known are the Laguna de Terminos
in Campeche, Tamiahua in Vera Cruz, Madre (130 m. long), Pes-
querias (21 m. long) and Chairel (near Tampico) in Tamaulipas.
All these lagoons are navigable, and those of northern Vera Cruz
and Tamaulipas, when connected and improved, will afford a safe
inland route for some hundreds of miles along the coast. The
north coast of Yucatan is remarkable for the extensive banks
built up by the Gulf current from 5 to 7 m. from the shore-line.
Inside the present sandy coast is a peculiar tide- water channel
called the Ric Lagartos, which follows almost the whole northern
shore, with occasional openings or bocas, connecting with the open
sea. It is apparently of the same character as the lagoons of
Tamaulipas. There are a number cf these lagoons on the Pacific
coast such as Superior and Inferior near Salina Cruz, Papacayo,
near Acapulco, Cayutlan, near Manzanillo, and Tecapan in Tepic
but they are usually shallow, sometimes swampy, and have no
value for commerce.
There is a marked difference between the Gulf and Pacific coast-
lines of Mexico in regard to their minor indentations and harbours.
The south-west part of the Gulf of Mexico is called the Gulf of
Campeche (Campeachy), but no distinction is necessary. This
coast has no bays of importance, its rivers are obstructed by sand-
bars, and it has only one natural harbour that of Carmen and the
Laguna de Terminos, which has sufficient depth for the larger
classes of vessels and is sheltered by the islands of Carmen and
Puerto Real. Of the principal ports on this coast, Matamoros,
Tampico, Tuxpan, Coatzacoalcos and Frontera are on rivers,
which are obstructed by bars. Tampico and Coatzacoalcos, how-
ever, have been improved by breakwaters or jetties, and the deep-
ening of the Channels across the bars, into safe and commodious
harbours. Vera Cruz is an open anchorage inside a series of reefs
which afford no protection to vessels from the " northers." A
breakwater has remedied this defect and Vera Cruz is no longer
considered a dangerous port. Campeche has a small artificial
harbour, which is so silted up that vessels drawing 9 ft. must anchor
i m. outside and larger vessels still farther away. Progreso,
Yucatan, has only an open roadstead, and large vessels cannot
approach its landing-place nearer than 6 m. On the east coast of
Yucatan there are two deep, well-sheltered bays, Ascension and
Espiritu Santo, which afford good anchorages, and at the north
end of the island of Cozumel the bay of Santa Maria offers an ex-
cellent harbour. The Pacific coast has several deep and well-
sheltered bays; but they are separated from the interior by the rough
and difficult ranges of the Sierra Madre Occidental. There are
two large indentations of the coast the Gulfs of Tehuantepec and
California. The former is opposite the Gulf of Campeche, and
possesses no distinguishing characteristic. The Gulf of California,
on the other hand, penetrates the continent for a distance of 739 m.,
from south-east to north-west, with a maximum breadth of 190 m.
Its area is usually restricted to the waters north of the latitude of
Cape San Lucas, but it should be extended to the outer waters
enclosed by a line from Cape San Lucas to Cape Corrientes. Its
upper waters are not much navigated because of the aridity of its
coasts, but there are two or three important ports towards the
south. The Gulf has a considerable number of islands, most of
them near the peninsular coast, and several deep, well-protected
bays those of La Paz and Santa Ines in Lower California, Guaymas
in Sonora, Agiobampo, Topolobampo and Altata Salinas in Sinaloa.
On the Pacific coast of Lower California are the Ensenada de
Todos Santos and the bays of San Quentin, Viscaino and Magdalena.
The principal bays on the mainland coast are Olas Atlas, which is
the harbour of Mazatlan, San Bias, Banderas, Manzanillo, Acapulco,
Salina Cruz and Tonala. Several of these are being improved.
[Geology. By far the greater part of Mexico is, covered by deposits
of Cretaceous and later date, the pre-Cretaceous rocks occurring
only in comparatively small and isolated patches. At the southern
extremity of the great table-land, however, in the state of Puebla,
there is a considerable mass of crystalline rocks which is believed
to be of Archaean age. Similar rocks occur also in Chiapas, Oaxaca,
Guerrero and elsewhere; but owing to the absence of any early
fossiliferous deposits, the age of these rocks is very uncertain.
Silurian and Devonian fossils have been reported at one or two
localities, but for the present the observations are open to doubt.
The earliest fossiliferous beds which have been proved to exist in
Mexico belong to the Carboniferous system. They are found on
the borders of Guatemala and consist of limestones and dolomites
with Productus.
The Mesozoic beds are of greater importance. The Triassic and
Jurassic systems are met with only in scattered patches. The
former consists of sandstones and clays, and the fossils found in
them are chiefly plants, including Gangamopteris and Macrotaeni-
obteris, two characteristic genera of the Indian Gpndwana system.
The Jurassic beds are marls, sandstones and limestones, which
contain marine fossils. The Cretaceous rocks take a far larger
share in the formation of the country. They form the greater part
of the Sierra Madre Oriental and also cover most of the central
plateau. They contain many fossils, including Hippurites and
Ammonites. The sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary era do not
occupy a very wide area. They occur, however, along the coasts,
where they are marine, and also on the central plateau, where they
are of lacustrine origin. But by far the most important of the
Tertiary rocks are the volcanic lavas, agglomerates and ashes, which
cover so much of the country. It is in the western half of Mexico
that they are most fully developed, but towards the southern
extremity of the plateau they spread nearly to the eastern coast.
The eruptions are said to have begun with the ejection of syenites,
diorites and diabases, which probably took place at the close of
the Cretaceous or the beginning of the Eocene period. In the
Miocene period andesites of various kinds were erupted, while at
the close of the Pliocene began the great eruptions of basalt which
reached their maximum in Quaternary times and continue to the
present day. 1 (P- LA.)]
Climate. Mexico stretches across 17 parallels of latitude, with
the Tropic of Cancer crossing her territory about midway. This
implies tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The relief of the land
and varying degrees of rainfall and vegetation, however, serve to
modify these conditions in many important particulars. The
elevation and extent of the great central plateau, which penetrates
1 See J. G. Aguilera, Sinopsis <fs geologia mexicana; " Bosquejo
geologico de Mexico," segunda parte, Bol. inst. geol., Mexico, Nos.
4-6 (1897), pp. 189-270, with map a summary of this paper will
be found in Science Progress, new series (1897), vol. i. pp. 609-615.
See also the Livret-guide of the Tenth Cong. Geol. Internat.
(1906).
320
MEXICO
[FLORA AND FAUNA
deeply into thertropkal half of the country, carry with them temper-
ate and sub-tropical conditions over much .the greater part of the
republic. Above the plateau rise the marginal sierras, while a few
Elated peaks in the region of perpetual snow give to Mexico a
considerable area of cold temperate and a trace of arctic conditions.
Descending to the lowlands on either side of the plateau, the tempera-
ture rises steadily until the upper lim t of.the tropical region, called
ture rises sieauny UULU nv uppv.* *>.. - - /"~.~ r
/ierra* cafen/w, is reached, where the climate is hot, humid and
unhealthy, as elsewhere in the forested coastal plains of tropical
,ne i^TM calientes (hot lands) of Mexico include the two coastal
zones, the Isthmus ofTehuantepec.the states of Tabasco, Campeche,
and part of Chiapas, the peninsula of Yucatan and a part of eastern
Oaxaca. The mean temperature ranges from 77 to 82 K,
seldom falling below 60", but often rising to 105 , and in the sultry
districts of Vera Cruz, Guaymas and Acapulco to and even above
110. The rainfall is heavy in the south, except Yucat&n, but
diminishes gradually toward the north, until on the Pacific and
Gulf of California coasts it almost disappears. Inese lowlai
districts are densely forested in the south, except Yucatan, and
large areas are covered with streams, swamps and lagoons, the
abode of noxious insects, pestilential fevers and dysentery. On
both coasts yellow fever epidemics appear at frequent intervals.
The great fertility of these regions and the marvellous wealth of
their forests are irresistible attractions to industrial and com-
mercial enterprise, but their unhealthiness restricts development
and is a bar to any satisfactory increase in population. The heavy
rainfall on the Gulf coast, however, which reaches a maximum ot
90 to loo in. in the Huatusco district of Vera Cruz, causes the
flooding of large areas of lowlands, and will make improvement
very difficult. The peninsula of Yucatin, whose general level does
not rise above 130 to 200 ft. above the sea, consists almost wholly
of an open, dry, calcareous plain. The temperature ranges from
66 to 89, but the heat is tempered by the cool sea-breezes which
sweep unobstructed across its plains. The rainfall is abundant in
the rainy season, but in the long dry season it is extremely rare.
In the wet season the rain is quickly absorbed by the dry, porous
soil; consequently there are no rivers and no lakes except near the
forested region of the south-east. These exceptional conditions
give to Yucatan a moderately ; hot, dry, and comparatively healthful
climate. Another hot, dry climate is that of the tierras calientes
of Sonora. The coast is low and extremely arid, and would be
uninhabitable were it not for the proximity of the Sierra Madre,
where a light rainfall is experienced, and for the numerous rivers
that cross the arid belt between the mountains and the sea. The
maximum temperatures in this region are 98 at Hermosillo and
119 at Guaymas.
To a large extent the climate of Mexico is determined by vertical
zones. According to H. H. Bancroft (Resources of Mexico, pp. 3-4),
the tierras calientes, which include a coastal zone 30 to 40 m. wide
and the low-lying states already mentioned, rise from sea-level to
an elevation of 3280 ft. The tterra templada, or sub-tropical zone,
rises to an elevation of 5577 ft., and comprises " the greater portions
of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, 'San Luis Potosi, nearly halfof Tamaulipas,
a small part of Vera Cruz, nearly the whole of Chiapas, nearly all
of Oaxaca, a large portion of Guerrero, Jalisco, Sinaloa and Sonora,"
together with small parts of the inland states of Puebla, Mexico,
Morelos and Michoacan. The mean annual temperature is about
75. Above this is the tierrafria, which ranges from 5577 to 8200 ft.,
and includes all the higher portions of the Mexican plateau, and
which corresponds to the temperate regions of Central United
States where frosts are very rarely experienced. Even here the high
sun temperatures give a sub-tropical character to the country. In
the sierras, above the tierras Mas, which are not " cold lands " at
all, are the colder climates of the temperate zone, suitable for cereals,
grazing and forest industries, and, farther up, the isolated peaks
which rise into the regions of snow and ice.
Speaking generally, the four seasons are clearly marked north of
lat. 28 N. only. South of that parallel they merge in the esta-
cion de las aguas, or rainy season, from May to October, and the
estacion seca, or dry season, which prevails for the rest of the year.
The rains generally begin on the east coast and gradually move
northwards. The windward slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental
receive the greater part of the rainfall, and the winds, deprived ol
their moisture, pass over the northern plateau without further
precipitation. On the Pacific coast the belt of calms, known as
the northern horse latitudes, crosses the northern parts of Lower
California and Sonora, which accounts for their extreme aridity.
The southern terraces of the plateau have no high mountain barriers
between them and the moist winds of the Caribbean, and they too
receive an abundant rainfall in the wet season, especially during the
prevalence of heavy " northers " on the Gulf coast. The precipita-
tion varies widely, that of the western side of the northern plateau
(Chihuahua and Durango) being about 39 in., that of the Valley o
Mexico about 25 in., and that of the whole republic 59 in. Long
droughts are common in many parts of the country, and on the
barren surfaces of the plateau the rains drain away rapidly, leaving
but slight beneficial results.
Flora and Fauna. The types of animal and vegetable life founc
in Mexico belong, in a general sense, to those of the northern temper
ate region, and those of the tropical regions of Central and South
America The great central plateau and its bordering lowlands
orm an intermediate territory in which these dissimilar types are
ound side by side, the tropical species extending northward along
he coast to the United States, while the northern species have
ound their way to the southern limits of the plateau. The jaguar
and puma have found their way into the United States, while the
wolf coyote, bear and beaver have gone far southward on the
>lateau and the buffalo was once found in large numbers on its
nore favoured northern plains. 'This intermingling of types does
not apply to south-eastern Mexico, where animal life is represented
>y many of the genera and species found in the forested lowlands
i the great Amazon basin. _
Aside from its origin, the fauna of Mexico includes at least five
species of monkey, the jaguar, puma, ocelot (Felis pardalis), wolf,
coyote, lynx, badger, otter (Lutra felina), beaver, muskrat, bear,
raccoon (Procyon), coati (Nasua), tapir, two species of peccary
Dicotyles torquatus and D. labiatus), skunk (Mephitis, Spilogale and
Conepatus), marten, several species of opossum (including a pigmy
species of the Tres Marias islands), sloth, two species of ant-bear
Myrmecophaga telradactylus and Cyclothurus didactylus), armadillo
'Dasypus novemcinctus), a small arboreal porcupine (Synetheres
mexicanus), the kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), three species
O f (fee,- the white-tailed Cariacus toltecus, the little black-faced
Brocket, Coassus rufinus, which is also found in Brazil, and the
kmora deer (Odocoileus couesi) the Mexican bighorn (Ovis mexi-
canus) of Chihuahua, at least two species of hare (Lepus calotis and
L. palustris), rabbits, black, gray, red and ground squirrels,
jophers, and many small rodents. Alligators and crocodiles are
Numerous in the lagoons and rivers of the coast and the iguana is to be
[ound everywhere throughout the tropical lowlands, the large
black Ctenosura acanthinurus being partly arboreal in habit when full
;rown. Mexico is a paradise of lizards, which are noted for their
jiversity in form as well as for their remarkable colouration. Frogs
and toads are represented by scores of species, some of which, e.g.
the tree-frogs (Hylidae), are extremely interesting. The ophidians
are also very numerous, ranging from the comparatively harmless
boa-constrictor to the deadly "palanca" or " fer de lance"
(Lachesis lanceolatus) and rattlesnake (Crotalus), of which there are
several species. In southern Mexico in 1902 and 1904 Hans Gadow
collected specimens of 44 different kinds of snakes, which he esti-
mated to be only about 45 % of the species in the states visited.
The arboreal life of the tropical forests has developed the tree-
climbing habit among snakes as well as among frogs and toads, and
also the habit of mimicry, their colour being in harmony with the
foliage or bark of the trees which form their " hunting-grounds."
Bats are numerous, both in species and individuals. The sanguinary
vampire (Desmodus rufus) has an extensive range through the
tierras calientes and lierras templadas of the southern states. The
coasts of Mexico, together with their accessible lagoons and rivers,
afford innumerable breeding-places for turtles, which include the
large green and tortoise-shell species. In some places the capture
of the latter is the source of a considerable export trade in tortoise-
shell. The coast of Lower California is a favourite resort for the
fur-bearing seal, 'and pearl oysters find a congenial habitat in the
south waters of the Gulf. There are some good fishing-grounds on
the coasts, but fishing as an organized industry does not exist.
The inland waters, with the exception of Lake Chapala, have com-
paratively few species, but the government has introduced carp,
brook-trout and salmon-trout.
The avifauna of Mexico includes most of the species of the tropical
and temperate regions of America such as parrots (chiefly the
yellow-headed Chrysalis), parakeets (Conurus canicula), macaws
(Ara macao and A. militnris), toucans, trogons, herons, egrets, ibis,
spoonbills, boat-bills (Cancroma), ducks, pelicans, cormorants,
bitterns, stilts, sandpipers, curlews, grackles, kingfishers, motmots,
" Chachalacas " (Ortalida poliocephala), woodpeckers, jays, cuckoos,
" garrapateros " (Crotophaga sulcirostris) , the ingenious weaver-bird
(Icterus), and another species (Cassitus), whose curiously woven,
sack-like nests are suspended from the slender limbs of trees, and
sometimes even from telegraph-wires, scarlet-crested fly-catchers
(Muscivora mexicana), tanagers, mocking-birds (called " zenzontl "),
turkeys, partridge : quail (Colinus, Lophortyx, Callipepla and Cyr-
tonyx), doves, pigeons, eagles, caracara hawks (Polyborus), fish-
hawks, falcons, crows, and turkey-buzzards (both the red-faced
" aura " of North America and the black-faced " zopilote " of the
tropics), which are the scavengers of the country. The most numer-
ous, perhaps, are the humming-birds, of which there are many
genera and species, each one distinct in form and colour. They are
called " huitzilin " (spikeletl by the J Aztecs, and " colibrt," " chupa-
flor " and " chupa-miel " (flower- or honey-sucker), and " pajaro-
mosca " (fly-bird) by the Spanish-speaking Mexicans. These
descriptive names are highly poetic, as also that of the Portuguese,
" beija-flor " (flower-kisser) ; but the humming-bird is insectivorous,
and thrusts his long bill into flowers in search of insects instead of
honey. Mexico is credited with a great variety of song-birds, but
these are to be found chiefly in the partly-forested country of the
tierras templadas and tierras frias. Her chief distinction, however,
is in birds of varied and gorgeous feathering. The wonderful plu-
mage of the " quetzal " (Trogon resplendens) was, it is said, reserved
FLORA AND FAUNA]
MEXICO
321
by the Aztec rulers for their own exclusive use. Of the indigenous
birds, the turkey has been fully domesticated, and the musk-duck
and " chachalaca " are easily reared. Sea-fowl are most numerous
on the coasts of Lower California, where certain islands in the arid
belt are frequented at night by countless numbers of them. _ It
should be added that many of the migrating birds of North America
pass the winter in Mexico.
The insect fauna of Mexico covers a very wide range of genera
and species which, like the other forms of animal life, is largely
made up of migratory types. No complete study has ever been
made of this fauna, but much has been, and is being done by the
U.S. Biological Survey and Plant Industry Bureau. To the traveller,
the most conspicuous among the Mexican insects, perhaps, are the
butterflies, beetles, ants and the myriads of mosquitoes, midges,
fleas and chinches. Among the mosquitoes, which are extra-
ordinarily numerous in some of the hot lowland districts, are the
species credited with the spread of malarial and yellow fevers.
The midges are even more numerous than the mosquitoes. In
pleasing contrast to such pests are the butterflies of all sizes and
colours, beetles of an inconceivable variety of size, shape and
colouration, and ants of widely dissimilar appearance and habits.
An interesting species of the last is the leaf-cutting ant (Eciton)
which lives in large underground colonies and feeds upon a fungus
produced by leaf-cuttings stored in subterranean passages to pro-
mote fermentation. These ants will strip a tree in a few hours and
are very destructive to fruit plantations. Some of the native trees
have developed ingenious methods of defence, one of which is that
of attracting small colonies of another species to drive away the
marauders. Most destructive, also, are the termites or white ants,
whose ravages are to be seen in the crumbling woodwork and furni-
ture of all habitations in the hot zones. Some species build their
nests in trees great globular masses sometimes three feet in
diameter, supported on the larger branches, and connected with the
ground by covered passages on the outside of the tree. Th^se
insects are blind and avoid the light. Bees find a highly congenial
habitat in Mexico, and some honey is exported. Spiders are also
represented by a large number of genera and species, the most
dreaded being the venomous " tarantula " and the savage " mygale."
Few countries, if any, can present so great a diversity in plant
life as Mexico. This is due not only to its geographical position
and its vertical climatic zones, which give it a range from tropical
to arctic types, but also to its peculiar combination of humid and
arid conditions in which we find an extensive barren table-land
interposed between two tropical forested coastal zones. These
widely divergent conditions give to Mexico a flora that includes the
genera and species characteristic of nearly all the zones of plant
life on the western continents the tropical jungle of the humid
coastal plains with its rare cabinet-woods, dye-woods, lianas and
palms ; the semi-tropical and temperate mountain slopes where oak
forests are to be found and wheat supplants cotton and sugar-cane;
and above these the region of pine forests and pasture lands. Then,
there are the mangrove-fringed coasts and the dripping wooded
slopes where rare orchids thrive, and above these, on the inland
side of the sierra, a treeless, sun-scorched table-land where only the
cactus, yucca, and other coarse vegetation of the desert can thrive
without irrigation.
For convenience of description, the flora of Mexico may be
divided into four great divisions: that of the comparatively barren
plateau and the arid coast regions, the humid tierras calientes, the
intermediate tierras templadas and tierras frias, and the higher
regions of the sierras. The line of demarcation cannot be very
sharply drawn, as the zones everywhere overlap each other and
local climatic conditions greatly modify plant types. In general,
the aspect of the great central plateau north of the Anahuac sierras
is that of a dusty, treeless plain. There is but little natural vegeta-
tion to be seen ; ragged yucca trees, many species of agave and
cactus, scrubby mesquite bushes, sage bushes and occasional
clumps of coarse grasses. The rainy season completely changes the
appearance of these plains, new grass appears, and wheat and Indian
corn are cultivated. The rains do not last long, however, and some-
times fail altogether. The most common plants of the Mexican
plateau are the agaves, yuccas and cacti, each of which is repre-
sented by a number of species. The first is chiefly known in the
south by the " magueys," from which the national drinks " pulque "
and " mescal " are extracted. There is some confusion in the
specific names of these agaves; the " pulque "-producing plant is
usually described as the Agave americana, though A. atrovirens and
several others are also credited with the product. The mescal-
producing magueys have a thinner leaf and are not cultivated, with
the exception of the species producing the " tequila " mescal. The
chief value of the agaves, however, is in their fibres, of which a
great variety is produced. The principal plateau agaves producing
fibre are the A. lechuguilla and A. lophantha and A. univittata of
the Jaumave Valley, Tamaulipas, which furnish what may be
termed the genuine ixtle fibre. The " tapemete " fibre of western
Mexico is credited by Mr E. W. Nelson to the A. vivipara, which is
found chiefly in the warmer and lower elevations of the Pacific
slope. There are many other fibre-producing agaves, including
some of those from which pulque is derived. The cactus is un-
questionably the characteristic plant of Mexico. About one
XVIII. il
thousand species have been described, a very large percentage of
which are to be found on the Mexican plateau.
Explorations by botanists of the United States Department of
Agriculture have been made in many localities, in Jalisco, Zacatecas,
Michoacan and Tamaulipas, but many years must elapse before the
whole ground can be covered. In central and southern Mexico the
mountain slopes are forested up to 12,500 to 13,500 ft., juniper
bushes continuing up to 14,000 ft. The forests consist of several
species of evergreen and deciduous oaks, "oyamel " (Abies religiosa),
the arbutus or strawberry tree, the long-leaved Pinus liophylla and
the short-leaved " ocote " or Pinus montezumae and the alder, with
an undergrowth of elder (Sambucus mexicana), broom and shrubby
heath. In the Southern Sierra Madre, the " oyamel " and " ocote
pine are the giants of the forest, sometimes rising to a height of
100 ft. Oaks are to be found over a wide area and at lower eleva-
tions of the sub-tropical zone as well. They are represented by a
number of species, and are called " roble " and " encina " by the
natives.
In the intermediate zones between the higher sierras and the
tierras calientes the flora is very largely composed of species
characteristic of the bordering hot and cold regions. Oaks are
everywhere common and the T< ocote " pine on the Gulf coast is
found as far down as 6300 ft. In southern Mexico the pine is
found at even lower elevations where the tropical growth has been
destroyed by cultivation and fire. The lower slopes of the sierras,
especially those of southern Mexico, are well forested and include an
immense number of species. The most common families on the
eastern slopes, where the precipitation is heavy, are the magnolias,
crotons, mimosas, acacias, myrtles, oaks, plane-trees and bamboos.
Palms are common, the chestnut abounds in many places, the cacti
are almost as numerous as on the open plateau. On the southern
slopes of the Ajusco and other sierras considerable forests of the
" ahuehuete " or cypress (Taxodium distichum) are to be found.
The " higuerilla " or castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis) is widely
distributed throughout the plateau and the open plains of the lower
zones. In some localities the characteristic types of the two
climatic extremes, the palm and the pine, are to be found growing
side by side.
No brief description can adequately portray the marvellous
variety and magnificence of the flora of the farras calientes. Its
forests are not composed of one or a few dominating species, as in
the cold temperate zone, but of countless genera and species
closely interwoven together a confused mass of giant trees, lianas
and epiphytes struggling to reach the sunlight. This struggle for
existence has completely changed the habits of some plants, turning
the palm and the cactus into climbers, and even some normal
species into epiphytes. Among the more important and conspicuous
trees of these tropical forests are mahogany, rosewood, Spanish
cedar (Cedrela). cassias, ceibas (Bombax), rubber (Castilloa), palms
of many species including the oil-producing Altalea of Manzanillo
and Acrocomia of Acapulco, guayacan (Guaiacum), logwood (Haema
toxylon campechianum), brazilwood (H. boreale) which should not be
confounded with the Brazilian Caesalpinia, palo bianco (Lysiloma
Candida), the cascalote and divi-divi trees (Caesalpinia Cacalaco
and C. coriaria), the " zapote chico " (Achras sapota) from which
chicle is extracted, " zapote prieto " (Diospyros ebenaster), wild fig,
myrtles, bamboos and many of the types already mentioned in
connexion with the sub-tropical zone. Of the 114 species of trees
and cabinet-woods, 17 of oil-bearing plants, and over 60 of medicinal
plants and dyewoods indigenous to Mexico, by far the larger part
are represented in the tierras calientes. . Among the well-known
forest products of this zone are arnottp, jalap, ipecacuanha,
sarsaparilla, rubber, orchids and a great variety of gums.
Of the economic plants and products of Mexico, the list is sur-
prisingly long and interesting. The cereals, fruits and vegetables
of Europe have been introduced and some of them have done well.
Wheat is widely cultivated and a considerable part of the population
depend upon it for their bread. Indian corn, which is believed to
have had its origin in Mexico, also provides food for a large part of
the population. " Tunas " or cactus fruit, red peppers, " zapotes "
(the fruit of various trees), " arrayan " (Myrtus arayan), " ciruelas "
or Mexican plums (Spondias), guavas, " huamuchil " (Pithecolobium
duke), tamarinds, aguacates (Persea gratissima) , bananas, plantains,
pineapples, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, granadillas, chirimoyas,
mammees (Mammea americana), coco-nuts, cacao, mangoes, olives,
gourds and melons, are among the fruits of the country, and rice,
wheat, Indian corn, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, onions and
" tomatoes " (Phy sails) are among its better-known food products.
The food of the common people is chiefly made up of Indian corn,
beans, red peppers and " tomatoes," There are about 50 known
species of beans (Phaseolus) in Mexico and Central America, and
probably a dozen species of red peppers (Capsicum) which are used
both in seasoning and in making chili sauce. The " tomato " or
" tomatillo " mentioned, is the fruit of the Physalis ixocarpa, some-
times called the " strawberry tomato " and the " Mexican ground-
cherry," which is used with red peppers to make chili sauce.
The common potato (Solanum tuberosum), of which wild varieties
are found, is not commonly used as a vegetable, but as a flavouring
for soups and other dishes. Among other economic plants are the
fibre-producing agaves, the best known of which is the A. rigida
322
MEXICO
[POPULATION
var. elongata which produces the " henequen " fibre, or sisal hemp,
of Yucatan, silk or tree-cotto'n (Ceiba casearia), sugar-cane, cotton
(Cossypium), indigo and " canaigre " (Rumex hymenosepalus)
whose root contains a large percentage of tannin.
Mexico has suffered much from the reckless destruction of her
forests, not only for industrial purposes but through the careless
burning of grassy areas. The denuded mountain slopes and plateaus
of southern Mexico are due to the prehistoric inhabitants who cleared
away the tropical forest for their Indian corn fields, and then left
them to the erosive action of the tropical rains and subsequent
occupation by coarse grasses. Fire was generally used in clearing
these lands, with the result that their arboreal vegetation was
ultimately killed and their fertility destroyed. In the valleys of
some of these denuded slopes oak and pine are succeeding the
tropical species where fires have given them a chance to get a good
foothold.
Population. According to the census of 1900 the population
of Mexico numbered 13,607,259, of which less than one-fifth
(10%) were classed as whites, 38% as Indians, and 43% as
mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents, including
a few Chinese and Filipinos. Since then the Japanese have
acquired an industrial footing in Mexico. Under the constitu-
tion of 1824 all race distinctions are abolished, and these diverse
ethnic elements are nominally free and equal. For many
years, however, the Indians remained in subjection and took
no part in the political activities of their native country. Since
about 1866, spurred on by the consciousness that one of their
own race, Benito Ju&rez, had risen to the highest positions
in the gift of the country, they have taken greater interest
in public affairs and are already making their influence felt.
In southern Mexico the Zapotecas furnish schoolmasters for
the village schools. Peonage, however, is still prevalent on many
of the>!arger estates, and serious cruelties are sometimes reported.
The government itself must be held partly responsible, as for
the transportation of the mountain-bred Yaquis to the low,
tropical plains of Yucatan (see Herman Whitaker's The Planter,
1909), but the influence of three and a half centuries of slavery
and peonage cannot be shaken off in a generation.
According to Humboldt, the census of 1810 gave a total
population of 6,122,354, of which the whites had 18%, the
mestizos 22% and the Indians 60%. The census of 1895
increased the whites to 22%, which was apparently an error,
the mixed bloods to 47%, and reduced the Indians to 31%. It
is piobable that the returns have never been accurate in regard
to the mixed bloods and Indians, but it is the general conclusion
that the Indians have been decreasing in number, while the
mixed bloods have been increasing. Neglect of their children,
unsanitary habits and surroundings, tribal intermarriage and
peonage are the principal causes of the decreasing Indian popula-
tion. Recent observers, however, deny the assertion that
the Indians are now decreasing in number except where local
conditions are exceptionally unfavourable. The death rate
among their children is estimated at an average of not less than
50%, which in families of five and six children, on an average,
permits only a very small natural increase. The larger part
of the population is to be found in the southern half of the
republic, owing to the arid conditions prevailing in the north.
The unhealthfulness of the coastal plains prevents their being
thickly populated, although Vera Cruz and some other states
return a large population. The most favourable regions are
those of the tierras templadas, especially on the southern slopes
of the great central plateau which were thickly populated in
prehistoric times.
The dissimilar races that compose the population of Mexico
have not been sufficiently fused to give a representative type,
which, it may be assumed, will ultimately be that of the mestizos.
Mexico was conquered by a small body of Spanish adventurers,
whose success in despoiling the natives attracted thither a
large number of their own people. The discovery of rich
deposits of gold and silver, together with the coveted commercial
products of the country, created an urgent demand for labourers
and led to the enslavement of the natives. To protect these
adventurers and to secure for itself the largest possible share
in these new sources of wealth, the Spanish crown forbade
the admission of foreigners into these colonies, and then harassed
them with commercial and industrial restrictions, burdened
them with taxes, strangled them with monopolies and even
refused to permit the free emigration thither of Spaniards.
Out of such adverse conditions has developed the present
population of Mexico. It was not till after the middle of the
I9th century that a long and desperate resistance to foreign
intervention under the leadership of Benito Juarez infused
new life into the masses and 1 initiated the creation of a new
nationality. Then came the long, firm rule of Porfirio Diaz,
who first broke up the organizations of bandits that infested
the country, and then sought to raise Mexico from the state
of discredit and disorganization into which it had fallen. Sus-
picion and jealousy of the foreigner is disappearing, and habits
of industry are displacing the indolence and lawlessness that
were once universally prevalent.
The white race is of Spanish descent and has the charac-
teristics common to other Spanish-American Creoles. Their
political record previous to the presidency of Porfirio Diaz
was one of incessant revolutionary strife, in which the idle,
unsettled half-breeds took no unwilling part. The Indian
element in the population is made up of several distinct races
the Aztec or Mexican, Misteca-Zapoteca, Maya or Yucateco,
Otomi or Othomi, and in smaller number the Totonac, Tarasco,
Apache, Matlanzingo, Chontal, Mixe, Zoque, Guaicuro, Opata-
Pima, Tapijulapa, Sen and Huavi. As the tendency among
separated tribes of the same race is to develop dialects and as
habitat and customs tend still further to differentiate them,
it may be that some of these smaller families are branches
of the others. In 1864 Don Manuel Orozco y Berra found no
fewer than 51 distinct languages and 69 dialects among the
Indian inhabitants of Mexico, to which he added 62 extinct
idioms making a total of 182 idioms, each representing a
distinct tribe. Thirty-five of these languages, with 69 dialects,
he succeeded in classifying under 1 1 linguistic families. A later
investigator, Don Francisco Belmar (Lenguas indigenas de
Mexico, Mexico, 1905), has been able to reduce these numerous
idioms to a very few groups. None of them were written except
through the use of ideographs, in the making of which the
Aztecs used colours with much skill, while the Mayas used an
abbreviated form, or symbols.
The Aztecs, who called themselves Mejica or Mexicans after
they had established themselves on the high table-land of Mexico,
belong to a very large family or group of tribes speaking a
common idiom called Nahua or Nah6a. These Nahua-speaking
tribes were called the Nahuatlaca, and compose a little more
than one-fourth of the present Indian population. They inhabit
the western Sierra Madre region from Sinaloa southward to
Chiapas, the higher plateau states, which region was the centre
of their empire when Cortes conquered them, and parts of
Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca, Morelos, Aguascalientes and
San Luis Potosi. They were energetic and warlike and evidently
had not reached the zenith of their power when Cortes came.
They had been preceded on the same plateau by the Chichimecs,
possibly of the same race, who were conquered by the Aztecs
sometime in the isth century after a supposed occupation of
the territory about 400 years. The characteristic civilization
of prehistoric Mexico, however, antedates both of these periods.
An Aboriginal race called the Toltecs is said to have occupied
Vera Cruz and Tabasco and to have extended its empire west-
ward on the plateau to and perhaps beyond the present capital.
They were the builders of the pyramids of Cholula and Teotihu-
acan, near the city of Mexico, and of Papantla, Huatusco and
Tuzapan, in Vera Cruz. One of their towns was Tollan (now
Tula) 50 m. north of the national capital, and it is not improb-
able that the people of Cholula, Texcoco and Tlaxcala at the
time of the Spanish invasion were occupying the sites of older
Toltec towns. There has been much discussion in regard to
the origin of the Toltecs, some assuming that they were a distinct
race, and others that they belonged to the Nahuatlaca. Another
and perhaps a better supposition is that they belonged to the
Maya group, and represented a much earlier civilization than that
of the builders of Palenque, Quirigua and Copan. Confirmatory
POLITICAL DIVISIONS]
MEXICO
323
evidence of this is to be found, not only in the character
of their constructions, but in the circumstance that a tribe
closely akin to the Mayas (the Huastecos) still occupies a retired
mountain valley of Vera Cruz, entirely separated from their
kinsmen of the south, and that a dialect of the Maya language
is still spoken in northern Vera Cruz. There is evidence to
show that the Aztecs adopted the civilization of the Toltecs,
including their religion (Quetzalcoatl being a god of the Toltecs
and Mayas), calendar and architecture. Perhaps the most
remarkable of the Mexican races are the Mayas, or Maya-
Quiche group, which inhabit the Yucatan peninsula, Campeche
and parts of Tabasco, Chiapas, and the neighbouring states
of Central America (q.v.). The remarkable ruins of Palenque,
Uxmal, Chichenitza, Lorillard, Ixinche, Tikal, Copan and
Quirigua, with their carved stonework and astonishing archi-
tectural conceptions, show that they had attained a high degree
of civilization. They were agriculturists, lived in large, well-
built towns, cultivated the mountain sides by means of terraces,
and had developed what must have been an efficient form of
government.
The Mistecas, or Mixtecas, and Zapotecas, who occupy the
southern slopes of the central plateau, especially Puebla,
Morelos, Oaxaca and Guerrero, form another distinct race, whose
traditional history goes back to the period when the structures
now known as Mitla, Monte Alban, Xochicalco and Zaachila
were built. Their prehistoric civilization appears to have been
not inferior to that of the Mayas. They were an energetic
people, were never subdued by the Aztecs, and are now recov-
ering from their long subjection to Spanish enslavement more
rapidly than any other indigenous race. The Otomis comprise
a large number of tribes occupying the plateau north of the
Anahuac sierras. They are a hardy people, and are the least
civilized of the four principal native races.
The Totonacs inhabit northern Vera Cruz and speak a language
related to that of the Mayas; the Tarascos form a small group
living in Michoacan; the Matlanzingos, or Matlaltzincas, live
near the Tarascos, the savage Apaches, a nomadic group of
tribes ranging from Durango northward into the United States;
the Opata-Pima group, inhabiting the western plateau region
from Sonora and Chihuahua south to Guadalajara, is sometimes
classed as a branch of the Nahuatlaca; the Seris, a very small
family of savages, occupy Tiburon Island and the adjacent
mainland of Sonora; and the Guaicuros, or Yumas, are to be
found in the northern part of the peninsula of Lower California.
In southern Mexico, the Chontales, Tapijulapas, Mixes and
Zoques inhabit small districts among and near the Zapotecas,
the first being considered by Belmar a branch of that family.
The Huavis inhabit four small villages among the lagoons
on the southern shore of Tehuantepec and have been classed
by Belmar as belonging to the Maya stock. The census of
1895 gave these Indian races an aggregate population of nearly
4,000,000, of which nearly 3,450,000 belonged to the first four
groups. Three of these four had made important progress
toward civilization. Some of the others had likewise made
notable progress, among which were the Tarascos, Totonacs
and Zoques.
The builders of Casas Grandes (q.v.), in Chihuahua, evidently
belonged to the Pueblo tribes of Arizona and New Mexico.
As for the builders of Quemada, in Zacatecas, nothing positive
is known. The ruins apparently are of an earlier period than
those of Mitla and Xochicalco, and have no inscriptions and
architectural decorations, but the use of dressed stone in the
wails, rather than adobe, warrants the conclusion that they
belonged to the civilization of southern Mexico.
From the records made at the time of the Spanish conquest, anc
from the antiquities found in the abandoned cities of prehistoric
Mexico, it is certain that the Indians lived in substantial houses
sometimes using dressed stone, inscriptions and ornamental carvings
on the more pretentious edifices; they cultivated the soil, rudely
perhaps, and produced enough to make it possible to live in large
towns, they made woven fabrics for dress and hangings, using
colours in their manufacture ; they were skilful in making and orna-
menting pottery, in making gold and silver ornaments, and 11
featherwork ; they used the fibres that Nature lavishly providec
n weaving baskets, hangings, mats, screens and various household
utensils. Copper was known to them ; and it is possible that they
new how to make cutting instruments from it, but they generally
used stone axes, hammers and picks, and their most dangerous
veapon was a war-club into which chips of volcanic glass were set.
Many of these primitive arts are still to be found in the more secluded
districts, and perhaps the best work in pottery moulding in Mexico
to-day is that of uneducated Indian artists.
Of the half-breed element which has become so important
a part of the Mexican population, no safe estimate can be made.
Education, industrial occupation, commercial training and
political responsibility are apparently working a transformation
in a class that was once known chiefly for indolence and criminal
instincts, and many of the leaders of modern Mexico have
sprung from this race. Settled government, settled habits,
remunerative employment and opportunities for the improve-
ment of their condition are developing in them the virtues of
the two parent races. Brigandage was formerly so common
that travel without an armed escort was extremely dangerous;
under President Diaz, however, not only has such lawlessness
been repressed but the brigands themselves have been given
regular employment as rural guards under the government.
This class is also furnishing the small traders of the towns,
overseers on the plantations and public works, petty officials,
and to some extent the teachers and professional men of the
provincial towns.
Political Divisions. The republic of Mexico is politically
divided into 27 states, one federal district, and three territories.
The states are generally subdivided into distrilos (districts)
or partidos, and these into municipios (municipalities) which
correspond to the townships of the American system. The
state of Nuevo Leon, however, is divided into municipios only,
while some other states use entirely different titles for the
divisions, the larger being described as departamentos, cantons
and municipios, and the smaller as partidos, directorias and
vecindarios rurales. The Federal District consists of thirteen
municipalities. The territory of Lower California is divided
into two large districts, northern and southern, and the latter
into partidos and municipios the larger divisions practically
forming two distinct territories.
The states and territories, with their areas, capitals and popula-
tions, are as follows :
Name.
Area,
sq. m.
Pop.
1900.
Capital.
Pop.
1900.
Aguascalientes .
2,95
102,416
Aguascalientes .
35,052
Campeche .
Chiapas .
18,087
27,222
86,542
36o,799
Campeche .
Tuxtla Gutierrez
17,109
9-395
Chihuahua .
87,802
327-784
Chihuahua .
30,405
Coahuila
63.569
296,938
Saltillo ... .
23.996
Colima .
2,272
65,"5
Colima .
20,698
Durango
Guanajuato.
38,009
11,37
370,294
1,061,724
Durango
Guanajuato.
31,092
41,486
Guerrero
24,996
479,205
Chilpancingo .
7.497
Hidalgo .
8,917
605,051
Pachuca.
37,487
Jalisco .
31,846
1,153-891
Guadalajara.
101,208
Mexico .
9,247
934,463
Toluca .
25.940
Michoacan .
22,874
935,8o8
Morelia .
37.278
Morelos .
2,773
160,115
Cuernavaca.
9.584
Nuevo Leon
23-592
327,937
Monterrey .
62,266
Oaxaca .
35,382
948,633
Oaxaca .
35,049
Puebla . . .
12,204
1,021,133
Puebla . . .
93,152
Euer6taro .
3-556
232,389
Queretaro .
33,152
in Luis Potosi .
25-316
575.432
San Luis Potosi .
61,019
Sinaloa .
33-671
296,701
Culiacan.
10,380
Sonora .
76,900
221,682
Hermosillo .
10,613
Tabasco .
10,072
159,834
San Juan Bau-
tista .
io,543
Tamaulipas .
32,128
218,948
Ciudad Victoria .
10,086
Tlaxcala .
i,595
172,315
Tlaxcala .
2,715
Vera Cruz .
29,201
981,030
Jalapa .
20,388
Yucatan
35-203
309-652
M6nda .
43,630
Zacatecas .
24-757
462,190
Zacatecas .
32,866
Distrito Federal
463
541,516
Mexico .
344-721
Territories :
Baja California
Tepic .
Quintana Roo .
58,328
".275
47,624
150,098
La Paz . . .
Tepic
Santa Cruz de
5,046
15,488
_ f.
Bravo .
270
Islands .
1,420
324
MEXICO
[COMMUNICATIONS
The area and population of Yucatan include those of the territory
of Quintana Roo, which formed part of that state at the time of
the census.
Baja, or Lower California, is divided into two districts for
administrative convenience. The Distrito del Norte is credited
with a population of 7583 and has its capital at Ensenada (pop.
1026) ; the Distrito del Sur has a population of 40,041 and has its
capital at La Paz.
Tepic was detached from the north-west part of Jalisco and
organized as a territory in 1889.
Quintana Roo was detached from the state of Yucatan in 1902
ana received a territorial government.
The principal cities of Mexico, other than the capitals above
mentioned, are as follows, the populations being those of 1900 except
when otherwise stated: Acapulco (pop. 4932), a famous port on
the Pacific coast in Guerrero, which was wrecked by the earthquake
of 1909; Carmen, or Laguna de Terminos (about 6000), a thriving
commercial town and port on the Gulf coast in Campeche; Celaya
(25,565), a railway centre and manufacturing town of Guanajuato;
Ciudad Guzman, or Zapotlan (about 17,500), an interesting old town
of Jalisco; Cholula (about 9000), an ancient native town of Puebla,
widely known for its great pyramid ; Comitan (9316), the commercial
centre of Chiapas; Cordoba (7974 in 1895), a picturesque Spanish
town in the sierras of Vera Cruz; Cuautla (6269), the centre of a
rich sugar-producing district of Morelos; Guaymas (8648), a flourish-
ing port of Sonora on the Gulf of California ; Leon (62,623), the largest
city in Guanajuato and distinguished for its commercial activity,
manufactures and wealth; Linares (20,690), the second city of
Nuevo Leon in size and importance; Matampros (8347), a prominent
commercial centre and river port of Tamaulipas; Mazatlan (17,852),
the foremost Mexican port on the Pacific coast; Orizaba (32,894),
a city of Vera Cruz famous for its delightful climate and picturesque
surroundings; Parral (14,748), a well-known mining centre of south-
ern Chihuahua; San Cristobal (about 16,000), once capital of Chiapas
and rich in historical associations; Tampico (16,313), a Gulf port
and railway terminus of Tamaulipas; Tehuantepec (10,386), the
largest town on the Tehuantepec railway in Oaxaca; Vera Cruz
(29,164), the oldest and best known Gulf port of Mexico.
Communications. Railways began in Mexico with a line of four
kilometres between the capital and Guadalupe, which was finished
in 1854 and afterwards became a part of the Ferrocarril Mexicano.
The latter dates from 1857, when a concession was granted for the
construction of a railway from the city of Mexico to Vera Cruz.
The French invasion of 1862 found only 10' m. in operation outside
of Vera Cruz and military needs led to its immediate extension to
Paso del Macho, at the foot of the sierras, about 35 m. At the same
time the English company holding the concession extended the
Guadalupe line to Puebla. Nothing more was accomplished until
after the downfall of Maximilian, and with a liberal subsidy from
the Mexican government the Ferrocarril Mexicano was pushed to
its completion in 1873. It is celebrated because of the difficulties
overcome on the precipitous eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre,
the beauties of the mountain scenery through which it passes, and
the rapid transition from the hot, humid coastal plain to the cool,
arid plateau, 7924 ft. above the sea at Boca del Monte. The railway
extends 263 m. between Vera Cruz and Mexico Cit3', to which 58 m.
were added in branches from Apizaco to Puebla, and from Ometusco
to Pachuca. The line was capitalized at $46,000,000 and has paid
a good profit on the investment. The period of active railway con-
struction, however, did not begin until 1878, during the first term of
President Porfirio Diaz. In 1874 a concession was granted for a
line from the pert of Progreso to Meiida (223 m.), and in 1878 four
concessions were added under which 806 m. were constructed.
The principal of these four concessions was the Ferrocarril Inter-
oceanico running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and across the
republic toward Acapulco. In 1880 concessions were granted to the
F.C. Occidental, F.C. Central Mexicano, F.C. Nacional Mexicano
and three others of less importance, aggregating nearly 3500 m.
The first three of these have become important factors in the develop-
ment of Mexico. The first runs southward from the capital to
Oaxaca through the rich sub-tropical states of Puebla and Oaxaca,
and the other two run northward from the same point to the
American frontier. These two lines, popularly called the Mexican
Central and Mexican National, have their northern termini at
Ciudad Juarez and Laredo on the Rio Grande and connect with
American trunk lines at El Paso and Laredo. These two great lines
were merged in 1908, with an aggregate capital of $460,000,000 Mexi-
can money, of which the Mexican government holds $230,004,580, or
a controlling interest. Important branches of these lines extend
to Tampico on the Gulf coast, to Manzanillo on the Pacific coast,
and westward and southward into Michoacan and Guerrero, with
a coast terminus at or near Acapulco. The next important line
is the F.C. Internacional Mexicano, running from Ciudad Porfirio
Diaz, on the Rio Grande, south-westward across the plateau to
Durango, and is to be extended to Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast.
This line was built with American capital and without a subsidy.
Another line built with American capital and in connexion with
American railway interests extends southward from Nogales, on the
northern frontier, to Hermosillo, Guaymas and Mazatlan; it is to be
extended to Guadalajara and possibly to other points in southern
Mexico. Monterrey is connected with Tampico by a Belgian line
known as the F.C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano, and the capital is
to have direct connexion with the Pacific, other than the F.C.
Intcroceanico, by a line through Cuernavaca and Iguala to the coast.
Indirectly the capital has a Pacific coast connexion by way of Cor-
doba and the F.C. Vera Cruz al Pacifico to a junction with the
Tehuantepec line. One of the most important railways in Mexico
is the F.C. Nacional Interoceanico de Tehuantepec, also called the
Tehuantepec National, and the Mexican Isthmus railway, which is
192 m. long and was formally 'opened in 1907. This line crosses
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Coatzacoalcos (officially Puerto
Mexico) on the Gulf coast to Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast, and
has been under construction many years. The railway was first
completed in 1894, but light and defective construction, together with
lack of shipping facilities at its terminal points, rendered it useless.
To correct these defects the line was completely rebuilt and terminal
ports constructed. In 1909 the ports were ready to receive large
ocean steamships, and regular traffic was begun, including cargoes
of Hawaiian sugar for New York. The highest point on the line
(Chivela Pass) is 735 ft. above sea-level. The railway has been built
by the Mexican government as a transcontinental route for inter-
national commerce. Its final construction together with that of its
two ports were executed by S. Pearson & Sons, Ltd., of London, who
also undertook the working of the line when open. It was estimated
in 1907 that the total cost of the railway and ports when completed
would be about 13,000,000. The line is connected at the station of
Santa Lucrecia (109 m. from Salina Cruz) with the Vera Cruz and
Pacific railway which gives an all-rail connexion with Vera Cruz
and Mexico City, the distance between the latter and Salina Cruz
being 520 m. According to the President's Message of April 1909,
there were 14,857 m. of railway in operation, of which 11,851 m.
belonged to or were controlled by the government. It is the evident
policy of the Mexican government to prevent the absorption of its
railways by private monopolies, and this is effected by state owner-
ship of a controlling share in most of the trunk lines.
Mexico is well provided with tramway lines in its larger cities.
A British consular report for 1904 stated that Mexico City and
Torreon only were using electric traction, but that Guadalajara,
Monterrey, Aguascalientes, Lagos, Colima, Vera Cruz and San Luis
Potosi would soon be using it. No official reports are available. The
telegraph lines had an aggregate length of 35,980 m. at the end of
1907, of which 33,000 m. belonged to the national government. The
President reports an addition of 1626 m. in 1908. Wireless tele-
graphy was represented in 1908 by a connexion between Mazatlan
and Lower California, which was in successful operation. Telephone
lines were in use in all the large cities and in connexion with the large
industrial enterprises and estates, beside which the government had
500 m. of its own in 1908.
Commerce. In 1905 the mercantile marine of Mexico comprised
only 32 steamers, of 13,199 tons, and 29 sailing vessels, of 8451 tons.
The ocean-carrying trade was almost wholly in the hands of
foreigners, the government wisely refraining from an attempt to
develop an occupation for which its citizens had no natural aptitude.
The coastwise trade is principally under the Mexican flag, but the
steamers are owned abroad. An official publication entitled
" Mexico: Yesterday and To-day, 1876-1904," states that while the
number of steamers engaged in the foreign trade increased from 841
to 969 in the 17 years from 1886 to 1903, the number of Mexican
steamers decreased from 55 to 4. For the year 1906-1907 the entries
of vessels from foreign ports numbered 1697, of 3,282,125 tons, and
the clearances were 1669, of 3,257,932 tons. Subventions are paid
for regular steamship service at the principal ports, the total expen-
diture in 1907-1908 being 42,876. These ports are well served by a
large number of foreign steamship companies, which give direct com-
munication with the principal ports of the United States, Europe,
and the west coast of South America, and the initiation of a Japanese
line in 1908 also brings Mexico into direct communication
with the far East. The larger ports for foreign trade are Vera
Cruz, Tampico, Progreso, Carmen and Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf
coast, and Guaymas, La Paz, Mazatlan, Manzanillo, San Bias,
Acapulco and Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast. Some of these
Vera Cruz, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, Salina Cruz, Manzanillo and
Mazatlan have been greatly improved with costly port works.
Among the smaller ports, some of which are open to foreign trade,
are Matamoros, Tuxpan, Alyarado, Tlacotalpan, Frontera, Cam-
peche and the island of Mujeres (coast of Yucatan) on the Gulf
side, and Ensenada, Altata. Santa Rosalia and Soconusco on the
Pacific.
The foreign trade has shown a steady increase during the period
of industrial development, to which better means of transport have
been an invaluable aid. In 1906-1907 the imports were valued at
$111,234,968 U.S. gold, and the exports at $123,512,969, of which
very nearly one half consisted of precious metals. According to an
official report issued early in 1909 there had been a heavy decrease
in both imports and exports, the former being returned at $36,195,469
and the latter at $54,300,896 for the six months ending the 3 1st of
December 1908. Too rapid development and overtrading were given
as reasons for this decline. Import and export duties are levied,
the former in many cases for the protection of national industries.
The imports largely consist of railway material, industrial machinery,
AGRICULTURE]
MEXICO
325
cotton, woollen and linen textiles and yarns for national factories,
hardware, furniture, building material, mining supplies, drugs and
chemicals, wines and spirits, wheat, Indian corn, paper and military
supplies and equipment. The exports include gold, silver, copper,
coffee, henequen or sisal, ixtle and other fibres, cabinet woods,
chicle, rubber and other forest products, hides and skins, chickpeas,
tobacco and sugar.
Agriculture. The agricultural resources of Mexico are large and
unusually varied, as they comprise some of the cereals and other
food products of the temperate zone, and most of the leading pro-
ducts of the tropics. Agriculture, however, received slight atten-
tion, owing to the early development of the mining industries. An
indirect result of the industrial development of Mexico, which began
during the last quarter of the igth century, has been an increased
interest in agriculture, and especially in undertakings requiring
large investments of capital, such as coffee, sugar and rubber planta-
tions. A large part of the country is too arid for agriculture, and
even with irrigation the water supply is sufficient for only a small
part of the dry area. This region has, for the most part, a temperate
climate, and produces wheat, barley, Indian corn and forage crops.
Long droughts often destroy the wheat and Indian corn and compel
their importation in large quantities to supply the "people with food.
This uncertainty in the wheat crop extends to the southern limits of
the higher plateau, and is a serious obstacle to the increased pro-
duction of this cereal. Indian corn, also, is a comparatively uncer-
tain product on the plateau, and for the same reason. As it is a
staple food with the poorer classes, the deficiency is made up through
importation. These drawbacks tend to restrict agriculture on the
plateau to comparatively limited areas, and the country people are,
in general, extremely poor and badly nourished. A comparatively
new product in this region is that of canaigre, which is grown for the
tannin found in its root. It is a native of the arid regions and is now
cultivated with success. The district about Parras, in southern
Coahuila, produces grapes, which are principally used in the manu-
facture of wine and brandy. An important product of the plateau
and of the open districts of the tierras calientes, growing in the most
arid places, is the " nopal " or prickly pear cactus (Opuntia ficus
indicd). Its fruit, called " tuna " by the natives, is refreshing
and wholesome and is a staple food in spite of its spiny covering.
In the tierras calientes of Mexico, however, better conditions prevail.
A fertile soil, abundant rainfall and high temperatures have covered
these mountain slopes and lowland plains with a wealth of vegetation.
The problem for the agriculturist here is not irrigation, but drainage
and keeping down spontaneous growths. In these regions, sugar,
tobacco, indigo, cacao, rice, sweet potatoes, alfalfa, beans and
cassava are produced, and Indian corn yields two and three crops a
year. Fruits also are plentiful, both wild and cultivated. Among
them are the banana, plantain, tuna, chili pepper, olive, coco-nut,
orange, lemon, lime, mango, pomegranate, pina " or pineapple
(wild and cultivated), fig, ahuacatl (Persea gra'issima), chirimoya
(Anona chirimolia), papaya, gourd, melon, guava, ciruela (plum),
and the several " zappte " fruits, including " chico zapote ' from
the Achras sapota, which produces the " chicla " or chicle-gum of
commerce, " zapote bianco " from the Casimiroa edulis, " zapote-
barracho " (or " amarillo ") from the Lucuma salicifolia, " zapote-
prieto " (or " negro ") from the Diospyros obtusifolia, and " zapote-
mamey." The production of rubber is becoming an important
industry, large plantations having been set with both Hevea and
Castilloa rubber trees. Lying between these two regions is the
subtropical belt where coffee of an excellent quality is produced,
and where cotton is cultivated. Coffee has become an important
article of export, but cotton does not yield enough for the domestic
factories. Better cultivation would probably increase the output
and make it an article of export. A peculiar and highly profitable
branch of Mexican agriculture is the cultivation of the Agave for
two widely different purposes one for its fibre, which is exported,
and the other for its sap, which is manufactured into intoxicating
liquors called " pulque " and " mescal." In Yucatan immense
plantations of the Agave rigida var. elongata are cultivated, from
which large quantities of " henequen " or " sisal," as the fibre is
called, are exported. It is produced on light shallow soils overlying
calcareous rock. It is also cultivated in Campeche and Chiapas.
The pulque industry is located on the plateau surrounding the city
of Mexico, the most productive district being the high, sandy, arid
plain of Apam, in the state of Hidalgo, where the " maguey " (Agave
americana) finds favourable conditions for its growth a dry cal-
careous surface with moisture sufficiently near to be reached by its
roots. Ics cultivation is the chief industry of the states of Mexico,
Hidalgo, Puebla and Tlaxcala. Of the 208 plantations in the
state of Hidalgo in 1897, 129 were devoted to maguey. The plant
is propagated from suckers and requires very little attention after
transplanting to the field where it is to remain, but it takes six to
eight years to mature and then yields an average of ten gallons of
sap during a period of four or five months, after which it dies.
" Pulque is the fermented drink made from this sap: " mescal "
is the distilled spirit made from the leaves and roots of the plant.
There are other agaves used both in the production of drinks and
fibres, but they are not cultivated. The " ixtle " fibres shipped
from Tampico and Chiapas are all obtained from the agaves and
yuccas found growing wild.
The natural and forest products of Mexico include the agave and
yucca (ixtle) fibres already mentioned; the " ceibon " fibre derived
from the silk-cotton tree (Bombax pentandria) rubber and vanilla
in addition to the cultivated products; palm oil; castor beans;
ginger; chicle, the gum extracted from the " chico-zapote " tree
(Achras sapota); logwood and other dye-woods; mahogany, rose-
wood, ebony, cedar and other valuable woods; " cascalote " or
divi-divi; jalap root (Ipomaea); sarsaparilla (Smilax); nuts and
fruits.
Stock-raising dates from the earliest Spanish settlements in Mexico
and received no slight encouragement from the mother country.
For this reason much importance has always been attached to the
industry, and stock-raising of some sort is to be found in every
state of the republic, though not always to a great extent. The
Spaniards found no indigenous domestic animals in the country,
and introduced their own horses, cattle, sheep and swine. From
these are descended the herds and flocks of to-day, with no admix-
ture of new blood until toward the end of the I9th century. The
horses and cattle are of a degenerate type, small, ungainly and
inured to neglect and hard usage. The horse is chiefly used for
saddle purposes and is not reared in large numbers. The mule is
more generally used in every part of the country, being hardier,
more intelligent and better adapted for service as a draft and pack
animal. The transport of merchandise and produce was wholly
by means of pack animals before the advent of railways, and is
still the common means of transport away from the railway lines.
For this purpose the sure-footed mule is invaluable. In some dis-
tricts, however, oxen and ox-carts are employed, especially in the
southern states, and always in the open, level country. The varying
climatic conditions of Mexico have produced breeds of cattle that
have not only departed from the original Spanish type, but likewise
present strikingly different characteristics among .themselves.
Those of the northern plateau are small, hardy and' long-lived,
being bred on extensive ranges in a cooler atmosphere, and accus-
tomed to long journeys in search of water and pasture. In the
south they are larger and better nourished, owing to the permanent
character of the pasturage, but are less vigorous because of the heat
and insect plagues. In Yucatan the open plains, rich .pasture, and
comparative freedom from moist heat, insects and vampire bats,
have been particularly favourable to cattle-raising, and the animals
are generally rated among the best in Mexico. Notwithstanding
the frequency of long, destructive droughts, cattle-raising is a pre-
ferred industry among the landowners o r the northern states, and
especially near the American frontier. Almost total losses are
frequently experienced, but the profits of a favourable year are so
great that losses seldom deter ranchers from trying again. In the
sierra regions of western Chihuahua and Durango, Nuevo Leon,
Coahuila, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and the plateau states
farther south, the rainfall is more abundant and the conditions more
favourable. The largest herds are to be found in Chihuahua and
Durango. Above 5000 ft. the wild pasturage is short, tender and
reproduces itself annually. It is exceptionally nutritious, but it
disappears altogether in the dry season because of its short roots.
The lowland pasture, from 2000 to 5000 ft., is composed of more
vigorous grasses, with an undergrowth of an exceptionally succulent
character. The stock-raiser on the border pastures his herds on the
uplands during the rainy season, and on the lower pastures during
the remainder of the year. Next in importance is the breeding of
sheep, which is largely confined to the cooler sierra districts. They
are commonly of the Spanish merino breed, and suffer in many
localities on account of insufficient pasturage. Some attention is
given to the breeding of goats because of the local demand for their
skins, but the industry is apparently stationary. The raising of
swine, however, is increasing. In the last decade of the igth cen-
tury the capital invested in these live-stock industries was estimated
(by Bancroft) to exceed $700,000,000, but an official return of the
3Oth of June 1902 gave an aggregate valuation of only $120,523,158
(Mexican), or about 12,052,316. According to this report, which is
not strictly trustworthy, there were in the republic 5,142,457 cattle,
859,217 horses, 334435 mules, 287,991 asses, 3,424,430 sheep,
4,206,01 1 goats and 616,139 swine. Two years later home consump-
tion returns noted the slaughter of 958,058 cattle (129,938 in the
Federal District), 561,982 sheep, 992,263 goats and 887,130 hogs
the last item being larger than the census return of 1902. The
greater part is consumed in the country, but there is a considerable
export of cattle to the United States, Cuba and Central America,
and of hides and skins to the United States and Europe. A few
mules are sent to Central America, but the home demand usually
exceeds the supply.
Other Industries. There are no fisheries of importance^ except the
pearl fisheries on the eastern coast of Lower California, and the
tortoise fisheries on the coasts of Campeche, Yucatan, and some of
the states facing the Pacific. The pearl fisheries have been worked
since the arrival of the Spaniards, and were once very productive
notwithstanding the primitive methods employed. Since the closing
years of the last century pearl fishing in the Gulf of California has
been carried on with modern appliances and better results by an
English company under a concession from the government. Mother-
of-pearl or abalone and other shells are also found, and, with sponges,
are exported. Fishing for the tortoiseshell turtle gives employment
326
MEXICO
[CONSTITUTION
to a large number of natives in the season, and considerable quan-
tities of the shell are exported. Other industries of a desultory
character include the collection of archil, or Spanish moss, on the
western side of the Californian peninsula, hunting herons for their
plumes and alligators for their skins, honey extraction (commonly
wild honey), and the gathering of cochineal and ni-in insects. The
cochineal insect was once an important commercial product, but the
industry has fallen into decay. The " ni-in " (also known as " axe ")
is a small scale insect belonging to the genus Coccus, found in
Yucatan, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Michoacan and other southern states,
where it inhabits the spondia trees and produces a greasy substance
called " ni-inea," which is much used by the natives as a varnish,
especially for domestic utensils, as it resists fire as well as water.
Mining. The best-known and most productive of the industries
of Mexico is that of mining. It was the chief object of Spanish ex-
ploration, and the principal occupation of European residents and
capital during three centuries of Spanish rule. Agricultural and
pastoral Industrie^ gradually gained footholds here and there, and
in time became important, but mining continued far in advance
until near the end of the igth century. Mines of some description
are to be found in 26 of the 31 states and territories, and of these the
great majority yield silver. According to the official records, there
were registered in September 1906, 23,191 mining properties, of which
very nearly five-sixths were described as producing si!ver, either
by itself or in combination with other metals. The properties were
classed as 1572 gold, 5461 silver, 970 copper, 383 iron, 151 mercury,
94 lead, 86 sulphur, 52 antimony, 49 zinc, 40 tin, 21 opals, 9 man-
ganese, 6 " sal gema, 5 tourmalines, I bismuth and I turquoise
the remainder being various combinations of these minerals. The
absence of coal from this list is due to the circumstance that coal
mines were at that time considered as private property and were
not registered under the general mining laws. A comparison with
1888-1889, when 8970 properties were registered, will show how
rapidly the mining industries have been developed during that
period. Besides the above, the mineral resources of Mexico include
coal, petroleum, asphalt, platinum, graphite, soda and marble. In
1906 the productive mines numbered 1786, of which 491 were in
Sonora, 282 in Chihuahua, 21 1 in Durango, 113 in Oaxaca and 105
in Nuevo Leon. Gold is found in Chihuahua, Durango, Guana-
juato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Sinaloa,
Sonora, Vera Cruz, Zacatecas, and to a limited extent in other
states ; silver in every state and territory except Campeche, Chiapas,
Tabasco, Tlaxcala and the Yucatan peninsula; copper in Lower
California, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, Sonora,
Tamaulipas and some other states; mercury chiefly in Guanajuato,
Guerrero, San Luis Potosl, Vera Cruz and Zacatecas; tin in Guana-
juato; coal, petroleum and asphalt in 20 states, but chiefly in
Coahuila, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Oaxaca, Puebla, Sonora, Tabasco,
Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz ; iron in Durango, Hidalgo, Oaxaca and
other states; and lead in Hidalgo, Quere'taro and in many of the
silver-producing districts. The most celebrated iron deposit is that
of the Cerro del Mercado, in the outskirts of the city of Durango
a mountain 640 ft. in height, noo in breadth, and 4800 in length,
reputed to be almost a solid mass of iron. Large masses of the metal
are also said to exist in the sierras of Lower California. The prin-
cipal coalfields that have been developed are in the vicinity of
Sabinas, Coahuila. They have been opened up by American capi-
talists and the coal is used on the railways passing through that
region. Mexican coal is of a low grade similar to that found in
Texas, but as an official geological report of 1908 estimates the supply
in sight at 300,000,000 tons its industrial value to the country cannot
be considered inferior to that of the precious metals. The same is
true of the petroleum deposits in Tamaulipas, near Tampico, and in
southern Vera Cruz. An investigation by the U.S. Geological Survey
in 1909 finds that the crude Mexican oils are of low grade, but that
while not equal to those found in the upper Mississippi basin for
refining purposes, they furnish an excellent fuel for railway engines
and other industrial purposes. Many of the Mexican railways
are using these fuel oils, which are superseding imported coal. In
1909 a well was opened in the southern oilfields whose yield was
equal to the best American product.
Manufactures. Although Mexico is usually described as a non-
manufacturing country, its industrial development under President
Porfirio Diaz will warrant some modification of this characterization.
Manufacturing for international trade has not been and may never
be reached, but the industry certainly has reached the stage of meet-
ing a great part of the home demand for manufactured goods, where
the raw material can be produced in the country. There were of
course some crude industries in existence before the arrival of the
Spaniards, such as weaving and dyeing of fabrics made from various
fibres, and making earthenware utensils, images, &c. The Spaniards
introduced their own industries, including sugar-making, weaving,
tanning, and leather- and metal-working, some of which still exist.
The early methods of making cane sugar, clarified with clay and dried
in conical moulds, are to be found all over Mexico, and the annual
output of this brown or muscovado sugar (called " panela " by the
natives) is still very large. The sugar crop of 1907-1908" was
reported as 123,285 metric tons, in addition to which the molasses
output was estimated at 7O,947'5 metric tons, and " panela " at
50,000 tons. Other estimates make the " panela " output much
larger, the product being largely consumed in the rural districts
and never appearing in the larger markets. The estimated. number
of sugar mills in 1904 was about 2000, of which only about 300
were important for size and equipment. Merino sheep _were intro-
duced in 1541 and woollen manufactures date from that time. Large
factories are now to be found in all parts of Mexico, and good and
serviceable grades of broadcloths, cassimeres, blankets and other
fabrics are turned out. There is also a considerable quantity of
carpeting, underwear and hosiery manufactured. An important
branch of this industry is the manufacture of " zarapes " (called
" ponchos " in other parts of Spanish America) a blanket slit in
the centre for the head to pass through, and worn in place of a coat
by men of the lower classes. The most important textile industry
is cotton manufacture, which has become a highly successful feature
in the industrial life of the republic. There were 146 factories
in 1905, of which 19 were idle, and these were distributed over a very
large part of the country. About one-half the raw cotton con-
sumed was produced in Mexico, and the balance imported in fibre
or as yarn. The industry is protected by a high tariff, as is also
the production of raw cotton, and further encouragement is offered
through a remission of internal revenue taxes where Mexican fabrics
are exported for foreign consumption. The cotton factories of 1905
were equipped with 22,021 looms having 678,058 spindles, and with
38 stamping machines, employed 30,162 operatives, and turned out
13,731,638 pieces of cloth. Statistical returns, however, are some-
what incomplete and conflicting, and cannot be used with confidence.
Coarse fabrics chiefly are manufactured, but the product also com-
prises percales, fine calicoes, ginghams, shirtings, towelings, sheetings
and other kinds of goods. Considerable attention is given to the
manufacture of " rebozos," the long shawls worn by women.
Another very important manufacturing industry is that of tobacco,
the consumption of its various products being large among all classes
of the population. There were 467 tobacco factories reported in
1905 to be engaged in the manufacture of cigars, cheroots, cigarettes,
snuff and cut tobaccos for the pipe. The number of factories
reported for 1899 was 743, but as the consumption of leaf tobacco
increased from 5,546,677 to 8,587,356 kilogrammes, it may be
assumed that the decrease in factories is due to the absorption or
disappearance of the small shops using old-fashioned methods.
Other important manufactories are flour mills, of which there were
over 500 in 1904^; iron and steel works, of which there are 7 large
establishments, including the immense plant at Monterey; 90
smelters for the reduction of precious metals; tanneries, potteries,
and factories for the manufacture of hats, paper, linen, hammocks,
harness and saddles, matches, explosives, aerated waters, soap,
furniture, chocolate and sweetmeats. There are also a large number
of distilleries, breweries, and establishments for the manufacture of
"pulque," "mescal," and imitation or counterfeited liquors. In
addition to these are the many small domestic industries, such as the
making of straw hats, mats, baskets, pottery, ropes and rough
textiles. The policy of the Mexican government is to encourage
national manufactures, and protective duties are levied for that
purpose. Other favours include exemption from taxation and
exemption from import duties on machinery and raw materials.
These inducements have attracted large sums of foreign capital
and have brought into the country large numbers of skilled
operatives, especially in the cotton, iron and steel, and smelting
industries.
Constitution. Under the Constitution of the 5th of February
1857, subsequently modified in many important particulars,
the government of Mexico is described as a federation of free
and sovereign states invested with representative and democratic
institutions. Practically it is a Federal Republic with central-
ized executive powers. Its political divisions consist of 27 states
(originally 19) having independent local governments, 3 terri-
tories and i federal district in which the national capital stands.
The central government consists of three co-ordinate branches
executive, legislative and judicial each nominally independent
of the other. The executive branch consists of a president and
vice-president, assisted by a cabinet of 8 secretaries of state:
(i) foreign affairs; (2) interior; (3) justice; (4) public instruction
and fine arts; (5) fomento, colonization and industry; (6) com-
munications and public works; (7) finance and public credit;
(8) war and marine. The president and vice-president are
elected indirectly through an electoral college chosen by popular
vote, and serve for a period of six years (the term was four years
previous to 1904), the vice-president succeeding to the office in
case of the death or permanent disability of the president.
The office of vice-president was created on the 6th of May, 1904,
and that official serves as president of the senate. A constitu-
tional amendment of 1890 permits the re-election of the president
without limit, the original clause prohibiting such a re-election.
A candidate for the presidency must be a native-born Mexican
ARMY: EDUCATION]
MEXICO
327
citizen in the full exercise of his political rights, 35 years of age,
not an ecclesiastic, and a resident of the republic at the time of
the election. Although the authority of the president is care-
fully defined and limited by the Constitution, the exercise of
dictatorial powers has been so common that the executive may
be considered practically supreme and irresponsible. Previous
to the presidency of General Porfirio Diaz in 1877 political
disorders and changes in government were frequent.
The legislative branch of government consists of a Congress
of two chambers a senate and a chamber of deputies. Two
ordinary congressional sessions are held each year April i to
May 31 and September 16 to December 15 and a perma-
nent committee of 29 members (14 senators and 15 deputies)
sits during recess, with the power to confirm executive appoint-
ments, to give assent to a mobilization of the national guard,
to convene extra legislative sessions, to administer oaths, and
to report at the next session on matters requiring congressional
action. The senate is composed of 56 members or two from
each state and from the federal district who are elected by
popular vote for a term of four years, one-half the number
retiring every two years. A senator must be not under 30 years
of age, a Mexican citizen in the full, enjoyment of his rights,
a resident of the state he represents, and not an ecclesiastic.
The chamber of deputies is composed of popular representatives,
in the proportion of one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants or
fraction over 20,000, who are elected for a term of two years.
A deputy must be not less than 25 years of age, other qualifica-
tions being the same as those for a senator. Th salary for either
senator or deputy is $3000 and that of the president $50,000.
Federal officials and ecclesiastics are ineligible for election to
either chamber.
Mexican citizenship includes all persons born of Mexican
parents, all naturalized aliens, and all foreigners owning real
estate in the republic or having children by Mexican mothers
unless formal declaration is made of an intention to retain the
citizenship of another country. In some cases exemptions
are granted from specified taxes and military duties, otherwise
naturalized citizens are treated the same as native-born. Ah'ens
are granted the civil rights enjoyed by Mexicans, but the
government reserves the right to expel those guilty of pernicious
conduct. Suffrage is extended to all Mexican citizens who
possess honest means of livelihood, the age limit being 18 for
the married and 21 for the unmarried.
The judicial branch of the government consists of a supreme
court of justice, three circuit courts, and 32 district courts. The
supreme court is composed of 1 1 " ministros " or justices, four
alternates, a " fiscal " or public prosecutor and the attorney-
general all elected by popular vote for a term of six years.
It has jurisdiction in cases arising from the enforcement of
the federal laws, except cases involving private interests, in
admiralty cases, in cases where the republic is a party, in those
between two or more states, or between a state and the citizens
of another state, in those originating in treaties with foreign
states, and in those affecting diplomatic and consular officials.
There are likewise supreme and inferior courts in most of the
states, governed by the civil and criminal codes in force in the
federal district. The territories are governed by federal laws.
The department of justice has oversight in matters relating to
the enforcement of the federal laws and the administration of
justice through minor courts. The police service is both muni-
cipal and federal in character. In some states a local police
service is maintained, but in most states the federal government
maintains a very efficient force of mounted " rurales."
The states are organized very much like the federal govern-
ment, each with its own governor, legislature, laws and judiciary.
Elections are generally indirect, like those for the national
executive, and official terms correspond closely to those of
similar offices in the national organization. The state is nomi-
nally sovereign within its own boundaries, and the authority of
its officers and courts in local questions is supreme except in cases
where federal intervention or supervision is provided for by the
federal constitution. The larger political divisions of the state
(partidos, distritos, &c.) are governed by a.jefe politico, or prefect,
and the smaller by a municipal council called an ayuntamienlo.
Defence. The Mexican army consisted in 1908 of 2474 officers
and 24,132 men, organized on modern lines, and commanded by
a general staff at the capital. There were 30 battalions of infantry
and 4 battalions cadres with an effective strength of 730 officers
and 14,898 men; 14 regiments of cavalry and 4 regimental cadres
with 493 officers and 6058 men; 2 regiments and 3 cadres of field
artillery; one regiment and one cadre each of horse and mountain
artillery, 4 sections of garrison artillery, and one mitrailleuse com-
pany, in all 147 officers and 1647 men ; and the remainder divided
among other services. Administration and headquarters staffs
comprised 885 officers and 531 men. This force represented the
peace footing of the army, which is recruited in part by voluntary
enlistments and in part by a form of conscription that might be
called impressment. Mauser rifles (1901 model) and carbines are
used by the infantry and cavalry, and Schneider Canet quick-firing
guns by the field and horse artillery. The nominal war strength
of the army is rated at 2510 officers and 81,984 men. Factories for
arms and ammunition have been established with modern machinery,
and uniforms and other equipment are made in the country. The
military school in the capital occupies a part of the historic castle
of Chapultepec and has been thoroughly reorganized on modern
lines. There is also an artillery school at Vera Cruz and subordinate
schools in other parts of the republic. The national guard, to which
reference is sometimes made, has no effective organization.
Mexico may be said to have no navy, the ten small vessels in com-
mission in 1908 hardly meriting such a designation. There were 2
old despatch boats and 2 old unarmoured gunboats, a steel training
cruiser, the " Zaragoza," and 5 small modern gunboats. The per-
sonnel consisted of 198 officers and 965 men. Six new cruisers were
projected, but the republic has no pressing need of a navy. Small
naval schools are maintained at Campeche and Mazatlan.
Education. Education in Mexico may be said to have entered
upon a progressive phase. The institutions founded by the Span-
iards were wholly under ecclesiastical control. The first college in
Mexico was founded during the administration of Viceroy Mendoza
(I535 -I 55)' b ut ft taught very little beyond Latio, rhetoric, gram-
mar and theology. The university of Mexico, planned by Mendoza
and founded on the 2ist of September 1551, was formally opened
on the 25th of January 1553, with faculties of law, philosophy and
theology. Practically nothing was done for the natives beyond oral
instruction in the catechism. The university of Mexico received
much support from both church and state, but it never gained
a position comparable to the universities of South America Cor-
doba, Lima (San Marcos) and Bogota. The overthrow of Spanish
rule in Mexico was the beginning of a new period, and efforts were
made to introduce educational reforms, but the colonists and ecclesi-
astics were still governed by their fears and prejudices, and little was
accomplished. In 1833 the university of Mexico suspended work,
and in 1865 passed out of existence altogether. In 1857 the adop-
tion of a more liberal and democratic constitution paved the way for
a new period in the educational history of the country. Its realiza-
tion was delayed by the wars that devastated the country down
to the overthrow of Maximilian, but the leaven was at work,
and with the return of peace a marked increase in the number of
primary and secondary schools was noted. Colleges of law, medi-
cine and engineering were created in Mexico City in 1865 in place
of the old university and were successful from the beginning.
Professional schools were also established in several of the more
important provincial capitals, and everywhere increasing interest
in educational matters was apparent. The best proof of this was
to be found in the development of the primary schools, of which there
were 8226 in 1874, with an attendance of 360,000 pupils. Of these,
603 were supported by the national government, 5240 by municipali-
ties, 2260 by private enterprise, 117 by the Catholic church, and the
remainder by Protestant denominations. Handsome schools were
built in the cities and largeVtowns, and schools were opened in all
the villages and hamlets. In. some parts the natives made most
creditable progress in all btaaches of learning. This was especially
true of the Mixtecos and Zapotecas of Oaxaca, from whom have come
some of the leading men of the republic. The national school
laws now in force had their origin in the recommendations made by
a national congress of public education convened on the 1st of
December 1889, and again on the 1st of December 1890. The first
result was a law regulating free and compulsory education in
the federal district and national territories, which came into
effect on the I7th of January 1892. From 1822 to this time the
government primary schools had been under the supervision of the
Compafiia Lancasteriana, but they were now placed under charge of
the Department of Public Education. On the igth of May 1896
a general public education law was promulgated, which provided
further regulations for the public schools, and outlined a com-
prehensive system. Compulsory attendance had been adopted
in 1888, but did not come into effect until after the enactment
of the law of 1896. It provides for uniform, free and non-sectarian
primary instruction, and compulsory attendance for children of 6
to 12 years of age. Preparatory courses for professional training in
the government schools were also made free and secular. As the
3 28
MEXICO
[RELIGION: FINANCE
states have control of the schools within their own boundaries
there was at first a great lack of uniformity, but the national system
is being generally adopted. In the official report for 1904 the num-
ber of public schools, exclusive of infant schools, was returned at
9194 (against 5843 in 1874), with an enrolment of 620,476. Of
these 6488 were supported by the national and state governments
and 2706 by the municipalities. The private, religious and associa-
tion schools numbered 2281, with 135,838 pupils. For secondary
instruction the national and state schools numbered 36 with 4642
pupils, and for professional instruction 65 with 9018 students, of
whom 3790 were women. Normal schools for the training of teachers
are also maintained at public expense and are giving good results.
Besides these, the government maintains schools of law, medicine,
agriculture and veterinary practice, engineering, mining, commerce
and administration, music and fine arts. There is also a mechanics'
training school (artes y oficios) for men and a similar school for
women, schools for the blind and for deaf-mutes, reform schools,
and garrison schools for soldiers. Early estimates were that
90% of the population were illiterate. In 1895 this percentage was
reduced to about 84 %, and the work of the schools is slowly cutting it
down. Mention must be made of the National Library in Mexico
City with about 225,000 volumes, and 138 public libraries (in 1904)
in other parts of the republic, 34 museums for scientific, educational
and art purposes, and n meteorological observatories. Newspapers
and periodicals, whose educational value varies widely, numbered
459 in 1904, of which 439 were in Spanish and 12 in English.
Religion. The people of Mexico are almost wholly of the Roman
Catholic faith, the census of 1900 returning 13,533,013 communicants
of that church, 51,795 Protestants (in great part foreigners), 3811 of
other faiths, and 18,640 of no faith. The constitution of 1857 grants
toleration to all religions, and since 1868 several Protestant denomi-
nations have established missions in the towns, but their numbers
are still comparatively small. The Roman Catholic religion was
enforced at the time of the conquest, but a large percentage of the
natives may still be considered semi-pagan, the gods of their ances-
tors being worshipped in secret, and the forms and tenets of the
dominant faith, which they but faintly comprehend, being largely
adulterated with superstitions and practices of pagan origin. The
church hierarchy consists of 3 archbishops and 23 suffragan bishops.
It dates from the creation of the bishopric of Mexico in 1530, with
Fray Juan de Zumarraga as bishop, although two previous creations
had been proclaimed at Rome, that of Yucatan in 1518 and Puebla
in 1525. In 1545 the bishopric of Mexico was elevated to anarch-
bishopric, which in 1863 was divided into three archdioceses Mexico,
Michoacan and Guadalajara. An Inquisition tribunal was estab-
lished in the capital in 1571, and in 1574 its first auto-da-fe was
celebrated with the burning of " twenty-one pestilent Lutherans."
The Inquisition was active in Mexico during two and a half centuries,
and was finally suppressed on the 3lst of May 1820. The great power
exercised by the Roman Catholic church during the colonial period
enabled it not only to mould the spiritual belief of the whole people,
but also to control their education, tax their industries, and shape
the political policies governing their daily life. In this way it ac-
quired great wealth, becoming the owner of extensive estates in
every part of the country and of highly productive properties in the
towns. It was said in 1859 that the church owned one-third of
the real and personal property of the republic. The reform laws of
that year nationalized its property, abolished its numerous orders
and institutions and deprived it of state support and of all participa-
tion in political affairs. Subsequent legislation removed clerical
influence from public instruction, made marriage a civil ceremony
and closed all conventual establishments. The church still exercises
a boundless influence over the Mexican lower classes, and is still the
most influential organization in the republic.
Finance. The national revenues are derived from import and
export duties, port dues and other taxes levied on foreign commerce;
from excise and stamp taxes and other charges upon internal business
transactions; from direct taxes levied in the federal district and
national territories, covering a land tax in rural districts, a house
tax in the city, commercial and professional licences, water rates,
and sundry taxes on bread, pulque, vehicles, saloons, theatres, &c. ;
from probate dues and registry fees; from a surcharge on all taxes
levied by the states, called the " federal contribution," which is
paid in federal revenue stamps; from post and telegraph receipts;
and from some minor sources of income. The most fruitful revenue
is the duty on imports, which is sometimes used for the protection
of national industries, and which yields from 40 to 45% of the total
receipts. The excise taxes in 1905 were levied on tobacco, alcohol
and alcoholic beverages, and on cotton goods. Mining taxes, which
are subject to periodic changes, consist of an initial or registry tax
on the claim (pertenencia) , an annual or rental tax on each claim,
and a tax of 3^ % (1905) on the export of unrefined gold and silver,
2j /o on partially refined ores, and ij % on pure silver. The expen-
ditures are chiefly for the services of the public debt, military
expenses, public works and internal affairs (Department of the
Interior). The public debt service alone required $26,201 871
(2,620,187) in 1908.
For the fiscal year 1906-1907 the revenue produced a total of
114,286,122 pesos (dollars), or, approximately, 11,428.612, and the
expenditure was 85,076,641 pesos, or 8,507,664. The estimates for
19081909 show a marked decline owing to the commercial depres-
sion, the revenue being computed at 103,385,000 pesos, and the ex-
penditure at 103,203,830 pesos. Of the former 46,500,000 pesos
are credited to import duties, 31,930,000 pesos to stamps, excise
taxes, &c., 10,930,000 pesos to direct taxes, and the balance to
various sources. Owing to the circumstance that the great
majority of the Mexican people own no property, carry on no
industry, and are not even to be considered regular productive
labourers, the revenues are small in relation to the population and are
comparatively inelastic.
The revenues and expenditures of the states and municipalities
in 1904, the late*t date available, aggregated as follows:
States
Municipalities
Revenue.
24,519,926 pesos
14,605,022 ,,
Expenditure.
23.557-968 pesos
14,160,132
The taxes cover a great variety of occupations and property, often
to a minute and vexatious degree, and the expenditure includes the
expenses of local administration, schools, police, streets and other
objects of purely local interest.
The public indebtedness of Mexico includes a foreign debt payable
in gold, an internal debt payable in silver, and a floating debt
covering unpaid balances on appropriations, unpaid interest, and
other credits and obligations. The paper money issues are by banks
and not by the government, and the national treasury keeps no cash
in its vaults and has no sinking funds to offset this indebtedness.
The foreign debt dates from 1825, when 10,000,000 were borrowed
in London through two loans. Interest defaults led to a conversion
of the debt in 1851, the interest rate being reduced from 5 % to 3 %.
Further defaults followed and in 1888 another adjustment was made
by the 'issue of 6% gold-bearing bonds. From this time the
Mexican government has met its obligations promptly, in conse-
quence of which its credit is rated high and its bonds have even been
quoted at a premium. In 1899 the government placed a loan of
22,700,000 in Europe at 5% for the conversion of its 6% bonds,
securing it by the hypothecation of 62 % of its import and export
duties. Further loans have considerably increased the debt since
then, but it is still within the normal resources cf the country.
According to Matias Romero (Mexico and the United States, 1898),
a new type of indebtedness was inaugurated in 1850, in the shape of
an internal debt payable in silver. Other loans and obligations con-
tracted during periods of disorder were afterwards consolidated
under this type, and later on unpaid railway subsidies were also
included. The rate of interest is from 3 % to 5 %, and both prin-
cipal and interest are payable in silver. The rapid development
of railway construction has largely increased this part of the public
debt, the revenues of the country being insufficient to meet the sub-
sidy obligations, but as the railways are built for the development
of valuable resources and the opening of needed trade communica-
tions, the increase has occasioned no loss of credit. At the end of
1908 the total public indebtedness of the republic was:
Foreign, or gold debt, including
City of Mexico loan . . . 30,927-348
Internal, or silver debt . . . $130,892,100
Floating debt 860,495
Total
$131-752,595 ori 3 , 175,259
44,102,607
The fiscal or tax valuation of property throughout the republic
in 1904 was computed to be the fiscal value being two-thirds of
the real value :
U rba . n $312,950,983
Rural 488,182,009
Federal District 252,716,454
Total
$1,053,849,446
Previous to 1905 all monetary transactions in Mexico were based
n practice on a fluctuating silver standard and free coinage. By a
law of the gth of December 1904, promulgated by an executive
decree of the 25th of March 1905, the gold standard was adopted,
and the silver peso, -9027 fine and containing 24-438 grammes of
pure silver, was made the monetary unit with a valuation of -75
grammes of gold. At the same time the free coinage of silver was
suspended, the government reserving to itself the sole privilege of
coining money. The coinage of Mexico, now concentrated at the
mint in the capital (all others having been closedj is based (since
November 28, 1867) on the decimal system the peso being divided
into loo centavos and consists of gold, silver, nickel and bronze
:oms, whose weight and fineness are determined by the monetary
law of 1904. The coins minted under this law are:
GOLD: 10 pesos, -900 fine, weighing 3-333* grammes.
= ; pesos, 4-1 16|
(the first called a " hidalgo " and the
second a " medio hidalgo ").
ANCIENT HISTORY]
MEXICO
SILVER:
I peso, -9027 fine, containing 24-438 grammes
of pure silver,
50 centavos, -800 fine,
20
329
10
NICKEL: 5
BRONZE: I and 2 centavos, 95 parts copper , 4 tin, I zinc.
Provisions are also made for continuing the coinage of " trade
dollars " for export, which have a wide circulation in the Orient
but are not current at home. Fractional silver coin is not legal
tender above 20 pesos, and bronze and nickel coins not above I peso,
but the government maintains conversion offices where such coins
can be converted into silver pesos without loss. The amount of
gold in circulation is small, the bank notes convertible into gold
taking its place. Foreign coins are permitted to circulate in the
republic.
There were 34 chartered banks in Mexico in 1908, of which 29
enjoyed the privilege of issuing bank notes; the total note circulation
on the 3lst of December 1906 was 97,787,878 pesos. These note
issues are everywhere current at full nominal value, being secured
under the provisions of the national banking law of 1896 by metallic
reserves. The notes are not legal tender, and it is forbidden to
count them as " cash on hand " in bank returns, but ample safe-
guards both as to issue and redemption inspire full confidence in
their employment as a substitute for gold. Restrictions on specula-
tive operations in real estate and on the use of hypothecated and
discounted paper as security for other transactions, together with the
publication of detailed monthly balance sheets, have kept these banks
free from unsound methods, and their record thus far (1909) has been
conspicuously good. Mortgage and loan banks have also been estab-
lished in accordance with the law of 1896, and are subject to official
supervision. Private banks are numerous, but foreign banks are
not encouraged to open agencies. The use of cheques is very limited
because of the stamp tax.
Weights and Measures. Mexico adopted the metric system in
1862, and it is used in all official transactions, land measurements,
railway calculations and public school work. The old Spanish
weights and measures, modified in many particulars, continued in
private use, however, and in 1895 it became necessary to declare
the metric system the only legal system and to make _its use
compulsory after the i6th of September 1896.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The historical student will find valuable material
in Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Cronica de la conquista de Nueva Espana
(Madrid, 1632, and other dates) ; Antonio Herrera Historia general de
los hechos de los Castelldnos en las islas y tierra firma del mar ocedno
(4 vols., Madrid, 1601) ; F. C. Mac Nutt, Letters of Cortes to Charles V.
(London, 1908) ; W. H. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico (3 vols., London,
1845); and the works of Gomara, Helps, Kingsborough, Las Casas,
Sahagun and Justin Winsor.
Among the more popular works on Mexico are Baedeker's The
United States, with Excursions to Mexico, &c. (Leipzig, 1909); H. H.
Bancroft, Resources and Development of Mexico (San Francisco,
1893); M. Chevalier, Le Mexique ancien et moderne (Paris, 1886);
A. Garcia Cubas, Etude geographique, statistique, descriptive et
historique des Etats-Unis Mexicains (Mexico, 1889; in English, 1893) ;
C. B. Dahlgreen, Minas histdricas de la Republica Mexicana (tr.
from Eng., 1887) ; J. Domenech, Guia general descriptiva de la Repub-
lica Mexicana (vol. i., Mexico, 1899); F. W. Egloffstein, Contribu-
tions to the Geology and Physical Geography of Mexico (New York,
1864) ; C. Reginald Enock, Mexico, its Ancient and Modern Civiliza-
tion, &c. (London, 1909) ; Hans Gadow, Travels in Southern Mexico
(London, 1908) ; Ernst von Hesse- Wartegg, Mexico, Land und Leute
(Vienna, 1890); W. T. Hornaday, Camp Fires on Desert and Lava
(London, 1908) ; Alex, von Humboldt, Voyage aux regions equinoxi-
ales du nouveau continent (Paris, 1807 sqq.); A. H. Keane,
" Mexico " in Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel
(London, 1904); H. Kessler, Notizen tiber Mexico (Berlin, 1898);
Carl Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (New York, 1902) ; C. F. Lummis,
The Awakening of a Nation (New York, 1898) ; P. F. Martin, Mexico
of the Twentieth Century (London, 1907); A. H. Noll, A Short History
of Mexico (Chicago, 1903) ; Santiago Ramirez, Noticia historica de la
riqueza mineira de Mexico (Mexico, 1884); Friedrich Ratzel, A us
Mexico: Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-1876 (Breslau, 1878);
Matias Romero, Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico (New
York, 1898) ; idem, Mexico and the United States (New York, 1898) ;
E. Seler, Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1896); Justo Serra (editor),
Mexico: Its Social Evolution, &c. (2 vols., Mexico, 1904) ; J. R. South-
worth, Mines ofMexico(<) vols., Mexico, 1905) ; Frederick Starr, Indians
of Southern Mexico (Chicago, 1899); Sara V. Stevenson, Maximilian
in Mexico (New York, 1899) T. Philip Terry, Mexico (Boston, 1909 ;
.n excellent guide) ; David A. Wells, A Study of Mexico (New York,
887) ; W. E. Weyl, Labor Conditions in Mexico (Washington, 1902),
Jull. No 38, Bureau of Labor; Nevin O. Winter, Mexico and her
People of To-day (Boston, 1907); Marie R. Wright, Picturesque
Mexico (Philadelphia, 1898); and Rafael de Zayas Enriquez, Les
Etats-unis mexicains (Mexico, 1899).
Important works of reference are: Anuario estadistico de la
Republica Mexicana (Mexico) ; Mexican Year-book (London, 1908) ;
Biological and botanical publications of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (Washington) ; Statesman's Year-book (London) ; Hand-
book of Mexico (Washington), published by the Bureau of American
Republics; Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics
(Washington); British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular
Reports (London); and the U.S. Consular Reports (Washington).
(A. J. L.)
HISTORY
/. Ancient Mexico.
The name Mexico is connected with the name of the group of
American tribes calling themselves Mexico (sing. Mexicall) or
Azteca. The word is related to or derived from the name of the
Mexican national war-god, Mexitl, better known as Huitzilo-
pochtli. The Aztecs from the I2th century appear to have
migrated from place to place over the mountain-walled plateau
of Anahuac, the country " by the water," so called from its salt
lagoons, which is now known as the Valley of Mexico.
About 1325 they founded on the lake of Tezcuco the permanent
settlement of Mexico Tenochtitlan, which is still represented by
the capital city, Mexico. The name Mexico 1 was given by the
Spanish conquerors to the group of countries over which the
Aztec power more or less prevailed at the time of the European
invasion. Clavigero (Storia antica del Messico, vol. i.) gives a
map of the so-called " Mexican empire," which may be roughly
described as reaching from the present Zacatecas to beyond
Guatemala; it is noticeable that both these names are of Mexican
origin, derived respectively from words for " straw " and
" wood." Eventually Mexico and New Mexico came to desig-
nate the still vaster region of Spanish North America, which
(till cut down by changes which have limited the modern
republic of Mexico) reached as far as the Isthmus of Panama on
the south and took in California and Texas on the north. Mexico
in this wide sense is of high interest to the anthropologist from
the several native American civilizations which appear within its
limits, and which conveniently if loosely group themselves round
two centres, the Mexican proper and the Central American.
When early in the i6th century the Spaniards found their way
from the West India Islands to this part of the mainland of
America, they discovered not rude and simple tribes like the
islanders of the Antilles, but nations with armies, official adminis-
trators, courts of justice, high agriculture and mechanical arts,
and, what struck the white men especially, stone buildings
whose architecture and sculpture were often of dimensions and
elaborateness to astonish the builders and sculptors of Europe.
Here was a problem which excited the liveliest curiosity and
gave rise to a whole literature. Hernandez and Acosta shared
the opinion of their time that the great fossil bones found in
Mexico were remains of giants, and that, as before the deluge
there were giants on the earth, therefore Mexico was peopled
from the Old World in antediluvian times. On the other hand
the multitude of native American languages suggested that the
migration to America took place after the building of the tower
of Babel, and Siguenza arrived at the curiously definite result
that the Mexicans were descended from Naphtuhim, son of
Mizraim and grandson of Noah, who left Egypt for Mexico
shortly after the confusion of tongues. Although such specula-
tions have fallen out of date, they induced the collection of
native traditions and invaluable records of races, languages and
customs, which otherwise would have been lost for ever. Even
in the igth century Lord Kingsborough spent a fortune in
printing a magnificent compilation of Mexican picture-writings
and documents in his Antiquities of Mexico to prove the theory
advocated by Garcia a century earlier, that the Mexicans were
the lost tribes of Israel. Modern archaeologists approach the
question from a different standpoint, but the origin of the
American aborigines and of Mexican civilization remains
extremely obscure (see AMERICA, where the primitive Mexican
cultures are fully illustrated, and CENTRAL AMERICA).
Real information as to the nations of Mexico before Spanish
1 In this, as in all other Aztec names, the * (or j) represents the
English sound sh; hence Mexitli and Mexico should be properly
pronounced Meshitli, Meshico. But they do not appear to have
ever been so pronounced by the Spaniards, who naturally gave to
the * its ordinary Spanish sound of the German ch.
330
times is very imperfect, but not altogether wanting. The
accurate and experienced Alexander von Humboldt considered
the native Americans of both continents to be substantially
similar in race-characters. Such a generalization will become
sounder, if, as is now generally done by anthropologists, the
Eskimo with their pyramidal skulls, dull complexion and flat
noses are removed into a division by themselves. Apart from
these polar nomads, the American indigenes group roughly
into a single division of mankind, of course with local variations.
If our attention is turned to the natives of Mexico especially,
the unity of type will be found particularly close. The native
population of the plateau of Mexico, mainly Aztecs, may still
be seen by thousands without any trace of mixture of European
blood. Their stature is estimated to be about 5 ft. 3 i n -> but
they are of muscular and sturdy build. Measurements of their
skulls show them mesocephalic (index about 78), or intermediate
between the dolichocephalic and brachycephalic types of man-
kind. The face is oval, with low forehead, high cheek-bones,
long eyes sloping outward towards the temples, fleshy lips, nose
wide and in some cases flattish but in others aquiline, coarsely
moulded features, with a stolid and gloomy expression. Thick-
ness of skin, masking the muscles, has been thought the cause
of a peculiar heaviness in the outlines of body and face; the com-
plexion varies from yellow-brown to chocolate (about 40 to 43
in the anthropological scale); eyes black; straight coarse glossy
black hair; beard and moustache scanty. Among variations
from this type may be mentioned higher stature in some districts,
and lighter complexion in Tehuantepec and elsewhere. If now
the native Americans be compared with the races of the regions
across the oceans to their east and west, it will be seen that their
unlikeness is extreme to the races eastward of them, whether
white Europeans or black Africans. On the other hand they
are considerably like the Mongoloid peoples of north and east
Asia (less so to the Polynesians); so that the general tendency
among anthropologists has been to admit a common origin,
however remote, between the tribes of Tartary and of America.
This original connexion, if it may be accepted, would seem to
belong to a long-past period, to judge from the failure of all
attempts to discover an affinity between the languages of Ame-
rica and Asia. At whatever date the Americans began to people
America, they must have had time to import or develop the
numerous families of languages actually found there, in none of
which has community of origin been satisfactorily proved with
any other language-group at home or abroad. In Mexico
itself the languages of the Nahua nations, of which the Aztec
is the best-known dialect, show no connexion of origin with the
language of the Otomi tribes, nor either of these with the
languages of the regions of the ruined cities of Central America,
the Quiche of Guatemala and the Maya of Yucatan. The
remarkable phenomenon of nations so similar in bodily make
but so distinct in language can hardly be met except by supposing
a long period to have elapsed since the country was first inhabited
by the ancestors of peoples whose language has since passed into
so different forms. The original peopling of America might then
well date from the time when there was continuous land between
it and Asia.
It would not follow, however, that between these remote ages
and the time of Columbus no fresh immigrants can have reached
America. We may put out of the question the Scandinavian
sea-rovers who sailed to Greenland about the xoth century. But
at all times communication has been open from east Asia, and
even the South Sea Islands, to the west coast of America. The
importance of this is evident when we consider that late in the
1 9th century Japanese junks still drifted over by the ocean
current to California at the rate of about one a year, often with
some of the crew still alive. Further north, the Aleutian islands
offer a line of easy sea passage, while in north-east Asia, near
Bering's Strait, live Chukchi tribes who carry on intercourse
with the American side. Moreover there are details of Mexican
civilization which are most easily accounted for on the suppo-
sition that they were borrowed from Asia. They do not seem
ancient enough to have to do with a remote Asiatic origin of the
MEXICO
[ANCIENT HISTORY
nations of America, but rather to be results of comparatively
modern intercourse between Asia and America. Hiimboldt
(Vues des Cordilltires , PL xxiii.) compared the Mexican calendar
with that in use in eastern Asia. The Mongols, Tibetans,
Chinese and other neighbouring nations have a cycle or series
of twelve animals, viz. rat, bull, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent,
horse, goat, ape, cock, dog, pig, which may possibly be an imita-
tion of the ordinary Babylonian-Greek zodiac familiar to our-
selves. The Mongolian peoples not only count their lunar
months by these signs, but they reckon the successive days by
them, rat-day, bull-day, tiger-day, &c., and also, by combining
the twelve signs in rotation with the elements, they obtain a
means of marking each year in the sixty-year cycle, as the wood-
rat year, the fire-tiger year, &c. This method is highly artificial,
and the reappearance of its principle in the Mexican and Central
American calendar is suggestive of importation from Asia.
Humboldt also discussed the Mexican doctrine of four ages of
the world belonging to water, earth, air and fire, and ending
respectively by deluge, earthquake, tempest and conflagration.
The resemblance of this to some versions of the Hindu doctrine
of the four ages or yuga is hardly to be accounted for except on
the hypothesis that the Mexican theology contains ideas learnt
from Asiatics. Among Asiatic points of resemblance to which
attention has since been called is the Mexican belief in the nine
stages of heaven and hell, an idea which nothing in nature would
suggest directly to a barbaric people, but which corresponds to
the idea of successive heavens and hells among Brahmans and
Buddhists, who apparently learnt it (in common with our own
ancestors) from the Babylonian-Greek astronomical theory of
successive stages or concentric planetary spheres belonging to
the planets, &c. The Spanish chronicles also give accounts of a
Mexican game called patolli, played at th'e time of the conquest
with coloured stones moved on the squares of a cross-shaped
figure, according to the throws of beans marked on one side; the
descriptions of this rather complicated game correspond closely
with the Hindu backgammon called pachisi (see Tylor in Jour.
Anthrop. Inst., viii. 116).
The native history of Mexico and Central America is entitled
to more respect than the mere recollections of savage tribes.
The Mexican pictures so far approached writing proper as to set
down legibly the names of persons and places and the dates of
events, and at least helped the professional historians to remem-
ber the traditions repeated orally from generation to generation.
Thus actual documents of native Aztec history, or copies of
them, are still open to the study of scholars, while after the
conquest interpretations of these were drawn up in writing by
Spanish-educated Mexicans, and histories founded on them
with the aid of traditional memory were written by Ixtilxochitl
and Tezozomoc. In Central America the rows of complex
hieroglyphs to be seen sculptured on the ruined temples probably
served a similar purpose. The documents written by natives
in later times thus more or less represent real records of the past,
but the task of separating myth from history is of the utmost
difficulty. Among the most curious documents of early America
is the Popol-Vuh or national book of the Quiche kingdom of
Guatemala, a compilation of traditions written down by native
scribes, found and translated by Father Ximenez about 1700,
and published by Scherzer (Vienna, 1857) and Brasseur de Bour-
bourg (Paris, 1861). This book begins with the time when there
was only the heaven with its boundaries towards the four
winds, but as yet there was no body, nothing that clung to any-
thing else, nothing that balanced itself or rubbed together or
made a sound; there was nought below but the calm sea alone
in the silent darkness. Alone were the Creator, the Former,
the Ruler, the Feathered Serpent, they who give being and whose
name is Gucumatz. Then follows the creation, when the crea-
tors said " Earth," and the earth was formed like a cloud or a
fog, and the mountains appeared like lobsters from the water,
cypress and pine covered the hills and valleys, and their forests
were peopled with beasts and birds, but these could not speak
the name of their creators, but could only chatter and croak. So
man was made first of clay, but be was strengthless and senseless
ANCIENT HISTORY]
MEXICO
and melted in the water; then they made a race of wooden
mannikins, but these were useless creatures without heart or
mind, and they were destroyed by a great flood and pitch poured
down on them from heaven, those who were left of them being
turned into the apes still to be seen in the woods. After this
comes the creation of the four men and their wives who are the
ancestors of the Quiches, and the tradition records the migrations
of the nation to Tulan, otherwise called the Seven Caves, and
thence across the sea, whose waters were divided for their passage.
It is worth while to mention these few early incidents of the
national legend of Guatemala, because their Biblical incidents
show how native tradition incorporated matter learnt from
the white men. Moreover, this Central American document,
mythical as it is, has an historical importance from its bringing
in names belonging also to the traditions of Mexico proper.
Thus Gucumatz, " Feathered Serpent " corresponds in name to
the Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl; Tulan and the Seven Caves are
familiar words in the Aztec migration traditions, and there is
even mention of a chief of Toltecat, a name plainly referring
to the famed Toltecs. Thus the legends of the Popol-Vuh
confirm what is learnt from comparing the culture of Central
America and Mexico proper, that, though these districts were
not connected by language, the intercourse between them had
been sufficient to justify the anthropologist in including both
districts in one region. Historical value of the ordinary kind may
be found in the latter part of the Popol- Vuh, which gives names
of chiefs down to the time when they began to bear Spanish
names and the great city of Quiche became the deserted ruin of
Santa Cruz. The Maya district of Yucatan has also some vestiges
of native traditions in the manuscript translated byD. Pio Perez
(in Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Yucatan) and in the remark-
able i6th century Relation de las cosas de Yucatan by Diego de
Landa, published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864). As
in the Guatemala traditions, we hear of ancient migration from
the Mexican legendary region of Tula; and here the leaders are
four famous chiefs or ancestors who bear the Aztec name of the
Tutul-Xiu, which means " Bird-Tree." Unfortunately for the
historical standing of these four ancestors, there are in the Aztec
picture-writings representations of four trees, each with a bird
perched on it, and placed facing the four quarters, which make
it probable that the four Tutul-Xiu of tradition may be only
mythic personifications of the four cardinal points (see Schultz-
Sellack in Zeitschr.f. Ethn., 1879, p. 209). Nevertheless, part of
the later Maya records may be genuine for instance, when they
relate the war about three centuries before the Spanish conquest,
when the king of Chichen-Itza destroyed the great city of Maya-
pan. Though the Central American native kings have too little
interest for traditions of them to be dwelt on here, they bring
into view one important historical point that the ruined cities
of this region are not monuments of a forgotten past, but that
at least some of them belong to history, having been inhabited
up to the conquest, apparently by the very nations who built
them.
Turning now to the native chronicles of the Mexican nations,
these are records going back to the i2th or i3th century, with
some vague but not worthless recollections of national events
from times some centuries earlier. These traditions, in some
measure borne out by linguistic evidence of names, point to the
immigration of detachments of a widespread race speaking a
common language, which is represented by the Aztec, still a
spoken language in Mexico. This language was called nahuall,
and one who spoke it as his native tongue was called nahuatlacatl,
so that modern anthropologists are following native precedent
when they use the term Nahua for the whole series of peoples
now under consideration. Earliest of the Nahua nations, the
Toltecs are traditionally related to have left their northern
home of Huehuetlapallan in the 6th century; and there is other
evidence of the real existence of the nation. Their name Toltecatl
signifies an inhabitant of Tollan (land of reeds), a place which
has a definite geographical site in the present Tulan or Tula,
north of the valley of Anahuac, where a Toltec kingdom seems
to have had its centre. To this nation was due the introduction
of maize and cotton into Mexico, the skilful workmanship in gold
and silver, the art of building on a scale of vastness still witnessed
to by the mound of Cholula, said to be Toltec work, and the
Mexican hieroglyphic writing and calendar. With the Toltecs
is associated the tradition of Quetzalcoatl, a name which presents
itself in Mexican religion as that of a great deity, god of the air,
and in legend as that of a saintly ruler and civilizer. His brown
and beardless worshippers describe him as of another race, a
white man with noble features, long black hair and full beard,
dressed in flowing robes. He came from Tulan or from Yucatan
(for the stories differ widely), and dwelt twenty years among
them, teaching men to follow his austere and virtuous life, to hate
all violence and war, to sacrifice no men or beasts on the altars,
but to give mild offerings of bread and flowers and perfumes,
and to do penance by the votaries drawing blood with thorns
from their own bodies. Legend tells stories of his teaching men
picture-writing and the calendar, and also the artistic work of the
silversmith, for which Cholula was long famed; but at last he
departed, some say towards the unknown land of Tlapallan, but
others to Coatzacoalcos on the Atlantic coast on the confines of
Central America, where native tradition still keeps up the divine
names of Gucumatz among the Quiches and Cukulcan among
the Mayas, these names have the same meaning as Quetzalcoatl
in Aztec, viz. " Feathered Serpent." Native tradition held that
when Quetzalcoatl reached the Atlantic he sent back his com-
panions to tell the Cholulans that in a future age his brethren,
white men and bearded like himself, should land there from the
sea where the sun rises and come to rule the country. That
there is a basis of reality in the Toltec traditions is shown by the
word toltecatl having become among the later Aztecs a substan-
tive signifying an artist or skilled craftsman. It is further
related by the Mexican historians that the Toltec nation all but
perished in the nth century by years of drought, famine and
pestilence, a few only of the survivors remaining in the land,
while the rest migrated into Yucatan and Guatemala. After
the Toltecs came the Chichimecs, whose name, derived from
chid, dog, is applied to many rude tribes; they are said to
have come from Amaquemecan under a king named Xolotl,
names which being Aztec imply that the nation was Nahua; at
any rate they appear afterwards as fusing with more cultured
Nahua nations in the neighbourhood of Tezcuco. Lastly is
recorded the Mexican immigration of the seven nations, Xochi-
milca, Chalca, Tepaneca, Acolhua, Tlahuica, Tlascalteca, Azteca.
This classification of the Nahuatlac tribes has a meaning and
value. It is true that Aztlan, the land whence the Aztecs traced
their name and source, cannot be identified, but the later stages
of the long Aztec migration seem historical, and the map of
Mexico still shows the names of several settlements recorded in
the curious migration map, published by Gemelli Careri (Giro del
mondo, Venice, 1728) and commented on by Humboldt; among
these local names are Tzompanco, " place of skulls," now Zum-
pango in the north of the Mexican valley, and Chapultepec,
" grasshopper hill," now a suburb of the city of Mexico itself,
where the Aztecs are recorded to have celebrated in 1195 the
festival of tying up the " bundle of years'" and beginning a new
cycle.
The Aztecs moving from place to place in Anahuac found little
welcome from the Nahua peoples already settled there. One
of the first clear events of the Aztec arrival is their being made
tributary by the Tepanecs, in whose service they showed their
warlike prowess in the fight near Tepeyacac, where now stands
the famous shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Thus they over-
came the Acolhuas, who had made Tezcuco a centre of prosperity.
By the i3th century the Aztecs by their ferocity had banded
their neighbours together against them; some were driven to
take refuge on the reedy lake shore at Acoculco, while others
were taken as captives into Culhuacan. The king of this district
was Coxcoxtli, whose name has gained an undeserved reputation
even in Europe as " Coxcox, the Mexican Noah," from a scene
in the native picture-writing where his name appears together
with the figure of a man floating in a dug-out tree, which has
been mistaken even by Humboldt for a representation of the
332
MEXICO
[ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
Mexican deluge-myth. Coxcoxtli used the help of the Aztecs
against the Xochimilco people; but his own nation, horrified at
their bloodthirsty sacrifice of prisoners, drove them out to the
islands and swamps of the great salt lagoon, where they are said
to have taken to making their chinampas or floating gardens of
mud heaped on rafts of reeds and brush, which in later times
were so remarkable a feature of Mexico. As one of the Aztec
chiefs at the time of the founding of their city was called Tenoch,
it is likely that from him was derived the name Tenochtitlan or
" Stone-cactus place." Written as this name is in pictures or
rebus, it probably suggested the invention of the well-known
legend of a prophecy that the war-god's temple should be built
where a prickly pear was found growing on a rock, and perched
on it an eagle holding a serpent; this legend is still commemorated
on the coins of Mexico. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, founded about
1325, for many years afterwards probably remained a cluster of
huts, and the higher civilization of the country was still to be
found, especially among the Acolhuas in Tezcuco. The wars
of this nation with the Tepanecs, which went on into the isth
century, were merely destructive, but larger effects arose from
the expeditions under the Culhua king Acamapichtli, where the
Aztec warriors were prominent, and which extended far outside
the valley of Anahuac. Especially a foray southward to Quauh-
nahuac, now Cuernavaca, on the watershed between the Atlantic
and Pacific, brought goldsmiths and other craftsmen to Tenoch-
titlan, which now began to rise in arts, the Aztecs laying aside
their rude garments of aloe-fibre for more costly clothing, and
going out as traders for foreign merchandise. In the i4th cen-
tury the last great national struggle took place. The Acolhuas
had at first the advantage, but Ixtlilxochitl did not follow up the
beaten Aztecs but allowed them to make peace, whereupon,
under professions of submission, they fell upon and sacked the
city of Tezcuco. The next king of Tezcuco, Nezahualcoyotl,
turned the course of war, when Azcapuzalco, the Tepanec
stronghold, was taken and the inhabitants sold as slaves by the
conquering Acolhuas and Aztecs; the place thus degraded
became afterwards the great slave-market of Mexico. In this
war we first meet with the Aztec name Moteuczoma, afterwards
so famous in its Spanish form Montezuma. About 1430 took
place the triple alliance of the Acolhua, Aztec and Tepanec
kings, whose capitals were Tezcuco, Mexico and Tlacopan, the
latter standing much below the other two. In fact the rest of
native history may be fairly called the Aztec period, notwith-
standing the magnificence and culture which make Tezcuco
celebrated under Nezahualcoyotl and his son Nezahualpilli.
When the first Moteuczoma was crowned king of the Aztecs,
the Mexican sway extended far beyond the valley plateau of
its origin, and the gods of conquered nations around had their
shrines set up in Tenochtitlan in manifest inferiority to the
temple of Huitzilopochtli, the war-god of the Aztec conquerors.
The rich region of Quauhnahuac became tributary; the Miztec
country was invaded southward to the Pacific, and the Xicalanca
region to what is now Vera Cruz. It was not merely for conquest
and tribute that the fierce Mexicans ravaged the neighbour-
lands, but they had a stronger motive than either in the desire
to obtain multitudes of prisoners whose hearts were to be torn
out by the sacrificing priests to propitiate a pantheon of gods who
well personified their bloodthirsty worshippers. (E. B. T.)
Ancient Civilization.
While the prairie tribes of America lived under the loose sway ol
chiefs and councils of old men, the settled nations of Mexico hac
Govern- attained to a highly organized government. This may
meat ' be seen by the elaborate balance of power maintained
in the federation of Mexico, Tezcuco and Tlacopan
where each king was absolute in his own country, but in war or other
public interests they acted jointly, with powers in something like
the proportion in which they divided conquered lands and spoil
which was two-fifths each to Mexico and Tezcuco and one-fifth to
Tlacopan. The successor of the Aztec king was customarily a
chosen brother or nephew, the eldest having the first claim unless
set aside as incompetent; this mode of succession, which has been
looked on as an elaborate device for securing practical advantages
seems rather to have arisen out of the law of choice among the
descendants of the female line, found in American tribes of much
lower culture. Something like this appears in the succession o
cines of Tezcuco and Tlacopan, which went to sons by the principal
ivife, who was usually of the Aztec royal family. The Mexican
hro'nicles, however, show instances of the king's son succeeding or of
jowerful chiefs being elected to the kingship. The term republic
s sometimes used to describe the little state of Tlascala, but this
was in fact a federation of four chiefs, with an assembly of nobles,
n the Zapotec district the Wiyatao or high-priest of Zopaa was a
livine ruler before whom all prostrated themselves with faces to
he ground; he was even too sacred to allow his foot to touch the
;arth, and was only seen carried in a litter.
The accounts of the palaces of the native kings must be taken
with some reserve, from the tendency to use descriptive terms not
actually untrue, but which convey erroneous ideas taken . .
rom European architecture; thus what are called
columns of porphyry and jasper supporting marble balconies
might perhaps be better described as piers carrying slabs, while
he apartments and terraces must have been more remarkable
or number and extent than architectural grandeur, being but low
one-storied buildings. The principal palace of Mexico consisted
of hundreds of rooms ranged round three open squares, of such
extent that one of the companions of Cortes records having four times
wandered about till he was tired, without seeing the whole. Not
ess remarkable was the palace of Tezcuco, surrounded with, its
proves and pleasure-gardens; and, though now hardly anything
"emains of the buildings above ground, the neighbouring hill of
Tezcotzinco still has its stone steps and terraces; and the immense
embankment carrying the aqueduct-channel of hewn stone which
supplied water to basins cut in the solid rock still remains to prove
:hat the chroniclers' descriptions, if highly coloured, were at any
rate genuine. Till the i8th century the gigantic figures of Axayacatl
and his son Montezuma were to be seen carved in the porphyry hill
of Chapultepec, but these as well as the hanging gardens have been
destroyed, and only the groves of ahuehuete (cypress) remain of the
ancient beauties of the place. That in the palace gardens flowers
rom the tierra caliente were transplanted, and water-fowl bred
near fresh and salt pools fit for each kind, that all kinds of birds and
seasts were kept in well-appointed zoological gardens, where there
were homes even for alligators and snakes all this testifies to a
cultivation of natural history which was really beyond the European
evel of the time. From the palaces and retinues of thousands of
servants attached to the royal service may be inferred at once the
despotic power of the Mexican rulers and the heavy taxation of the
people ; in fact some of the most remarkable of the picture-writings
ire tribute-rolls enumerating by hundreds and thousands the
mantles, ocelot-skins, bags of gold-dust, bronze hatchets, loads of
chocolate, &c., furnished periodically by the towns. Below the king
was a numerous and powerful class of nobles, the highest of whom
(tlatoani) were great vassals owing little more than homage and
tribute to their feudal lord, while the natural result of the unruliness
of the noble class was that the king to keep them in check increased
their numbers, brought them to the capital as councillors, and
balanced their influence by military and household officers, and by
rich and powerful merchant class. The nobles not only had
privileges of rank and dignity, but substantial power over the
plebeian or peasant class (macehualli). The greatest estates be-
longed to the king, or had been granted to military chiefs whose sons
succeeded them, or were the endowments of temples, but the calpulli
or village community still survived, and each freeman of the tribe
held and tilled his portion of the common lands. Below the freemen
were the slaves, who were war-captives, persons enslaved for punish-
ment, or children sold by their parents. Prisoners of war were
mostly doomed to sacrifice, but other classes of slaves were mildly
treated, retaining civil rights, and their children were born free.
The superior courts of law formed part of the palace, and there
were tribunals in the principal cities, over each of which presided a
supreme judge or cihuacoatl, who was irremovable, and justice.
whose criminal decisions not even the king might reverse ;
he appointed the lower judges and heard appeals from them; it is
doubtful whether he judged in civil cases, but both kinds of suits
were heard in the court below, by the tlacatecatl and his two associ-
ates, below whom were the ward-magistrates. Lands were set apart
for the maintenance of the judges, and indeed nothing gives a higher
idea of the elaborate civilization of Mexico than this judicial system,
which culminated in a general court and council of state presided
over by the king. The laws and records of suits were set down in
picture-writings, of which some are still to be seen ; sentence of death
was recorded by drawing a line with an arrow across the portrait
of the condemned, and the chronicles describe the barbaric solemnity
with which the king passed sentence sitting on a golden and jewelled
throne in the divine tribunal, with one hand on an ornamented skull
and the golden arrow in the other. Among the resemblances to
old-world law was the use of a judicial oath, the witness touching
the ground with his finger and putting it to his lips, thus swearing
by Mother Earth. The criminal laws were of extreme severity, even
petty theft being punished by the thief being enslaved to the person
he had robbed, while to steal a tobacco pouch or twenty ears of corn
was death ; he who pilfered in the market was then and there beaten
to death, and he who insulted Xipe, the god of the gold- and silver-
smiths, by stealing his precious metal, was skinned alive and sacrificed
to the offended deity. Though aloe-beer or " pulque " was allowed
ANCIENT CIVILIZATION]
MEXICO
333
for feasts and to invalids in moderation, and old people over seventy
seem to be represented in one of the picture-writings as having liberty
of drunkenness, young men found drunk were clubbed to death
and young women stoned. For such offences as witchcraft, fraud,
removing landmarks, and adultery the criminal had his heart cut
out on the altar, or his head crushed between two stones, while even
lesser punishments were harsh, such as that of slanderers, whose
hair was singed with a pine-torch to the scalp.
Based on conquest as the Aztec kingdom was, and with the most
bloodthirsty religion the world ever saw, the nation was, above all,
.., ? fighting community. To be a tried soldier was the road
to honour and office, and the king could not be enthroned
till he had with his own hand taken captives to be butchered
on the war-god's altar at his coronation. The common soldiers
were promoted for acts of daring, and the children of chiefs were
regularly trained to war, and initiated by being sent into battle with
veterans, with whose aid the youth took his first prisoner, but his
future rise depended on how many captives he took unaided in fight
with warlike enemies; by such feats he gained the dignity of wearing
coloured blankets, tassels and lip-jewels, and reached such military
titles as that of " guiding eagle." The Mexican military costumes
are to be seen in the picture-writings, where the military orders of
princes, eagles and tigers are known by their braided hair, eagles'
beaks and spotted armour. The common soldiers went into battle
brilliant in savage war-paint, but those of higher rank had helmets
like birds and beasts of prey, armour of gold and silver, wooden
greaves, and especially the ichcapilli, the quilted cotton tunic two
fingers thick, so serviceable as a protection from arrows that the
Spanish invaders were glad to adopt it. The archers shot well and
with strong bows, though their arrows were generally tipped only
with stone or bone; their shields or targets, mostly round, were of
ordinary barbaric forms; the spears or javelins had heads of obsidian
or bronze, and were sometimes hurled with a spear-thrower or titlutl,
of which pictures and specimens still exist, showing it to be similar
in principle to those used by the Australians and Eskimo. The most
characteristic weapon of the Mexicans was the maquahuitl or " hand-
wood," a club set with two rows of large sharp obsidian flakes,
a well-directed blow with which would cut down man or horse.
These two last-mentioned weapons have the look of highly developed
savage forms, while on the other hand the military organization was
in some respects equal to that of an Asiatic nation, with its regular
companies commanded each by its captain and provided with its
standard. The armies were very large, an expedition often consist-
ing of several divisions, each numbering eight thousand men; but
the tactics of the commanders were quite rudimentary, consisting
merely of attack by arrows and javelins at a distance, gradually
closing into a hand-to-hand fight with clubs and spears, with an
occasional feigned retreat to draw the enemy into an ambuscade.
Fortification was well understood, as may still be seen in the remains
of walled and escarped strongholds on hills and in steep ravines, while
lagoon-cities like Mexico had the water approaches defended by
fleets of boats and the causeways protected by towers and ditches;
even after the town was entered, the pyramid-temples with their
surrounding walls were forts capable of stubborn resistance. It was
held unrighteous to invade another nation without a solemn embassy
to warn their chiefs of the miseries to which they exposed themselves
by refusing the submission demanded; and this again was followed
by a declaration of war, but in Mexico this degenerated into a cere-
monial farce, where tribute was claimed or an Aztec god was offered to
be worshipped in order to pick a quarrel as a pretext for an invasion
already planned to satisfy the soldiers with lands and plunder, and
to meet the priests' incessant demands for more human sacrifices.
Among the accounts of the Mexican religion are some passages
referring to the belief in a supreme deity. The word teotl, god, has
Relifloa been thought in some cases to bear this signification,
but its meaning is that of deity in general, and it is
applied not only to the sun-god but to very inferior gods. It is
related that Nezahualcoyotl, the poet-king of Tezcuco, built a nine-
storied temple with a starry roof above, in honour of the invisible
deity called Tloquenahuaque, " he who is all in himself," or Ipal-
nemoani, " he by whom we live," who had no image, and was pro-
pitiated, not by bloody sacrifices, but by incense and flowers. These
divinities, however, seem to have had little or no place in the popular
faith, which was occupied by polytheistic gods of the ordinary
barbaric type. Tezcatlipoca was held to be the highest of these,
and at the festival of all the gods his footsteps were expected to
appear in the flour strewn to receive this sign of their coming. He
was plainly an ancient deity of the race, for attributes of many kinds
are crowded together in him. Between him and Quetzalcoatl, the
ancient deity of Cholula, there had been old rivalry. As is related in
the legends, Quetzalcoatl came into the land to teach men to till the
soil, to work metals and to rule a well-ordered state; the two gods
played their famous match at the ball-game, and Tezcatlipoca per-
suaded the weary Quetzalcoatl to drink the magic pulque that sent
him roaming to the distant ocean, where he embarked in his boat
and disappeared from among men. 1 These deities are not easily
1 One of the most important sources for the ancient Mexican
traditions and myths is the so-called " Codex Chimalpopoca," a
manuscript in the Mexican language discovered by the Abb6
analysed, but on the other hand Tonatiuh and Metztli, the sun and
moon, stand out distinctly as nature gods, and the traveller still sees
in the huge adobe pyramids of Teotihuacan, with their sides oriented
to the four quarters, an evidence of the importance of their worship.
The war-god Huitzilopochtli was the real head of the Aztec pantheon ;
his idol remains in Mexico, a huge block of basalt on which is sculp-
tured on the one side his hideous personage, adorned with the
humming-bird feathers on the left hand which signify his name, while
the not less frightful war-goddess Teoyaomiqui, or " divine war-
death," occupies the other side. Centeotl, the goddess of the all-
nourishing maize, was patroness of the earth and mother of the gods,
while Mictlanteuctli, lord of dead-land, ruled over the departed in
the dim under-world. There were numbers of lesser deities, such as
Tlazolteotl, goddess of pleasure, worshipped by courtesans, Tezcat-
zoncatl, god of strong drink, whose garment in grim irony clothed
the drunkard's corpse, and Xipe, patron of the goldsmiths. Below
these were the nature-spirits of hills and groves, whose shrines were
built by the roadside. The temples were called teocalli or " god's
house/ and rivalled in size as they resembled in form the temples
of ancient Babylon. They were pyramids on a square or oblong
base, rising in successive terraces to a small summit-platform. The
great teocalli of Huitzilopochtli in the city of Mexico stoed in an
immense square, whence radiated the four principal thoroughfares,
its courtyard being enclosed by a square, of which the stone wall,
called the coatepantli or serpent-wall from its sculptured serpents,
measured nearly a quarter of a mile on each side. In the centre,
the oblong pyramid of rubble cased with hewn stone and cemented
375 X 300 ft. at the base, and rising steeply in five terraces to the
height of 86 ft., showed conspicuously to the city the long proces-
sions of priests and victims winding along the terraces and up to
corner flights of steps. On the paved platform were three-storey
tower temples in whose ground-floor stood the stone images and
altars, and .before that of the war-god the green stone of sacrifice,
humped so as to bend upward the body of the victim that the priest
might more easily slash open the breast with his obsidian knife, tear
out the heart and hold it up before the god, while the captor and his
friends were waiting below for the carcase to be tumbled down the
steps for them to carry home to be cooked for the feast of victory.
Before the shrines reeking with the stench of slaughter the eternal
fires were kept burning, and on the platform stood the huge drum,
covered with snakes' skin, whose fearful sound was heard For miles.
From the terrace could be seen seventy or more other temples within
the enclosure, with their images and blazing fires, and the tzompantli
or " skull-place," where the skulls of victims by tens of thousands
were skewered on cross-sticks or built into towers. There also might
be seen the flat circular temalacatl or " spindle-stone," where captives
armed with wooden weapons were allowed the mockery of a gladia-
torial fight against well-armed champions. The great pyramid of
Cholula with its hemispherical temple of Quetzalcoatl at the top,
now an almost shapeless hill surmounted by a church, was about
thrice as long and twice as high as the teocalli of Mexico. A large
fraction of the Mexican population were set apart as priests or
attendants to the services of the gods. The rites performed were
such as are found elsewhere prayer, sacrifice, processions, dances,
Brasseur de Bourbourg. It is the interpretation of different mytho-
logical and historical Mexican picture-writings, composed by
an anonymous author some time after the conquest and copied by
Fernando de Alva (Ixtlilxochitl, 1568-1648). It belonged to the
priceless collection of Mexican documents brought together in the
i8th century by Lorenzo Boturini (see his " Catalogo del Museo
historico indiano," appendix of his Idea de una nueva historia general
de la America septentrional, Madrid, 1746, viii., No. 13). It is
named there Historia de los reynos de Colhuacan y de Mexico. Other
copies of the same manuscript, made by Leon y Gama, Jps6 Pichardo,
Aubin and Brasseur, exist in the Paris National Library in the Aubin-
Goupil collection. Brasseur died before he could realize his plan
to publish the whole MS. in Nahuatl with a translation. Some
extracts are to be found in his Histoire des nations civilisees du
Mexique, and in Leon y Gama, Dos Piedras . . . , ed. Bustamente
(Mexico, 1832). Larger fragments of the Ixtlilxochitl copy were
published in the Anales del museo nacional de Mexico, torn, iii.,
appx. pp. 770; but in this edition the Mexican text is very
corrupt, and the two Spanish translations are by no means exact.
The Paris MSS. and the Ixtlilxochitl copy were carefully collated
by Dr Walter Lehmann (see Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1906, pp.
752760; Journal de la Societe des Americanistes de Paris, nouv. ser.
vol. iii. No. 2; Dr E. Seler, Verhandlungen des XVI. Internationalen
Amerikanisten-Kongresses, Vienna, 1900, II., pp. 129-150). The
precious Ixtlilxochitl copy was found by Lehmann in the library
of the National Museum of Mexico, and arrangements were made
for the publication of the whole MS. by him in conjunction with
Professor E. Seler. Another very important MS. was discovered
by Dr Lehmann, in Guatemala. It is the MS. of Father Francisco
Ximenez, Histeria de la Provincia de San Vicente de Chiapa y de
Guatemala, in three big volumes in folio, which contain the famous
Spanish translation of the Quich6 myths or the " Popol-Vuh."
The MS. was bought at the expense of the duke of Loubat, who
decided to present it, after the death of Dr Lehmann, to the Royal
Library at Berlin.
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MEXICO
[ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
chants, fasting and other austerities, but there are some peculiarities
of detail. Prayers and other formulas have been copied down by
Sahagun and other chroniclers, of endless prolixity, but not without
occasional touches of pathos. These prayers seem essentially
genuine; indeed there was no European model from which they
could have been imitated ; but at the same time it must be remem-
bered that they come down in Spanish writing, and not untouched
by Spanish influence, as in one passage where there is a mention
of sheep, an animal unknown to the Mexicans. As to sacrifice,
maize and other vegetables were offered, and occasionally rabbits,
quails, &c., but, in the absence of cattle, human sacrifice was the
chief rite, and cannibalism prevailed at the feasts. Incense was
constantly used, especially the copalli (copal) well known to us for
varnish; little terra-cotta censers are among the commonest of
Mexican antiquities. Long and severe religious fasts were customary
at special seasons, and drawing blood from the arms, legs and body,
by thrusting in aloe-thorns, and passing sharp sticks through the
tongue, was an habitual act of devotion recalling the similar practices
of devotees in India. The calendar of religious festivals for the
Mexican year has been preserved. Each 2O-day period had one or
more such celebrations. In the month of the " diminishing of
waters " the rain gods or Tlalocs were propitiated by a procession
of priests with music of flutes and trumpets carrying on plumed
litters infants with painted faces, in gay clothing with coloured
paper wings, to be sacrificed on the mountains or in a whirlpool in
the lake. It is said that the people wept as they passed by; but if
so this may have been a customary formality, for the religion of
these nations must have quenched all human sympathy. In the
next it
called
aftert ,
and perform dances and sham fights. The succeeding festival of
Camaxtli was marked by a severe fast of the priests, after which
stone knives were prepared with which a hole was cut through the
tongue of each, and numbers of sticks passed through. For the
great festival of Tezcatlipoca, the handsomest and noblest of the
captives of the year had been chosen as the incarnate representative
of the god, and paraded the streets for public adoration dressed in
an embroidered mantle with feathers and garlands on his head and
a retinue like a king; for the last month they married him to four
girls representing four goddesses; on the last day wives and pages
escorted him to the little temple of Tlacochcalco, where he mounted
the stairs, breaking an earthenware flute against each step; this was
a symbolic farewell to the joys of the world, for as he reached the
top he was seized by the priests, his heart torn out and held up to
the sun, his head spitted on the tzompantli, and his body eaten as
sacred food, the people drawing from his fate the moral lesson that
riches and pleasure may turn into poverty and sorrow. The manner
of the victim's death in these festivals afforded scope for variety ;
they dressed them and made them dance in character, threw them
into the fire for the fire-god, or crushed them between two balanced
stones at the harvest-festival. The ordinary pleasures of festivals
were mingled with all this, such as dances in beast-masks, sham
fights and children's games, but the type of a religious function was
a sickening butchery followed by a cannibal feast.
The Mexican priesthood were much concerned with the art of
picture-writing, which they used systematically as a means of record-
ing religious festivals and legends, as well as keeping
calendars of years and recording the historical events
which occurred in them. Facsimiles of several of these
interesting documents, with their translations, may be seen in
Kingsborough ; splendid reproductions of the beautiful Mexican
and Mixteco-Zapotecan codices have also been published at the
expense of the duke of Loubat and by the " Junta Colombina "
(Mexico, 1892). Gods are represented with their appropriate
attributes the fire-god hurling his spear, the moon-goddess with
a shell, &c. ; the scenes of human life are pictures of warriors fighting
with club and spear, men paddling in canoes, women spinning ana
weaving, &c. An important step towards phonetic writing appears
in the picture-names of places and persons. The simplest forms
of these depict the objects signified by the name, as where Chapul-
iepec or " grasshopper-hill " is represented by a grasshopper on a
hill, or_a stone with a cactus on it stands for Tenoch or " stone-
cactus," the founder of Tenochtitlan. The system had, however,
risen a stage beyond this when objects were drawn to represent, not
themselves, but the syllables forming their names, as where a trap, an
eagle, a pricker, and a hand are put together not to represent these
objects, but in order that the syllables of their names mo-quauh-
zo-ma should spell the word Moquauhzoma (see Aubin's intro-
duction to Brasseur, Hist, du Mexique, i. 68.). The analogy of this
to the manner in which the Egyptian hieroglyphs passed into
phonetic signs is remarkable, and writing might have been invented
anew in Mexico had it not been for the Spanish conquest. The
Aztec numerals, which were vigesimal or reckoned by scores, were
depicted by dots or circles up to 20, which was represented by a flag,
400 (a score of scores) by a feather, and 8000 (a score of scores of
scores) by a purse ; but for convenience these symbols might be halved
and quartered, so that 534 might be shown by one feather, one
quarter of a feather, one flag, one-half of a flag, and four dots. The
Mexican calendar depended on the combination of numbers with
Plcture-
writlag.
picture-signs, of which the four principal were the rabbit, reed, flint,
house tochtli, acatl, tecpa.il, calli. The cycle of 52 years was reckoned
by combining these signs in rotation with numbers up to 13, thus:
i rabbit, 2 reed, 3 flint, 4 house, 5 rabbit, 6 reed, &c. By accident
this calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards
laid out in rotation of the four suits, as, ace of hearts, 2 of spades,
3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of hearts, 6 of spades, &c. In the
Mexican ritual calendar of the days of the year, the same method
is carried further, the series of twenty day-signs being combined
in rotation with numbers up to 13'; as this cycle of days only reaches
260, a series of nine other signs are affixed in addition, to make up
the 365-day year. It is plain that this rotation of signs served no
useful purpose whatever, being less convenient than ordinary count-
ing such as the Mexicans employed in their other calendar already
mentioned, where the 2O-day periods had each a name like pur
months, and their days had signs in regular order. Its historical
interest depends on its resemblance to the calendar-system of central
and eastern Asia, where among Mongols, Tibetans, Chinese, &c.,
series of signs are thus combined to reckon years, months and days;
for instance, the Mongol cycle of 60 years is recorded by the zodiac
or series of 12 signs mouse, bull, tiger, &c., combined in rotation
with the five male and female elements fire, earth, iron, water,
wood; as " male-fire-bull " year, &c.^ This comparison is worked
out in Humboldt's Vues des Cordilleres, as evidence of Mexican
civilization being borrowed from Asia. Naturally the Mexican
calendar-system Tent itself to magic in the same way as the similar
zodiac-signs of the Old World, each person's fate being affected by
the qualities of the signs he was born under, and the astrologer-
priests being called in to advise on every event of life. Of all
Mexican festivals the most solemn was that of the xiuhmolpilli, or
" year-binding," when the 52-year cycle or bundle of years came to
an end. It was believed that the destruction of the world, which
after the Hindu manner the Mexicans held to have already taken
place three or four times, would happen again at the end of a cycle.
As the time drew near, the anxious population cleansed their houses
and put out all fire, and on the last day after sunset the priests,
dressed in the garb of gods, set out in procession for the hill of
Huixachtla, there to watch for the approach of the Pleiades to the
zenith, which gave the auspicious signal for the lighting of the new
fire. The finest of the captives was thrown down and fire kindled
on his breast by the wooden drill of the priest; then the victim's
heart was torn out, and his body flung on the pile kindled with the
new flame. The people watching from their flat housetops all the
country round saw with joy the flame on the sacred hill, and hailed
it with a thank-offering of drops of blood drawn from their ears
with sharp stone-flakes. Swift runners carried burning brands to
re-kindle the fires of the land, the sacred fire on the teocalli of the
war-god blazed up again, and the people began with feasting and
rejoicing the new cycle.
Mexican education, at any rate that of the upper class, was a
systematic discipline much under the control of religion, which here
presents itself under a more favourable light. After
the birth of a child, the tonalpouhqui or " sun-calculator "
drew its horoscope from the signs it was born under, and fixed
the time for its solemn lustration or baptism, performed by the
nurse with appropriate prayers to the gods, when a toy shield and
bow were provided if it was a boy, or a toy spindle and distaff
if it was a girl, and the child received its name. An interesting
picture-writing, to be seen in Kingsboroujrh, shows the details of
the boy's and girl's education, from the early time when three small
circles over the child show it to be three years old, and a drawing
of half a tortilla or corn-cake shows its allowance for each meal ; as
they grow older the lads are seen beginning to carry burdens,
paddle the canoe and fish, while the girls learn to spin and weave,
grind maize, and cook good conduct being enforced by punish-
ments of increasing severity, up to pricking their bodies with aloe-
thorns and holding their faces over burning chillies. The schools
were extensive buildings attached to the temples, where from an
early age boys and girls were taught by the priests to sweep the
sanctuaries and keep up the sacred fires, to fast at proper seasons
and draw blood for penance, and where they received moral teaching
in long and verbose formulas. Those fit for a soldier's life were
trained to the use of weapons and sent early to learn the hardships
of war; children of craftsmen were usually taught by their fathers
to follow their trade; and for the children of nobles there was
elaborate instruction in history, picture-writing, astrology, religious
doctrines and laws. Marriages depended much, as they
do still in the East, on comparison of the horoscopes of the
pair to ascertain if their birth-signs were compatible. Old women
were employed as go-betweens, and the marriage ceremony was
conducted by a priest who after moral exhortations united the young
couple by tying their garments together in a knot, after which they
walked seven times round the fire, casting incense into it; after the
performance of the marriage ceremony, the pair entered together
on a four days' fast and penance before the marriage was completed.
The funeral rites of the Mexicans are best seen in the _ .
ceremonies at the death of a king. The corpse laid out
in state was provided by the priest with a jug of water for his journey,
and with bunches of cut papers to pass him safely through each
danger of the road the place where the two mountains strike
ANCIENT CIVILIZATION]
MEXICO
335
together, the road guarded by the great snake and the great alligator,
the eight deserts and the eight hills; they gave him garments to
protect him from the cutting wind, and buried a little dog by his side
to carry him across the nine waters. Then the royal body was
invested in the mantles of his patron-gods, especially that of the
war-god, for Mexican kings were warriors; on his face was placed
a mask of turquoise mosaic, and a green chalchihuite-stone as a
heart between his lips. In older times the dead king was buried
on a throne with his property and dead attendants round him. But
after cremation came in a mourning procession of servants and chiefs
carrying the body to the funeral pyre to be burnt by the demon-
dressed priests, after which the crowd of wives and slaves were
exhorted to serve their lord faithfully in the next world, were
sacrificed and their bodies burnt. Common people would not thus
be provided with a ghostly retinue, but their simpler funeral cere-
monies were as far as they went similar to those of their monarch.
The staple food of the Mexicans before the conquest has continued
with comparatively little change among the native race, and has
ArrlcuH re even been adopted by those of European blood. Maize
df d or ' n< ^' an corn wa , s cultivated on patches of ground
where, as in the Hindu j&m, the trees and bushes were
burnt and the seed planted in the soil manured by the ashes. A
sharp-pointed planting stick, a wooden shovel, and a bronze-bladed
hoe called a coatl were the simple implements. The Mexicans
understood digging channels for irrigation, especially for the cultiva-
tion of the cacahuatl, from which they taught the Europeans to
prepare the beverage chocollatl; these native names passed into
English as the words cacao, or coco and chocolate. Other veget-
ables adopted from Mexico are the tomato (tomatl) and the chilli,
used as flavouring to native dishes. The maize was ground with a
stone roller on the grinding stone or metlatl, still known over Spanish
America as the metate, and the meal baked into thin oval cakes called
by Aztecs tlaxcalli, and by Spaniards tortilla, which resemble the
chapati of India and the oatcake of Scotland. The Mexicans were
also skilful makers of earthen pots, in which were cooked the native
beans called by the Spanish frijdes, and the various savoury stews
still in vogue. The juice extracted by tapping the great aloe
before flowering was fermented into an intoxicating drink about the
strength of beer, octli, by the Spaniards called pulque. Tobacco,
smoked in leaves or cane-pipes or taken as snuff, was in use,
ft M ~* especially at feasts. In old times Mexican clothing
'"^i was of skins of woven aloe and palm fibre, but at the
time of the conquest cotton was largely cultivated in
the hot lands, spun with a spindle, and woven in a rudimentary
loom without a shuttle into the mantles and breech-cloths of the
men and the chemises and skirts of the women, garments often of
fine texture and embroidered in colours. Ornaments of gold and
silver, and jewels of polished quartz and green chalchihuite were
worn not only the ears and nose but the lips being pierced for
M t I rk ornamer >ts. The artificers in gold and silver melted
the metals by means of a reed-blowpipe and cast them
solid or hollow, and were also skilled in hammered work and
chasing, as some fine specimens remain to show, though the famous
animals modelled with gold and silver, fur, feathers and scales
have disappeared. Iron was not known, but copper and tin ores
were mined, and the metals combined into bronze of much the same
alloy as in the Old World, of which hatchet blades and other instru-
ments were made, though their use had not superseded that of
obsidian and other sharp stone flakes for cutting, shaving, &c.
Metals had passed into a currency for trading purposes, especially
quills of gold-dust and T-shaped pieces of copper, while coco-beans
furnished small change. The vast size of the market-squares with
their surrounding porticos, and the importance of the caravans of
merchants who traded with other nations, show that mercantile
had risen into some proportion to military interests. _ Nor was the
wealth and luxury of Mexico and surrounding regions without a corre-
. . spending development of art. The stone sculptures
p" f such as that remaining of Xochicalco, which is figured
me ' by Humboldt, as well as the ornamented woodwork,
feather-mats, and vases, are not without artistic merit. The often-
cited poems attributed to Nezahualcoyotl may not be quite genuine,
but at any rate poetry had risen above the barbaric level, while the
mention of ballads among the people, court odes, and the chants of
temple choirs would indicate a vocal cultivation above that of the
instrumental music of drums and horns, pipes and whistles, the
latter often of pottery. Solemn and gay dances were frequent, and
a sport called the bird-dance excited the admiration of foreigners
for the skill and daring with which groups of performers dressed as
birds let themselves down by ropes wound round the top of a high
mast, so as to fly whirled in circles far above the ground. The ball-
game of the Mexicans, called tiachtli, was, like tennis, the pastime
of princes and nobles; special courts were built for it, and the ball
of india-rubber (perhaps the first object in which Europeans became
acquainted with this valuable material) Blight not be touched by
the hands, but was driven against the walls by blows of the knee or
elbow, shoulder or buttock. The favourite game of patolli has been
already mentioned for its similarity to the pachisi of modern India.
The accounts given by Spanish writers of the Central Americans
in their state after the Spanish conquest are very scanty in com-
parison with the voluminous descriptions of Aztec life. They
bring out perfectly, however, the fact of close connexion between
the two civilizations. Some Central-American peoples Ctntral-
were actually Mexican in their language and culture, American
especially the Pipits and a large part of the population
of Nicaragua. The investigations made by Dr Walter
Lehmann in Central America (1907-1909), prove that these Mexican
elements were extended through Guatemala, Salvador, a small part of
Nicaragua (the territory of the Nicaraos) and on several places in the
peninsula of Nicoya (Costa Rica) amongst the autochthonous Choro-
tega or Mangue. It is an error of the Spanish authorities to pretend
that the Pipil civilization in Guatemala and Salvador is not older
than the time of King Ahuitzotl (c. 1482-1486). The language
spoken by the Pipils of Salvador (Balsam Coast) is a very old dialect
of the Mexican language of the highland of Mexico. It has preserved
in the conjugation and in the formation of the plural older forms
than the classical Nahuatl itself. The separation of the Pipils from
the chief tribes of the Nahuatl branch happened centuries before
the conquest, and they developed a singular and characteristic
civilization, which can be seen in the wonderful stone-reliefs and
sculptures of Sta Lucia de Cozumalhuapa on the Pacific coast of
Guatemala.
Dr Lehmann's archaeological and linguistic researches, especially
in Salvador and Nicaragua, also enabled him to prove another very
important fact, viz. that these Pipils, who may be descendants from
the peoples of_the Mexican Plateau, migrated into territories pre-
viously occupied by an older race of Mayan origin. The archaeo-
logical and linguistic evidence proves also that a great part of
Salvador and Honduras was once occupied by peoples of the Maya
race Pokomam, Chord and perhaps other unknown tribes. They
left typical Mayan ruins in Honduras (Tenampua) and in Salvador
(Opico near Tehuacan, Quelepa near San Miguel), which seem,
however, to be destitute of Mayan hieroglyphic inscriptions. The
easternmost limit of prehistoric Mayan civilization, on the Pacific
coast of Central America, is Fonseca Bay, with the island of Zacate
Grande.
It is noteworthy that archaeological objects of the type character-
istic of northern Honduras (Ulloa Valley) have been found on the
Pacific coast of Salvador. A strange stone sculpture of the so-called
Chac-Mol type, known before only from the country of the Tarascs,
from Tlaxcala and Chichen Itza, was discovered in Salvador
(Ahuachapan).
In the nearly unexplored central part of Nicaragua Dr Lehmann
found fragments of painted polychrome clay pottery similar to
objects known from the Ulloa Valley (Honduras) amongst other
ceramic pieces which seem to have been left by the ancestors of the
Sumo Indians, now extinct in that territory. It is possible that
these remains of Mayan pottery came into central Nicaragua as
articles of commerce.
It is significant that Mayan civilization cannot be traced in any
other part of Nicaragua or Costa Rica.
The above-mentioned prehistoric Mayan peoples lived in contact
with " barbarous " nations and with another little-known civilized
race. The barbarians belonged to the great family of the Sumo-
Misquito Indians, the civilized race was that of the Chorotega or
Mangue (Dirian, Orotinan, &c.). The Sumo-Misquito Indians
occupied the Atlantic coast and the interior of Nicaragua and
Honduras, where they still live in small tribes ; a dialect of the hitherto
unknown Sumo languages is the Matagalpan, now extinct in Nicar-
agua, and nearly identical with the Matagalpan is the language spoken
by the Indians of Cacaopera in Salvador (Ultra-Lempa territory).
There is no doubt that, at the time of the Pipil invasion, tribes of
the Sumo-Misquito family were the immediate neighbours of the
Pipils towards the east and north. This fact is proved by the names
of some places in Salvador, e.g. Santiago Nonohualco, San Juan
Nonohualco and San Pedro Nonohualco. The word Nonohualco
signifies in the Mexican language a place where a language changes,
where another idiom begins. To the east of the three places whose
names are compounded with " Nonohualco," must have dwelt, in
the time of the Pipil Indians, the Nonoualca, called also by Mexican
tribes Chontales or Popoloca. The western neighbours of the Sumo
Indians were and are (though few still survive) the Lenca Indians,
who formerly occupied large parts of Honduras. A linguistic rela-
tionship can be established between all the Indian languages spoken
on the Atlantic coast and in the interior of Nicaragua and Honduras.
Several tribes, such as the Paya (or Poya) and the Jicaques, form
together with the Lenca, Sumo (Matagalpa, Tauakhca and Ulua)
and Misquito one great family.
The position of the isolated Xinca (or Sinca) Indians, regarded
from this point of view, becomes very interesting. There are
scientific reasons to believe that the Xinca also belong to the same
great family as the Lenca, Jicaques, Paya, Misquito-Sumo. It
may be possible either that these tribes are the autochthonous inhab-
itants who dwelt in Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua
before the immigration of the prehistoric Maya peoples; or else that
they invaded this region after it had been deserted by a prehistoric
oriental branch of the Maya family.
The Chorotega race had its centre in Nicaragua (Pacific coast) and
at one time extended thence as far as Guanacaste (Costa Rica) ; at
33 6
MEXICO
[ANCIENT CIVILIZATION
another time it extended as far as Honduras (actual department
of Choluteca) and into eastern Salvador as far as the state of Chiapas
in Mexico, where the Chorotega penetrated amongst the Mixe.
The Chorotega or Mangue language, so closely affiliated to the
Chiapanec, is now extinct, but its former extension is to be recog-
nized by many Indian local names. It seems that there wasformerly
a mutual interpenetration between Lenca, Sumo and Chorotega
tribes. The territories of all these tribes can be, more or less exactly,
calculated by the existence of Indian local names. The Misquito
country is characterized by names terminating in laya, water, or
auala, river; the Sumo and Ulua country by names in uas, water;
the Matagalpan by names in li, water; the Lenca by names in tique,
lique, isque and (ai) quin. Such Lenca names occur on the north-
eastern boundary of the Ultra-Lempa country of Salvador. It is
strange that there is not a single place-name in Salvador either of
Mayan origin, or, as it seems, of Chorotegan origin. Probably the
Mexican elements superseded the Maya so completely that there
remained no trace of the Maya except archaeological objects; it
is to be supposed that the Lenca and Sumo tribes superseded the
Chorotega in Salvador. If we can be sure and the linguistic
evidence admits of no doubt that the Chorotega had their centre
in Nicaragua and thence extended north-westwards, it may be
hoped that Chorotegan remains will be found in the vast territory
occupied for many centuries by the Maya peoples in the Pacific part
of Guatemala. These remains would, of course, be archaeological
or place-names.
How closely related some of the Central-American nations were
in institutions to the Mexicans appears, not only in their using the
same peculiar weapons, but in the similarity of their religious
rites; the connexion is evident in such points as the ceremony of
marriage by tying together the garments of the couple, or in holding
an offender's face over burning chillies as a punishment; the native
legends of Central America make mention of the royal ball-play,
which was the same as the Mexican game of tlachtli already men-
tioned. At the same time many of the Central-American customs
differed from the Mexican; thus in Yucatan we find the custom of
the youths sleeping in a great bachelor's house, an arrangement
common in various parts of the world, but not in Mexico; the same
remark applies to the Maya exogamous law of a man not taking a wife
of his own family name (see Diego de Landa, Relation de Yucatan,
ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 140), which does not correspond with
Mexican custom. We have the means of comparing the personal
appearance of the Mexicans and Central Americans by their portraits
on early sculptures, vases, &c. ; and, though there does not appear
any clear distinction of race-type, the extraordinary back-sloping
foreheads of such figures as those of the bas-reliefs of Palenque prove
that the custom of flattening the skull in infancy prevailed in Central
America to an extent quite beyond any such habit in Mexico. The
notion that the ruined cities now buried in the Central-American
forests were of great antiquity and the work of extinct nations has
no solid evidence; some of them may have been already abandoned
before the conquest, but others were inhabited by the ancestors of
the Indians who now build their mean huts and till their patches
of maize round the relics of the grander life of their ancestors. In
comparing these ruins in Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala and Hon-
duras, it is evident that, though they are the work of two or more
nations highly distinct in language, yet these nations had a common
system of pictorial or written characters. One specimen of a Central-
American inscription may give a general idea of them all, whether
it be from the sculptured facade of a temple sketched by Catherwood,
or from the painted deerskin called the Dresden Codex (reproduced
in Kingsborough), or from the chapter of Diego de Landa where
he professes to explain and translate the characters themselves.
These consist of combinations of faces, circles, lines, &c., arranged
in compartments in so complex a manner that hardly two are found
alike. How they conveyed their meaning, how far they pictorially
represented ideas or spelt words in the different languages of the
country, is a question not yet answered in a complete way ; Landa's
description (p. 320) gives a table of a number of their elements as
phonetically representing letters or syllables, but, though there may
be a partial truth in his rules, they are insufficient or too erroneous
to serve for any general decipherment. One point as to the Central-
American characters is clear, that part of them are calendar-signs
recording dates. From the accounts given by Landa and other
writers it is plain that the Central-American calendar, reckoning the
year in twenty-eight periods of thirteen days, was the same in its
principle of combining signs as that of Mexico. The four leading
Maya signs called kan, muluc, ix, cauac corresponded in their position
to the four Aztec signs rabbit, reed, flint, house, but the meanings
of the Maya signs are, unlike the Aztec, very obscure. A remarkable
feature of the Central-American ruins is the frequency of truncated
pyramids built of hewn stone, with flights of steps up to the temple
built on the platform at top. The resemblance of these structures
to the old descriptions and pictures of the Mexican teocallis is so
striking that this name is habitually given to them. The teocallis
built by the Nahua or Mexican nations have been mostly destroyed,
but two remain at Huatusco and Tusapan (figured in Bancroft,
> v - 443. 456), which bear a strong resemblance to those of Palenque.
On the whole it is not too much to say that, in spite of differences
in style, the best means of judging what the temples and palaces
of Mexico were like is to be gained from the actual ruins in Central
America. On the other hand, there are features in Central-American
architecture which scarcely appear in Mexican. Thus at Uxmal
there stands on a terraced mound the long narrow building known
as the governor's house (Casa del Gobernador), 322 ft. long, 39 ft.
wide, 26 ft. high, built of rubble stone and mortar faced with square
blocks of stone, the interior of the chambers rising into a sloping
roof formed by courses of stonework gradually overlapping in a
" false arch." The same construction is seen in the buildings form-
ing the sides of a quadrangle and bearing the equally imaginary
name of the nunnery (Casa de Monjas) ; the resemblance of the interior
of one of its apartments to an Etruscan tomb has often been noticed
(see Fergusson, History of Architecture, vol. i; Viollet-le-Duc, in
Charnay).
The explorations made by Dr Lehmann in 1909 in the famous
ruins of Teotihuacan, near Mexico city throw new light upon certain
chronological problems. Like the excavations made by Dr Max
Uhle in Peru, they tend to determine the relative antiquity of the
different periods of the ancient civilization. They also show that
these various culture-periods followed one another among the
Mexicans in much the same sequence as among the Peruvians. At
a considerable depth below the foundations of a temple-palace at
Teotihuacan, Dr Lehmann discovered certain ceramic fragments of
a type quite different from any hitherto classed as Mexican. These
are painted on a fine stucco in beautiful colours (notably a kind of
turquoise-green) and represent archaic forms of flowers and butter-
flies. The relation between the wall paintings of Teotihuacan and
ornaments at Chichen Itza, as also the existence of sculptured stone
yokes in Teotihuacan, in the country of the Totonacs, in Guatemala
and in Salvador, furnish important material for the investigation
of the obscure problems of the Toltecs and Olmecs, and of the exten-
sion of Maya peoples on the Atlantic coast of the Mexican Gulf
from Campeche as far as Tabasco and Vera Cruz.
Attempts to trace the architecture of Central America directly
from Old-World types have not been successful, while on the other
hand its decoration shows proof of original invention, especially
in the imitations of woodwork which passed into sculptured orna-
ment when the material became stone instead of wood. Thus the
architectural remains, though they fail to solve the problem of the
culture of the nations round the Gulf of Mexico, throw much light
on it when their evidence is added to that of religion and customs.
At any rate two things seem probable first, that the civilizations
of Mexico and Central America were pervaded by a common influence
in religion, art, and custom; second, that this common element
shows traces of the importation of Asiatic ideas into America.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most illuminating and fundamental work
on Mexican archaeology is the Gesammelte Abhandlungen, of Eduard
Seler (vol. i. Berlin, 1902; vol. ii., 1904). For the earliest descriptions
of the ancient cities of Mexico the writings of Cogolludo, Landa,
Antonio del Rio, Sahagun, Torquemada and others are of the greatest
value. The account by Antonio de Leon y Gama, Description
historica y cronologica de las dos piedras que . . . se hallaron en
la plaza principal de Mexico el ano de 1790 (Mexico, 1792; 2nd ed.
by C. M. de Mustamentel), may be specially mentioned. Much of
this material is to be found in Lord Kingsborough's monumental
work in 9 vols., seq., on the Antiquities of Mexico (London, 1831-
1848). Alexander von Humboldt's Vues des CordiUeres et monu-
ments des peuples indigenes de t'Amerique was published in Paris in
1816. At the beginning of the igth century the colonial government
undertook a comprehensive exploration of the best known groups
of ruins and three expeditions were made in 1805-1808 under the
direction of Captain Guillaume Dupaix, accompanied by Luciano
Castaneda as artist. The reports were not published, however, until
Kingsborough included them in his work, though some of the draw-
ings appeared in other works. In many respects these reports are
the best of the early accounts. Another early explorer was the
French artist Fr<$d6ric de Waldeck, who published Voyage pittoresque
et archeologique dans la province d' Yucatan (Paris, 1838), and whose
collection of drawings appeared in 1866, with the descriptive text
by Brasseur de Bourbourg, under the title Monuments anciens du
Mexique. Among other and later works, including some who have
devoted themselves more especially to Maya inscriptions, are:
Arnold and Frost, The American Egypt (London, 1909); H. H.
Bancroft, The Native Races of the Pacific States (5 vols., New York,
1874-1876, vol. iv. is devoted to " Antiquities ") ; A. F. Bandelier,
Report on an Archaeological Tour in Mexico, 1881 (Archaeol. Inst.
of America, papers, Am. Ser. II.); Leopoldo Batres, Cuadro arqueo-
Ugico y etnogrdfico de la Republica Mexicans (Mexico, n.d.) ; W. W.
Blake, Catalogue of the Historical and Archaeological Collections of
the National Museum of Mexico (Mexico, 1884) ; Eug. Boban, Cuadro
arqueoldgico y etnogrdfico de la Republica Mexicana (Paris, 1885);
Daniel G. Brinton, The American Race (New York, 1891) and
Ancient Phonetic Alphabets of Yucatan; Desire 1 Charnay, The Ancient
Cities of the New World (Transl. New York, 1887);' Charnay and
Viollet-le-Duc, Cites et mines americaines (Paris, 1863); Alfredo
Chaverp (ed.) Antiguedades mexicanas (Mexico, 1892); Dupaix,
Antiquites mexicaines (Paris, 1834-1836); E. Forstemann (Numerous
articles in Globus and other German publications, 1893-1897, on
Maya inscriptions); E. T. Hamy, Decades americanae (Paris, 1888,
1898, 1902); Wm. H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies among the
COLONIAL PERIOD]
MEXICO
337
Ancient Cities of Mexico (Parts I. and II. Field Columbian Museum,
Chicago, 1895-1897); W. Lehmann, Ergebnisse und Aufgaben der
rnexikanischen Forschung (Archiv. fur Anthropologie, neue Folge,
iii., 2 ; 1907), Eng. trans. : Methods and Results in Mexican Research,
by Seymour de Ricci (Paris, 1909) ; Theobert Maler, Neue Entdeckung
von Ruinen-Stadten in Miltel-Amerika (Clonus, Ixx. 149-150, Braun-
schweig, 1896), and also contributions to American archaeological
publications; A. P. Maudslay, Biologia Centrali- Americana-Archae-
ology (London, 1897); J. F. A. Nadaillac, Prehistoric America (New
York, 1895); Zelia Nuttall, The Fundamental Principles of the Old
and New World Civilizations (Arch, and Ethn. Papers, Peabody
Museum, Cambridge, 1901); Antonio Penafiel, Monumentos del arte
mexica.no antiguo (i vol. text, 2 yols. plates; Berlin, 1890); Carl
Sapper, Dasnordliche Mittel-Amerika (Braunschweig, 1897); Caecilie
Saler, Auf alien Wegen in Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1900);
Eduard K. Seler, " Der Charakter der aztekischen und Maya-Hand-
schriften " (Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, Berlin, 1888), and other papers
in various German publications; John L. Stephens (F. Catherwood,
artist), Travels in Central America (2 vols., New York, 1841), and
Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (2 vols., New York, 1843).
(E. B. T.;W. L.*)
//. Colonial Period. 1520-1821.
The conquest of Mexico by the Spanish forces under Hernando
Cortes (q.v.) in 1520, and the death of the last Aztec emperor,
Guatemozin, introduced what is known as the colonial period
of Mexican history, which lasted down to the enforced resigna-
tion of the last viceroy, O'Donoju, in 1821. During these three
centuries, after a brief but most unsatisfactory experience of
government by audiencias (1521-1535), sixty-four viceroys
ruled over New Spain. Of these a few were ecclesiastics: two
had two terms of office; only two or three were of native birth,
and their previous official life had always been passed in other
parts of the Spanish dominions.
New Spain was one of four great viceroyalties, the other
three being New Granada, Buenos Aires and Peru. Its viceroy
ruled over districts differing in status and with over-
"' l a PP m 8 an d conflicting authorities, some of these
being appointed directly by the king of Spain, and
responsible to him. New Spain in its widest meaning includes
the audiencias or judicial districts of Manila, San Domingo and
Guatemala, and the viceroy had some sort of authority over
them: but in its narrower meaning it comprised the audiencia
district of Mexico and the subordinate audiencia district of
Guadalajara, which together extended from Chiapas and Guate-
mala to beyond the eastern boundary of the modern state of
Texas and northwards, eventually, to Vancouver's Island. In
the course of the i8th century this came to consist of the follow-
ing divisions: (i) the kingdom of Mexico, which included the
peninsula of Yucatan but not the present state of Chiapas or a
part of Tabasco, these belonging to Guatemala. Approximately
its south border ran from a point slightly east of Tehuantepec
to the bay of Honduras, and its north limit was that of the
modern states of Michoacan and Guanajuato, then cutting across
San Luis Potosi to a point just above Tampico. (2) The kingdom
of New Galicia, including the present states of Zacatecas, Jalisco
and part of San Luis Potosi. (3) The Nuevo Regno de Leon
(the present state of that name). (4) The Provincias Internas,
i.e. " interior " regarded from the capital, viz. Nuevo Santander
(Tamaulipas, and Texas to the bay of Corpus Christi, founded
1749), the several provinces of Nuevo Biscaya or Chihuahua,
Durango, Sonora with Sinaloa, Coahuila, Texas (from Corpus
Christi Bay to the mouth of the Mermenton in the present state
of Louisiana), and the two Calif ornias.
The audiencia councils also advised the viceroy in matters
of administration; and, as with other officials, his career was
Government subject at its close to a formal examination by a
andOrgaai- commission a process known as " taking his
loa ' residencia." Local government till 1786 was largely
in the hands of alcaldes majores and corregidores, the latter
established in 1531 to look after the Indians, and both appointed
by purchase. Towns, which were to some extent founded after
the conquest as centres of civilization for the Indians, were
governed by civic officials appointed in the first instance by the
governor of the province, but subsequently as a rule purchasing
their posts.
The church rapidly supplemented the work of the conquerors.
The first Franciscan mission arrived in 1524; other orders
followed. The announcement of the apparition of The Church
the Virgin to an Indian near Mexico City provided a and the
place of pilgrimage and a patroness in Our Lady of P* ?'*-
Guadalupe; and the friars ingeniously used the hieroglyphic
writing for instruction in Christian doctrine, and taught the
natives trades, for which they showed much aptitude. The
university of Mexico was founded in 1553. The Jesuits estab-
lished themselves in 1572, devoting themselves actively to the
education both of whites and of natives, and were a powerful
factor in the exploring and civilizing of the northern districts.
The Inquisition was introduced in 1571. With the natives
south of the latitude of Tampico there was little trouble after
the Mixton War (in Guadalajara) in 1540-1562, save for occa-
sional risings in Yucatan, Tehuantepec, and in 1711 in the Nayarit
mountain region west of Zacatecas, and Tamaulipas was con-
quered in 1748; but the wild Indians of Sonora and New Mexico
gave constant trouble to the missions and outlying settlers.
There were occasionally riots due to scarcity of corn (notably
in Mexico itself in 1692). As in other Spanish possessions,
Indian labour was replaced or supplemented by that of negro
slaves, but these were almost wholly confined to the coast regions
of Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and early in the igth century there
were only some 10,000 in all.
As the Spanish conquerors brought few women, there was
much mixture of races. Among the pure whites who were
practically all of Spanish extraction there were two
well-defined classes, the Gachupines or chapetones, caste*."
Spaniards born in Europe, said to be so named in
allusion to their spurs, from Aztec words meaning " prickers
with the foot," and the native-born or Creoles: the former,
though a small minority, had almost all the higher positions
both in the public services and in commerce. Besides these there
were five well-defined castas: mestizoes (Indian and white);
mulattoes (negro and white); Zambos (negro and Indian), who
were regarded as specially vicious and dangerous; native
Indians and negroes. But there were about a dozen inter-
mediate " named varieties," of which the salto-atras (tending
away from white) and tente en I'aire (tending towards white)
may be mentioned; and many of the last named eventually
passed into the Creole class, sometimes by the decree of a court.
The fact that the trade route to Manila passed through Vera
Cruz, Mexico City and Acapulco entailed the settlement also of
a few Chinese and Malays, chiefly on the Pacific coast.
The natives were subject to tribute and kept in perpetual
tutelage: divided at the conquest, with the land, as serfs of the
conquerors, in repartimienlos or encomiendas, they
' , . Position ot
were gradually freed at an early date from their t he Natives.
serfage, and allowed to sell their labour as they
pleased; they were, however, to a great extent kept in villages
or settlements, compelled to cultivate land which they held
for their life only, and strictly controlled by the friars or the
priests. Their numbers were several times seriously reduced
by the matlazhuatl, apparently analogous to yellow fever, but
not attacking the whites, and unknown before the conquest.
The negroes were allowed to buy their freedom gradually at
rates fixed by the judicial authorities, and slavery seems never
to have taken much hold except in the coast region.
Of the events of this period only a bare outline can here be
given. The term of office of the first viceroy, Antonio de
Mendoza, was marked by the Mixton War, by an Leading
attempt to suppress the encomienda system, and by Events:
a violent epidemic among the natives. Under his IS3S ~ 1822 -
successor, Velasco, the measures taken for the relief of the
natives provoked the landowners to a conspiracy (repressed
with great severity) to set up Cortes' son as king of New Spain.
In 1568 the island of Sacrificios, near Vera Cruz, was seized by
John Hawkins (q.v.), who was surprised by the Spanish fleet
accompanying the new viceroy, de Almansa, and escaped with
Sir Francis Drake (q.v.), but without the remaining ships of his
squadron. In 1572 and 1578, however, Drake took abundant
MEXICO
[COLONIAL PERIOD
vengeance, and in 1587 Cavendish captured the Manila galleon
a success repeated in the next century.
For the next sixty years an urgent question was the prevention
of floods in the capital. Situated on the lowest of four lakes,
The Dnia- whose waters had only one small outlet from the
axe of the valley, it was only 4 ft. above the level of the
Capital. lowest, and was flooded on an average once in every
twenty-five years. It had been protected under the native
kings by a system of dikes, which were added to under the earlier
viceroys, but serious inundations in 1553 and 1580 flooded the
city, and the latter suggested the relief of the highest lake, that
of Zumpango, by a tunnel carrying its chief affluent into a
tributary of the Panuco, and so to the Atlantic. This, however,
was not then undertaken, and when mooted again in 1603 was
opposed as certain to involve a heavy sacrifice of Indian life.
Another inundation, in 1604, suggested the transfer of the city
to Tacubaya, but the landowners opposing and the city being
again inundated in 1607, the Nochistongo tunnel was begun
under the auspices of a Jesuit, Enrico Martinez, and roughly
completed in eleven months. It passed under a depression in the
mountains of the extreme north of the valley. Humboldt states
that it was 6600 metres long, 3$ wide and 4 high. But it did
nothing for the southern lakes, so that a further system of dikes
was recommended in preference, in 1614, by the Dutch engineer
Adrian Boot; it was inadequate for its work and, not being
lined with masonry, it was liable to be choked by falls. Repairs
were suspended in 1623, and a further inundation, with great
losses of life, occurred from 1629 to 1634. The removal of the
city was again mooted and, though sanctioned by the king of
Spain, successfully opposed by the landowners. Another flood
occurred in 1645. After a disastrous attempt to enlarge the
tunnel in 1675, it was eventually converted into an open cutting,
but the work was not finished till 1789, and the bottom was then
29 ft. 6 in. above the level of the lowest lake. The drainage was
only satisfactorily accomplished at the end of the igth century
(see below).
A negro revolt in the Vera Cruz region (1609) and an Indian
rebellion in Sinaloa and Durango may be mentioned among the
events of the earlier part of the i7th century. The
* regular and secular clergy had early come into con-
flict, particularly over the tithe and the control of
the Indians; and in 1621, the marquis de Gelves, an energetic
reformer, who as viceroy favoured the appointment of the
regulars to deal with the natives, came into conflict with Arch-
bishop Serna of Mexico, who placed the city under interdict,
excommunicated the viceroy and constrained him to hide from
the mob. Some years later the bishop of Puebla, Juan de
Palafox y Mendoza, transferred many native congregations
from the friars to secular priests, and subsequently, in 1647,
came into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he excommunicated,
but who eventually triumphed with the aid of the Dominicans
and the archbishop. The power of the church may be judged
from the petition of the Ayuntamiento of Mexico to Philip IV.
(1644) to stop the foundation of religious houses, which held
half the property in the country, to suspend ordinations because
there were 6000 unemployed priests, and to suppress feast days
because there were at least two per week.
To check the Dutch and British corsairs the Barlovento
("windward") squadron had been set up in 1635; but the
British ca P ture of Jamaica (1655) aggravated the
danger to the Spanish convoys. During the rest of
the century the ports of Yucatan and Central
America were frequently raided, and in 1682 Tampico
suffered a like disaster; in May 1683 Vera Cruz itself was
captured through stratagem by two buccaneers, Van Horn and
Laurent, who plundered the town for ten days, committed
shocking outrages, and escaped as the Spanish fleet arrived.
In 1685-86 the Pacific coast was ravaged by Dampier and Swan,
and in 1709 Woodes Rogers, with Dampier as pilot, captured
the Manila treasure galleon, a feat repeated by Anson in 1743.
But the European wars of the i8th century had little effect on
Mexico, save that the privileges of trade given to Great Britain
by the treaty of Utrecht facilitated smuggling. In the first
half of the i8th century we may note the appearance, intermit-
tently at first, of the first Mexican periodical the Guceta de
Mexico in 1 7 2 2, a severe epidemic of yellow fever in 1 736, and the
establishment about 17^0 of a standing army with a nucleus of
Walloons and Swiss, negroes and Indians being excluded and
the half-breeds admitted under restrictions. But the great
event of the i8th century was the expulsion of the Jesuits from
Mexico, as from the other Spanish dominions, in 1767, under
orders from Charles III. They were arrested en masse on the night
of the 26th of June; their goods were sequestrated, and they
themselves deported to Havana, then to Cadiz, Genoa, and even-
tually Corsica. They had done much to civilize the natives and
to educate the whites, and their expulsion, which was greatly
resented by the Creoles, probably tended to increase the popular
discontent and prepare for the overthrow of Spanish rule.
In 1769 Don Jose de Galvez was sent out as special commis-
sioner to devise reforms, with powers independent of the then
viceroy, but without much immediate result. It
, , . . Centralized
was, however, a consequence of his work that in Government.
1786 the provinces and kingdoms were replaced by
twelve intendencias (Guadalajara, Zacatecas, Durango, Sonora,
Puebla, Vera Cruz, Merida, Oaxaca, Valladolid, Guanajato, San
Luis Potosi, Mexico), whose governors and minor officials were
directly dependent on the viceroy, the former alcaldes, mayores
and corregidores, who were very corrupt, being abolished.
Possibly it is from this reform that we may date the antithesis
of Federals and Centralists, which is so conspicuous in the history
of republican Mexico. Among the later viceroys the Conde de
Revillagigedo (1789-1794) deserves mention as a progressive
ruler who developed commerce and improved administration,
and took the first, but very imperfect, census, on which Hum-
boldt based his estimate of the population in 1803 at 5,840,000.
The European wars of the French revolutionary period
interfered with the traffic with Spain, and so relaxed the bonds
of a commercial system which hampered the manu- Beginnings
factures of Mexico and drained away its wealth, of Sever-
Already in 1783 the Conde de Aranda had suggested *""*
to the Spanish king the scheme of setting up three Spanish-
American kingdoms bound to Spain by perpetual treaties of
alliance and reciprocity and by frequent royal intermarriages,
and with the king of Spain as overlord. The plan was devised
as a means of rivalling Anglo-Saxon supremacy, but was rejected
through fear of the mixed races predominating over the whites.
A similar fear helped to keep down the tendencies inspired by
French revolutionary literature, though plots occurred against
the viceroy Branciforte in 1798 and 1799. But the real causes
of the revolution were local. The chief was the Creole jealousy
of the Spanish immigrants. There was oppressive taxation,
restriction on commerce and manufacture in the interest of
Spain, even vineyards having been prohibited; and the courts
were very corrupt. But to these grievances was added in 1804
the sequestration, to provide for Spain's needs, of the benevolent
funds (obras pias) in Mexico, amounting to about $45,000,000,
and nearly all invested on mortgage. The mortgages were
called in: forced sales were necessary, the mortgagers were
frequently ruined, and less than a fourth of the total was realized.
Other confiscations and exactions followed; and when the rule
of Fernando VII. was succeeded by that of Joseph Bonaparte,
the municipality of Mexico invited Iturrigaray, the viceroy, to
declare the country independent. He proposed the convocation
of a national congress, but was overthrown by a conspiracy of
Spaniards under one Yermo, who feared that they would lose
their privileged position through severance from Spain. The
two next viceroys were incompetent; further demands from the
Spanish authorities in revolt against Joseph Bonaparte increased
the disaffection, which was not allayed by the grant of represen-
tation in the Spanish Cortes to the colonies; and, on the demands
being repeated by a third viceroy, Venegas, Creole conspiracies
arose in Quer6taro and Guanajato. Their discovery in 1810
was followed by the outbreak of the revolution. Hidalgo, a
parish priest, and Allende, a captain of cavalry, with forces
INDEPENDENT MEXICO]
MEXICO
339
consisting largely of Indians, captured a stronghold at Guanajato
and even threatened the capital; but the revolutionists were
defeated in 181 1 at Calderon, and the leaders executed. Another
priest, however, named Morelos, continued the movement, and,
despite defeat in the terrible siege of Cuatla (now Morelos) on
the 2nd of May 1812, raised the south, so that in the next year
his forces overran most of the kingdom of Mexico and held its
southern parts, and he was able to convoke a congress and issue
a constitution. But he also was captured, and executed at
Mexico City in 1815. Though revolutionary movements still
continued, by 1817 only one leader, Vincente Guerrero, was left
in the field. But in March 1820 the Spanish constitution,
repudiated by King Fernando VII. soon after his restoration,
was restored after a military rising in Spain. It was promul-
gated in Mexico, and the ecclesiastics and Spaniards, fearing
that a Liberal Spanish government would force on them disen-
dowment, toleration and other changes, induced Augustin de
Iturbide, who had already been conspicuous in suppressing the
risings, to take the field in order to effect what may be called a
reactionary revolution.
///. Independent Mexico.
Thenceforward, till the second election of Porfirio Diaz to
the presidency in 1884, the history of Mexico is one of almost
General continuous warfare, in which Maximilian's empire
Character- is a mere episode. The conflicts, which may at
istics. g rs t sight S eem to be merely between rival generals,
are seen upon closer examination to be mainly (i) between the
privileged classes, i.e. the church and (at times) the army, and
the mass of the other civilized population; (2) between Central-
ists and Federalists, the former being identical with the army,
the church and the supporters of despotism, while the latter
represent the desire for republicanism and local self-government.
Similar conflicts are exhibited, though less continuously, by most
of the other Spanish-American states. On both sides in Mexico
there was an element consisting of honest doctrinaires; but rival
military leaders exploited the struggles in their own interest,
sometimes taking each side successively; and the instability was
intensified by the extreme poverty of the peasantry, which
made the soldiery reluctant to return to civil life, by the absence
of a regular middle class, and by the concentration of wealth in a
few hands, so that a revolutionary chief was generally sure both
of money and of men. But after 1884 under the rule of Diaz,
the Federal system continued in name, but it concealed in fact,
with great benefit to the nation, a highly centralized administra-
tion, very intelligent, and on the whole both popular and
successful a modern form of rational despotism.
Iturbide eventually combined with Guerrero, and proclaimed
the " Plan of Iguala," which laid down, as the bases of the new
state, the maintenance of the Roman Catholic
religion and the privileges of the clergy, the establish-
ment of a limited monarchy, and equality of rights
for Spaniards and native-born Mexicans. Iturbide
sought the co-operation of the viceroy Apodaca, who,
however, refused; but he was presently superseded by General
O'Donoju, who, being unable to get beyond Vera Cruz, recog-
nized the independence of Mexico. O'Donoju shortly after-
wards died; the Spanish government repudiated his act; and
Spanish troops held the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, off Vera
Cruz, till 1827. A provisional Junta, nominated by Iturbide,
issued a declaration of independence (Oct. 1821), and nominated
a regency of five, with Iturbide as its president. The first
Mexican Congress met on the 24th of February 1822. A section
of it favoured a republic; another, monarchy under Iturbide;
another, which was broken up by the refusal of Spain (continued
til 1836) to recognize Mexican independence, monarchy under
Bourbon prince. A conflict now arose between the republican
ajority and Iturbide, which was settled by a military pronuncia-
miento in his favour, and the Congress elected him emperor.
He was crowned on the 2ist of July 1822. Fresh conflicts broke
out between him and the Congress, and Antonio Lopez de Santa
Anna, captain-general of Vera Cruz, proclaimed a republic,
General
Iturbide
becomes
Emperor,
1822-1823.
promising to support the Plan of Iguala. He was defeated at
Jalapa and driven to Vera Cruz; but the army deserted Iturbide,
who was compelled to abdicate (April 19, 1823). The Con-
gress deported him to Italy, and granted him a pension. He
returned almost immediately, on the pretext that Spain was
intriguing against Mexican independence, and on landing
(having been previously outlawed) was arrested and executed
(July i, 1824).
The Congress had meanwhile undone much of his work, and
had divided into Federalists and Centralists, the latter largely
Monarchists and Freemasons. The Federalists were strong
enough to secure the adoption of a constitution (Oct. 4,
1824) modelled on that of the United States, with additional
clauses, notably one declaring the Roman Catholic religion
to be alone recognized. A source of abundant discord was
opened by the provision that each state should contribute
its quota to the Federal revenues. No proper statistical
basis for estimating the quotas existed, and the device gave
each state a plausible reason for attempting secession on
occasion. Moreover, the capital and some territory round it
was made into a " Federal district " another grievance intensi-
fying the antagonism of the state to the central power. The
Freemasons had been largely instrumental in overthrowing
Iturbide; they now divided into the Escoceses (lodges of the
Scottish ritual), who were Monarchist and Centralist, and the
Yorkinos, who took their ritual from New York, and their cue>
it was alleged, from the American minister, Joel Poinsett. An
attempt at revolt, headed by Nicolas Bravo, vice-president, the
Grand Master of the Escoceses, was suppressed, but dissensions
ensued in the Yorkino party between the followers of President
Guerrero (a man largely of native blood, and the last of the
revolutionary leaders) and of Gomez Pedraza, the president
war minister. A conflict broke out, the Guerrerists Guerrero,
were victorious, and the pillage of foreign shops in 1825-1831.
Mexico City (1828), among them that of a French baker,
gave a basis for the foreign claims which, ten years later,
caused the " Pastry War " with France. Meanwhile, attacks
on Spanish ships off Cuba by a Mexican squadron, com-
manded by an American, David Porter, had induced Spain
to send an expedition to reconquer Mexico (1829) which was
checked at Tampico by Santa Anna. During the invasion
Vice-President Antonio Bustamante declared against President
Guerrero; the bulk of the army supported him. Guerrero was
deposed, and his partisans in the south were defeated at Chilpan-
cingo (Jan. 2, 1831); and Guerrero, retiring to Acapulco, was
enticed on board an Italian merchant-ship, and treacherously
seized, tried and executed (Jan.-Feb. 1831). Next year, how-
ever, a revolt broke out against Bustamante, which was joined
by Santa Anna, and eventually resulted in a pronunciamiento in
favour of Gornez Pedraza. He, and his successor, Vice-President
Gomez Farias (1833), assailed the exemption of the clergy and
of military officers from the jurisdiction of the civil courts, and
the latter attempted to laicize higher education and to relax
monastic bonds. Santa Anna took advantage of the situation
to assume the presidency. He eventually became Santa Anna,
dictator, dissolved Congress (May 31, 1834) and the Dictator,
state legislatures, and substituted creatures of his ls34 '
own for the governors of the states and mayors of towns, then
retiring into private life. A new Congress, having resolved
itself into a constituent assembly, followed up this Centrah'st
policy (Dec. 30, 1836) by framing a new constitution, the Siete
Leyes or Seven Laws, which converted the states into depart-
ments, ruled by governors appointed by the central authority,
and considerably reduced popular representation. Antonio
Bustamante became the first president under it. Bustamante,
The French claims set up by the pillage of foreign President,
shops in Mexico had, however, remained unsatisfied, 1837-
and in 1838 a French fleet blockaded the coast, bombarded
the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, off Vera Cruz, and
occupied the town. The Mexican government gave way,
threatened by Federalist risings and secessions of states, which
culminated in 1841. Santa Anna appeared, nominally as a
340
MEXICO
[INDEPENDENT MEXICO
mediator, and put forward the bases of Tacubaya (Sept. 28,
1841), abolishing all the Siete Leyes except the part re-
SaataAaan lating to the judicial system, arranging for a new
Restored, constituent assembly, and reserving for the presi-
IMI - dent (himself) full power of re-organizing the
administration. The Centralist government, after a vain at-
tempt to defeat him by professing a more thorough Federalism,
gave way to force, and Bustamante was allowed to leave the
country. But the new Congress was too Federalist for Santa
Anna, and he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolas Bravo, under
whom a new Centralist constitution was established (1843).
This expressly retained the privileges of the clergy and army,
and was in some respects more anti-Liberal than that of 1836.
But new complications were now introduced by the question
of Texas. Though a state of the Mexican Union, it had been
^ settled from the United States in consequence of a
land grant given by the Spanish viceroy to Stephen
Austin in 1820, and had been estranged from Mexico
partly by the abolition of slavery under a decree of President
Guerrero, and partly by the prospect of the Centralist constitu-
tion of 1836. It then seceded. Santa Anna attempted to reduce
it, showing great severity, but was eventually defeated and
captured by Houston at the battle of San Jacinto, and compelled
to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence, which was
disavowed on his return to Mexico. A state of war thus con-
tinued nominally between Mexico and its seceded member,
whose independence was recognized by England, France and
the United States. The slaveholders in the United States
favoured annexation of Texas, and pressed the claims due from
Mexico to American citizens, partly perhaps with the aim of
forcing war. Most of these claims were settled by a mixed
commission, with the king of Prussia as umpire, in 1840-1841,
and a forced loan was raised to pay them in 1843, which stimu-
lated the revolt of Paredes against Santa Anna, who had returned
to power in 1 844. It resulted in Santa Anna's downfall, imprison-
ment at Perote and eventual exile (Dec. 1844 to Jan.. 1845),
and the election of General Jose Joaquin Herrera as president.
But Herrera was displaced in the last days of 1845 by a pronun-
ciamiento in favour of Paredes, who undertook to uphold the
national rights against the United States, and who was elected
president on the 3rd of January 1846. Texas had meanwhile
applied for admission into the American Union. The annexa-
tion, rejected in 1844 by the United States Senate, was
sanctioned on the ist of March 1845, and carried out on the
22nd of December 1845. The Mexican minister withdrew from
Washington, and both sides made active preparations for war.
The United States forces were ordered by President Polk to
advance to the Rio Grande in January 1846. They established a
war with depot at Point Ysabel (behind the opening of Brazos
United Santiago), and erected a fort in Texan territory, com-
manding Matamoros, on the Mexican side of the Rio
Grande. This provoked the Mexican forces into a
defensive invasion of Texas, to cut the American communications
with Point Ysabel. They were, however, defeated at Palo Alto
(May 8) and Resaca de la Palma (May 9). There was an out-
burst of warlike feeling in the United States (with a counter-
movement in the North), and an invasion of Mexico was planned
by three routes from Matamoros towards Monterey in New
Leon, from San Antonio de Bexar to Chihuahua, and from Fort
Leavenworth to New Mexico. Importance attaches chiefly to
the movements of the first force under General Zachary Taylor.
During the war preparations President Paredes, suspected of
intriguing to overthrow the Republic and set up a Spanish
prince, had to give place to his vice-president Bravo, who in his
turn gave way before Santa Anna, who was hastily recalled from
his exile at Havana to assume the presidency and the conduct
of the war (Aug. 1846). He was allowed by the American
squadron blockading Vera Cruz to pass in without hindrance.
Probably it was thought his presence would divide the Mexicans.
The preparations of the United States took some months. It
was not till the sth of September 1846 that General Zachary
Taylor could leave his dep6t at Camargo on the Rio Grande,
States.
1846-48.
and march on Monterey. It was taken by assault on the
23rd of September; Santa Anna was defeated at Buena
Vista (near Saltillo) on the 23rd of February 1847, and
forced back on San Luis Potosf. New Mexico was occupied
without opposition; Chihuahua was occupied, but not held,
owing to the difficulties in maintaining communications; and
Upper California was seized in the autumn of 1846 by John
C. Fremont, who had been exploring a route across the continent,
and by the United States Pacific squadron, and made secure by
the aid of the New Mexico expedition. But as Mexico still con-
tinued to fight, it was determined to reach the capital via Vera
Cruz. That city was taken by General Scott after a siege and
bombardment (March 7 to 29, 1847) ; and after winning the battle
of Cerrogordo (April 18), and a long delay at Puebla, Scott
marched on Mexico City, stormed its defences against greatly
superior forces, and effected an entrance after severe fighting on
the I3th of September 1847. This virtually ended the war;
Santa Anna was deprived of his command, and the treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluded on the 2nd of February 1848,
ceded to the United States Texas, New Mexico and
Upper California, in return for a payment of
$15,000,000 by the United States to Mexico, and
the assumption of liability by it for the claims of its subjects
which it had hitherto been pressing against Mexico. This pay-
ment was doubtless intended to strengthen the United States'
title to the conquered territory. It is generally admitted that
Mexico was provoked into aggression in order that additional
territory might be available for the extension of slavery.
The American forces were withdrawn in May and June 1848
after the ratification of the treaty by Mexico. Under the presi-
dency of Herrera (1848-1851) attempts were made to Herrera,
restore order and the public credit. An arrangement President,
was effected with English holders of Mexican stock; I848mlssl -
an attempt was made to carry out a consolidation of the internal
debt, which failed; the army was reduced and reorganized, and
the northern frontier was defended by military colonies, formed
partly of civilized Seminole Indians from the United States.
But the financial situation was desperate; the federal revenue,
mostly from customs which were evaded by extensive smug-
gling was not half the expenditure; and Indian revolts in
Yucatan (1847-1850) and in the Sierra Gorda had added to the
strain. Arista succeeded Herrera as president (Jan. 1851), but
resigned (Jan. 1853).
After a sort of interregnum. (Jan.-March 1853) Santa Anna was
recalled (by a vote of the majority of the states under the Plan of
Arroyozarco, on the 4th of February 1853, the result SantaAona
of a pronunciamiento), and made dictator in the la Power,
interests of federation. His measures, partly in- IS53ml8Slt -
spired by an able Conservative leader, Lucas Alaman, proved
strongly Centralist: one is especially noteworthy, the establish-
ment of the ministry of " fomento," or encouragement to public
works, education, and intellectual and economic development,
which is a conspicuous aid to Mexican welfare to-day. He
also negotiated (at the end of 1853) the sale of the Mesilla
valley (now Arizona) to the United States, but the purchase
money was soon dissipated. On the i6th of December 1853
Santa Anna issued a decree making himself dictator, with the
title of serene highness. On the ist of March 1854, at Ayutla
in Guerrero, a section of the army under Colonel Villareal
proclaimed the Plan of Ayutla, demanding Santa Anna's depo-
sition and the establishment of a provisional government to
secure a new constitution. Among the leaders in the movement
were Generals Alvarez and Comonfort, and it is said that Porfirio
Diaz, subsequently president, then a young soldier, made his
way to Benito Juarez, then in prison, and arranged with him
the preliminaries of the revolt. It spread, and Santa Anna left
the country (Aug. 1854).*
Two filibustering expeditions at this time one by William
Walker, afterwards notorious in. Nicaragua, in Lower California
1 Santa Anna tried to get back to politics in Mexico after
Maximilian's fall, without success. He was amnestied with other
exiles in 1874, and died in obscurity in 1876.
INDEPENDENT MEXICO]
MEXICO
Renlto
Juarez.
(Dec. 1853), the other by Count Raousset de Boulbon in Sonora
(July 1854) added to the general disorder.
The provisional president, General Carrera, proving too Cen-
tralist, was replaced by Alvarez (Sept. 24, 1855), two of whose
ministers are conspicuous in later history Ignacio Comonfort,
minister of war, and Benito Juarez, minister of
finance. Juarez (b. 1806) was of unmixed Indian
blood. The son of a Zapotec peasant in a mountain
village of Oaxaca, he was employed as a lad by a bookbinder in
Oaxaca city, and aided by him to study for the priesthood. He
soon turned to the law, though for a time he was teacher of
physics in a small local college; eventually went into politics,
and did excellent work in 1847 as governor of his native state.
Juarez almost immediately secured the enactment of a law (Ley
Juarez, Nov. 23, 1855) subjecting the clergy and the army to
the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. " Benefit of clergy "
was the curse* of Mexico. Officers and soldiers could be tried only
by courts-martial, the clergy (including numbers of persons in
minor orders, who were practically laymen) only by ecclesiastical
courts. The proposed reform roused the Clericals to resistance.
Alvarez gave place (Dec. 8, 1855) to his war minister Comonfort,
who represented the less anti-Clerical Liberals. He appointed
a commission to consider the question of draining the valley of
Mexico, which adopted the plan ultimately carried out in 1890-
1900; suppressed a Clerical rising in Puebla (March 1856), which
was punished by a considerable confiscation of church property;
sanctioned a law releasing church land from mortmain, by pro-
viding for its sale, for the benefit, however, of the ecclesiastical
owners (called after its author Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, brother
of the subsequent president), and a new draft constitution,
largely modelled on that 'of the United States (Feb. 5, 1857).
The clergy protested violently, and the Plan of Tacubaya (Dec.
J 7i I 8s?), which made Comonfort dictator, provided for the
construction of a new constitution under his auspices. He was
presently displaced by a thorough reactionary, General Zuloaga,
and expelled from Mexico early in 1858; and for three years
Mexico was a prey to civil war between two rival governments
the Republicans at Vera Cruz under Juarez, who, as Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court, succeeded Comonfort; and the
reactionaries at the capital. The latter were at first presided
over by Zuloaga, who, proving incompetent, was replaced at
the end of 1858 by Pezuela, who early in 1859 gave place to
Miguel Miramon, a young, able and unscrupulous soldier who
was shortly afterwards accepted as " constitutional " president
by his party. The Juarists were defeated outside the city of
Mexico twice, in October 1858 and on the nth of April 1859,
On the second occasion the whole body of officers,
who had surrendered, were shot with Miramon's
authority, if not by his express orders, together with several
surgeons (including one Englishman, Dr Duval) (the fifty-three
" martyrs of Tacubaya "). This atrocity caused great indig-
nation in Mexico and abroad: the reactionists were divided;
their financial straits were extreme, as the Juarists held all the
chief ports. Juarez was recognized by the United States, and
allowed to draw supplies of arms and volunteers thence; and in
July 1859 he published laws suppressing the religious orders,
nationalizing ecclesiastical property (of the estimated value of
$45,000,000), establishing civil marriage and registration, trans-
ferring the cemeteries to civil control, and, in short, disestablish-
ing the church. But the apparent hopelessness of any ending
to the conflict, together with the frequent outrages of both
parties on foreigners, afforded strong reasons for foreign inter-
vention. Early in 1859 President Buchanan had recommended
the step to Congress, which did not respond. On the i2th of
December 1859 the M'Lean-Juarez treaty was concluded, which
gave the United States a sort of disguised protectorate over
Mexico, with certain rights of way for railroads over the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec and between the Rio Grande and Pacific. The
American Senate, however, did not ratify the treaty, and a motion
for its reconsideration late in 1860 came to nothing, owing to the
iproach of the War of Secession.
When Napoleon III. was in captivity at Ham he dreamed of
a Central America civilized and opened up to modern enterprise
by a transoceanic canal: and the clerical refugees in Paris,
among them Labastida, archbishop of Mexico, easily influenced
the Empress Eugenie, herself a Spaniard, to interest her hus-
band in the cause of centralized monarchy and the church: it
is said that even in 1859 they had thoughts of setting up the
Archduke Maximilian as ruler of Mexico.
^ The question 'of a joint intervention of Great Britain, France,
Spain and Prussia was mooted between those powers in 1860.
Early in 1859 the outrages on British subjects had overthrow
caused the British minister to break off diplomatic otMiramon,
relations. Forced contributions had been levied by I86 -
both sides on goods or bullion, being European property, the
reactionaries being the worst offenders; and there were numerous
cases of murder and robbery of Europeans. At last, on the
1 7th of November 1860, Miramon, under the plea of necessity,
seized $630,000 in specie which had been left under seal at the
British Legation and was intended for the bondholders. On
the 22nd of December 1860 his forces were routed by the Juarist
general Ortega at Arroyozarco, and his government was over-
thrown.
Juarez entered Mexico City on the i ith of January 1861. He
soon found that his government was held responsible to Europe
for the excesses of its rival as well as its own. Miramon's govern-
ment had violated the British Legation; the Spanish minister,
the papal legate and the representatives of Guatemala and
Ecuador were expelled from the country for undue interference
on behalf of the reactionaries; the payments of the European
British loan were suspended by Juarez's Congress in intervea-
July 1 86 1 ; and various outrages had been committed tloa ' 186t -
on the persons and property of Europeans for which no redress
could be obtained. The French charge d'affaires, Dubois de
Saligny, who had been sent out in November 1860, urged French
intervention, and took up the Jecker claims. Jecker, a Swiss
banker settled in Mexico, had lent Miramon's government in 1859
$750,000 (subject, however, to various deductions): in return,
Miramon gave him 6 % bonds of the nominal value of $i 5,000,000
which were ingeniously disguised as a conversion scheme. Jecker
had failed early in 1860, Miramon was overthrown a few months
later. Jecker's creditors were mostly French, but he still held
most of the bonds, and there is reason to believe that he won
over Dubois de Saligny by corrupt means to support his claims.
Intercepted correspondence (since confirmed from the archives
of the Tuileries) showed that the Due de Morny promised Jecker
his patronage in return for 30% of the] profits (De la Gorce,
Hist, du Second Empire, IV. c. i). An imperial decree natural-
ized Jecker in France, and Napoleon III. took up his claim. A
convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint
interference in Mexico was signed in London on the 3ist of
October 1861. A separate arrangement of the British claims
was negotiated by Juarez, but rejected by the Mexican Congress,
November 1861 ; and the assistance of the United States with
a small loan was declined, Mexican territory being demanded
as security. On the I4th of December Vera Cruz was occupied
by Spanish troops under General Prim; the French fleet and
troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold
the Gulf ports and collect the customs for the three Powers till
a settlement was effected; Great Britain sent ships, and landed
only 700 marines. In view of the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz,
the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican
government, permitting the foreign troops to advance to Orizaba
and incidentally recognizing Mexican independence. But as
the French harboured leaders of the Mexican reactionaries,
pressed the Jecker claims and showed a disposition to interfere
in Mexican domestic politic?, which lay beyond the terms of
the joint convention, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their
forces in March 1862.
More troops were sent from France. Their advance was
checked by Zaragoza and Porfirio Diaz in the battle of Cinco
de Mayo, on the 5th of May 1862; and in September of that
year 30,000 more French troops arrived under General
Forey. Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their advance
342
MEXICO
[INDEPENDENT MEXICO
(Feb. 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebla, and entered Mexico
City on the 7th of June. A provisional government of Mexicans,
Preach nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de
Expedition, Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown to
1062-63. Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor Francis
Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III.
Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right
of succession to the throne of Austria, accepted the crown
Maximilian subject to the approval of the Mexican people, and
Emperor, reached Mexico city on the i ath of June 1864. Juarez
1864. meanwhile had set up his capital, first in San Luis
Potosf, then in Chihuahua. The new empire was unstable from
the first. Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government
had refused to cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as
the clericals demanded. When he came, a host of new difficulties
arose. A new loan, nominally of about eight millions sterling,
but yielding little more than four, owing to discount and com-
mission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available
for its service. Maximilian carried the elaborate etiquette of
the court of Vienna to Mexico, but favouring toleration of
Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the
Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him
up. As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of
Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the nucleus of
his own army were more so. His reforms, excellent on paper,
could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary
did not exist. For a time he nominally held sway over about
two-thirds of the country roughly, from lat. 18 to 23, thus
excluding the extreme north and south. Oaxaca city, under
Porfirio Diaz, 1 capitulated to Bazaine who had superseded the
too pro-clerical Forey in October 1864 in February 1865, and
by the autumn of that year the condition of the Juarists in the
north seemed desperate. But the towns asked for permanent
French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own
power of self-defense. Instead, the country was traversed by
flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service
of " contre-guerilla," who fought with much the same savagery
as their foes. Directly the French troops had passed, Republican
bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to save
themselves, could only profess neutrality. Yet on the 3rd of
October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false report that Juarez
had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists
guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court-
martial and shot. Mexican generals on both sides had done
as much. But Maximilian's decree prepared his own fate.
The American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, and a
strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of
asserting the Monroe doctrine against Maximilian's government.
In the summer there were threatening movements of United
Maximilian States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866
deseiied by Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing
France. j,is f orces . i n response to a note of Seward, the
United States secretary of state, of the i2th of February 1866,
he was induced to promise their return by three instalments
in November 1866, March and November 1867. Maximilian
now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated
abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife Charlotte, the daughter
of Leopold I. of Belgium (and " the better man of the two," as he
had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the
emperor of the French. Finding him obdurate, she went on to
appeal to the pope; while at Rome she went mad (end of
September 1866).
Maximilian had meanwhile drawn nearer to the clericals and
farther from the French, and, to protect French interests,
Napoleon III. had decided to send out General Castelnau to
supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French
forces in one body, and restore the Republic under Ortega, who
had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans,
least unacceptable to the clericals. But fearing the prospect,
they induced Maximilian, who had retired to Orizaba for his
1 Diaz refused parole, and was confined at Puebla for some months,
but made his escape, and was soon in the field again.
health, to remain. He yielded on condition that a congress of
all parties should be summoned to decide the fate of the empire.
Hereupon he returned to the capital; the Juarist dominion
extended rapidly; the French troops left (in one body) on the
5th of February 1867, and shortly after Maximilian took com-
mand of the army at Queretaro. Here, with Miramon, he was
besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the garrison,
when about to make a last attempt to break out, was betrayed 2
by Colonel Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867). Execution of
Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and Maximilian,
Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or l867 -
neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities of escape,
was convicted on charges which may be summarized as rebellion,
murder and brigandage, on the I4th of June, and shot, with
Miramon and Mejia, on the ipth of June 1867, despite many
protests from European governments and prominent individuals,
including Garibaldi and Victor Hugo. (An effort to save him
made by the U.S. Government was frustrated by the dilatoriness
of the U.S. Minister accredited to Juarez's Government.) After
considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, his
body was brought to Europe.
Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April 2) and
besieged Mexico City, which fell on the 2ist of June. The last
anti-Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the
20th of July 1867. A good deal of discontent existed
among the republican rank and file, and Juarez's
election in October to the presidency was opposed by Diaz's
friends, but without success. But so soon as Juarez was elected,
insurrections broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the
following year. There were unsuccessful insurrections also in
1869 (clerical) and 1870 (republican), but an amnesty, passed
on the i3th of October 1870, helped to restore peace; trouble
again arose, however, at the 1871 election, at which the candidates
were Juarez, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz. Juarez's
continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and no
party obtaining a clear majority, the matter was thrown into
Congress, which elected him. Diaz's supporters refused to
recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on
sporadically till Juarez's death on the i8th of July
1872. Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of
the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied
the rebels, but made no further concessions. In the next year,
however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger form the
attacks of 1857 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibiting
monastic life. The first day of 1873 was marked by the opening
of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway. Protestant xrfmto/s-
missions established themselves (with some opposi- tration ot
tion) in the country, and diplomatic relations were Lerdo de
renewed with France and Spain (1874). But towards Te ' ad '
the close of Lerdo de Tejada's term he was suspected of aiming at
a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made prepara-
tions for a rising, then retiring to Texas. At the beginning of
1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plan of
Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as the
plan of Palo Blanco (March 21). Diaz's attempt to raise the
north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Cruz by sea,
he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured while attempt-
ing a four-mile swim ashore. The purser, however, made it
appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed him
for some days generally inside one of the saloon sofas and
helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Cruz. He then
escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force. Lerdo was declared
re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battle of
Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876) and forced into exile (Jan. 1877), and
Diaz was declared president on the znd of May p or firi
1877. A law forbidding the re-election of a prcsi- Diaz
dent till four years had elapsed from his retirement President,
from office was passed in the autumn of that year.
2 Lopez said he acted as Maximilian's agent, but his story rested
on an alleged letter from Maximilian which was discredited as a
forgery. The evidence cf his treason was published in El National
of Mexico, Sept. n, 1887.
Death ot
Juarez,
1872.
INDEPENDENT MEXICO]
MEXICO
343
Diaz's first presidency (1870-1880) was marked by some
unsuccessful attempts at revolution notably by Escobedo from
Texas in 1878, and by a more serious conspiracy in 1879.
Diplomatic relations were resumed with Spain, Germany, Italy
and some South American states (1877), and France (1880).
There were some frontier difficulties with the United States,
and with Guatemala, which revived a claim dropped since 1858
to a portion of the state of Chiapas; and there was considerable
internal progress, aided by a too liberal policy of subsidies to
railways and even to lines of steamships. The boundary questions
were settled under President Gonzalez (1880-1884); relations
with Great Britain were renewed in 1884. The claims of the
railways, however, necessitated retrenchment on official salaries,
and the president's plan for. conversion of the debt roused
unexpected and successful opposition in an ordinarily sub-
servient Congress. At the end of 1884 Porfirio Diaz was again
elected president, and was continually re-elected, the constitution
being modified expressly to allow him to continue in office.
The history of Mexico from 1884 to 1910 was almost void of
political strife. President Diaz's policy was to keep down
disorder with a strong hand; to enforce the law; to
^aderDiaz f ster railway development and economic progress;
to develop native manufactures by protective tariffs;
to introduce new industries, e.g. the production of silk and
wine, of coca and quinine; to promote forestry; to improve
elementary and higher education for all which purposes the
Ministerio del Fomento is a potent engine; to encourage coloniza-
tion; and, above all, to place the national credit on a sound
basis. The first step in this process was a settlement of the
Financial British debt by direct arrangement with the bond-
reorgaaiza- holders. In 1890 the Spanish bondholders' claims
tioa. were satisfactorily arranged also. In 1891 the tariff
was made more protectionist. In 1893 the depreciation of
silver necessitated stringent retrenchment; but the budget
balanced for the first time during many years, the floating debt
was converted, and a loan raised for the completion of the
Tehuantepec Railway. After 1896 substantial annual surpluses
were spent in reducing taxation and in the extinction of debt.
In 1895 the 6% external debt was converted into a 5% debt,
the bonds pf which remained at a premium for 1902; in 1896
the alcabalas or interstate customs and municipal octrois were
abolished, and replaced in part by direct taxation tnd increased
stamp duties.
The institution by Diaz of the guardias rurales, a mounted
gendarmerie composed of the class who in former days drifted
Pacification into revolution and brigandage, was a potent means
of the of maintaining order, and the extension of railways
Country. an( j telegraphs enabled the government to cope at
once with any disturbance. The old local revolutions practi-
cally disappeared. In 1886-1887 there were some disturbances
in Coahuila, New Leon, Sinaloa and Tamaulipas; subsequently
hardly anything was heard of such disorders except on the
Texan frontier, where in 1890 Francisco Ruiz Sandoval and in
1891 Catarino Garza made incursions into Mexico. Occasionally
the Church gave trouble the presence of foreign priests was
complained of; attempts to evade the law prohibiting conventual
life were detected and foiled (1891, 1894); and there were Indian
risings, repressed sometimes with great severity, among the
Mayas of Yucatan, whose last stronghold was taken in 1891,
and the Yaquis of Sonora (1899-1900). Under federal and
democratic forms, Diaz exercised a strictly centralized and
personal rule. He was invited to approve the candidates
proposed for state governorships; in all law cases affecting
the Government or political matters the judges asked his
opinion; he drafted bills, and discussed their text with individual
members and committees of congress. Similarly, the state
legislatures, as well as the judges and municipal officers, were
actually or virtually selected by the state governors, who were
practically agents of the president. Now and then the old
passions broke out: in September 1898 an absurd attempt to
assassinate President Diaz was made by a countryman named
Arroyo, but discontent with Diaz's rule was apparently confined
to a small minority. 1 In 1909 indeed there were some disquieting
symptoms. Owing to Diaz's age the vice-presidency had been
revived in 1904, and Don Ramon Corral elected to it; but at
the elections of {909 a movement arose in favour of replacing
trim by General Bernardo Reyes, Governor of Nuevo Leon, but
be was disposed of by an official commission to study the
military systems of Europe. It was, therefore, regarded as
certain that, should President Diaz die in office, Senor Corral
would succeed him without serious difficulty.
In foreign affairs the rule of Diaz was uneventful. There
were transient disputes with the United States (1886, 1888).
In 1888-1890 and 1894-1895 a boundary dispute
with Guatemala became serious. But Guatemala Affair"
gave way at the threat of war (Jan. 1895) and a new
treaty was made (April i, 1895). Again in 1907 there was some
friction owing to the murder of a Guatemalan ex-president by a
compatriot in Mexico: later in the year, however, the Mexican
government was active in stopping a war between its Central
American neighbours. In the difficulty between England and
the United States over the Venezuelan boundary (Dec. 1895)
Mexico expressed strong adherence to the Monroe doctrine in
the abstract, and suggested that its maintenance should not be
left wholly to the United States, but should be undertaken by
all American Powers. The first Pan-American congress met in
Mexico City in 1901, and the country was represented at the
second, held in Rio Janeiro in 1906. Mexico also took part in
establishing the permanent Central American Court of Arbitra-
tion, inaugurated on the 25th of May 1908 at Cartago, Costa
Rica, under the Washington treaties of December 1907, and
showed readiness to associate herself with the Government of
her great northern neighbour in preserving peace among the
Central American States. On the i7th of October 1909
President Taft and President Diaz exchanged visits at the
frontier at El Paso, Texas.
In brief, under President Diaz's rule the history of Mexico
is mainly economic. In the six financial years 1893-1894 to
1899-1900 inclusive the yield of the import duties
increased by upwards of 80%; the revenue from
stamps over 60%, though the duties were reduced;
the postal revenue from 1895-1896 to 1890-1900 rose 60%;
the telegraph revenue over 75%. Again, in 1898-1899 the
total ordinary revenue of the state was 6,013,921; in 1906-
1907 it had increased to 11,428,612, or by more than 90%,
and though 1907-1908 was a year of depression its total revenue
(11,177,186) exceeded that of any year save its immediate
predecessor. The great drainage scheme which completed the
works of the I7th century by taking out the surplus waters of
the southern lakes of the valley of Mexico was devised in 1856,
begun under Maximilian, proceeded with intermittently till 1885,
then taken up with improved plans, practically completed by
1896, and inaugurated in 1900;" the harbour of Vera Cruz was
finished in 1902; the Tehuantepec railway, likely to prove a
formidable rival to any interoceanic canal, was opened on the
24th of January 1906. All three were the work of an English
firm of contractors, the head of which was Sir Weetman Pearson.
American, and later Canadian, capital and enterprise have also
been very largely concerned in the development of the country;
and its progress was not permanently interfered with by the
great earthquakes of April 1907 and July 1909 at Acapulco,
and the floods in August 1909 at Monterey. In 1891 elementary
education was reorganized, and made compulsory, secular and
gratuitous. Great attention has been paid to higher education,
and at least in the hospitals to modern sanitation and
hygiene.
AUTHORITIES. For English readers the standard work is H. H.
Bancroft, Collected Works (Histories of the Pacific States, Central
America, &c., vols. x.-xiv. (Mexico, 1521-1887) with vols. xv., xvi.
1 Don Augustin Iturbide, grandson of the emperor, godson and
(perhaps) at one time the destined heir of Maximilian, was turned
out of the army and imprisoned in 1890 for abusing President Diaz.
'For a full account of the works see J. B. Body in Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, cxliii. 286, sqq.
344
MEXICO MEXICO CITY
^ and vol xvii. (New Mexico, &c.). Mention may also be
of Gaston Rou ier's Histoire de Mexique (1895). Standard
Mexican authorities are: C. M. de Bustamante Quadra history
- Lucas
d
.
6 vo s. (Mexico, 1832-1846),
de la revolution mexicana, 6 vo is. I lexico, ">3z-'4<v. r?
Alaman, Historia de Mexico (Mexico, 1849-1852); N. de Zamacois,
Historia de Mexico desde sus tempos mas remotos teto nostrasdias,
Vc I vols. (Barcelona, 1876-1882); 5- E. Hern4ndez y Dayalos Co/ec-
L de document para la historic, dt la Independence (Mexico
6 vols). A huge and informat.ve illustra ed ^ work, ^trf by^usl
handy cronce
de Mexico hasta el ano de 1900 (Mexico and Madrid, 1902). tor the
colonial period, Alexander v. Humboldt, Essai pohtique sur la.
royaume de la Nouvelle Espagne (Paris, 1811, 2 vols and atlas; also
an English translation). For the war with the United States see
R S. Ripley, The War with Mexico (New York, 1849); E. D. Mans-
field, The Mexican War (New York, 1849); and Wmfield Scott s
Memoirs. For Maximilian, the Blue-books on Mexican affairs
contained in Accounts and Papers (presented to parliament), vol.
Ixv 1862, and vol. Ixiv. 1863, are valuable ; E. de Keratry, La Crjance
Jecker I'empereur Maximilien, son elevation et sa chute (translated into
English by Venables) ; La Contre-guerilla frangaise au Mexique, are
specially noteworthy; Prince Felix Salm-Salm's Diary gives valuable
information as to Maximilian's decline and fall. Also Dela Gorce, His-
toire du second empire, vols. iv. v.; J. F. Domenech, L Empire^ mexi-
cain (Mexico, 1866), and Le Mexique tel qu il est (Pans, 1867) ; Daran,
El General Miguel Miramon (in French) (Rome, 1886) ; Schmidt von
Tavera Gesch. d. Regierung d. Kaisers Maximilian I. (Vienna, 1903).
Ulick Ralph Burke's Life of Benito Juarez (London, 1894) is of con-
siderable value and interest. For the period since 1887 information
in English must be sought chiefly in magazine articles: Matias
Romero, " The Garza Raid and its Lessons," North American Renew
(Sept 1892)' Don Agustin Iturbide, "Mexico under Diaz,' ibid.
(June 1894); Romero, "The Philosophy of Mexican Revolutions,^
ibid. (Jan. 1896) ; and C. F. Lummis, " The Awakening of a Nation
(New York, 1898, previously in Harper's Magazine), are valuable
as giving information (especially the last named) and points of view.
Van Dyke, " Politics in Mexico," Harper's Magazine (1885), vol.
Ixxi., gives particulars of the opposition to Gonzalez's debt conver-
sion scheme of 1884. President Diaz's message of November 1896,
giving an account of his stewardship from 1884 to that year, has
been translated into French (Rapport du General Porfirio Diaz . . .
a ses compatriotes sur les actes de son administration, &c.), edited
by Auguste Genin (Paris, 1897). The early constitutions of the
Republic have been published (in Spanish) in three volumes; a study
of that of 1857 by B. Moses (of the University of California) is in the
Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, II. i. .1891.
Various books, chiefly American, have been written on Mexico of
late years from a tourist's standpoint. Mrs Alec Tweedie's Mexico
as I saw it (London, 1901) and Life of Porfirio Diaz (1906) contain
valuable information personally obtained from good authorities
in Mexico. See also Percy F. Martin, Mexico of the Twentieth Century,
2 vols. (London, 1907) ; and C. R. Enock, Mexico (1909). (J. S. MA.)
MEXICO, a state of the republic of Mexico, bounded N. by
Hidalgo, E. by Tlaxcala and Puebla, S. by Morelos and Guerrero,
and W. by Michoacan. Pop. (1900), 934,468, largely Indian.
Area, 9247 sq. m., a large part of which lies within that great
depression of the Mexican plateau known as the Valley of
Mexico. Enclosed within its boundaries, except on the south,
is the Federal District and capital city of Mexico with an area
of 463 sq. m., which is not included in that of the state. The
state is divided into two unequal parts by the Sierra de Ajusco
and Monies de las Cruces, which form a wooded ridge across it
from east to west, with a general elevation of about 10,000 ft.
above sea-level, or about 2500 above the plateau level. These
ranges are part of a broken irregular chain which sometimes
bears the name of Anahuac. A considerable part of the northern
plateau consists of a broad plain, once the bed of a great lake
but now covered with swamps, sodden meadows and lakes.
The surrounding country drains into this depression, but an arti-
ficial outlet has been created by the opening of the Tequixquiac
tunnel. Beyond its margin the plateau drains westward to the
Pacific through the Lerma, and north-east to the Gulf through
the San Juan and Panuco. South of the Sierra de Ajusco the
country is roughly mountainous and drains to the Pacific
through tributaries of the Balsas. Within the lacustrine de-
pression of the north are the lakes of Zumpango, San Cristobal,
Xaltocan, Chalco, Xochimilco, and Texcoco, the latter three
lying partly or wholly in the Federal District. Texcoco has the
lowest level and its water is brackish and undrinkable, though
that of the streams flowing into it and of the other lakes is sweet.
Lake Xochimilco is celebrated for its " floating gardens " or
chinampas (see MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF). The principal
ndustries of the state are agricultural, and the principal pro-
ducts are cereals, sugar, maguey (from which "pulque" is
made), coffee, and fruit. Stock-raising has also had a profitable
development, owing to the proximity of the national capital.
The manufacturing industries are important; among the
manufactures are cotton and woollen fabrics, flour, dairy pro-
ducts, glass-ware, pottery, bricks, wines and spirits. The
making of " pulque " from the sap of the maguey plant (Agave
americana) is the chief industry of the state, and the product
is exported in large quantities to the national capital. The
state is traversed by the Central, National, Mexican International
and Interoceanic railways, and by short lines from the national
capital to neighbouring towns. The capital is Toluca, and other
important towns are Zumpango (pop. 5942 in 1900), 30 m. N.
of the national capital, Tenango del Valle (5881 in 1900), 15 m.
S.E. of Toluca, and Lerma (estimated, 7200), near the western
frontier of the state.
MEXICO, a city and the county-seat of Audrain county,
Missouri, U.S.A., N.E. of the centre of the state, and about
no m. N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1800), 4789; (1900), 5099,
including 948 negroes and in foreign-born; (1910), 5939. It is
served by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the Wabash railway systems. Mexico is the seat
of Hardin College and Conservatory of Music (Baptist, 1873),
for young women, an institution founded and endowed by
Charles H. Hardin (1820-1892), governor of the state in 1872-
1874, and of the Missouri Military Academy (1889). The city is
situated in the blue grass region of Missouri, and is a shipping-
point for horses and mules. Among the manufactures are flour,
shoes and fire-clay products. Mexico was laid out as " New
Mexico " in 1836, and became the county-seat under its present
name in 1837. It was incorporated as a town in 1855, was
entered by the Wabash road in 1858 and by the Alton in 1872,
and was first chartered as a city in 1874.
MEXICO CITY, capital of the Republic of Mexico and chief
town of the Federal District, near the southern margin of the
great central plateau of Mexico, in lat. 19 25' 45" N., long.
99 7' W. It is about 200 m. in a direct line W. by N. of Vera
Cruz, its nearest port on the Gulf of Mexico, with which it is
connected by two railway lines, one of which is 264 m. long; and
about 181 m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Acapulco, its nearest
port on the Pacific, with which it is connected partly by rail
and partly by a rough mountain trail (the camino real) to the
coast. Pop. (1900), 344,721.
The city stands on a small plain occupying the south-western
part of a large lacustrine depression known as the Valley of
Mexico (El Valle de Mexico), about 3 m. from the western shore
of Lake Texcoco, whose waters once covered a considerable
part of the ground now occupied by the city. The Valley,
including the drainage basin of Lake Zumpango, has an area
of 2219 sq. m. (1627 sq. m. without that basin). The elevation
of the city above sea-level is 7415 ft., only a few feet above the
level of Lake Texcoco. The general elevation of the Valley
is about 7500 ft., that of Lake Zumpango being 7493 ft., and
of Lake Chalco 7480 ft. The rim of the Valley is formed by
spurs of the transverse cordillera on the north and south sides
the Sierra de Guadalupe (650 to 750 ft. above the city) on the
north, and the Sierra Nevada with its snow-clad peaks of
Popocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl farther away to the south-east
and by a part of the Sierra de Ajusco, known as the Monies de
las Cruces, from which the greater part of the city's water supply
is derived. Lake Texcoco (Tezcoco or Tezcuco) is a compara-
tively shallow body of brackish water, with an area of about
iij sq. m., and is fed by a number of small streams from the
neighbouring mountains, and by the overflow of the other lakes.
Its shores are swampy and desolate and show considerable belts
of saline incrustations with the fall in its level. The Aztecs
settled there because of the security afforded by its islands and
shallow waters their city, Tenochtitl&n, being so completely
surrounded by water that a handful of warriors could easily
MEXICO CITY
345
defend its approaches against a greatly superior force. The
Chalco and Xochimilco lakes, 8 or 9 m. to the southward, which
are separated by a narrow ridge of land, are connected with the
lower part of the city by an artificial canal, called " La Viga,"
16 m. long and 30 ft. wide, which serves as an outlet for the
overflow of those lakes and as a waterway for the natives who
bring in flowers and vegetables for sale. Lake Xochimilco,
celebrated for itschinampas, or " floating gardens" (see MEXICO,
FEDERAL DISTRICT OF), is supplied very largely by fresh-water
springs opening within the lake itself, which the city has partially
diverted for its own water supply. Lake Chalco is also greatly
reduced in size by railway fillings and irrigation works, to the
great distress of the natives who have gained their living by
fishing in its waters since long before the Spanish conquest.
The climate of the city is temperate, dry and healthful.
The temperature ranges from a minimum of 35 F. in winter
to a maximum of 79 in summer. The winter range is 35 to
68, and the summer 50 to 79. The nights are always cool.
The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the former from
April to September, the latter from October to March. The
rainfall, however, is light, about 20 to 25 in., but, with the
assistance of irrigation, it serves to sustain a considerable degree
of cultivation in the neighbourhood of the city. The health of
the city, unfortunately, does not correspond with its favourable
climatic conditions. With a wet, undrained subsoil and a large
population of Indians and half-breeds living in crowded quarters,
the death-rate has been notoriously high, though the completion
of the Valley drainage works in 1900, supplemented by under-
ground sewers in the better parts of the city, and by better
sanitation, have recently improved matters. The annual death-
rate per 1000 was 54 per 1000 for the Federal District in
1901, 50 in 1902, 48 in 1903, 46 in 1904, and 56 in 1905; the
increase for the last-mentioned year being due to an epidemic of
typhus fever.
The city is laid out with almost unbroken regularity and is
compactly built the streets running nearly with the cardinal
points of the compass. The new and better residence sections are
on the western side; the poorer districts are on the eastern side
nearer the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. As the name of
a street changes with almost every block, according to the old
Spanish custom, a list of street names is sometimes mistakenly
accepted as the number of continuous thoroughfares in the city,
so that it has been said that Mexico has 600 to 900 streets and
alleys. An attempt was made in 1889 to rename the streets
all running east and west to be called avenidas, all running north
and south calles, and all continuous thoroughfares to have but
one name but the people clung so tenaciously to the old names
that the government was compelled to restore them in 1907.
Outside the Indian districts of the eastern and southern out-
skirts, the streets are paved with asphalt and stone, lighted with
electricity and gas, and served with an efficient street railway
service. The political and commercial centre of the city is the
Plaza Mayor, or Plaza de la Constitution, on which face the
cathedral, national palace, and municipal palace. Grouped
about the Plaza de Santo Domingo are the old convent and
church of Santo Domingo, the court of the Inquisition now
occupied by the School of Medicine, the offices of the Department
of Communicaciones, and the old custom-house (aduana). Close
by are the old church of the Jesuits and the mechanics' school
(artes y oficios) with its large and well-equipped shops. Among
other well-known plazas are: Loreto, on which faces the great
enclosed market of the city; Guardiola, in the midst of hand-
some private residences; San Fernando, with its statue of
Vicente Guerrero; and Morelos, with its marble statue of the
national hero of that name. The Paseo de la Reforma, the
finest avenue of the city, is a broad boulevard extending from the
Avenida Juarez south-west to Chapultepec, a distance of nearly
three miles. At intervals are circular spaces, called "glorietas,"
with statues (the famous bronze equestrian statue of Charles IV.,
and monuments to Columbus, Cuauhtemoc the last of the Aztec
emperors, and Juarez). Other notable avenues are Bucareli and
Juarez, and the Avenida de la Viga, which skirts the canal of
that name. The principal business streets runs westward from
the Plaza Mayor toward the Alameda, and is known as the Calle
de los Plateros (Silversmiths' Street) for two squares, Calle de
San Francisco for three squares, and Avenida Juarez along the
south side of the Alameda to its junction with the Paseo. The
Alameda, or public garden, J m. west of the Plaza Mayor, covers
an area of 40 acres, and occupies the site of the old Indian
market and place of execution, where occurred the first auto-da-
fe in Mexico in 1574.
The great cathedral stands on or near the site of the Aztec
temple (teocalli) destroyed by Cortes in 1521. The foundations
were laid in 1573, the walls were completed in 1615, the roof was
finished m 1623, its consecration took place in 1645 and its dedica-
tion in 1667, the towers were completed in 1791, and the great
church was finished about 1811. It is 426 ft. in length by 197 ft.
m width, and its towers rise to a height of 204 ft. Its general plan
is that of a Greek cross, with two great naves and three aisles,
twenty side-chapels and a magnificent high altar supported by
marble columns and surrounded by a tumbago balustrade with
sixty-two tumbago statues carrying elaborate candelabra made
from a rich alloy of gold, silver and copper. The elaborately carved
choir is also enclosed by tumbago railings made in Macao, weighing
26 tons. The vaulted roof is supported by twenty Doric columns,
I So ft. in height, and the whole interior is richly carved and gilded.
The walls are covered with rare paintings. Standing close beside
the cathedral is the highly ornamented facade of a smaller church
called El Sagrario Metropolitano. The city has about sixty church
edifices, including La Profesa, Loreto, Santa Teresa, Santo Domingo
and San Hipolito. At the time of the secularization of Church
properties there were about 120 religious edifices in the city
churches, convents, monasteries, &c. many of which were turned
over to secular uses.
The national palace, also on the Plaza Mayor, has a frontage of
675 ft. on the east of the Plaza, and covers a square of 47, 840 sq.
yds., or nearly 10 acres. It contains the executive offices of the
government and those of five cabinet ministers (interior, foreign
affairs, treasury, war and justice), the senate chamber, the general
archives, national museum, observatory and meteorological bureau.
The palace occupies the site of the residence of Moctezuma, which
was destroyed by the Spaniards, and that of Hernando Cortes,
which was also destroyed in 1692. It has three entrances on the
Plaza, and over its main gateway hangs the " liberty bell " of
Mexico, first rung by the humble parish priest Hidalgo, on the night
of the 1 6th of September 1810, to call the people of Dolores to
arms, and now rung at midnight on each recurring anniversary by
the president himself. The national museum, which occupies the
east side of the national palace, is rich in Mexican antiquities,
among which are the famous " calendar stone," 1 supposed to be of
Toltec origin, and the " sacrificial stone " found in the ruins of the
great teocalli destroyed by Cort6s. Near the cathedral is the monte
de piedad, or government pawnshop, endowed in 1775 by Pedro
Romero de Terreros (conde de Regla) with 75,000, and at one time
carrying on a regular banking business including the issue of bank-
notes. Its business is now limited to the issue of small loans on
personal property the aggregate sometimes reaching nearly
50,000 a month. The national library, which has upwards of
225,000 volumes, occupies the old St Augustine Church, dedicated
in 1692 and devoted to its present use by Juarez in 1867. It
contains an interesting collection of the busts of Mexican celebrities.
The academy of San Carlos and school of fine arts (founded in
1778) likewise contains good collections of paintings and statuary.
Among other institutions are the new post office, begun in 1902
and finished in 1907; the Mincria, occupied by the schools of mining
and engineering; the military school, occupying a part of the castle
of Chapultepec; the Iturbide palace, now occupied as a hotel; the
Iturbide theatre, occupied by the chamber of deputies, for which
a new legislative palace to cost 2,500,000 pesos was under con-
struction in 1909; the new palace of justice; the old mint, dating
from 1537; the new penitentiary, completed in 1900; the Pant6on,
with its monuments to the most celebrated Mexicans; the new
general hospital ; the jockey club on Plaza Guardiola, a new university
(1910) and new school edifices of modern design. The city is likewise
generously provided with hospitals and asylums.
The old Spanish edifices were very solidly constructed of stone,
and private residences were provided with iron gates and window
guards strong enough to withstand an ordinary assault. Private
houses were also provided with flat roofs (azaleas) and battlements,
which gave them great defensive strength, as well as a cool, secluded
retreat for their inmates in the evening. The old Moorish style of
building about an open court, or patio, prevails, and the living-
rooms of the family are on the second floor. The better residences
of the old style were commonly of two storeys the ground-floor
being occupied by shops, offices, stables and servants' quarters.
The more modern constructions of the Colonia Juarez and other
new residence districts are more attractive and pretentious in
appearance, but are less solidly built.
1 Bandelier thinks it should be called the " Stone of the Sun.'
34-6
MEXICO CITY
Mexico was formerly one of the worst drained large cities of the
New World, its subsoil being permanently saturated and its artificial
drainage being through open ditches into the San Lazaro Canal
which nominally discharged into Lake Texcoco. The difference in
level between the city and the lake being less than six feet and the
lake having no natural outlet, typhus fever became a common epi-
demic in its lower and poorer sections. The earliest effort to correct
this evil was by the Dutch engineer Maartens (Span., Martinez),
who planned a deep cutting through Nochistongo. Hill, north of the
city, to carry away the overflow of Lake Zumpango (7493 ft.
elevation) to the river Tula, a tributary of the Panuco. The cutting
was 13 m. long and is known as the Tajo de Nochistongo. It was
begun in 1607 a year when the city was completely flooded but
was not completed until 1789, and then it was found that the city
was still subject to partial inundations, although an enormous sum
of money and 70,000 lives of Indian labourers had been expended
upon it. The worst inundation in the history of the city occurred
in 1629, when its streets were covered to a depth of 3 ft. and
remained flooded until 1634. In 1856 President Ignacio Comonfort
invited tenders for drainage works conditional on the use of waste
waters for irrigation purposes, and the plan executed consists of a
canal and tunnel 43 m. long, starting from the east side and 4$ ft.
below the mean level of the city and running north to Zumpango
and thence eastward into a tunnel over 6 m. long, which discharges
into a small tributary of the Panuco river near the village of
Tequixquiac. The greatest depth of the tunnel is 308 ft. below the
surface. The works were inaugurated in 1900.
For the water supply the Aztecs used the main causeway through
their city as a dam to separate the fresh water from the hills from
the brackish water of Texcoco, and obtained drinking water from
a spring at the base of the hill of Chapultepec. The Spaniards
added three other springs to the supply and constructed two long
aqueducts to bring it into the city. Three other sources were
added during the igth century, and in 1899-1900 steps were taken
to secure a further supply from the Rio Hondo. Besides these there
are n public and 1375 private artesian wells in the city. All these
sources are estimated to yield about 220 to 230 litres per head.
Considerable attention has always been given to education in
Mexico, but in colonial times it was limited in scope, and to the
dominant classes. The old university of Mexico, with its faculties
of theology, law and medicine (founded 1551 and inaugurated 1553),
ceased to exist in 1865 and was succeeded by schools of engineering,
law and medicine, which have been signally successful. The
government also maintains schools of agriculture, commerce, fine
arts, music, pharmacy, technology, and an admirable preparatory
or high school, besides a large number of primary and secondary
schools for which modern school buildings have been erected.
Normal and industrial schools for both sexes are maintained, the
latter (artes y oficios) performing a very important service for the
poorer classes. In 1908 there were 353 government schools in the
city, including 13 professional and technical schools, and nearly
200 private schools. There are also several scientific organizations
and societies. The Mexican Geographical Society (Sociedad me\i-
cana de geografia y estadistica) , founded in 1833, has rendered
invaluable services in the work of exploration and publication;
there are also the Geological Society, the Association of Engineers
and Architects, and the Society of Natural History.
Through lack of water-power and cheap fuel Mexico has never
been rated as a manufacturing city. However, the development of
electric power, and the possibility of transmitting it for long dis-
tances, have worked a noteworthy change in this respect, and a
large number of industries have been added in recent years. The
largest of these electric-power plants is on the Necaxa and Tenango
rivers, in the state of Puebla, 92 m. from the city, which is designed
to furnish 40,000 horse-power for industrial and lighting purposes,
and a duplicate plant was decided upon in 1904. Another plant
is in the suburb of San Lazaro, the current being distributed by
over loo m. of underground mains in the. city and many miles of
overhead wires in its outskirts and suburbs. Other plants are at
San Ildefonso, 12 m. distant, and on the Churubusco river, 16 m.
south. According to a British consular report for 1904 there were
153 manufacturing establishments in the city producing cotton,
linen and silk textiles, leather, boots and shoes, alcohol and alcoholic
beverages, beer, flour, conserves and candied fruits, cigars and
cigarettes, Italian pastes, chocolate, starch, hats, oils, ice, furniture,
pianos and other musical instruments, matches, beds, candles,
chemicals, iron and steel, printing-type, paint and varnish, glass,
looking-glass, cement and artificial stone, earthenware, bricks and
tiles, soap, cardboard, papier machfi, cartridges and explosives,
white lead, perfumery, carriages and wagons, and corks. To
these should be added the foundries and iron-working shops
which add so much to the prosperity of modern Mexico.
Perhaps the most important of these manufactories are the cotton
mills, of which there are 13, and the cigar and cigarette factories,
of which there are 10. In the suburbs, oils, chemicals, cigarettes
and bricks are made at Tacuba; cotton textiles at Contreras, San
Angel and Tlalpam; paper and boots at Tacubaya, and bricks at
Mixcoac and Coyoacan. A little farther away are the woollen
mills of San Ildefonso, the paper-mills of San Rafael, and important
works for the manufacture of railway rolling stock.
Tne railway connexions include direct communication with one
port on the Gulf coast and with two on the Pacific lines were
under construction in 1909 to two other Pacific ports and indirect
communication with two on the Gulf. The Mexican and Inter-
oceanic lines connect with Vera Cruz, the Mexican Central with
Manzanillo, via Guadalajara and Colima, and the Vera Cruz &
Pacific (from Cordoba) with the Tehuantepec line and the port of
Salina Cruz. The last-mentioned line also gives indirect connexion
with the port of Coatzacoalcos, and the Mexican Central, via San
Luis Potosi, with Tampico. A southern extension of the Mexican
Central, via Cuernavaca, has reached the Balsas river and will be
extended to Acapulco, once the chief Pacific port of Mexico and the
d<5p6t for the rich Philippine trade. A Mexican extension of the
(American) Southern Pacific which has been completed from Nogales
to Mazatlan is to be extended to Guadalajara, which will give the
national capital direct communication with the thriving ports of
Mazatlan and Guaymas. In addition to these, the Mexican Central
and Mexican National, now consolidated, give communicaton with
the northern capitals and the United States, and the Mexican
Southern runs southward, via Puebla, to the city of Oaxaca. These
railways, with the shorter lines radiating from the city, connect it
with nearly all the state capitals and principal ports.
The population by the census of 1900 was 344,721 an increase
of 14,947 over the returns of 1895. The great majority of the
inhabitants is composed of Indians and half-breeds, from whom
come the factory workers, labourers, servants, porters and other
menial wage-earners. In former times Mexico was overrun with
mendicants (pordioseros), vagrants and criminals (rateros), and the
" Portales de las Flores " on the east of the Plaza Mayor was a
favourite " hunting-ground " for them because of its proximity to
the cathedral; but modern conditions have largely reduced this
evil. The foreign population includes many capitalists and in-
dustrial managers who are doing much to develop the country,
the American colony being concentrated in a fine modern residential
district on the south-western side of the city.
History. The City of Mexico dates, traditionally, from the
year 1325 or 1327, when the Aztecs settled on an island in Lake
Texcoco. The Aztec name of the city was Tenochtitlan, derived
either from Tenoch, one of their priests and leaders, or
from tenuch, the Indian name for the " nopal," which is
associated with its foundation. The modern name is derived
from Mexitli, one of the names of the Aztec god of war
Huitzilopochtli, which name was later on applied also to the
Aztecs themselves. The island settlement, which was practi-
cally a lake-village built on islets some of them undoubtedly
artificial, and perched on stakes grew rapidly with the in-
creasing power and civilization of its inhabitants, who had
the remains of an earlier civilization (Tula, Teotihuacan, Cholula,
and other older towns) to assist in their development. About
the middle of the I5th century their mud-and-rush dwellings
were partly replaced by stone structures, grouped around the
central enclosure of the great teocalli, and bordering the cause-
ways leading to the mainland. The town had reached its
highest development when the Spaniards appeared in 1519, when
it is said to have had, including suburban towns, a total of 60,000
dwellings, representing about 300,000 inhabitants. It was at
that time about 12 m. in circumference, everywhere intersected
by canals, and connected with the mainland by six long and
solidly constructed causeways, as shown in the plan given in
the edition of Cortes's letters published at Nuremberg in 1524
(reproduced in vol. i. of H. H. Bancroft's History of Mexico,
San Francisco, 1883, p. 280). Allowance should be made for
the habit of exaggeration among the Spanish adventurers of
that time, and also for the diplomacy of Cortes in magnifying his
exploits to win the favour of his king. The truth is, without
doubt, that the dwellings of the lower classes were still built of
reeds and mud, and covered the greater part of the city's area,
otherwise it is impossible to understand how a mere handful of
Spanish soldiers, without tools and explosives, could so easily
have levelled it to the ground. After its almost total destruction
in November 1521, Cortes employed some 400,000 natives in
rebuilding the city on its former site. Since then the lake has
decreased greatly in extent, its area being reduced to n| sq. m.
and its shore-line being more than 3 m. distant from the
city it once surrounded. During Spanish rule the only break
in the ordinary course of events was the revolt of 1692, which
resulted in the destruction of the municipal buildings. The
city was not much disturbed by the struggle for independence,
MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
347
but it was afterwards the scene of many a revolution until the
dictatorial authority of Porfirio Diaz put an end to petty
pronunciamentos and partisan intrigues.
In the war between Mexico and the United States the most
decisive campaign was that of General Winfield Scott directed
against the Mexican capital. With the advanced guard of an
army of about 10,000 men he arrived on the loth of August
1847 at Ayolta, on the national road 16 m. south-east of the city;
but as the approaches from this direction were very strongly
fortified he cut a new road southward along the eastern shore
of Lake Chalco and westward along the southern shore of lakes
Chalco and Xochimilco to San Augustin, where his army arrived
on the 1 7th and i8th of August. The city was now 10 m.
distant by a direct road to the northward, but as the village of
San Antonio, only 3 m. ahead, was strongly fortified, another
short detour was made to the westward by cutting a road through
a field of broken lava. This movement brought the Americans
to the hill of Contreras, which was held by Geneial Valencia
with a force of some 7000 and 22 pieces of artillery, while
President Santa Anna was in the neighbourhood with reinforce-
ments numbering 12,000 or more. The Mexicans were routed
on the morning of the 2Oth of August after suffering heavy
losses. San Antonio was easily taken about noon of the same
day, and in the afternoon the main division of the Mexican
army was driven from the stone church and intrenchments at
Churubusco. Three days later General Scott agreed to an
armistice, but Mexico rejected the terms of peace, and hostilities
were resumed on the 7th of September. During the armistice
the American troops were quartered in and about the village
of Tacubaya, about 25 m. west by south of the city. Near
Tacubaya, on the north by west, were some massive stone build-
ings known as El Molino del Rey, or the King's Mill. When
attacked by the Americans under the immediate command of
General W. J. Worth in the early morning of the 8th of September'
these buildings were defended by more than 10,000 Mexicans
under Generals Leon, Alvarez and Perez, and they were captured
only after a most desperate fight, which cost the Americans 787
killed and wounded and the Mexicans at least 2000 killed,
wounded, and prisoners. To enter the city by way of the
Tacubaya causeway it was still necessary for the Americans to
capture Chapultepec. This hill, defended by about 4000
Mexicans under General Nicolas Bravo, was bombarded on
the 1 2th of September, and was carried by assault on the I3th.
On the following day the City of Mexico surrendered. It was
then occupied by the American army under General Winfield
Scott, and held by them until the signing of the treaty of
Guadalupe-Hidalgo (May 1848).
The French intervention of 1861 led to a second occupation
by a foreign power a French military force under General Forey
taking possession in June 1863. Maximilian, archduke of
Austria, was crowned emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in
June 1864, and held possession of the capital until the 2ist of
June 1867, when it was captured by General Porfirio Diaz.
Earthquake shocks are of frequent occurrence, but the city
rarely suffers any material damage. The great earthquake
shocks of the 3Oth and 3ist of July 1909, however, caused
considerable damage in the city, and a few lives were lost.
For further description see H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico
(6 vols., San Francisco, 1883); Robert S. Barrett, Standard Guide
to the City of Mexico and Vicinity (Mexico : 1900) ; Thomas A. Janvier,
The Mexican Guide (5th ed., New York, 1890) ; D. Charnay, Ancient
Cities of the. New World (Eng. ver., New York, 1887); and the
Piano de la ciudad de Mexico, in the Dicciona.no enciclopedico
hispano-americano (Barcelona, 1893), xii. 74-
MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF, a territory set apart
for the independent and exclusive use of the Mexican Federal
Government, occupying the south-eastern part of the Valley of
Mexico, and taken from and lying within the State of Mexico,
which forms its boundaries on all sides except the south where it
touches the state of Morelos. Pop. (1900), 540,478, largely Indian
and half-breeds; area, 463 sq. m., or accordingly to later com-
putation 1498! sq. kilom. (5785 sq. m.). The district is very
irregular in outline, its greatest length (N.W. to S.E.) being 30 m.,
and its greatest breadth 25 m. It was formerly divided into one
urban municipality and four rural prefectures, but under the law
of the 26th of March 1903 it is divided into 13 municipalities,
Mexico, Guadalupe-Hidalgo. Atzcapotzalco, Tacuba, Tacubaya,
Mixcoac, Cuajimalpa, San Angel, Coyoacan, Tla!pam,Xochimilco,
Milpa Alta and Ixtapalapa; the first of these comprises the
national capital and its immediate suburbs, and the other 1 2 the
unequal divisions of the district with a considerable number of
towns and villages. Indians and half-breeds form more than one-
half of the rural population engaged in agriculture and gardening,
beside which there is a large percentage employed in manufac-
turing industries. The government of the district is exercised by
the national executive in accordance with the organic law of 1903,
though some measure of popular government is vested in
municipal councils (ayuntamientos) elected by popular vote for
terms of four years. These councils have lost much of their
original legislative character, but they must be consulted in
matters of local importance, such as water supply, sanitary
works, and the exploitation or sale of municipal property, and
in regard to all contracts affecting the municipality. They can
veto by a two-thirds vote the execution of any contract or
administrative project, which then, at the end of four months,
if again vetoed must be taken before the President of the
Republic for adjudication. The administrative officers, who
are appointed by the national executive, consist of a governor
of the federal district, the director -general of public works,
and the president of the superior board of health. The three
form a superior council of district government which exercises
a supervisory and advisory power, " revising, confirming,
reforming or revoking the acts of each one of the members of
the council, whenever these acts are called in question." The
council also exercises a general supervision of the making of
contracts. The governor represents the national government,
and has special charge of the fire and police departments, prisons,
imposition of penalties for violation of ordinances, public diver-
sions and festivities, civil registry, street traffic, inspection of
weights and measures, and the sale of intoxicating liquors. The
director-general of public works has special charge of the water
supply, streets and roads, parks, monuments, public lighting,
drainage, street cleaning, public buildings not under federal
control, cemeteries, slaughter-houses and markets, building
operations, and all municipal or communal property. The
president of the superior board of health has charge of all
sanitary works, general sanitary inspection, the sanitary adminis-
tration of markets, slaughter-houses and cemeteries, and the
introduction of meats from other localities. The government
of the district is copied, in part, from that of the District of
Columbia in the United States, but its citizens are not dis-
franchised. They elect the ayuntamientos, which exercise no
slight influence in local affairs, and, like any state, elect senators
and deputies to the National Congress.
The principal towns of the district, some of which arc merely
suburbs of the capital, are Guadalupe, Tacubaya, Tlalpam and
Xochimilco. Within the municipal limits of Mexico City are
Chapultepec, Santa Anita and the hot springs of El Penqn, which are
popular suburban resorts easily reached by the ordinary urban
tramway service. Chapultepec (Grasshopper Hill) is an isolated
rock nearly 200 ft. high surrounded by a beautiful park and sur-
mounted by a fortified structure called the " Castle," containing
the summer residence of the president and the national military
school. A finely graded road leads to the summit. The park
contains a grove of old cypress trees (Taxodium distichum, called
" ahuehuetes " by the natives), one of which is 45 ft. in circum-
ference and nearly 200 ft. high. The hill is nearly 3 m. south-west
of the city and once commanded one of its principal causeway
approaches. It was assaulted and captured by the American
forces under General Winfield Scott on the I3th of September 1847,
after a stubborn resistance. A monument to the cadets of the
military school who died in this battle stands in the park. The
castle, which was built by the viceroys, was greatly embellished by
the emperor Maximilian, who planned for it the drive known as
the Paseo de la Reforma. Of the neighbouring towns Guadalupe
or Guadalupe-Hidalgo (pop. 5834 in 1900), 2J m. north by east
from Mexico City, near the shore of Lake Texcoco, is chiefly known
for its shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe, who is said to have appeared
there to the Indian Juan Diego in 1531. The shrine stands on the
348
MEXICO, GULF OF MEYER, J. L.
principal plaza and is visited by many thousands of pilgrims during
the year, whose pious contributions have so enriched the church that
its sacred vessels, altar-rails, candelabra and other accessories are
estimated to contain fifty tons of silver. The treaty of peace
between Mexico and the United States was signed here on the 2nd
of February 1848. Tacubaya (pop. 18,342 in 1900), on the lower
slopes of the Monies de las Cruces, about 5 m. west-southwest of the
city, with which it is connected by rail, is noted for its fine old
residences and beautiful gardens. The National Astronomical
Observatory occupies a fine modern edifice. At Popotla is an aged
tree under which, according to tradition, Cortes sat and wept after
his terrible retreat from the Aztec capital on the noche tnste.
Farther south on the lowest slopes of the mountain range are San
Angel and Tlalpam, the latter (pop. 4732 in 1900) standing partly
on the plain 12 m. south by west of the capital. In both much
attention is given to floriculture, and both are favourite country
residences of the richer citizens. Xochimilco (field of flowers),
(pop. 10,712 in 1900) on the west shore of the lake of that name
and 10 m. south by east of the city, is an Indian town dating long
before the discovery of America. It lies in the midst of a fertile
plain devoted to the production of fruit, vegetables and flowers for
the city markets. Its gardens are carried out on the shallow lake
by floating masses of water-plants covered with soil and secured by
poplar stakes, which, taking root, soon surround them with living
boundaries. These remarkable and productive gardens, called
chinampas, have -so increased in number and extent that the lake
is practically covered by them, with the exception of the waterways,
which are kept open by scooping up mud from the bottom. From
the lake a broad canal runs northward to the eastern suburbs of
the city. It is known as the Viga, and is believed to have been
opened by the Aztecs for the transportation of garden produce to
their island capital.
MEXICO, GULF OF, a mediterranean gulf almost surrounded
by the coasts of the United States and Mexico, and forming the
northern division of the extension westward of the west Atlantic
trench (see ATLANTIC OCEAN). Its southern boundary is defined
by the partly submerged ridge which extends eastwards from
the peninsula of Yucatan, and on which the island of Cuba is
situated:' to the east it communicates directly with the Atlantic
by the Strait of Florida. On the western side of Yucatan a
southerly embayment is formed by the Gulf of Campeachy. The
United States coast closely follows the parallel of 30 N., while
the parallel of 20 N. cuts across the Gulf of Campeachy: the
greatest length Vera Cruz to Florida is 1120 m., and greatest
width Galveston to Campeachy 680 m. The total area is
approximately 716,000 sq. m.
The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the so-called " Sigsbee "
deep, lies below the line of 2000 fathoms, between 23 and
25! N., and 84^ to 95 W. It is widest to the west, where the
breadth is about 120 m., and narrows to 25 m. at its greatest
depth (2119 fathoms) between 86 and 88 W., widening again
to some 80 m. farther eastward. The continental shelf is for the
most part narrow: its breadth is 6 m. at Cape Florida, 120 m.
along the west coast of Florida, 10 m. at the south pass of the
Mississippi, 130 m. near the boundary of Texas and Louisiana,
and 15 m. off Vera Cruz. The shores are low, sandy and marshy,
the coast-line being frequently doubled by lagoons. There are
no islands except the " Keys " of Florida and Yucatan, and
Cuba. The tides in the Gulf of Mexico are of comparatively
small range (springs rarely exceed 4 ft. and neaps i\ ft.), but a
remarkable feature is the exaggeration of the diurnal inequality
to such an extent as almost to extinguish the semi-diurnal tide
in the inner parts of the gulf, giving high and low water only once
daily. The mean level of the water in the Gulf of Mexico was
formerly given as about 40 in. above that of mean sea-level at
New York, but later reports on precise levellings from New
York to Biloxi through St Louis describe it vaguely as " some-
what higher." The current movement in the Gulf of Mexico
consists of a rotational movement in the direction of the hands of
a watch, the branch of the equatorial current which enters the
Caribbean Sea passing into the Gulf by the Strait of Yucatan
and issuing from it by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream,
which unites with the remainder of the northward moving
water, forming the Antilles current.
From March to September the prevailing winds are the north-
east trades; these undergo considerable modification on account
of the configuration of the surrounding land, and the rains
which accompany them are interrupted by spells of calm thick
weather, and rarely by northerly winds known as Nortfs del
hueso Colorado and Chocolateros. In the colder dry season,
from October to April, the climatic situation is dominated by
the relatively high temperature of the surface of the gulf,
causing a cyclonic inflow of air which is associated with the
strong northerly winds or " northers " prevailing on the western
side, more particularly along the Mexican coast. The northers
sometimes blow with terrific force and are at times accompanied
by rain. The form and position of the Gulf of Mexico exercise
a profound influence on the climate of the whole of the southern
and south-eastern states of the Union, and indeed of the greater
part of North America. (H. N. D.)
MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (1801-1869),
German palaeontologist, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main, on
the 3rd of September 1801. In 1832 he issued a work entitled
Palaeologica, and in course of time he published a series of
memoirs on various fossil organic remains: mollusca, Crustacea,
fishes and higher vertebrata. His more elaborate researches
were those on the Carboniferous amphibia, the Permian reptiles,
the Triassic amphibia and reptiles, and the reptiles of the
Lithographic slates; and the results were embodied in his great
work Zur Fauna der Vorwelt (1845-1860), profusely illustrated
with plates drawn on stone by the author. He was associated
with W. Dunker and K. A. Zittel in the publication of the
Palaeontographica, which began in 1851. He was awarded the
Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1858.
He died on the 2nd of April 1869.
MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873),
German Protestant divine, was born at Gotha on the loth of
January 1800. He studied theology at Jena, and eventually
became (1841) pastor, member of the consistory, and super-
intendent at Hanover. He died on the 2ist of June 1873. He is
chiefly noted for his valuable Kritischexegelischer Kommentar
zum Neuen Testament (16 vols.), which began to appear in 1832,
was completed in 1859 with the assistance of J. E. Huther,
Friedrich Diisterdieck and G. K. G. Lunemann, and has been
translated into English. New editions have been undertaken
by such scholars as A. B. Ritschl, B. Weiss, H. Wendt, K. F. G.
Heinrici, W. Beyschlag and F. A. E. Sieffert.
Meyer also published an edition of the New Testament, with
a translation (1829) and a Latin version of the symbolical
books of the Lutheran Church (1830).
He is not to be confounded with JOHANN FRIEDRICH VON MEYER
(1772-1849), the senator of Frankfort, who published a translation
of the Bible in 1819 (Die heilige Schrift in berichtigter Ubersetzung
mil kurzen Anmerkungen ; 2nd ed., 1823 ; 3rd ed., 1855).
MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (1830-1895), German chemist,
was born on the igth of August 1830, at Varel in Oldenburg.
He was the son of a physician, and went to study medicine first
at Zurich University in 1851, and then, two years later, at
Wiirzburg, where he had R. Virchow as his teacher in pathology.
The influence of C. F. W. Ludwig, under whom he studied at
Zurich, decided him to devote his attention to physiological
chemistry, and therefore he went, after his graduation (1854), to
Heidelberg, where R. Bunsen held the chair of chemistry. There
he was so influenced by G. R. Kirchhoff's mathematical teaching
that he took up the study of mathematical physics at Konigsberg
under F. E. Neumann. In 1859 he beca'me privat-docent in
physics and chemistry at Breslau, where in the preceding year
he had graduated as Ph. D. with a thesis on the action of carbon
monoxide on the blood. In 1866 he accepted a post in the School
of Forestiy at Neustadt-Eberswalde, but soon moved to Carlsruhe
Polytechnic. During the Franco-German campaign the Poly-
technic was used as a hospital, and he took an active part in the
care of the wounded. Finally, in 1876, he became professor of
chemistry at Tubingen, where he died on the nth of April 1895.
His name is best known for the share he had in the periodic
classification of the elements. He noted, as did J. A. R. New-
lands in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their
atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chemical
and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervals; and
in particular he showed that if the atomic weights are plotted
MEYER, K. F. MEYERBEER
34Q
as ordinates and the 'atomic volumes as abscissae, the curve
obtained presents a series of maxima and minima, the most
electro-positive elements appearing at the peaks of the curve in
the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modernen
Theorien der Chemie, which was first published in Breslau in 1864,
contains a discussion of relations between the atomic weights
and the properties of the elements. In 1882 he received from the
Royal Society, at the same time as D. J. Mendeleeff, the Davy
medal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law. A
younger brother, O. E. Meyer, became professor of physics at
Breslau in 1864.
MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898), Swiss poet and
novelist, was born at Zurich on the nth of October 1825. After
studying law at the university, he went for considerable periods
to Lausanne, Geneva and Paris, and in Italy interested himself
in historical research. In 1875 he settled at Kilchberg near
Zurich, was created in 1880 a doctor philosophiae honoris causa
by that university, and died at Kilchberg on the 28th of Novem-
ber 1898. After Gottfried Keller, Konrad Meyer is the most
important Swiss poet of modern times, though as a novelist he
was perhaps more successful. -His poetical works include
Balladen (1867); Romanian und Bilder (1870); the epic poem,
Huttens letzte Tage (1871); and Gedichte (1882; 2oth ed., 1901).
Among his novels must be specially mentioned Jurg Jenatsclt
(1876; 20th ed., 1894); Der Schuss von der Kanzel (1878); Der
Heilige (1880; I2th ed., 1894; English by M. von Wendheim,
Thomas a Becket, the Saint, 1885); Die Richterin (1885); Die
Versuchung des Pescara (1887); Angela Borgia (1891). His
shorter stories were collected in two volumes in 1885 (sth ed.,
1892).
See A. Reitler, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1885); Lina Frey,
K. F. Meyer's Gedichte und Novellen (1892) ; K. E. Kranzos, K. F.
Meyer (1899) ; A. Frey, K. F. Meyer (1900) ; H. Kraeger, K. F. Meyer:
Ouellen und Wandlungen seiner Gedichte (1901); B. Meyer, K. F.
Meyer in der Erinnerung seiner Schwester (1904) ; Briefwechsel zwischen
Luise von Francois und K. F, Meyer, herausg. von A. Bettelheim
(1905) ; A. Langmesser, K. F. Meyer (1905).
MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (1840- ), French
philologist, was born in Paris on the i7th of January 1840. He
was educated at the Ecole des Chartes, and in 1863 was attached
to the manuscript department of the Bibliothequfe Nationale.
In 1876 he became professor of the languages and literatures of
southern Europe at the College de France. In 1882 he was made
director of the Ecoie des Chartes, and a year later was nominated
a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He was one of the
founders of the Revue critique, and a founder and the chief con-
tributor to Romania (1872). Paul Meyer began with the study
of old Provencal literature, but subsequently did valuable work
in many different departments of romance literature, and ranks
as the chief modern authority on the French language. He is
the author of Rapports sur les documents manuscrits de I'ancienne
litterature de la France consents dans les bibliotheques de la Grande
Brelagne (1871); Recueil d'anciens textes bas-latins, provenQaux et
franc_ais (2 parts, 1874-1876); Alexandre le Grand dans la liltera-
lure franfaise du moyen age (2 vols., 1886). He edited a great
number of old French texts for the Sociele des anciens textes
franqais, the Societe de I'histoire de France and independently.
Among these may be mentioned Aye d' Avignon (1861), with
Guessard; Flamenc,a (1865) ; the Histoire of Guillaume le Marechal
(3 vols., 1892-1902); Raoul de Cambrai (1882), with A. Longrion;
Fragments d'une vie da Saint Thomas de Cantorbery (1885);
Guillaume de la Barre (1894).
MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897), German chemist, was born at
Berlin on the Sth of September 1848, and studied at Heidelberg
University under R. W. Bunsen, H. F. M. Kopp, G. R. Kirchhoff
and H. L. F. Helmholtz. At the age of twenty he entered
J. F. W. A. Baeyer's laboratory at Berlin, attacking among
other problems that of the composition of camphor. In 1871, on
Baeyer's recommendation, he was engaged by H. von Fehling
as his assistant at Stuttgart Polytechnic, but within a year he
left to succeed J. Wislicenus at Zurich. There he remained for
thirteen years, and it was during this period that he devised his
well-known method for determining vapour densities, and carried
out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882,
on the death of W. Weith (1844-1881), professor of chemistry at
Zurich University, he undertook to continue the lectures on
benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of thiophen.
In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Hans Hubner (1837-1884) in
the professorship of chemistry at GSttingen, where stereo-
chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in
1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was
appointed to the chair of chemistry in Heidelberg. He died
on the Sth of August 1897. In recognition of his brilliant
experimental powers, and his numerous contributions to
chemical science, he was awarded the Davy medal by the
Royal Society in 1891.
MEYERBEER, GIACOMO (1791-1863), German composer,
first known as Jakob Meyer Beer, was born at Berlin on the sth
of September 1791,! of a wealthy and talented Jewish family.
His father, Herz Beer, was a banker; his mother, Amalie (nee
Wulf), was a woman of high intellectual culture; and two of his
brothers distinguished themselves in astronomy and literature.
He studied the pianoforte, first under Lauska, and afterwards
under Lauska's master, Clementi. When seven years old he
played Mozart's Concerto in D Minor in public, and at nine he was
pronounced the best pianist in Berlin. For composition he was
placed under Zelter, and then under Bernard Weber, director of
the Berlin opera, by whom he was introduced to the Abbe Vogler.
Vogler invited him to Darmstadt, and in 1810 received him into
his house, where he formed an intimate friendship with Karl
Maria von Weber, who also took daily lessons in counterpoint,
fugue and extempore organ-playing. At the end of two years
the grand duke appointed Meyerbeer composer to the court. His
first opera, Jephtha's Gelubde, failed lamentably at Darmstadt
in 1811, and his second, Wirth und Cast (Alimelek], at Vienna in
1814. These checks discouraged him so cruelly that he feared
he had mistaken his vocation. Nevertheless, by advice of Salieri
he determined to study vocalization in Italy, and then to form
a new style. But at Venice he was so captivated by Rossini that,
renouncing all thought of originality, he produced a succession
of seven Italian operas Romilda e Costanza, Semiramide ricono-
sciuta, Eduardo e Cristina, Emma di Resburgo, Margherila
d'Anjou, L'Esule di Granata and // Crociato in Egitto which all
achieved a success as brilliant as it was unexpected. Against
this act of treason to German art Weber protested most earnestly;
and before long Meyerbeer himself grew tired of his defection.
An invitation to Paris in 1826 led him to review his position
dispassionately, and he came to the conclusion that he was
wasting his powers. For several years he produced nothing in
public; but, in concert with Scribe, he planned his first French
opera, Robert le Diable. This gorgeous spectacle was produced
at the Grand Opera in 183 r. It was the first of its race, a* grand
romantic opera, with situations more theatrically effective than
any that had been attempted either by Cherubini or Rossini,
and with ballet music such as had never yet been heard, even in
Paris. Its popularity exceeded all expectations; yet for five
years Meyerbeer appeared before the public no more.
His next opera, Les Huguenots, was first performed in 1836.
In gorgeous colouring, rhetorical force, consistency of dramatic
treatment, and careful accentuation of individual types, it is
at least the equal of Robert le Diable. In two points only did
its interest fall short of that inspired by the earlier work.
Meyerbeer had shown himself so eminently successful in his
treatment of the supernatural that one regretted the omission of
that element; and, more important still, the fifth act proved to
be an anti-climax. The true interest of the drama culminates
at the close of the fourth act, when Raoul, leaping from the
window to his death, leaves Valentine fainting upon the ground.
The opera now usually ends at the fourth act.
After the production of Les Huguenots Meyerbeer spent many
years in the preparation of his next greatest works L'Africaine
and Le Pr ophite. The libretti of both these operas were furnished
1 Or, according to some accounts, 1794.
35
MEYNELL MEZIERES, P. DE
by Scribe; and both were subjected to countless changes
in fact, the story of L'Africaine was more than once entirely
rewritten.
Meanwhile Meyerbeer accepted the appointment of kapell-
meister to the king of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin
where he produced Ein Feldlager in Schlesien, a German opera,
in which Jenny Lind made her first appearance in Prussia. Here
also he composed, in 1846, the overture to his brother Michael's
drama, Struensee. But his chief care at this period was bestowed
upon the worthy presentation of the works of others. He
began by producing his dead friend Weber's Euryanthe, with
scrupulous attention to the composer's original idea. With
equal unselfishness he procured the acceptance of Rienzi and
Derjliegende Hollander, the first two operas of Richard Wagner,
who, then languishing in poverty and exile, would, but for him,
have found it impossible to obtain a hearing in Berlin. With
Jenny Lind as prima donna and Meyerbeer as conductor, the
opera flourished brilliantly in the Prussian capital; but the
anxieties materially shortened the composer's life.
Meyerbeer produced Le Prop/idle at Paris in 1849. In 1854 he
brought out L'Etoile du nord at the Opera Comique, and in 1859
Le Pardon de Ploermel (Dinorah). His last great work, L'Afri-
caine, was in active preparation at the Academic when, on the
23rd of April 1863, he was seized with a sudden illness, and died
on the 2nd of May. L'Africaine was produced with pious
attention to the composer's minutest wishes, on the 28th of
April 1865.
Meyerbeer's genius was criticized by contemporaries with
widely different results. Mendelssohn thought his style exagger-
ated; Fetis thought him one of the most original geniuses of the
age; Wagner ungratefully calls him " a miserable music-maker,"
and " a Jewish banker to whom it occurred to compose operas."
The reality of his talent has been recognized throughout all
Europe; and his name will live so long as intensity of passion and
power of dramatic treatment are regarded as indispensable
characteristics of dramatic music. But his work shows that these
qualities, with the aid of an experienced stage-writer, may be
entirely independent of genuine musical insight.
MEYNELL, ALICE CHRISTIANA (1850- ), English poet
and essayist, was the daughter of T. J. Thompson. Her early life
was spent chiefly in Italy, and she was educated by her father.
Her first volume of verse, Preludes (1875), illustrated by her
sister Elizabeth, afterwards Lady Butler, attracted little public
notice, but the delicacy and beauty of the poems and especially
of the sonndt " Renunciation," were warmly praised by Ruskin.
She married in 1877 the well-known Roman Catholic journalist
and author Wilfrid Meynell, who became proprietor and editor
of the Weekly Register. Under W. E. Henley's editorship she
wrote Regularly in prose for the National Observer, and also later
for the Pall Mall Gazelle, the Saturday Review, &c. Her Poems
(1893), including much of the earlier volume of Preludes, brought
her at last more definitely before the public; and this was followed
in 1901 by another slender book of delicate verse, Later Poems.
Mrs Meynell also showed herself a fine critic of poetry by her
admirable selection, The Flower of the Mind (1897), an anthology
of English verse. She edited the Selected Poems (1894) of T. G.
Hake, the Poetry of Pathos and Delight (1896) of her intimate
friend Coventry Patmore, and the selections from Patmore in the
" Muses' Library." Her prose essays, remarkable for fineness
of culture and peculiar restraint of style, appeared in successive
volumes as The Rhythm of Life (1893), The Colour of Life and
other Essays (1896), The Children (1897), and The Spirit of Place
(1898). Later books are London Impressions (1898) and The
Work of John S. Sargent (1903).
See W. Archer, Poets of the Younger Generation (1902).
MEYR, MELCHIOR (1810-1871), German poet, novelist and
philosopher, was born at Ehringen on the 28th of June 1810, and
died at Munich on the 22nd of April 1871. He read law and
philosophy at Heidelberg and Munich. His greatest success was
the Erzahlungen aus dem Ries (4th ed. Leipzig, 1892), remarkable
as an accurate and sympathetic picture of rural life and
character. He wrote also tragedies (Herzog Albrechl, 1851; Karl
der Kiihne, 1862), novels ( Vier Deutsche, 1861 ; Ewige Liebe, 1864),
and, in later life, philosophical works with a strong religious
tendency. Among these were Emilie (philosophical dialogues,
1863), Die Religion des Geistes (1871), Die Fortdauer nach dem
Tode (1869), Die Religion und ihre jetzt gebotene Fortbildung
(1871), and Gedanken uber Kunst, Religion und Philosophic
(1874). In these works he, attempted to develop a Deistic
system of philosophy. He was the author of an anonymous work
entitled Gespriiche mil einem Grobian (1866).
See MekUor Meyr. Biographisches, Briefe und Gedichte, edited by
Graf Bothmer and M. Carriere (Leipzig, 1874).
MEYRIFAB, a small semi-nomad tribe of Africans of Semitic
stock, settled on the east bank of the Nile near Berber. Con-
trary to Arab custom, it is said they never marry slaves.
MEZERAY, FRANCOIS EUDES DE (1610-1683), French
historian, was born at Rye near Argentan, where his father was a
surgeon. He had two brothers, one of whom, Jean Eudes, was
the founder of the order of the Eudists. Francois studied at the
university of Caen, and completed his education at the college
of Ste Barbe at Paris. His Histoire de France depuis Faramond
jusqu' a Louis le Juste (3 vols., 1643-1651), is a fairly accurate
summary of French and Latin chronicles. Mezeray was ap-
pointed historiographer of France, and in 1649, on the death of
Vincent Voiture, was admitted to the Academic Francaise. His
Abrege chronologique (3 vols., 1667-1668) went through fifteen
editions between 1668 and 1717; but he did not hesitate in this
work to attack the financiers, with the result that his salary as
historiographer was diminished by Colbert. Mezeray succeeded
Conrart as permanent secretary to the Academic Francaise
(1675), and died at Paris on the loth of July 1683. He trans-
lated Grotius's Traite de la religion chrttienne (1640), and a
Histoire des Turcs depuis 1612 jusqu'en 1649 (1650), which is an
addition to a continuation of Chalcondyles.
See Daniel de Larroque, Vie de Francois Eudes de Mezeray (1720) ;
vol. xiii. of Causeries du lundi by Sainte-Beuve, and Levavasseur's
Notice sur les trois freres: Jean Eudes, Francois Eudes, et Charles
Eudes (1855).
MEZIERES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1327-1405), French soldier and
author, was born at the chateau of Mezieres in Picardy. He
belonged to the poorer nobility, and first served under Lucchino
Visconti in Lombardy, but within a year he entered the service
of Andrew, king of Naples, who was assassinated in September
1345. In the autumn of that year he set out for the East in the
French army. After the battle of Smyrna in 1346 he was made
a knight, and when the French army was disbanded he made his
way to Jerusalem. He realized the advantage which the dis-
cipline of the Saracens gave them over the disorderly armies of
the West, and conceived the idea of a new order cf knighthood,
but his efforts proved fruitless. The first sketch ot the order was
drawn up by him in his Nova religio passionis (1367-1368; revised
and enlarged in 1386 and 1396). From Jerusalem he found his
way in 1347 to Cyprus to the court of Hugo IV., where he found
a kindred enthusiast in the king's son, Peter of Lusignan, then
count of Tripoli; but he soon left Cyprus, and had resumed his
career as a soldier of fortune when the accession of Peter to the
throne of Cyprus (Nov. 1358) and his recognition as king of
Jerusalem induced Mezieres to return to the island, probably in
1360, when he became chancellor. He came under the influence
of the pious legate Peter Thomas (d. 1366), whose friend and
biographer he was to be, and Thomas, who became patriarch
of Constantinople in 1364, was one of the chief promoters of the
crusade of 1365. In 1362 Peter of Cyprus, with the legate and
Mezieres, visited the princes of western Europe in quest of support
: or a new crusade, and when the king returned to the east he
eft Mezieres and Thomas to represent his case at Avignon and
n the cities of northern Italy. They preached the crusade
throughout Germany, and later Mezieres accompanied Peter to
Alexandria. After the capture of this city he received the
government of a third part of it and a promise for the creation
of his order, but the Crusaders, satisfied by the immense booty,
refused to continue the campaign. In June 1366 Mezieres was
MEZIERES MEZZOTINT
sent to Venice, to Avignon and to the princes of western Europe,
to obtain help against the Saracens, who now threatened the
kingdom of Cyprus. His efforts were in vain ; even Pope Urban V.
advised peace with the sultan. Mezieres remained for some
time at Avignon, seeking recruits for his order, and writing his
Vita S. Petri Thomasii (Antwerp, 1659), which is invaluable for
the history of the Alexandrian expedition. The Prefacio and
Epistola, which form the first draft of his work on the projected
order of the Passion, were written at this time.
Mezieres returned to Cyprus in 1368, but was still at Venice
when Peter was assassinated at Nicosia at the beginning of 1369,
and he remained there until 1372, when he went to the court of
the new pope Gregory XI. at Avignon. He occupied himself with
trying to establish in the west of Europe the feast of the Presen-
tation of the Virgin, the office of which he translated from Greek
into Latin. In 1373 he was in Paris, and he was thenceforward
one of the trusted counsellors of Charles V., although this king
had refused to be dragged into a crusade. He was tutor to his
son, the future Charles VI., but after the death of Charles V. he
was compelled, with the other counsellors of the late king, to go
into retirement. He lived thenceforward in the convent of the
Celestines in Paris, but nevertheless continued to exert an influ-
ence on public affairs, and to his close alliance with Louis of
Orleans may be put down the calumnies with which the Burgun-
dian historians covered his name. When Charles VI. freed
himself from the domination of his uncles the power of Mezieres
increased. To this period of his life belong most of his writings.
Two devotional treatises, the Contemplatio horae mortis and the
Soliloquium peccatoris, belong to 1386-1387. In 1389 he wrote
his Songs du vieil pelcrin, an elaborate allegorical voyage in which
he described the customs of Europe and the near East, and
advocated peace with England and the pursuit of the Crusade.
His Oratio tragedica, largely autobiographical, was written with
similar aims. In 1395 he addressed to Richard II. of England an
Epistre pressing his marriage with Isabella of France. The
Crusade of 1396 inspired Mezieres with no enthusiasm. The
disaster of Nicopolis on the 28th of September 1396 justified his
fears and was the occasion of his last work, the Epislre lamentable
et consolatoire, in which he put forward once more the principles
of his order as a remedy against future disasters. Mezieres died
in Paris on the 2gth of May 1405.
Some of his letters were printed in the Revue historique (vol. xlix. );
the two epistres just mentioned in Kervyn de Lettenhove's edition
of Froissart's Chroniques (vols. xv. and xvi.). The Songe du vergier
or Spmnium viridarii, written about 1376, is sometimes attributed
to him, but without definite proofs.
See Antoine Becquet, Gallicae coelestinorum congregationis
monasteries, fundationes .... (1719); the Abb< Jean Lebeuf's
Memoires in the Memoires of the Academy of Inscriptions, vols. xvi.
and xvii. (1752 and 1753) ; J. Delaville le Roulx, La France en Orient
au xiv. sfede (1886-1890); A. Molinier, Manuel de bibliographic
historique vol. iv. (1904) ; and especially the researches of N. Jorga,
published in the Bibliotheque de I'ecole des haules eludes vol. I IO (Paris
1896); and the same writer's Philippe de Mezieres, et la croisade
au xiv. sikcle (1896). Jorga gives a list of his works and of the MSS.
in which they are preserved, and analyses many of them. On the
Songe du vergier, see P. Paris, in Memoires vol. xv. (1843) of the
Academy of Inscriptions.
M&ZIERES, a town of northern France, capital of the
department of Ardennes, 55 m. N.E. of Reims by the Eastern
railway. Pop. (1906), town, 7007; commune, 9393. The
town itself, the streets of which are narrow and irregular,
is situated on the neck of a peninsula formed by a loop
of the Meuse. The river separates it .from its suburb of
Arches and the town of Charleville on the north and from
the suburb of Pierre on the south. Adjoining Pierre is
Mohon (pop. 5874), with metallurgical works. The fortifi-
cations of Mezieres, as well as the citadel still dominating
the town on the east, were built under Vauban's direction,
but were dismantled in 1885 and 1886. Immediately to the
east of the citadel runs a canal, which provides river-traffic with
a short cut across the isthmus. The parish church (i6th cent.)
contains inscriptions commemorating the raising of the siege of
Mezieres in 1521 and the marriage of Charles IX. with the
daughter of the emperor Maximilian II. (1570). The north and
south portals, the Renaissance tower at the west end, and the lofty
vaultings, are worthy of remark. The church, which suffered
severely in 1870-71, has since been restored. The prefecture
and the h6tel de ville, which contains several interesting pictures
relating to the history of the town, belong to the i8th century.
Mezieres is the seat of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and
there are manufactures of bicycles, and iron and steel castings
for motors, railway-carriages, &c.
Founded in the gth century, Mezieres was at first only a stiong-
hold belonging to the bishops of Reims, which afterwards became
the property of the counts of Rethel. The town was increased
by successive immigrations of the people of Liege, flying first
from the emperor Otto, and afterwards from Charles the Bold;
and also by concessions from the counts of Rethel. Walls were
built in the I3th century, and in 1521 it was defended against
the Imperialists by the Chevalier Bayard, to whom a statue was
erected in 1893. The anniversary of the deliverance is still
observed yearly on the 27th of September. In 1815 the Germans
were kept at bay for six weeks, and in 1871 the town only
capitulated after a bombardment during which the greater part
of it was destroyed.
MEZOTUR, a town of Hungary, in the county of Jasz-
Nagykun-Szolnok, 88 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),
25,367. It possesses important potteries. Large herds of cattle
are reared on the communal lands, which are productive also
of wheat, rapeseed and maize. Several well-attended fairs are
held here annually.
MEZZANINE (It. mezzano; Fr. entresol; Ger. Zwischengeschoss) ,
in architecture, a storey of small height introduced between two
lofty storeys, or sometimes employed to allow of the introduction
of two storeys equal together in height to lofty rooms on the
same floor.
MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE CASPAR (1774-1849), Italian
cardinal and linguist, was born on the i7th of September 1774,
at Bologna, and educated there. He was ordained priest in 1797,
and in the same year became professor of Arabic in the university,
but shortly afterwards was deprived for refusing to take the
oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic. In 1803 he was ap-
pointed assistant librarian of the institute of Bologna, and soon
afterwards was reinstated as professor of oriental languages and
of Greek. The chair was suppressed by the viceroy in 1808, but
again rehabilitated on the restoration of Pius VII. in 1814, and
continued to be held by Mezzofanti until his removal from
Bologna to Rome in 1831, as a member of the congregation de
propaganda fide. In 1833 he succeeded Angelo Mai as chief keeper
of the Vatican library, and in 1838 was made cardinal and director
of studies in the Congregation. He died at Rome on the i5th of
March 1849. His peculiar talent, comparable in many respects
to that of the so-called " calculating boys," was not combined
with any exceptional measure of intellectual power, and pro-
duced nothing of permanent value. It seems certain, however,
that he spoke with considerable fluency, and in some cases even
with attention to dialectic peculiarities, some fifty or sixty
languages of the most widely separated families, besides having
a less perfect acquaintance with many others.
See Russell, Life of the Cardinal Mezzofanti (London, 1857);
A. Bellesheim, Giuseppe Cardinal Mezzofanti (Wiirzburg, 1880).
MEZZOTINT. During the igth century two revolutions
occurred in the British art of mezzotinto engraving " la
maniere anglaise." The original defect of the method was the
incapacity of the mezzotint " burr " on copper to yield as many
fine impressions as other forms of engraving. To this defect was
attributable the introduction, in 1823, of steel instead of the soft
copper previously used a change which, with the endeavour
to avoid technical difficulties, led to the " mixed style," or com-
bination of mezzotint with etching, and a general departure from
the traditional form of the art, " pure mezzotint " on copper.
The affinity of the method to painting in black and white which
differentiates it from other kinds of engraving, and was the dis-
tinguishing charm of the mezzotints of the I7th and i8th cen-
turies, was for a time lost, but a revival of pure mezzotint on
352
MEZZOTINT
copper, beginning in 1880 a return, in fact, to the mode in which
the classics of the art were engraved in the time of Sir Joshua
Reynolds was made possible by the invention of steel-facing.
By this process engraved copper plates are electroplated with a
film of steel, renewable when worn in course of printing; and a
mezzotint on copper, so protected, yields more fine impressions
than if it had been engraved on steel, whilst the painter-like
quality remains unimpaired.
In " pure mezzotint " the design is evolved from dark to light
entirely by scraping away more or less of the previously laid
" ground, the original " burr " of which is left untouched in the
extreme darks, andno acid, etching or line-work is used in it at all.
The usual short descriptions of the method are misleading, because
they fail to explain that it is the " ground," and not the " burr "
of it only, which is scraped away in greater or smaller degree to
produce the varying tones of the design. The necessity of realizing
that there are two constituents of the " ground," the " burr " and
the indentations out of which the " burr " is raised, will be appre-
ciated later. The " rocking-tool," with which the " ground " is laid,
somewhat resembles a carpenter's chisel, but the blade is 3 in. wide
and only about 2| in. long, whilst the cutting edge, instead of being
straight, is curved in the segment of a circle. One side of the blade
is deeply engraved with lines from edge to handle, and the ridges
which remain between these lines form teeth at the cutting edge
when the unengraved side of the tool is bevelled as an ordinary
chisel is sharpened.
The tools contain from 35 to 120 teeth to each inch of their
width, those with the most teeth producing grounds of the finest
texture. The operator rocks the curved edge of the tool from side
to side on the bare copper plate, causing the tool to travel forward,
whilst each tooth makes an indentation in the copper and ^ throws
up a corresponding particle of metal, which is called the " burr."
When the whole plate has been so rocked across in 45 to 60 different
directions, so that no visible speck of the original bright copper
surface remains unfretted by the teeth of the " rocking-tool," the
"ground" is termed "full and is ready for scraping the design.
The innumerable particles of copper forming the raised " burr "
give to a " full ground " much the appearance of copper-coloured
plush, and a print from it, taken before any scraping has been done
on it, looks not unlike a piece of black velvet. The lights and
semi-tones of the design are produced by subsequent scraping and
burnishing.
Assuming that a mezzotint is to be scraped from a lady's portrait
by Sir Joshua Reynolds in which a piece of black drapery crosses
a white dress the engraver begins to work on a previously laid
" ground " which would print uniformly black before scraping
commences. In the extreme darks of the black drapery the raised
"burr" is left untouched by the "scraper" a two-edged steel
instrument resembling an ancient Roman sword-blade in miniature,
but having a longer point. Working from dark to light, the
engraver produces the varying tones of the folds of the black
drapery by scraping the raised " burr " down more or less, lower-
ing it in tact so that it will not hold so much ink as where it is
left untouched in the extreme darks. In the highest lights of the
black drapery all the raised " burr " will have been removed and
the original surface of the plate reached, but as yet the engraver
has not produced any tone lighter than middle tint (although he
has completely modelled up the black drapery), because the in-
dentations out of which the " burr " was raised still remain in
the plate and hold ink in printing. In order to produce the infinite
gradation of delicate tones in the white dress, or in a sky, the
scraping is continued, the indentations being thus made shallower
in the passages scraped, and therefore less capable of holding ink,
whilst they are obliterated almost entirely in the highest lights.
When the mezzotint is finished the black drapery will stand higher
than the surface of the plate modelled in a relief composed of the
raised " burr," whilst all the tones of the white dress, from middle
tint to pure white, will be so many actual depressions in the plate,
the highest lights being the deepest. The speck of light in the eye,
for instance, is a pit in the plate, surrounded by a tract of more or
less raised " burr," which provides the intense black of the pupil
and the half-tints of the iris. The difference of surface levels is
very appreciable where high-lights impinge on strong darks, but it
exists in varying degree all over the plate, and the greatest technical
difficulty in pure mezzotint is to obtain adequate " edge " and
definition, because the tendency is to remove too much " ground "
from the edges of adjacent darks in the course of the constant
scrapings necessary to smooth and polish the depressed lights.
In printing a mezzotint a non-fluid ink is thoroughly worked
into every part of the plate, and the superfluities wiped off again,
leaving as much ink as possible in the darks, the raised " burr."
If the bottom of the small lights is not quite smooth, the ink sticks
in the roughness and they print dark instead of light, or the printer
has to wipe so hard to get the ink put of the depressed lights that
he removes too much from the raised darks. In either case loss
of definition and contrast of effect results. This inherent difficulty
of scraping to a sharp edge caused the use of the " mixed " methods,
in which the details were sharpened by outlining them with stipple
or line etching.
Mezzotint is the best form of engraving for completeness of repre-
sentation, but etching is better adapted for sketching from nature
or for the expression of any fleeting idea. The two arts have
distinct uses and limitations. The art function of true etching as
practised by Rembrandt lies in economy of expressive line to
suggest the artist's meaning, and that of mezzotint in completion
of tonality to explain it. Artistic suggestion, which is not inherent
in the solid tones of mezzotint, has to be imparted to the work
entirely by the free play of the " scraper " on the " ground,"
much as the painter attains it on canvas with the brush.
The first reputed mezzotint was produced at Amsterdam in
1643 by Ludwig von Siegen, an officer in the service of the Land-
grave of Hesse, and an amateur artist; but the work History
was a direct drawing on copper with an instrument of
comparative precision resembling the roulette rather than a mezzo-
tint, ground laid with the rocking-tool and scraped from dark to
light in the present manner of the art. Siegen's innovation was led
up to by the previous stipple work of Giulio Campagnola and
Janus Lutma; the roulette appears to have been used before his
time; and though he shared in the evolution of the rocking-tool,
he was not the sole inventor of it. The earliest works referable to
the method at the print room of the British Museum afford evi-
dence, though inconclusive, that Prince Rupert, to whom Siegen
showed his mode of work in 1654, and possibly also their common
friend, Th. Caspar von Fiirstenberger, and Rupert's assistant,
Vallerant Vaillant, were more or less concerned in the gradual
development of mezzotint engraving. The rocking-tool was appa-
rently improved by Abraham Blooteling, a Dutch painter and
engraver of fine portrait mezzotints, who worked in Holland and
in England about the year 1680.
Rupert brought the new art over to England at the Restoration,
and the portrait of Charles II., dated 1669, by William Sherwin,
the first English mezzotinter, bears the engraver's acknowledgment
of his indebtedness to Rupert for the secrets of the method. Mezzo-
tint continued to be practised for a while on the Continent, but the
successors of Sherwin in England so excelled in it that it early
acquired abroad the title of la maniere Anglaise," and has since
become an exclusively British art. Though used for transcribing
the subject-pictures of the great Italian masters, and of Rembrandt,
Vandyck and Rubens, almost every kind of subject being later
engraved in it, the staple production in mezzotint has always been
the portrait. Until the middle of the 1 8th century the tools con-
tinued somewhat archaic, causing in the prints an appearance of
warp and woof, like that of ill-woven material, which detracted
from reality of representation. The coarseness and unequal depth
of the " grounds offered so much resistance to freedom of execu-
tion with the " scraper " that, though the early engravers were
quite as good artists as their successors, painter-like touch was not
conspicuous in the work until M'Ardell and the interpreters of
Sir Joshua Reynolds had improved the tools and technique.
Except for the collector, therefore, the chief attraction in the
prints of F. Place and Luttrell, Beckett and Williams, and later
those of John Simon, John Smith and John Faber, jun., who were
the principal exponents of mezzotint in the last years of the seven-
teenth and first half of the eighteenth centuries, lies in their long
series of portraits after Vandyck, Lely, Kneller and the Dutch
painters then practising in England, representing such interesting
personages as Charles II. and Nell Gwynn, Addison and Pope,
Congreve and Wycherley, Locke and the great duke of Marlborough.
The classics of mezzotint engraving are to be found amongst the
best plates after Sir Joshua Reynolds by James M'Ardell, J. R.
Smith and Valentine Green, the Watsons, Dickinson, Fisher,
Dixon and some others, who worked during the last half of the
1 8th century. The brushwork of Reynolds was more in harmony
with the mezzotint method than the slighter painting technique of
Gainsborough and Romney, who were much less frequently en-
graved, perhaps because it is the highest technical difficulty in
mezzotint to render the sharp edges of a sketch. For this reason
a typical Gainsborough was never successfully engraved in the
method. Though professional publishers and printers existed at
this time and earlier, the word " excudit " on an old print, implying
" published," not " engraved," the authors of the " Sir Joshua
mezzotints in most cases printed, published and sold their own
works, and pure mezzotint, unmixed with etching, was almost
exclusively the method they employed. Mezzotints were occasion-
ally printed in colours, notably those engraved later after George
Morland, the primary object being to conceal the worn-out condition
of the plates.
The departure from pure mezzotint and temporary decay of the
art began when, towards the end of the 1 8th century, Richard
Earlom, otherwise a fine artist in the traditional method, notably
in translations of Vandyck and Wright of Derby, began to outline
the details of his plates with stipple etching in order to avoid the
labour and difficulty of scraping them to a sharp edge, using the
" ground " alone. Earlom, however, did not destroy the mystery
of the rich velvety darks by etching into them. A demand then
arose for larger editions than the soft copper plates would yield, and
the engravers attempted to meet it by combining mezzotint with
MFUMBIRO MIALL
353
positive line-etching throughout the work, thus shortening the
labour of scraping the details, and fortifying the darks with lines
sunk below the surface of the plate. The harmony of line and tone
in some of the prints in this style by S. W. Reynolds and Charles
Turner, after Sir Joshua, Hoppner and their contemporaries, was
more convincing than the later " mixed style " of Samuel Cousins,
because there was a certain artistic significance in the etched line
itself apart from the mezzotint tone, but every touch of line in a
mezzotint does something to destroy the painter-like quality, and
a decadence was in progress.
The same mixed method on copper was used by J. W. M. Turner
in his Liber Studiorum series of landscape plates, his object being
to rival the pen-and-wash drawings of Claude's Liber Veritatis.
Turner, however, was not so practised in etching or mezzotint as
the engravers before mentioned, and the etched foundation of the
Liber plates was too strong for the mezzotint tone, destroying the
breadth of the light, the richness of the darks, and the artistic
" keeping " of the whole effect. It is the grand design of Turner
reflected in the plates, rather than any quality of mezzotint or
etching in them, which appeals to the artist and the connoisseur.
Perhaps the greatest success in harmonizing line and tone in one
plate was achieved by David Lucas in his " English Landscape "
series of mezzotint after John Constable, in which he sharpened
his details with the roulette, or with a slight line put in with the point
of the scraper as scraping proceeded, retaining the pure " burr " in
hi darks. Lucas, like Samuel Cousins and his contemporaries,
was handicapped by being compelled to work on the steel plates
introduced in 1823, and this was the cause of the chief defect of
his plates, the excessive opposition of black and white. The warm
general tone which assisted the picturesqueness of the i8th century
mezzotints was lost by the use of steel, because the ink did not cling
to it as it does to the more porous copper. Steel being harder than
copper, the rocking-tool penetrated less deeply, raising less " burr,"
and the consequent loss of force in the darks necessitated the
scraping up of the lights to a higher key to force contrast of effect,
which was also enhanced by the use of very white paper and a
coarse black ink. It was soon found that the unfortified " burr,"
even on steel, would not yield the constantly increasing numbers of
impressions demanded. The labour of scraping sharp lights was
greatly enhanced, and though some pure mezzotints were engraved
on steel, painter-like touch was practically unattainable on it, and
the general effect was cold and uninteresting.
The early work of Samuel Cousins after Lawrence in the com-
paratively pure method, and the final development of the " mixed
style " on steel in his later plates after Reynolds, Millais and Land-
seer, are referred to in the article on Samuel Cousins.
For nearly forty years pure mezzotint ceased to be practised
altogether, and the revival of it, which began in 1880, was led up
to by the invention of steel-facing. The competition of photo-
gravure, which steel-facing made a commercial possibility, for a
time checked the new movement, but a photogravure, despite a mere
surface resemblance to a mezzotint, is a photograph manipulated to
imitate an engraving, entirely devoid of artistic individuality. In
1898 for the first time a Society of Mezzotint Engravers was formed
to foster the art.
AUTHORITIES. British Mezzotinto Portraits, by John Challoner
Smith (London, 1878), a standard book of reference, contains a long
list of others at p. xiv., pt. i. See also Lectures on Etching and
Mezzotint, by Hubert von Herkomer, R.A. (London, 1890), the most
useful work on the technique. Etching, Engraving and other Methods
of Printing Pictures, by H. W. Singer and William Strang (London,
1897); On the Making of Etchings, by Frank Short (London, 1898),
containing a slight reference to mezzotint technique; Art of En-
graving, by T. H. Fielding (London, 1854); Alfred Whitman,
Masters of Mezzotint (London, 1898), Valentine Green (1902),
Samuel William Reynolds (1903), Samuel Cousins (1904), Charles
Turner (1907); Gordon Gordain, James McArdell (1903), Thomas
Watson, James Watson, Elizabeth Judkins (1904); W. G. Rawlinson,
Turner's Liber Studiorum, a Description and a Catalogue (2nd ed.,
1906) ; F. Wedmore's catalogue of the David Lucas mezzotints.
A little anonymous book, A History of the Art of Engraving in
Mezzotinto, from Its Origin to the Present Times [by Dr James
Chelsum] (Winchester, 1 786), is of considerable interest. Works or
the technique are somewhat elementary, and no complete history ol
the art exists. (G. P. R.)
MFUMBIRO, or KIRUNGA, general names for a chain oi
volcanic mountains extending across the Central African, or
Albertine, rift-valley immediately north of Lake Kivu. The
range, the result probably of recent geological changes, com-
pletely blocks the valley at this point, forming a divide between
the'rivers flowing north to the Nile and the waters of Lake Kivu
connected through Tanganyika with the Congo system. The
chain consists of two groups of mountains, surrounded by a vast
lava field. The western group lies directly north of Lake Kivu.
and contains two active volcanoes, Kirunga-cha-gongo, the
nearest to the lake (11,194 ft. high), and Kirunga-namlagira
XVIII. 12
9711 ft.), some 10 m. further north. The eastern group contains
several higher peaks some rising to needle-like points, others
seing truncated cones. The most lofty, Karissimbi (14,683 ft.),
ies in 29 27' 20" E., i 30' 20" S. Mikeno, a few miles north
and west of Karissimbi, is 14,385 ft. high. The most easterly
of the peaks, Muhavuru (13,562 ft.), in 29 40' 30" E., i 23' S.,
.s an isolated sugarloaf-shaped mass with a crater filled with
water on its summit. This is the mountain to which the names
Mfumbiro and Kirunga were originally applied. Some 6 m. west
and a little north of Muhavuru is Sabyino (Sabinjo), n,88i ft.
high. The eastern peaks are snowclad for a part of the year.
North of these high mountains is a district, extending towards
Albert Edward Nyanza, containing hundreds of low peaks and
extinct volcanoes. It is to this region that the name Umfumbira
or Mfumbiro is said properly to belong.
Mfumbiro, i.e. Muhavuru, was first seen by a white man in
1861, J. H. Speke, in his journey to discover the source of the
Nile, obtaining a distant view of the cone, which was also seen
by H. M. Stanley in 1876. By its Baganda name of Mfumbiro
(cook-house mountains) it figured on the maps somewhat east
of its true position, first ascertained by Franz Stuhlmann in
1891. In 1894 Count von Gotzen travelled through the volcanic
region, and the range was subsequently explored by E. S. Grogan,
Major St Hill Gibbons, Captain Herrmann, Dr R. Kandt and
others, the principal heights being determined in 1903. In
1907-1908 the range was geologically and topographically
examined by the duke of Mecklenberg's expedition. By the
Anglo-German agreement of the ist of July 1890 " Mount
Mfumbiro " was included in the British sphere in East
Africa.
See Captain Herrmann, " Vulkangebiet des zentralafrikanischen
Grabens," in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u. Celehrten a. d. deutschen Schutz-
gebieten, vol. xvii. (Berlin, 1904), and Adolf Friedrich, duke of
Mecklenburg, Ins Innerste Afrika (Leipzig, 1909) ; both give maps.
MHOW, a town of Central India, with British military canton-
ment, within the native state of Indore, on the Malwa branch of
the Rajputana railway, 13 m. S. of Indore. Pop. (1901), 36,039.
It is the headquarters of the 5th division of the southern army,
and one of the chief military stations of India. There are two
high schools, a Zoroastrian and a Canadian mission, the Dorabji
Pestonji dispensary, and a gaol.
MIAGAO, a town on the southern coast of the province of
Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippine Islands, about 25 m. W.S.W.
of the town of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 20,656; in the
same year the neighbouring town of San Joaquin (pop. 1903,
14,333) was incorporated with Miagao. It has a cool and health-
ful climate. The neighbouring country is hilly and sterile, but
produces sibucao in considerable quantities. The weaving of
fabrics of abaca (Musa textilis), or Manila hemp, and pineapple
fibre is the most important local industry. The language is
Panay- Visayan.
MIALL, EDWARD (1809-1881), English Nonconformist
divine and journalist, was born at Portsmouth on the 8th of
May 1809. He was Congregational minister at Ware (1831) and
Leicester (1834), and in, 1841 founded the Nonconformist, a
weekly newspaper in which he advocated the cause of dis-
establishment. Miall saw that if the programme of Noncon-
formity was to be carried through it must have more effective
representation in Parliament. One of the firstfruits of his work
was the entrance of John Bright into parliamentary life; and by
1852 forty Dissenters were members of the House of Commons.
This was due largely to the efforts of the Anti-State Church
Association, afterwards known as the Liberation Society, which
Miall had founded in 1844. The long fight for the abolition of
compulsory church-rates was finally successful in 1868, and then
in 1870 Miall was prominent in the discussions aroused by the
Education Bill. He was at this time M.P. for Bradford (1860-
1874), having previously (1852-1867) sat for Rochdale. In 1874
he retired from public life, and received from his admirers a
present of ten thousand guineas. He died at Sevenoaks on the
29th of April 1881.
See the Life, by A. Miall (1884).
354
MIAMI MIAOULIS
MIAMI, a city and the county-seat of Dade county, Florida,
U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on the N. bank of
the Miami river and on Biscayne Bay. Pop. (1900), 1681;
(1905), 4733; (1910), 5471. It is served by the Florida _ East
Coast railway and by lines of coastwise steamships, and is the
point of departure of the P. & O. steamships for Nassau and
Havana. Miami is the centre of a farming country in which
citrus fruits, especially grape-fruit, pineapples and winter
vegetables are raised for northern markets. There is excellent
rod-fishing; Spanish and king mackerel and blue-fish are shipped
from Miami in large quantities; and in Biscayne Bay there
are important sponge fisheries. An alligator " farm " and the
Subtropical Laboratory of the U.S. government are points of
interest. In the city is Fort Dallas (now abandoned), where
American troops were quartered during the Seminole War; and
Miami is still the trading point of the Seminole Indians, being
immediately south of the Everglades, their home. In 1909 a
project was on foot to cut a channel from Miami to Lake Okecho-
bee and from the other side of that lake west to the Gulf at Fort
Myers, thus providing an inland waterway and draining much
swampy but fertile land. In 1896 there were only two dwellings
and one storehouse within the present corporate limits, but in
that year the place was chosen as the southern terminal of the
Florida East Coast railway, which was afterwards extended
towards Key West. Soon afterwards Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830),
the owner of the railway, began the construction of the magni-
ficent Royal Palm hotel, and Miami became a popular winter
resort. Then came the development of commerce by the improve-
ment of the harbour, by donations from Mr Flagler and grants
by the United States government.
MIAMI, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian
stock. The English called them Twightwees, a. corruption of the
native name, which meant the cry of the crane. They
were first found in south-eastern Wisconsin, and in 1764 num-
bered about 1750. Their civilization was advanced and they
lived in stockaded towns. They took part in Pontiac's con-
spiracy in 1764 and in the American War of Independence and
American War of 1812 they fought on the English side. At the
close of this war they were greatly reduced in numbers. A
few Miami still live on a reservation in Oklahoma and in
Wabash county, Indiana.
MIANTONOMO ( ? -1643), chief of the Narraganset tribe of
North American Indians, nephew of their grand sachem, Cano-
nicus (d. 1647). He seems to have been friendly to the English
colonists of Massachusetts and Connecticut, though he was
accused of being treacherous. In 1636, when under suspicion,
he went to Boston to prove his loyalty to the colonists. In the
following year he permitted John Mason to lead his Connecticut
expedition against the Pequot Indians through the Narraganset
country, and in 1638 he signed for the Narraganset the tripartite
treaty between that tribe, the Connecticut colonists and the
Mohegan Indians, which provided for a perpetual peace between
the parties, and he agreed to take under his jurisdiction eighty
of the two hundred troublesome Pequot. In 1643 a quarrel
broke out between the Mohegan and the Narraganset, and Mian-
tonomo led his warriors against those of Uncas, the Mohegan
sachem. He was defeated and captured at what is now Norwich,
Conn., was turned over to the Connecticut authorities, and
was later tried at Boston by the commissioners of the United
Colonies of New England. A committee of five clergymen, to
whom his case was referred, recommended that he be executed,
and the commissioners accordingly sentenced him to death and
chose Uncas as his executioner. Miantonomo, who was kept in
ignorance of this sentence, was taken to the scene of his defeat
and was there tomahawked in cold blood by Wawequa, the
brother of Uncas. There is a monument to Miantonomo in
Sachem's Park, Norwich, Conn.
MIANWALI, a town and district of India in the Multan division
of the Punjab. The town is situated on the left bank of the
Indus, 653 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 3591. The district
was formed in 1901, after the creation of the North- West
Frontier Province, out of the Cis-Indus portions of Bannu and
Dera Ismail Khan districts. Area 7816 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
424,588, showing an increase of 6-1% in the decade. About
three-quarters of the district lies to the east of the Indus. Along
the river is a low fertile tract, liable to floods. The remaining
upland, known as the Thai, is barren and sandy, cultivable only
where irrigation is possible. In the north-east the district
includes the western flank of the Salt Range. The part of the
district west of the Indus is, a level and fairly fertile plain,
enclosed by the Chichali and Maidani hills. The chief agricul-
tural products are wheat and other grains and oil-seeds. Hides
and wool are also exported, together with small quantities of alum
(abundant in the Salt Range), salt (from the Salt and Maidani
ranges), and coal of poor quality, which is found at several
points. Petroleum has been discovered. The district is served
by the Multan-Rawalpindi line of the North- Western railway.
MIAOTSZE, or MIAUTSE, one of the aboriginal tribes of southern
China. At one time they occupied a considerable portion of the
fertile lands which now form the central province of the empire,
but as the Chinese advanced southwards they were driven into
the mountain districts of the provinces of Yunnan, Kwei-chow,
Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, where they are found at the present
day. As early as the reign of King Suan (about 800 B.C.) we read
of an expedition having been sent to drive them out of Hu-nan.
The last important campaign against them was undertaken by
the emperor K'ien-lung, who, having completely subjugated the
Eleuths, attacked the Miaotsze, who suffered a crushing defeat,
and were compelled to purchase peace by swearing allegiance to
their conquerors. They still maintain a semi-independence in
their mountain-homes, but are a decaying race, gradually giving
way before the Chinese. They are allowed to govern themselves
on their own patriarchal system. The Miaotsze of both sexes
are shorter and darker-complexioned than the Chinese, their
faces are rounder and their features sharper.
See Sketches of the Miau-tsze, trans, by E. C. Bridgman; J. Edkins,
The Miautsi Tribes, their History; and " Quaint Customs in Kwei-
chow," Cornhill Magazine (Jan. 1872); Playfair, The Maotzu oj
Kwei-chow and, Yunnan (London, 1877); A. R. Colquhoun, Across
Chryse (1883).
MIAOULIS, ANDREAS VOKOS or BOKOS (1768-1835), Greek
admiral and politician, was born in Negropont. The surname
Miaoulis, which was added to his family name of Vokos, or Bokos,
is said to be derived from the Turkish word miaoul, a felucca. He
settled in the island of Hydra on the east of the Morea, and when
the Greek War of Independence began was known among his
fellow townsmen as a trader in corn who had gained wealth,
and who made a popular use of his money. He had been a
merchant captain, and was chosen to lead the naval forces of the
islands when they rose against the government of the Sultan.
The islanders had enjoyed some measure of exemption from the
worst excesses of the Turkish officials, but suffered severely from
the conscription raised to man the Turkish ships; and though
they seemed to be peculiarly open to attack by the Sultan's
forces from the sea, they took an early and active part in the
rising. As early as 1822 Miaoulis was appointed navarch,or ad-
miral, of the swarm of small vessels which formed the insurgent
fleet. He commanded the expedition sent to take revenge for
the massacre of Chio (see KANARIS) in the same year. He con-
tinued to be the naval chief of the Greeks till Lord Dundonald
entered their service in 1827, when he retired in order to leave the
English officer free to act as commander. In the interval he had
had the general direction of the naval side of the Greek struggle
for freedom. He had a share in the successful relief of the first
siege of Missolonghi in December 1822 and January 1823. In
1824, after the conquest of Psara by the Turks, he commanded
the Greek forces which prevented the further progress of the
Sultan's fleet, though at the cost of the loss of many fire ships
and men to themselves. But in the same year he was unable
to prevent the Egyptian forces from occupying Navarino, though
he harassed them with some success. During 1825 he succeeded
in carrying stores and reinforcements into Missolonghi, when it
was besieged for the second time, though he could not avert its
fall. His efforts to interrupt the sea communications of the
Egyptian forces failed, owing to the enormous disproportion of
MICA
355
the two squadrons in the siege and strength of the ships. As the
war went on the naval power of the Greeks diminished, partly
owing to the penury of their treasury, and partly to the growth of
piracy in the general anarchy of the Eastern Mediterranean.
When Miaoulis retired to make room for Dundonald the conduct
of the struggle had really passed into the hands of the powers.
When independence had been obtained, Miaoulis in his old age
was entangled in the civil conflicts of his country, as an opponent
of Capodistrias and the Russian party. He had to employ his
skill in the employment of fireships against them at Poros in 1831.
He was one of the deputation sent to invite King Otho to accept
the crown of Greece, and was made rear-admiral and then vice-
admiral by him. He died on the 24th of June 1835 at Athens.
MICA, a group of widely distributed rock-forming minerals,
some of which have important commercial applications. The
principal members of the group are muscovite, biotite, phlogo-
pite and lepidolite (<?..). The name mica is probably derived
from the Latin micare, to shine, to glitter; the German word
glimmer has the same meaning. The mineral was probably
included with selenite under Pliny's term lapis specularis.
Mineralogical Characters. The micas are characterized by a
very easy cleavage in a single direction and by the high degree of
flexibility, elasticity and toughness of the extremely thin cleav-
age flakes. They all crystallize in the monoclinic system, often,
however, in forms closely resembling those of the rhombohedral
or orthorhombtc systems. Crystals have usually the form of
hexagonal or rhomb-shaped scales, plates or prisms, with plane
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
angles of 60 and 120, and, with the exception of the basal
planes, are only rarely bounded by smooth and well-defined
faces. The crystal represented in fig. i is bounded by the basal
pinacoid c (ooi) parallel to which is the perfect cleavage, the
clinopinacoid b (oio) parallel to the plane of symmetry, and the
pyramids m (221) and o (112). The angles between these pyra-
mids and the basal plane are 855 and 73 respectively. The
prism (no) at 90 from the basal plane is not developed as a
crystal face, but is a plane of twinning, the two individuals of
the twin being united parallel to the basal plane (fig. 2). The
different species of mica have very nearly the same forms and
interfacial angles, and they not infrequently occur intergrown
together in parallel position. The best developed crystals are
those of Vesuvian biotite.
When a cleavage flake of mica is struck a sharp blow with a
blunt needle-point a six-rayed star of cracks or " percussion figure "
is developed: the rays intersect at angles of approximately 60,
and the pair most prominently developed are parallel to the plane
of symmetry of the crystal. A similar six-rayed system of cracks,
bisecting the angles between the rays of the previous set, is pro-
duced when a blunt punch is gradually pressed against a sheet of
mica; this is known as the " pressure figure." These cracks coincide
with planes of easy separation or of gliding in the crystal ; they are
especially useful in helping to determine the crystallographic orienta-
tion of a cleavage flake of mica when crystal faces are absent.
Sheets of mica which have been subjected to earth-movements are
frequently cracked and ridged parallel to these directions, and are
then valueless for economic purposes.
In their optical characters the micas exhibit considerable varia-
tions. The indices of refraction are not high, the mean index being
about 1-58-1-60, but the double refraction is very strong (0-04-0-05)
and is negative in sign. The angle between the optic axes varies
from 7O-5O in muscovite and lepidolite to 10-0 in biotite and
phlogoptte; the latter are thus frequently practically uniaxial. The
acute bisectrix of the optic axes never deviates from the normal
to the basal plane by more than a degree or two, hence a cleavage
flake of mica will always show an optic figure in convergent light
when placed on the stage of a polarizing microscope. The plane of
the optic axes may be either perpendicular or parallel to the plane
of symmetry of the crystal, and according to its position two classes
of mica are distinguished. To the first class, with the optic axial
plane perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, belong muscovite,
lepidolite, paragonite, and a rare variety of biotite called anomite;
the second class includes zinnwaldite, phlogopite, lepidomelane and
most biotites. Dark coloured micas are strongly pleochroic. Ac-
curate determinations of the optical orientation, as well as the
symmetry of the etching figures on the cleavage planes, seem to
suggest that the micas, except muscovite, may be anorthic rather
than monoclinic in crystallization.
The different kinds of mica vary from perfectly colourless and
transparent as in muscovite through shades of yellow, green,
red and brown to black and opaque as in lepidomelane; the
former have a pearly lustre and the latter a submetallic lustre
on the cleavage surfaces. Sheets of mica very often show
coloured rings and bands (Newton's rings), due to the interference
of light at the surfaces of internal cleavage cracks. The spec,
grav. varies between 2-7 and 3-1 in the different species. The
hardness is 2-3 ; smooth cleavage surfaces can be just scratched
with the finger-nail. The micas are bad conductors of heat and
electricity, and it is on these properties that many of their
technical applications depend.
Inclusions of other minerals are frequently to be observed in
mica. Flattened crystals of garnet, films of quartz, and needles of
tourmaline are not uncommon. Cleavage sheets are frequently
disfigured and rendered of little value by brown, red or black spots
and stains, often with a dendritic arrangement of iron oxides.
Minute acicular inclusions, probably of rutile, arranged parallel to
the rays of the percussion- figure, give rise to the phenomenon of
" asterism " in some micas, particularly phlogopite: a candle-flame
or spot of light viewed through a cleavage sheet of such mica
appears as a six-rayed star.
Chemical Composition. The micas are extremely complex
and variable in composition. They are silicates, usually ortho-
silicates, of aluminium together with alkalis (potassium, sodium,
lithium, rarely rubidium and caesium), basic hydrogen, and, in
some species magnesium, ferrous and ferric iron, rarely
chromium, manganese and barium. Fluorine is also often an
essential constituent, and titanium is sometimes present.
The composition of the several species of mica is given by the
following formulae, some of which are only approximate. It will
be seen that they may be divided into two groups alkali-micas
(potash-mica, &c.) and ferromagnesian micas which correspond
roughly with the division into light and dark micas.
Muscovite . . . H 2 K Al 3 (SiO 4 )s
Paragonite . . . H 2 Na Al 3 (SiO4) 3
Lepidolite. . . . KLi[Al(OH,F) 2 ]Al(SiO 3 ),
Zinnwaldite . . . (K,Li) 3 [Al(OH,F) 2 ]FeAl 2 Si s O,
Biotite .... (H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2 (Al,Fe) 2 (SiO4)j
Phlogopite . . . [H,K,(MgF)] 3 Mg 3 Al(SiO 4 ) 3
The water which is present in muscovite to the extent of 4 to 6 %,
and rather less in the other species, is expelled only at a high tempera-
ture; it is therefore water of constitution, existing as basic hydrogen
or as hydroxyl replacing fluorine.
Roscoelite is a mica in which the aluminium is largely replaced
by vanadium (V 2 O 3 , 30 %) ; it occurs as brownish-green scaly aggre-
gates, intimately associated with gold in California, Colorado and
Western Australia.
Various attempts have been made to explain the variations in
composition of the micas. G. Tschermak, in 1878, regarded them
as isomorphous mixtures of the following fundamental molecules:
H 2 KAl 3 (SiO ( ) 3 , corresponding with muscovite; Mg 6 Si 3 Oi 2 , a hypo-
thetical polymer of olivine; and tUSisOn., a hypothetical silicic
acid. F. W. Clarke (1889-1893) supposes them to be substitution
derivatives of normal aluminium orthosilicate Al<(Sip4) 3 , in which
part of the aluminium is replaced by alkalis, magnesium, iron and
the univalent groups (MgF), (A1F 2 ),(A1O), (MgOH); an excess of
silica is explained by the isomorphous replacement of HSiO4 by the
acid H 4 Si 3 Oa.
Artificially formed crystals of the various species of mica have
been observed in furnace-slags and in silicate fusions.
Occurrence. Mica occurs as a primary and essential con-
stituent of igneous rocks of almost all kinds; it is also a common
product of alteration of many mineral silicates, both by weather-
ing and by contact- and dynamo-metamorphic processes. In
sedimentary rocks it occurs as detrital material.
Muscovite and biotite are commonly found in siliceous rocks,
whilst phlogopite is characteristic of calcareous rocks. The best
crystallized specimens of any mica are afforded by the small brilliant
crystals of biotite, which encrust cavities in the limestone blocks
ejected from Monte Somma, Vesuvius. Large sheets of muscovite,
such as are of commercial value, are found only in the very coarsely
crystallized pegmatite veins traversing granite, gneiss or mica-
schist. These veins consist of felspar, quartz and mica, often with
smaller amounts of other crystallized minerals, such as tourmaline,
beryl and garnet; they are worked for mica in India, the United
MICAH
States (South Dakota, Coloiado and Alabama), and Brazil (Goyaz,
Bahia and Minas Geraes). The commercially valuable micas of
Canada and Ceylon are mainly phlogopite (q.v.), which has a rather
different mode of occurrence. The mica mined in India is practically
all muscovite. The principal mining districts are those of Hazari-
bagh in Bengal and Nellore in Madras; in the former district the
mica has usually a ruby tint, whilst in the latter it is more often
greenish. In the Inikurti mine, Nellore, " books " of mica measur-
ing 10 ft. across, and up to 15 ft. across the folia have been found,
and rectangular sheets measuring 30 by 24 in. and free from cracks
and flaws have frequently been obtained.
Uses. On account of its transparency and its resistance to
fire and sudden changes of temperature, mica has been much
used for the windows of stoves and lanterns, for the peep-holes of
furnaces, and the chimneys of lamps and gas-burners. At one
time it was used for window panes of houses and the port-holes
of Russian men-of-war, being commonly known as " Muscovy
glass." Spangles of mica are much used for decorative purposes
of various kinds, and the mineral was formerly known as glades
Mariae (Ger., Frauenglas) because of its use for decorating
statues of the Virgin. The lapis specularis of Pliny, scattered
over the Circus Maximus to produce a shining whiteness, was
probably mica. Large quantities of ground mica are used in the
manufacture of wall-paper, and to produce a frosted effect on
toys, stage scenery, &c. Powdered mica is also used in the manu-
facture of paints and paper, as a lubricant, and as an absorbent
of nitro-glycerine and disinfectants. Sheets of mica are used
as a surface for painting, especially in India; for lantern slides;
for carrying photographic films; as a protective covering for
pictures and historical documents; for mounting soft and collap-
sible natural history specimens preserved in spirit; for the vanes
of anemometers; mirrors of delicate physical instruments; for
various optical and many other purposes. Being a bad conductor
of heat it is used for the packing and jackets of boilers and
steam-pipes. Other applications depend on the strength of its
resistance to acids.
The most extensive application of mica at the present day
is for electrical purposes. Being a bad conductor of electricity
it is of value as an insulator, and the smooth flexible sheets are
much used in the construction of armatures of dynamos and in
other electrical machinery. For various purposes a manufactured
material known as " micanite " or " micanite cloth " is much
used; this consists of small sheets of mica cemented with shellac
or other insulating cement on cloth or paper.
Muscovite and phlogopite are practically the only species used
commercially, the former being the more common. Phlogopite
is rarely found as colourless transparent sheets and is therefore
almost exclusively used for electrical purposes. Many other
uses of mica might be mentioned. The potassium it contains
renders it of value as a manure. The species lepidolite is largely
used for the manufacture of lithium and rubidium salts.
Mining, Preparation and Value. Mica mining is an industry
of considerable importance, especially in India; but here the
methods of mining are very primitive and wasteful. In working
downwards in open quarries and in tortuous shafts and passages
much of the mica is damaged, and a large amount of labour is
expended in hauling waste material to the surface. Since the
mineral occurs in definite veins, a more satisfactory and economi-
cal method of working would be that adopted in metalliferous
mines, with a vertical shaft, cross-cuts, and levels running along
the strike of the vein: the mica could then be extracted by
overhead stopping, and the waste material used for filling up the
worked-out excavations.
In dressing mica the " books " are split along the cleavage into
sheets of the required thickness, and the sheets trimmed into
rectangles with a sharp knife, shears or guillotine, stained and
damaged portions being rejected. The dressed sheets are sorted
according to size, transparency, colour and freedom from spots or
stains. Scrap mica is ground to powder or used in the manu-
facture of micanite.
The price of mica varies very considerably according to the
size, transparency and quality of the sheets. An average price
for cut sheets of all sizes is about 45. per lb, but for large sheets
it may be as high as 545. per lb.
REFERENCES. For the mineralogical characters see the text-
books of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze; for economic questions, the
following: T. H. Holland, " The Mica Deposits of India," Memoirs
of the Geological Survey of India (1902), xxxiv. II-I2I; G. P.
Merrill, The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904), pp. 163-
180; " The Mining and Preparation of Mica for Commercial
Purposes," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (London, 1904), ii.
278-291; F. Cirkel, "Mica: its Occurrence, Exploitation and
Uses (Canadian Dept. of the Interior, Mines Branch, Ottawa
1905, 148 pp.). (L. J. S.)
MICAH ( n: >:P), in the Bible, the name prefixed to the sixth
in order of the books of the minor prophets. 1 He was a con-
temporary and fellow- worker of Isaiah. The name in various
modifications Micaiahu, Micailhu, Mlcaiah is common in
the Old Testament, expressing as it does a fundamental point of
Hebrew faith: Who is like Yahweh? 2 It was also borne among
others by the Danite whose history is given in Judges xvii. seq.
(see separate article), by the prophet who opposed Ahab's
expedition to Ramoth-Gile.ad (i Kings xxii.), 3 and by the son of
Jonathan (see SAUL).
The editorial title of the book of Micah declares that Micah
prophesied " in the days of Jotham (739~734), Ahaz (733-721)
and Hezekiah (720-693), kings of Judah." Nothing in the book
itself can claim to belong to the reign of Jotham, but the prophecy
against Samaria (i. 5-8) may have been uttered originally before
the fall of Samaria in 722, i.e. in the reign of Ahaz. In its present
form, however, it has been incorporated in a prophecy against
Judah, belonging, most probably, to the years 705-701, when a
new Palestinian rising provoked Sennacherib's campaign of 701
(Nowack; cf. Marti). This prophetic activity of Micah under
Hezekiah is confirmed by the direct statement of Jer. xxvi. 17 seq.,
where Mic. iii. 12 is quoted (" Zion shall be plowed as a field,"
&c.). The verse quoted forms the climax of Mic. i.-iii., from
which chapters only any certain conclusions as to the prophetic
message of the historic Micah can be drawn; the remaining
sections of the present book (iv.-v., vi.-vii.) consist, in whole or
in greater part, of writings belonging to a later period.
Chs. i.-iii. (with the exception of two verses, ii. 12, I3) 4 are
a prediction of judgment on the sins of Judah and Ephraim. In
a majestic exordium Yahweh Himself is represented as coming
forth in the thunderstorm (cf. Amos i. 2) from His heavenly
palace, and descending on the mountains of Palestine, at once as
witness against His people, and the executer of judgment on their
sins. Samaria is sentenced to destruction for idolatry; and the
blow extends to Judah also, which participates in the same guilt
(ch. i.). But, while Samaria is summarily dismissed, the sin of
Judah is analysed at length in chs. ii. and iii., in which the prophet
1 A confusion between the two prophets of the name has led to
the insertion in the Massoretic text of I Kings xxii. 28 of a citation
from Micah i. 2, rightly absent from the LXX.
2 See, however, Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 157: " In later
times they were perhaps virtually synonymous; but this is not to
be assumed for early times. The shorter forms may well have had
a purely secular reference, signifying ' who is like this child ' ? "
3 He is called " the Morashtite " (Mic. i. I ; Jer. xxvi. 18) from
his birthplace, Moresheth-Gath. That Micah lived in the Shephelah
or Judaean lowland near the Philistine country is clear from the local
colouring of i. 10 seq., where a number of places in this quarter are
mentioned together (in connexion with the war in Philistia), and
their names played upon in a way that could hardly have suggested
itself to any but a man of the district. The paronomasia makes
the verses difficult, and in i. 14 none of the ancient versions recognizes
Moresheth-Gath as a proper name. The word Morashtite (Morashti)
was therefore obscure to them; but this only gives greater weight
to the traditional pronunciation with o in the first syllable, which
is as old as the LXX., and goes against the view, taken by the
Targum both on Micah and on Jeremiah, and followed by some
moderns (including Cheyne, E.B., 3198), that Micah came from
Mareshah. When Eusebius placed MwpatrOel near Eleutheropolis
it is not likely that he is thinking of Mareshah (Maresa), for he
speaks of the former as a village and of the latter as a ruin
2 m. from Eleutheropolis. Jerome too in the Epit. Paulae (Ep.
cviii.), speaking as an eye-witness, distinguishes Morashtim, with
the church of Micah's sepulchre, from Maresa. This indeed was
after the pretended miraculous discovery of the relics of Micah in
A.D. 385; but the name of the village which then existed (Praef. in
Mich.) can hardly have been part of a pious fraud.
* These two verses are a prophecy of restoration ; they are ad-
mittedly an interruption in their present context (so, e.g., Driver,
G. A. Smith); they belong in substance to the second section of
the book (iv. v.).
MICAH
no longer deals with idolatry, but with the corruption of society,
and particularly of its leaders the grasping aristocracy whose
whole energies are concentrated on devouring the poor and depriv-
ing them of their little holdings, the unjust judges and priests who
for gain wrest the law in favour of the rich, the hireling and glutton-
pus prophets who make war against every one " that putteth not
into their mouth," but are ever ready with assurances of Yahweh's
favour to their patrons, the wealthy and noble sinners that fatten
on the flesh of the poor. The internal disorders of the realm
depicted by Micah are also prominent in Isaiah's prophecies; they
were closely connected, not only with the foreign complications
due to the approach of the Assyrians, but with the break-up of the
old agrarian system within Israel, and with the rapid and uncom-
pensated aggrandisement of the nobles during those prosperous
years when the conquest of Edom by Amaziah and the occupation
of the port of Elath by his son (2 Kings xiv. 7, 22) placed the lucrative
trade between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea in the hands of
357
the rulers of Judah. On the other hand the democratic tone ' le near 1 1 ut I u T re and b ? the Ass y"ans (i. 9)
which distinguishes Micah from Isaiah, and his announcement of was . tne Judgment which Hezekiah s repentance averted.
which distinguishes Micah from Isaiah, and his announcement of
the impending fall of the capital (the deliverance of which from
the Assyrian appears to Isaiah as the necessary condition for the
preservation of the seed of a new and better kingdom), are ex-
plained by the fact that, while Isaiah lived in the centre of affairs,
Micah, a provincial prophet, sees the capital and the aristocracy
entirely from the side of a man of the oppressed people, and fore-
tells the utter ruin of both. But this ruin does not present itself to
him as involving the captivity or ruin of the nation as a whole;
the congregation of Yahweh remains in Judaea when the oppressors
are cast out (ii. 5) ; Yahweh's words are still good to them that
walk uprightly; the glory of Israel is driven to take refuge in
Adullam, 1 as in the days when David's band of broken men was
the true hope of the nation, but there is no hint that it is banished
from the land.
Our only evidence as to the reception of Micah's message by
his contemporaries is that afforded by Jer. xxvi. 17 seq., both
directly, in the recorded effect on Hezekiah and the people; and
indirectly, in the fact that the impression created was remem-
bered a century afterwards. Micah resembles Amos, both in his
country origin, and in his general character, which expresses
itself in strong emphasis on the ethical side of religion. As the
last of the four great prophets of the 8th century he undoubtedly
contributed to that religious and ethical reformation whose
literary monument is the Book of Deuteronomy. 2
The remainder of the book bearing the name of Micah falls into
two main divisions, viz. iv., v. and vi., vii. Each differs from the
first division (i.-iii.) in a marked degree. The second consists
mainly of prophecies of restoration including eschatological
(iv. i seq.) 3 and Messianic (v. 2 seq.) hopes. The third is formed
of three or four apparently unrelated passages, on the spirituality
of true worship (vi. 1-8), social immorality and its doom (vi. 9-
16; vii. 1-6), and Israel's future recovery from present adversity
through Divine grace (vii. 7-20). It is improbable that much, if
any, of these chapters can be ascribed to Micah himself, 4 not
only because their contents are so different from his undoubted
work (i.-iii.), for which he was subsequently remembered (Jer.
xxvi. 18), but because they presuppose the historic outlook of
the Exile, or a later age (e.g. iv. 6 seq.; vii. 7 seq.). It is neither
psychologically nor historically impossible for a prophet of
1 i. 15; the reference is, however, obscure and uncertain.
2 See the Introduction to the Century Bible, " Deuteronomy and
Joshua," by H. Wheeler Robinson.
3 Mic. iv. 1-3 and Isa. ii. 2-4 are but slightly modified recensions
of the same text, and as Isa. ii. is older than the prophecy of Micah,
while on the other hand Mic. iv. 4 seems the natural completion
of the passage, it is common to suppose that both copy an older
prophet. But the words have little connexion with the context in
Isaiah, and may be the quotation of a copyist suggested by ver. 5.
On the other hand it has been urged that the passage belongs to a
later stage of prophetic thought than the 8th century B.C. Reasons
making this view the more probable one are given by Wellhausen
(p. 142) and Marti (p. 281).
4 Nowack thinks that iv. 9, 10", 14 and v. 10-14 may possibly
belong to Micah; Wellhausen recognizes the same possibility,
which he extends, however, to vi. 1-8. Marti, who (like Cheyne
in Ency. Bib.) finds nothing by Micah in iv. vii., thinks these chapters
have crystallized round two central passages, viz. iv. 1-4, and
vi. 6-8, whose addition to the first three chapters formed the second
stage in the growth of the present book. More conservative views
as to authorship are taken by Driver and G. A. Smith, the former
suggesting, however, that " the existing Book of Micah consists
only of a collection of excerpts, in somt cases fragmentary excerpts,
from the entire series of the prophet's discourses " (L. 0. T.,
ch. vi. 6).
judgment to be also a prophet of comfort; but the internal
evidence of composite and (in whole or part) later authorship
must outweigh the traditional attachment of these passages to a
MS. containing the work of Micah.
The sequence of thought in chs. iv. v. is really difficult, and
has given rise to much complicated discussion. Thus iv. 11-13
stands in direct contradiction to iv. 9, 10, and indeed to iii. 12.
The last two passages agree in speaking of the capture of Jerusalem,
the first declares Zion inviolable, and its capture an impossible
profanation. Such a thought can hardly be Micah's, even if we
resort to the violent harmonistic process of imagining that two
quite distinct sieges, separated by a renewal of the theocracy, are
spoken^ of in consecutive verses. Another difficulty lies in the
words and thou shalt come even to Babylon " in iv. 10. Micah
unquestionably looked for the destruction of Jerusalem as well as
of Samaria in the near future and by the Assyrians (i. 9), and this
words, therefore, belong to the original context, they mark it as
not from Micah's hand; though they might be a later gloss. The
prophetic thought is that the daughter (population) of Zion shall
not be saved by her present rulers or defensive strength ; she must
come down from her bulwarks and dwell in the open field; there,
and not within her proud ramparts, Yahweh will grant deliverance
from her enemies. Opposition to present tyranny expresses itself
in recurrence to the old popular ideal of the first simple Davidic
kingdom (iv. 8). These old days shall return once more. A new
David, like him whose exploits in the district of Micah's home
were still in the mouths of the common people (? i. 15), goes forth
from Bethlehem to feed the flock in the strength of Yahweh. The
kindred Hebrew nations are once more united to their brethren of
Israel (cf. Amos ix. 12, Isa. xvi. I seq.). The remnant of Jacob
springs up in fresh vigour, inspiring terror among the surrounding
peoples, and there is no lack of chosen captains to lead them to
victory against the Assyrian foe. In the rejuvenescence of the
nation the old stays of that oppressive kingship which began with
Solomon, the strongholds, the fortified cities, the chariots and
horses so foreign to the life of ancient Israel, are no more known;
they disappear together with the divinations, the soothsayers, the
idols, the mazzebah and asherah of the high places. Yahweh is
king on Mount Zion, and no inventions of man come between Him
and His people.
The sixth chapter of Micah presents a very different situation
from that of chs. i.-iii. or iv., v. Yahweh appears to plead with
His people for their sins, but the sinners are no longer a careless
and oppressive aristocracy buoyed up by deceptive assurances of
Yahweh's help, by prophecies of wine and strong drink; they are
bowed down by a religion of terror, wearied with attempts to
propitiate an angry God by countless offerings, and even by the
sacrifice of the first-born. Meantime the substance of true religion
justice, charity and a humble walk with God is forgotten, fraud
and deceit reign in all classes, the works of the house of Ahab are
observed (worship of foreign gods). Yahweh's judgments are
multiplied against the land, and the issue can be nothing else than
its total desolation. All these marks may be held to fit exactly
the evil times of Manasseh as described in 2 Kings xxi. Cp. vii.
1-6, in which the public and private corruption of a hopeless age
is bitterly bewailed, possibly belongs to the same context.
Micah may very well have lived into Manasseh's reign, but the
title in i. i does not cover a prophecy which certainly falls after
Hezekiah's death, and the style has nothing in common with the
earlier part of the book. It is therefore prudent to regard the
prophecy, with Ewald, as anonymous. Ewald ascribed the whole
of chs. vi., vii. to one author. Wellhausen, however, remarks
with justice that the thread is abruptly broken at vii. 6, and that
verses 7-20 1 represent Zion as already fallen before the heathen
and her inhabitants as pining in the darkness of captivity. The
hope of Zion is in future restoration after she has patiently borne
the chastisement of her sins. Then Yahweh shall arise mindful
of His oath to the fathers, Israel shall be forgiven and restored,
and the heathen humbled. The faith and hope which breathe
in this passage have the closest affinities with the book of Lamen-
tations and Isa. xl.-lxvi. Indeed, as Marti points out (p. 259)
the triple division of the book of Micah (i.-iii.; iv., v.; vi., vii.)
corresponds with that of the book of Isaiah (i.-xxxix.; xl.-lv.;
Ivi.-lxvi.) in the character of the three divisions (judgment;
coming restoration; prayer for help in adversity) respectively,
and in the fact that the first alone gives us pre-exilic writing
in the actual words of the prophet to whom the whole book
is ascribed. In both cases, it need hardly be said, the great
literary and spiritual value of the later passages ought in no way
1 Regarded by Stade (Z. A. T. W., 1903, p. 164 seq.) as an inde-
pendent psalm.
MICAH MICHAEL
to suffer prejudice from critical conditions as to their date and
authorship.
LITERATURE. The chief modern commentaries are those of
Nowack (Die Kleinen Propheten, 1897; 2nd ed., 1904) and Marti
(Dodekapropheton, 1904), where detailed references to the older liter-
ature may be found; cf. Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Propheten^ (3rd ed.,
1898). In English, reference may be made to Cheyne (" Micah,"
in the Cambridge Bible, 1882; 2nd ed., 1895), and to G. A. Smith
(" The Book of the Twelve," vol. i., in The Expositor's Bible, 1896) ;
also to the articles on " Micah " by Nowack in Hastings's Diet, of
the Bible (1900), iii. 359, 360. and by Cheyne in the Ency.
Bibl. (1902), iii. c. 3068-3074, the latter incorporating most of
the original article (Ency. Brit. 9th ed.) by W. Robertson Smith,
which has been revised above. For a review of recent criticism
see Cheyne, introduction to W. R. Smith's The Prophets of Israel,
2nd ed., pp. xxiii.-xxvii. ; also Ency. Bib. loc. cit. J. M. P. Smith
discusses " The Strophic Structure of the Book of Micah " in a
volume of Old Test, and Semitic Studies: in memory of W. R. Harper
(Chicago, 1908). (W. R. S. ; H. W. R.*)
MICAH, in the Bible, a man of the hill-country of Ephraim
whose history enters into that of the foundation of the Israelite
sanctuary at Dan (Judges xvii. seq.). He had stolen from his
mother eleven hundred pieces of silver (for the number cf . Judges
xvi. 5), and when she uttered a curse upon the unknown thief he
restored the money and she consecrated it to Yahweh. A carved
image was made and set up in his private temple together
with an ephod-idol and teraphim (objects used in divination,
cf. Gen. xxxi. 10, 30; Hos. iii. 4). He employed one of his
sons to serve as priest, but when a Levite from Bethlehem
in Judah came along he gladly installed him as " father and
priest." When the tribe of Dan subsequently sought new
territory and sent men to search for a suitable district they
passed by Micah's house, recognized the Levite and requested
an oracle from him. When, later, they migrated, they despoiled
the sacred place and carried off the gods and priest to their
newly won home at Laish.
MICA-SCHIST, in petrology, a rock composed essentially
of mica and quartz, and having a thin parallel-banded or foliated
structure, with lamellae rich in mica alternating with others
which are principally quartz. They split readily along the
micaceous films, and have smooth or slightly uneven surfaces
covered with lustrous plates of muscovite or biotite ; the quartzose
lamellae are often visible only when the specimens are looked at
edgewise. Mica-schists are very common in regions of Archean
rocks accompanying gneisses, crystalline limestones and other
schists. Some have a flat banding yielding smooth slabs; others
are crumpled or contorted with undulating foliation. Occasion-
ally the quartz forms elliptical lenticles or " eyes." In some
cases mica composes nearly the whole of the rock, in others
quartz preponderates so that they approach quartz-schists and
quartzites.
The mica may be muscovite or biotite; both are often present,
while paragonite and green fuchsite or chrome-mica are not so
common. In addition to quartz there may be a small amount of
feldspar, usually albite. A great number of accessory minerals are
known in mica-schists, and when these are conspicuous or important
they may be regarded as constituting special varieties receiving
distinctive names. Garnet, in rounded red crystals, not uncommonly
idiomorphic, is the most frequent. Brown staurolite, pinkish
andalusite, and grey or blue kyanite occur in some kinds of mica-
schist, separately or together. The white mica-schist of the St
Gothard contains kyanite and staurolite. Graphite (or graphitoid)
is also a very frequent ingredient of these rocks, giving them a leaden
grey colour and causing them to soil the fingers when handled. In
some mica-schists there is much calcite (calc-mica-schists) ; and
hornblende, scapolite and augite are often seen in rocks of this sort.
Tourmaline occurs, sometimes in large black prisms but more
commonly in minute crystals visible only in microscopic sections.
Rutile in tiny prisms, ilmenite and hematite in black or brown scales,
zircon, apatite, granules of epidote or zoisite chlorite, chloritoid and
pyrites occur with more or less frequency in the rocks of this group.
Mica-schists are in nearly all cases sedimentary rocks which have
been recrystallized and have obtained a schistose structure during
the process. This can be proved by their chemical composition,
which is very much the same as that of clays, shales and slates. In
some districts it is possible to trace every gradation from a slate
(q.v.) to a mica-schist, the intermediate stages being represented
by phyllites (q.v.) which consist of quartz, muscovite and chlorite,
and are neither so crystalline nor so well foliated as the schists. In
a few places, e.g. Bergen in Norway, fossils have been found in mica-
schists. The association of quartzites and quartz-schists, graphite-
schists and crystalline limestones with mica-schists in the field is
explained by the fact that all these rocks are altered sediments,
viz. sandstones, carbonaceous shales and limestones.
Under the microscope the appearance presented by mica-schists
differs according to whether the rock is cut parallel to or across the
planes of foliation. In the latter case thin alternating bands com-
posed of black or brown mica, and of quartz, cross the field of view
(see PETROLOGY, Plate 4, fig. 8). The mica scales have their cleavages
and their flat sides parallel ; the quartz occurs in rounded, elliptical
or irregular grains, with usually a small admixture of feldspar (albite,
oligoclase, orthoclase) ; apatite and iron oxides are rarely absent
from these rocks. If garnet is present it may form large well-shaped
crystals containing innumerable enclosures of quartz, biotite and
iron ores; in some cases the garnets are cracked as if they had been
broken by the pressures to which the rock had been subjected.
Often the garnets are surrounded by small " eyes " of quartz, and
they may be embedded in green chlorite, which is probably a second-
ary or decomposition product. Some mica-schists are rich in iron
oxides and pass into haematite-schists (itabirites). When graphite
occurs in mica-schists its crystals are small flat plates perfectly
opaque even in the thinnest sections.
Like all metamorphic rocks, mica-schists are principally found
in Archean areas; the great majority of them are of pre-Cambrian
age. There are, however, in the Alps, Himalayas, &c., many rocks
of this sort which are believed to be secondary or even tertiary ; the
evidence for this is not in all cases satisfactory, as of course the
fossils, which if preserved would be sufficient to prove it, are nearly
always destroyed by the metamorphism. Mica-schists are rarely
of economic value, being too fissile for building-stones and too brittle
for roofing-slates. They are of wide-spread distribution in the
Scottish Highlands, Norway and Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, Brittany,
the Alps, many parts of North America, &c. (J. S. F.)
MICCA, PIETRO, Piedmontese soldier (d. 1706), was born at
Andorno, and achieved fame by his death in the defence of Turin.
During the siege of that city by the French in 1706 a party of
the besiegers had succeeded in penetrating by surprise into the
moat of the fortress on the night of August 29-30, and would
undoubtedly have captured it had not Micca, a soldier in the
engineers, fired a mine, with the result that they were blown
into the air and the rest of the force driven back with heavy
losses. Micca's heroism has been the subject of poems, plays
and romances. But, according to Count Giuseppe Solaro della
Margherita, the commander of the Turin garrison at the time,
it was through a miscalculation of the pace of the fuse, and not
by deliberate intent, that he sacrificed his life.
See A. Manno Pietro Micca ed il generale conte Solaro della Mar-
gherita (Turin, 1883).
MICHAEL (Hebrew S^'o, "Who is like God?"), an Old
Testament name, synonymous with Micaiah or Micah (Num.
xiii. 13; i Chron. v. 13 et passim). In the book of Daniel the name
is given to one of the chief " princes " of the heavenly host, the
guardian angel or " prince " of Israel (Dan. x. 13, 21; xii. i; cf.
Enoch xx. s and possibly Mai. iii. i), and as such he naturally
appears in Jewish theosophy as the greatest of all angels, the
first of the four (or seven) who surround the throne of God, and
the antagonist of Sammael, the enemy of God. He holds the
secret of the mighty "word" by which God created heaven and
earth (Enoch Ixix. 14), and was " the angel who spoke to Moses
in the Mount " (Acts vii. 38). It was through Babylonian and
Persian influence that names were given to the angels, and
according to Kohut (Jiid. Angel, p. 24) Michael is parallel to
Vohumano, " Ahura's first masterpiece," one of the Zoroastrian
Amesha-spentas or archangels. It is as guardian angel of Israel,
or of the Church, the true Israel, that Michael appears in Jude 9
and Rev. xii. 7. -This latter passage is of distinctly pre-Christian
origin; it is not the Child that overthrows Satan, the figure 01
the Messiah is ousted by that of Michael. There is also here a
relic of the primeval Babylonian myth of the struggle between
the light god Marduk and the forces of chaotic darkness. In
the Western Church the festival of St Michael and All Angels
(Michaelmas) is celebrated on the 2pth of September; it appears
to have grown out of a local celebration of the dedication of a
church of St Michael either at Mount Garganus in Apulia or at
Rome, and was a great day by the beginning of the pth century.
The Greek Church dedicates the 8th of November to St Michael,
St Gabriel and All Angels.
MICHAEL
359
MICHAEL (1596-1645), tsar of Russia, was the first tsar of
the house of Romanov, being the son of Theodore Nekitich
Romanov, afterwards the Patriarch Philaret (q.v.) , and Xenia
Chestovaya, afterwards the nun Martha. He was elected
unanimously tsar of Russia by a national assembly on the zist
of February 1613, but not till the 24th of March did the delegates
of the council discover the young tsar and his mother at the
Ipatievsky monastery near Kostroma. At first Martha pro-
tested that her son was too young and tender for so difficult
an office in such troublesome times. At the last moment,
however, Michael consented to accept the throne, but not till
the weeping boyars had solemnly declared that if he persisted
in his refusal they would hold him responsible to God for the
utter destruction of Muscovy. In so dilapidated a condition
was the capital at this time that Michael had to wait for several
weeks at the Troitsa monastery, 75 m. off, before decent accom-
modation could be provided for him at Moscow. He was
crowned on the 22nd of July. The first care of the new tsar was
to clear the land of the robbers that infested it. Sweden and
Poland were then got rid of respectively by the peace of Stolbova
(March 10, 1617) and the truce of Deulina (Feb. 13, 1619).
The most important result of the truce of Deulina was the return
from exile of the tsar's father, who henceforth took over the
government till his death in October 1633, Michael occupying
quite a subordinate position. He was a gentle and pious prince
who gave little trouble to any one and effaced himself behind
his counsellors. Fortunately for him they were relatively
honest and capable men. Michael's failure to wed his daughter
Irene with Prince Waldemar of Denmark, in consequence of
the refusal of the latter to accept orthodoxy, so deeply afflicted
him as to contribute to bring about his death on the I2th of
July 1645.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (Lond., 1905). (R. N. B.)
MICHAEL, the name of nine East-Roman emperors.
MICHAEL I. RHANGABES (d. 845), an obscure nobleman who
had married Procopia, the daughter of Nicephorus I., and
been made master of the palace. He was made emperor in a
revolution against his brother-in-law, Stauracius (811).
Elected as the tool of the bigoted orthodox party in the
Church, Michael diligently persecuted the iconoclasts on the
northern and eastern frontiers of the empire, but meanwhile
allowed the Bulgarians to ravage a great part of Macedonia
and Thrace; having at last taken the field in the spring of 813,
he was defeated near Bersinikia, and Leo the Armenian was
saluted emperor in his stead in the following summer. Michael
was relegated as a monk to the island of Prote, where he lived
unmolested till his death in 845.
MICHAEL II., called PSELLUS, " the stammerer," emperor
820-829, was a native of Amorium in Phrygia, who began life
as a private soldier, but rose by his talents to the rank of general.
He had favoured the enthronement of his old companion in
arms Leo the Armenian (813), but, detected in a conspiracy
against that emperor, had been sentenced to death in December
820; his partisans, however, succeeded in assassinating Leo and
called Michael from the prison to the throne. The principal
features of his reign were a struggle against his brother general,
Thomas, who aimed at the throne (822-824) > the conquest of
Crete by the Saracens in 823; and the beginning of their attacks
upon Sicily (827). In spite of his iconoclastic sympathies, he
endeavoured to conciliate the image-worshippers, but incurred
the wrath of the monks by entering into a second marriage with
Euphrosyne, daughter of Constantine VI., who had previously
taken the veil.
MICHAEL III. (830-867), " the drunkard," was grandson of
Michael II., and succeeded his father Theophilus when three
years old (842). During his minority the empire was governed
by his mother Theodora, who in spite of several defeats inflicted
upon her generals maintained the frontiers against the Saracens
of Bagdad and Crete. The regent displayed her religious zeal
by restoring image-worship (842) and persecuting the Paulician
heretics, but she entirely neglected the education of her son.
a result Michael grew up a debauchee, and fell under the
sway of his uncle Bardas, who induced him to banish Theodora
to a convent and practically assumed the chief control (857).
Bardas justified this usurpation by introducing various internal
reforms; in the wars of the period Michael himself took a more
active part. During a conflict with the Saracens of the Euphrates
(856-63), the emperor sustained a personal defeat (860), which
was retrieved by a great victory on the part of his uncle Petronas
in Asia Minor. In 861 Michael and Bardas invaded Bulgaria
and secured the conversion of the king to Christianity. On sea
the empire suffered under the ravages of the Cretan corsairs; and
in 865 the first pillaging expedition of the Russians endangered
the Bosporus. In 867 Michael was assassinated by Basil the
Macedonian, a former groom, who had overthrown the influence
of Bardas and in 866 been associated in the Empire.
MICHAEL IV. (d. 1041), " the Paphlagonian," owed his eleva-
tion to Zoe, daughter of Constantine VIII., who was the wife
of Romanus III., but becoming enamoured of Michael, her
chamberlain, poisoned her husband and married her attendant
(1034). Michael, however, being of a weak character and
subject to epileptic fits, left the government in the hands
of his brother, John the Eunuch, who had been first minister
of Constantine and Romanus. John's reforms of the army and
financial system revived for a while the strength of the
Empire, which held its own successfully against its foreign
enemies. On the eastern frontier the important post of
Edessa was relieved after a prolonged siege. The western
Saracens were almost driven out of Sicily by George Maniakes
(1038-40); but an expedition against the Italian Normans
suffered several defeats, and after the recall of Maniakes most
of the Sicilian conquests were lost (1041). In the north the
Serbs achieved a successful revolt (1040), but a dangerous rising
by the Bulgarians and Slavs which threatened the cities of
Thrace and Macedonia was repressed by a triumphant campaign
which the decrepit emperor undertook in person shortly before
his death (1041).
MICHAEL V. CALAPHATES, or " the caulker," nephew and
successor of the preceding, surnamed after, the early occupa-
tion of his father. He owed his elevation (Dec. 1041) to his
uncle John, whom along with Zoe he almost immediately
banished; this led to a popular tumult in consequence of which
he was dethroned after a brief reign of four months, and relegated
to a monastery. His unpopularity seems largely due to his
attempts at administrative reform, which were strongly resented
by the dominant classes.
MICHAEL VI., " the warlike," was already an old man when
chosen by the empress Theodora as her successor shortly before
her death in 1056. He was unable to check the disaffection
of the feudal aristocracy, who combined with an officer named
Isaac Comnenus to depose him. After a successful battle
in Phrygia, the rebels had no difficulty in dethroning Michael
(1057), who spent the rest of his life in a monastery.
MICHAEL VII. DUCAS, or PAKAPINACES, was the eldest son
of Constantine X. Ducas. After a joint reign with his brothers,
Andronicus Land Constantine XI. (1067-1071), he was made
sole emperor through his uncle John Ducas. The feebleness
of Michael, whose chief interest lay in trifling academic pursuits,
and the avarice of his ministers, was disastrous to the empire.
As the result of anarchy in the army, the Byzantines lost their
last possessions in Italy (1071), and were forced to cede a large
strip of Asia Minor which they were unable to defend against the
Seljuk Turks (1074). These misfortunes, which were but
partially retrieved by the suppression of a Bulgarian revolt
(1073), caused widespread dissatisfaction. In 1078 two generals,
Nicephorus Bryennius and Nicephorus Botaniates, simultane-
ously revolted. Michael resigned the throne with hardly a
struggle and retired into a monastery. His nickname Para-
pinaces (" starver ") was due to his causing the price of wheat
to rise.
MICHAEL VIII. PALAEOLOGTJS (1234-1282) was the son of
Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus and Irene Angela, the
granddaughter of Alexius Angelus, emperor of Constantinople.
At an early age he rose to distinction, and ultimately became
3 6
MICHAEL OBRENOVICH III. MICHAELIS
commander of the French mercenaries in the employment of
the emperors of Nicaea. A few days after the death of Theodore
Lascaris II. in 1259, Michael, by the assassination of Muzalon
(which he is believed but not proved to have encouraged)
became joint guardian with the patriarch Arsenius of the young
emperor, John Lascaris, then a lad of eight years. Afterwards
invested with the title of " despot," he was finally proclaimed
joint-emperor and crowned alone at Nicaea on the ist of January
1260. In July 1261 Michael, who had attacked Constantinople
with the help of the Genoese, conquered the town through
his general Strategopoulos. He thereupon had John Lascaris
blinded and banished. For this last act he was excommunicated
by Arsenius, and the ban was not removed until six years
afterwards (1268) on the accession of a new patriarch. In
1263 and 1264 respectively, Michael, with the help of Urban IV.,
concluded peace with Villehardouin, prince of Achaia, and
Michael, despot of Epirus, who had previously been incited
by the pope to attack him, but had been decisively beaten at
Pelagonia in Thessaly (1259); Villehardouin was obliged to cede
Mistra, Monemvasia and Maina in the Morea. Subsequently
Michael was involved in wars with the Genoese and Venetians,
whose influence in Constantinople he sought to diminish by
maintaining the balance of strength between them. In 1269
Charles of Sicily, aided by John of Thessaly, made war with
the alleged purpose of restoring Baldwin to the throne of
Constantinople, and pressed Michael so hard that he consented
to send deputies to the council of Lyons (1274) and there accept
the papal supremacy. The union thus brought about between
the two Churches was, however, extremely distasteful to the
Greeks, and the persecution of hi.; " schismatic " subjects to
which the emperor was compelled to resort weakened his power
so much that Martin IV. was tempted to enter into alliance
with Charles of Anjou and the Venetians for the purpose of
reconquering Constantinople. The invasion, however, failed,
and Michael so far had his revenge in the " Sicilian Vespers,"
which he helped to bring about. He died in Thrace in December
1282. In reconstituting the Byzantine Empire Michael restored
the old administration without endeavouring to correct its
abuses. By debasing the coinage he hastened the decay of
Byzantine commerce.
MICHAEL IX. PALAEOLOGUS, was the son of Andronicus II.
and was associated with him on the throne from 1295, but
predeceased him (1320). He took the field against the Turks
(1301, 1310) and against the Grand Catalan Company (1305),
but was repeatedly defeated.
See Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. Bury, 1896) ; G. Finlay, Hist, of
Greece (ed: 1877); G. Schlumberger, VEpop&e byzanline (1896); J.
Bury, inEng. Hist. Rev. (1889); Meliarakes, 'Icrropia. TOV /3o<riXeioi>
Tijs NuaiasKaiToDSeoTrordTcw rijs 'Hjreipou, pp. 539-627 (Athens, 1898).
MICHAEL OBRENOVICH HI. (1823-1868), Prince of Servia,
was the youngest son of Prince Milosh, the founder of the
Obrenovich dynasty. After the abdication of his father (1839)
and the death of his elder brother Milan Obrenovich II. (1840)
he ascended the throne of Servia. He wished to continue the
work of his father, in liberating all the Servian people, and if
possible all other Balkan Christians, from direct Turkish rule.
But while this programme made the Sultan hostile, it also failed
to win the support of Austria, which did not wish the Eastern
Question to be opened by the ambitious Servian. The support
which his aspirations found in Russia increased Turkey's and
Austria's suspicions of the prince's activity. At the same time
the political situation at home was not favourable to his anti-
Turkish policy. The power was in the hands of men who had
forced Obrenovich I. to abdicate, and feared that Obrenovich
III. might avenge his father. They thought it safer for them to
replace him on the throne by a man who was not an Obrenovich,
and who would be personally obliged to them for his elevation.
These motives were at the bottom of the revolt, started and
led by Vuchich in August 1842, the outcome of which was that
Prince Michael left the country and that his equerry, Alexander
K-arageorgevich, was elected Prince of Servia. As an exile
Prince Michael lived principally in Vienna, improving his educa-
tion by studies and travels, and frequently visiting England.
He constantly refused to agree to suggestions for his restoration
by forcible means. His device was Tempus et meum jus,
" Time and my right." He supported Servian authors and
artists, and wrote himself a book in defence of his father Milosh
against the attacks of Cyprian Robert. He wrote poetry too,
and some of his songs, set to beautiful music, were very popular
amongst the Servians. He 'married in 1856 the beautiful
Julia, Countess Hunyadi.
In 1858 the Servians, having dethroned Prince Karageorgevich,
recalled Michael's father Milosh Obrenovich I. Michael returned
to Servia, and on his father's death (1860) ascended the Servian
throne for the second time. His proclamation " that henceforth
the law is the highest will in Servia," opened a new era of strict
legality and at the same time of entire emancipation from
foreign influences, and more especially from Turkey's inter-
ference with the internal affairs of Servia. The old constitution,
granted to Servia by the sultan as the suzerain and the tsar
as the protector of Servia as far back as 1839, was discarded
and replaced by one which limited the power of the oligarchic
senate and gave a certain share in legislation to the " Narodna
Skupshtina " (the National Assembly). He established the
Servian national army and increased the regular army. Reforms
in all branches of public administration were introduced, and
Servia, until then a half-oriental and half-patriarchal state, was
resolutely led to become a civilized country in a European sense.
When in 1862 the Turkish garrison bombarded the town of
Belgrade from its citadel, Prince Michael, supported by the
European diplomacy, succeeded in obtaining evacuation of some
of the smaller forts in Servia, but the strong fortress of Belgrade
still remained garrisoned by the Turkish troops. Prince Michael
now made vigorous political and military preparations for
war against Turkey. He made secret arrangements with the
Bulgarian, Bosnian and Albanian leaders, an alliance with
Montenegro and an understanding with Greece, with the object
that they all should rise if Servia declared war -on Turkey.
He even succeeded in obtaining Austria's promise, that it would
observe an attitude of friendly neutrality and would have nothing
against an eventual annexation of the largest part of Bosnia
to Servia, and he secured to himself the sympathies of Napoleon
III. and his government. In the beginning of 1867 he formally
asked the Porte to withdraw the Turkish garrisons from the
fortress of Belgrade, as well as from other two fortresses of
minor importance (Shab?,ts and Smederevo (Semendria)).
For some time the chances were that a war would take place
that spring (1867) between Servia and Turkey, but peace was
kept by the action of Great Britain, who advised the sultan
to withdraw the Turkish garrisons from the Servian fortresses;
and this advice, backed by Russia, France and Austria, prevailed
at last with the sultan. On the 26th of April 1867 the fortresses
were delivered over to Prince Michael, who shortly afterwards
went to Constantinople to thank the sultan personally.
Prince Michael's policy had triumphed. But his success
was short-lived. A group of young men, mostly educated in
France and Germany, now started a liberal movement under
the leadership of Yovan Ristich (or Ristitch). They wanted
a more liberal constitution than that which Prince Michael
had given; and this movement tended to qualify his popularity.
Meanwhile the prince contemplated divorce from his wife
Princess Julia, by whom he had no children, and marriage
with the daughter of his cousin Madame Anka Constanitinovich;
and the adherents of the exiled Karageorgevich dynasty were
alarmed at the prospect of his eventually having legal heirs
to the throne. A former private secretary to Prince Alexander
Karageorgevich, and two of the same prince's brothers-in-law,
formed a conspiracy, which resulted in the brutal assassination
of Prince Michael on the 2gth of May (June 10 (O.S.), 1868),
whilst he was walking in the park of Koshutnyak, a few miles
distant from Belgrade. (C. Mi.)
MICHAELIS, JOHANN DAVID (1717-1791), German biblical
scholar and teacher, a member of a family which had the chief
part in maintaining that solid discipline in Hebrew and the
MICHAUD MICHAUX
361
cognate languages which distinguished the university of Halle
in the period of Pietism. Johann Heinrich Michaelis (1668-1738)
was the chief director of A. H. Francke's Collegium orientate
theologicum, a practical school of biblical and oriental philology
then quite unique, and the author of an annotated Hebrew
Bible and various exegetical works of reputation, especially
the Adnotationcs uberiores in hagiographos (1720). In his chief
publications J. H. Michaelis had as fellow-worker his sister's
son Christian Benedikt Michaelis (1680-1764), the father of
Johann David, who was likewise influential as professor at Halle,
and a sound scholar, especially in Syriac. J. D. Michaelis
was trained for aeademical life under his father's eye. At
Halle he was influenced, especially in philosophy, by Sigmund
J. Baumgarten (1706-1757), the link between the old Pietism and
J. S. Semler, while he cultivated his strong taste for history under
Chancellor Ludwig. In 1739-1740 he qualified as university
lecturer. One of his dissertations was a defence of the antiquity
and divine authority of the vowel-points in Hebrew. His
scholarship still moved in the old traditional lines, and he was
also much exercised by religious scruples, the conflict of an inde-
pendent mind with that submission to authority at the expense
of reason encouraged by the Lutheranism in which he had been
trained. A visit to England in 1741-1742 lifted him out of the
narrow groove of his earlier education. In passing through
Holland he made the acquaintance of Albert Schultens (1686-
1750)1 whose influence on his philological views became all-
powerful a few years later. At Halle Michaelis felt himself
out of place, and in 1745 he gladly accepted an invitation
to Gottingen as privatdozent. In 1746 he became professor
extraordinarius, in 1750 ordinarius, and in Gottingen he
remained till his death in 1791.
His intellect was active in many directions; universal learning
indeed was perhaps one of his foibles. Literature modern
as well as ancient occupied his attention; one of his works
was a translation of four parts of Clarissa; and translations
of some of the then current English paraphrases on biblical
books manifested his sympathy with a school which, if not
very learned, attracted him by its freer air. His oriental studies
were reshaped by diligent perusal of the works of Schultens;
for the Halle school, with all its learning, had no conception of
the principles on which a fruitful connexion between Biblical
and Oriental learning could be established. His linguistic work
indeed was always hampered by the lack of manuscript material,
which is felt in his philological writings, e.g. in his valuable Supple-
menta to the Hebrew lexicons (i 784-1 792) . J He could not become
such an Arabist as J. J. Reiske (1716-1774); and, though for
many years the most famous teacher of Semitic languages in
Europe, he had little of the higher philological faculty, and
neither his grammatical nor his critical work has left a permanent
mark, with the exception perhaps of his text-critical studies
on the Peshitta. 2 His tastes were all for such studies as history,
antiquities, and especially geography and natural science. He
had in fact started his university course as a medicinae cultor,
and in his autobiography he half regrets that he did not choose
the medical profession. In geography he found a field hardly
touched since Samuel Bochart, in whose footsteps he followed
in the Spicikgium geographiae hebraeorum exterae post Bochartum
(1760-1780); and to his impulse we owe the famous Eastern
expedition conducted by Carsten Niebuhr. In spite of his
doctrinal writings which at the time made no little noise, so that
his Compendium of Dogmatic (1760) was confiscated in Sweden,
and the knighthood of the North Star was afterwards given
him in reparation it was the natural side of the Bible that
really attracted him, and no man did more to introduce the
modern method of studying Hebrew antiquity as an integral
part of ancient Eastern life.
The personal character of Michaelis can be read between the lines
1 By a strange fortune of war it was the occupation of Gottingen
by the French in the Seven Years' War, and the friendly relations
he formed with the officers, that procured him the Paris MS. from
which he edited Abulfeda's description of Egypt.
2 Curae in actus apostolorum syriacos (1755).
of his autobiography with the aid of the other materials collected
by J. M. Hassencamp (1743-1797) the editor (/. D. Michaelis
Lebensbeschreibung, &c., 1793). The same volume contains a full
list of his works. Besides those already mentioned it is sufficient
to refer to his New Testament Introduction (the first edition, 1750,
preceded the full development of his powers, and is a very different
book from the later editions), his reprint of Robert Lowth's Praelec-
tiones with important additions (1758-1762), his German translation
of the Bible with notes (1773-1792), his Orientalische und exegetische
Bibliothek (1775-1785) and Neue O. and E. Bib. (1786-1791), his
Mosaisches Recht (1770-1771) and his edition of E. Castle's Lexicon
syriacum (1787-1788). His Litterarischer Briefwechsel (1794-1796)
contains much that is interesting for the history of learning in his
time.
MICHAUD, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1767-1839), French his-
torian and publicist, was born of an old family on the igth
of June 1767, at Albens, Savoy, was educated at Bourg-en-
Bresse, and afterwards engaged in literary work at Lyons,
where the events of 1789 first called out the strong dislike to
revolutionary principles which manifested itself throughout the
rest of his life. In 1791 he went to Paris, where, not without
danger, he took part in editing several royalist journals. In
1796 he became editor of La Quotidienne, for his connexion
with which he was arrested after the i3th of Vendemiaire; he .
succeeded in escaping his captors, but was sentenced to death
par conlumace by the military council. Having resumed the
editorship of his newspaper on the establishment of the Directory,
he was again proscribed on the i8th of Fructidor, but at the
close of two years returned to Paris when the consulate had
superseded the Directory. His Bourbon sympathies led to a
brief imprisonment in 1800, and on his release he for the time
abandoned journalism, and began to write or edit books. Along
with his brother and two colleagues he published in 1806 a
Biographie moderne, oil, dictionnaire des hommes qui se sont fait
un nom en Europe depuis 1789, the earliest work of its kind;
and in 1811 appeared the first volume of his Histoire des croisades
and also the first volume of his Biographie universelle. In
1814 he resumed the editorship of La Quotidienne, and in the
same year was elected Academician. In 1815 his brochure
entitled Histoire des quinze semaines ou le dernier regne de Bona-
parte met with extraordinary success, passing through twenty-
seven editions within a very short time. His political services
were now rewarded with the cross of an officer in the Legion
of Honour and the modest post of king's reader, of which last
he was deprived in 1827 for having opposed Peyronnet's " Loi
d' Amour " against the freedom of the Press. In 1830-1831 he
travelled in Syria and Egypt for the purpose of collecting addi-
tional materials for the Histoire des croisades; his correspondence
with a fellow explorer, J. J. F. Poujoulat, consisting practically
of discussions and elucidations of various points in that work,
was afterwards published (Correspondance d' orient, 7 vols.,
1833-1835). Like the Histoire, it is more interesting than exact.
The Bibliotheque des croisades, in four volumes more, contained
the " Pieces justificatives " of the Histoire. Michaud died on
the 30th of September 1839, at Passy, where his home had been
since 1832.
His Histoire des croisades was published in its final form in six
volumes in 1840 under the editorship of his friend Poujoulat (9th ed.,
with appendix, by Huillard-Br6holles, 1856). Michaud, along with
Poujoulat, also edited Nouvelle collection des memoires pour servir
a I'histoire de France (32 vols., 1836-1844). See Sainte-Beuve,
Causeries du lundi, vol. vii.
MICHAUX, ANDRE (1746-1802), French botanist and
traveller, was born at Versailles on the 7th of March 1746.
In 1779 he spent some time botanizing in England, and in 1780
he explored Auvergne, the Pyrenees and the north of Spain. In
1782 he was sent by the French government on a botanical
mission to Persia. His journey began unfavourably, as he was
robbed by Arabs of all his equipment except his books; but he
gained influential support in Persia, having cured the shah
of a dangerous illness. After two years he returned to France
with a fine herbarium, and also introduced numerous Eastern
plants into the botanic gardens of France. In 1785 he was
sent by the French government to North America, and travelled
with his son Francois Andre (1770-1855) through Canada,
362
MICHEL, C. MICHELANGELO
Nova Scotia and the United States. On his return to France
in 1797 he was shipwrecked and lost most of his collections.
In 1800 he vent to Madagascar to investigate the flora of that
island, and died there on the i6th of November 1802. His
work as a botanist was chiefly done in the field, and he added
largely to what was previously known of the botany of the East
and of America.
He wrote two valuable works on North American plants the
Histoire des chines de I'Amerique septentrionale (1801), with 36 p ates,
and the Flora Boreali-Americana (2 vols., 1803), with 51 plates.
His son Francois published a Histoire des arbres forestiers de I Amenque
septentrionale (3 vols., 1810-1813), with 156 plates, of which an
English translation appeared in 1817-1819 as The North American
Sylva.
MICHEL, CLAUDE, known as CLODION (1738-1814), French
sculptor, was born on the zoth of December 1738 in Nancy.
Here and probably in Lille he spent the earlier years of his life.
In I7S5 he came to Paris and entered the workshop of Lambert
Sigisbert Adam, his maternal uncle, a clever sculptor. He
remained four years in this workshop, and on the death of his
uncle became a pupil of J. B. Pigalle. In 1759 he obtained
the grand prize for sculpture at the Academic Royale; in 1761
he obtained the first silver medal for studies from models; and
in 1762 he went to Rome. Here his activity was considerable
between 1767 and 1771. Catherine II. was eager to secure
his presence in St Petersburg, but he returned to Paris.
Among his patrons, which were very numerous, were the chapter
of Rouen, the states of Languedoc, and the Direction generate.
His works were frequently exhibited at the Salon. -In 1782
he married Catherine Flore, a daughter of the sculptor Augustin
Pajou, who subsequently obtained a divorce from him. The
agitation caused by the Revolution drove Clodion in 1792 to
Nancy, where he remained until 1798, his energies being spent
in the decoration of houses. Among Clodion's works are a
statue of Montesquieu, a " Dying Cleopatra," and a chimney-
piece at present in the South Kensington Museum. One of
his last groups represented Homer as a beggar being driven
away by fishermen (1810). On the 2gth of March 1814 Clodion
died in Paris, on the eve of the invasion of Paris by the allies.
Thirion's Les Adam el Clodion (Paris, 1885) contains a list of the
sculptor's works sold between 1767 and 1884. See also A. Jacquot,
Les Adam et les Michel et Clodion (Paris, 1898).
MICHEL, CLEMENCE LOUISE (1830-1905), French anarchist,
called la Vierge rouge de Montmartre, was born at the chateau
of Vroncourt (Haute-Marne) on the 29th of May 1830, the
daughter of a serving-maid, Marianne Michel, and the son of
the house, Etienne Charles Demahis. She was brought up
by her father's parents, and received a liberal education. After
her grandfather's death in 1850 she was trained to teach, but
her refusal to acknowledge Napoleon III. prevented her from
serving in a state school. She found her way in 1866 to a school
in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, where she threw herself
ardently into works of charity and revolutionary politics. She
became violently anti-Bonapartist, and is said to have meditated
the assassination of Napoleon. During the siege of Paris she
joined the ambulance service, and untiringly preached resistance
to the Prussians. On the establishment of the Commune she
joined the National Guard. She offered to shoot Thiers, and
suggested the destruction of Paris by way of vengeance for its
surrender. She was with the Communards who made their
last stand in the cemetery of Montmartre, and was closely allied
with Theodore Ferre, who was executed in November 1871.
This ardent attachment was perhaps one of the sources of the
exaltation which marked her career, and gave many handles
to her enemies. When she was brought before the 6th council
of war in December 1871 she defied her judges and defended
the Commune. She was sent as a convict to New Caledonia,
among her companions being Henri Rochefort, who remained
her friend till the day of her death. The amnesty of 1880 found
her revolutionary ardour unchanged. She travelled throughout
France, preaching revolution, and in 1883 she led a Paris mob
which pillaged a baker's shop. For this she was condemned to
six years' imprisonment, but was released in 1886, at the same
time as Prince Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists.
After a short period of freedom she was again arrested for making
inflammatory speeches. She was soon liberated, but, hearing
that her enemies hoped to intern her in a lunatic asylum, she
fled to England. She returned to France in 1895, and in 1902
was back in London. She was touring France and lecturing
on behalf of anarchist propaganda when she died at Marseilles
on the icth of January 1905.
Her Memoires (Paris, 1886) contain accounts of her trials. See also
La Bonne Louise (Paris, 1906), by E. Girault.
MICHEL, FRANCISQUE XAVIER (1809-1887), French anti-
quary, was born at Lyons on the i8th of January 1809.
He became known for his editions of French works of the
middle ages, and the French Government, recognizing their
value, sent him to England (1833) and Scotland (1837) to
continue his researches there. In 1839 he was appointed
professor of foreign literature in the Faculli des lettres at
Bordeaux. Between 1834 and 1842 he published editions of
a large number of works written between the eleventh and
fourteenth centuries in French, English and Saxon, including
the Roman de la rose and the Chanson de Roland. Subsequently
he published French translations of Goldsmith, Sterne, Shake-
speare and Tennyson. He died in Paris on the i8th of May
1887.
His original works include Histoire des races maudites de la France
et de I'Rspagne (1847); Recherches sur le commerce pendant le moyen
age (1852-1854); Les fccossais en France et les fran^ais en iLcosse
(1862); tudes de philologie comparee sur I'argot (1856); Le Pays
basque (1857); Histoire du commerce et de la navigation a Bordeaux
(18671871); and, in conjunction with Edouard Fournier, Histoire
des hotelleries, cabarets, hotels garnis (1851-1854).
MICHELANGELO (MICHELAGNIOLO BUONARROTI) (1475-
1564), the most famous of the great Florentine artists of the
Renaissance, was the son of Ludovico Buonarroti, a poor gentle-
man of that city, and of his wife Francesca dei Neri. The
Buonarroti Simoni were an old and pure Florentine stock of
the Guelf faction: in the days of Michelangelo's fame a connexion
of the family with the counts of Canossa was imagined and
admitted on both sides, but has no foundation in fact. Ludovico
was barely able to live on the income of his estate, but made
it his boast that he had never stooped to add to it by mercantile
or mechanical pursuits. The favour of the Medici procured
him temporary employment in minor offices of state, among
them that of podesta or resident magistrate for six months,
from the autumn of 1474, at Castello di Chiusi and Caprese
in the Casentino.' At Caprese, on the 6th of March 1475, his
second son Michelagniolo or Michelangelo was born. Immedi-
ately afterwards the family returned to Florence, and the child
was put to nurse with a marble-worker's wife of Settignano.
His mother's health had already, it would seem, begun to fail;
at all events in a few years from this time, after she had borne
her husband three more sons, she died. While still a young
boy Michelangelo determined, in spite of his father's opposition,
to be an artist. He had sucked in the passion, as he himself
used to say, with his foster-mother's milk. After a sharp
struggle his stubborn will overcome his father's pride of gentility,
and at thirteen he got himself articled as a paid assistant in the
workshop of the brothers Ghirlandaio. Domenico Ghirlandaio,
bred a jeweller, had become by this time the foremost painter of
Florence. In his service the young Michelangelo laid the founda-
tions of that skill in fresco with which twenty years afterwards
he confounded his detractors at Rome. He studied also, like
all the Florentine artists of that age, in the Brancacci chapel,
where the frescoes of Masaccio, painted some sixty years before,
still victoriously held their own; and here, in reply, to a taunt
he had flung at a fellow-student, Torrigiano, he received the
blow on the nose which disfigured him to his dying day.
Though Michelangelo's earliest studies were directed towards
painting, he was by nature and predilection much more inclined
to sculpture. In that art he presently received encouragement
and training under the eye of an illustrious patron, Lorenzo
dei Medici. On the recommendation, it is said, of Ghirlandaio,
he was transferred, before the term of his apprenticeship as
MICHELANGELO
363
a painter had expired, to the school of sculpture established
by Lorenzo in the Medici gardens. Here he could learn to match
himself against his great predecessor, Donatello, one of whose
pupils and assistants, the aged Bertoldo, was director of the
school, and to compare the works of that master and his Tuscan
contemporaries with the antiques collected for the instruction
of the scholars. Here, too, he could listen to discourses on
Platonism, and steep himself in the doctrines of an enthusiastic
philosophy which sought to reconcile with Christian faith
the lore and the doctrines of the Academy. Michelangelo
remained a Christian Platonist to the end of his days; he was
also from his youth up a devoted student of Dante. His powers
of mind and hand soon attracted attention, and secured him
the regard and favour of his patrons in spite of his rugged
exterior and scornful unsociable temper.
Michelangelo had been attached to the school and household
of the Medici for barely three years when, in 1402, his great
patron Lorenzo died. Lorenzo's son Piero dei Medici inherited
the position but not the qualities of his father; Florence
soon chafed under his authority; and towards the autumn
of 1494 it became apparent that disaster was impending over
him and his adherents. Michelangelo was constitutionally
subject to dark and sudden presentiments : one such seized
him now, and without awaiting the popular outbreak, which
soon followed, he took horse with two companions and fled
to Bologna. There, being now in his twentieth year, he
was received with kindness by a member of the Aldovrandi
family, on whose commission he executed two figures of saints
and one of an angel for the shrine of St Dominic in the church
of St Petronius. After about a year, work at Bologna failing,
and his name having been included in his absence on the list
of artists appointed to provide a new hall of assembly for the
great council of Florence, Michelangelo returned home. The
strange theocracy established by Savonarola was now in force,
and the whole character of civic life at Florence was for the
time being changed. The influence of the fervent Dominican
upon the mind and character of the young Michelangelo became
as profound as that of the Platonists and of Dante. He was
not left without employment. He found a friend in another
Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco dei Medici, for whom he at
this time executed a statue of the boy St John. Having also
carved a recumbent Cupid in imitation of the antique, it was
suggested to him by the same patron that it should be so tinted
and treated as to look like a real antique, and sold accordingly.
Without increasing the price he put upon the work, Michelangelo
for amusement lent himself to the counterfeit, and the piece
was then actually sold for a large sum, as a genuine work of
antiquity, to a Roman collector, Raffaelle Riario, cardinal di
San Giorgio; the dealer appropriating the profits. When the
cardinal discovered the fraud he caused the dealer to refund;
but as to Michelangelo himself, it was represented to the young
sculptor that if he went to Rome the amateur who had just
involuntarily paid so high a tribute to his skill would certainly
befriend him. He set forth accordingly, and arrived at Rome
for the first time at the end of June 1496. Such hopes as he
may have entertained of countenance from the cardinal di
San Giorgio were quickly dispelled. Neither did the banished
Piero dei Medici, who also was now living at Rome, do anything
to help him. On the other hand Michelangelo won the favour
of a Roman nobleman, Jacopo Galli, and through him of the
French cardinal Jean de Villiers de la Grolaie, abbot of St Denis.
From the former he received a commission for a " Cupid " and
a" Bacchus," from the latter for a" Pieta "or " Mary lamenting
over the body of Christ " works of which the two last named
only are preserved. Equal originality of conception and
magnificence of technical execution mark the two contrasted
subjects one as noble and the other as nearly ignoble as any-
thing Michelangelo ever did of the mother with the dead son
on her lap, indicating with a contained but eloquent gesture of
her left hand a tragedy too great for outcries, and the titubant
sensual young wine-god (a condition in which ancient art would
never have exhibited the god himself, but only his satellites).
Michelangelo's stay in Rome at this time lasted five years
from the summer of 1496 till that of 1501. The interval had
been one of extreme political distraction at Florence. The
excitement of the French invasion, the mystic and ascetic
regimen of Savonarola, the reaction which led to his overthrow,
and finally the external wars and internal dissidences which
preceded a new settlement, had all created an atmosphere
most unfavourable to art. Nevertheless Ludovico Buonarroti,
who in the troubles of 1494 had lost a small permanent appoint-
ment he held in the customs, and had come to regard his son
Michelangelo as the mainstay of his house, had been repeatedly
urging him to come home. A spirit of family duty and family
pride was the ruling principle in all Michelangelo's conduct.
During the best years of his life he submitted himself sternly
and without a murmur to pinching hardship and almost super-
human labour for the sake of his father and brothers, who were
ever selfishly ready to be fed and helped by him. Having now,
after an illness, come home in 1501, Michelangelo was requested
by the cardinal Francesco Piccolomini to adorn with a number of
sculptured figures a shrine already begun in the cathedral of
Siena in honour of the most distinguished member of his house,
Pope Pius II. Four only of these figures were ever executed,
and those not apparently, or only in small part, by the master's
hand. A work of greater interest in Florence itself had diverted
him from his engagement to his Sienese patrons. This was the
execution of the famous colossal statue of David, popularly
known as " the Giant." It was carved out of a huge block of
marble on which another sculptor, Agostino d' Antonio, had
begun unsuccessfully to work forty years before, and which had
been lying idle ever since. Michelangelo had here a difficult
problem before him. Without much regard to the traditional
treatment of the subject or the historical character of his hero,
he carved out of the vast but cramped mass of material an
adolescent, frowning colossus, tensely watchful and self-balanced
in preparation for his great action. The result amazed every
beholder by its freedom and science of execution and its victorious
energy of expression. All the best artists of Florence were
called in council to determine on what site it should be set up,
and after much debate the terrace of the palace of the Signory
was chosen, in preference to the neighbouring Loggia dei Lanzi.
Here accordingly the colossal " David " of Michelangelo took,
in the month of May 1 504, the place which it continued to hold
until in 1882 it was removed for the sake of protection to a hall
in the Academy of Fine Arts, where it inevitably looks crushed
and cabined. Other works of sculpture belong to the same
period: among them a second " David," in bronze and on a
smaller scale, commissioned by the marechal Pierre Rohan
and left by the young master to be finished by Benedetto da
Rovezzano, who despatched it to France in 1508; a great
rough-hewn " St Matthew " begun but never completed for the
cathedral of Florence; a " Madonna and Child " executed on
the commission of a merchant of Bruges; and two unfinished
bas-reliefs of the same subject.
Neither was Michelangelo idle at the same time as a painter.
Leaving disputed works for the moment out of sight, he in these
days at any rate painted for his and Raphael's common patron,
Angelo Doni, the " Holy Family " now in the Uffizi at Florence.
In the autumn of 1504, the year of the completion of the
" David," he received from the Florentine state a commission
for a work of monumental painting on a heroic scale. Leonardo
da Vinci had been for some months engaged on his great cartoon
of the " Battle of Anghiari," to be painted on the wall of the
great hall of the municipal council. The gonfaloniere Piero
Soderini now procured for Michelangelo the commission to design
a companion work. Michelangelo chose an incident at the battle
of Cascina during the Pisan war of 1364, when the Florentine
soldiery had been surprised by the enemy in the act of bathing.
He dashed at the task with his accustomed fiery energy, and had
carried a great part of the cartoon to completion when, in the
early spring of 1505, he broke off the work in order to obey a
call to Rome which reached him from Pope Julius II. His
unfinished cartoon, in its power over the varieties and contrasts
3 6 4
MICHELANGELO
of energetic and vitally significant action, showed how greatly
Michelangelo had profited by the example of his elder rival,
Leonardo, little as, personally, he yielded to Leonardo's charm
or could bring himself to respond to his courtesy. The work
of Michelangelo's youth is for the most part comparatively
tranquil in character. His early sculpture, showing a degree
of science and perfection unequalled since the antique, has
also something of the antique serenity. It bears strongly the
stamp of intellectual research, but not by any means that of
storm or strain. In the cartoon of the " Bathers " the qualities
afterwards proverbially associated with Michelangelo hisfuria,
his lerribilM, the tempest and hurricane of the spirit which
accompanied his unequalled technical mastery and knowledge
first found expression.
With Michelangelo's departure to Rome early in 1505 the first
part of his artistic career may be said to end. It will be convenient
here to recapitulate its principal results in sculpture and painting,
both those preserved and those recorded but lost.
SCULPTURE. Florence, 1489-1494. " Head of a Faun," marble;
lost. Condivi describes Michelangelo's first essay in sculpture as
a head of an aged faun with a front tooth knocked out, this latter
point having been an afterthought suggested by Lorenzo dei Medici.
The head is sometimes identified with one in the National Museum
at Florence, which however bears no marks of Michelangelo's early
style and is in all probability spurious. " Madonna seated on a
Step," bronze; Casa Buonarroti, Florence. This bas-relief, executed
in imitation of the technical style of Donatello, is a genuine example
of Michelangelo's early work in the Medicean school under Ber-
toldo. " Centauromachia," marble; Casa Buonarroti. A fine and
genuine work in full relief, of probably somewhat later date than the
Fast-mentioned. The subject occurs often in ancient sarcophagus
reliefs: Michelangelo has followed the antique in his conception and
treatment of the nude, but the arrangement of the subject is his own.
Bologna, 1494-1495. Statuettes of " St Petronius," " St Proculus,"
and a " Kneeling Angel," marble; part of the decorations of the
shrine of St Dominic in the church of that saint at Bologna: the
style of all three much influenced by the work of Jacopo della Quercia
in the same church; the attitude of the kneeling angel with the
candelabrum imitated from an ancient bas-relief.
Florence, 1495-1496. " St John in the Wilderness," executed for
Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco dei Medici, marble; probably lost. De-
clared in 1874 to have been found again in the possession of Count
Gualandi-Rossalmini at Pisa. Vehement and prolonged discussion
arose as to the authenticity of this newly-found S. Giovannino, and
at last it was bought for the Berlin Museum, where its genuineness
is still stoutly maintained. But the finicking and affected elegance
of the conception denote a different temperament from Michelangelo's
and probably a later date. With this figure must be given up also
the restoration of an antique group of " Bacchus and Ampelus " at
the Ufnzi, which is clearly by the same hand and is claimed also as
an early work of Michelangelo. " Recumbent Cupid," bought by
the cardinal San Giorgio as an antique, marble; lost. The attempts
to recognize it in certain extant copies or servile imitations of the
antique, especially one now at Turin, must be held mistaken.
Rome, 1495-1501. " Virgin lamenting the dead Christ," com-
missioned by the abbot de la Grolaie; marble, St Peter's, Rome.
" Bacchus and young Faun," commissioned by Jacopo Galli; marble,
National Museum, Florence. (Of these two masterpieces of Michel-
angelo's youth enough has been said above). " Cupid," commis-
sioned by the abbot de la Grolaie; marble; lost; has been commonly
identified as the " Kneeling Cupid " of the Victoria and Albert
Museum, but this, if by Michelangelo at all, which is not quite
certain, must in all likelihood belong to a later time.
Florence, 1501-1506. " Five Saints, in niches decorating the
shrine of Pius II.," commissioned by the Piccolomini family; marble;
cathedral of Siena. The contract for the sculptured decoration of
this shrine was one of those which the pressure of other work pre-
vented the artist from ever taking seriously in hand. Of the five
saints in niches, traditionally reputed to be his work, the St Peter
'alone shows any clear marks of his style ; the other four were probably
designed, and certainly carried out, by weaker hands. " David
(the "Gigante "), commissioned for the city of Florence by Piero
Soderini; marble; Florence Academy. Besides what has been said
above, it has only to be added that a wax model in the Casa Buonar-
roti, showing nearly the same design with a different movement of
the legs, is probably Michelangelo's original sketch for the subject.
" David," commissioned by Pierre Rohan; bronze, lost; a clay
model in the National Museum, Florence, may probably be a sketch
for it; more than one bronze has been brought forward with claims
to be the original, but none has stood the test of criticism. " Virgin
and Child," commissioned for Taddeo Taddei; circular relief, un-
finished, marble; London, Royal Academy. The motive of the
Christ-child frightened by the flutterings of the bird held out by
St John is the most playful in all Michelangelo's work; the whole
design shows the influence o^Leonardo in his gentler, as much as
the cartoon of the " Bathers " shows it in his more violent, moods.
" Virgin and Child with St John," commissioned by Bartolommeo
Pitti; nearly circular relief, unfinished, marble; Florence, National
Museum: a more tranquil and very charming presentment.
" Madonna and Child," sold to the Mouscron family of Bruges
(known in Italy as Moscheroni), and by them presented to the church
of Notre Dame in that city; group in the round, marble; church of
Notre Dame, Bruges. A meditative seated Virgin with upright
head, the naked child seated between her knees, his smoothly
rounded form in strong contrast with her complicated draperies.
" St Matthew ": one of a set of twelve statues of Apostles com-
missioned by the consuls of the Arte della Lana for the cathedral
at Florence; marble; National Museum, Florence. Unfinished
(only roughly blocked out), the other figures of the set never having
been so much as begun ; the contract was signed in 1503 and cancelled
in 1505. There is an early drawing by Raphael from this statue.
PAINTING. " Holy Family," painted for Angelo Doni; tempera,
circular: Florence, Uffizi. The only perfectly well-attested panel
painting of Michelangelo which exists. His love of restless and some-
what strained actions is illustrated by the gesture of the Madonna,
who kneels on the ground holding up the child on her right shoulder;
his love of the nude by the introduction (wherein he follows Luca
Signorelli) of some otherwise purposeless undraped figures in the
background. "Virgin and Child with Four Angels ; tempera;
National Gallery, London. This unfinished painting, strongly
marked by the influence of Michelangelo in his work at this period,
has been confidently claimed for him, but lacks his strength and
mastery, and is far more probably the work of his imitator and
intimate associate, Francesco Granacci. " Cartoon of the Bathers " ;
lost and utterly perished. The only authentic records of it are
contained in a few early engravings by Marcantonio and Agostino
Veneziano and a certain number of sketches and studies by the
master himself, chiefly at the Albertina, Vienna, the British Museum
and the University Galleries, Oxford. An elaborate drawing of
many figures at Holkham Hall, well known and often engraved,
seems to be a later cento destitute of real authority.
Michelangelo had not been long in Rome before Pope Julius
devised fit employment for him. That capacious and head-
strong spirit, on fire with great enterprises, had conceived the
idea of a sepulchral monument to commemorate his glory when
he should be dead, and to be executed according to his own
plans while he was still living. He entrusted this congenial
task to Michelangelo. The design being approved, the artist
spent the winter of 1505-1506 at the quarries of Carrara, superin-
tending the excavation and shipment of the necessary marbles.
In the spring he returned to Rome, and when the marbles arrived
fell to with all his energy at the preparations for the work.
For a while the pope followed their progress eagerly, and was
all kindness to the young sculptor. But presently his disposi-
tion changed. In Michelangelo's absence an artist who was no
friend of his, Bramante of Urbino, had been selected by Julius to
carry out a new architectural scheme, commensurate with the
usual vastness of his conceptions, viz. the rebuilding of St Peter's
church. To the influence and the malice of Bramante Michel-
angelo attributed the unwelcome invitation he now received
to interrupt the great work of sculpture which he had just
begun in order to decorate the Sixtine chapel with frescoes.
Soon, however, schemes of war and conquest interposed to
divert the thoughts of Julius, not from the progress of his own
monument merely, but from artistic enterprises altogether.
One day Michelangelo heard him say at table to his jeweller that
he meant to spend no more money on pebbles, either small or
great. To add to the artist's discomfiture, when he went to
apply in person for payments due, he was first put off from
day to day, and at last actually with scant courtesy dismissed.
At this his dark mood got the mastery of him. Convinced that
not his employment only but his life was threatened, he suddenly
took horse and left Rome, and before the messengers of the pope
could overtake him was safe on Florentine territory. Michel-
angelo's flight took place in April 1506. Once among his own
people, he turned a deaf ear to all overtures made from Rome
for his return, and stayed throughout the summer at Florence,
how occupied we are not distinctly informed, but apparently,
among other things, on the continuation of his great battle
cartoon.
During the same summer Julius planned and executed the
victorious military campaign which ended with his unopposed
entry at the head of his army into Bologna. Thither, under
strict safe-conduct and promises of renewed favour, Michelangelo
MICHELANGELO
365
was at last persuaded to betake himself. Julius received the
truant artist kindly, as indeed between these two volcanic
natures there existed a natural affinity, and ordered of him
his own colossal likeness in bronze, to be set up, as a symbol
of his conquering authority, over the principal entrance
of the church of St Petronius. For the next fifteen months
Michelangelo devoted his whole strength to this new task.
The price at which he undertook it left him, as it turned out,
hardly any margin to subsist on. Moreover in the technical
art of metal casting he was inexperienced, and an assistant
whom he had summoned from Florence proved insubordinate
and had to be dismissed. Nevertheless his genius prevailed
over every hardship and difficulty, and on the 2ist of February
1508 the majestic bronze colossus of the seated pope, robed and
mitred, with one hand grasping the keys and the other extended
in a gesture of benediction and command, was duly raised to
its station over the church porch. Three years later it was
destroyed in a revolution. The people of Bologna rose against
the authority of Julius; his delegates and partisans were cast
out, and his effigy hurled from its place. The work of Michel-
angelo, after being trailed in derision through the streets, was
broken up and its fragments cast into the furnace.
Meanwhile the artist himself, as soon as his work was done,
had followed his reconciled master back to Rome. The task
that here awaited him, however, was after all not the resumption
of the papal monument, but the execution of the series of
paintings in the Sixtine chapel which had been mooted before
his departure. Painting, he always averred, was not his
business; he was aware of his enemy's hopes that a great enter-
prise in fresco-painting would prove beyond his powers; and he
entered with misgiving and reluctance upon his new undertaking.
Destiny, however, so ruled that the work thus thrust upon him
remains his chief title to glory. His history is one of indomitable
will and almost superhuman energy, yet of will that hardly ever
had its way, and of energy continually at war with circumstance.
The only work which in all his life he was able to complete as
he had conceived it was this of the decoration of the Sixtine
ceiling. The pope had at first desired a scheme including figures
of the twelve apostles only. Michelangelo began accordingly,
but could rest content with nought so meagre, and soon proposed
instead a design of many hundred figures embodying the story
of Genesis from the Creation to the Flood, with accessory
personages of prophets and sibyls dreaming on the new dispensa-
tion to come, and, in addition, those of the forefathers of Christ.
The whole was to be enclosed and divided by an elaborate
framework of painted architecture, with a multitude of nameless
human shapes supporting its several members or reposing among
them shapes mediating, as it were, between the features of
the inanimate framework and those of the great dramatic and
prophetic scenes themselves. The pope bade the artist do as
he pleased. By May 1 508 the preparations in the chapel had
been completed and the work begun. Later in the same year
Michelangelo summoned a number of assistant painters from
Florence. Trained in the traditions of the earlier Florentine
school, they were unable, it seems, to interpret Michelangelo's
designs in fresco either with sufficient freedom or sufficient
uniformity of style to satisfy him. At any rate he soon dismissed
them, and carried out the remainder of his colossal task alone,
except for the necessary amount of purely mechanical and
subordinate help. The physical conditions of prolonged work,
face upwards, upon this vast expanse of ceiling were adverse
and trying in the extreme. After four and a half years of toil
the task was accomplished. Michelangelo had during its
progress been harassed alike by delays of payment and by
hostile intrigue, his ill-wishers casting doubts on his capacity,
and vaunting the superior powers of Raphael. That gentle
spirit would by nature have been no man's enemy, but unluckily
Michelangelo's moody, self-concentrated temper prevented the
two artists being on terms of amity such as might have stopped
the mouths of mischief-makers. Absolute need of funds for
the furtherance of the undertaking constrained him at one
moment to break off work and pursue his inconsiderate patron
as far as Bologna. This was between September 1510, by which
time the whole of the great series of subjects along the centre
of the vault were completed, and January 1511, when the master
set to work again and began filling the complicated lateral
spaces of his decorative scheme.
The main field of the Sixtine ceiling in form a depressed barrel
vault is divided in Michelangelo's scheme into four larger, alterna-
ting with five smaller fields. The following is the order of the
subjects depicted in them: (i) the dividing of the light from the
darkness; (2) the creation of sun, moon and stars; (3) the creation
of the waters; (4) the creation of man; (5) the creation of woman;
(6) the temptation and expulsion; (7) the sacrifice of Noah; (8) the
deluge ; (9) the drunkenness of Noah. The figures in the last three of
these scenes are on a smaller scale than those in the first six. In
numbers I, 3, 5, 7 and 9 the field of the picture is reduced by the
encroachments of the architectural framework with its seated pairs
of supporters, commonly known as " Slaves " or " Atlases." FUnk-
ing these smaller compositions, along the lateral spaces between
the crown of the vault and the walls on either side, are seated
figures of prophets and sibyls alternately; two other prophets are
introduced at each extremity of the series making seven prophets
and five sibyls in all. In the triangles to right and left of the pro-
phets at the two extremities are the death of Goliath, the death
of Holofernes, the brazen serpent and the punishment of Haman.
In the twelve lunettes above the windows are groups of the ancestors
of Christ, their names designated by inscriptions, and in the twelve
triangles above them (between the prophets and sibyls) other
kindred groups crouched or sitting. These last are all shown
in relatively simple human actions and household relations,
heightened but not falsified by the artist's genius, and rising
into majestic significance from roots deep in daily human nature.
The work represents all the powers of Michelangelo at their best.
Disdaining all the accessory allurements of the painter's art, he has
concentrated himself upon the exclusive delineation of the human
form and face at their highest power. His imagination has conceived,
and his knowledge and certainty of hand have enabled him to realize,
attitudes and combinations of unmatched variety and grandeur,
and countenances of unmatched expressiveness and power. But
he has not trusted, as he came later to trust, co science and acquired
knowledge merely; neither do his personages, so far as they did
afterwards, transcend human possibility or leave the facts of actual
life behind them. The profoundest knowledge and the most search-
ing realism serve to embody all this inspiration and sustain all this
sublimity; the sublimity, moreover is combined with the noblest
elements of grace and even of tenderness. As for the intellectual
meanings of his vast design, over and above those which reveal
themselves at a first glance or by a bare description, they are
from the nature of the case inexhaustible, and can never be per-
fectly defined. Whatever the soul of this great Florentine, the
spiritual heir of Dante, with the Christianity of the middle ages
not shaken in his mind, but expanded and transcendentalized, by
the knowledge and love of Plato; whatever the soul of such a man,
full of suppressed tenderness and righteous indignation, and of
anxious questionings of coming fate could conceive that Michel-
angelo has expressed or shadowed forth in this great and significant
scheme of paintings. The powers of the artist seem to have expanded
with the progress of his work. He seems to have begun (as the
spectator entering the chapel has to begin) with what is chrono-
logically the last subject of the series, the drunkenness of Noah, and
to have worked backwards, increasing the scale of his figures for
their better effect from the fourth subject (the Temptation and
Expulsion), and rising in ascending scale of majesty through the
successive acts of creation from the last to the first.
The Sixtine chapel was no sooner completed than Michelangelo
resumed work upon the marbles for the monument of Julius.
But four months only had passed when Julius died. His heirs
immediately entered (in the summer of 1513) into a new contract
with Michelangelo for the execution of the monument on a
reduced scale. What the precise nature and extent of the original
design had been we do not know, only that the monument
was to be detached from the wall, and to stand four-square
and free a thing hitherto unknown in Renaissance sepulchral
architecture in one of the chapels of St Peter's. But the new
design was extensive and magnificent enough. It was to consist
of a great three-sided structure, two courses high, projecting
from the church wall, and decorated on its three unattached
sides with statues. On the upper course was to be placed the
colossal recumbent figures of the pope, with a vision of the
Virgin and Child above him, angels mourning at the sides,
and prophetic and allegoric personages at the angles sixteen
figures in all. The lower course was to be enriched with twenty-
four figures in niches and on projecting pedestals: in the
niches, Victories; in front of terminal pilasters between them,
3 66
MICHELANGELO
slaves or captives denoting, it would seem, either conquered
provinces or arts and sciences in bondage after their patron's
death. A much injured and not indisputable sketch by the
master at Berlin, with a copy of the same by Sacchetti, are
supposed to show the design at this stage of its reduction.
The entire work was to be completed in nine years' time. During
the next three years, it would seem, Michelangelo brought to
completion three at least of the promised figures, for which
the blocks had reached Rome from Carrara as early as July
1508; and they are among the most famous of all existing works
of the sculptpr's art namely, the " Moses," now in the church
of S. Pietro in Vincoli at Rome and the two " Slaves " at the
Louvre.
The " Moses," originally intended for one of the angles of the upper
course, is now placed at the level of the eye, in the centre of the
principal face of the monument as it was at last finished, on a deplor-
ably reduced and altered scale, by Michelangelo and his assistants
in his old age. The prophet, supposed to have just come down from
Mount Sinai and found the Israelites worshipping the golden calf,
sits, heavily bearded and draped, with only his right arm bare, his
left foot drawn back, his head raised and turned to the left, his
left hand laid on his lap and his right grasping the tables of
the law an incarnation of majestic indignation and menace. The
work, except in one or two places, is of the utmost finish, and the
statue looks like one of the prophets of the Sixtine ceiling done in
marble. The " Slaves " at the Louvre are youthful male figures
of equally perfect execution, nude but for the band which passes
over the breast of one and the right leg of the other. One, with his
left hand raised to his head and his right pressed to his bosom, his
eyes almost closed, seems succumbing to the agonies of death; the
other, with his arms bound behind his back, looks upward still
hopelessly struggling. All three of these figures were finished
between 1513 and 1516.
By 1516 Michelangelo's evil star was again in the ascendant.
Julius II. had been succeeded on the papal throne by Cardinal
Giovanni de' Medici under the title of Leo X. The Medici,
too, had about the same time by force and fraud re-established
their sway in Florence, overthrowing the free institutions that
had prevailed there since the days of Savonarola. Now, on
the one hand, this family were the hereditary friends and patrons
of Michelangelo; on the other hand he was a patriotic son of
republican Florence; so that henceforward his personal allegiance
and his political sympathies were in conflict. Over much of
his art, as has been thought, the pain and perplexity of this
conflict have cast their shadow. For the present the consequence
to him of the rise to power of the Medici was a fresh interruption
of his cherished work on the tomb of Julius. Leo X. and his
kinsmen were full of a vast new scheme for the enrichment
and adornment of the facade of their own family church of San
Lorenzo in Florence. Michelangelo, carried away by the idea
and forgetful of his other still great and onerous task, offered
his services for the new facade. They were eagerly accepted,
although for a moment the idea had been entertained of entrust-
ing the work to Leonardo da Vinci. The heirs of Julius on their
part showed an accommodating temper, and at the request
of Leo allowed their three-years'-old contract to be cancelled
in favour of another, whereby the scale and sculptured decora-
tions of the Julian monument were again to be reduced by nearly
a half. Michelangelo soon produced for the San Lorenzo facade
a design of combined sculpture and architecture as splendid
and ambitious in its way as had been that for the original monu-
ment of Julius. The contract was signed in January 1518,
and the artist went to Carrara to superintend the excavation
of the marbles.
Michelangelo was now in his forty-fourth year. Though half
his life was yet to come, yet its best days had, as it proved, been
spent. All the hindrances which he had encountered hitherto
were as nothing to those which began to beset him now. For
the supply of materials for the facade of San Lorenzo he had
set a firm of masons to work, and had himself, it seems, entered
into a kind of partnership with them, at Carrara, where he knew
the quarries well, and where the industry was hereditary and
well understood. When all was well in progress there under
his own eye, reasons of state induced the Medici and the Floren-
tine magistracy to bid him resort instead to certain new quarries
at Pietrasanta, near Serravalle in the territory of Florence.
Hither, to the disgust of his old clients at Carrara and to his
own, Michelangelo accordingly had to transfer the scene of his
labours. Presently he found himself so impeded and enraged
by the mechanical difficulties of raising and transporting the
marbles, and by the disloyalty and incompetence of those with
whom he had to deal, that he was fain to throw up the commission
altogether. The contracts for the facade of San Lorenzo were
rescinded in March 1518, and the whole magnificent scheme
came to nothing. Michelangelo then returned to Florence,
where proposals of work poured in on him from many quarters.
The king of France desired something from- his hand to place
beside the two pictures he possessed by Raphael. The authorities
of Bologna wanted him to design a facade for their church of
St Petronius; those of Genoa to cast a statue in bronze of their
great commander, Andrea Doria. Cardinal Grimani begged
hard for any picture or statue he might have to spare; other
amateurs importuned him for so much as a pencil drawing
or sketch. Lastly his friend and partisan Sebastian del Piombo
at Rome, ever eager to keep up the feud between the followers
of Michelangelo and those of Raphael, besought him on Raphael's
death to return at once to Rome, and take out of the hands of
the dead master's pupils the work of painting still remaining to
be done in the Vatican chambers. Michelangelo complied with
none of these requests. All that we certainly know of his doing
between 1518 and 1522 is the blocking out in the rough of four
more of the " Slaves " for the tomb of Julius, and carrying out
a commission, which he had received from three citizens of Rome
as early as 1514, for a statue of the risen Christ. The roughed-out
" Slaves " now stand immured in a grotto in the Boboli Gardens,
Florence; -the Christ, practically finished by the master but
with the last touches added by pupils, stands in the church,
for which it was destined, of Sta Maria sopra Minerva at Rome;
there is little in it either of devotional spirit or imaginative
power, although, in those parts which Michelangelo himself
finished, there is extreme accomplishment of design and
workmanship.
The next twelve years of Michelangelo's life (1522-1534) were
spent at Florence, and again employed principally in the service
of his capricious and uncongenial patrons the Medici. The
plan of a great group of monuments to deceased members of this
family, to be set up in a new sacristy or mortuary chapel in
San Lorenzo, was first broached to Michelangelo in 1520 by
Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, No practical impulse, however,
was given to the work until Giulio, after the death of Leo X.
and the brief pontificate of the puritanical and iconoclastic
Adrian VI., had in his turn become pope in 1523 under the
title of Clement VII. Even then the impulse was a wavering
one. First Clement proposed to associate another artist,
Sansovino, with Michelangelo in his task. This proposal being
on Michelangelo's peremptory demand abandoned, Clement
next distracted the artist with an order for a new architectural
design that, namely, for the proposed Medicean or " Lauren-
tian " library. When at last after many changes of scope and
scheme the plans for the sepulchral chapel or " Sagrestia nuova "
took shape, they did not include, as had been at first intended,
memorials to the founders of the house's greatness, Cosimo
(pater patriae) and Lorenzo the Magnificent, or even to Pope
Leo X. himself, but only to two younger members of the house
lately deceased, Giuliano, duke of Nemours, and Lorenzo,
duke of Urbino. Michelangelo brooded long over various
designs for this work, and was still engaged on its execution
his time being partly also taken up by the building-plans for
the Medicean library when political revolutions interposed
to divert his industry. In 1527 came to pass the sack of Rome
by the Austrians, and the apparently irretrievable ruin of Pope
Clement. The Florentines seized the occasion to expel the
Medici from their city, and set up a free republican government
once more. Naturally no more funds for the works in San
Lorenzo were forthcoming, and Michelangelo, on the invitation
of the new signory, occupied himself for a while with designs
for a group of Hercules and Cacus, and another of Samson
MICHELANGELO
and the Philistines the latter to be wrought out of a block
of marble which had been rough-hewn already for another
purpose by Baccio Bandinelli. Soon, however, he was called
to help in defending the city itself from danger. Clement and
his enemy Charles V. having become reconciled, both alike
were now bent on bringing Florence again under the rule of
the Medici. In view of the approaching siege, Michelangelo
was appointed engineer-in-chief of the fortifications. He spent
the early summer of 1529 in strengthening the defences of San
Miniato; from July to September he was absent on a diplomatic
mission to Ferrara and Venice. Returning in the middle of
the latter month, he found the cause of Florence hopeless from
internal treachery and from the overwhelming strength of her
enemies. One of his dark seizures overcame him, and he departed
again suddenly for Venice. There for a while he remained,
negotiating for a future residence in France. Then, while the
siege was still in progress, he returned once more to Florence;
but in the final death-struggle of her liberties he bore no part.
When in 1530 the city submitted to her conquerors, no mercy
was shown to most of those who had taken part in her defence.
Michelangelo believed himself in danger with the rest, but on
the intervention of Baccio Valori he was presently taken back
into favour and employment by Pope Clement. For four
years more he continued to work at intervals on the completion
of the Medici monuments, with the help from 1532 of Giovanni
Montorsoli and other pupils, and on the building of the Lauren-
tian library. In 1531 he suffered a severe illness; in 1532 he
made a long stay at Rome, and entered upon yet another contract
for the completion of the Julian monument, to be reduced now
to a still more shrunken scale and to be placed not in St Peter's
but in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli. In the autumn of
1534 he left Florence for good. What remained to be done in
the Medici chapel was done by pupils, and the chapel was not
finally opened to view until 1545.
The statues of the Medici monument take rank beside the " Moses"
and the " Slaves " as the finest work of Michelangelo's central time in
sculpture. They consist of a Madonna and Child and of the two
famous monumental groups, each composed of an armed and seated
portrait-statue in a niche, with two emblematic figures reclining
on each side of a sarcophagus below. The " Madonna and Child "
(left unfinished because the marble was short in bulk) combines
astonishingly the divers qualities of realistic motive and natural
animation with learned complexity of design and imposing majesty of
effect. It was set up finally not at all in accordance with the artist's
first intention against a blank wall of the chapel, and flanked at wide
intervals by statues of Sts Cosmo and Damian, the work of pupils.
The portraits are treated not realistically but typically. In that
of Lorenzo seems to be typified the mood of crafty brooding and
concentrated inward thought; in that of Giuliano, the type of alert
and confident practical survey immediately preceding action. To
this contrast of the meditative and active characters corresponds
a contrast in the emblematic groups accompanying the portraits.
At the feet of the duke Giuliano recline the shapes of " Night " and
" Day " the former a female, the latter a male, personification; the
former sunk in an attitude of deep but uneasy slumber, the latter
(whose head and face are merely blocked out of the marble) lifting
himself in one of wrathful and disturbed awakening. But for
Michelangelo's unfailing grandeur of style, and for the sense which
his works convey of a compulsive heat and tempest of thought and
feeling in the spirit that thus conceived them, both these attitudes
might be charged with extravagance. As grand, but far less violent,
are those of the two companion figures that recline between sleep
and waking on the sarcophagus of the pensive Lorenzo. Of^these, the
male figure is known as " Evening," the female as " Morning" (Crepus-
culo and Aurora). In Michelangelo's original idea, partly founded
on antique precedent in pedimental and sarcophagus groups, figures
of " Earth and " Heaven " were to be associated with those of
" Night " and " Day " on the monument of Giuliano, and others no
doubt of a corresponding nature, with those of the Morning and
Evening Twilight on that of Lorenzo. These figures afterwards fell
out of the scheme and the recesses designed for them remain empty.
Michelangelo's obvious and fundamental idea was, as some words of
his own record, to exhibit the elements and the powers of earth and
heaven lamenting the death of the princes. River-gods were to
recline on the broad bases at the foot of the monuments. These
too are lacking. They were never finished, but a bronze cast from
a small model of one of them, and the torso of a large model, have
lately been identified, the former in the National Museum and the
latter in the Academy at Florence.
Other works of 1522-1534. " Victory " marble (National Museum,
Florence). A youthful conqueror standing over a bearded enemy,
whose shoulders he crushes down with his left knee. Fine and
finished work : whether intended for one of the emblematic Victories
of the Julian monument, or having some connexion with the
" Hercules and Cacus " and " Samson and the Philistine," subjects
undertaken for the Signory in 1528, must remain uncertain. For
the former of these two subjects a wax model at the Victoria and
Albert Museum, for the latter a plaster model at the Casa Buonarroti,
are claimed, perhaps rightly, as original. " David " (formerly
called " Apollo "), marble, unfinished (National Museum, Florence).
Both the authenticity and the approximate date of this fine work
are beyond doubt: of its origin and destination we are uninformed.
" Crouching boy," marble, unfinished (the Hermitage, Petersburg).
Another masterly sketch in marble; the seated lad stoops forward
between his parted knees, having both hands occupied with his left
foot; the figure blocked out of the marble, with the least possible
sacrifice of the material; the subject and motive enigmatical.
" Cupid," kneeling, apparently in the act of shooting downward
with a bow, marble (Victoria and Albert Museum). Probably,
but not quite certr'-
its identification
Rome
of Ferrara, but withheld because of the misconduct of his messenger,
and given by the master to his pupil Antonio Mini in 1531; lost.
A fine injured tempera painting of the subject in the store-rooms
of the National Gallery in London may presumably be an early
copy.
Michelangelo had fully purposed, as soon as he could get
free of his task on the Medici tombs, to devote all his powers
to the completion of the Julian monument in accordance with the
new contract of 1532. But his intention was again frustrated.
Pope Clement insisted that he must complete his decorations
of the Sixtine Chapel by painting anew the great end wall above
the altar, adorned until then by frescoes of Perugino. The
subject chosen was the Last Judgment; and Michelangelo began
to prepare sketches. In the autumn of 1534, in his sixtieth
year, he settled finally, and for the remainder of his life, at Rome.
Immediately afterwards Clement died, and was succeeded by
a Farnese under the title of Paul III. Even more than his
predecessor, Paul insisted on claiming the main services of
Michelangelo for himself, and forced him to let all other engage-
ments drift. For the first seven years after the artist's return
to Rome, his time was principally taken up with the painting
of the colossal and multitudinous " Last Judgment." This being
completed in 1541, he was next compelled to undertake two
more great frescoes one of the Conversion of Paul and another
of the Martyrdom of Peter in a new chapel which the pope
had caused to be built in the Vatican, and named after himself
Capella Paolina.
The fresco of the " Last Judgment " in the Sixtine Chapel is
probably the most famous single picture in the world. In it
Michelangelo shows more than ever the omnipotence of his
artistic science, and the fiery daring of his conceptions. But
the work, so far as its deplorably deteriorated condition admits
comparison, is hardly comparable in the qualities of colour and
decorative effect to the earlier and far more nobly inspired
frescoes of the ceiling. It is to these and not to the " Last
Judgment " that the student must turn if he would realize
what is best and greatest in the art of Michelangelo.
The frescoes of the Pauline Chapel are on their part so injured
as to be hardly susceptible of useful study or criticism. In
their ruined state they bear evidence of the same tendencies
that made the art of Michelangelo in its latest phase so dangerous
an example to weaker men the tendency, that is, to seek for
unqualified energy and violence of action, both in place and
out, for " terribleness " quand mime, and to design actions
not by help of direct study from nature, but by scientific
deduction from the abstract laws of structure and movement.
At best these frescoes can never have been happy examples
of Michelangelo's art.
Other Work of the years 1534-1549- SCULPTURE. During the
fifteen years when Michelangelo was mainly engaged on these
paintings, he had also at last been enabled to acquit himself, although
in a manner that can have been satisfactory to none concerned, of
his engagements to the heirs of Julius. Once more the influence
of the pope had prevailed on them to accept a compromise alto-
gether to their disadvantage. By a final contrast dated 1542, it
was agreed that the " Moses " executed thirty years before, seated on
a low plinth in a central recess, should be the chief figure of the new
3 68
MICHELANGELO
scheme; in niches at either side of him were to be standing figures of
" Leah "and" Rachel." These Michelangelo himself executed hastily
with the help of assistants. To pupils entirely was left the carrying
out of the upper cornice, with the recumbent cftigy ot the pope
occupying the centre of a weak and incongruous architectural
scheme, a Madonna and Child in a niche above, and a prophet
and a sibyl in recesses at either side. Meantime all idea
of incorporating any of the " Slaves " in the new design had been
abandoned. The master gave the two that had been finished in
1511-1516 to Robert Strozzi, who gave them to Francis I.; while
the four that had been roughed out between 1518 and 1522 remained
at Florence. " Brutus," marble (National Museum, Florence).
Probably executed soon after 1539, in memory of the tyrannicide
Lorenzino de' Medici. To the end of this period or to a year or two
later belongs the infinitely pathetic unfinished sketch in marble of
a life-size " Pietd " (Palazzo Rondini, Rome) the mourning mother,
standing on an elevation behind her son, holds his body upright
in front of her by the shoulders. Still later, after 1550, is the more
complicated and more finished group of the " Field," with the
corpse of Christ collapsing in utter relaxation through the arms of
those who try to uphold it: this Michelangelo destined for his own
sepulchre; it stands now in the cathedral at Florence.
PAINTING. " The Entombment of Christ " (National Gallery,
London). This unfinished painting bears all the marks of Michel-
angelo's design, and must have been begun from a cartoon by him,
probably of about 1535-1540. The touch of his own hand seems
evident in some parts, particularly the body of Christ ; other parts,
in various degrees of incompletion, are apparently the work of
various pupils or imitators.
For nearly all his great life-works mentioned above, preparatory
sketches and studies by the master's hand exist. These, with a
large number of other drawings, finished and unfinished, done for
their own sakes and not for any ulterior use, are of infinite value
and interest to the student. Michelangelo was the most learned and
scientific as well as the most inspired and daring of draughtsmen,
and from boyhood to extreme old age never ceased to practise with
pen, chalk or pencil. He is said to have burned vast numbers of
his drawings with his own hand and caused others to be burned by
friends and pupils to whom he had given them; so that what we
possess must be less than a tithe of what he executed. But there
are some 250 genuine sheets enough to let us follow and
understand his modes of conceiving, preparing and maturing
his designs at all periods of his life. They are scattered amongst
various collections, chiefly public; those in England (at the British
Museum, the University Galleries, Oxford, and the Royal Library,
Windsor), are quite half the whole number; other important
examples remain still at what was for centuries the home of his heirs,
the Casa Buonarroti at Florence; others at the Uffizi, Florence; the
Venice Academy; the Albertina, Vienna; the Louvre; the Conde
Museum at Chantilly; the Berlin Museum; and, not least, theTeyler
Museum at Haarlem. By means of these drawings and the many
published facsimiles we are best able to trace the progress of the
master's genius and its secrets. We see him diligently copying in
youth from the frescoes of Giotto, Masaccio, and his own master
Ghirlandaio. At this date his instrument was the pen only, used
in a manner of hatching: sometimes extremely careful and close, at
others fiercely bold and free, and in either case all his own. Sketches
and studies thus drawn with the pen exist for the " David," the
" Bathers Surprised," the accessory figures for the tomb of Julius as
first conceived, and the great series of the Sixtine Chapel decorations.
By, or even before, the date of the Sixtine Chapel, chalk, red or black,
comes into use along with the pen, and many of the finest studies for
the " Slaves " or " Atlases " and other decorative figures of the ceiling
are in the latter material (many more studies are preserved for these
subordinate figures than for the main compositions). After the
Sixtine Chapel period the pen gives way to red or black chalk almost
entirely. Sketches are rare for the great abortive scheme of the
Julius monument; almost non-existent for the equally abortive
San Lorenzo facade; fairly abundant for the various stages of the
Medici monument scheme in its architectural parts, but not for the
great figures. About the time of Michelangelo's final change of
domicile from Florence to Rome (1532-1535) he began the practice
of making highly finished and fully shaded drawings of classic or
symbolic subjects in red or black chalk for presentation to his
friends, especially to young Tommaso Cavalien, the object of his
passionate Platonic affection, from about 1532. The " Fall of
Phaeton," the " Tityos," the " Ganymede," the " Men shooting at
a Mark,"are well-known examples; in this class of work the Windsor
collection is far the richest. At the same time or soon afterwards,
were produced drawings little less powerful and finished of Christian
subjects^ especially the " Crucifixion," " Entombment " and " Resur-
rection." Then comes the great fresco of the " Last Judgment," for
which there exist both general sketches and particular studies. In the
few extant drawings for the Cappella Paolina a faltering both of the
imagination and of the hand become discernible. To the same or
to still later years belong many beautiful but somewhat tentative
drawings done either directly for, or nearly in the spirit of, the famous
Crucifixion " which he is recorded to have painted with so much
devotion for Vittoria Colonna. About many of these, for all their
intensity of feeling, there is a wavering touch betraying the approach
of infirmity; so there is about many of the architectural studies
done for the buildings of which he had charge in his last years at
Rome; but signs of the old impressive power and penetration are
not wanting in some even of the latest drawings that have come
down to us.
During his later years the long-pent human elements of
fervour and tenderness in Michelangelo's nature had found
vent and utterance such as they had never found before. He
had occasionally practised poetry in youth, and there are signs
of some transient love-passages during his life at Bologna.
But it was not until towards his sixtieth year that the springs
of feeling were fairly opened in the heart of this solitary, this
masterful and stern, life-wearied and labour-hardened man.
About 1533-1534 we find him beginning to address impassioned
sonnets of which the sentiment is curiously comparable to
that expressed in some of Shakespeare's to a beautiful and
gifted youth, the young Roman noble Tommaso Cavalieri. Soon
afterwards he made the acquaintance of the pious, accomplished,
and high-souled lady, Vittoria Colonna, widow of the Marquess
Pescara. For ten years until her death, which happened
in 1547, her friendship was the great solace of Michelangelo's
life. On her, in all loyalty and reverence, he poured out all the
treasures of his mind and all his imprisoned powers of tender-
ness and devotion. She was the chief inspirer of his poetry
of which, along with her praises, the main themes are the
Christian religion, the joys of Platonic love, and the power and
mysteries of art. Michelangelo's poetical style is strenuous and
concentrated like the man. He wrote with labour and much
self-correction; we seem to feel him flinging himself on the
material of language with the same overwhelming energy and
vehemence with which contemporaries describe him as flinging
himself on the material of marble the same impetuosity of
temperament combined with the same fierce desire of perfec-
tion, but with far less either of innate instinct for the material
or of trained mastery over its difficulties.
And so the mighty sculptor, painter, and poet reached old
age. An infirmity which settled on him in 1 544, and the death
of Vittoria Colonna in 1547, left him broken in health and heart.
But his strength held on for many a year longer yet. His
father and brothers were dead, and his family sentiment con-
centrated itself on a nephew, Leonardo, to whom he showed
unremitting practical kindness, coupled with his usual suspicious-
ness and fitfulness of temper. In almost all his relations the
old man continued to the end to manifest the same loyal and
righteous heart, accompanied by the same masterful, moody,
and estranging temper, as in youth. Among the artists of the
younger generation he held a position of absolute ascendancy
and authority; nor was his example, as we have said, by any
means altogether salutary for. them. To artists, and to a certain
number of chosen friends, belonging chiefly to the lettered,
diplomatic, and secretarial classes, he was more accessible and
affable than he had been to any one in earlier days, though
still formidable in moods of scorn and scoffing. His great
age and fame made him the most honoured citizen of Rome, to
whom the highest, both of his fellow countrymen and foreigners,
were eager to do homage. During the last years of his life he
made but few more essays in sculpture, and those not success-
ful, but was much employed in the fourth art in which he
excelled that of architecture. A succession of popes demanded
his services for the embellishment of Rome. Between 1536
and 1546 he was engaged on plans for the rearrangement and
reconstruction of the great group of buildings on the Capitol
plans which were only partially and imperfectly carried out
during his lifetime and after his death. For Paul III. he finished
the palace called after the name of the pope's family the Farnese.
On the death of Antonio da San Gallo he succeeded to the onerous
and coveted office of chief architect of St Peter's church, for
which he remodelled all the designs, living to see some of the
main features, including the supports and lower portion of the
great central dome, carried out in spite of all obstacles, according
to his plans. The dome as it stands is his most conspicuous
and one of his noblest monuments: the body of the church was
completed in a manner quite different from his devising. Other
MICHELET, JULES
369
great architectural tasks on which he was engaged were the
reconstruction of the Porta Pia, and the conversion of a portion
of the baths of Diocletian into the church of Sta Maria degli
Angeli; the great cloister with its hundred columns, now used
as the Museo delle Terme, is the only part of this reconstruction
which remains as he designed it. At length, in the midst of
these vast schemes and responsibilities, the heroic old man's
last remains of strength gave way. He died on the threshold
of his ninetieth year, on the i8th of February 1564.
AUTHORITIES. For the earlier bibliography of Michelangelo,
which is extensive, see the useful though very imperfect compilation
of Passerini, Bibliografia di Michelangelo Buonarroti, &c. (Florence,
1875). The most important works, taken in chronological order,
are the following: P. Giovio, supplement to the fragmentary
Dialogus de viris lilteris^ illustribus, written soon after 1527, first
published by Tiraboschi, Storia della letteratura italiana (Modena,
1871); G. Vasari, in Vile degli piil eccellenti architettori, pittori, e
scultori, &c. (Florence, 1550); A. Condivi, Vita di Michelangelo
Buonarroti (1553); this account, for which the author, a pupil and
friend of the master's, had long been collecting materials, was much
fuller than that of Vasari, who made use of it in rewriting his own
life of Michelangelo for his second edition, which appeared after
the master's death (1568). The best edition of Vasari is that by
M ilanesi (Florence 1 878-1 883) ; of Condivi, that by Gori and Mariette
(Pisa, l 746) ; for English readers there is a useful translation with
notes, by Sir Charles Holroyd. The first additions of importance
were published by Bottari, Raccolta di lettere sulla pittura, &c.
(Rome, 1754; 2nd ed. by Ticozzi, Milan, 1822); the next by Gaye,
Carteggio inedito (1840). Portions of the correspondence preserved
in the Buonarroti archives were published by Guasti in his notes to
the Rime di Michelangelo Buonarroti (1863), and by Daelli in Carle
Michelangelsche inedite (Milan, 1865). Complete biographies of
Michelangelo had been meanwhile attempted by J. Harford (London,
1857), and with more power by Hermann Grimm, Leben Michel-
angelos (Hanover, 5th ed., 1879). A great increment of biographical
material was at length obtained by the publication, in the four-
hundredth year after Michelangelo's birth, of the whole body of his
letters preserved in the Buonarroti archives, Lettere di Michelangelo
Buonarroti, ed. G. Milanesi (Florence, 1875). This material was
first employed in a connected but too trivial narrative by A. Gotti,
Vita di Michelangelo (Florence, 1875). Next followed C. Heath
Wilson, Life and Works of Michelangelo Buonarroti (Florence, 1876),
the technical remarks in which, especially as concerns the fresco
paintings, are still valuable. Other lives of Michelangelo are by
Anton Springer, in his Michelangelo u. Raphael (Leipzig, 1883); J.
A. Symonds, The Life of Michelangelo (London, 1893), full of valuable
matter on the history and spirit of Michelangelo's times, but not
trustworthy in the criticism of his works; H. Mackowksy, Michel-
agniolo (Berlin, 1908), excellent in all respects, and in moderate
compass; Emile Gebhardt, Michel-Ange, sculpteur et peintre (1808)
is a handsome volume of reproductions with text. Michelangelo,
by Fritz Knapp, in the Klassiker der Kunst series (Stuttgart, 1906)
is a very useful compendium. For the early works of Michelangelo
the standard authority is H. Wqlfflin, Die Jugendwerke Michel-
angelos (Munich, 1891, and later editions), a masterly work, though
at variance with Berlin official opinion. The most elaborate study
of the Sixtine frescoes, magnificently illustrated, is by E. Steinmann,
Die Sixtinische Kapelle, vol. ii. (Munich, 1905). Consult also C.
Justi, Michelangelo (Leipzig, 1903), and with caution H. Thode,
Michelangelo u. das Ende der Renaissance (Berlin, 1902-1903). Of
the poems of Michelangelo the first sound edition is that already
referred to, G. Guasti, Rime di Michelangelo Buonarroti (1863);
in earlier editions the text had been recklessly tampered with, and
the rugged individuality of the master's style smoothed down. An
edition with German translations was published by Hasenclever
(Leipzig, 1875) ; and a thorough critical edition by Karl Frey (Berlin,
1897); for the English student the translations by J. A. Symonds,
in Sonnets of Michelangelo and Campanella (London, 1878) are
invaluable. On the drawings of Michelangelo see especially B.
Berenson, The Drawings of Florentine Painters (London, 1903).
A comprehensive work on the same subject, in which the most im-
portant examples are reproduced and discussed, unfortunately
not arranged chronologically, is Karl Frey, Die Zeichnungen Michel-
angelos (Berlin, 1908 seq.), still in progress. An elaborate life by
the same author (Karl Frey, Michelagniolo Buonarroti, sein Leben
und seine Werke) is also in progress, but is more to be prized for
documentary fullness and accuracy than for critical insight.
(S. C.)
MICHELET, JULES (1798-1874), French historian, was born
at Paris on the 2ist of August 1798, of a family which had
Huguenot traditions. His father was a master printer, not
very prosperous, and the son at an early age assisted him in
the actual work of the press. A place was offered him in the
imperial printing office, but his father was able to send him to
the famous College or Lycee Charlemagne, where he distinguished
himself. He passed the university examination in 1821, and
was shortly after appointed to a professorship of history in
the College Rollin. Soon after this, in 1824, he married. The
period of the restoration and the July monarchy was one of
the most favourable to rising men of letters of a somewhat
scholastic cast that has ever been known in France, and Michelet
had powerful patrons in Villemain, Victor Cousin and others.
But, though he was an ardent politician (having from his
childhood embraced republicanism and a peculiar variety of
romantic free-thought), he was first of all a man of letters and
an inquirer into the history of the past.
His earliest works were school-books, and they were not
written at a very early age. Between 1825 and 1827 he
produced divers sketches, chronological tables, &c., of modern
history. His Precis of the subject, published in the last-men-
tioned year, is a sound and careful book, far better than
anything that had appeared before it, and written in a sober
yet interesting style. In the same year he was appointed maitre
de conferences at the Ecole normale. Four years later, in
1831, the Introduction d I'histoire universelle showed a very
different style, exhibiting no doubt the idiosyncrasy and literary
power of the writer to greater advantage, but also displaying
the peculiar visionary qualities which made Michelet the most
stimulating, but the most untrustworthy (not in facts, which he
never consciously falsifies, but in suggestion) of all historians.
The events of 1830 had unmuzzled him, and had put him in
a better position for study by obtaining for him a place in the
Record Office, and a deputy-professorship under Guizot in
the literary faculty of the university. Very soon afterwards he
began his chief and monumental work, the Histoire de France.
But he accompanied this with numerous other books, chiefly
of erudition, such as the (Euwes choisies de Vico, the Memoires
de Luther ecrits par lui-meme, the Origines du droit fran^is,
and somewhat later the Proces des templiers. 1838 was a
year of great importance in Michelet's life. He was in the
fullness of his powers, his studies had fed his natural aversion
to the principles of authority and ecclesiasticism, and at a
moment when the revived activity of the Jesuits caused some
real and more pretended alarm he was appointed to the chair
of history at the College de France. Assisted by his friend
Edgar Quinet, he began a violent polemic against the unpopular
order and the principles which it represented, a polemic which
made their lectures, and especially Michelet's, one of the most
popular resorts of the day. He published, in 1839, his Histoire
romaine, but this was in his graver and earlier manner. The
results of his lectures appeared in the volumes Le Pretre, la
femme, et la famille and le peuple. These books do not
display the apocalyptic style which, partly borrowed from
Lamennais, characterizes Michelet's later works, but they
contain in miniature almost the whole of his curious ethico-
politico-theological creed a mixture of sentimentalism, com-
munism, and anti-sacerdotalism, supported by the most eccentric
arguments, but urged with a great deal of eloquence. The
principles of the outbreak of 1848 were in the air, and Michelet
was not the least important of those who condensed and pro-
pagated them: indeed his original lectures were of so incendiary
a kind that the course had to be interdicted. But when the
actual revolution broke out Michelet, unlike many other men
of letters, did not attempt to enter on active political life,
and merely devoted himself more strenuously to his literary
work. Besides continuing the great history, he undertook
and carried out, during the years between the downfall of
Louis Philippe and the final establishment of Napoleon III.,
an enthusiastic Histoire de la r&volution franQaise. Despite
or because of its enthusiasm, this was by no means Michelet's
best book. The events were too near and too well known, and
hardly admitted the picturesque sallies into the blue distance
which make the charm and the danger of his larger work. In
actual picturesqueness as well as in general veracity of picture,
the book cannot approach Carlyle's; while as a mere chronicle
of the events it is inferior to half a dozen prosaic histories older
and younger than itself.
370
The coup d'etat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office,
as, though not in any way identified with the republic adminis-
tratively, he refused -to take the oaths to the empire. But
the new regime only kindled afresh his republican zeal, and
his second marriage (with Mile Adele Malairet, a lady of
some literary capacity, and of republican belongings) seems
to have further stimulated his powers. While the history
steadily held its way, a crowd of extraordinary little books
accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were expanded
versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commen-
taries or companion volumes. In some of the best of them
natural science, a new subject with Michelet, to which his
wife is believed to have introduced him, supplies the text.
The first of these (by no means the best) was Les Femmes de la
revolution (1854), in which Michelet's natural and inimitable
faculty of dithyrambic too often gives way to tedious and not
very conclusive argument and preaching. In the next, L'Oiseau
(1856), a new and most successful vein was struck. The subject
of natural history was treated, not from the point of view of
mere science, nor from that of sentiment, nor of anecdote nor
of gossip, but from that of the author's fervent democratic
pantheism, and the result, though, as was to be expected,
unequal, was often excellent. L'Insecte, in the same key,
but duller, followed. It was succeeded by L' 'Amour (1859),
one of the author's most popular books, and not unworthy of
its popularity, but perhaps hardly his best. These remarkable
works, half pamphlets half moral treatises, succeeded each other
as a rule at the twelve months' interval, and the succession
was almost unbroken for five or six years. L' Amour was
followed by La Femme (1860), a book on which a whgle critique
of French literature and French character might be founded.
Then came La Mer (1861), a return to the natural history class,
which, considering the powers of the writer and the attraction
of the subject, is perhaps a little disappointing. The next
year (1862) the most striking of all Michelet's minor works, La
Sorciere, made its appearance. Developed out of an episode
of the history, it has all its author's peculiarities in the strongest
degree. It is a nightmare and nothing more, but a nightmare
of the most extraordinary verisimilitude and poetical power.
This remarkable series, every volume of which was a work at
once of imagination and of research, was not even yet finished,
but the later volumes exhibit a certain falling off. The ambi-
tious Bible de I'humanite (1864), an historical sketch of religions,
has but little merit. In La Montagne (1868), the last of the
natural history series, the tricks of staccato style are pushed
even farther than by Victor Hugo in his less inspired moments,
though as is inevitable, in the hands of such a master of language
as Michelet the effect is frequently grandiose if not grand.
Nosfils (1869), the last of the string of smaller books published
during the author's life, is a tractate on education, written with
ample knowledge of the facts and with all Michelet's usual
sweep and range of view, if with visibly declining powers of
expression. But in a book published posthumously, Le Banquet,
these powers reappear at their fullest. The picture of the
industrious and famishing populations of the Riviera is (whether
true to fact or not) one of the best things that Michelet has
done. To complete the list of his miscellaneous works, two
collections of pieces, written and partly published at different
times, may be mentioned. These are Les Soldals de la revolu-
tion and Legendes democratiques du nord.
The publication of this series of books, and the completion
of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the
empire. He lived partly in France, partly in Italy, and was
accustomed to spend the winter on the Riviera, chiefly at
Hyeres. At last, in 1867, the great work of his life was finished.
In the usual edition it fills nineteen volumes. The first of these
deals with the early history up to the death of Charlemagne,
the second with the flourishing time of feudal France,
the third with the i3th century, the fourth, fifth, and sixth
with the Hundred Years' War, the seventh and eighth with
the establishment of the rural power under Charles VII. and
Louis XI. The i6th and lyth centuries have four volumes
MICHELET, K. L. MICHELL
apiece, much of which is very distantly connected with
French history proper, especially in the two volumes entitled
Renaissance and Reforme. The last three volumes carry on the
history of the i8th century to the outbreak of the Revolution.
Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote himself
to anything like a picturesque history of the middle ages, and
his account is still the most vivid that exists. His inquiry
into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious,
but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political
prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal
point of view. Circumstances which strike his fancy, or furnish
convenient texts for his polemic, are handled at inordinate
length, while others are rapidly dismissed or passed over
altogether.
Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the empire,
its downfall and the accompanying disasters of the country
once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write
letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it was
over he set himself to complete the vast task which his two
great histories had almost covered by a Histoire du XIX'
siecle. He did not, however, live to carry it farther than
Waterloo, and the best criticism of it is perhaps contained
in the opening words of the introduction to the last volume
" 1'age me presse." The new republic was not altogether
a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at the College
de France, of which he contended that he had never been
properly deprived, was not given back to him. He died at
Hyeres on the 9th of February 1874.
Almost all Michelet's works, the exceptions being his translations,
compilations, &c., are published in uniform size and in about fifty
volumes, partly by Marpon and Flammarion, partly by Calmann
Levy. He has not received much recent attention from critics
and monographers, but his Origines du droit franc.ais, cherchees dans
les symboles etformules du droit universal was edited by fimile Faguet
in 1890 and went into a second edition in 1900. See G. Monod,
Jules Michelet; Etudes sur la vie et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1905).
(G. SA.)
MICHELET, KARL LUDWIG (1801-1893), German philo-
sopher, was born on the 4th of December 1801, at Berlin, where
he died on the i6th of December 1893. He studied at the
gymnasium and at the university of his native town, took
his degree as doctor of philosophy in 1824, and became professor
in 1829, a post which he retained till his death. Educated
in the doctrine of Hegel, he remained faithful to his early teaching
and spent his life in defending and continuing the Hegelian
tradition. His first notable work was the System der philo-
sophischen Moral (Berlin, 1828), an examination of the ethical
theory of responsibility. In 1836 he published, in Paris, a
treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, written in French and
crowned by the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques.
He wrote also two other treatises on Aristotle. Nikomachische
Ethik (2nd ed., 1848) and Die Ethik des Aristoteles in ihrem
Verhaltniss zum System der Moral (1827). His own views are
best expressed in his Vorlesungen uber die Personlichkeit Gottes
(1841) and Die Epiphanie der ewigen Personlichkeit des Gottes.
The philosophical theology developed in these works has been
described as a " Neo-Christian Spiritualism."
Among his other publications may be mentioned Geschichte der
letzten Sysleme der Philos. in Deutschland von Kant bis Hegel (1837-
1838); Anthropologie und Psychologie (1840); Esquisse de logique
(Pans, 1856); Naturrecht oder Rechtsphilosophie (1866); Hegel der
unwiderlegte Weltphilosoph (1870), Wahrheit aus meinem Leben
(1886). From 1832 to 1842, Michelet was engaged in publishing
the complete works of Hegel, and in 1845 he founded the Berlin
Philosophical Society, which has continuously represented the
Hegelianism of Germany. He was the first editor of Der Gedanke
(1860), the official organ of the society.
MICHELL, JOHN (1724-1793), English natural philosopher
and geologist, was born in 1724, and educated at Queens'
College, Cambridge. His name appears fourth in the Tripos
list for 1748-1749; and in 1755 he was moderator in that examina-
tion. He became M.A. in 1752, and B.D. in 1761. He was
a fellow of his college, and was appointed Woodwardian
professor of geology in 1762, and in 1767 rector of Thornhill in
Yorkshire, where he died on the 29th of April 1793. He was
MICHEL OF NORTHGATE MICHIGAN
elected a fellow of the Royal Society in the same year as Henry
Cavendish (1760). In 1750 he published at Cambridge a work
of some eighty pages entitled A Treatise of Artificial Magnets,
in which is shown an easy and expeditious method of making
them superior to the best natural ones. Besides the description
of the method of magnetization which still bears his name,
this work contains a variety of accurate magnetic observations,
and is distinguished by a lucid exposition of the nature of
magnetic induction. He was the original inventor of the
torsion balance, which afterwards became so famous in
the hands of its second inventor Coulomb. Michell described
it in his proposal of a method for obtaining the mean density
of the earth. He did not live to put his method into practice;
but this was done by Henry Cavendish, who made, by means
of Michell's apparatus, the celebrated determination that now
goes by the name of Cavendish's experiment (Phil. Trans.,
1708). His most important geological essay was that entitled
Conjectures concerning the Cause and Observations upon the
Phaenomena of Earthquakes (Phil. Trans., li. 1760), which
showed a remarkable knowledge of the strata in various parts
of England and abroad.
Michell's other contributions to science are: " Observations on
the Comet of January 1760 at Cambridge, Phil. Trans. (1760); " A
Recommendation of Hadley's Quadrant for Surveying," ibid.
(1765) ; " Proposal of a Method for measuring Degrees of Longitude
upon Parallels of the Equator," ibid. (1766); " An Inquiry into the
Probable Parallax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stars," ibid. (1767);
" On the Twinkling of the Fixed Stars," ibid. (1767), " On the
Means of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, &c., of the Fixed
Stars," ibid. (1784).
MICHEL OF NORTHGATE, DAN (fl. 1340), English writer,
the author of the Ayenbite of Inwyt. Nothing is known of him
except what can be gathered from his work. It is a literal
translation in the Kentish dialect of a French treatise entitled
Le Somme des vices et des vertues (also known as Le Miroir du
monde or Le Livre des commandemens, &c.), which was written
in 1279 by Laurentius Gallus, a Dominican monk and confessor
to Philip III. of France. This work was translated into Flemish,
Catalonian, Spanish and Italian, and appears in no less than
six English translations. Dan Michel's autograph MS. is
preserved in Arundel MS. 57, which states that the work was
completed in the year 1340 on the eve of the apostles Simon
and Jude by Dan Michel of Northgate, a brother of the cloister
of St Austin of Canterbury. The value of the book is chiefly
philological as an authenticated and dated example of the
southern dialect.
The Ayenbite of Inwyt was edited for the Roxburghe Club by the
Rev Joseph Stevenson in 1855, and for the Early English Text Soc.
by Richard Morris in 1876.
MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO (1391-1472?), Italian
sculptor, was a Florentine by birth, the son of a tailor, and in
early life a pupil of Donatello. He worked in marble, bronze
and silver. The statue of the young St John over the door of
the Duomo at Florence, opposite the Baptistery, is by him;
and he also made the beautiful silver statuette of the Baptist
on the altar-frontal of San Giovanni. Michelozzo's great
friend and patron was Cosimo dei Medici, whom he accompanied
to Venice in 1433 during his short exile. While at Venice,
Michelozzo built the library of San Giorgio Maggiore, and
designed other buildings there. In 1428, together with Donatello,
he erected an open-air pulpit at an angle of the cathedral of
St Stephen at Prato. The magnificent Palazzo dei Medici at
Florence built by Cosimo, was designed by him; it is one of
the noblest specimens of Italian 15th-century architecture,
in which the great taste and skill of the architect has combined
the delicate lightness of the earlier Italian Gothic with the
massive stateliness of the classical style. With great engineering
skill Michelozzo shored up, and partly rebuilt, the Palazzo
Vecchio, then in a ruinous condition, and added to it many
important rooms and staircases. When, in 1437, through
Cosimo's liberality, the monastery of San Marco at Florence
was handed over to the Dominicans of Fiesole, Michelozzo
was employed to rebuild the domestic part and remodel the
church. For Cosimo I. he designed numerous other buildings,
mostly of great beauty and importance. Among these were
a guest-house at Jerusalem for the use of Florentine pilgrims,
Cosimo's summer villa at Careggi, and the strongly fortified
palace of Cafagiuolo in Mugello. For Giovanni dei Medici,
Cosimo's son, he built a very large and magnificent palace
at Fiesole. In spite of Vasari's statement that he died at the
age of sixty-eight, he appears to have lived till 1472. He is
buried in the monastery of San Marco, Florence. Though
skilled both as a sculptor and engineer, his fame chiefly rests
on his architectural works, which claim for him a position of
very high honour even among the greatest names of the great
15th-century Florentines.
See Hans Stegmann, Michelozzo di Barlolommeo, eine kunst-
geschichtliche Studie (1888); Fritz Wolff, Michelozzo di Barlolommeo
(1900); cf. also Hans Semper, Donatella (1887).
MICHIGAN, a north central state of the United States, situ-
ated between latitudes 41 44' and 47 30' N. 1 and longitudes
82 25' and 90 31' W., and consisting of two peninsulas
the upper or northern and the lower or southern separated
by a strait. The upper or northern peninsula is bounded N.
by Lake Superior; E. by lakes Superior, George, Huron, and
Michigan, and by St Mary's River, which separates it from the
Province of Ontario, Canada; S. by lakes Huron and Michigan
and the Straits of Mackinac, which separate it from the lower
peninsula; and S. and W. by Wisconsin, and the Menominee,
Montreal and Brule Rivers, which separate it in part from
Wisconsin. The lower or southern peninsula is bounded N.
by lakes Michigan and Huron and the Straits of Mackinac,
E. by lakes Huron, St Clair and Erie, and the St Clair and
Detroit Rivers, which separate it from Ontario; S. by Ohio and
Indiana, and W. by Lake Michigan. In size Michigan ranks
eighteenth among the states of the Union, its total area being
57,980 sq. m., of which 500 sq. m. are water surface. 2
Physical Features. Physiographically the history of the state is
similar to that of Minnesota. The northern part is rugged moun-
tainous " old land," not completely worn down by erosion; and the
southern part is a portion of the old coastal plain, whose layers
contain salt, gypsum and some inferior coal. Lake Huron on the
east and Lake Michigan on the west of the lower peninsula are each
581 J ft. above sea-level, and Lake Superior on the north of the upper
peninsula is 602 ft. above sea-level. For the most part the surface
of the state is gently undulating and at a slight elevation above the
lakes, but low marsh lands are common to many sections; the north
part of the lower peninsula is occupied by a plateau of considerable
dimensions, and the north-west part of the upper peninsula is rugged
with hills and mountains. Crossing the lower peninsula from
Saginaw Bay west by south through the valleys of the Saginaw,
Maple and Grand rivers, is a depression the former channel of an
old glacial river in which elevations for a considerable area are less
than loo ft. above the lakes. To the south-east of this depression
a water-parting with summits varying from about 400 to 600 ft.
above the lakes extends from a point between Saginaw Bay and
Lake Huron south by west to the south border of the state and be-
yond. The east slope descends quite rapidly to a low flat belt from
5 to 40 m. wide along the east border of the state south from Lake
Huron. From Lake Huron to the south-east shore of Saginaw
Bay a wide sandy beach is followed northward by precipitous shores
abounding in rocks and bluffs. West of the divide and south of
the depression, south-west Michigan is occupied by the valleys of
the St Joseph, Kalamazoo and Grand rivers, by the gently rolling
uplands that form the parting divides between them, and by sand
dunes, which here and there rise to a height of from loo to 200 ft.
or more along the shore of Lake Michigan, and are formed on this
side (but not on the Wisconsin side) of the lake by the prevailing
west winds. The north and north-west portions of the lower
peninsula including the counties of Roscommon and Missaukee,
parts of Wexford and Ogemaw, and those to the north and north-
west of these are occupied by a rolling plateau which attains an
elevation at its highest point, north of its centre, of upwards of
noo ft. above Lake Michigan; to the south of this plateau the
land slopes gently down to the depression and to the low shores
of Lake Michigan and Saginaw Bay. The surface of the upper
'This is the northernmost point of the mainland; the most
northerly of the islands north-east of Isle Royal and belonging to
Michigan is more than 40' further north.
* In addition, within the boundaries of Michigan, are approxi-
mately 16,653 sq. m. of Lake Superior, 12,992 sq. m. of Lake Michi-
gan, 9925 sq. m. of Lake Huron and 460 sq. m. of lakes St Clair
and Erie.
372
MICHIGAN
peninsula is more irregular than that of the lower peninsula. A
portion extending through the middle from east to west and south
from west of the centre to Green Bay, is either flat and even swampy
or only gently undulating. Eastward from Green Bay are two ranges
of hills: the one lining the south shore and ranging from 100 to
300 ft. in height, the other close to or touching the north shore and
reaching in places an elevation of 600 ft. above Lake Superior.
The famous Pictured Rocks in Alger county on the lake shore, east
of Munisirig, form the west portion of this north range; they are of
sandstone formation, extend for several miles along the coast, rise
almost perpendicularly from the water's edge, and display an
interesting diversity of shapes as well as a great variety of tints and
hues, especially of gray, blue, green and yellow. The most rugged
portion of the state is farther west. South and south-east of Kewee-
naw Bay, in the Marquette iron district, is an irregular area of
mountains, hills, swamps and lakes, some of the mountain peaks
of the Huron Mountains (in Marquette county) rising to an elevation
of 1400 ft. or more above the lake. These and a peak in the Porcupine
Mountains (2023 ft. above the sea) in the north-west part of Ontona-
gon county are the highest in the state. To the south of this is
the Menominee iron district, marked somewhat regularly by east
and west ridges. Extending in a general north-east and south-west
direction through Keweenaw peninsula to the Wisconsin border and
beyond is the middle of three approximately parallel ranges, separ-
ated from each other by flat lands, with here and there an isolated
peak (in the Porcupine Mountains) having an elevation of from 900 to
1400 ft. above the lake. The north portion of these ranges, together
with Isle Royale some distance farther north, which is itself traversed
by several less elevated parallel ridges, contains the Michigan copper-
bearing rocks; while to the south, along the Wisconsin border, is
another iron district, the Gogebic. The rivers of the entire state
consist of numerous small streams of clear water. In the interior
of the upper peninsula, along the east border of the lower peninsula
south from Lake Huron, and in Saginaw valley, they are rather
sluggish; but many of the larger streams of the lower peninsula
have sufficient fall to furnish a large amount of water-power, while
the small streams that flow into Lake Superior from the central
portion of the upper peninsula as well as some of the larger ones
farther west, have several falls and rapids; in places also they are
lined with steep, high banks. Most of the larger rivers of the state
the Muskegon, Grand, St Joseph, Manistee and Kalamazoo are in
the west portion of the lower peninsula. Several thousand lakes of
clear water, formed by glacial action, dot the surface of the state, and
many of them are lined with picturesque woodland shores. Islands
in lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron are scarcely less numerous.
Fauna and Flora. Michigan, especially the north portion, still
abounds in game. The mammals include black bear, deer, lynx,
porcupine, fox, squirrels, hares, rabbits, musk rats, minks, weasels,
skunks and woodchucks. Among the game birds are quails (" Bob
White"), "partridges" (ruffed grouse), ducks, geese, woodcocks,
snipes and plovers. Of song birds the favourites are the robin,
thrushes, bobolink, oriole, chickadee, meadow-lark, cat-bird, blue-
bird, wrens and warblers. Among fishes, white fish, lake trout,
perch, herring, sun-fish, bass, sturgeon, pickerel, suckers, German
carp and fresh-water drum abound in the lakes. The speckled
trout thrives in many of the streams.
Before it was settled by the whites the area now included in Michi-
gan was a forest, except in the south-west, where there were a few
small prairies, possibly cleared by the Indians. The remainder of the
south part of this area for about 60 m. along the southern boundary
was a part of the great hardwood forest of the Ohio Basin with
woods varying with soil and drainage: on the drier gravel lands
were oak forests consisting of red, black and white oak, hickory,
ash, cherry, basswood and walnut ; in depressions there were maple,
elm, ash, beech, sycamore, poplar and willow; and in the south-
east there were a few chestnuts and tulip trees. North of this
southern hardwood forest there were pine forests on the sandier
land, mixed hardwoods and conifers on the loam and clay, and
tamaracks and cedar in the swamps. The sandy lands were in
part burnt over by Indians, and there was a growth of scrub oak,
aspens and huckleberry bushes. The tamarack and cedar swamps
now have a growth, especially on their edges, of spruce, balsam,
white pine, soft maple, ash and aspens. In 1909 about 25 % of the
area was " cut over " or " burned over " lands, mostly the old pine
woods, the region of the old hardwood forest was almost entirely
farmland, and about 40 % of the state was still in woods. Red
oak, birch, elm, ash, white cedar, hemlock, basswood, spruce,
poplar, balsam, fir and several other kinds of trees are found in many
sections; but a large portion of the merchantable timber, especially
in the lower peninsula, has been cut. 1 Among forest shrubs are the
willow, hazel, alder, shrub maple, birch, hawthorn, dogwood,
elderberry, viburnum and snowberry. Yews are common in the
north, and dwarf juniper in the south. In 1900 the woodland area,
including stump lands, was estimated at 38,000 sq. in., or nearly
two-thirds of the entire state. Huckleberry, blackberry and rasp-
berry bushes are common in the north sections. Smilax, clematis,
honeysuckle and woodbine are the commoner forest vines.
1 Under the revised constitution of 1908 the legislature is author-
ized to provide for the reforestation of state lands.
Soil. The soil of south-west and south-east Michigan is for the
most part a dark clay loam or muck; in the north central part of
the lower peninsula it is a light sandy loam, along the Huron shore
it is heavy with blue clay, in the mining districts of the north-west
the rocks are usually either barren or very thinly covered ; and else-
where in the state the soil is generally rich in a variety of mineral
elements, and varies chiefly in the proportions of vegetable loam,
sand or gravel, and clay.
Climate. Although the temperature of the entire lower peninsula
is considerably influenced by the lakes, yet, the prevailing winds
being westerly, it is in the west portion of that peninsula that the
moderation is greatest, both the summer and winter isotherms being
there deflected more than half the length of the peninsula. On the
other hand, the prevailing winds of the upper peninsula being north-
westerly, the lakes have little effect on the temperature there; and
so, while in the south-west the extremes are not great, in the rest
of the state they have ranged within two years from 104 F. at
points in the south-east to 49 F. in the north-west. Throughout
the state July is invariably the warmest month, February the coldest,
the mean annual temperature is about 45 F. The mean annual
precipitation is not far from 31 in., a little more than one-half of
which falls during the five growing months from May to October;
the rain is evenly distributed over all parts of the state, but the snow
is exceptionally heavy along the north shore of the upper peninsula.
Productions. Of the total land surface of the state in 1900 48 '08 %
(in 1904, 47 'I %) was included in farms and 67-2 % (m 1904,
66 '9 %) of the farm land was improved; the total number of farms
was 203,261 (in 1904, 189,167), of which 143,688 contained less than
100 acres, 54,556 others contained less than 260 acres, and
136 contained 1000 acres or more, the average size being 86 '4
acres (in 1904, 91 '5 acres). Of the total number of farms
168,814 were operated by the owners (in 1904, 161,037 by owners
and 914 by managers), 22,482 (in 1904, 19,525) by share tenants,
9731 (in 1904, 7685) by cash tenants; and 312,462 of the inhabitants
of the state, or 34 5 % of all who were engaged in gainful occupations,
were farmers. Of the total acreage in 1900 of all crops 58^3 % was
in cereals and 28 '8 % in hay and forage; of the acreage of cereals
4O'8 % was in wheat, 31 '8 %in Indian corn, 21 '6%inoatsand3'7%
in rye. In 1907 the buckwheat crop was 852,000 bushels; rye,
5,452,000 bushels; the hay crop, 3,246,000 tons; oats, 30,534,000
bushels; barley, 1,496,000 bushels; wheat 12,731,000 bushels; and
Indian corn 57,190,000 bushels. Of livestock, sheep are the most
numerous (2,130,000 in 1907), and Michigan's wool clip in 1907 was
14,080,500 lb. The number of neat cattle in 1907 was 1,852,000
(849,000 dairy cows). The number of hogs was 1,388,000; and of
horses 704,000.
Michigan produces the bulk of the peppermint crop of the United
States, and it is in the front rank as a fruit-producing state.
Barley and buckwheat are grown chiefly in the east part of the
lower peninsula south of Saginaw Bay. Potatoes are grown in con-
siderable quantities in the north-west part of the lower peninsula in
the vicinity of Grand Traverse Bay as well as throughout the southern
portion of the state ; the largest crops of beans are grown in the south
central part of the lower,peninsula, and of peas in the counties
bordering on Lake Huron. Kalamazoo, Jackson, Washtenaw,
Lenawee, Ingham, Bay and Muskegon are the leading celery-produc-
ing counties; the peppermint district is in the south-west corner of
the state; and market gardening is an important industry both in the
south-west and in the south-east counties. All the principal fruits
are grown in largest quantities in what is commonly known as the
fruit belt in the south-west, particularly in Berrien, the corner county.
The fresh-water fish caught in the Great Lakes by residents in
Michigan exceed in value those caught by residents of other states,
and in 1907 the catch was valued at $1,806,767. Nearly one-half
30th in quantity and value arc taken from Lake Michigan, and,
although as many as twenty kinds are caught in considerable quanti-
:ies, more than 90 % of the value of the catch consists of. trout,
icrring, white fish and perch. Both the state government and the
national government have established hatcheries within the state,
and state laws protect the industry by regulating the size of mesh
n the nets used, prescribing the size of fish that may be taken and
<ept, establishing close seasons for several kinds of fish, and by other
'imitations.
Minerals. Of the mineral products (for which the state is noted)
ron is the most valuable. This mineral was discovered in the
Vlarquette district along the shore of Lake Superior early in the
1 8th century, but active operations for mining it did not begin until
1845; in 1877 mining of the same mineral began farther south in
:he Menominee district, and seven years later farther west along
the Wisconsin border in Gogebic county. The annual product
steadily increased from 3000 long tons in 1854 to 1 1,830,342 in 1907 ;
rom 1890 to 1901 Michigan ranked first in the union as an iron-
jroducing state, but after 1901 its product was exceeded by that
of Minnesota. Up to 1909 it was estimated that 380,417,085 tons
of ore were shipped from the Lake Superior region. Next in value
among the mineral products is copper; there are about twenty copper
nines in Keweenaw peninsula and its vicinity. The Calumet and
rlecla mine, in the central part of that peninsula, is probably the
most profitable copper mine in the world; up to 1909 it had paid
MICHIGAN
373
about $107,850,000 in dividends. Copper mining in the state began
about the same time as iron mining, and the quantity mined increased
from 12 long tons in 1845 to 102,543 in '96 (' n I 97> 97> I 75 'ng
tons). From 1847 to 1887 the product of Michigan exceeded that
of any other state; from 1847 to 1883 its copper product was more
than one-half that of all the states, but after 1887 (except in 1891)
more of that mineral was mined in Montana than in Michigan, and
in 1906 and in 1907 the yield in both Arizona and Montana was
greater than in Michigan. Fields of bituminous coal extend over
an area of over 10,000 sq. m. in the central portion of the lower
peninsula; but its quality is inferior. The mining of coal began in
Jackson county in 1835 and there was a slow increase in the output
until 1882 (135,339 short tons); then there was a tendency to decrease
until 1897, from which time the product increased from 223,592
short tons to 2,035,858 short tons in 1907, The principal mines
are in Saginaw, Bay, Eaton, Jackson, Huron and Shiawassee
counties. Salt wells are numerous in the middle and south-east
sections of the lower peninsula; the first successful one was drilled
in Saginaw county in 1859 and 1860. For a number of years prior
to 1893 Michigan was the leading salt-producing state, and, though
her output was subsequently (except in 1901) exceeded by that of
New York, it continued to increase up to 1905, when it was 9,492,173
barrels; in 1907, the product was 10,786,630 barrels. Gypsum is
obtained from deposits along the banks of the Grand river in Kent
county and in the vicinity of Alabaster along the shore of Lake
Huron in losco county. Operations on the deposit near Grand
Rapids were begun in 1841, and although that near Alabaster was
opened in 1862, it was not until 1902 that it became of much im-
portance; in that year the output of the state was 208,563 short
tons; in 1907 317,261 short tons were mined. Marl is found in the
south part of the state; limestone most largely in the north part
of the lower peninsula, and the east part of the upper peninsula ;
and the production of Portland cement increased rapidly from
77,000 barrels in 1898 to 3,572,668 in 1907. Besides limestones
and dolomites, the only building stone of much commercial impor-
tance is the Potsdam sandstone, extensive beds of which lie in the
north part of the upper peninsula. Grindstones are produced in
considerable quantity in Huron county. A small quantity of
petroleum is obtained from thirteen wells in St Clair county in the
east part of the lower peninsula; and the mineral waters at Mount
Clemens, Benton Harbor and Alma are of considerable commercial
value for medicinal purposes.
Manufactures. In 1900 the value of the manufactured products
of Michigan amounted to $356,944,082, which was an increase of
28-4% over that of 1890, and by 1904 there was a further increase
of 20-19%.' During the same period, however, the value of the
products of the lumber and timber industry, which in 1870, 1880
and 1890 was greater than that of any other state, and in 1900 was
still more than twice as great as that of the products of any other
manufacturing industry in the state and was exceeded only by that
of the product of Wisconsin, decreased from 83,121,969 in 1890
to $53,915,647 (35-1%) in 1900, and to $40,569,335 in I94. this
decrease being due to the fact that the large quantities of raw
material (both hard wood and pine) formerly found in the forests
of Michigan had become so far exhausted that much of it had to be
brought in from other states and from Canada. The value of the
products of the furniture factories and of the planing mills, neverthe-
less, has steadily increased ; that of the furniture factories (of which
Grand Rapids is the leading centre not only in Michigan but in the
United States) rising from $10,767,038 in 1890 to $14,614,506 in
1900 and $18,421,735 in 1904, and that of the planing mills from
$10,007,603 in 1890 to $12,469,532 in 1900 and $14,375,467 in 1904.
The total value of the lumber and timber products, the furniture
products, and the planing-mill products amounted in 1900 to
$80,999,685; the value of those manufactures based upon minerals
mined or quarried amounted in the same year to $83,730,930.
Another important class of manufactures is that based on agri-
culture: the value of flour and grist mill products amounted to
$21,643,547 in 1900, and $26,512,027 in 1904; that of food prepara-
tions, for which Battle Creek is noted, to $1,891,516 in 1900 and
$6,753,699 in 1904; that of agricultural implements to $6,339,508
in 1900 and $8,719,719 in 1904; and of malt liquors to $5,296,825
in 1900 and $6,999,251 in 1904.
Among other manufactures in which the state ranks high and in
which there was a large increase in value during the same period
1 The 1904 census, taken by the Federal Bureau of the Census
in co-operation with the secretary of state of Michigan, covered the
year ending on the 3Oth of June 1904, and is thus not strictly com-
parable with the " 1905 " census of manufactures for other states,
which were for the year ending on the 31 st of December 1904. But
like the special census of manufactures in other states, it is confined
to establishments under the factory system, and hence its figures
are considerably less than they would have been had it been taken
on the same basis as that of the 1900 census, which included hand
trades and other custom work; for example, on the basis of the 1904
census the value of the manufactured products in 1900 was only
$319,691,856, and as that of 1904 was $429,120,060, the real in-
crease was 34-2% instead of 20-19%. In the above text from this
point the statistics given for 1900 are for factory products only.
are: leather, carriages and waggons, chemicals, paper and wood
pulp and beet sugar. In 1904 Michigan manufactured automobiles
valued at $6,876,708.
The ten leading manufacturing centres are, in the order of the
value of their products in 1904: Detroit, Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo,
Battle Creek, Saginaw, Jackson, Lansing, Muskegon, Bay City
and Port Huron, all in the south half of the lower peninsula.
Communications. The building of railways in Michigan began
in 1830, but little progress had been made in 1837 when the state
began the construction of three railways and two canals across the
south half of the lower peninsula. The Michigan Central was
completed from Detroit to Ypsilanti in January 1838, a portion
of the Michigan Southern was in operation in November 1840, and
considerable work was done on the proposed Michigan Northern
and the two canals. By 1846, however, the state had proved itself
incompetent to carry on the work and sold its interests to private
companies. In 1850 there were 342 m. completed, and from then
until 1880 the mileage increased to 3938; but the great period of
railway building in Michigan was in the decade from 1880 to 1890,
when the mileage was increased to 7108-48. By the close of
1908 it had further increased to 8629-35. The principal lines
are the Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the Ann Arbor,
the Grand Trunk, the Chicago & North-Western, the Duluth
South Shore & Atlantic, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault
Ste. Marie, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. A board
of railway commissioners, which in 1907 succeeded a commissioner
(whose office was created in 1873) hears complaints, has power to
issue various orders and permits of minor importance to railway
companies, and reports annually to the governor. 2 The legislature
is empowered to appoint a commission to fix transportation rates
for railways and express companies. Besides railway communica-
tion Michigan has a coast line of about 1600 m., along which vessels
of 2000 tons can sail and find several good harbours, the water
communication having been extended and improved by several
canals, among which are the Sault Ste. Marie, which passes the
rapids of St Mary's River; the St Clair Flats, at the north end
of Lake St Clair, by which a deeper channel is made through
shallow water; and the Portage Lake, in the copper district, which
connects that lake with Lake Superior. The state undertook to
construct that at Sault Ste. Marie in 1837 but little had been
accomplished in 1852 when the national government granted 750,000
acres of land to the state in aid of the enterprise, and three years
after that the canal was completed. Since its completion, the
national government has enlarged its locks so as to make it navigable
for vessels drawing 21 ft. of water. The national government con-
structed the canal at the St Clair Flats in 1871 and contributed
land for aid in the construction of that connecting lakes Portage
and Superior, which was completed in 1873 and passed under national
control in 1891.
Population. The population of Michigan in 1880 was
1,636,937; in 1890 it was 2,093,889, an increase of 27-9% within
the decade; in 1900 it was 2,420,982, a further increase of
15-6% and in 1910, according to the preliminary returns of
the U.S. census, it was 2,810,173. Of the total population
in 1900, 2,398,563 or 99-07% were whites, 15,861 were negroes,
6354 were Indians, 240 were Chinese, and 9 were Japanese.
1,879,329 or 77-6% were native born and 541,653 were foreign-
born, 184,398 of the foreign-born being natives of Canada
(151,915 English; 32,483 French), 125,074 of Germany, 43,839
of England, and 30,406 of Holland. In 1906 982,479 communi-
cants of different denominations were reported: of these 492,135
were Roman Catholics, 128,675 Methodists, 105,803 Lutherans,
50,136 Baptists, 37,900 Presbyterians, 28,345 members of
Reformed bodies, and 26,349 members of the Protestant
Episcopal Church. In 1900 39-3% of the total population
lived in places having at least 2500 inhabitants.
Administration. The constitution under which Michigan is
now governed was first adopted in 1850, when it was felt
that the powers which the first one, that of 1835, conferred
upon the executive and the legislature were too unrestricted.
In 1908 it was revised, and many changes were made.
The constitution admits of amendment by an affirmative vote
of two-thirds of the members of each house of the legislature, fol-
lowed at the next succeeding spring or autumn election by an
affirmative vote of a majority of the electors voting upon the
question; or an amendment may be proposed by an initiative
petition signed by more than 20% of the total number of electors
who voted for secretary of state at the preceding election, and such
an amendment (unless disapproved by a majority vote in a joint
meeting of the two houses of the legislature) is submitted to popular
2 In 1909 telegraph and telephone companies were put under the
supervision of the same board.
374
MICHIGAN
vote at the next election and comes into effect only if it receives a
favourable majority of the popular vote. Amendments suggested
by the legislature have been frequently adopted, and one, adopted
in 1862, provided that the question of a general revision of the con-
stitution shall be submitted to a popular vote once every sixteen
years and at such other times as may be provided by law. When
this question was so submitted for the first time, in 1866, the vote
was to revise; but the revision prepared by a convention called for
the purpose was rejected at the polls The revision by the Con-
stitutional Convention of 1907- 1908 was adopted by popular vote
in 1908.
In its present form the constitution confers suffrage upon
every male citizen of the United States who is twenty-one
years of age or over and has resided in the state six months
and in his township or ward twenty days immediately preceding
an election; and any woman may vote in an election involving
the direct expenditure of public money or the issue of bonds
if she have the qualifications of male electors and if she have
property assessed for taxes in any part of the district or territory
affected by the election in question. At the head of the execu-
tive department is the governor, who is elected for two years,
and who at the time of his election must be at least thirty
years of age and must have been for five years a citizen of the
United States, and for the two years immediately preceding
a resident of the state. A lieutenant-governor, for whom the
same qualifications are prescribed, is elected at the same time
for the same term. Under the first constitution the secretary
of state, treasurer, auditor-general, attorney-general, commis-
sioner of the land office, superintendent of public instruction
and the judges were all appointed by the governor, but under
the present one they are elected and only minor officers are
appointed. In 1893 the legislature created a board of four
members to be appointed by the governor, one of whom must
be a physician, another an attorney, and made it its duty to
investigate the case of every convict for whom a petition for
pardon is received and then report and recommend to the
governor what it deem expedient. The governor's salary
is fixed by the revised constitution of 1908 at $500x3 a year.
The lieutenant-governor succeeds the governor in case of vacancy,
and next in order of succession comes the secretary of state.
The legislature, consisting of a Senate of 32 members, and a
House of Representatives of 100 members (according to the
constitution not less than 64 and not more than 100), meets
biennially, in odd-numbered years, at Lansing. Both senators
and representatives are elected for a term of two years by single
districts, except that a township or city which is entitled by
its population to more than one representative elects its
representatives on a general ticket. Beginning in 1913 and at
each subsequent tenth year, the legislature, under the revised
constitution of 1908, rearranges the senatorial districts and
reapportions the representatives among the counties and
districts, using as a basis the returns of the next preceding
decennial census; the taking of a state census between the
decennial periods is discontinued.
No bill can pass either house except by an affirmative vote of a
majority of the members elected to that house, and on its third
reading the ayes and noes must be taken and recorded; for appro-
Ction bills a two-thirds majority of all members elected to each
se is required. All legislation must be by bill, legislation by
joint and concurrent resolutions thus being prevented. No bill may
be passed at a regular session until it has been printed and in posses-
sion of each house for five days; no bill may be passed at a special
session on any subject not expressly stated in the governor's pro-
clamation or submitted by special message. The governor has ten
days (Sundays not being counted) in which to exercise his veto
power (which may be applied to any item or items of any bill making
appropriations of money and embracing distinct items), and an
affirmative vote in each house of two-thirds of the members elected
is required to pass a bill over his veto. Under the revised constitu-
tion of 1908 any bill passed by the legislature and approved by the
governor, except appropriation bills, may be referred by the legis-
lature to the qualified electors; and no bill so referred shall become
law unless approved by a majority of the electors voting thereon ;
no local or special act, passed by the legislature, takes effect until
it is approved by a majority vote of the electors in the affected
district.
The administration of justice is entrusted to a supreme court,
a continually increasing number of circuit courts (thirty-eight
in 1909), one probate court in each county, and not exceeding
four justices of the peace in each township. The supreme
court is composed of one chief justice and seven associate justices,
all elected for a term of ten years, not more than two retiring
every two years; it holds four sessions annually, exercises
a general control over the inferior courts, may issue, hear
and determine any of the more important writs, and has appel-
late jurisdiction only in all other important cases. There is
only one circuit court judge for a circuit, unless the legislature
provides for the election of more; the term of office is six years.
Circuit court judges have original jurisdiction in most matters
civil and criminal, hear appeals from the lower courts, and
must hold at least four sessions annually in each county of the
circuit. Each county elects a judge of probate for a term of
four years; he has original concurrent jurisdiction with the
circuit court in matters of probate, and has original jurisdiction
in all cases of juvenile delinquents and dependents. The
legislature may provide for the election of more than one judge
of probate in a county with more than 100,000 inhabitants.
Justices of the peace are elected by the townships for a term of
four years there are not more than four in each township;
in civil matters they have exclusive jurisdiction of cases in
which the demand does not exceed $100 and concurrent juris-
diction with the circuit courts in contract cases in which the
demand does not exceed $300.
For purposes of local government the state is divided into
eighty-three counties, each of which is in turn divided regularly
by N. and S. and E. and W. lines into several townships. In
the more sparsely inhabited counties of the upper peninsula
and in the N.E. section of the lower peninsula the townships
are much larger than in other parts of the state. The officers
of the township are a supervisor, clerk, treasurer, highway-
commissioner, one overseer of highways for each highway
district, a justice of the peace, and not more than four con-
stables, all of whom are elected at the annual township meeting
in April. The supervisor, two of the justices of the peace
and the clerk constitute the township board, whose duty it
is to settle claims against the township, audit accounts, and
publish annually an itemized statement of receipts and dis-
bursements. The supervisor is also the township assessor, and
the several township supervisors constitute the county board
of supervisors who equalize property valuations as between
townships, authorize townships to borrow money with which
to build or repair bridges, are entrusted with the care and
management of the property and business of the county, and
may borrow or raise by tax what is necessary to meet the
more common expenses of the county. Other county officers
are a treasurer, clerk, sheriff, register of deeds, attorney, sur-
veyor and two coroners, each elected for a term of two
years, a school commissioner elected for a term of four years,
and one or more notaries public appointed by the governor.
Under the revised constitution of 1908 the former classifica-
tion of cities into four classes and the practice of granting
special charters were abolished, and the legislature is required
to provide by general laws for the incorporation of cities and
villages; " such general laws shall limit their rate of taxation
for municipal purposes and restrict their powers of borrowing
money and contracting debts." Cities and villages are permitted
upon authorization by the affirmative vote of three-fifths
of the electors voting on the question to own and operate,
even outside their corporate limits, public utilities for supplying
water, light, heat, power and transportation, and may sell
and deliver, outside their corporate limits, water, heat, power
and light to an amount not more than one-fourth that furnished
by them in each case within their corporate limits; but no
city or village of less than 25,000 inhabitants may own or operate
transportation facilities. Under the revision of 1908 corporate
franchises cannot be granted for a longer term than thirty
years.
Law. A wife in Michigan has the same right to her property
acquired either before or after marriage as she would have if single,
except that she cannot under ordinary circumstances give, grant or
MICHIGAN
sell it to another without her husband's consent. Grounds for a
divorce are adultery, physical incapacity at the time of marriage,
sentence to imprisonment for three years or more, desertion for two
years, habitual drunkenness, extreme cruelty, or, in case of the wife,
refusal of the husband to provide for her maintenance when suffi-
ciently able to do so; but in case the parties were married outside
of Michigan the party seeking the divorce must reside within the
state at least one year before petitioning for the same. An insolvent
debtor's homestead consisting of not more than 40 acres of land with
a house thereon, or a house and lot in a city or village not exceeding
$1500 in value, together with not less than $500 of his personal
property is exempt from execution. For several years previous to
1876 a clause of the constitution prohibited the sale of intoxicating
liquors within the state. Since then the whole liquor business has
been subjected to a heavy tax, and since 1887 the prohibition of it
has been left to the option of each of the several counties. A state
court of mediation and arbitration, consisting of three members
appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, was
created in 1889 to inquire into the cause of grievances threatening
or resulting in any strike or lock-out and to endeavour to effect a
settlement.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. The state supports the Michigan
Asylum for the Insane (opened 1859), at Kalamazoo; the Eastern
Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1878), at Pontiac; the
Northern Michigan Asylum for the Insane (opened 1885), at Traverse
City; the Michigan Asylum for the Dangerous and Criminal Insane
(established 1885), at Ionia; the Upper Peninsula Hospital for the
Insane, at Newberry ; a Psychopathic Hospital (established 1907), at
Ann Arbor; a State Sanatorium (established 1905), at Howell;
the Michigan State Prison (established 1839), at Jackson; the
Michigan Reformatory (established 1887), at Ionia; the State House
of Correction and Branch Prison (established 1885), at Marquette;
the Industrial School for Boys, at Lansing; the Industrial Home for
Girls (established 1879), near Adrian; the State Public School
(opened 1874), at Cold water, a temporary home for dependent chil-
dren until homes in families can be found for them; the School for
the Deaf (established 1854), at Flint; the School for the Blind, at
Lansing; an Employment Institution for the Blind (established
1903), at Saginaw; the Home for the Feeble Minded and Epileptic
(established 1893), at Lapeer; and the Michigan Soldiers' Home
(established 1885), at Grand Rapids. Each of these institutions is
under the control of a board of three or more members appointed by
the governor with the approval of the Senate, and at the head of
the department is the State Board of Corrections and Charities,
consisting of the governor and four other members appointed by
him, with the approval of the Senate, for a term of eight years, one
retiring every two years. This board is required to visit each of
the institutions at least once a year to ascertain its condition and
needs, and all proposed appropriations for their support, plans of
buildings, proposed systems of sewerage, ventilation and heating
must be submitted to it.
Education. Michigan was a pioneer state in creating the
American educational system; she began the organization of
it at the time of her admission into the Union in 1837, and has
since been noted for the high standard of her schools. Each
township operating under the District Act has two school inspec-
tors one being elected at each town meeting for a term of
two years who with the township clerk constitute the township
board of school inspectors, and to this board is given authority
to divide the township into school districts and to exercise
a general supervision over the several schools within their
jurisdiction; a township may be organized as a single district,
called a " township unit district." The qualified electors of
each district having an ungraded school elect a moderator,
a director and a treasurer one at each annual school meeting
for a term of three years, who constitute the district school
board, and this board is entrusted with ample power for direct-
ing the affairs of the school. In a district having more than
100 children of school age a graded school under the control
of five trustees is formed whenever two-thirds of the electors
vote for it at a town meeting, and the trustees of a graded
school may establish a high school whenever a majority of the
electors authorize them to do so. A high school may also be
established in any township in which there is no incorporated
village or city if when the question is submitted to the electors
of that township a majority of the votes cast are in the affirma-
tive. Each county has a county school commissioner, elected
for a term of four years, who exercises a general supervision
over the schools within his jurisdiction, and a board of examiners,
consisting of three members (including the commissioner)
and appointed by the several boards of county supervisors,
from whom teachers receive certificates. Finally, at the head
375
of all the public elementary and secondary schools of the state is
the state superintendent of public instruction, elected for a term
of two years; he is ex officio a member and secretary of the state
board of education, and a member, with the right to speak but
not to vote, of all other boards having control of public instruc-
tion in any state institution. In every district having as many
as 800 children between the ages of five and twenty the state
requires that the school be taught not less than nine months a
year; and a compulsory education law requires the attendance
of all children between the ages of eight and fifteen for four
months each year, in cities all between the same ages for the
full school year, and between the ages of seven and sixteen if
found frequenting public places without lawful occupation.
The higher state institutions of learning consist of a university,
to which graduates of high schools on an accredited list are admitted
without examination, four normal schools, an agricultural college,
and a school of mines. The university (at Ann Arbor) was estab-
lished in 1837, and is under the control of a board of regents elected
by the people for a term of eight years, two every two years; the
president of the institution and the superintendent of public instruc-
tion are members of the board but without the right to vote. The
state normal schools are: the Michigan State Normal College at
Ypsilanti (organized in 1849); the Central Michigan Normal School
at Mount Pleasant (established in 1895) ; the Northern State Normal
School at Marquette (established in 1899); and the Western State
Normal School at Kalamazoo (established in 1904). All of them are
under the state board of education, which consists of the state super-
intendent of public instruction and three other members elected, one
every two years, for a term of six years. The agricultural college,
at East Lansing, 3 m. east of Lansing, is the oldest in the United
States; it was provided for by the state constitution of 1850, organ-
ized in 1855 and opened in 1857, and is under the control of the
state board of agriculture, consisting of the president of the college
and six other members elected by popular vote for a term of six years,
two every two years. The college of mines, at Houghton, was
established in 1885 and is under the control of a board of six members
appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate, two every
two years. In 1908 it had 35 instructors, 253 students, and a library
of 22,000 volumes. Other important institutions of learning within
the state but not maintained by it are: Albion College (Methodist
Episcopal; opened in 1843), at Albion; Hillsdale College (Free Bap-
tist, 1855), at Hillsdale; Kalamazoo College (Baptist, 1855), at
Kalamazoo; Adrian College (controlled by the Methodist Protestant
Church since 1867), at Adrian ; Olivet College (Congregational, 1859),
at Olivet; Hope College (Reformed, 1866), at Holland; Detroit
College (Roman Catholic, 1877), at Detroit; Alma College (Presby-
terian; incorporated 1886), at Alma; and some professional schools
at Detroit (q.v.).
Finance. The revenue of the state is derived almost wholly
from taxes, about 87 % from a direct or general property tax and the
rest from various specific or indirect taxes, such as the liquor tax
and the inheritance tax. The direct tax, other than that on the
property of corporations, is assessed by the township supervisors, or,
in cities and incorporated villages by the officer named in the charter
for that service, on what is supposed to be the full cash value of the
property. The assessment roll thus prepared is reviewed by a local
board of review ; an equalization between the assessing districts in a
county is made annually by the county board of supervisors, and
between the counties in the state every five years (and at such other
times as the legislature may direct) by the state board of equaliza-
tion, which is composed of the lieutenant-governor, auditor-general,
secretary of state, treasurer, and commissioner of the land office.
But at the head of the whole taxing system is the board of state tax
commissioners and ex officio state board of assessors, consisting of
three members appointed by the governor with the approval of the
senate for a term of six years. It exercises a general supervision
over all other taxing officers and is itself the assessor of the property
of railroads, express companies and certain car companies. Mainly
through the efficiency of this board the assessed value of the taxable
property of the state was increased from $968,189,087 in 1899 to
$1,418,251,858 in 1902, or 46-4%, and the taxes levied on railways,
which had hitherto been assessed on their gross earnings, were in-
creased from $1,483,907 in 1901 to $3,288,162 in 1902, or 121-6%.
In entering upon the work of public improvements in 1837 the state
borrowed $5,200,000, and the greater portion of the bonds were sol d
to the Morris Canal and Banking Company and to the Pennsylvania
United States Bank, both of which failed when they had only in
part paid for the bonds. About this time it was seen that the cost
of the improvements undertaken would be much greater than the
original estimate and that several of them were impracticable.
The difficulty of meeting the interest as it became due soon threat-
ened to be insurmountable, but the state finally sold the improve-
ments made and came out of the experience with good credit
although with a large debt about two and a half millions of dollars.
This was further increased during the Civil War, but after the close
of that war it was rapidly diminished and finally was extinguished in
37^
MICHIGAN
the last decade of the century. The present constitution (as revised
in 1908) forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding $250,000
except for repelling an invasion or suppressing an insurrection, and
the borrowing power of the minor civil divisions is restricted by a
general law.
The early experience of the state with banks was scarcely less
serious than that with public improvements. Although there were
already fifteen banks in the state in 1837 yet the cry against mono-
poly was loud, and so in that year a general banking law was passed
whereby any ten or more freeholders might establish a bank with a
capital of not less than fifty thousand nor more than three hundred
thousand dollars and begin business as soon as 30 % of the capital
was paid in in specie. Only a few provisions were made, and those
ineffectual, for the protection of the public : later in the same year the
legislature passed an act for the suspension of specie payments until
the 6th of May 1838, and the consequence was that the state was
flooded with irredeemable paper currency. But most of the " wild
cat " banks had passed out of existence by 1839, and in 1844 the
bank act of 1837 was declared unconstitutional. Profiting by this
experience, the framers of the constitution of 1850 inserted a provi-
sion in that document whereby no general banking law can have
effect until it has been submitted to the people and has been approved
by a majority of the votes cast on the question. This provision is
included in the revised constitution adopted in 1908, with an addi-
tional provision that no amendment shall be made to any banking
law unless it shall receive an affirmative two-thirds vote of both
branches of the legislature. The present banking law provides that
the capital stock of a state bank shall be not less than $20,000 in a
city of not more than 1500 inhabitants, not less than $25,000 in a
city of not more than 5000, not less than $50,000 in a city of between
5000 and 20,000, not less than $100,000 in a city of between 20,000
and 1 10,000, and not less than $250,000 in all larger cities. Commer-
cial banks and savings banks are required to keep on hand at least
15% of their total deposits. Every stockholder m a bank is made
individually liable to the amount of his stock at its par value in
addition to the said stock. And all banks are subject to the inspec-
tion and supervision of the commissioner of the state banking depart-
ment, who is appointed by the governor with the approval of the
Senate for a term of four years.
History. From 1613 until 1760 the territory now within
the borders of Michigan formed a part of New France, and the
first Europeans to found missions and settlements within
those borders were Frenchmen. Two Jesuits, Raymbault
and Jogues, visited the site of Sault Sainte Marie as early as
1641 for the conversion of the Chippewas; in 1668 Marquette
founded there the first permanent settlement within the state;
three years later he had founded a mission among the Hurons
at Michilimackinac; La Salle built a fort at the mouth of the
Saint Joseph in 1679; and in 1701 Cadillac founded Detroit
as an important point for the French control of the fur trade.
But the missionaries were not interested in the settlement
of the country by Europeans, the fur traders were generally
opposed to it, there was bitter strife between the missionaries
and Cadillac, and the French system of absolutism in govern-
ment and monopoly in trade were further obstacles to progress.
Even Detroit was so expensive to the government of the mother
country that there was occasional talk of abandoning it; and
so during the last fifty-nine years that Michigan was a part
of new France there were no new settlements, and little if any
growth in those already established. During the last war
between the English and the French in America the Michigan
settlements passed into the possession of the English, Detroit
in 1760 and the others in 1761, but the time had not yet come
for much improvement. The white inhabitants, still mostly
French, were subjected to an English rule that until the Quebec
Act of 1774 was chiefly military, and as a consequence many
of the more thrifty sought homes elsewhere, and the Indians,
most of whom had been allies of the French, were so ill-treated,
both by the officers and traders, that under Pontiac, chief of
the Ottawas, a simultaneous attack on the English posts was
planned. Detroit was besieged for five months and both
Michilimackinac and Saint Joseph were taken. Moreover,
the English policy, which first of all was concerned with the
profits of trade and manufacture, gave little more encouragement
to the settlement of this section of the country than did the
French. By the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, which concluded
the American War of Independence, the title to what is now
Michigan passed to the United States, and in 1787 this region
became a part of the North- West Territory; but it was not
until 1796 that. Detroit and Mackinac (Michilimackinac), in
accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794, were surrendered by
Great Britain. In 1800, on the division of the North-West
Territory, the west portion of Michigan became a part of the
newly-established Indiana Territory, into which the entire
area of the present state was embodied in 1802, when Ohio
was admitted to the Union; and finally, in 1805, Michigan
Territory was organized, its south boundary being then described
as a line drawn east from the sputh extremity of Lake Michigan
until it intersected Lake Erie, and its west boundary a line
drawn from the same starting point through the middle of
Lake Michigan to its north extremity and then due north to
the north boundary of the United States. In 1812, during the
second war between Great Britain and the United States,
General William Hull, first governor of the Territory, although
not greatly outnumbered, surrendered Detroit to the British
without a struggle; in the same year also Mackinac was taken
and Michigan again passed under British rule. This rule was
of short duration, however, for soon after Commodore Oliver
H. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, in September of the next year,
Detroit and the rest of Michigan except Mackinac, which was
not recaptured until July 1815, were again taken into the pos-
session of the United States. Up to this time the Territory
had still remained for the most part a wilderness in which the
fur trade reaped the largest profits, its few small settlements
being confined, to the borders; and the inaccurate reports of
the surveyors sent out by the national government described
the interior as a vast swamp with only here and there a little
land fit for cultivation. The large number of hostile Indians
was also a factor in making the Territory unattractive. But
during the efficient administration of Lewis Cass, governor of the
Territory from 1813 to 1831, the interference of the British
was checked and many of the Indians were removed to the west
of the Mississippi; printing presses, established during the same
period at Detroit, Ann Arbor, Monroe and Pontiac, became
largely instrumental in making the country better known;
the first steamboat, the " Walk-in-the- Water," appeared at
Detroit in 1818; the Erie canal was opened in 1825; by 1830
a daily boat line was running between Detroit and Buffalo,
and the population of Michigan, which was only 4762 in 1810
and 8896 in 1820, increased to 31,639 in 1830 and 212,267
in 1840. In 1819 the Territory had been empowered to send
a delegate to Congress. By 1832 the question of admission
into the Union had arisen, and in 1835 a convention was called
in Detroit, a constitution was framed in May, that constitution
was adopted by popular vote in October, state officers were
elected, and application for admission was made; but a dispute
with Ohio over the boundary between the two caused a delay
in the admission by Congress until early in the year 1837.
Although the ordinance creating the North-West Territory
fixed the boundary line as claimed by Michigan, yet that line
was found to be farther south than was at the time expected
and when the constitution of Ohio was adopted it was accom-
panied with a proviso designed to secure to that state a north
boundary that was north of the mouth of the Maumee River.
The territory between the two proposed lines was unquestionably
of greater economic importance to Ohio than to Michigan,
and, besides, at this particular time there were forcible political
reasons for not offending the older state. The consequence
was that after the bloodless " war " between the two states
for the possession of Toledo, Congress settled the dispute in
Ohio's favour and gave to Michigan the territory since known
as the upper peninsula. The boundaries as fixed by Congress
were rejected by a convention which met on the 4th of September
at Ann Arbor, but they were accepted by the convention of
the Jackson party, which met, also at Ann Arbor, on the 6th
of December; the action of this latter convention was considered
authoritative by Congress, which admitted Michigan into the
Union as a state on the 26th of January 1837. Since admission
into the Union the more interesting experiences of the state
have been with internal improvements and with banking,
which together resulted in serious financial distress; in the utili-
zation of its natural resources, which have been a vast source of
MICHIGAN, LAKE
377
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
Republican
wealth; and in the development of its educational system,
in which the state has exerted a large influence throughout
the Union. From the beginning of its government under its
first state constitution in 1835 until 1855 Michigan had a Demo-
cratic administration with the exception of the years 1840-
1842, when opposition to the financial measures of the Democrats
placed the Whigs in power. But it was in Michigan that the
Republican party received its first official recognition, at a
state convention held at Jackson on the 6th of July 1857, and
from the beginning of the following year the administration
has been Republican with the exception of two terms from 1883
to 1885, and from 1891 to 1893, when it was again Democratic.
GOVERNORS OF MICHIGAN
Territorial.
William Hull
Lewis Cass . .
Stevens Thompson Mason (acting) .
George Bryan Porter ....
Stevens Thompson Mason (acting) .
John Scott Homer (acting)
State.
Stevens Thompson Mason .
William Woodbridge .
James Wright Gordon (acting)
ohn Steward Barry .
Alpheus Fclch
William L. Greenly (acting)
Epaphroditus Ransom
John Steward Barry .
Robert McClelland
Andrew Parsons (acting) .
Kinsley S. Bingham
Moses Wisner
Austin Blair
Henry Howland Crapo
Henry Porter Baldwin
John Judson Bagley
Charles Miller Croswell
David Howell Jerome
Josiah W. Begole
Russell Alexander Alger
Cyrus Gray Luce
Edwin Baruch Winans
John T. Rich
Hazen Smith Pingree
Aaron Thomas Bliss
Fred M. Warner .
Chase S. Osborn .
AUTHORITIES. The Publications of the Michigan Geological Survey
(Detroit, Lansing and New York, 1838 seq.) deal largely with the
mining districts of the upper peninsula. Alexander Winchell,
Michigan: Being Condensed Popular Sketches of the Topography,
Climate and Geology of the State (1873), is in large measure restricted
to the south half of the state. W. J. Bcal and C. F. Wheeler, Michigan
Flora (Lansing, 1 892) , contains the results of an extensive study of the
subject. See also the Twelfth Census of the United Slates (Washington,
1901-1902) ; Silas Farmer, Michigan Book: a State Cyclopaedia with
Sectional County Maps (Detroit, 1901); Beta Hubbard, Memorials
of a Half-Century (New York, 1887), a well written account of obser-
vations, chiefly upon scenery, fauna, flora and climate; Webster
Cook, Michigan: its History and Government (New York, 1905),
written primarily for use in schools and containing a reference
bibliography; A. C. McLaughlin, History of Higher Education in
Michigan, in Circulars of Information of the United States Bureau
of Education (Washington, 1891), being an account of the origin
of the public school system and an individual account of each higher
institution of learning; T. M. Cooley, Michigan : a History of Govern-
ment (Boston, 1885), a critical but popular narrative by an eminent
jurist; J. V. Campbell, Outlines of the Political History of Michigan
(Detroit, 1876), also by a jurist of the state; Henry M. Utley and
Byron M. Cutcheon, Michigan as a Province, Territory and State
(4 vols., New York, 1906) ; Michigan Pioneer and Historical Society,
Historical Collections: Collections and Researches (Lansing, 1877
seq.) ; and Publications of the Michigan Political Science Association
(Ann Arbor, 1893).
MICHIGAN, LAKE, the only one of the great lakes of North
America wholly within the boundaries of the United States,
and the second largest body of fresh water in the world. It
lies S. of Lake Superior and W. of Lake Huron, between
41 37' and 46 05' N. and 84 45' and 88 W.; is bounded
on the N. and E. by the state of Michigan, on the W. by
Wisconsin, while Illinois and Indiana touch its S. end. It
is 320 m. long, and has an average width of 65 m. The
maximum depth recorded by the United States Lake Survey is
Democrat and Greenback
Republican
M
Democrat
Republican
1805-1813
1813-1831
1831
1831-1834
1834-1835
1835
1835-1840
1840-1841
1841-1842
1842-1846
1846-1847
1847-1848
1848-1850
1850-1851
1851-1853
1853-1855
1855-1859
1859-1861
1861-1865
1865-1869
1869-1873
1873-1877
1877-1881
1881-1883
1883-1885
1885-1887
1887-1891
1891-1893
1893-1897
1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1911
870 ft.; the mean level of the surface is 581! ft. above mean
sea-level, being the same as that of Lake Huron and 21 ft. below
that of Lake Superior. Its area is 22,400 sq. m., and it has a
basin 68,100 sq. m. in area.
The shores of Lake Michigan are generally low and sandy,
and the land slopes gradually to the water. The northern
shore of the lake is irregular and more rugged and picturesque
than the other shores, the summit of the highest peak being
about 1400 ft. above the sea. On the eastern side are numerous
sand hills, formed by the wind into innumerable fantastic
shapes, sometimes covered with stunted trees and scanty
vegetation, but usually bare and rising to heights of from 150
to 250 ft. The south-western shore is generally low, with sand
hills covered with shrivelled pines and bur oaks. Along
the western shore woods and prairies alternate, interspersed
with a few high peaks. The cliffs on the east shore of Green
Bay form a bold escarpment, and from this ridge the land
slopes gradually to the lake. With the exception of Green and
Traverse bays, Lake Michigan has few indentations of the coast
line, and except at the north end it is free from islands. The
waters near shore are shoal, and as there are few harbours of
refuge of easy access navigation is dangerous in heavy storms.
Around the lake the climate is equable, for, though the winter
is cold and the summer hot, the waters of the lake modify
the extremes, the mean temperature varying from 40 to 54 F.
The average annual rainfall is 33 in. The finest agricultural
land in the United States is near the lake, and there is an immense
.trade in all grains, fruits, livestock and lumber, and in products
such as flour, pork, hides, leather goods, furniture, &c. Rich
lead and copper mines abound, as also salt, iron and coal.
Abundant water power promotes manufactures of all kinds.
Beer and distilled liquors are largely manufactured, and fine
building stone is obtained from numerous quarries.
The lake is practically tideless, though true tidal pulsations
amounting to 3 in. in height are stated to have been ob-
served in Chicago. In the water of the lake there is a general
set of current towards the outlet at the strait of Mackinac,
following the east shore, with slight circular currents in the
main portion of the lake and at the northern end around
Beaver island. These currents vary in speed from 4 to 10 m.
per day. Surface currents are set up by prevailing winds,
which also seriously affect water levels, lowering the water
at Chicago and raising it at the strait, or the reverse, so as
greatly to inconvenience navigation. The level of the lake
is subject to seasonal fluctuations, reaching a maximum in
midsummer and a minimum in February, as well as to alter-
nating cycles of years of high and low water. Standard high-
water of 1838 was 3-36 ft. above mean level and standard
low-water of 1895, 2-82 ft. below that datum, giving an extreme
recorded range slightly over 6ft.
The northern portion of the lake only is covered with ice
in winter, and ice never reaches as far south as Milwaukee.
Milwaukee River remains closed on an average for one hundred
days from the beginning of December to the middle of March.
The average date of the opening and closing of navigation
at the strait of Mackinac, where the ice remains longest, is the
1 7th of April and the 9th of January respectively. 1 Regular
lines of steamers specially equipped to meet winter conditions,
most of them being car ferries, cross the lake and the strait of
Mackinac all winter between the various ports.
No notable rivers flow into Lake Michigan, the largest being the
Big Manistee and Muskegon on the east shore, and on the west shore
the Menominee and the Fox, both of which empty into Green Bay,
the most important arm of the lake. The numerous harbours are
chiefly artificial, usually located at the mouths of streams, the
improvements consisting of two parallel piers extending into the
lake and protecting a dredged channel. Sand bars keep filling up
the mouths of these channels, necessitating frequent dredging and
extension of the breakwaters, work undertaken by the Federal
government, which also maintains a most comprehensive and com-
plete system of aids to navigation, including lighthouses and light-
ships, fog alarms, gas and other buoys, life-saving, storm signal and
weather report stations.
1 Report of Deep Waterways Commission (1896).
MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN CITY
Chicago, the principal port on the lake, is at its south-west ex-
tremity, and is remarkable for the volume of its trade, the number
of vessels arriving and departing exceeding that of any port in the
United States, though the tonnage is less than that of New York.
It is a large railway centre, and the number and size of the grain
elevators are noticeable. The port is protected by breakwaters
enclosing a portion of the lake front. The level of the city above
the lake being only 14 ft., much difficulty arose in draining it.
A sanitary and ship canal 34 m. long was therefore completed in
1900 to divert the Chicago river, a small stream that flows into the
lake, into the head waters of the Des Plaines river and thence through
the river Joliet into the Mississippi at St Louis. The discharge of
water is by law so regulated that the maximum flow shall not exceed
250,000 cub. ft. per minute. The effect upon the permanent level
of the lakes of the withdrawal of water through this artificial outlet
is receiving much attention. Milwaukee, situated on the shore of
Milwaukee Bay, on the western side of the lake, is, next to Chicago,
the largest city on the lake, and has a large commerce ana a
harbour of refuge. Escanaba, on Little Bay de Noc (Noquette),
in the northern part of the lake, is a natural harbour and a large iron
shipping port. Green Bay and Lake Michigan are connected by a
canal extending from the lake to the head of Sturgeon Bay. Lake
Michigan is connected at its north-east extremity with lake Huron
by the strait of Mackinac, 48 m. long, with a minimum width of 6 m. ;
the water is generally deep and the shoals lying near the usually
travelled routes are well marked.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sailing directions for Lake Michigan, Green Bay,
and the Strait of Mackinac, U.S. Navy Hydrographic office publica-
tion No. 108 B (Washington, 1906) ; Bulletin No. //: Survey of North-
ern and North-western Lakes, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit,
Michigan, 1907) ; St Lawrence Pilot, 7th ed., Hydrographic Office
Admiralty (London, 1906); Effect of Withdrawal of Waterfront Lake
Michigan by the Sanitary District of Chicago, U.S. House of Repre-
sentatives' Document No. 6, 59th Congress, 1st session (Washington,
1906). (W. P. A.)
MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the principal educational
institutions of the United States, situated at Ann Arbor, Michigan.
It embraces a department of literature, science and the arts
(including industry and commerce), opened in 1841, and includ-
ing a graduate school, organized in 1892; a department of
medicine and surgery, opened in 1850; a department of law,
opened in 1859; a school of pharmacy, opened as a separate
department in 1876; a homoeopathic medical college, opened
in 1875; a college of dental surgery, opened in 1875; and a
department of engineering, separately organized in 1895, which
includes courses in marine engineering, architecture, and archi-
tectural engineering. The university was one of the first to
admit women, having opened its doors to them in 1870 as a
natural consequence of its receiving aid from the state (since
1867), and since 1900 they have constituted nearly one-half
of the student body in the department of literature, science
and the arts. In 1907-1908 there were in all departments 350
instructors and 5013 students (1796 in the department of
literature, science and the arts; 1354 in the department of
engineering; 391 in the department of medicine and surgery;
791 in the department of law; 101 in the school of pharmacy;
82 in the homoeopathic medical college; 168 in the college of
dental surgery; and 1070 in the summer sessions). Besides
the several main department buildings there is a library build-
ing, a museum building, several laboratories, a gymnasium for
men, and a gymnasium for women. The general library in 1908
contained 172,940 volumes, 3800 pamphlets, and 3370 maps,
and the several department libraries brought the total up to
222,600 volumes and 5000 pamphlets. The general museum
contains large zoological collections, geological and anthropo-
logical collections, including the exhibit of the Chinese govern-
ment at the New Orleans Exposition, which was given by the
government to the university in 1885; there are besides several
special collections in some of the laboratories. The astronomical
observatory is surmounted by a movable dome in which is
mounted a refracting telescope having a thirteen-inch object
glass. The several laboratories are equipped for use in instruc-
tion in physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology,
psychology, botany, forestry, actuarial work, engineering,
histology, physiology, hygiene, electrotherapeutics, pathology
anatomy and dentistry.
The university is governed from without by a board of eight
regents elected by popular suffrage, two biennially, at the same
time as the election of judges of the supreme court; from
within the government is to a large extent in the hands of a
university senate, in which the faculty of each department
is represented. The university is maintained by a permanent
annuity of $30,000, derived from the land set apart for it by
the Ordinance of 1787, by the proceeds of a three-eighths mill
tax, and by small fees paid by the students. Its organic rela-
tion to the other public schools of the state was well established
in 1870, when it was provided that graduates from such high
schools as had been examined and approved by a committee
of the university should be admitted without examination;
one of the most important functions of the university is to
prepare students for teaching in the high schools.
The first charter for a university within what is now the state
was granted by the governor and judges of the Territory of
Michigan in 1817, for a " Catholepistemiad," or University of
Michigania, with a remarkable " Greek " system of nomenclature
for its courses and faculties; this institution did practically
no teaching. A second charter was granted in 1821, for a
University of Michigan in Detroit; but little was accomplished
until the admission of Michigan into the Union as a state in
1837, when by the third charter the aim was to model the institu-
tion after the German university minus the theological depart-
ment, and the university was entrusted to a board of regents
and a chancellor appointed by the governor. Branches to
correspond to the German gymnasia were established in the
principal towns before any money was spent on the University
proper, but the question of the constitutionality of their
establishment and maintenance arose, and they were soon discon-
tinued. Plans for building at Ann Arbor were begun in 1838.
The first class graduated in 1845. The department of literature,
science and the arts was at first much like a New England
college. For some time the prospects did not seem promising;
but in 1851 a new state constitution provided that the regents
should be elected, and directed them to choose a president;
and it was under the administration (1852-1863) of the first
incumbent of that office, Henry Philip Tappan (1805-1881),
that the present broad and liberal basis was established.
Although he was a Presbyterian clergyman, he endeavoured
at the outset to substitute the tests of scholarship for those of
religion; at the same time a scientific course was introduced,
courses in pedagogy followed, and in 1878 the elective system,
which has since rapidly expanded, was established. President
Tappan was succeeded in 1863 by Erastus Otis Haven (1820-
1881), who resigned in 7.869, and was succeeded temporarily
(1869-1871) by Professor Henry S. Frieze (1817-1889), and in
1871 by James Burrill Angell (b. 1829),' who resigned in 1909.
In 1871-1872 the German seminar method was introduced in
graduate work in history, by Prof. Charles Kendall Adams (1835-
1902), afterwards president of Cornell University (1885-1892)
and of the University of Wisconsin (1892-1902).
See B. A. Hinsdale and I. N. Demmon, History of the University
of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1906); Elizabeth M. Farrand, History of
the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1885); and The Quarter
Centennial of the Presidency of James Burrill Angell (Ann Arbor,
1896).
MICHIGAN CITY, a city of Laporte county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the S.E. shore of lake Michigan, about 40 m. E. by S. of
Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,776; (1900), 14,850, of whom 3662
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,027. Michigan City
is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the
Lake Erie & Western, the Michigan Central and the Pere
Marquette railways, by interurban electric lines, and by several
lines of lake steamships. The city contains a United States
Life Saving Station and the Indiana State Prison, and is the
seat of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Its transportation
1 President Angell graduated in 1849 at Brown University, where
he was assistant librarian in 1849-1850 and was professor of modern
languages in 1853-1860; was editor of the Providence Journal in
1860-1866; was president of the University of Vermont in 1866-1871,
was United States minister to China in 1880-1881, was a member
of the joint commission of 1887-1888 to settle fishery disputes
between the United States and Great Britain, was chairman of the
international deep waterways commission in 1896, and in 1897-1898
was United States minister to Turkey.
MICHMASH MICKIEWICZ
379
advantages make it one of the principal commercial cities in
the state. Its shipments of lumber are of special importance,
and it has also a large transshipment trade in salt and iron ore.
The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $6,314,226.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works system.
Michigan City was first settled about 1830, was incorporated
as a village in 1837, and was first chartered as a city in 1867.
MICHMASH, a place in Benjamin, about 9 Roman miles
north of Jerusalem (Onom, ed. Lag., p. 280), the scene of one
of the most striking episodes in Old Testament history (i Sam.
xiv.). Though it did not rank as a city (not being mentioned
in Joshua xviii. 21 seq.), Michmash was recolonized after the
exile (Neh. xi. 31), and, favoured by the possession of excellent
wheat-land (Mishna, Men. viii. i), was still a very large village
(MaxA"is) in the time of Eusebius. The modern Mukhmas
is quite a small place.
The historical interest of Michmash is connected with the strategical
importance of the position, commanding the north side of the Pass
of Michmash, which made it the headquarters of the Philistines and
the centre of their forays in their attempt to quell the first rising
under Saul, as it was also at a later date the headquarters of Jonathan
the Hasmonaean ( I Mace. ix. 73) . From Jerusalem to Mount Ephraim
there are two main routes. The present caravan road keeps the high
ground to the west near the watershed, and avoids the Pass of
Michmash altogether. But another route, the importance of which
in antiquity may be judged of from Isa. x. 28 sqq., led southwards
from Ai over an undulating plateau to Michmash. Thus far the
road is easy, but at Michmash it descends into a very steep and
rough valley, which has to be crossed before reascending to Geba. 1
At the bottom of the valley is the Pass of Michmash, a noble gorge
with precipitous craggy sides. On the north the crag is crowned
by a sort of plateau sloping backwards into a round-topped hill.
This little plateau, about a mile east of the present village of Mukh-
mas, seems to have been the post of the Philistines, lying close to the
centre of the insurrection, yet possessing unusually good communica-
tion with their establishments on Mount Ephraim by way of Ai
and Bethel, and at the same time commanding the routes leading
down to the Jordan from Ai and from Michmash itself.
See further C. R. Conder, Tentwork ii. 112 seq.; and T. K. Cheyne
in Encyc. Bib., s.v. (R. A. S. M.)
MICHOACAN, or MICHOACAN DE OCAMPO, a state of Mexico
touching on the Pacific, bounded N. by Jalisco and Guana-
juato, E. by Mexico and Guerrero, S. by Guerrero and the
Pacific, and W. by the Pacific, Colima, and Jalisco. Pop.
(1900), 935,808, chiefly Indians and mestizos. Area, 22,874
sq. m. Its territory is divided into two nearly equal parts by
the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the northern
part belonging to the great central plateau region, and the
southern to an extremely broken region formed by the diverging
branches of the Sierra Madre, with their wooded terraces and
slopes and highly fertile valleys. The general slope of the
southern part is southward to the river Balsas, or Mescala,
which . forms its boundary-line with Guerrero. The narrow
coastal zone on the Pacific is only 101 m. long and has no ports
or towns of importance, the slopes of the Sierra Madre del
Pacifico being precipitous and heavily wooded and the coast-
belt sandy, hot and malarial. The Lerma, on the northern
frontier, and the Balsas on the southern, are the only rivers
of importance of the state, their tributaries within its boundaries
being small and swift-flowing. There are several large and
beautiful lakes in the state, the best known of which are Patz-
cuaro and Cuitzeo. Lake Chapala lies on the northern boundary.
Michoacan lies within the most active volcanic region of Mexico:
Jorullo (4262 ft.) is near its southern line, and Colima (12,750 ft.)
is northwest of it in the state of Jalisco. Earthquake shocks
are numerous, and Colima was in violent eruption in 1908-1909.
The highest summit in the state is Tancitaro (12,660 ft.). The
climate is for the most part temperate and healthy, but it is
hot and unhealthy on the coast. Michoacan is essentially
a mining region, producing gold, silver, lead and cinnabar,
and having rich deposits of copper, coal, petroleum and sulphur.
The natural products include fine cabinet and construction
woods, rubber, fruit, palm oil and fibres. The soil of the
valleys is highly fertile, and produces cereals in the higher
1 So Isa. x. 28 describes the" invader as leaving his heavy
baggage at Michmash before pushing on through the pass.
regions, and sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee and tropical fruits
in the lower. Though the plateau region was settled soon
after the arrival of the Spaniards in Mexico, there are large
districts on the southern and Pacific slopes that still belong
almost exclusively to the Indians. Besides Morelia, the capital
and largest city, the principal towns of the state are: La Piedad
(pop. 15,123), an important commercial town on the Lerma river
and on the Mexican Central railway, 112 m. N.N.W. of Morelia;
Zamora (10,373), 75 m. W.N.W. of Morelia; Uruapan (9808),
on the Mexican National, 55 m. S.W. of Morelia in a mountainous
district celebrated for the fine quality of its coffee; Puruandiro
(7782), a commercial and manufacturing town 40 m. N.W.
of Morelia; Patzcuaro (7621), on Patzcuaro lake, with a station
on the Mexican National, 7550 ft. above sea level; Sahuayo
(7408), 103 m. W. by N. of Morelia near Lake Chapala; Zitacuaro
(6052), 60 m. S.E. of Morelia on a branch of the Mexican
National, which also passes through the mining town of Angan-
gueo (9115) in the same district; and Tacambaro (5070),
46 m. S.S.W. of Morelia in a fertile valley of the Rio de las
Balsas basin.
MICKIEWICZ, ADAM (1798-1855), Polish poet, was born
in 1798, near Nowogrodek, in the present Russian government
of Minsk, where his father, who belonged to the schlachta or
lesser nobility, had a small property. The poet was educated
at the university of Vilna; but, becoming involved in some
political troubles there, he was forced to terminate his studies
abruptly, and was ordered to live for a time in Russia. He
had already published two small volumes of miscellaneous
poetry at Vilna, which had been favourably received by the
Slavonic public, and on his arrival at St Petersburg he found
himself admitted to the leading literary circles, where he was
a great favourite both from his agreeable manners and his
extraordinary talent of improvisation. In 1825 he visited the
Crimea, which inspired a collection of sonnets in which we may
admire both the elegance of the rhythm and the rich Oriental
colouring. The most beautiful are The Storm, Bakchiserai,
and Grave of the Countess Potocka.
In 1828 appeared his Konrad Wallenrod, a narrative poem
describing the battles of knights of the Teutonic order with
the heathen Lithuanians. Here, under a thin veil, Mickiewicz
represented the sanguinary passages of arms and burning hatred
which had characterized the long feuds of the Russians and
Poles. The objects of the poem, although evident to many,
escaped the Russian censors, and it was suffered to appear,
although the very motto, taken from Machiavelli, was signifi-
cant: " Dovete adunque sapere come sono duo generazioni
da combat tere . . . bisogna essere volpe e leone." This is
a striking poem and contains two beautiful lyrics. After a
five years' exile in Russia the poet obtained leave to travel; he
had secretly made up his mind never to return to that country
or Poland so long as it remained under the government of the
Muscovites. Wending his way to Weimar, he there made
the acquaintance of Goethe, who received him cordially, and,
pursuing his journey through Germany, he entered Italy by
the Spliigen, visited Milan, Venice, and Florence, and finally
took up his abode at Rome. There he wrote the third part
of his poem Dziady, the subject of which is the religious com-
memoration of their ancestors practised among Slavonic nations,
and Pan Tadeusz, his longest poem, by many considered his
masterpiece. A graphic picture is drawn of Lithuania on the
eve of Napoleon's expedition to Russia in 1812. In this village
idyll, as Bruckner calls it, Mickiewicz gives us a picture of the
homes of the Polish magnates, with their somewhat boisterous
but very genuine hospitality. We see them before us, just as
the knell of their nationalism, as Bruckner says, seemed to be
sounding, and therefore there is something melancholy and dirge-
like in the poem in spite of the pretty love story which forms
the main incident. Mickiewicz turned to Lithuania with the
loving eyes of an exile, and gives us some of the most delightful
descriptions of Lithuanian skies and Lithuanian forests. He
describes the weird sounds to be heard in the primeval woods
in a country where the trees were sacred. The cloud-pictures
3 8o
MICKLE MICROCLINE
are equally striking. There is nothing finer in Shelley or
Wordsworth.
In 1832 Mickiewicz left Rome for Paris, where his life was
for some time spent in poverty and unhappiness. He had
married a Polish lady, Selina Szymanowska, who became insane.
In 1840 he was appointed to the newly founded chair of Slavonic
languages and literature in the College de France, a post which
he was especially qualified to fill, as he was now the chief repre-
sentative of Slavonic literature, Pushkin having died in 1837.
He was, however, only destined to hold it for a little more
than three years, his last lecture having been given on the
28th of May 1844. His mind had become more and more
disordered under the influence of religious mysticism. He had
fallen under the influence of a strange fanatic named Towianski.
His lectures became a medley of religion and politics, and thus
brought him under the censure of the Government. A selection
of them has been published in four volumes. They contain
some good sound criticism, but the philological part is very
defective, for Mickiewicz was no scholar, and he is obviously
only well acquainted with two of the literatures, viz. Polish
and Russian, the latter only till the year 1830. A very sad
picture of his declining days is given in the memoirs of Herzen.
At a comparatively early period the unfortunate poet exhibited
all the signs of premature old age; poverty, despair and domestic
affliction had wrought their work upon him. In 1849 he founded
a French newspaper, La Tribune des peuples, but it only existed
a year. The restoration of the French Empire seemed to kindle
his hopes afresh; his last composition is said to have been a
Latin ode in honour of Napoleon III. On the outbreak of the
Crimean War he was sent to Constantinople to assist in raising
a regiment of Poles to take service against the Russians. He
died suddenly there in 1855, and his body was removed to
France and buried at Montmorency. In 1900 his remains
were disinterred and buried in the cathedral of Cracow, the
Santa Croce of Poland, where rest, besides many of the kings,
the greatest of her worthies.
Mickiewicz is held to have been the greatest Slavonic poet,
with the exception of Pushkin. Unfortunately in other parts
of Europe he is but little known; he writes in a very difficult
language, and one which it is not the fashion to learn. There
were both pathos and irony in the expression used by a Polish
lady to a foreigner, " Nous avons notre Mickiewicz a nous."
He is one of the best products of the so-called romantic school.
The Poles had long groaned under the yoke of the classicists,
and the country was full of legends and picturesque stories
which only awaited the coming poet to put them into shape.
Hence the great popularity among his countrymen of his ballads,
each of them being connected with some national tradition.
Besides Konrad Wallenrod and Pan Tadeusz, attention may
be called to the poem Grazyna, which describes the adventures
of a Lithuanian chieftainess against the Teutonic knights.
It is said by Ostrowski to have inspired the brave Emilia Plater,
who was the heroine of the rebellion of 1830, and after having
fought in the ranks of the insurgents, found a grave in the
forests of Lithuania. A fine vigorous Oriental piece is Farys.
Very good too are the odes to Youth and to the historian Lelewel;
the former did much to stimulate the efforts of the Poles to
shake off their Russian conquerors. It is enough to say of
Mickiewicz that he has obtained the proud position of the
representative poet of his country; her customs, her super-
stitions, her history, her struggles are reflected in his works.
It is the great voice of Poland appealing to the nations in her
agony.
His son, Ladislas Mickiewicz, wrote Vie d'Adam Mickiewicz
(Posen, 1890-1895, 4 vols.), also Adam Mickiewicz, sa vie et son
ceuvre (Paris, 1888) Translations into English (1881-1885) of
Konrad, Wallenrod and Pan Tadeusz were made by Miss Biggs. See
also (Entires poUiques.de Mickiewicz, trans, by Christien Ostrowski
(Paris, 1845). (W. R. M.)
MICKLE, WILLIAM JULIUS (1735-1788), Scottish poet,
son of the minister of Langholm, Dumfries-shire, was born on
the 28th of September 1735. He was educated at the Edinburgh
high school, and in hjs fifteenth year entered business as a
brewer. His father purchased the business, and on his death
William Mickle became the owner; but he neglected his affairs,
devoting his time to literature, and before long became bankrupt.
In 1763 he went to London, where in 1765 he published "a
poem in the manner of Spenser " called the Concubine (after-
wards Syr Martyn); was appointed corrector to the Clarendon
Press, and translated the Lusiad of Camoens into heroic couplets
(specimen published 1771, whole work, 1775). So great was the
repute of this translation' that when Mickle appointed secretary
to Commodore Johnstone visited Lisbon in 1779, the king
of Portugal gave him a public reception. On his return to
London he was appointed one of the agents responsible for
the distribution of prize-money, and this employment, in addition
to the sums brought him by his translation of the Lusiad,
placed him in comfortable circumstances.
It has been suggested that the Scottish poem " There's nae
luck aboot the hoose " was Mickle's. It is more likely, however,
that Jean Adams was the author. Scott read and admired Mickle's
poems in his youth, and founded Kenilworth on his ballad of Cumnor
Hall, which appeared in Thomas Evans's Old Ballads . . . with
some of Modern Date (1784).
MICMAC, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian
stock. They formerly occupied all Nova Scotia, Cape Breton
and Prince Edward Islands, and portions of New Brunswick,
Quebec and Newfoundland. They fought on the French side
in the colonial wars. They are now civilized and almost all
profess Catholicism. They number some 4000 in settled com-
munities throughout their former territory.
There is an excellent account of the Micmac Indians in J. G.
Millais's Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1908).
MICON, a Greek painter of the middle of the fifth century
B.C. He was closely associated with Polygnotus of Thasos,
in conjunction with whom he adorned the Painted Stoa, at
Athens, with paintings of the battle of Marathon and other
battles. He also painted in the Anaceum at Athens.
MICROCLINE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the
feldspar group (see FELSPAR). Like orthoclase it is a potash-
feldspar with the formula KAlSi 3 O 8 , but differs from this in
crystallizing in the anorthic system. The name (from Greek
/ui/cpos, small, and K\ivtiv, to incline) was given by A. Breithaupt
in 1830, and has reference to the fact that the angle (89 30' )
between the two perfect cleavages differs but little from a right
angle: the species was, however, first definitely established
by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1876. The crystals and cleavage masses
are very like orthoclase in appearance, and the hardness (6)
and specific gravity (2-56)' are the same for the two minerals;
there are, however, important differences in the twinning and
in the optical characters. In addition to being twinned accord-
ing to the same laws as orthoclase, microcline is repeatedly
twinned according to the albite-law and the pericline-law, pro-
ducing a very characteristic grating or cross-hatched structure
which is especially prominent when thin sections of the mineral
are examined in polarized light. This lamellar structure is
often on a very minute scale, sometimes so minute as to be almost
indistinguishable: it has therefore been suggested that ortho-
clase is really a microcline in which the twin-lamellae are ultra-
microscopic. In a section parallel to the basal plane c (ooi)
of a microcline crystal the lamellae do not extinguish optically
parallel to the edge be as in orthoclase, but at an angle of 15
30'; further, the obtuse bisectrix of the optic axes in microcline
is inclined to the normal of the plane b (oio) at an angle of 15
26' . Green microcline is distinctly pleochroic.
Microcline occurs, usually with orthoclase, as a constituent
of pegmatites, granites and gneisses; it is rare in porphyries
and is not known in volcanic rocks. A beautiful crystallized
variety of a bright verdigris-green colour is known as amazon-
stone (q.v.). Chesterlite is a variety occurring as crystals on
dolomite in Chester county, Pennsylvania.
Closely allied to microcline is the anorthic soda-potash-feldspar
known as anorthoclase or natron-microcline. Here sodium pre-
dominates over potassium and a little calcium is also often present,
the formula being (Na, K) AlSi 3 O 8 . It resembles microcline in having
a cleavage angle of very nearly 90 and in the cross-hatched struc-
ture, the latter being usually very minute and giving rise to a mottled
MICROCOSM MICROMETER
extinction. It is the characteristic feldspar of volcanic rocks which
are rich in soda, and is typically developed in the lavas of the island
of Pantelleria near Sicily and those of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya
in East Africa: the rhomb-shaped porphyritic feldspars of the
" rhomb-porphyry " of southern Norway also belong here.
(L. J. S.)
MICROCOSM, a term often applied in philosophical and in
general literature to man regarded as a " little world " (Gr.
fUKpos KO&HOS) in opposition to the " macrocosm," great
world, in which he lives. From the dawn of speculative thought
in Greece the analogy between man and the world has been a
common-place, and may be traced from Heraclitus and Empe-
docles, through Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Schoolmen- and
the thinkers of the Renaissance down to the present day. Thus
Lotze's comprehensive survey of mental and moral science
is termed Microcosmus The most systematic expression
of the tendency indicated by the term is the monadology of
Leibnitz, in which the monad is regarded as containing within
its own closed sphere an expression of the universe, the typical
created monad being the human soul.
MICROCOSMIC SALT, or ammonium sodium hydrogen
orthophosphate, NH 4 NaHPO 4 . 4H 2 O, so named by the alche-
mists because it is contained in the decomposing urine of man
(the " microcosm "). It is interesting historically as being the
raw material from which Brand prepared phosphorus, whence it
is also called " salt of phosphorus." It may be obtained in
large transparent crystals from a mixture of solutions of sal-
ammoniac and disodium phosphate, or by saturating a solution
of monosodium phosphate with ammonia. When heated to
redness, it leaves a transparent glass of sodium metaphosphate,
NaPO 3 , which like borax dissolves most metallic oxides, with
formation of glasses that often exhibit characteristic colours,
and which may be used in the qualitative analysis of substances.
(See CHEMISTRY, Analytical.}
MICROMETER (from Gr. /iiKpos, small, juerpoc, a measure),
an instrument generally applied to telescopes and microscopes
for measuring small angular distances with the former or the
dimensions of small objects with the latter.
Before the invention of the telescope the accuracy of astro-
nomical observations was necessarily limited by the angle that
could be distinguished by the naked eye. The angle between
two objects, such as stars or the opposite limbs of the sun, was
measured by directing an arm furnished with fine " sights " (in
the sense of the " sights " of a rifle) first upon one of the objects
and then upon the other (<?..), or by employing an instru-
ment having two arms, each furnished with a pair of sights, and
directing one pair of sights upon one object and the second pair
upon the other. The angle through which the arm was moved,
or, in the latter case, the angle between the two arms, was read
off upon a finely graduated arc. With such means no very high
accuracy was possible. Archimedes concluded from his measure-
ments that the sun's diameter was greater than 27' and less
than 32'; and even Tycho Brahe was so misled by his measures
of the apparent diameters of the sun and moon as to conclude
that a total eclipse of the sun was impossible. 1 Michael Maestlin
in 1579 determined the relative positions of eleven stars in the
Pleiades (Historia coelestis Lucii Baretti, Augsburg, 1666), and
A. Winnecke has shown (Monthly Notices R.A.S., xxxix. 146)
that the probable error of these measures amounted to about
2':-
The invention of the telescope at once extended the possi-
bilities of accuracy in astronomical measurements. The planets
were shown to have visible disks, and to be attended by satellites
whose distance and position angle relative to the planet it was
desirable to measure. It became, in fact, essential to invent a
" micrometer " for measuring the small angles which were thus
for the first time rendered sensible. There is now no doubt that
William Gascoigne, a young gentleman of Yorkshire, was the first
1 Grant, History of Physical Astronomy, p. 449.
2 This is an astonishing accuracy when the difficulty of the
objects is considered. Few persons can see with the naked eye
much less measure more than six stars of the Pleiades, although
all the stars measured by Maestlin have been seen with the naked
eye by a few individuals of exceptional powers of eyesight.
inventor of the micrometer. William Crabtree, a friend of his,
taking a journey to Yorkshire in 1639 to see Gascoigne, writes
thus to his friend Jeremiah Horrocks. " The first thing Mr
Gascoigne showed me was a large telescope amplified and adorned
with inventions of his own, whereby he can take the diameters
of the sun and moon, or any small angle in the heavens or upon
the earth, most exactly through the glass, to a second." The
micrometer so mentioned fell into the possession of Richard
Townley of Lancashire, who exhibited it at the meeting of the
Royal Society held on the 25th of July 1667.
The principle of Gascoigne s micrometer is that two pointers
having parallel edges at right angles to the measuring screw, are
moved in opposite directions symmetrically with and at right angles
to the axis of the telescope. The micrometer is at zero when the
two edges are brought exactly together. The edges are then separated
till they are tangent to the opposite limbs of the disk of the planet
to be measured, or till they respectively bisect two stars, the angle
between which is to be determined. The symmetrical separation
of the edges is produced and measured by a single screw ; the fractions
of a revolution of the screw are obtained by an index attached to one
end of the screw, reading on a dial divided into loo equal parts.
The whole arrangement is elegant anj ingenious. A steel cylinder
(about the thickness of a goose-quill), which forms the micrometer
screw, has two threads cut upon it, one-half being cut with a thread
double the pitch of the other. This screw is mounted on an oblong-
box which carries one of the measuring edges; the other edge is
moved by the coarser part of the screw relatively to the edge attached
to the box, whilst the box itself is moved relatively to the axis of the
telescope by the finer screw. This produces an opening and closing
of the edges symmetrically with respect to the telescope axis. Flam-
steed, in the first volume of the Historia coelestis, has inserted a series
of measurements made by Gascoigne extending from 1638 to 1643.
These include the mutual distances of some of the stars in the
Pleiades, a few observations of the apparent diameter of the sun,
others of the distance of the moon from neighbouring stars, and a
great number of measurements of the diameter of the moon. Dr
John Bevis (Phil. Trans. (1773), p. 190) also gives results of measure-
ments by Gascoigne of the diameters of the moon, Jupiter, Mars and
Venus with his micrometer.
Delambre gives 3 the following comparison between the results
of Gascoigne's measurements of the sun's semi-diameter and the
computed results from modern determinations:
Gascoigne. Conn. d. temps.
October 25(0.3.) 16' n" or 10" 16' lo*-o
31 ,, 16' n" 16' ll'-4
December 2 ,, . . . . 16' 24" 16' l6"-8
Gascoigne, from his observations, deduces the greatest variation
of the apparent diameter of the sun to be 35"; according to the
Connaissance des temps it amounts to 32*-3. 3 These results prove
the enormous advance attained in accuracy by Gascoigne, and his
indisputable title to the credit of inventing the micrometer.
Huygens, in his Systema saturnium (1659), describes a
micrometer with which he determined the apparent diameters
of the principal planets. He inserted a slip of metal, of variable
breadth, at the focus of the telescope, and observed at what part
it exactly covered the object under examination; knowing the
focal length of the telescope and the width of the slip at the
point observed, he thence deduced the apparent angular breadth
of the object. The Marquis Malvasia in his Ephemerides
(Bologna, 1662) describes a micrometer of his own invention.
At the focus of his telescope he placed fine silver wires at right
angles to each other, which, by their intersection, formed a net-
work of small squares. The mutual distances of the intersecting
wires he determined by counting, with the aid of a pendulum
clock, the number of seconds required by an equatorial star to
pass from web to web, while the telescope was adjusted so that
the star ran parallel to the wires at right angles to those under
investigation. 4 In the Phil. Trans. (1667), No. 21, p. 373,
Adrien Auzout gives the results of some measures of the diameter
of the sun and moon made by himself, and this communication
led to the letters of Townley and Bevis above referred to. The
micrometer of Auzout and Picard was provided with silk fibres
or silver wires instead of the edges of Gascoigne, but one of the
silk fibres remained fixed while the other was moved by a screw.
It is beyond doubt that Huygens independently discovered that
an object placed in the common focus of the two lenses of a
Kepler telescope appears as distinct and well-defined as the
3 Delambre, Hist. ast. moderns, ii. 590.
4 Mem. acad. des sciences (1717), pp. 78 seq.
MICROMETER
image of a distant body; and the micrometers of Malvasia
Auzout and Picard are the natural developments of this dis-
covery. Gascoigne was killed at the battle of Marston Moor on
the 2nd of July 1644, in the twenty-fourth year of his age, and
his untimely death was doubtless the cause that delayed the
publication of a discovery which anticipated, by twenty years
the combined work of Huygens, Malvaison, Auzout and Picard
in the same direction.
As the powers of the telescope were gradually developed, it
was found that the finest hairs or filaments of silk, or the thinnest
silver wires that could be drawn, were much too
thick for the refined purposes of the astronomer, as
they entirely obliterated the image of a star in the
more powerful telescopes. To obviate this difficulty Felice
Fontana of Florence (Saggio del real gabinetto di fisica e di storia
naturale, 1755) first proposed the use of spider webs in micro-
meters, 1 but it was not till the attention of Troughton had been
directed to the subject by Rittenhouse that the idea was carried
into practice. 2 In 181,3 Wollaston proposed fine platinum wires,
prepared by surrounding a platinum wire with a cylinder of
silver, and drawing out the cylinder with its platinum axis into
a fine wire. 3 The surrounding silver was then dissolved by
nitric acid, and a platinum wire of extreme fineness remained.
But experience soon proved the superiority of the spider web;
its perfection of shape, its lightness and elasticity, have led to its
universal adoption.
Beyond the introduction of the spider line it is unnecessary
to mention the various steps by which the Gascoigne micrometer
assumed the modern forms now in use, or to describe in detail
the suggestions of Hooke, 4 Wren, Smeaton, Cassini, Bradley,
Maskelyne, Herschel, Arago, Pearson, Bessel, Struve, Dawes,
&c., or the successive productions of the great artists Ramsden,
Troughton, Fraunhofer, Ertel, Simms, Cooke, Grubb, Clarke
and Repsold. It will be sufficient to describe those forms with
which the most important work has been done, or which have
survived the tests of time and experience.
Before astronomical telescopes were mounted parallactically, the
measurement of position angles was seldom attempted. Indeed,
in those days, the difficulties attached to such measures, and to the
measurement of distances with the filar micrometer, were exceed-
ingly great, and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience
of the observer. For, on account of the diurnal motion, the direc-
tion of the axis of the telescope when pointed to a star is always
changing, so that, to follow a star with an altazimuth mounting,
the observer requires to move continuously the two handles which
give slow motion in altitude and azimuth.
Sir William Herschel was the first astronomer who measured
position angles; the instrument he employed is described in Phil.
Trans. (1781), Ixxi, 500. It was used by him in his earliest observa-
tions of double stars (1779-1783); but, even in his hands, the
measurements were comparatively crude, because of the difficulties
he had to encounter from the want of a parallactic mounting. In the
case of close double stars he estimated the distance in terms of the
disk of the components. For the measurement of wider stars he
invented his lamp-micrometer, in which the components of a double
star observed with the right eye were made to coincide with two
lucid points placed 10 ft. from the left eye. The distance of the
lucid points was the tangent of the magnified angles subtended
by the stars to a radius of 10 ft. This angle, therefore, divided
by the magnifying power of the telescope gives the real angular dis-
tance of the centres of a double star. With a power of 460 the scale
was a quftrter of an inch for every second.
The Modern Filar Micrometer.
When equatorial mountings for telescopes became more general,
no filar micrometer was considered complete which was not fitted
with a position circle. 6 The use of the spider line or filar micrometer
'In 1782 (Phil. Trans. Ixxii. 163) Sir W. Herschel writes:
" I have in vain attempted to find lines sufficiently thin to extend
them across the centres of the stars, so that their thickness might
be neglected. ' It is a matter of regret that Fontana's suggestion
was unknown to him.
2 J- T. Quekett in his Treatise on the Microscope ascribes to Ramsden
the practical introduction of the spider web in micrometers. The
evidence appears to be in favour of Troughton.
'Phil. Trans. (1813), pp. 114-118.
* Dr Hooke made the important improvement on Gascoigne's
micrometer of substituting parallel hairs for the parallel edges of its
original construction (Hooke' s Posthumous Works, p. 497).
6 Herschel and South (Phil. Trans., 1824, part iii. p. 10) claim that
became universal; the methods of illumination were improved;
and micrometers with screws of previously unheard of fineness and
accuracy were produced. These facilities, coupled with the wide and
fascinating field of research opened up by Sir William Herschel 's
discovery of the binary character of double stars, gave an impulse
to micrometric research which has continued unabated to the
present time. A still further facility was given to the use of the
filar micrometer by the introduction of clockwork, which caused
the telescope automatically to follow the diuinal motion of a star,
and left the observer's hands entirely at liberty."
The micrometer represented in figs. I, 2, 3 is due to Troughton.
Fig. I is a horizontal section in the direction of the axis of the tele-
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
scope. The eyepiece ab consists of two plano-convex lenses a, b, of
nearly the same focal length, and with the two convex sides facing
each other. They are placed at a distance apart less than the focal
length of a, so that the wires of the micrometer, which must be
distinctly seen, are beyond b. This is known as Ramsden's eye-
piece, having been made originally by him. The eyepiece slides
into the tube cd, which screws into the brass ring ef, through two
openings in which the oblong frame, containing the micrometer
slides, passes. These slides are shown in fig. 2, and consist of brass
forks k and /, into which the ends of the screws o and p are rigidly
fitted. The slides are accurately fitted so as to have no sensible
lateral shake, but yet so as to move easily in the direction of the
greatest length of the micrometer box. Motion is communicated
to the forks by female screws tapped in the heads m and n acting
on the screws o and p respectively. Two pins q, r, with spiral springs
coiled round them, pass loosely through holes in the forks k, I, and
keep the bearings of the heads m and n firmly pressed against the
ends of the micrometer box. Thus the smallest rotation of either head
communicates to the corresponding slide motion, which, if the screws
are accurate, is proportional to the amount through which the head
is turned. Each head is graduated into 100 equal parts on the drums
u and v, so that, by estimation, the reading can easily be carried
to niSoth of a revolution. The total number of revolutions is read
off by a scale attached to the side of the box, but not seen in the
figure.
Two spider webs are stretched across the forks, one (/) being
cemented in a fine groove cut in the inner fork k, the other (s) in a
similar groove cut in the outer fork /. These grooves are simultane-
ously cut in situ by the maker, with the aid of an engine capable
of ruling fine straight lines, so that the webs when accurately laid
in the grooves are perfectly parallel. A wire ft is stretched across
the centre of the field, perpendicular to the parallel wires. Each
movable web must pass the other without coming in contact with
it or the fixed wire, and without rubbing on any part of the brass-
work. Should either fault occur (technically called " fiddling ") it
is fatal to accurate measurement. One of the most essential points
in a good micrometer is that all the webs shall be so nearly in the
same plane as to be well in focus together under the highest powers
used, and at the same time absolutely free from " fiddling." For
measuring position angles a brass circle gh (fig. 3), fixed to the tele-
scope by the screw i, has rack teeth on its circumference that receive
the teeth,of an endless screw a), which, being fixed by the arms xx
to the oblong box mn, gives the latter a motion of rotation round
the axis of the telescope; an index upon this box points out on the
graduated circle gh the angular rotation of the instrument.
the micrometer by Troughton, fitted to their 5 ft. equatorial tele-
scope, is the first position micrometer constructed capable of measur-
ing position angles to i' of arc.
6 So far as we can ascertain, the first telescope of large size driven
y clockwork was the g-in. equatorial made for Struve at Dorpat by
"raunhofer; it was completed in 1825. The original idea appears
:o be due to Claude Simeon Passemant (Mem. Acad., Paris, 1746).
In '757 he presented a telescope to the king, so accurately driven
by clockwork that it would follow a star all night long.
MICROMETER
The English micrometer still retains the essential features of
Troughton s original construction above described. The later
English artists have somewhat
changed the mode of communica-
ting motion to the slides, by
attaching the screws perman-
ently to the micrometer head and
tapping each micrometer screw
into its slide. Instead of making
the shoulder of the screw a flat
bearing surface, they have given
the screw a spherical bearing
resting in a hollow cone (fig. 4)
attached to the end of the box.
The French artists still retain
Troughton's form.
383
FIG. 4.
Fraunhofer's Filar Micrometer. The micrometer represented in
fig. 5 ' is the original Merz micrometer of the Cape Observatory, made
FIG. 5.
on Fraunhofer's model. S is the head of the micrometer screw
proper, s that of the screw moving the slide to which the so-called
" fixed web " is attached, s' that of a screw which moves the eye-
piece E. C is the clamp and M the slow motion in position angle.
L, L are tubes attached to a larger tube N ; the latter fits loosely on
a strong hollow cylinder which terminates in the screw V. By
this screw the whole apparatus is attached to the telescope. The
nozzles of small lamps are inserted in the tubes L, L, for illumina-
ting the webs in a dark field ; the light from these lamps is admitted
through apertures in the strong hollow cylinder above mentioned
(for illumination, see p. 385). In this micrometer the three slides
moved by 5, s, and s' are simple dovetails. The lowest of these slides
reposes upon a foundation-plate pp, into one end of which the screw
s is tapped. In the middle of this slide a stiffly fitting brass disk is
inserted, to which a small turn-table motion may be communicated
by an attached arm, acted on by two fine opposing screws accessible
to the astronomer; and by their means the " fixed web " may be
rendered strictly parallel with the movable one. Another web is
fixed parallel to the axis of the screw, as nearly as possible in the same
plane with it and passing through the axis of rotation of the micro-
meter. For the internal structural details of the micrometer the
reader is referred to the article " Micrometer " in the 9th edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
To use the instrument, it is well first to adjust the web moved by
the screw S, so that its point of intersection with the web (commonly
called the " position-web "), which is parallel to the axis of the screw,
shall be nearly coincident with the axis of rotation of the micrometer
bo.x. For this purpose it is only necessary to direct the telescope
to some distant object, bisect that object with the movable wire,
and read the number of revolutions and parts of a revolution of the
screw ; now reverse the micrometer box 1 80 and repeat the observa-
tion ; the mean of the two readings will be the point required. Now
direct the telescope to a star near the equator and so that the star's
image in its diurnal motion shall pass across the intersection of the
two webs which mark the axis of rotation of the micrometer box.
Then, as the diurnal motion causes the star-image to travel away
from the axis of rotation, the micrometer box is rotated till the
image of the star when at a considerable distance from the axis is
bisected by the position-web. The micrometer is now clamped in
position-angle by the clamp C, the star again brought back to
the axis, and delicate adjustment given in position-angle by the
slow-motion screw M, till the star-image remains bisected whilst
it traverses the whole length of the position-web by the diurnal
motion only. This determines the reading of the position-circle
corresponding to position-angle 90 or 270 . 2
1 When it is remembered that the measurements of the Struves,
Dembowski, Secchi, the Bonds, Maclear and of most modern
European astronomers have been made with Fraunhofer or Merz
micrometers it is not too much to say that fig. 5 represents the instru-
ment with which a half of the astronomical measurements of the igth
century were made.
2 For the corrections applicable to measures of position-angle
in different hour angles, on account of errors of the equatorial instru-
ment and of refraction, see Chauvenet's Practical and Spherical
Astronomy, ii. 392 and 450.
The position-angles of double stars are reckoned from north
through east, the brighter star being taken as origin. To observe
ic position-angle of a double star it is only necessary to
turn the position-web so that it shall be parallel to the line
joining the centres of the components of the double star.
10 test this parallelism the single web must be made to
bisect the images of both components simultaneously, as
m ng. 6, because it is evident that if the two components
ol the double star are not exactly equal in magnitude,
there will be great tendency to systematic error if the web
is placed on one side or other of the stars. **O. 6.
To avoid such error Dawes used double wires, not spider
webs, placing the image of the star symmetrically between
these wires, as in fig. 7, and believed that by the use of wires,
much thicker than spider webs, the eye could estimate
more accurately the symmetry of the star-images with
respect to the wires. Other astronomers use the two
distance-measuring webs, placed at a convenient distance
apart, tor position wires. This plan has the advantage of
permitting easy adjustment of the webs to such a distance
apart as may be found most suitable for the particular
observation, but has the disadvantage that it does not
permit the zero of the position-circle to be determined with
the same accuracy; because, whilst by means of the screw s' tlG - ?
(fig. 5) the eyepiece can be made to follow the star for a considerable
distance along a position-web parallel to the screw, the bisection of
the web by a star moving by the diurnal motion at right angles to the
micrometer screw can only be followed for a limited distance viz
the field of the eyepiece. But, as the angle between the position-
web and the distance-webs is a constant, the remedy is to determine
that angle (always very nearly a right angle) by any independent
method and employ the distance-webs as position-webs in the way
described, using the position-web only to determine the instan-
taneous index error of the position-circle.
To measure distances with the Fraunhofer micrometer, the posi-
tion-circle is clamped at the true position-angle of the star, and the
telescope is moved by its slow motions so that the component A of the
star is bisected by the fixed wire; the other component B is then
bisected by the web, which is moved by the graduated head S
Next the star B is bisected by the fixed web and A by the movable
one. The difference between the two readings of S is then twice
the distance between A and B.
The great improvement now introduced into all the best micro-
meters is to provide a screw s, which, not as in the Fraunhofer micro-
meter, moves only one of the wires, but which moves the whole
micrometer box, i.e. moves both webs together with respect to the
star's image in the direction of the axis of the screw. Thus the fixed
wire can be set exactly on star A by the screw s, while star B is
simultaneously bisected by the movable wire, or vice versa, without
disturbing the reading for coincidence of the wires. No one, unless he
has previously worked without such an arrangement, can fully appre-
ciate the advantage of bringing up a star to bisection by moving
a micrometer with a delicate screw-motion, instead of having to
change the direction of the axis of a huge telescope for the same
purpose. When it is further remembered that the earlier telescopes
were not provided with the modern slow motions in right ascension
and that the Struves, in their extensive labours among the double
stars, used to complete
their bisections of the fixed
wire by a pressure of the
finger on the side of the
tube, one is puzzled
whether more to wonder
at such poor adaptation
of means to ends or the
patience and skill which,
with such means, led to
such results. 3 Dawes, who
employed a micrometer of
the English type (figs. I, 2
and 3), used to bolt the
head of one of the screws,
and the instrument was
provided with a slipping
piece, giving motion to the
micrometer by screws
acting on two slides, one in
right ascension, the other
in declination, so that
" either of the webs can
be placed upon either com-
ponent of a double star
with ease and certainty "
(Mem.R.A.S. xxxv. i 9).
The micrometer shown
in fig. 8 was made by
Fig. 9 represents the same
Repsolds for the Cape Observatory.
3 Professor Watson used to say, " After all the most important
part of a telescope is the man at the small end."
3*4
MICROMETER
micrometer with the upper side of the box removed. The letters in
the description refer to both figures.
S is the head of the micrometer screw, s that of the screw
by which the micrometer box is moved relative to the plate/ (fig. 8),
j that of the screw which moves the eyepiece slide. K is the clamp
in position angle, P the slow motion screw in position-angle;
pp is the position circle, R, R its two readers. The latter are in
fact little microscopes carrying a vernier etched on glass, in lieu
of a filar micrometer. These verniers can be read to l', and
estimated to o'-2. D is the drum-head which gives the fraction
of a revolution, d that which gives the whole number of revolu-
tions, I is the index or pointer at which both drums are read.
This index is shown in fig. 9, but only its mode of attach-
ment (X, fig. 9) in fig. 8. The teeth of the pinion z, fig. 9,
are cut on the axis of the micrometer screw. The drum d and
G. y.
its attached tooth wheel are ground to turn smoothly on the axis
of the screw. The pinion z and the toothed wheel d are connected
by an intermediate wheel and pinion Y; the numbers of teeth in the
wheels and pinions are so proportioned that twenty-four revolutions
of the micrometer screw produce one revolution of the drum and
wheel d. The divisions of both drums are conveniently read, simul-
taneously, by the lens e; at night the lamp which illuminates the webs
and the position-circle also illuminates the drum-heads (see on
illumination p. 385). ooaa is the web-frame (fig. 9), Py is a single rod
consisting of two cylinders accurately fitting in the ends of the micro-
meter box, the larger cylinder being at 0. There is a hole in the web-
frame which smoothly fits the larger cylinder at 0', and another
which similarly fits the smaller cylinder at y'. A spiral spring,
coiled round the cylinder y, resting one end on the shoulder
formed by the difference of the diameters of the cylinders /3 and y
and the other on the inside of the web-frame, presses the latter con-
tinuously towards y. Contact of the web-frame of the micrometer
with the side of the box at y would therefore take place, were it not
for the micrometer screw. This screw fits neatly in the end of the
box at , passes loosely through the web-frame at e', is tapped into
the frame at f', and its end rests on a flat hardened surface at f.
Rotation of the web-frame about 0y is prevented by the heads of the
screws at m; the head of the screw on the lower side of the frame
reposes on the plane m>, that on the upper side (fig. 9) touches
lightly on the inner surface of the lid of the box. Such rotation
can obviously be controlled within limits that need not be further
considered. But freedom of rotation in the plane of the paper
(fig. 9) is only prevented by good fitting of the holes /3' y'; and,
since the weight of the slide is on one side of the screw, misfit here
will have the effect of changing the reading for coincidence of the
movable with the fixed web in reverse positions of the micrometer.
With the Cape micrometer a systematic difference has been found
in the coincidence point for head above and head below amounting
to 0-14. This corresponds, in the Cape instrument, with an excess
of the diameters of the holes over those of the cylinders of about
TsJssth of an inch a quantity so small as to imply good workman-
ship, though it involves a systematic error which is very much larger
than the probable error of a single determination of the coincidence
point. The obvious remedy is to make all measures on opposite
the fixed web before reversing in position-angle a precau-
tion however, which no careful observer would neglect. In measur-
ing differences of declination, where the stars are brought up by the
diurnal motion, this precaution cannot be adopted, because it is
necessary always to bisect the preceding star with the fixed web.
But in A5 measures index error can be eliminated by bisecting both
stars with the same web (or different webs of known interval fixed
on the same frame), and not employing the fixed web at all. The
discordance in zero, when known to exist, is really of no consequence,
because the observations can be so arranged as to eliminate it.
The box is mounted on a strong hollow steel cylinder CC (fig. 9)
by holes i\, in the ends of the box, which fit the cylinder closely
and smoothly. The cylinder is rigidly fixed in the studs C, C, and
these are attached to the foundation plate /. The cylinder contains
towards 17 a sliding rod, and towards 8 a compressed spiral spring.
There is thus a thrust outwards of the spring upon the hollow cap
W (attached outside the box), and a thrust of the rod upon the end
of the screw s. The position of the box relative to the plate /, in
the direction of measurement, depends therefore on the distance
between the end of the screw s and the fixed stud C. A screwing in
of .s thus causes the box to move to the left, and vice versa. Rotation
of the box round CC is prevented by downward pressure of the
spring Z on a projection attached to the side of the box. The
amount of this pressure is regulated by the screw z'.
The short screw whose divided milled head is a shifts the zero
of the micrometer by pushing, without turning, the short sliding
rod whose flat end forms the point d'appui of the micrometer screw
at f. The pitch of the screw a is the same as that of the measuring
screw (50 threads to the inch), and its motion can be limited by a
stop to half a revolution.
The five fixed webs are attached to the table TT, which is secured
to the bottom of the box by the screws p. The three movable
webs are attached to the projections XX on the frame aa. The plane
surfaces TT and XX are composed of a bronze of very close texture,
which appears capable of receiving a finish having almost the truth
and polish of an optical surface. It seems also to take a very clean
V cut, as the webs can be laid in their furrows with an astonishing
ease and precision. These furrows have apparently been cut in
situ with a very accurate engine; for not the slightest departure
from parallelism can be detected in any of the movable webs relative
to the fixed webs. Extraordinary care has evidently been bestowed
in adjusting the parallelism and distance of the planes T and X, so
that the movable wires shall almost, but not quite, touch the
surface T. The varnish to fix the webs is applied, not on the
surface r as is usual, but on a bevel for the purpose, 1 the position
of the webs depending on their tension to keep them in their furrows.
The result is that no trace of " fiddling " exists, and the movable
and fixed webs come sharply together in focus with the highest
powers. Under such powers the webs can be brought into apparent
contact with such precision and delicacy that the uncertainty of
measurement seems to lie as much in the estimation of the fraction
of the division of the head as in the accuracy of the contact. It is
FIG. 10.
a convenient feature in Repsolds' micrometer that the webs are
very near the inner surface of the top of the box, so that the eye
is not brought inconveniently close to the plate when high powers
are used.
Another excellent micrometer, originally based on a model by
Clark of Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been largely used by Burn-
ham and others in America. The form, as constructed by Warner
and Swasey for the 4O-in. Yerkes telescope, is shown in figs. 10 and 1 1.
The micrometer box, and of course with it the whole system of spider
webs, is moved by the screw s, whilst the measuring web is indepen-
dently moved by the screw S. The other parts of the instrument
will be readily understood from the figure without further explana-
tion. The method of counting the total number of revolutions
gives more friction and is less convenient than Repsolds', and no
provision seems to he made for illuminating the micrometer head in
the practical and convenient plan adopted by Repsolds.
Repsolds' more recent form of the spider-line micrometer (since
1 The marks of varnish so applied will be seen in fig. 9.
MICROMETER
1893) for large telescopes is shown in fig. 12. Quick motion in posi-
tion-angle for rough setting or for the measurement of close double
stars is given by the large ring R. The micrometer is clamped in
385
FIG. ii.
position-angle by the screw K and slow motion in position-angle is
given by the screw p. The small drum-head T opposite the micro-
meter head S turns a screw which acts upon a short cylinder that
cannot turn but can move only in the direction of the axis of the
micrometer screw. The end-plane of this cylinder receives the pres-
sure of the micrometer screw, so that by turning the small drum-head
the coincidence-reading of the movable web with the fixed web can
be changed, and thus any given angle can be measured with different
-p
,-b
parts of the micrometer screw in order to eliminate the effects of
periodic error of the screw. The electric lamp a gives illumination
of the webs in a dark field, nearly in the manner described for the
Cape transit circle micrometer; the intensity of illumination is
regulated by a carbon-resistance controlled by the screw b. The
lamp c illuminates the drum-head and also, by reflection, the por-
tions of the position-circle which come under the microscopes d and e.
The head / is a switch which enables the observer to illuminate lamp
a or c at pleasure. These lamps, although shown in the figure, are
in reality covered so as not to shine upon the observer's eye. The
illumination of the field is given by a lamp near the object glass,
controlled by a switch near the micrometer.
Repsolds in more recent micrometers under construction give a
second motion to the eyepiece at right angles to the axis of the
micrometer screw; this enables the observer to determine the zero
XVin. 13
of position-angle for his movable webs with the same accuracy as
he formerly could only do for the so-called position-angle webs.
Repsolds also provide two insulated sliding contact rings instead
of the single ring g, so that the electric current for illuminating the
lamps does not pass through the instrument itself but may come
to the micrometer from the storage battery through two insulated
leads. The same firm is also constructing a micrometer in which
the readings of the head are printed on a band of paper instead
of being read off at the time of observation.
Instruments have been invented by Alvan Clark and Sir Howard
Grubb for measuring with the spider-line micrometer angles which
are larger than the field of view of the eyepiece. In both cases two
eyepieces are employed, one to view each separate web. One draw-
back to this form of instrument is that the two webs cannot be viewed
simultaneously, and therefore the observer must rely on the steadi-
ness of rate of the clockwork and uniformity in the conditions
of refraction whilst the eye is moved from one eyepiece to the
other.
Clark's micrometer was exhibited at the June meeting of the Royal
Astronomical Society in 1859 (Monthly Notices, R.A.S., vol. xix.).
Grubb's duplex micrometer is described in the gth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica. Some examples of use of the latter are
given by Professor Pritchard (Mem. R.A.S. xlvii. 4-12), who esti-
mates the accuracy attainable with the duplex micrometer as equal
to that of the heliometer; but as few measures of permanent value
have been made with the instrument, and those made exhibit an
accuracy far inferior to that of the heliometer, it is unnecessary to
describe the instrument here in greater detail.
The Reading Micrometer-Microscope. Micrometers used for sub-
dividing the spaces on graduated circles and scales have, in general,
only a single pair of cross-webs or parallel webs moved by a single
screw. The normal form of the apparatus is shown in figs. 13 and 14.
A C is the objective, D the micrometer box, E
the graduated head of the screw, G the milled
r head by which the screw cc is turned, A an
FIG. 13. FIG. 14.
eyepiece sliding in a tube B, aa (fig. 14) the slide, and b, b the spiral
springs. The focal length of the objective and the distance between
the optical centre of the lens and the webs are so arranged that
images of the divisions are formed in the plane of the webs, and the
pitch of the screw is such that one division of the scale corresponds
with some whole number of revolutions of the screw.
There is what is technically called a " comb " inserted in the
micrometer box at d (fig. 14) its upper surface being nearly in the
plane of the wires. This comb does not move with reference to the
box, and serves to indicate the whole revolution of which a fraction
is read on the head. In fig. 14 a division is represented bisected by
cross webs, and five revolutions of the screw correspond with one
division of the scale. In all modern reading micrometers the cross
webs of fig. 14 are replaced by parallel webs embracing the division
(fig. 15). The means for changing the length of the tube
and the distance of C from the scale are omitted in the
figure. These appliances are required if the " run " has
to be accurately adjusted. By " run " is meant the
difference between the intended whole number of screw-
revolutions and the actual measures of the space between
two adjacent divisions of the scale in turns of the screw FIG. 15.
divided by the number of intended revolutions. In
delicate researches two divisions of the scale should always be read,
not merely for increased accuracy but to obtain the corrections for
" run " from the observations themselves.
Repsolds employ for the micrometers of their reading microscopes
the form of construction shown in fig. 9, omitting, of course, the
motion of the whole micrometer box given by the screw s for those
cases in which the axis of the micrometer is supposed to remain
constant in position, as, for example, in the case of the reading
microscopes of transit circles (see TRANSIT CIRCLE).
But when the relative positions of two adjacent objects or scale-
divisions have to be determined (as, for example, in the case of
heliometer scales), much time is saved by retaining the motion of
the micrometer box. One double web, fixed in the box, is pointed
symmetrically, as in fig. 15, on one of the scales, by moving the whole
micrometer box by means of the screw s; the pair of webs, moved
by the screw S, is then pointed upon an adjacent division on the
other scale. If the reading for coincidence of the movable with the
fixed webs is known, we then obtain from the single reading of S
the difference from coincidence of the divisions of the two scales.
3 86
MICROMETER
It is generally possible so to arrange the method of observation
as to eliminate the effect of an error in " the reading for coinci-
dence of the webs " from the results. This excellent time-saving
contrivance has also been used in Gill's apparatus for measuring
astrographic plates (see below). ,,-,, ,
Ghost Micrometer C. E. Burton and Sir Howard Grubb (Monthly
Notices, xli. 59), after calling attention to J. von Lament's paper
(Jahrbuch der K. S. b. Miinchen, p. 187) and K. L. von Littrow s
paper (Proc. of Vienna Acad. of Sciences, xx. 253) on a like subject,
proceed to describe a most ingenious form of " Ghost Micrometer,
in which the image of a fine line or lines ruled in (or rather cut
through) a silver film deposited on glass is formed at the common
focus of an object-glass and eyepiece of a telescope. A faint light
being thrown on the outside of the silvered plate, there appear
bright lines in the field of view. We have not had an opportunity
of testing this, nor Grubb's more recent models; but, should it be
found possible to produce such images satisfactorily, without
distortion and with an apparatus convenient and rigid in form,
such micrometers may possibly supersede the filar
micrometer. Their absolute freedom from diffraction^
the perfect control of the illumination and thickness
of the lines, and the accuracy with which it will
be possible to construct scales for zone observations
will be important features of the new method.
The Astrographic Micrometer or Measuring
Machine. The application of photography to exact
astronomy has created the necessity for new forms
of apparatus to measure the relative positions of
stellar and planetary images on photographic plates,
and the relative positions of lines in photographic
spectra.
Especially important has been the problem of
measuring the " catalogue plates " of the international
Carte du del a work that implies the determination
of the positions of some millions of stars that is to
say, of all stars to the nth or I2th magnitude. The
problem has been how to accomplish this work with
the minimum of labour consistent with the desired
accuracy. The adoption of a reseau photographed
upon the plate has greatly facilitated the procedure.
A plate of parallel-surfaced glass has a film of silver
deposited upon it. On this film is ruled a system of
lines 5 mm. apart, and another similar system of lines
at right angles to the first, thus dividing the silvered
surface of the plate into squares 5 mm. on the side.
The cutter employed to rule these lines removes the
silver in fine lines from the surface of the glass,
Thus, if a photographic plate, before it is exposed in
the telescope, is placed with its sensitive surface nearly
in contact with the silvered surface of this reseau,
and if parallel light, normal to the surface of the plate,
is allowed to fall on the silvered film through the glass
on which the film has been deposited, that light will
pass through the fine lines in the silver film where the
silver has been removed by the cutter, but will other-
wise be intercepted by^ the silver film. Thus a
latent image of the " rescau-lines " will be formed
on the sensitive plate, and, when the latter has
been exposed to the sky in the telescope, we obtain, on develop-
ment, a negative of the images both of the stars and of the
reseau-lines. If the errors of the rectangular co-ordinates of
these lines are known, the problem of determining the co-ordinates
of any star-image on the plate becomes reduced to the comparatively
simple one of interpolating the co-ordinates of the star relative to the
sides of the 5 mm. square within which that image is included. This
interpolation can, of course, be accomplished with the aid of a
micrometer-microscope whose optical axis is normal to the plate,
provided that the plate is mounted on slides which enable the
observer to bring the reseau-squares successively under the
microscope.
This system has an additional advantage beyond its convenience,
viz. that if any distortion of the film takes place during development
the same distortion will be communicated both to the star-images
and to the reseau-lines, and consequently its effect will be eliminated
from the resulting star co-ordinates, except in so far as the distortion
within the 5 mm. square is of an irregular character; this exception
is hardly worth consideration. An originally unanticipated difficulty
has arisen from the fact that the reseau-lines have not been ruled
on plates of optical glass with optical surfaces, and that, in conse-
quence of irregular refraction in the glass plate, the rays do not
always pass through the silver film-lines in a direction strictly
normal to the silvered surface; therefore, if the sensitive surface of
the photographic plate is not in contact with the silver film of the
reseau, the undeveloped photographic copy of the reseau may in
such a case not be an exact reproduction of the' silvered reseau.
It is practically impossible to work with the sensitive film in contact
with the reseau-film, not only because dust particles and contact
would injure the silver film, but also because the plate-glass used
for the photographic plates is seldom a perfect plane. The discre-
pancies produced in this way are, however, very small, if care is
taken to minimize the distance between the silver film and the
photographic plate and to select a reasonably good piece of glass for
the reseau. For very refined work, however, the irregularities in the
reproduction of the reseau may be studied by comparing the measures
of the original reseau with the mean of corresponding measures of a
number of photographed copies of it.
At Greenwich, Oxford and several other observatories, instead of
measuring the distances of the star's image from the opposite sides
of the 5 mm. reseau-square by means of a spider-line micrometer, a
glass scale, on the plan shown in fig. 16, is employed in the common
focus of the objective and the eyepiece. The image of the star is
set upon the intersections of the lines of the central cross, and the
positions of the reseau-lines are read off by estimation to ^ of a
division on the glass scale. As each division corresponds to 3 sec.
Greenwich
FIG. 16.
A slrographic Catalogue, vol. i., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery office.
Diagram of the diaphragm in eyepieces of the micrometer used for
measuring the plates of the Astrographic Catalogue.
of arc, the nearest estimate corresponds with a nominal accuracy
of =t O'3*. This involves a loss of accuracy because, with a spider-
line micrometer, the accidental error of pointing is of the order of
o- 1 * of arc.
In the measuring machines in general use the field of view, as in
the case of the glass-scale micrometer, is sufficiently large to include
the image of the 5 mm. square. The microscope or viewing telescope
is fitted with a spider-line micrometer having two screws at right
angles to each other, by means of which readings can be made first
on one reseau-line, then on the star, and finally on the opposite
reseau-line in both co-ordinates. This form of micrometer is of course
capable of giving results of high precision, but the drawback is that
the process involves a minimum of six pointings and the entering of
six screw-head readings in order to measure the two co-ordinates of
the star.
Gill's Measuring Machine. Sir David Gill (Monthly Notices,
R.A.S. lix. 61) devised a measuring machine which combines the
rapidity of the glass-scale micrometer with the accuracy of the spider-
line micrometer and simplifies the reductions of the observations
at the same time. The essential conditions of the instrument
are:
1. The object glass of the micrometer-microscope is placed midway
between the plane of the photographic plate and the plane of the
micrometer webs.
2. The micrometer is provided with a " fixed square " 5 mm.X
5 mm., the sides of this square being parallel spider webs 4* of arc
apart; the size of the square is reckoned from centre to centre of
these double webs.
MICROMETER
387
3. The two micrometer screws (X and Y, fig. 17), which actuate
the movable slides, have heads divided into 100 parts, one revolution
= 0-5 mm.; so that ten revolutions are =5 mm., or = the interval
between two adjacent r^seau-lines, or = the interval between the
sides of the " fixed square."
4. Two other screws, o, p, the heads of which are not graduated,
give motions to the whole micrometer box through I mm. in
directions parallel to the axes of the two micrometer screws.
5. Each of the two micrometer screws X and Y moves a system
of six parallel webs, placed 4* of arc apart from each other. These
,Y
FIG. 17.
webs serve not only for pointing on stars to determine their co-
ordinates (in manner afterwards described), but also for estimating
the diameters of the star-images in terms of these 4' intervals.
6. All the essential parts of the micrometer, including; the slides,
micrometer box, tube, &c., are of steel or cast-iron, so that changes
of temperature do not affect the adjustments.
The necessary adjustments are the following:
1. The webs of each set of movable webs shall, inter se, be strictly
parallel, and the two sets shall be strictly at right angles to each
2. The double webs composing the sides of the fixed square shall
be strictly parallel, and shall form a true square of exactly ten revolu-
tions of the screw on the side. .
3. The two micrometer screws shall be without sensible periodic
or other error, and exactly alike in pitch.
4. The micrometer readings for coincidence of the movable webs
with the webs of the fixed square shall be exactly o-oooR and lO-opoR.
5. The image of a normal reseau-square, as viewed in the micro-
scope, shall exactly coincide with the square formed by the fixed
weDS that is to say, the image of the sides of a normal reseau-square
shall measure exactly 10 screw-revolutions.
Assuming that these conditions can be rigidly realized, we have
the following very simple modus operandi:
1. By means of the quick rack motions A and B move the plate
so as to bring the r&eau-square into the centre of the field of the
micrometer; then, by means of the screw heads o, p, perfect
the coincidence of the " fixed square " of webs, with the image of
the r6seau-square.
2. By means of one of the micrometer screws X place the star s
image in the middle of the six parallel webs which are moved by X.
3. Similarly, place the star's image in the middle of the webs
moved by Y.
4. Estimate the diameter of the star's image in terms of the 4
intervals of the movable webs.
By employing both hands, operation (i) can be made as quickly
as a single pointing with the ordinary spider-line micrometer, anc
operations (2) and (3) can be similarly performed in the time requirec
for a single pointing. The reading (2) is then the required co-ordinate
in x and that of (3) is the required co-ordinate in y; or, if the plate is
reversed, 180, these readings have to be subtracted from io-oooR
A general idea of the construction of the machine can be gatherec
from fig. 17 above, but the reader will find a detailed account of it
and of the manner in which the requisite adjustments are made
in the paper already quoted.
The apparatus has been used with complete success at the Royal
Dbservatory, Cape of Good Hope, and at Melbourne, Sydney and
"ordoba.
E/ects of Wear on the Micrometer Screws. The accuracy of
his apparatus has been frequently criticized on the ground
hat errors are produced in the screws by the effect of wear.
One reply to this is that it is not difficult to determine from
ime to time the errors of the screws and to apply the
necessary corrections to the observations. But a little con- "
sideration will show that when the plate is reversed 180 the
effects of errors of the screws produced by wear are practically
eliminated.
In discussing the effect of wear upon a screw, it will be convenient
:o imagine the thread unrolled and forming a wedge, of which we
can represent the unworn bearing-side by a straight line AB (fig. 18),
FIG. 1 8.
on which rubs the block CD, which represents the female screw
or bush, and moves between the points E and F, sometimes towards
E, sometimes towards F, but having as often to measure short
distances as long distances from the middle point of this range, and
these as often towards E as towards F. Now, if CD is pressed by its
weight or by a spring on the surface AB, the effect of wear will be to
produce a symmetrical grinding away of both surfaces, which may
be represented thus, fig. 19. That is to say, the screw-errors will be
FIG. 19.
identical for revolution n and for lo-w, and thus will disappear in
their effect in the mean of observations made in reversed positions
of the plate. At the Cape of Good Hope, after more than 200,000
pointings had been made, the screw-errors were redetermined ; the
results proved the truth of the above conclusions, viz. the absolute
freedom of the derived co-ordinates from the effects of wear of the
screws in the mean of measures made in reversed positions of the
plate.
Hinks's Measuring Machine. A very refined modification of
the Cape machine is described by A. Hinks (Monthly Notices,
R.A.S., vol. 61, p. 444), and the instrument contains many
elegant mechanical and optical details due to Horace Darwin
and Messrs Zeiss respectively.
Its fundamental principle is that, by a combination of glass
scales with a micrometer screw, " the chief part of the distance to
be measured is read off on the scale ; the fractional part of the scale-
space is not estimated but measured by the screw." Hinks claims
that thus never more than one- or two-tenths of a revolution of
the screw need be used in making the measure, and little time is
lost in running the screw backwards and forwards. All this is
true, but three readings instead of one for each pointing, much
more figure-work in computation (especially if corrections have to
be applied to the scale readings to reduce them to exact normal
screw readings), are factors which involve a far greater expenditure
of time than making a few additional turns of a screw in the process
of measurement. Hinks's further claim that, in consequence of
the small motion of the screw, less error is produced in the screw
by wear is not true; for, although large movements of the screw
produce a large amount of wear, that wear is spread over longer
parts of the screw but remains the same for any particular part
of the screw; the resulting errors are exaggerated towards the ex-
tremity of the range of screw employed (see Monthly Notices, R.A.S.,
vol. 45, p. 83), and are therefore more likely to produce errors
which are not eliminated on reversal of the plate in cases where
the screw range is not strictly limited, and the wear therefore not
strictly symmetrical.
The excellent manner in which the scales and micrometers are
mounted, the employment of a compound microscope for viewing
the scales, with its ingeniously arranged and admirably efficient
reversing prism, and the perfection of its slow motions for focusing
and reading, combine to render this a most accurate and convenient
instrument for very refined measures, although too slow for work
in which the measures must depend on single pointings in each
of two reversed positions of the plate, and where speed of working
is essential.
Apparatus for Measuring Star-Spectra, &<;. These machines
may be divided into three classes, viz. A, in which the motion
of the slide which carries the photographic plate is measured
entirely by a screw; B, in which that motion is measured
by combination of a scale and screw; and C, in which the
3 88
MICROMETER
photographic plate is fixed and the measuring microscope is
moved.
The chief drawback to type A is that the errors of the screw are
liable to change by wear, otherwise the apparatus, as made and
used at Potsdam, is, on the whole, a convenient and accurate
one. In determining the errors of the screw of the Potsdam form
FIG. 20.
of machine it is necessary to have regard to the fact that the screw
is placed at one side of the slide, as in fig. 2O.
The result is that, if the screw is bent if, for example, the end
of the frame next the screw-head is raised and that next the end p
is lowered in the diagram a twist will be given to the web-frame,
and the centre of the web will be moved nearer to the micrometer-
drum than it should be, whilst the reverse effect will follow when
the head has been turned 180. This would, of course, create a
periodic error, which would be determinable for the motion of any
particular point (say the middle) of the web, but which would be
smaller for a point near the axis of the screw and greater for a point
farther from that axis. In the Potsdam form of this apparatus
the micrometer is, for convenience, provided with a motion at
right angles to the axis of the screw, and it has been found at the
Cape Observatory that the periodic errors in this apparatus do
vary very sensibly according as the microscope is directed to a
point more or less distant from the measuring screw. Since the
discovery of this fact all measurements have been made in that
fixed position of the microscope with respect to the axis of the
screw for which the errors of the screw have been determined.
In the apparatus of type B as made by Zeiss there are two
microscopes attached to a base-plate, one of which views the
spectrum-plate (or other object) to be measured, while the other
views a scale that moves with the slide on which the spectrum-
plate is mounted. In this way the scale can be viewed by a micro-
scope of much higher magnifying power than can be employed
for the photographed spectrum. Indeed, if the scale were sub-
divided to tV mm. the power employed might only be limited by
the sharpness of the division-lines. But for refined work this
would imply the investigation of too many divisions of the scale;
it is therefore more usual to divide the scale into single millimetres
or half-millimetres and to provide a micrometer which subdivides
the millimetre into 1000 or, by estimation, into 10,000 parts.
For very accurate work it is desirable that the bate- plate, the slide
and the scale should be of nickel steel, having the same thermal
coefficient of expansion as glass.
The forms of measuring machines of type C, often seen in physical
laboratories, should be at once rejected for refined measurements,
because it is impossible to construct slides of such perfection that
the axis of the microscope will remain absolutely normal to the
surface of the plate (assumed to be a plane) throughout the range
of measurement. Even if the slide itself is mechanically perfect,
the irregularity in the thickness of the lubricating oil between the
bearing surfaces of the slide is apt to produce a variable error.
Bakhuyzen (Bulletin de Com. perm, congres. astrog, i. 164) de-
scribed a measuring-machine by Repsolds, in which the micrometer-
microscope tilts in the bearings of the chariot on which it moves,
80 that it can view either a graduated scale or the photographic
plate. We have, in fact, in this instrument a combination of types
B and C. Even in this apparatus if the slide on which the chariot
moves is not perfect (and no slide is perfect), the azimuth of the
axis of the microscope is liable to change in the course of movement
of the slide, and thus equal spaces on the scale will not be repre-
sented by equal spaces on the plate under measurement. The
remedy proposed by Repsold for this proved fault is to cause the
whole slide to tilt instead of the microscope only; this should prove
a complete remedy.
The Travelling Wire Micrometer. An important modern
application of the micrometer, which is not dealt with in the
article TRANSIT CIRCLE, is that which is now called " the travel-
ling wire micrometer."
In the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2940, Dr Repsold proposed
a method of meridian observing which consists in causing. a web to
follow the image of a star in transit by motions communicated by
the observer's hands alone, whilst electrical contacts on the drum
of the micrometer screw register on the chronograph the instants
corresponding to known intervals from the line of collimation.
I he purpose of his paper was to show that if the axis, by which the
observer imparts motion to the slide on which the travelling web
is mounted, is provided with two disks at its extremities, so that
the observer can use the thumb and finger of both hands in rotating
it, there is no difficulty, after a little practice, in keeping the
web constantly bisecting the star in transit, and that with a little
practice the mean of the absolute errors in following the star
becomes nearly zero.
In the Astron. Nach., No. 3377, Repsold gives a detailed de-
scription of two forms of eye-ends of transit circles, fitted with
means of observing in this manner, to which he gives the name of
" the impersonal micrometer." This method of observation was
very successfully employed, under Seeliger at Munich, in an ex-
tensive series of meridian observations, and, under the auspices of
the Geodetic Institute at Potsdam, in telegraphic longitude opera-
tions. Still more recently the method has been largely employed
at the Cape of Good Hope and elsewhere.
Under the date March 1901 Dr H. Struve published an account
of the application of clockwork as an aid in Repsold's method;
and, later, Dr Cohn published a more elaborate paper on the same
subject in the Astron. Nach., 3767. The method consisted in having
motion transmitted to the micrometer screw from an axis on which
is mounted a disk that presses with friction-contact upon a cone
that revolves uniformly by clockwork. The velocity of rotation
of the micrometer-screw could therefore be varied for stars of
different declination by varying the distance from the apex at
which the revolving disk presses upon the revolving cone. In the
Konigsberg transit instrument used by Struve and Cohn, the
clockwork was attached to the eye-end of the instrument a
condition which is obviously undesirable both from the necessarily
unsymmetrical position of the clockwork with respect to the optical
axis, and from the impossibility of securing the uniform going of
the clock in different positions of the instrument. In more recent
instruments at the observatories of the Cape of Good Hope and
Paris the motion is, transmitted from a separately mounted cone
and clock by a light rod passing through a perforation in the pivot
of the transit instrument and thence through bevel-wheels in the
cube of the axis to a second rod leading to the eyepiece. This
rod turns a worm-screw which acts on a worm-wheel fitted " spring
tight " upon the axis of the micrometer-screw.
It should be mentioned that an essential feature of the travelling
wire micrometer is that the eyepiece as well as the wire shall be
moved by the micrometer-screw. Thus, if the star's image is
kept in bisection by the wire, both star and wire will appear at rest
in the field of view.
The distinction between the old and new method of observation
may thus, in one sense, be described as the difference between
shooting at a moving object and in shooting at one at res.t. In
the case of the original Repsold plan without clockwork the de-
scription is not quite exact, because both the process of following
the object and correcting the aim are simultaneously performed;
whilst, if the clockwork runs uniformly and the friction-disk is set to
the proper distance from the apex of the cone, the star will appear
almost perfectly at rest, and the observer has only to apply delicate
corrections by differential gear a condition which is exactly
analogous to that of training a modern gun-sight upon a fixed
object. It is impossible in this article to give a detailed description
of the apparatus, but the reader is referred to Astron. Nach., 3377,
for an illustrated account of the original Repsolds instrument and
to the History and Description of the Cape Observatory for a com-
plete description of the most modern form of its application to the
Cape transit circle, with and without clockwork.
The Hartmann Spectrocomparator. For accurate measurement
of the displacements of lines of stellar spectra which are produced
by the relative motion of star and observer in the line of sight, a
very beautiful instrument has been devised by Dr J. Hartmann
of Potsdam, and is described by him in the Publicationen des
astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu Potsdam, Bd. 18, Stuck 53
(1906). An English translation of this paper is given in the
Aslrophysical Journal, xxiv. 285-302. The method originally
used by Huggins, who first conceived and proved the possibility
of measuring stellar velocities in the line of sight, was to measure
with a filar micrometer the displacement of some well-known
line in a stellar spectrum relative to the corresponding line of a
terrestrial spectrum. Vogel of Potsdam introduced the method
of photographing stellar and terrestrial spectra on the same plate,
and in this way obtained an immense advance in the ease and
precision of observation. Vogel and his successors employed
one or other form of measuring machine, provided with a micro-
scope having single or close parallel webs which could be succes-
sively pointed on the photographed lines of the star spectrum and
the lines of the terrestrial spectrum. To derive the stellar
velocity in the line of sight relative to the observer it was then
necessary to assume that the normal wave-lengths of the stellar
and terrestrial spectra are accurately known. But in the
MICROMETER
389
complex spectra of stars of the solar type this is by no
means the case; for, as Dr Hartmann remarks, " in
the first place the lines in these spectra are so
numerous that their complete measurement and
reduction would require many days, and in the
second place a rigorous reduction of such material
has hitherto not been at all possible because the
wave-lengths of the lines are not known with
sufficient accuracy. On this account, observers have
until now limited themselves to a partial treatment
of such spectra, measuring only a small number of
lines, whereby the major part of the rich material
present in the plate remains unutilized." But the
spectroscopes that can be employed for stellar spectro- P,
graphs are not sufficiently powerful to separate fully
lines which are very closely adjacent, and therefore a
line, assumed to be of a known wave-length, may be
apparently displaced by the near neighbourhood of
an unknown line. Hartmann overcame these and
many other difficulties by directly superposing the
image of the spectrogram of a star, having iron
comparison lines, upon the image of a spectrogram
of the sun taken also with iron comparison lines.
The apparatus for this purpose is shown in fig. 21,
its principle of construction is shown in figs. 22 and 23.
The solar spectrograph is attached by clamps to the
plate Ai, the stellar spectrograph to the plate A 2 . The
plate Ai is mounted on the dove-tailed slide BI, upon
the metallic stage T, and can be moved to right or left
relative to T by the micrometer-screw S; whilst the
plate Az is mounted on the dove-tailed slide B 2 and can
From Zcilschr.Jur Instrumatienkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin.
FIG. 22.
From Zeitschr. fur Instntmentenkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin.
FIG. 21.
be moved at right angles to its greatest length by
the screw G. The micrometer-screw S has a pitch
of 0-5 mm., its head is divided into 100 parts.
Two spiral springs underneath press the plate BI
with its agate end-bearing against the rounded
end of the screw S. The whole number of revolu-
tions of the screw is read by the scale X (fig. 23).
The whole stage T, carrying both spectrograms,
can be moved from right to left on the steel
cylinder Z, by turning the head K, on the axis of
which is a pinion that gears into a toothed rack
attached to the lower side of the cylinder Z. A
scale N on the cylinder Z serves for setting the
slide to any required position. The preliminary
conditions of measurement are :
1. The centre of both spectrographs shall be
parallel to the axis of the cylinder Z.
2. The distance between the centres of the
two spectrographs shall be equal to the distance
between the optical axes of the two vie.wing
microscopes.
3. The scales of the images formed in the focus
of the eyepiece common to both microscopes
shall be identical.
To fulfil condition (i) the plates AI and A 2 are
mounted in circular slides, whose centres are Ei
and E 2 respectively, so that by means of the
screws Di, D 2 , with their corresponding opposing
springs Fi and F 2 , the operation can be very
easily accomplished. To fulfil condition (2) the
two microscopes whose object glasses are Oi and
O 2 (fig. 22) are attached to the plate L, their
optical axes being normal to the stage T. The
screw Q serves to adjust the axis of Oi to coin-
cidence with the centre of the lines of the solar
spectrograph, and the screw G then serves to move
the slide B 2 till the optical axis of O 2 is coincident
with the centre of the lines of the stellar spectro-
graph. Suppose now the solar spectrogram to
be viewed in the focus of Oi, and the converging
rays to be reflected by the prisms Pi and P 3 , till an
image is formed in the focus of the eyepiece at
the point where the axis of the eyepiece intersects
39
the upper face of the prism P.. Then if the prism P, is cemented
o P,; ksharp image of such lines of the solar spectrograph as are
visible in the fold of view will be seen in the eyepiece. If the stellar
nectroonph is viewed in the focus of 0, and the converging
ray* are reflected by the prism P, to P<, no image would be seen in
[he eyepiece, for the rays would pass out directly through the
parallel glass plate which is formed by the cementing together of
the prisms P, and P,. But if the cemented face of f t is silvered,
MICRONESIA
From Zeilschr. fur Instrumattenkunde by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin.
FIG. 23.
then the lines of the stellar spectrogram would be seen in focus
of the eyepiece and the image of the solar spectrograph would be
obliterated. Therefore, if one-half of the cemented face of P4 is
silvered, it becomes possible to view, side by side, one-half of the
image of the solar spectrograph formed by Oi and one-half of the
image of the stellar spectrograph formed by O 2 . A prism half
silvered in this way is provided, which enables the observer to com-
pare the equality of scale of both photographs. If, for example,
ft is found that the image of the solar spectrograph is the larger of
the two it becomes necessary to adjust the object glass Oi farther
from the stellar spectrograph. This
has the effect of forming the image of
the latter farther from the observer's
eye, and so it becomes necessary to
turn the handle of the rack-pinion V
in such a way as to move the prisms
P 3 and ?4 nearer to P 2 till the lines of
the stellar spectrograph are again
sharply in focus. The effect of turn-
ing the pinion V is, of course, to
displace the focus both of the solar
and stellar spectrographs in the
field of the eyepiece, but this
displacement is easily restored by
the focussing screws Oi and O 2 . By
successive adjustments of this kind
condition (3) can be accurately
realized.
From Zeilschr. fur Instrumental
kuaJr, by permission of Julius
Springer, Berlin.
FlG - 2 4-
These three adjustments having been made, the prisms P s and P t
are removed and replaced by another prism in which the silverin
is arranged as in fig. 24, where the hatched lines denote the silverei
surfaces. The narrow tongues of the silvered surface will now
reflect corresponding parts of the star-spectrograph, and will
obliterate corresponding parts of the solar spectrograph as shown
in figs. 25 and 26. Fig. 25 shows the stellar and solar lines of
the two spectrographs in coincidence, whilst the metallic lines
of comparison are non-coincident. Fig. 26 shows the metallic
lines of comparison in coincidence whilst the solar and stellar lines
are non-coincident. It is obvious that these two conditions can
be produced at the will of the observer by simply turning the screw
S, and that the difference of the readings of the screw-head, which
are required to reproduce the two conditions in question, gives a
measure of the displacement of the stellar lines relative to the
solar lines. If then the screw-value in kilometres per second is
known for the neighbourhood of each of the comparison lines
employed, the radial velocity of the star can be independently
derived directly from coincidences made in above manner in the
neighbourhood of each comparison line. For the special purpose of
determining the solar parallax this instrument has been used in a
most refined and perfect manner by Dr Halm at the Cape of Good
Hope (Annals of the Cape Observatory, vol. x. part 3).
I ' - r *"" ___*: I
III II
^
From Zdtsckr. far Instrumentaikunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin,
FIG. 25.
From Zdtsckr. fur Instrummlenkunde, by permission of Julius Springer, Berlin.
FIG. 26.
Double Image Micrometers are described in the article HELIO-
METER (q.v.). (D- GL.)
MICRONESIA (from Gr. /u<cp6s, small, and vjjam, island),
one of the three great divisions of the oceanic islands in the
central and western Pacific. Lying to the north of Melanesia,
it embraces the following groups: Mariana, Pelew, Caroline,
Marshall and Gilbert. See articles under these headings, and
PACIFIC OCEAN (section on Islands).
The Micronesian islanders form in the main a branch of the
Polynesian race, but distinguished from it by well-marked
differences in appearance, language and institutions. Many of
the islanders, however, show signs of hybridism. The proximity
of Japan and the Philippines 1 on the west, and of the Papuan
'There are authenticated instances of Japanese junks, with
living people in them, having been found in various parts of
North Pacific. In 1814 the British brig " Forester " met with one
off the coast of California (about 30 N. lat.), with three living men
and fourteen dead bodieson board. In December 1832 a Japaiw
junk arrived at the Hawaiian Islands with four of the crew living.
If these junks could cross the Pacific in the latitude of Hawaii it is
not at all unlikely that others running in a south-easterly direction
would reach some of the many atolls which stretch over about 35
of longitude, forming the Caroline and Marshall archipelagoes.
The traditions of the Gilbert Islanders tell us that their islands
MICRONUCLEUS MICROPEGMATITE
39 1
and South Polynesian islands on the south and south-east,
suggests, what in fact is found, a combination of races. In
some places the oblique Mongolian eye is noticed, and (together
with certain Indo-Chinese customs) there is often a scantiness
of beard and general " Malay " look, which increases westwards,
and seems to imply relations with the archipelago subsequent
to the departure thence of the pure Polynesians. In the Gilberts
the traces of Polynesian (Samoan) influences are evident, and
are confirmed by tradition. Among the Carolines and the
Marshalls darker and more savage communities are found,
suggesting a Melanesian element, which is further traceable in
the Ebon (Marshall) and other languages.
Each of the four main groups, viz. the Caroline, Marshall,
Gilbert and Ladrone (Mariana), from long isolation, has
developed ethnological peculiarities of its own. The most
advanced folk were the " Chamorros " of the Ladrones, owing
to the greater natural resources of the islands, and perhaps more
frequent contact with influences from the west; but as a separate
people they no longer exist, having been nearly exterminated
by the Spaniards in the i;th century. Next in advancement
come the Caroline islanders. The general Micronesian type is a
well-proportioned rather slightly built figure, with small and
regular features; head high and well proportioned, but forehead
rather retreating and narrow at the temples; cheek bones and
chin slightly prominent; straight black hair, lanker than that
of the Polynesians, colour somewhat darker than the Polynesians,
the Marshalls being darker and more vigorous than the Carolines,
while the Gilbert type, though smaller than the latter, is still
darker and coarser. The upper class greatly surpasses the
common people in physique and intelligence.
There is a division of society into septs or clans, the membership
of which constitutes the closest tie. Persons of the same sept
must not intermarry, and when two islands or communities meet
in war the members of one sept, however widely separated by dis-
tance of space or time, will not injure or fight with each other.
Each community is usually composed (but there are local differ-
ences) of (i) an upper class of chiefs, from among whom the head
(tamol or iros) is chosen; (2) a lower but still noble class; and (3)
common people, mostly without rights of property. These last
are only allowed one wife. Here and there are traces, as in Tonga,
of a spiritual sovereign, the descendants probably of a conquered
dynasty. Succession is through the female side, which assures to
women a certain position, and leads besides to some curious results
(see paper by J. S. Kubary in Das Ausland, 1880, No. 27). The
upper class are the keepers of traditions, boat-builders, leaders of
expeditions; tattooing is generally done by them, the amount
increasing with a man's rank; the custom here still has definite
religious associations. Both sexes are tattooed.
The Marshall Islanders are the boldest and most skilful navi-
gators in the Pacific. Their voyages of many months' duration,
in great canoes sailing with outrigger to windward, well-provisioned,
and depending on the skies for fresh water, help to show how the
Pacific was colonized. They have a sort of chart, medo, of small
sticks tied together, representing the positions of islands and the
directions of the winds and currents. A two-edged weapon, of
which the blade is of sharks' teeth, and a defensive armour of
braided sennit, are also peculiar to the islands; a large adze, made
of the shell of the Tridacna gigas (the largest bivalve known), was
formerly used in the Carolines, probably by the old builder race.
The dialects of Micronesia, though grammatically alike, differ
widely in their vocabularies. They have the chief characteristics
of the Polynesian, with Malay affinities, and peculiarities such as
the use of suffixes and inseparable pronouns and, as in Tagal, of
the infix to denote changes in the verb; in the west groups there is
a tendency to closed syllables and double consonants, and a use of
the palatals ch, j, sh, the dental th, and s (the last perhaps only in
foreign words), which is alien to the Polynesian. These letters are
wanting in the Gilbert language, which differs considerably from
all the others, and has much greater affinities with the Polynesian.
Most words take the accent on the penult. In some of the dialects
there appears to be no true article, but in the Gilbert Islands the
Polynesian te is used for both definite and indefinite article. Gender
is sexual only. Number in the noun is either gathered from the
were peopled from the west and also from the east. Those who
came from the east are expressly said to be from Samoa. Those
from the west were more numerous than those from the east
There are also traditions of the arrival of other strangers at some
of these islands. On the island of Peru, in the Gilbert group, in
1869 there was still the remnants of a large proah which, from the
description given, appears to have been like those used in the Indian
Archipelago.
equirement of the sense or is marked by pronominal words or
minerals. Case is known by the position of the noun in the sen-
ence or by prepositions. In the language of Ebon, one of the
stands in the Marshall archipelago, nouns have the peculiarity
which is characteristic of the Papuan languages: those which indi-
:ate close relationship as of a son to a father, or of the members
if a person's body take a pronominal suffix which gives them the
appearance of inflexions. Many words are used indiscriminately
as nouns, adjectives or verbs, without any change of form. In
some languages the personal pronouns are singular, dual and
plural. In others there are no special dual forms, but the numeral
or two is used to indicate the dual. In the Ebon language there
re inclusive and exclusive forms of the personal pronouns which,
so far as has been ascertained, do not occur in any of the other
anguages. The verbs usually have no inflexions to express re-
ations of voice, mood, tense, number of person such distinctions
jeing indicated by particles. In the Ebon language, however,
the tenses are sometimes marked; but in that the simple form of the
/erb is frequently given. All have verbal directive particles. In
3 onape, one of the Caroline Islands, many words of ceremony are
used in addressing chiefs, as they are used in Samoa. The custom
of tabooing words is also found there as it is in the Polynesian
anguages.
The religious myths are generally identifiable with the Polynesian,
jut a belief in the gods proper is overshadowed by a general deifica-
tion of ancestors, who are supposed from time to time to occupy
certain blocks of stone, set up near the family dwelling, and sur-
rounded by circles of smaller ones. These stones are anointed
with oil, and worshipped with prayer and offerings, and are also
used for purposes of divination, in which, and in various omens,
there is a general belief. In the Marshalls, in place of these stones,
certain palm trees are similarly enclosed. The spirits also some-
times inhabit certain birds or fishes, which are then taboo, as food,
to the family; but they will help to catch them for others. Temples
are very rare, though these blocks of coral are sometimes surrounded
by a roofless enclosure opening to the west. The bodies of the
dead, and sometimes even of the sick, are despatched to sea west-
wards, with certain rites; those of the chiefs, however, are buried,
for the order has something essentially divine about it ; their bodies
therefore are sacred, and their spirits naturally assume the position
above described. Such a belief greatly strengthened the king's
authority, for the spirits of his ancestors were necessarily more
powerful than any other spirits. Thus too it comes that the chiefs,
and all belonging to them, are taboo as regards the common people.
There are various other subjects and occasions of taboo, but the
institution has not the oppressive and all-pervading character
which it has in Polynesia. Its action is often economical or charit-
able, e.g. the ripening coco-nuts are taboo as long as the bread-
fruit lasts, thus securing the former for future use; or it is put on
after a death, and the nuts thus saved are given to the family
a kindness to them, and a mark of respect for the dead.
The houses in the Gilberts and Marshalls (much less elaborate
than in the Carolines) consist merely of a thatched roof resting on
posts or on blocks of coral about 3 ft. high, with a floor at that
level, which is reached from an opening in the centre. On this the
principal people sleep, and it serves as a storehouse inaccessible to
rats, which infest all the islands.
MICRONUCLEUS, the smaller nucleus in Infusoria (q.v.).
In fission it divides by mitosis, and in conjugation furnishes the
pairing or gametonuclei, by whose reciprocal fusion a zygote-
nucleus is formed, which gives rise to the meganuclei and
micronuclei of the individuals of the next cycle of fission.
MICROPEGMATITE, in petrology, a very fine intergrowth of
quartz and alkali felspar, occurring as the last product of consoli-
dation in many igneous rocks which contain high or moderately
high percentages of silica. It shows the same structure on a
minute scale as certain pegmatites (q.v.) or coarse granitic veins
do on a large scale (see PETROLOGY, PI. 2, figs. 6 and 8) ; the
quartz forms angular patches scattered through a matrix of
felspar. In polarized light the separate areas of each mineral
extinguish at the same time, and this proves that even though
apparently discontinuous they have the same crystalline orienta-
tion. The felspar may be considered an irregular crystal of
spongy structure, the interstices being filled up by another
spongy crystal of quartz. This kind of mineral intergrowth is
said to be " graphic," because the coarsely graphic veins have
triangular quartz areas dotted over a felspathic background
resembling certain primitive inscriptions. Micropegmatite
differs from " graphic granite " only in being so much finer
grained that its nature can only be detected with the microscope.
The felspar of micropegmatite is usually orthoclase, but some-
times albite, oligoclase or microcline. Occasionally it has
crystalline form, and then it has been proved that the quartz
392
MICROSCOPE
may be so disposed that the two minerals have a definite relation
between their crystallographic axes (parallel growth). The
quartz typically occurs as angular patches; at other times it
forms club-shaped, curved or vermiform threads (vermicular
micropegmatite, myrmekite), and then some authors consider
that the felspar has been corroded and the quartz fills up the
spaces thus produced (quartz de corrosion of French petro-
graphers). Micropegmatite is often so fine grained that even
in the thinnest sections and with high powers it cannot be
resolved into its components. This fine micropegmatite
resembles threads, having a divergent arrangement. In some
rocks the whole ground mass consists of such spherulitic growths
of fibrous micropegmatite (see QUARTZ PORPHYRY); in their
centres there is often a quartz or felspar crystal; the outer
boundaries of the spherulites are not usually circular but irreg-
ular owing to the interlocking of adjacent spherulites at their
margins (" granophyric structure "). Micrographic structures
may occur in other minerals, e.g. quartz and garnet, cordierite,
epidote or hornblende, augite and felspar, but are less common,
and the name micropegmatite is usually reserved for aggregates
of quartz and felspar.
In rocks where micropegmatite frequently occurs (e.g. granite,
porphyry and granophyre, quartz-diorite) it is usually the last
product of consolidation, and represents the mother liquor left
over after the other minerals had separated out in more or less
perfect crystals. Hence it has no definite form of its own, but
fills up the irregular interspaces between the earlier crystallizations.
For that reason it has been compared to a eutectic, and supposed
to be the mixture of quartz and felspar which has the lowest fusion
point. Eutectics are common in alloys and often have a very per-
fect micrographic structure. The eutectic mixture of quartz and
orthoclase has been estimated to contain 70-75% of the latter.
This theory, however, is not without its difficulties; analyses of
micropegmatite prove that its composition is by no means constant
(this may perhaps be due to small admixtures of soda and lime
felspars) ; and experimental researches on the fusion points of
mixtures of quartz and felspar have not yet shown that there is
a definite mixture which melts at a lower temperature than any
other. Furthermore micropegmatite is not always the last con-
solidation product, as a eutectic should be, but may occur as well-
shaped phenocysts lying in a felsitic or glassy matrix which solidified
at a still later time. Micrographic structures in the minerals of
igneous rocks prove only that these minerals crystallized simul-
taneously. (J. S. F.)
MICROSCOPE (Gr. fiiKpos, small, OKmrtiv, to view), an optical
instrument for examining small objects or details of such objects;
it acts by making the angles of vision under which the images
appear greater than when the objects themselves are viewed
by the naked eye.
Microscopes are distinguished as simple and compound. A
simple microscope consists of a single positive lens, cr of a lens
combination acting as a single lens, placed between the eye
and the object so that it presents a virtual and enlarged image.
The compound microscope generally consists of two positive
lens systems, so arranged that the system nearer the object
(termed the objective) projects a real enlarged image, which
occupies the same place relatively to the second system (the
eyepiece or ocular) as does the real object in the simple micro-
scope. An image is therefore projected by the ocular from the
real magnified image produced by the objective with increased
magnification.
History of the Simple Microscope. Any solid or liquid trans-
parent medium of lenticular form, having either one convex and
one flat surface or two convex surfaces whose axes are coincident,
may serve as a " magnifier," the essential condition being that
it shall refract the rays which pass through it so as to cause
widely diverging rays to become either parallel or but slightly
divergent. Thus if a minute object be placed on a slip of glass,
and a single drop of water be placed upon it, the drop will act as
a magnifier in virtue of the convexity of its upper surface; so
that when the eye is brought sufficiently near it (the glass being
held horizontally) the object will be seen magnified. Again if a
small hole be made in a thin plate of metal, and a minute drop
of water be inserted in it, this drop, having two convex surfaces,
will serve as a still more powerful magnifier. There is reason
to believe that the magnifying power of transparent media with
convex surfaces was very early known. A convex lens of rock-
crystal was found by Layard among the ruins of the -palace
of Nimrud; Seneca describes hollow spheres of glass filled with
water as being commonly used as magnifiers.
The perfect gem-cutting of the ancients could not have been
attained without the use of magnifiers; and doubtless the
artificers who executed these wonderful works also made them.
Convex glass lenses were first generally used to assist ordinary
vision as " spectacles "; and not only were spectacle-makers the
first to produce glass magnifiers (or simple microscopes), but by
them also the telescope and the compound microscope were
first invented. During the Thirty Years' War the simple
microscope was widely known. Descartes (Dioptrique, 1637)
describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its
concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a
lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point
fixing it at the focus of the mirror. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
appears to be the first to succeed in grinding and polishing
lenses of such short focus and perfect figure as to render the
simple microscope a better instrument for most purposes than
any compound microscope then constructed. At that time the
" compass " microscope was in use. One leg of a compass
carried the object, and the other the lens, the distance between
the two being regulated by a screw. Stands were also in use,
permitting the manipulation of the object by hand. Robert
Hooke shaped the minutest of the lenses with which he made
many of the discoveries recorded in his Micrographia from small
glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass;
and the same method was employed by the Italian Father Di
Torre. Early opticians and microscopists gave their chief
attention to the improvement of the simple microscope, the
principle of which we now explain.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
Position and Size of the Image. A person with normal vision
can see objects distinctly at a distance varying from ten inches
to a very great distance. Objects at different distances, however,
are not seen distinctly simultaneously, but in succession. This
is effected by the power of accommodation of the eye, which can
so alter the focal length of its crystalline lens that images of objects
at different distances can be produced rapidly and distinctly one
after another upon the retina.
The angle under which the object appears depends upon the dis-
tance and size of the object, or, in other words, the size of the image
on the retina is determined by the distance and the dimensions of
the object. The ratio between the real size of the object y (fig. i)
and the distance /, which is equal to the tangent of the visual angle
iv, is termed the " apparent size " of the object. From the figure,
which represents vision with a motionless eye, it is seen that the
apparent size increases as the object under observation is approached.
The greater the visual angle, the more distinctly are the details
of the object perceived. On the other hand, as the observer recedes
from the object, the apparent size, and also the image on the retina
diminishes; details become more and more confused, and gradually,
after a while, disappear altogether, and ultimately the external
configuration of the object as a whole is no longer recognizable.
This case arises when the visual angle, under which the object
appears, is approximately a minute of arc; it is due to the physio-
logical construction of the retina, for the ends of nerve fibres,
which receive the impression of light, have themselves a definite
size. The lower limit of the resolving power of the eye is reached
when the distance is approximately 3438 times the size of the object.
If the object be represented by two separate points, these points
would appear distinct to the normal eye only so long as the dis-
tance between them is at the most only 3438 times smaller than
their distance from the eye. When the latter distance is increased
still further, the two appear as one. Therefore when it is desired
to distinctly recognize exceedingly small objects or details of such,
they are brought as near as possible to the eye. The eye is strained
in bringing its focal length to the smallest possible amount, and
when this strain is long continued it may cause pain. When the
shortest distance obtained by the highest strain of accommodation
is insufficient to recognize small objects, distinct vision is possible
at even a shorter distance by placing a very small diaphragm
MICROSCOPE
393
between the eye and the object, the pencils of rays proceeding
from the object-points, which otherwise are limited by the pupils of
the eye, being thus restricted by the diaphragm. The object is
then projected with such acute pencils on the plane focused for, in this
case on the plane on which the eye can just accommodate itself,
that the circle of confusion arising there is still so small that
it is below the limit of angular visual distinctness and on that
account appears as a sharp point. However, the loss of light in this
procedure is extraordinarily large, so that only most intensely
illuminated objects can be investigated.
A naked short-sighted eye, which would be corrected for distant
objects by a spectacle glass of 10 diopters, may approach the
object up to about 4 in. and have a sharp image upon the retina
without any strain whatever. For the observation of small objects,
a myopic eye is consequently superior to a normal eye; and the
normal eye in its turn is superior to the hypermetropic one. When
the details are no longer recognizable by the unaided eye, the
magnifying glass or the simple microscope is necessary. As a rule
large magnification is not demanded from the former, but a larger
field of view, whilst the simple microscope should ensure powerful
magnification even when the field is small. The simple microscope
enlarges the angle of vision, and does not tire the eye when it is
arranged so that the image lies in the farthest limit of distinct
vision (the punctum remotum). A normal eye will therefore see an
image formed by the magnifying glass most conveniently when it
is produced at a great distance, i.e. when the object is in its front
focal plane. If y (fig. 2) be the object the image appears to a normal
L
O
FIG. 2.
eye situated behind the system L with passive accommodation at
a very great distance under the angle w. Since H' P = F O, = y,
from the focal length of the simple microscope, the visual angle
w' is given by
tan w'/y = i //'=V, (i)
in which /', = H' F', is the image-side focal length (see LENS).
Since the lens is bounded by air, the image- and object-side focal
lengths/' and / are equal. The value iff or V in (i), is termed
the power of the lens. In most cases the number of " diameters "
of the simple microscope is required; i.e. the ratio between the
apparent sizes of the object when observed through the microscope
and when viewed by the naked eye. When a person of normal
vision views a small object, he brings it to the distance of distinct
vision, which would average about 10 in. The apparent size is
then (fig. i) tan w = y/l, where l = lo in., whilst the apparent
size of the object viewed through the magnifying glass would
result from the formula (i) tan w' =y!f. Consequently the number
of diameters will be
N = tan a//tan w = y/f. l/y = l/f = V.l; (2)
it is thus equal to the magnifying power multiplied by the distance
of distinct vision, or the number of times that the focal length is
contained in 10 in.
Since this value for the distance of distinct vision is only con-
ventional, it is understood that the capacity of the simple micro-
scope given in (2) holds good only for eyes accustomed to examine
small objects 10 in. away ; and observation through the magnifying
glass must be undertaken by the normal eye with passive accommo-
dation. A lens of I in. focal length must be spoken of, according
to this notation, as a X 10 lens, and a lens of ^ in. focal length as
a X 100 lens. Obviously the position of a normal eye free from
accommodation is immaterial for determining the magnification.
A X 10 magnification is, however, by no means guaranteed to a
myopic eye of 10 D by a lens of I in. focus. Since this short-
sighted observer can view the object with the naked eye with no
inconvenience to himself at 4 in. distance, it follows (to him) the
apparent size is tan w = y/; and to secure convenient vision
through the lens the short-sighted person would bring the object
to such a distance that a virtual, magnified image would be pro-
jected in his punctum remotum. In addition li; will be supposed
that the centre of the pupil of the observer coincides with the back
focal point of the system. The apparent size of the object seen
through the lens is then tan w' ylj. The magnification, resulting
from the simple microscope of I in. focus, is here N =tan w' /tan w =
y//-4/y = 4//=4- Thus, while a lens of I in. focal length assures
to the normal-sighted person a X 10 magnification, it affords to
the short-sighted individual only X 4. On the other hand, it is
even of greater use to the hypermetropic than to the observer of
normal sight. From this it appears that each observer obtains
specific advantages from one and the same simple microscope, and
also the individual observer can obtain different magnifications by
either using different accommodations, or by viewing in passive
accommodation.
Regulation of the Rays. 1 In using optical instruments the eye
in general is moved just as in free vision; that is to say, the attention
is fixed upon the individual parts of the image one after another,
the eye being turned in its cavity. In this case the eye is always
directed so that the part of the image which is wished to be viewed
exactly falls upon the most sensitive portion of the retina, viz.
the macula lutea (yellow spot). Corresponding to the size of the
yellow spot only a small fraction of the image appears particularly
distinctly. The other portions which are reproduced on the retina
on the regions surrounding the yellow spot will also be perceived,
but with reduced definition. These external and less sensitive
parts of the retina, therefore, merely give information as to the
general arrangement of the objects and to a certain extent act as
guide-post in order to show quickly and conveniently, although
not distinctly, the places in the image which should claim special
attention. Vision with a motionless eye, or " indirect vision,"
gives a general view over the whole object with particular definition
of a small central portion. Vision with a movable eye, or " direct
vision," gives exact information as to the parts of the object one
after another.
The simple microscope permits such vision. If the instrument
has a sensible lens diameter, and is arranged so that the centre of
rotation of the eye can coincide with the intersection of the principal
rays, the lens can then form with the eye a centred system. Such
lenses are termed " lenses for direct vision." By moving the eye
about its centre of rotation M the whole field can be examined.
The margin of the mount of the lens serves as the diaphragm of
the field of view. The selection of the rays emerging from the lens
and actually employed in forming the image is undertaken by the
pupil of the eye which, in this case, is consequently the exit pupil
of the instrument. In fig. 3 P'P'i designates the exit pupil of the
FIG. 3.
lens, and the image of P'P'i, i.e. PPi, which is formed by the
lens, limits the aperture of the pencils of rays on the object-side;
consequently it is the entrance pupil of the instrument. Since the
exit pupil moves in observing the whole field, the entrance pupil
also moves. The principal rays, which on the object-side connect
the object-points with the centre of the entrance pupil, intersect the
axis on the image-side at the centre of rotation M of the eye. M
is therefore the intersection of the principal rays.
So long as the exit pupil is completely filled the brightness of
the image will be approximately equal to that of free vision. If,
however, we fix the points lying towards the margin of the field
of view, the diaphragm gradually cuts off more and more of the
rays which were necessary to fill the pupil, and in consequence
the brightness gradually falls off to zero. This vignetting can be
observed in all lenses.
In most cases, and also in corrected systems, the intersection of
the principal rays is no longer available for the centre of rotation
of the eye, and this kind of observation is impossible.
In some instruments observation of the whole available field is
only possible when the head and eye are moved at the same time,
the lens retaining its position. Dr M. von Rohr terms this kind
of vision " peep-hole observation." It has mainly to be considered
in connexion with powerful magnifying glasses. In most cases
a diaphragm regulates the
rays. Fig. 4 shows the
position of the diaphragms .
to be considered in this
kind of observation. PPi
is the entrance pupil, P'P/
the exit pupil, and GG
the diaphragm. The inter-
section of the principal rays
in this case lies in the
middle of the entrance
pupil or of the exit pupil.
By head and eye motion
the various parts of the
whole field can be viewed one after another. The distance of the
eye from the lens is here immaterial. In this case also the illumi-
nation must fall to zero by the vignetting of the pencils coming
from objects at the margin of the field of view. C and D are
the outermost rays which can pass through the instrument.
Magnifying glasses are often used for viewing three-dimensional
objects. Only points lying on the plane focused for can be sharply
reproduced in the retina, which acts as object-plane to the retina.
1 See also LENS.
FIG. 4.
394
MICROSCOPE
All points lying out of this plane are reproduced as circles of con-
fusion. The central projection, of which the centre is the middle
point of the entrance pupil on the plane focused for, will show in
weaker systems, or those very much stopped down, a certain
finite depth of definition; that is to say, the totality of points,
which lie out of the plane focused for, and which are projected
with circles of confusion so small that they appear to the eye as
sharp points, will include the sharp object relief, and determine
the depth of definition of the lens. With increasing magnification
the depth of definition diminishes, because the circles of confusion
are greater in consequence of the shorter focal length. Very
powerful simple microscopes have hardly any depth of definition
so that in fact only points lying in one plane can be seen sharply
with one focusing.
Illumination. So long as the pupil of the observer alone under-
takes the regulation of the rays there is no perceptible diminution
of illumination in comparison with the naked eye vision. The
losses of light which occur in this case are due to reflection, which
takes place in the passage of the light through the glass surfaces.
In a lens with two bounding surfaces in air there is a loss of about
9%; and in a lens system consisting of two separated lenses, i.e.
with four surfaces in air, about 17%. Losses due to absorption
are almost zero when the lenses are very thin, as with lenses of
small diameter. A very marked diminution in illumination occurs,
however, when the exit pupil of the instrument is smaller than the
pupil of the eye. In such instruments an arrangement is often
required to intensely illuminate the object.
Forms of Ike Simple Microscope. If the ordinary convex lens
be employed as magnifying glass, great aberrations occur even
in medium magnifications. These are: (i) chromatic aberration,
(2) spherical aberration and (3) astigmatism (see ABERRATION).
When the pupil regulates the aperture of the rays producing the
image the aberrations of the ordinary lenses increase considerably
with the magnification, or, what amounts to the same thing, with
the increase in the curvature of the surfaces. For lenses of short
focus the diameter of the pupil is too large, and diaphragms must
be employed which strongly diminish the aperture of the pencils,
and so reduce the errors, but with a falling off of illumination.
To reduce the aberrations Sir David Brewster proposed to employ
in the place of glass transparent minerals of high refractive index
and low dispersion. In this manner lenses of short focus can be
produced having lower curvatures than glass lenses necessitate.
The diamond has the requisite optical properties, its index of
refraction being about 1-6 times as large as that of ordinary glass.
The spherical aberration of a diamond lens can be brought down
to one-ninth of a glass lens of equal focus. Apart, however, from
the cost of the mineral and its very difficult working, a source of
error lies in its want of homogeneity, which often causes a double
or even a triple image. Similar attempts made by Pritchard with
sapphires were more successful. With this mineral also spherical
and chromatic aberration are a fraction of that of a glass lens,
but double refraction, which involves a doubling of the image, is
fatal to its use. Improvements in glass lenses, however, have
rendered further experiments with precious stones unnecessary.
The simplest was a sphere of glass, the equator of which (i.e. the
mount) formed the diaphragm. Wollaston altered this by taking
two plano-convex lenses, placing the plane surfaces towards each
other and employing a diaphragm between the two parts (fig 5).
Wollaston. Brewster. Brewster (Stanhope).
FIG. 5.
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
Sir David Brewster found that Wollaston's form worked best when
the two lenses were hemispheres and the central space was filled
up with a transparent cement having the same refractive index as
the glass; he therefore used a sphere and provided it with a groove
at the equator (see fig. 6). Coddingtpn employed the same con-
struction, and for this reason this device is frequently called the
Coddington lens; although he brought the Wollaston-Brewster lens
into general notice, he was neither the inventor nor claimed to be.
This lens reproduced all points of a concentric spherical surface
simultaneously sharp. A construction also employing one piece
of glass forms the so-called Stanhope lens (fig. 7), which was really
due to Brewster, This is a glass cylinder, the two ends of which
are spherical surfaces. The more strongly curved surface is placed
next the eye, the other serves at the same time as specimen carrier.
This lens is employed in articles found in tourist resorts as a magnify-
ing glass for miniature photographs of the locality.
Doublets, &c. To remove the errors which the above lenses
showed, particularly when very short focal lengths were in
question, lens combinations were adopted. The individual
components required weaker curvatures and permitted of being
more correctly manufactured, and, more particularly, the' advan-
tage of reduced aberrations was the predominant factor.
Wollaston's doublet (fig. 8) is a combination of two plano-convex
lenses, the focal lengths of which are in the ratio of 3 : I ; the plane
Wollaston. Fraunhofer. Wilson. Steinheil. Chevalier
(Brucke).
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
FIG. ii.
FIG. 12.
sides are turned towards the object, and the smaller of the two
lenses is nearer the object. This construction was further improved
(l) by introducing a diaphragm between the two lenses; (2) by
altering the distance between the two lenses; and (3) by splitting
the lower lens into two lenses. Triplets are employed when the
focal length of the simple microscope was less than -fa in. When
well made such constructions are almost free from spherical
aberration, and the chromatic errors are very small. Similar
doublets composed of two plano-convex lenses are the Fraunhofer
(fig. 9) and the Wilson (fig. 10). Axial aberration is reduced by
distributing the refraction between two lenses; and by placing the
two lenses farther apart the errors of the pencils of rays proceeding
from points lying outside the axis are reduced. The Wilson has
a greater distance between the lenses, and also a reduction of the
chromatic difference of magnification, but compared with the Fraun-
hofer it is at a disadvantage with regard to the size of the free
working distance, i.e. the distance of the object from the lens surface
nearer it.
By introducing a dispersive lens of flint the magnifying glass
could be corrected for both chromatic and spherical aberrations.
Browning's " platyscopic " lens and the Steinheil " aplanatic " lens
(fig. n) are of this type. Both yield a field of good definition
free from colour.
The manner in which the eye uses such a lens was first effectively
taken into account by M. von Rohr. These anastigmatic lenses,
which are manufactured up to X 40, are chromatically and spher-
ically corrected, and for a middle diaphragm the errors of lateral
pencils, distortion, astigmatism and coma are eliminated. " Peep-
hole " observation is employed, observation being made by moving
the head and eye while the lens is held steady. Even in powerful
magnifications a good image exists in all parts of a relatively large
field, and the free working distance is fairly large.
For especially large free working distances the corrections pro-
posed by Chevalier and carried out by E. Brucke must be noticed
(fig. 12). To an achromatic collective lens, which is turned towards
the object, a dispersive lens is combined (this type to a certain
extent belongs to the compound microscope). By altering the
distance of the collective and dispersive members the magnification
can be widely varied. Through the large free working distance,
which for certain work offers great advantages, the size of the field
of view is diminished.
In magnifying glasses for direct vision the eye must always be
considered. The Tens is brought as close as possible to the eye so
as to view as large a field as possible. The watchmaker's glass is
one of the earliest forms of this kind. Gullstrand showed how to
correct these lenses for direct vision, i.e. to eliminate distortion and
astigmatism when the centre of rotation of the eye coincided with
the point where the principal rays crossed the axis. Von Rohr
fulfilled this condition by constructing the Verant lens, which are
low power systems intended for viewing a large flat field.
Stands. For dissecting or examining objects it is an advantage
to have both hands free. Where very short focus simple micro-
scopes are employed, using high magnifications, it is imperative to
employ a stand which permits exact focusing and the use of a special
illuminating apparatus. Since, however, only relatively low powers
are now employed, the ordinary rack and pinion movement for
locusing suffices, and for illuminating the object only a mirror
below the stage is required when the object is transparent, and a
condensing lens above the stage when opaque.
Dissecting stands vary as to portability, the size of the stand, and
the manner in which the arm-rests are arranged. A stand is
shown in fig. 57 (Plate). On the heavy horseshoe foot is a column
carrying the stage. In the column is the guide, for the rack-and-
pinion movement. Lenses of various magnifications can be adapted
to the carrier and moved about over the stage. The rests can be
attached to the stage, and when done with folded together. Illu-
mination of transparent objects is effected by the universal-jointed
mirror. By turning the knob A, placed at the front corner of
MICROSCOPE
the stage, a black or white plate, forming a dark or light back-
ground, can be swung underneath the specimen.
When the recognition of the arrangement in space of small objects
is desired a stereoscopic lens can be used. In most cases refracting
and reflecting systems are arranged so that the natural inter-
pupillary distance is reduced. Stereoscopic lenses can never be
powerful systems, for the main idea is the recognition of the depth
of objects, so that only systems having a sufficient depth of definition
can be utilized. Very often such stereoscopic lenses, owing to faulty
construction, give a false idea of space, ignoring the errors which
are due to the alteration of the inter-pupillary distance and the
visual angles belonging to the principal rays at the object-side (see
BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS).
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
The view held by early opticians, that a compound microscope
could never produce such good images as an instrument of the
simple type, has proved erroneous; and the principal attention
of modern opticians has been directed to the compound instru-
ment. Although we now know how the errors of lenses may be
corrected, and how the simple microscope may be improved,
this instrument remains with relatively feeble magnification, and
to obtain stronger magnifications the compound form is necessary.
By compounding two lenses or lens systems separated by a definite
interval, a system is obtained having a focal length considerably
less than the focal lengths of the separate systems. If / and /' be
the focal lengths of the combination,/;,// and/ 2 ,/ 2 ' the focal lengths
of the two components, and A the distance between the inner foci
of the components, then /= /i/ 2 /A, /'=// fi'/ A (see LENS). A is
also equal to the distance Fi'F,. The accented fs are always on the
image side, whilst the unaccented are on the object side. From this
formula it follows, for example, that one obtains a system of J in.
focal length by compounding two positive systems of I in. each, whose
focal planes, turned towards one another, are separated by 8 in.
A microscope objective being made in essentially the same way
as a simple microscope, and the front focus of the compound system
being situated before the front focus of the objective, the magnifica-
tion due to the simple system makes the free object distance greater
than that obtained with a simple microscope of equal magnification.
Moreover, this distance between the object and eye is substantially
increased in the compound microscope by the stand; the incon-
veniences, and in certain circumstances also the dangers, to the eye
which may arise, for example by warming the object, are also
avoided. The convenient and rapid change in the magnification
obtained by changing the eyepiece or the objective is also a special
advantage of the compound form.
In the commonest compound microscopes, which consist of two
positive systems, a real magnified image is produced by the objective.
This permits researches which are impossible with the simple micro-
scope. For example, the real image may be recorded on a photo-
graphic plate; it may be measured; it can be physically altered by
polarization, by spectrum analysis of the light employed by absorb-
ing layers, &c. The greatest advantage of the compound microscope
is that it represents a larger area, and this much more completely
than is possible in the simple form. According to the laws of optics
it is only possible either to portray a small object near one of the
foci of the system with wide pencils, or to produce an image from a
relatively large object by correspondingly narrow pencils. The
simple microscope is subject to either limitation. As we shall see
later, one of the principal functions of the microscope objective is
the representation with wide pencils. In that case, however, in
the compound microscope a small object may always be represented
by means of wider pencils, one of the foci of the objective (not of
the collective system) being near it. For the eyepiece the other
rule holds; the object is represented by narrow pencils, and it is
hence possible to subject the relatively great object, viz. the magni-
fied real image, to a further representation.
History of the Compound Microscope. The arrangement of
two lenses so that small objects can be seen magnified followed
soon after the discovery of the telescope. The first compound
miscroscope (discovered probably by the Middelburg lens-grinders,
Johann and Zacharias Janssen about 159) was a combination
of a strong biconvex with a still stronger biconcave lens; it had
thus, as well as the first telescope, a negative eyepiece. In 1646
Fontana described a microscope which had a positive eyepiece.
The development of the compound microscope essentially
depends on the improvement of the objective; but no distinct
improvement was made in its construction in the two centuries
following the discovery. In 1668 the Italian Divini employed
several doublets, i.e. pairs of plano-convex lenses, and his
example was followed by Griendl von Ach. But even with such
moderate magnification as these instruments permitted many
faults were apparent. A microscope, using concave mirrors, was
proposed in 1672 by Sir Isaac Newton; and he was succeeded
395
i
5
by Barker, R. Smith, B. Martin, D. Brewster, and, above all,
Amici. More recently these catadioptric microscopes were
disregarded because they yielded unfavourable results. From
1830 onwards many improvements were made in the miscroscope
objective; these may be best followed from a discussion of the
faults of the image.
Position and Size of Image. In most microscopic observations
the object is mounted on a plane glass plate or slide about 0-06 in.
thick, embedded in a liquid such as
water, glycerine or Canada balsam, and
covered with a plane glass plate of
about 0-008 to 0-006 in. thick, called
the cover-slip. If we consider the
production of the image of an object
of this kind by the two positive
systems of a compound microscope
shown in fig. 13, the objective L,
forms a real magnified image O'(Y;
the object OOi must therefore lie some-
what in front of the front focus FI
of the objective. Let OOi=y, O'O/
= y', the focal distance of the image
Fi O' = A, and the image-side focal
length //, then the magnification
M=//y=A///. (3)
The distance A is called the " optical
tube length."
Weak and strong microscope objec-
tives act differently. Weak systems
act like photographic objectives. In
this case the optical tube length may
be altered within fixed limits without
spoiling the image; at the same time
the objective magnification M is also
altered. This change is usually effected
by mounting the objective and eye-
piece on two telescoping tubes, so that
by drawing apart or pushing in the
tube length is increased or diminished
at will. For strong objectives there is,
however, only one optical tube length
in which it is possible to obtain a
good image by means of wide pencils,
any alteration of the tube length in-
volving a considerable spoiling of the
image. This limitation is examined
below.
When forming an image by a micro-
scope objective it often happens that
the transparent media bounding the
system have different optical proper-
ties. A series of objectives with short
focal lengths are available, which per-
mit the placing of a liquid between the
cover-slip and the front lens of the
objective; such lenses are known as
"immersion systems"; objectives
bounded on both sides by air are
called " dry systems." The immer-
sion liquids in common use are water,
glycerine, cedar- wood oil, monobrom-
naphthalene, &c. Immersion systems ,, _
in which the embedding liquid, cover- . MG : J 3- Kay transmis-
slip, immersion-liquid and front lens slon m compound micro-
have equal refractive indices are called scope wlth a Positive
" homogeneous immersion systems."
In immersion systems the object-side Li = objective, LS Lj = eye-
focal length is greater than the image- piece of the Ramsden type,
side focal length. Nothing is altered FI, F/=object- and im-
as to objective magnification, however, age-side foci of objec-
as the first surface is plane, and the tive.
employment of the immersion means F 2 = front focus of eye-
that the value of// is unaltered. piece.
If we assume that a normal eye P'P/=exit pupil of objec-
observes the image through the eye- tive.
piece, the eyepiece must project a P*Pi* = exit pupil of corn-
distant image from the real image plete microscope,
produced by the objective. This is D D = diaphragm of field
the case if the image O'O/ lies in the of view,
front focal plane of the eyepiece. In this case the optical tube
length equals the distance of the adjacent focal planes of the two
systems, which equals the distance of the image-side focus of
the objective F/ from the object-side focus of the eyepiece
F 2 . The image viewed through the eyepiece appears then to the
observer under the angle w", and as with the single microscope
tana-'/y = i// 2 ' (4)
where /' 2 is the image-side focal length of the eyepiece.
39 6
MICROSCOPE
To obtain the magnification of the complete microscope we must
combine the objective magnification M with the action of the eye-
piece. If we replace / in equation (4) by the value given by (3), we
tanw"/y-A//iM//."-V, (5)
the magnification of the complete microscope. The magnification
therefore equals the power of the joint system.
The magnification is also expressed as the ratio of the apparent size
of the object observed through the microscope to the apparent size
of the object seen with the naked eye. As the conventional distance
for clear vision with naked eye is 10 in., it results from fig. I that
the apparent size is tan w = y/l. If this value of y be inserted in
equation (5), we obtain the magnification number of the compound
microscope:- N=tan w / tan I =A/// 1 '/ 2 ' = V/. (6)
The magnification number increases then with the optical tube-length
and with the diminution of the focal lengths of objective and eyepiece.
As with the simple microscope, different observers see differently
in the same compound microscope; and hence the magnification
varies with the power of accommodation.
The image produced by a microscope formed of two positive
systems (fig. 13) is inverted, the objective Li tracing from the object
OOi a real inverted image O'O'i, and the eyepiece L 2 L 3 maintaining
this arrangement. For many purposes it is immaterial whether
the image is inverted or upright ; but in some cases an upright image
lightens the work, or may be indispensable.
The simplest microscope which produces an upright image has a
negative lens as eyepiece. As shown in fig. 14, the real image
formed by the objective must fall on
the object-side focal plane of the eye-
piece F 2 , where a normal eye without
accommodation can observe it. But as
the object-side focus F 2 lies behind the
eyepiece, the real image is not produced,
but the converging pencils from the
objective are changed by the eyepiece in-
to parallels ; and the point Oi in the top
of the object y appears at the top to
the eye, i.e. the image is upright.
The erection of inverted images by
prisms, which was applied to the simple
telescope by Porro, and to the binocular
(q.v.) by A. A. Boulanger was employed
by K. Bratuscheck in the Greenough
double microscope; these inverting
prisms permit a convenient adaptation
of the instrument to the interpupillary
distance of the observer. Double
microscopes, which produce a correct
impression of the solidity of the object,
must project upright images. The
terrestrial eyepiece (see TELESCOPE),
which likewise ensures an upright image,
but which involves an inconvenient
lengthening, has also been employed in
the binocular microscope.
Regulation of the Rays. Weak and
medium microscope objectives work
like photographic objectives in epi-
scopic or diascopic projection; in
the microscope, however, the projected
image is not intercepted on a screen, but
a real image in air is formed. This
must lie in the front focal plane of the
eyepiece if we retain the supposition
that it is to be viewed by a normal
eye with passive accommodation. The
plane in the object conjugate to the
focal plane of the eye-piece is the plane
FIG. 14. Ray trans- focused for; and all points in it are
mission in compound sharply portrayed (a perfect objective
microscope with a nega- being assumed). Object points lying out
tive eyepiece. of the focal plane, on the other hand, are
Li = weak achromatic ob- projected as circles of confusion on the
jective. plane focused for, the centre of the
Ls = negative eyepiece. entrance pupil being the centre of pro-
P,, F/ = object- and im- jection and the circles of confusion con-
age-side foci of objec- stituting, with the points of the focal
tive. plane, the object-side imago. As the
Pj, F 2 ' = object- and im- pencils used in the representations are of
age-side foci of eye- w 'de aperture on the object-side, only
piece. such points as are proportionately very
P'P/=exit pupil of ob- near the focal plane can produce such
jective. small dispersion circles on the plane
P"P 1 '=virtual image of focused for, that they, so far as the
PiP/ = exit pupil of objective- and eyepiece-magnification
complete microscope. permit, appear as points to the eye.
It follows that the depth of definition
of the microscope is in general very trifling. As it is entirely a
function of the aperture and the magnification, if can be increased
by diminishing the entrance pupil, the magnification remaining
unchanged. A diminution of the aperture, however, would
injure a very much more important property, viz. the resolving
power (see below). With powerful systems, object-points lying
quite near the plane focused for would be represented by such
large dispersion circles that practically only the points lying in one
plane appear simultaneously sharp; and it is only by varying the
focus that the object-points lying in Other planes can be observed.
The position of the diaphragni limiting the pencils proceeding
from the object-points is not constant in the compound microscope.
In all microscopes the rays are limited, not in the eyepiece, but in the
objective, or before the objective when using a condenser. If the
pencils are limited in the objective, the restriction of the pencil
proceeding from the object-point is effected by either the front lens
itself, by the boundary of a lens lying behind, by a real diaphragm
placed between or behind the objective, or by a diaphragm-image.
The centre of the entrance pupil is the point of intersection of the
principal rays ; and it is therefore determinative for the perspective
representation on the plane focused for. In fig. 15 the centre of the
(After M. v. Rohr.)
FIG. 15. Entocentric transmission through a microscope
objective.
E= plane focused for; d*, O 2 *= projections of OiO 2 on E; Z =
centre of projection; P P t =a virtual image of real diaphragm
P'P/ with regard to the preceding part of the objective is the
entrance pupil.
entrance pupil lies behind the focal plane, and consequently nearer
objects appear larger, and farther objects smaller (" entocentric
transmission," see below). If a diaphragm lying in the back focal
Elane of the objective forms the exit pupil for the objective, as in
gs. 13 and 14, so that its image, the entrance pupil, lies at infinity,
all the principal rays in the object-space are parallel to the axis,
and we have on the object-side " telecentric " transmission. The
size of the imago on the focal plane is always equal to its actual size,
and is independent of the distance of the object from the plane focused
for. This representation acquires a special importance if the object be
micrometrically measured, for an inaccuracy in focusing does not
involve an alteration of the size of the image. To ensure the tele-
centric transmission, the diaphragm in the back focus of the objective
may be replaced by a diaphragm in the front focal plane of the
condenser, supposing that uniformly illuminated objects are being
dealt with ; for in this case all the principal rays in the object-space
are transmitted parallel to the axis.
With uniformly illuminated objects it may happen that the pencil
in the object-space may be limited before passing the object,
either through the size of the source of light employed or through
a diaphragm connected with the illuminating system. In fig. 16
(After M. v. Rohr.)
FIG. 16. Hypercentric transmission in a microscope
objective.
E, Oi*, O* and Z as in fig. 15. PPi is the entrance pupil.
the intersection of the principal rays lies in front of the object, ?.nd
consequently objects in front of the plane focused for will be
projected on E magnified and the objects lying behind it
diminished (" hypercentric " transmission). It produces a perspec-
tive representation entirely opposed to ordinary vision. As objects
lying near us appear smaller in the case of hypercentric trans-
mission than those lying farther from us, we receive a false
impression of the spatial arrangement of the object.
Whether the entrance pupil be before or behind the object, in
general its position is such that it lies not too near the object, so that
the principal rays will have in the object space only trifling inclina-
tions towards one another or are strictly parallel. This is specially
important, for otherwise pencils from points placed somewhat later-
ally to the axis arrive with diminished aperture at the image.
We see from fig. 13 that the objective's exit pupil P'Pi' is
portrayed by the positive eyepiece, the image P"Pi" limits the pencils
MICROSCOPE
397
proceeding from the eyepiece. This image P"Pi* is then the exit
pupil of the combined system, and consequently the image of the
entrance pupil of the combined system. As the exit pupil P'Pi' for
the objective lies "before the front focus of the eyepiece, generally
at some distance and near the objective, the eyepiece projects a real
image from it behind its image-side focus, so that if this point is
accessible it is the exit pupil P"Pi". If, e.g. in the object-space the
objective has telecentric transmission, the exit pupil must coincide
with the back focal plane of the combined system, and it always lies
behind the image-side focus of the eyepiece. The exit pupil, often
called Ramsden's circle, is thus accessible to the observer, who by
head- and eye-movements may survey the whole field.
We can now understand the ray transmission in the compound
microscope, shown in fig. 13. Points of a small object (compared
with the focus of the objective) send to the objective wide pencils.
The diaphragm limiting them, i.e. the entrance pupil, is placed so
that the principal rays are either parallel or slightly inclined. The
pencils producing the real image are very much more acute, and
their inclination is the smaller the stronger the magnification. The
eyepiece, which by means of narrow pencils represents the relatively
large real image at infinity, transmits from all points of this real
image parallel pencils, whereby the inclination of the principal rays
becomes further increased. The point of intersection, i.e. the centre
of the exit pupil, is accessible to the eye of the observer. In the
case of the negative eyepiece, on the other hand, the divergence of
the principal rays through the eyepiece is also further augmented,
but their point of intersection is not accessible to the eye. This
property shows the superiority of the collective eyepiece over the
dispersive.
The increase of the inclination of the principal rays, which arises
with the microscope, influences the perception of the relief of the
object. In entocentric transmission this phenomenon appears in
general as in the case of the contemplation of perspective represen-
tations at a too short distance, the objects appearing flattened.
Although in the case of the spatial comprehension of a perspective
representation experience plays a large part, in observing through
a microscope it does not count, or only a little, for the object is
presumably quite unknown. In telecentric and hypercentric
transmission we obtain a false conception of the spatial arrangement
of the objects or their details; in these cases one focusses by turns
on the different details, and so obtains an approximate idea of
their spatial arrangement.
While the limiting of the pencil is almost always effected by the
objective, the limiting of the field of view is effected by the eyepiece,
and indeed it is carried out by a real diaphragm DD arranged in the
plane of the real image O'O/ (fig. 13) projected from the objective.
The entrance window is then the real image of this diaphragm pro-
jected by the objective in the surface conjugate to the plane focused
for, and the exit window is the image projected by the eyepiece ; this
happens with the image of the object lying at infinity. The result
must be that the field of view exhibits a sharp border. In the
case of the dispersive eyepiece, on the contrary, no sharply limited
field can arise, but vignetting must occur.
Illumination. The dependence of the clearness of the image
on the aperture of the system, i.e. on the angular aperture of
the image-producing pencil, holds for all instruments.
The brightnesses of image points in a median section of the pencil
are proportional to the aperture of the lens, supposing that the rays
are completely reunited. This is valid so long as the pencil is in
air; but if, on the other hand, the pencil passes from air through a
plane surface into an optically denser medium, e.g. water or glass,
the pencil becomes more acute and the aperture smaller. But since
no rays are lost in this transmission (apart from the slight loss due
to reflection) the brightness of the image point in the water is as
large as that in air, although the apertures have become less. Fig.
17 shows a pencil in air, A, dispersing in water, W, from the semi-
aperture i, or a pencil in water dispersing in air from the semi-
aperture u 2 . If the value t of the clearness in air be taken as sin i,
then by the law of refraction N=sin Mi/sin MZ, the value for the
clearness in water is N sin %. This rule is general. The value of the
Fie. 18.
clearness of an image-point in a median section is the sine of the
semi-aperture of the pencil multiplied with the refractive index of
the medium.
An illustration of this principle is the immersion experiment. A
view taken under water from the point O (fig. 18)' sees not only the
whole horizon, but also a part of the bed of the sea. The whole
field of view in air of 180 is compressed to one of 97-5 in water.
The rays from O which have a greater inclination to the vertical
than 48-75 cannot come out into the air, but are totally
reflected. If pencils proceed from media of high optical density
to media of low density, and have a semi-aperture greater than the
critical angle, total reflection occurs; in such cases no plane, surface
can be employed, hence front lenses have small radii of curvature
in order to permit the wide pencils to reach the air (see fig. 19, in
which P is the preparation, O the object-point in it, D the cover
slip, I the immersing fluid, and L the front lens).
The function n sin = A, for the microscope, has been called by
Abbe the numerical aperture. In dry-systems only the sine of the
semi-aperture is concerned; in immersion-systems it is the product
of the refractive index of the immersion-liquid and the sine of the
object-side semi-aperture. In the case of the brightness of large
objects obviously the whole pencil is involved, and hence the clear-
ness is the squares of these values, i.e. sin 2 u or n 2 sin 2 u. As the semi-
aperture of a pencil proceeding from an object point cannot exceed
90, the numerical aperture of a dry-system cannot be greater than I.
On the other hand, in immersion-systems the numerical aperture
can almost amount to the refractive index, for A = n sin u<n.
Dry systems of 0-98 numerical aperture, water immersion (re = 1-33)
from A = i-25, oil immersion (re = 1-51) from A = I-4O, and even
o-bromnaphthalene immersions (71 = 1-65) from A = l-6o, are
available. In immersion-systems of such considerable aperture
no medium of smaller refractive index than the immersion liquid
may be placed between the surface of the front lens and the object,
as otherwise total reflection would occur. This is especially in-
convenient in the case of the a-bromnaphthalene immersion.- As
the embedding and immersing liquids must have equal refractive
indexes, one must use a-bromnaphthalene for embedding; but
this substance destroys organic preparations, so that one can employ
this immersion-system only for examining inorganic materials, e.g.
fine diatoms.
In immersion-systems a very much greater aggregate of rays is
used in the representation than is possible in dry-systems. In
addition to a considerable increase in brightness the losses due to
reflection are avoided; losses which arise in passing to the back
surface of the cover-slip and to the front surface of the front lens.
THE PHYSICAL THEORY .
In order to fully understand the representation in the micro-
scope, the process must be investigated according to the wave-
theory, especially in considering the representation of objects
or object details having nearly the size of a wave-length. The
rectilinear rays, which we have considered above, but which
have no real existence, are nothing but the paths in which the
light waves are transmitted. According to Huygens's principle
(see DIFFRACTION) each aether particle, set vibrating by an
incident wave, can itself act as a new centre of excitement,
emitting a spherical wave; and similarly each particle on this
wave itself produces wave systems. All systems which are
emitted from a single source can by a suitable optical device be
directed that they simultaneously influence one and the same
aether particle. According to the phase of the vibrations at
this common point, the waves mutually strengthen or weaken
their action, and there arises greater clearness or obscurity.
This phenomenon is called interference (q.v.). E. Abbe applied
the Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena to the explanation of
the representation in the microscope of uniformly illuminated
objects.
If a grating is placed as object before the microscope objective,
Abbe showed that in the image there is intermittent clear and dark
banding only, if at least two consecutive diffraction spectra enter
into the objective and contribute towards the image. If the illumi-
nating pencil is parallel to the axis of the microscope objective,
the illumination is said to be direct. If in this case the aperture
of the objective be so small, or the diffraction spectra lie so far from
each other, that only the pencil parallel to the axis, i.e. the spectrum
of zero order, can be admitted, no trace is generally found of the
image of the grating. If, in addition to the principal maximum,
the maximum of 1st order is admitted, the banding is distinctly
seen, although the image does not yet accurately resemble the
object. The resemblance is greater the more diffraction spectra
enter the objective. From the Fraunhofer formula 6 =X/re sin u one
can immediately deduce the limit to the diffraction constant 8, so
that the banding by an objective of fixed numerical aperture can
be perceived. The value n sin u equals the numerical aperture A,
where re is the refractive index of the immersion-liquid, and u is the
semi-aperture on the object-side. For microscopy the Fraunhofer
formula is best written J=X/A. This expresses 5 as the resolving
power in the case of direct lighting. All details of the object so
resolved are perceived, if two diffraction maxima can be passed
through the objective, so that the character of the object is seen in
the image, even if an exact resemblance has not yet been attained.
The Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena, which take place in the
39
MICROSCOPE
back focal plane of the objective, can be conveniently seen with
the naked eye by removing the eyepiece and looking into the tube,
or better by focusing a weak auxiliary microscope on the back focal
plane of the objective. If one has, e.g. in the case of a grating,
telecentric transmission on the object-side, and in the front focal
plane of the illuminating system a small circular aperture is arranged,
then by the help of the auxiliary microscope one sees in the middle
of the back focal plane the round white image O (fig. 20) and to the
right and left the diffraction spectra, the images of different colours
partially overlapping. If a resolvable grating is_ considered, the
diffraction phenomenon has the appearance shown in fig. 21.
It is possible to almost double the resolving power, as in the case
FIG. 24. FIG. 25. FIG. 26. FIG. 27.
(From Abbe, Thcaric dtr Bilderzeugung im Mitroskop.)
of direct lighting, so that a banding of double the fineness can be
perceived, by inclining the illuminating pencil to the axis; this
is controlled by moving the diaphragm laterally. If the obliquity
of illumination be so great that the principal maximum passes
through the outermost edge of the objective, while a spectrum of
1st order passes the opposite edge, so that in the back focal plane
the diffraction phenomenon shown in fig. 22 arises, banding is still
to be seen. The resolution in the case of oblique illumination is
given by the formula 5 = X/aA.
Reverting to fig. 13, we suppose that a diffracting particle of such
fineness is placed at O that the diffracted pencils of the 1st order
make an angle w with the axis; the principal maximum of the
Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena lies in F'i ; and the two diffraction
maxima of the 1st order in P' and P'i. The waves proceeding from
this point are united in the point O'. Suppose that a well corrected
objective is employed. The image O' of the point O is then the
interference effect of all waves proceeding from the exit pupil of
the objective PiPi'.
Abbe showed that for the production of an image the diffraction
maxima must lie within the exit pupil of the objective. In the
silvering of a glass plate lines are ruled as shown in fig. 23, one set
traversing the field while the intermediate set extends only half-way
across. If this object be viewed by the objective, so that at least
the diffraction spectra of 1st order pass the finer divisions, then the
corresponding diffraction phenomenon in the back focal plane of
the objective has the appearance shown in fig. 21, while the diffrac-
tion figure corresponding to the coarser ruling appears as given in
fig. 20. If one cuts out by a diaphragm in the back focal plane of the
objective all diffraction spectra except the principal maximum, one
sees in the image a field divided into two halves, which show with
different clearness, but no banding. By choosing a somewhat
broader diaphragm, so that the spectra of 1st order can pass the
larger division, there arises in the one half of the field of view the
image of the larger division, the other half being clear without any
such structure. By using a yet wider diaphragm which admits
the spectra of 2nd order of the larger division and also the spectra
of 1st order of the fine division, an image is obtained which is similar
to the object, i.e. it shows bands one half a division double as fine as
on the other. If now the spectrum of 1st order of the larger division
be cut out from the diffraction figure, as is shown in fig. 24, an image
is obtained which over the whole field shows a similar division
(fig. 25), although in the one half of the object the represented
banding does not occur. Still more strikingly is this phenomenon
shown by Abbe's diffraction plate (fig. 26). This is a so-called cross
grating formed by two perpendicular gratings. Through a suitable
diaphragm in the back focal plane, banding can easily be produced
in the image, which contains neither the vertical nor the horizontal
lines of the two gratings, but there exist streaks, whose direction
halves the angle under which the two gratings intersect (fig. 27).
1 here can thus be shown structures which are not present in the
object. Colonel Dr Woodward of the United States army showed
that interference effects appear to produce details in the image
which do not exist in the object. For example, two to five rows of
globules were produced, and photographed, between the bristles
ot mosquito wings by using oblique illumination. In observing
with strong systems it is therefore necessary cautiously to distinguish
between spectral and real marks. To determine the utility of an
objective for resolving fine details, one experiments with definite
objects, which are usually employed simultaneously for examining
its other properties. Most important are the fine structures of
diatoms such as Surirella gemma and Amphipleura pellucida or
artificial fine divisions as in a Nobert's grating. The examination
of the objectives can only be attempted when the different faults of
the objective are known.
If microscopic preparations are observed by diffused daylight
or by the more or less white light of the usual artificial sources, then
an objective of fixed numerical aperture will only represent details
of a definite fineness. All smaller details are not portrayed. The
Fraunhofer formula permits the determination of the most useful
magnification of such an objective in order to utilize its full resolving
power.
As we saw above, the apparent size of a detail of an object must
be greater than the angular range of vision, i.e. i'. Therefore we
can assume that a detail which appears under an angle of 2' can
be surely perceived. Supposing, however, there is oblique illumina-
tion, then formula (5) _can always be applied to determine the
magnifying power attainable with at least one objective. By
substituting y, the size of the object, for d, the smallest value which
a single object can have in order to be analysed, and the angle w' by
2', we obtain the magnifying power and the magnification number :
Va = tan w'/d = 2A tan 2'/X; N 2 = 2A/ tan 2'/X;
where / equals the sight range of 10 in.
Even if the details can be recognized with an apparent magnifica-
tion of 2', the observation may still be inconvenient. This may be
improved when the magnification is so increased that the angle
under which the object, when still just recognizable, is raised to 4'.
The magnification and magnifying number which are most necessary
for a microscope with an objective of a given aperture can then be
calculated from the formulae:
V 4 = 2A tan 4'/X; N 4 = 2A/ tan 4'/X.
If 0-55 M is assumed for daylight observation, then according to
Abbe (Jpurn. Roy. Soc., 1882, p. 463) we have the fojlowing table for
the limits of the magnification numbers, for various microscope
objectives, /i = o-ooi mm.:
A = n sin u. d in n. N. N<.
o-io 2-75 53 106
0-30 0-92 159 317
0-60 0-46 317 635
0-90 0-31 476 952
1-20 0-23 635 1270
1-40 0-19 741 1481
1-60 0-17 847 1693
From this it can be seen that, as a rule, quite slight magnifications
suffice to bring all representable details into observation. If the
magnification is below the given numbers, the details can either
not be seen at all, or only very indistinctly ; if, on the contrary, the
given magnification is increased, there will still be no more details
visible. The table shows at the same time the great superiority
of the immersion-system over the dry-system with reference to the
resolving power. With the best immersion-system, having a
numerical aperture of 1-6, details of the size 0-17 /i can be resolved,
while the theoretical maximum of the resolving power is 0-167 A"i so
that the theoretical maximum has almost been reached in practice.
Still smaller particles cannot be portrayed by using ordinary day-
light.
In order to increase the resolving power, A. Kohler (Zeit. f.
Mikros., 1904, 21, pp. 129, 273) suggested employing ultra-violet
light, of a wave-length 275 nit; he thus increased the resolving
power to about double that which is reached with day-light,
of which the mean wave-length is 550 MM- Light of such short
wave-length is, however, not visible, and therefore a photo-
graphic plate must be employed. Since glass does not transmit
the ultra-violet light, quartz is used, but such lenses can only
be spherically corrected and not chromatically. For this reason
the objectives have been called monochromats, as they have only
been corrected for light of one wave-length. Further, the different
transparencies of the cells for the ultra-violet rays render it unneces-
sary to dye the preparations. Glycerin is chiefly used as immer-
sion fluid. M. v. Rohr's monochromats are constructed with
apertures up to 1-25. The smallest resolving detail with oblique
lighting is S = X/2A, where X = 275 M^"- As the microscopist
usually estimates the resolving power according to the aperture with
ordinary day-light, Kohler introduced the " relative resolving power "
for ultra-violet light. The power of the microscope is thus repre-
sented by presupposing day-light with a wave-length of 550 JIM-
Then the denominator of the fraction, the numerical aperture, must
be correspondingly increased, in order to ascertain the real resolving
power. In this way a monochromat for glycerin of a numerical
aperture 1-25 gives a relative numerical aperture of 2-50.
If the magnification be greater than the resolving power demands,
the observation is not only needlessly made more difficult, but the
entrance pupil is diminished, and with it a very considerable decrease
of clearness, for with an objective of a certain aperture the size of
the exit pupil depends upon the magnification. The diameter of
MICROSCOPE
399
the exit pupil of the microscope is about 0-04 in. with the magnifica-
tion Nj, and about 0-02 in. with the magnification N. Moreover,
with such exceptionally narrow pencils shadows are formed on the
retina of the observer's eye, from the irregularities in the eye itself.
These disturbances are called " entoptical phenomena." From the
section Regulation of the Rays (above) it is seen that the resolving
power is opposed to the depth of definition, which is measured by
the reciprocal of the numerical aperture, I/A.
Dark-field Illumination. It is sometimes desirable to make
minutest objects in a preparation specially visible. This can
be done by cutting off the chief maximum and using only the
diffracted spectra for producing the image.
At least two successive diffraction maxima must be admitted
through the objective for there to be any image of the objects.
With this device these particles appear bright against a dark back-
ground, and can be easily seen. The cutting off of the chief maximum
can be effected by a suitable diaphragm in the back focal plane of
the objective. But, owing to the various partial reflections which
the illuminating cone of rays undergoes when traversing the surfaces
of the lenses, a portion of the light comes again into the preparation,
and into the eye of the observer, thus veiling the image. This
defect can be avoided (after Abbe) if a small central portion of the
back surface of the front lens be ground away and blackened; this
portion should exactly catch the direct cone of rays, whilst the edges
of the lens let the deflected cone of rays pass through (fig. 28).
(By permission of C. Zeiss.)
FlG. 28.
The large loss of light, which is caused in dark-field illumination
by the cutting off of the direct cone of rays, must be compensated
by employing exceptionally strong sources. By dark-field illumina-
tion it is even possible to make such small details of objects per-
ceptible as are below the limits of the resolving power. It is a
similar phenomenon to that which arises when a ray of sunlight falls
into a darkened room. The extremely small particles of dust
(motes in a sunbeam) in the rays are made perceptible by the dif-
fracted light, whilst by ordinary illumination they are invisible.
The same observation can be made with the cone of rays of a
reflector, and in the same way the fine rain-drops upon a dark back-
ground and the fixed stars in the sky become visible. It is not
possible to recognize the exact form of the minute objects because
their apparent size is much too small ; only their presence is observ-
able. In addition, the particles can only be recognized as separate
objects if their apparent distance from one another is greater than
the angular definition of sight.
Ultramicroscopy. This method of illumination has been used by
H. Siedentopf in his ultramicroscope. The image consists of a
diffraction disk from whose form and size certain conclusions may
be drawn as to the size and form of the object. It is impossible
to get a representation as from an object. Very finely divided
sub-microscopic particles in liquids or in transparent solids can be
examined; and the method has proved exceptionally valuable in
the investigation of colloidal solutions.
Siedentopf employed two illuminating arrangements. With the
orthogonal arrangement for illuminating and observing the beam
of light traverses an extremely fine slit through a well-corrected
system, whose optic axis is perpendicular to the axis of the micro-
scope; the system reduces the dimensions of the beam to about
2 to 4 n in the focal plane of the objective. For the microscopic
observation it is the same as if a thin section of a thickness of 2 to 4 /j
had been shown. In this optical way it is possible to show thin
sections even in liquid preparations. The inconvenience of ortho-
gonal illumination, which certainly gives better results, is avoided
in the coaxial apparatus. Care must here be taken, by using
suitable dark-field screens, that no direct rays enter the observing
system. The only sources of light are sunlight or the electric arc.
The limit at which sub-microscopic particles are made visible is
dependent upon the specific intensity of the source of light. With
sunlight particles can be made visible to a size of about 0-004 *
Production of tlie Image. As shown in LENS and ABERRATION,
for reproduction through a single lens with spherical surfaces, a com-
bination of the rays is only possible for an extremely small angular
aperture. The aberrations, both spherical and chromatic, increase
very rapidly with the aperture. If it were not possible to recombine
in one image-point the rays leaving the objective and derived from
one object-point, i.e. to eliminate the spherical and chromatic aber-
rations, the large angular aperture of the objective, which is
necessary for its resolving power, would be valueless. Owing to
these aberrations, the fine structure, which in consequence of the large
aperture could be resolved, could not be perceived. In other words,
a sufficiently good and distinct image as the resolving power permits
cannot be arrived at, until the elimination, or a sufficient diminution,
of the spherical and chromatic aberrations has been brought about.
The objective and eyepiece have such different functions that
as a rule it is not possible to correct the aberrations of one system
by those of the other. Such a compensation is only possible for
one single defect, as we shall see later. The demands made upon
the eyepiece, which has to represent a relatively large field by
narrow cones of rays, are not very considerable. It is therefore
not very difficult to produce a usable eyepiece. On the other hand,
the correction of the objective presents many difficulties.
We will now examine the conditions which must be fulfilled by
an objective, and then how far these conditions have been realized.
Consider the aberrations which may arise from the representation
by a system of wide aperture with monochromatic light, i.e. the
spherical aberrations. The rays emitted from an axial object-point
are not combined into one image-point by an ordinary biconvex lens
of fixed aperture, but the central rays come to a more distant focus
than the outer rays. The so-called " caustic " occupies a definite
position in the image-space. The spherical aberrations, however,
can be overcome, or at least so diminished that they are quite
harmless, by forming appropriate combinations of lenses.
The aberration of rays in which the outer rays intersect the axis
at a shorter distance than the central rays is known as " under-
correction." The reverse is known as " over-correction." By
selecting the radii of the surfaces and the kind of glass the under- or
over-correction can be regulated. Thus it is possible to correct a
system by combining a convex and a concave lens, if both have
aberrations of the same amount but of opposite signs. In this case
the power of the crown lens must preponderate so that the result-
ing lens is of the same sign, but of a little less power. Correction
of the spherical aberration in strong systems with very large aperture
can not be brought about by means of a single combination of two
lenses, but several partial systems are necessary. Further, under-
corrected systems must be combined with over-corrected ones.
Another way of correcting this system is to alter the distances. If,
by these methods, a point in the optic axis has been freed from
aberration, it does not follow that a point situated only a very small
distance from the optic axis can also be represented without spherical
aberration. The representation, free from aberration, of a small
surface-element, is only possible, as Abbe has shown, if the
objective simultaneously fulfils the " sine-condition," i.e. if the
ratio of the sine of the aperture u on the object-side to the sine of
the corresponding aperture u' on the image-side is constant, i.e. if
n sin tt/sin u' = C, in which C is a constant. The sine-condition
is in contrast to the tangent-condition, which must be regarded
as the point-by-point representation of the whole object-space in
the image-space (see LENS), and according therefore the equation
n tan w/tan u' = C must exist. These two conditions are only com-
patible when the representation is made with quite narrow pencils,
and where the apertures are so small that the sines and tangents
are of about the same value.
Very large apertures occur in strong microscope objectives, and
hence the two conditions are not compatible. The sine-condition
is, however, the most important as far as the microscopic representa-
tion is concerned, because it must be possible to represent a surface-
element through the objective by wide cones of rays. The removal of
the spherical aberration and the sine-condition can be accomplished
only for two conjugate points. A well-corrected microscope objective
with a wide aperture therefore can only represent, free from aberra-
tions, one object-element situated on a definite spot on the axis.
As soon as the object is moved a short distance away from this
spot the representation is quite useless. Hence the importance
of observing the length of the tube in strong systems. If the
sine-condition is not fulfilled but the spherical aberrations in the
400
MICROSCOPE
axis have been removed, then the image shown in fig. 19 results.
The cones of rays issuing from a point situated only a little to the
O'
FIG 29 The lens is spherically corrected for OO', but the sine-
condition is not fulfilled. Hence the different magnifications ot
a point Oi beyond the axis.
side, which traverse different zones of the objective, have a
different magnification. The sine-condition can
be understood as follows: that all objective zones
the same magnification for the plane-element.
According to Abbe, a
therefore also
must have
FIG. 30. O' is the virtual image
of O formed at a spherical sur-
face of centre C and radius CS.
system
can only be regarded as aplanatic
if it is spherically corrected for not
only one axial point, but when
it also fulfils the sine-condition
and thus magnifies equally in all
zones a surface-element situated
vertically on the axis at this
point.
A second method of correcting
the spherical aberration depends
on the notion of aplanatic points.
If there are two transparent
substances separated from one
another by a spherical surface,
then there are two points on the axis where they can be reproduced
free from error by monochromatic light, and these are called
" aplanatic points." The first is the centre of the sphere. All rays
issuing from this point pass unrefracted through the dividing surface ;
its image-point coincides with it. Besides this there is a second point
on the axis, from which all issuing rays are so refracted at the surface
of the sphere that, after the refraction, they appear to originate
from one point the image-point (see fig. 30). With this, the object-
point O, and consequently the image-point O' also, will be at a
3uite definite distance from the centre. If however the object-point
oes not lie in the medium with the index n, but before it, and the
medium is, for example, like a front lens, still limited by a plane
surface, just in front of which is the object-point, then in traversing
the plane surface spherical aberrations of the under-corrected type
again arise, and must be removed. By homogeneous immersion
the object-point can readily be reduced to an aplanatic point. By
experiment Abbe proved that old, good microscope objectives,
which by mere testing had become so corrected that they produced
usable images, were not only free from spherical aberrations, but
also fulfilled the sine-condition, and were therefore really aplanatic
systems.
The second aberration which must be removed from microscope
objectives are the chromatic. To diminish these a collective lens
of crown-glass is combined with a dispersing lens of flint; in such a
system the red and the blue rays intersect at a point (see ABERRA-
TION). In systems employed for visual observation (to which class
the microscope belongs) the red and blue rays, which include the
physiologically most active part of the spectrum, are combined;
but rays other than the two selected are not united in one point.
The transverse sections of these cones of rays diverge more or less
from the transverse section of the chosen blue and red cones, and
produce a secondary spectrum in the image, and the images still
appear to have a slightly coloured edge, mostly greenish-yellow or
purple; in other words, a chromatic difference of the spherical
aberrations arises (see fig. 31). This refers to systems with small
apertures, but still more so to systems with large ones; chromatic
aberrations are exceptionally increased by large apertures.
The new glasses produced at Schott's glass works, Jena, possessed
in part optical qualities which differed considerably from those
of the older kinds of glass. In the old crown and flint glass a high
O
FIG. 31. Showing a system with chromatic difference of spherical
aberration. O" = image of O for red light; O'" for blue. The
system is under-corrected for red, and over-corrected for blue rays
refractive index was always connected with a strong dispersion
and the reverse. Schott succeeded, however, in producing glasses
which with a comparatively low refraction have a high dispersion
and with a high refraction a low dispersion. By using these glasses
and employing minerals with special optical properties, it is possible
o correct objectives so that three colours can be combined, leaving
only a quite slight tertiary spectrum, and removing the spherical
aberration for two colours. Abbe called such systems " apochro-
mats." Good apochromats often have as many as twelve lenses,
whilst systems of simpler construction are only achromatic, and are
herefore called " achromats."
Even in apochromats it is not possible to entirely remove the
chromatic difference of magnification, i.e. the images produced by
he red rays are somewhat smaller than the images produced by
the blue. A white object is represented with blue streaks and
a black one with red streaks. This aberration can, however, be
successfully controlled by a suitable eyepiece (see below).
A further aberration which can only be overcome with difficulty,
and even then only partially, is the " curvature of the field, " i.e. the
joints situated in the middle and at the edge of the plane object
can not be seen clearly at the same focusing.
Historical Development. The first real improvement in the
microscope objective dates from 1830 when V. and C. Chevalier,
at first after the designs of Selligue, produced objectives, con-
sisting of several achromatic systems arranged one above the
other. The systems could be used separately or in any com-
bination. A second method for diminishing the spherical
aberration was to alter the distances of the single systems, a
method still used. Selligue had no particular comprehension
of the problem, for his achromatic single systems were simply
telescope objectives corrected for an infinitely distant point, and
were placed so that the same surface was turned towards the
object in the microscope objective as in the telescope objective;
although contrary to the telescope, the distance of the object
in the microscope objective is small in proportion to the distance
of the image. It would have been more correct to have employed
these objectives in a reverse position.
These circumstances were considered by Chevalier and Lister.
Lister showed that a combination of lenses can be achromatic for
only two points on the axis, and therefore that the single systems
must be so arranged that the aplanatic (virtual) injage-point O'
(fig- 3 2 ) f the first system coincides with the object-point of the
next system. This system will
always be aplanatic. These ob-
jectives permitted a much larger
aperture than a simple achromatic
system. Although such systems
have been made recently for special
purposes, this construction was
abandoned, and a more complex
one adopted, which also made the
production of better objectives
possible; this is the principle of the
compensation of the aberrations
produced in the different parts of
the objective. Even Lister, who
proceeded on quite different lines, FIG. 32.
hinted at the possibility of such a
compensation. This method makes it specially possible to
overcome the chromatic and spherical aberrations of higher
orders and to fulfil the sine-condition, and the chief merit of
this improvement belongs to Amici. He had recognized that
the good operation of a microscope objective depended essentially
upon the size of the aperture, and he therefore endeavoured to
produce systems with wide aperture and good correction. He used
chiefly a highly curved plano-convex front lens, which has since
always been employed in strong systems. Even if the object-point
on the axis cannot be reproduced quite free from aberration through
such a lens, because aberrations of the type of an under-correction
have been produced by the first plane outer limiting surface, yet
the defects with the strong refraction are relatively small and can
be well compensated by other systems. Amici chiefly employed
cemented pairs of lenses consisting of a plano-convex flint lens and
a biconvex crown lens(fig. 33) , and constructed objectives with an aper-
ture of 135. He also showed the influence of the cover-slip on pencils
of such wide aperture. The lower surface of the slip causes under-
correction on being traversed by the pencil, with over-correction
when it leaves it; and since the aberration of the surface lying
farthest from the object, i.e. those caused by the upper surface
preponderate, an over-corrected cone of rays enters the objective.
The over-correction increases when the glass is thickened. In
order to counteract this aberration the whole objective must be
correspondingly under-corrected. Objectives with definite under-
correction can however only produce really good images with glass
covers of a specified thickness. With apertures of 0-90-0-95
differences of even O-OO4-O-OO8 in. in the glass covers can be
noticed by the deterioration of the image. In systems with smaller
apertures variations of the thickness of the glass cover are not so
FIG. 33.
MICROSCOPE
401
noticeable. For this reason Amici constructed objectives of a
similar aperture and focus for different thicknesses of glass covers.
This expensive method was simplified in 1837 by Andrew Ross
by making the upper and lower portion of the objective variable
by means of a so-called correction-collar, and so giving the objective
a corresponding under-correction according to the thickness of the
glass cover. The alteration of the focus and the aperture are little
influenced. The correction-collar was improved by Wenham and
Zeiss, by working the upper system upon the lower, and not the
reverse; for in this way the preparation remains almost exactly
focused during the operation (see fig. 34).
The injurious influence of the glass cover is substantially lessened
if no air is admitted to the space between the glass cover and the
FIG. 34. r
ed i
FIG. 35. Achro-
matic objective for
homogeneous immer-
FlG. 36.
Apochromatic
system.
tive fitted with cor-
rect ion collar
(Zeiss).
front lens (as in the dry-system) but if the intervening space is filled
with an immersion-liquid. Amici was likewise the first to produce
practical and good immersion-systems. The slight difference of the
refractive indexes of the glass cover and the immersion-liquid
involves a diminution of the aberrations, by which the objective
will become less sensitive to the differences in thickness of the glass
covers and admits of a more perfect adjustment. Water-immersion
was introduced by Amici in 1840, and was improved by E. Hartnack
in 1855.
The advantages of the immersion over the dry-systems are greatest
when the embedding-liquid, the glass cover, the immersion-liquid
and the front lens have the same refractive index. Such systems
with a so-called homogeneous immersion were first constructed after
the plan of E. Abbe in 1878 in-the Zeiss workshops at the instigation
of J. W. Stephenson. Cedarwood oil (Canada balsam), which has
a refractive index of 1-515, is the immersion-liquid. The structure
of a modern system of this type, with a numerical aperture of 1-30, is
shown in fig. 35-
The most perfect microscope objective was invented by E. Abbe
in 1886 in the so-called apochromatic objective. In this, the
secondary spectrum is so much lessened that for all practical purposes
it is unnoticeable. In the appchromats the chromatic difference
of the spherical aberrations is eliminated, for the spherical aberration
is completely avoided for three colours. Since in these systems
the sine-condition can be fulfilled for several colours, the quality
of the images of points beyond the axis is better. There still remains
a slight chromatic difference in magnification, for although the
magnification consequent upon the fulfilment of the sine-condition
is the same for all zones for one colour, it is impossible to avoid a
change of the magnification with the colour. Abbe overcame this
defect by using the so-called compensation ocular, made with Jena
glasses. Fig. 36 shows an apochromat of a numerical aperture of
1-40.
THE EYEPIECE OR OCULAR
The eyepiece is considerably simpler in its construction than
the objective.
Its purpose in a microscope is by means of narrow cones of rays
to represent at infinity the real magnified image which the objective
produces. As, however, the object represents a real image, the
problem is to project a transparent diapositive. It is therefore
impossible to observe this image through an ordinary lens. Since
many of the rays coming from the exit-pupil of the objective would
not reach the eye of the observer at all, it is necessary, in order to
make use of all of them, to direct the diverging rays forming the real
image so that the whole of the light enters the eye of the observer.
This is effected by a collective lens; it may be compared with the
second part of the condenser system of a projecting lantern.
The two most customary eyepieces consist in two simple plano-
convex lenses, whose distance one from the other is equal to half the
sum of the two focal lengths. One of these is the Ramsden eyepiece
(fig- 37)- If the real image produced by the objective coincides
with the collective lens, only the inclination of the principal rays is
altered, the form of the cone being affected only to a very small
extent. The lens nearer the eye, which has about the same focal
length as the collective lens, is distant from it by about its focal
length. . The eye-lens converts diverging pencils into parallels. Both
lenses together form the exit-pupil of the objective behind the eye^
lens, so that this image, the exit-pupil of the total system or the
Ramsden circle, is accessible to the eye of the observer. It is
possible to see the whole field through this pupil by slightly moving
the head and eye. In practice the real image is formed not directly
FIG. 37. Ramsden Eyepiece.
L 2 = collective-, L 3 = eye-lens.
DD = diaphragm of the field of view.
P"P" = Ramsden's circle, or exit-pupil of whole microscope.
on the collective lens but a little in front of it, because otherwise
all the particles of dust on the collective' would also be seen magnified.
In the other type, the Huygenian eyepiece (fig. 38), which is
much more widely used, the collective lens is in front of the real image ;
it alters the direction of the principal rays and somewhat diminishes
the real image. In this type the eye-lens is about twice as powerful
as the collective lens, and makes the rays parallel. Here also
the exit-pupil is accessible to the eye and through it the whole field
can be seen by moving the head and eye. In both eyepieces micro-
meters or cross-wires are used for measuring in the plane of the real
\J
FlG. 38. Huygenian Eyepiece.
L 2 = collective-, L 3 = eye-lens.
DD= diaphragm of the field of view.
P"P" = Ramsden's circle, or exit-pupil of whole microscope.
image. The Ramsden eyepiece is the most convenient for this
because this plane lies in front of the collective lens, and the objec-
tive image has not yet been influenced by the eyepiece. As both
eyepieces are used with very small apertures (about/: 20) no attempt
has been made to overcome the spherical aberrations, which are
usually very slight; neither, as a rule, are the eyepieces chro-
matically corrected, care has only to be taken by a suitable choice
of the distance of one lens from the other, that the coloured
images derived from a colourless object should have the same
apparent size. Since, however, the difference of chromatic magni-
fication cannot be overcome in powerful objectives, this error is
still further increased by the eyepiece. The difference of chromatic
magnification cannot even be over-
come in apochromats, and to cancel
this aberration Abbe devised the
compensating ocular (fig. 39).
The weak compensation oculars
resemble a Huygenian eyepiece
with achromatic eye-lens, whilst
the more powerful ones are of a
different construction. These eye-
pieces are intentionally provided
with a different chromatic magnifi-
cation, which however is in oppo-
sition to that originating in the
objective. They have also a shorter FIG. 39. Compensating Eye-
focus for red, and a longer one for pieces (Zeiss).
blue, and thus magnify the red image more than the blue; and as
the objective gives a large blue and a small red image, the two
cancel one another and a colourless image is produced.
These eyepieces are very convenient in use, for when they are
changed the lower focus always falls in about the same plane. In
German and French microscopes the optical length of the tube,
when apochromats and compensation-eyepieces are used, is 180 mm.
By multiplying the magnification of the objective by the number
402
MICROSCOPE
on the eyepiece the total magnification of the microscope is obtained.
By the magnification of the objective is meant the ratio of the
distance of distinct vision to the focal length of the objective.
As powerful achromatic objectives show differences of chromatic
magnification in the same way as apochromats, compensation
eyepieces can be used in combination with these objectives.
ILLUMINATING SYSTEMS
Most microscopic observations are made with transmitted
light; an illuminating arrangement is therefore necessary, and
as the plane of the object is nearly always horizontal or only
slightly inclined, the illuminating rays must be directed along
the optical axis of the microscope.
To fully utilize the aperture of the system all dispersing rays in
the object-space of the objective must be retained in the image-
space of the illuminating system. When this occurs the greatest
brightness will be obtained if the corresponding diaphragms of the
two systems coincide; i.e. the field-diaphragm on the image-side
of the observing system with object-side of the illuminating system,
and the exit pupil of the illuminating system with the entrance pupil
of the objective.
For slight magnifications a revolving plane mirror fixed below
the object for altering the direction of the rays suffices. For this
mirror to illuminate all the points ot the objective so that the rays
fill up the objective, it must not be too small, and should be as near
as possible to the stage plate, and the source of light must be con-
siderably extended (fig. 40). Diffused
daylight is very suitable. If the
aperture of the objective is increased,
the diameter of the illuminating sur-
face must also be increased so that
the system is quite filled up, from
which it follows that this method of
illuminating soon fails. The possi-
bilities of illuminating with a concave
mirror seem a little more favourable.
As a rule a concave mirror of similar
aperture is fitted on the other side
of the plane mirror. With the con-
cave mirror an image of the source
of light can be thrown upon the
object. The distance of the concave
mirror from the stage plate is about
equal to its focal length. This is also
the most suitable distance when
diffused daylight is used, but it is
too short with artificial light; the
I--,,- TU-, distance between the stage plate and
FIG. 40.-Mirror Illumma-
M ^i-. Or A
mirror ? ~' =
n u- ' j. T c <. i
O = object; L,- front lens
PP 3lS.SoSn
PP = diaphragm.
consequently is represented at infinity through the illuminating
lens. By a correct choice of the focal length of the illuminating
lens in relation to the focal length of the mirror, it is possible to
choose the size of the image of the source of light so that the
whole object-field is uniformly lighted.
Too much light is useless for observing delicately coloured or
colourless preparations, whose parts only become visible as a result
of slight differences of diffraction. Then it is necessary to use
powerfully concentrated cones of light. The apparatus must be
such that the apertures of the illuminating rays can easily be altered,
e.g. by inserting diaphragms in the course of the rays of the illuminat-
ing cone below the stage plate (fig. 40, PP). This concentration is
most easily produced by sliding or revolving diaphragms. A series
of holes of different sizes perforate a revolving disk below the stage
plate at an equal radial distance from the axis of the disk, so that
the holes can be brought under the preparation in turn, the centre
of the diaphragms always being a continuation of the optical axis of
the microscope.
The so-called cylinder
diaphragms (fig. 41) are
used especially in German
microscopes. A changeable
diaphragm is placed at the
upper end of a short tube
which can be moved in a
case below the stage in the
direction of the optical axis.
By bringing the diaphragm
FIG. 41. Cylinder Diaphragm (Zeiss). nearer ' he b i Kt the . a P? r -
v ture of the rays is in-
creased ; if the diaphragm is removed farther from the object the
cone of rays is diminished (cf. fig. 40). These diaphragms are
so that an image of the source of light
9 an . be throw " u P on the . ob ) e . ct ' !t
is simpler to place an illuminating
, ens .^^ ^^ ^^ Q{ , ight gQ
that the source {alls approximately
a( . the front focug of
sometimes fitted in a slide, so that it is possible to move the
diaphragm sideways and give oblique illumination (see below).
With very powerful objectives these methods are insufficient;
and a condenser is fitted below the stage plate. As a rule an iris
diaphragm, which can be moved sideways, is now fitted below this
condenser; below is the mirror which can be moved in all directions.
The Abbe apparatus consists of a condenser, movable iris diaphragm,
and mirror (fig. 42). The whole apparatus can be focused by a rack
FlG. 42. Abbe Illuminating Apparatus with Ordinary
Condenser (Zeiss).
and the button s. The iris diaphragm can be regulated by the lever
p; it can also be turned to one side round the pivot z, so that the
condenser k can be removed or changed. The correct direction
can be given to the illuminating cone by the mirror m. It is often
desirable to pass .from direct to oblique lighting. The Abbe
apparatus makes this easy. The iris diaphragm i is pushed to the
side by the rack and pinion t n. The chief cone of rays then enters
obliquely into the objective, the angle between the direct cone of
rays and the diffraction spectrum of the first order can then become
as large again as with direct lighting, and still be taken up in the
objective. Oblique lighting, however, can only be in an azimuth,
so that the object must be turned in order that the details may be
observed. Hence a condenser, for lighting with very oblique cones,
must have about the same aperture as the objective, and therefore
be of very wide aperture; they therefore closely resemble microscope
objectives in construction. Especially powerful achromatic con-
densers are really only magnified microscope objectives, with the
difference that they are not corrected for the thickness of the cover
slip, but for the thickness of the glass on which the object is placed.
For exceptionally accurate work microscope objectives are sometimes
used as condenser systems. When using immersion objectives, an
immersion condenser must also be used if rays of extreme obliquity
are wanted, for, in consequence of the total reflections, rays can only
come from the upper plane surface of the condenser, which have
not a larger inclination to the axis than about 41 , varying according
to the refractive index of the glass. In order to let highly inclined
rays pass out from the condenser, some immersion liquid must be
placed between the upper surface of the condenser and the object
slide. Condensers are for this reason also constructed with apertures
up to 1-40.
Vertical Illuminators. Opaque objects can only be seen by
reflected light. With low magnifying systems and a large free
object distance, ordinary good daylight is sufficient. If the objects
have a low reflecting power, or if a slightly higher magnification is
needed, the lighting can be improved by optical system.
To examine small opaque objects with a high magnification
the Lieberktihn mirror, so named after its inventor, was formerly
much used. This was a concave mirror, pierced in the middle, fixed
to the objective, and directed towards the object and with such a
MICROSCOPE
403
FIG. 43. Vertical
Illuminator (Zeiss).
focal length that rays parallel to the axis falling upon it were united
exactly upon the object. In this case the object lay upon a stage
plate, whose centre had so far been made opaque, so that the rays
coming from the illuminating plane mirror could not reach the objec-
tive direct, but only the rays passing the stage plate to the side of this
blackened portion reached the Lieberkuhn mirror, and were used
in lighting. The disadvantage of this method was that only small
opaque objects could be examined. Much more easily manipulated
is the parabolic side-illuminator invented by R. Beck, which can be
conveniently fitted in and used for objectives with different focal
lengths. It consists in half of a short focused parabolic mirror,
which concentrates all the light coming from the one side on to the
object. To examine objects with objectives of high power and low
free object distance, the apparatus for side-illumination is not
sufficient, and a so-called vertical illuminator is used. In Zeiss's
form (fig. 43) a small prism p, which also revolves upon a horizontal
axis, is placed as near as possible to
the back lens of the objective. The
edge which is the separating line of the
horizontal and hypothenuse surfaces of
the prism, lies approximately over the
middle of the system, so that the rays
entering through the opening in the
side after having been reflected by the
hypothenuse surface are concentrated
through one half of the objective on to
the object. When observing only the
other half of the objective is used.
The sources of light used should be
arranged so that the objective throws
an image of the light-source upon the
object. It is best if the image of the
light is not larger than the object
examined, and to effect this, an
illuminating lens with an iris dia-
phragm is often placed between the
source of light and the illuminator. By
suitable adjustment and by changing
the iris diaphragm the size of the
illuminating field can be controlled. The objects observed with
the vertical illuminator must not have a class cover if the dry
system is employed, because the upper surface of the glass cover
would send so much light back into the objective by reflection,
that the image would be indistinct. It is, on the contrary, possible
to examine covered objects with the vertical illuminator, if the
immersion system be employed. Owing to the slight difference of
illumination between the immersion liquid and the cover, the
portion of light reflected on the cover is not noticeable.
Dark Field Illumination. As was seen when discussing the
physical theory, the minute details of the object cause diffractions,
and can only be examined if the objective can take up at least two
consecutive diffraction spectra. These diffracting details become
especially distinct if the direct lighting cone of rays, the spectrum of
zero [order or the chief maximum, is not allowed to enter the objective
and instead only two or more diffraction maxima are taken up;
the details then appear bright on a dark background. In dark field
illumination care has to be taken that no direct rays reach the objec-
tive, and hence a good dark field illumination can be produced if the
condenser system has a larger aperture than the objective. If an
Abbe lighting apparatus is used a dark field diaphragm (fig. 44)
can be placed in the iris diaphragm case. The central
diaphragm disk keeps away all the light which would
otherwise fall directly into the objective, and the open
zones send so many oblique rays through the object
that they cannot all be taken up by the objective.
p Exactly the same effect is reached when, as is shown in
44- pig 4^ a more powerful system D is used for a condenser,
which has a blackened section on the back of the front lens of such
a size that no light can enter the objective A. In this way it is
only possible for diffracted rays to enter the objective.
Apparatus for a good dark field illumination has received much
attention, because in this way ultra-microscopical particles can be
made visible. This depends on the good combination of the entering
cones of rays, which should be as oblique as possible; this is most
easily done by mirror condensers. A number of early inventions
have been revived for this purpose.
Wenham's paraboloid illuminator (fig. 46) is made entirely of
glass, and is in the form of a paraboloid, having on the top a spherical
hole, of such a curvature that all entering rays, r r' r", parallel to the
axis, after their reflection on the surface of the paraboloid, traverse
the spherical surface perpendicularly and unite in F, the centre of the
sphere. A diaphragm s is placed in the middle of the spherical
surface, and this keeps back the central rays. This diaphragm is
sometimes fixed to a handle piercing the condenser, and which can
be moved up and down, so that the aperture of the oblique entering
cones of rays can be altered. Another form of the paraboloid
condenser, also due to Wenham, has a plane surface on the upper
side. Some immersion fluid must then be placed between the stage
plate and the condenser in order to allow all the rays to pass out;
otherwise only those rays would be able to pass out which are
close to the axis of the condenser in the inside of the condenser, and
are smaller than the limiting angle of the total reflection.
FIG. 45. Path of Rays for dark-ground illumination with fixed
diaphragm in the objective.
(Objective D can also be used as a condenser (Zeiss).)
Th. Ross's " spot lens," invented in 1855, and J. W. Stephenson's
catoptric illuminator (1879), may also be mentioned. A recent
condenser of very high illuminating power is due to H. Siedentopf
(fig. 47). It is a double mirror system, whose reflecting surfaces are
a sphere a and a cardioid b. The combination of rays is also sufficient
in practice if the cardioid surface is replaced by a spherical one.
FIG. 46. Wenham's FIG. 47. Siedentopf's
Paraboloid Condenser. Cardioid Condenser.
A supplementary spherical surface c is necessary for the completion
of the condenser.
BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS
The stereoscopic microscope is the most suitable for finding
out the space taken up by the separate parts of a preparation.
(See also BINOCULAR INSTRUMENTS and STEREOSCOPY.) The
observer has a stereoscopic impression of an object, when
different perspective representations are presented to both eyes,
which, through the action of the central nerve system, resolve
into one impression.
One way of receiving a stereoscopic impression through a micro-
scope is by fixing an apparatus as directly as possible above the last
lens of the microscopic objective, which divides the rays passing out
and directs half into each eyepiece. The half cones of rays have now
semicircular sections, the diaphragms having the same form. The
cones must be so directed through the divided system that the two
exit pupils correspond to the interpupillary distance of the observer.
The distance of the centres of the semicircular entrance pupils and
their distance from the object regulates the difference of the two
perspective representations, which are presented one to the right eye
and one to the left. If the perspective centres lie too near one another
in the object-space, as may happen with slightly opened and weak
systems, the difference of the perspective is then too slight to make
any real stereoscopic impression. On the other hand, a very much
exaggerated stereoscopic effect can be derived from short focused
44
MICROSCOPE
FIG. 49.
Wenham's
Prism.
systems of wide aperture. On account of the slight depth defini-
tion, short focused systems of wide aperture are not at all specially
suitable for stereoscopic observation, because the possibility of
observing objects taking up a good deal of space is too limited when
such systems are used.
Professor J. L. Riddell (Quart. Journ. Micros, 1853, p. 236; 1854,
pp. 18-24) published an arrangement of prisms, which, however,
imparted a pseudomorphous impression if image-forming oculars
were not used, and in 1854 a second system
(fig. 48), essentially a Wheatstone pseudoscope,
added just above the objective. This gave
an orthoscopic image even in ordinary eye-
pieces. By adopting right-angled reflection-
prisms above the eyepiece he completely
erected the image. Stephenson's stereoscopic
microscope (fig. 58, Plate) resembles this
apparatus in all essentials. A construction of
prisms by Nachet is now almost forgotten,
while on the contrary an extremely simple
dividing prism published by Wenham (Land.
Micros. Soc., 1861, i. 109) has been exception-
ally well attested in practice. It is more easily
used than any other apparatus (see BINOCULAR
, INSTRUMENTS, fig. 8). A reflec-
FlG. 4 8.-Riddells t; Qn . prism (fig . | g) in a ^^^
is placed above the last surface
of the objective and divides the exit rays. The
group of rays coming from the left half of the
objective can continue its way without hindrance
to the right eye. The group of rays coming from the
right half of the objective is reflected twice in the
prism and directed to the left eye. The tube con-
taining the left eyepiece is a little inclined to-
wards the right tube, which is perpendicular. It can
be adapted to the interpupillary distance by changing the tube slide.
If it is desired to use the instrument as a monocular, the setting
with the prism at the lower end of the tube is taken away.
A second manner of making stereoscopic observations employs
stereoscopic eyepieces. The first of such eyepieces was proposed by
R. B. Tolles. 1 He realized that the division of the cones of rays by
prisms could only be satisfactorily performed if the prism was placed
in the position of the exit pupil of the objective or in the position of
the real image of this exit pupil. He employed a Nachet combina-
tion of prisms and placed the dividing prism at the spot where a
special reversing system formed a real image of the exit pupil of
the objective. A second stereoscopic eyepiece was devised by A.
Prazmowski who substituted a Wenham diffracting division prism
at the position of the real image of the exit pupil of the objective
formed by a reversing system. The newest form of a stereoscopic
microscope resembles the oldest in so far as two completely separate
microscopes are used. In the oldest microscope by Cherubin
d'Orleans the observer receives a pseudoscopic impression in con-
sequence of the reversed image. This defect has been avoided in
the instruments constructed in the Zeiss factory (fig. 59, Plate) at
the instigation of the American zoologist H. S. Greenough. The
system of Porro prisms employed affords a convenient method of
adapting the ends of the eyepieces to the interpupillary distance.
The two tubes are inclined to one another at an angle of about 14.
The microscope is only intended for slight magnifications. The
possibility already suggested of using both eyes for observing without
having a stereoscopic impression, is often regarded as a great advan-
tage. Binocular microscopes have therefore been constructed on this
plan. Such a combination of prisms was used by Wenham, who
placed it directly behind the last objective lens. As a rule this
arrangement of prisms can be exchanged for the Wenham stereo-
scopic reflection-prisms.
A second kind of dividing prism which directs the entire course
of rays to both eyes, and thus produces identical images, was used
by Powell and Lealand (fig. 50). Every ray is divided into a re-
flected and a refracted portion on the front side of a
parallel plate. Whilst the refracted portion after
leaving the plate continues its way in the same
direction, displaced a little to one side, the reflected
portion is directed into the side tube by a reflection-
prism. With these microscopes, which are not
stereoscopic, objectives of any power can be used.
The surfaces of the dividing prisms must be very
exact, so that no deterioration of the image may arise
from them. A microscope for two eyes can also be
obtained by employing the Abbe stereoscopic eyepiece.
By the supplementary use of one of Wenham's
FIG so P" sms every ray is analysed into a more powerful
a refracted and a weaker reflected one. The same image
tjowell s can be presented to each eye by using this eyepiece
rnsms. also. No stereoscopic impression is then felt. It is
brought about by placing special semicircular dia-
phragms in the plane of the exit pupil of the microscope. By.
' R B. Tolles, Sill. Journ. (1865), xxxix. 212; Journ. Roy. Micr.
Soc. (1890), pt. i. p. 383.
turning the diaphragms 180 round the optical axis, the orthoscopic
impression can be changed into the pseudoscopic. The mechanical
arrangement of the eyepiece is such that the distance of the two
exit pupils can be adjusted to the interpupillary distance.
MECHANICAL ARRANGEMENTS
Although the optical system is the first consideration in a
microscope, the system is valueless if the fittings do not allow its
correct use. The optical system must be kept at a certain
distance and well centred, and a correct position for the object
in relation to the system must be assured.
In fig. 60, Plate, the microscope is seen to consist of the heavy
metal foot A, which rests on the table at three points. The whole
microscope is fitted to this foot. The object can be held firmly on
the stage plate B by cramps C. On the lower side of the stage plate
are the condenser and the diaphragms, and the illuminating mirror
J is held by a rod D fixed to the stage plate. Likewise on the stage
plate is the support for the tube E. The rough adjustment of the
microscope can be made by a rack and pinion F; and the fine adjust-
ment by the screw. G. The tube containing the eyepiece and the
objective is double. The inner tube H is movable, making a change
in the length of the tube possible. As a rule this inner tube has a
mark which allows the length of the tube to be set.
It is most important the stand should be free of vibration. A fine
adjustment is also necessary, in order to perform conveniently and
with certainty the slight motion of the microscope in relation to
the object. In cheap stands the rough adjustment was worked by
moving the inner tube by hand, but the more convenient rack and
pinion is now used almost exclusively.
For slight magnifications rough adjustment is sufficient, but with
objectives of a focus below J in., a fine adjustment is' wanted.
Very different constructions are in use. Almost all are such that
the whqle microscope tube is raised or sunk by the mechanism of the
fine adjustment, and not only the objective. The most used is
the micrometer screw adjustment (fig, 51). The tube carrier B
FIG. 51. Micrometer Screw FIG. 52. Lever Adjustment of
Adjustment of Leitz. J. Swift & Son.
fits closely on to a column A which is fixed firmly to the stage plate.
The end of the column C is traversed by the micrometer screw D
which is set in action by the knob E. The column A contains a
powerful spiral spring, which exercises a strong pressure on the plate
F fixed to the carrier B. By screwing in the micrometer, the spring
is compressed and the tube lowered. By the contrary movement
the spring pressure raises the tube as far as is allowed by the screw.
The strong pressure of the spring practically excludes motion,
which with fine adjustments is very important. Another very good
adjustment is that of Messrs Swift & Son, shown in fig. 52. The long
lever D is pressed to one side by the screw F, and is thus turned round
the pin E. On the tube very near to the pin E is a cylinder C, which
by the action of the screw F is very slightly raised or lowered. A
double lever is used in a fine adjustment by Messrs Watson & Sons
( n g- 53.)- According to whether the screw A or B is used, the adjust-
ment is fine or coarse. In other fine adjustments by means of
springs and balance wheels either a micrometer screw is moved
(Zeiss), or a curved disk fixed to the balance wheel is turned (Leitz),
or an oblique disk arranged more or less in a circle and attached
to the balance wheel is revolved (Reichert). These modern adjust-
ments are made so exact that motions can be easily measured
MICROSCOPE
PLATE I.
FIG. 57. LARGE DISSECTING STAND (ZEISS).
FIG. 58. STEPHENSON'S BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE
(SWIFT).
FIG. 60. THE DEMONSTRATION MICROSCOPE
(BAKER).
XVIII. 404
PLATE II.
MICROSCOPE
0)0
a
a,
o
u
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s
-
0,
o
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w
C-
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o
U
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W
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O
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o
MICROSCOPE
405
up to 0-002 mm. An essential in all rough and fine adjustments
is that the motion must always be parallel to the optical axis of
the microscope, so that the same
point in the object remains in
the centre of the field.
Another condition which must
be fulfilled by a good stand is the
power of inclination. It is only
rarely necessary to arrange the
preparation really horizontal ; and
for easy observation, especially
when it will take a long time, it is
of great assistance if the micro-
scope can be inclined, so that
the observations can be made
in a natural position. The appar-
atus for inclining the microscope
is chiefly such that the micro-
scope can be placed in all posi-
tions between the vertical and
the horizontal. The horizontal
position is sometimes necessary
if photographs are to be taken
by the microscope.
Many devices are available
for changing the objective. It is
essential that the objective is
always brought before the lower
end of the tube in such a way that
FIG. 53. Double Lever Adjust-
ment of Watson & Sons.
the optic axis of the objective coincides with the optic axis of the
rest of the system. The fittings of the objective and the changer
are so arranged that little or no fine adjustment is necessary after
the change. The most widely used is the revolving changer (fig.
60, Plate). The revolver may hold two, three or four objectives.
In the sliding changer the objective is, dovetailed to a slide, the
correct position being secured by clamps.
Fully equipped microscopes have apparatus for moving and turn-
ing the object. In simple microscopes the stage plate lies on the
stand held by two springs, and must be moved by the hand (fig. 60,
Plate). For elaborate work a so-called cross-table is indispensable.
By means of screws the stage plate is movable in two directions at
right angles to one another, in the plane of the stand. In many
cases the stand is also movable round the optic axis.
The microscope stands described above can be used for the greater
number of the naturalist's experiments. For very special objects
the stand must be expressly made; thus stands with tube carriers very
much projecting are made for examining sections of the brain.
The petrographical microscope is shown in fig. 61, Plate.
In order to determine the refractive index when the thickness of
the crystal is known, or the thickness of the crystal when the index
is known, a fine adjustment A makes it possible to measure exactly
the changes in the length of the microscope. Further, a revolving
stage plate provided with a graduation B is used to determine the
angle in crystals. To obviate mistakes the optical axis of the micro-
scope must coincide with the revolving axis of the plate, and the
revolving plate has a central position C to keep this condition ful-
filled. In many stands the objective can be centred instead of the
plate. For measuring this angle, an eyepiece with cross-threads is
used. In the lower focal plane of the eyepiece, at the spot where the
real image which the objective forms of the object arises, a glass plate
is introduced on which are two fine cross lines or even two very thin
threads. The eye-lens can be adjusted for the thread-plate, so that
different observers can see the cross clearly. The cross is always
adjusted first. When observing with such an eyepiece, care must be
taken that the real image of the object lies in the plane of the cross-
threads, i.e. that there is no parallax. The adjustment is easily
controlled. If the eye is moved to and fro over the eyepiece and the
image makes apparently similar movements in relation to the cross
threads, then the image does not yet lie in the plane of the threads.
To measure the angle, the images of the crystal edges are covered
in turn by one of the threads by turning the table, and the angle of
rotation is read from the scale. A cross-table is very convenient
for this calculation, for with the aid of the two movable slides situated
in the plane of the plate and at right angles to one another, the point
where the two crystal edges intersect can be quickly and correctly
brought into the revolving axis of the plate. This measurement can
also be made with a goniometer eyepiece, in which a row of parallel
double-marks are used instead of the cross threads. The fitting of
the eyepiece at the upper end of the tube is provided with a graduated
circle. The eyepiece proper with the parallel strokes can be revolved,
and the rotation be read from the graduated circle. In carrying out
this calculation the marks of the thread-plate have only to be placed
exactly parallel tc the crystal edge.
For examining preparations in polarized light a polarizer D is
traduced in the illuminating apparatus below the diaphragm and an
analyser E above the eyepiece. The analyser can be rotated, the
angle being read by a divided circle F. Very often the analyser
is placed in the tube, a little above the objective : it is then generally
K : " a case G, which can be put into the tube. The placing of the
alyser near the objective has the advantage that the field of view
is not restricted, as is the case if the analyser is used above the
eyepiece. Nicols's, Glan-Thomson prisms or similar polarization
apparatus are used as polarizers and analysers. Below the analyser
G a plate H of selenite or mica may be put in the course of the rays.
This small plate can also be laid above the polarizer in the illuminat-
ing apparatus or in the eyepiece.
To- examine crystals, especially in converging light, a condenser,
movable in the optic axis, is needed above the polarizer. The image
produced by the microscope objective M in its back focus plane is
then observed through a supplementary microscope. The objective
of this supplementary microscope, the Bertrand lens, can be applied
through a window I at the lower end of the inner tube K. By using
a rack and pinion movement L the supplementary microscope can
be adjusted for the images. There is nearly always an arrangement
to observe the preparation first in convergent light and then in
parallel polarized light. This change can often be brought about
by taking away or adding parts of the condenser.
MlCROMETRY
It is often required in microscopical work to determine the
size of objects or parts of objects.
There are three essential ways of performing this. The first
method uses the objective screw micrometer. The object is placed
on a slide in the plane of the stage plate and able to be very finely
moved by the micrometer screw, which has as fine a worm as possible.
A divided cylinder is fixed to the turning knob, which thus makes it
possible to measure fractions of the revolution. The revolutions of
the cylinder are registered by a calculator. The use of an eyepiece
with a cross thread is essential to this measurement. After the
microscope has been so adjusted that the image of the object to be
measured falls exactly in the plane of the cross threads, the object
is moved by the micrometer until one edge of the object is exactly
covered by a thread. The micrometer is now read. Then the object
is moved by the micrometer till the image of the other edge is covered
by the thread in the eyepiece, and the micrometer is again read.
The difference between the two positions gives the size of the object.
The objective screw micrometer is, however, not sufficiently delicate,
and is only used when comparatively large objects are to be measured,
and especially for objects whose edges do not appear at the same time
in the field of view.
The second and most widely used method employs a micrometer
eyepiece. In this case not the object itself but a real image which
has already been magnified by the objective is measured, and
obviously much more accurate results are possible. The most
accurate calculations are obtained by using the screw micrometer
ocular (fig. 54). Directly below the collective lens of a Ramsden
FIG. 54. Screw Micrometer Ocular. Sectional elevation and
plan (Zeiss).
eyepiece a slide b can be moved by a micrometer screw o; the slide
carries a little glass plate c provided with a graduation. With the
help of this scale the total revolutions of the screw can be read;
fractions of the revolution can be read from the divided cylinder d.
The scale is generally divided into hundredths of millimetres or
thousandths of inches. A fixed mark which serves as an index is
placed on the lower side of the collective lens and is seen clearly
at the same time as the graduation of the movable slide. The
micrometer stands at zero if the zero mark of the cylinder coincides
with the index and the fixed mark is at a known division. The
calculation is most convenient if the micrometer is left in the position
of zero and the object is moved till one of its edges corresponds to
the zero mark of the eyepiece scale. If the micrometer is then moved
till another graduation corresponds to the other edge of the image
the size of the image can be read off. As this method measures
406
MICROSCOPE
the image correctly to a few thousandths of millimetres, the object
itself is measured accurately to some hundred-thousandths of milli-
metres, if it has been magnified a hundred times by the objective.
To keep up this degree of exactitude the magnification of the objec-
tive must be carefully ascertained, e.g. by using an objective micro-
meter. A fine scale with known intervals is put on the stage plate,
and by determining the distance between the graduations of the
objective micrometer formed through the same objective, by means
of the screw micrometer ocular, the magnification of the objective
is determined. As the errors in the graduation of the objective
micrometer are also magnified, very exact scales are necessary.
When determining the magnification the microscope must be used
under exactly the same conditions: neither the length of the tube
nor the focal length of the objective may be altered.
A fixed eyepiece micrometer is simpler and more popular. This
consists of a scale on a little glass plate, which, instead of a cross wire,
is placed in the eyepiece. The adjustment must be such that the
image produced by the objective falls exactly in the plane of the scale.
The size of the image is determined by calculating the entire interval
taken up by it. By using an objective micrometer in place of the
object, the magnification of the objective can be ascertained and
from this the actual size of the object. As fractions of intervals
can only be estimated in this-method, a measurement with such an
eyepiece scale can of course not be as exact as with a screw micro-
meter ocular. However, such a determination of size is often quite
accurate enough.
A third method employs a drawing prism. The object and the
drawing plane are seen at the same time and the outlines can be
readily drawn. If, as before, an objective micrometer is placed
below the microscope in the place of the object, and the size of a
special micrometer-interval is drawn on the same board, then the
actual size of the object can be ascertained. Instead of first drawing
the object and the objective micrometer, they can of course be pro-
jected at the same moment on a scale on the drawing board.
The errors attending the determination of the size of a micro-
scopic object depend chiefly on the accuracy of the objective
micrometer; any errors in the micrometer being magnified by the ob-
jective. These may be diminished by using different parts of the
objective micrometer for the correction of the eyepiece scale, and the
calculation of the size is based on the found mean value. A second
error can arise through the inaccuracy of the eyepiece micrometer,
and also in the case of a screw micrometer through periodic faults
of the screw, and through dead motion. The eyepiece micrometer
allows its errors to be diminished, if one measures at different points
and then fixes a mean value. The dead motion of a micrometer
screw is best avoided by working the screw always from one and the
same side. The thickness of the cross wire may also occasion a fault.
For this reason there is sometimes employed two very narrow threads
lying beside one another, and which limit the image as nearly as
possible.
THE TESTING OF THE MICROSCOPE
The excellence of a microscope objective depends on its
definition and its resolving power.
The definition is better according as the chromatic and spherical
aberrations are removed; there always remains in even the best
constructions some slight aberration. In
consequence of these residual aberrations,
every object-point is not reproduced in an
ideal image-point, but as a small circle of
aberration. These circles will be objection-
able when the smallest details are examined.
The size of these circles depends, in the case
of equal tube lengths, only on the type of
the objective, and not on the focal length,
exact execution being assumed. Object
details will only be well seen if the aberration
circles are small in comparison. The size of
these details in the image depends only on
the magnification of the objective, M=A///,
and can by appropriate choice of the focal
length of the objective be brought to the
right value. In the case of a suitable ocular
magnification, the details will be well seen,
while the aberration circles remain invisible.
It is therefore possible to judge the excel-
lence of the focusing of objectives on the
p IG ,, strength of the ocular-magnification, or the
over-magnification, which they permit.
DD = diaphragm. E . A bbe, through the so-called delicate
KiR 2 - condenser. ray transmission, suggested a way by which
L = iront lens of the the quality of the images of objectives can be
objective. observed. The ray transmission, shown in
Ine lower figure fi g . ; s obtained by means of a stop
shows the plan of o f t h e form shown in the lower figure
the transmission. anc ] p l ace d under the condenser in the plane
of the iris diaphragm. The entrance pupil is in this way reduced
on two small separate fields, which nevertheless contain rays of
all zones. It is necessary that the outside edge of the diaphragm
coincides with the edge of the entrance pupil. This can be attained
by drawing the iris diaphragm so far as to form the entrance pupil.
The double diaphragm is then in such a position that the edge of
the outer diaphragm coincides with the edge of the iris diaphragm.
The object employed must have distinct boundaries. Abbe's
test plate consists of an object carrier on which six cover glasses
of exactly determined thickness (between 0-09 mm. and 0-24 mm.)
are cemented. The cover glasses are silvered on their under
surfaces, and in the silvering fine lines are drawn; these lines
form the test object. This plate admits at the same time of
a correct determination of the thickness of the cover glass, for
which the best correction exists. So long as the object is not
sharply focused two separate dispersion figures will be seen. The
defects of the objective are revealed, e.g. two adjacent sharp
images are formed, which become indistinct if they coincide, or
one pencil produces a distinct, the other an indistinct image, or
that the images are surrounded with coloured rings. Owing to the
curvature of the image, all parts of the object are not seen distinctly
at one and the same time.
The resolving power of an objective depends on its numerical
aperture. The numerical .aperture can be determined in two
ways. A diaphragm with a very narrow hole is placed on the stage,
and the microscope sharply focused on the edges of the hole. The
illuminating mirror is turned aside and a graduated scale is laid
on the foot of the microscope. Strong systems produce in the
proximity of their back focal plane an image of the scale, which can
be inspected with a weak auxiliary microscope, and the length of the
visible part of the graduation determined. The ratio of half the
length of the visible piece of the scale to its distance from the dia-
phragm on the stage gives the tangent of half the angular aperture.
The sine of this angle is the numerical aperture for dry lenses.
With weak systems no auxiliary microscope is necessary, the eye-
piece being removed and the scale viewed directly in the tube.
E. Abbe constructed a simple instrument for the determination
of the aperture, termed the apertometer (fig. 56). A semi-circular
size)
Side view
FIG. 56. Abbe's Apertometer (Zeiss).
glass plate bears two scales, over which two black thin metal plates
bent back at right angles may be moved. A little hole in the silvered
plate a marks the centre of this circle. Through this hole the points
of the metal plates b can be observed by total reflection on the surface
c. The apertometer is laid on the stage, so that the hole lies in the
axis of the microscope, rjid the hole is sharply focused. The
eyepiece being removed the image of the metal plates b pro-
duced by the objective is seen. In order to ensure for the eye a
central position, there is fixed on the upper end of the tube in place
of the eyepiece a disk of pasteboard or metal with an axial hole. The
metal plates b are then moved till the points just cut off the edge of
the field to be surveyed. The angular or numerical aperture can then
be read off. With strong systems the vanishing of the points is
observed vyith an auxiliary microscope, formed by means of the inner
tube. In immersion systems the immersion liquid is placed between
the front lens and apertometer.
If the numerical aperture be known the resolving power is easily
found. The resolving power can also be determined by using differ-
ent fine test objects. Norbert's test plates, which bear graduated
groups of extremely fine and narrow divisions are very useful,
while the tests of Amphipleura pellucida and Surirella gemma are
often employed.
The magnification of a microscope is determined from the focal
lengths of the two optical systems and the optical tube length, for
N = 250 A////2. To determine the optical tube length A, it is neces-
sary to know the position of the focal planes of the objective and of
the ocular. If one focuses an auxiliary microscope, carried in the
inner tube, on the image situated in the back focal plane of the
objective of a distant object, and then on the dust particles lying on
a slide pressed against the end of the outer tube, the displacement
of the auxiliary microscope gives the distance of the back focal plane
of the objective from the end of the outer tube. To determine the
position of the anterior focal plane of the eyepiece, the eyepiece
is placed on the stage with the eye-lens downwards. An auxiliary
microscope is now focused first on the image of a distant object and
then on the plane of the edge of the setting. This plane can be
marked by a small piece of paper. This gives the distance of the
anterior focal plane of the eyepiece from the bottom edge of the
setting of the eyepiece and consequently also of the edge of the eye-
piece carried by the upper end of the tube. These measurements
determine the optical tube length A.
MICROTOMY
There are many methods for determining the focal length of the
objective. The objective to be examined is placed on the stage, and
in the manner just shown, the distance of the focal plane from the
edge of the fittings or to the surface plane of the front lens is deter-
mined. Any plane object a few yards distant can be used. If the
object can be seen by using the mirror, the plane mirror must be
used; then the actual size of the object and of the image produced by
the objective is measured (of the image by a micrometer ocular).
The distance of the object from the nearer focus of the objective
is next determined. This distance is composed of the distance of the
object from the centre of the plane mirror, and of the distance of
the focus of the objective on the stage plate from the centre of the
plane mirror. Let the size of the object be y, the size of the image y'
the distance of the object from the focus x, then y/y' = x/fi from
which /i can be calculated (see LENS). The same method can be
used to determine the focal length of the eyepiece. These are the
dimensions necessary for determining the magnification of the micro-
scope, viz. the optical length of the tube A, the focal lengths of the
objective//, and of the eyepiece / 2 .
The focal length of an objective can be more simply determined
by placing an objective micrometer on the stage and reproducing
on a screen some yards away by the objective which is to be examined.
If the size of the image of a known interval of the objective micro-
meter is determined by an ordinary scale, and the distance of the
407
the distance of the image from the focal plane belonging to it.
Besides this indirect method of determining the magnification
there is also a direct one, in which it is not necessary to first measure
/i, ft or A. If a drawing prism is used above the eyepiece, and an
objective micrometer is inserted, then if a scale is laid on the drawing
board which is 25 cm. distant from the exit pupil, one or more
intervals of the objective micrometer can be seen projected on the
scale lying on the board. The comparison of the two scales gives
directly the magnification. The course of the light within the drawing
prism must be taken into account when determining the distance
of the scale from the exit pupil. Although this method does not
give very accurate results, it is more convenient and simple than the
indirect method.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. J. Spitta, Microscopy (2nd ed., 1909); Sir
A. E. Wright, Principles of Microscopy (1906); W. B. Carpenter,
The Microscope and its Revelations (8th ed. by W. H. Dallinger, 1901) ;
J. Hogg, The Microscope (isth ed., 1898); H. van Heurck, The
Microscope (Eng. trans, by W. E. Baxter, 1893). W. Kaiser, Technik
des modernen Mikroskopes (Vienna, 19015), deals with the practical
aspects, whilst the theory is treated in M. von Rohr (Die Theorie
der optischen Instrumente, Berlin, 1904) and in S. Czapski (Grund-
ziige der Theorie der optischen Instrumente; ed. by O. Eppenstein,
Leipzig, 1904). (O. HR.)
MICROTOMY (Gr. TOM; Tipveiv, to cut), the term applied to
the preparation of minute sections of organic tissue for the
microscope. In 1875 the methods were yet in their infancy;
their development has enabled observers to achieve the most
exact study of minute anatomy, in the case of small objects,
which without these methods could only be investigated by the
unsatisfactory process of focusing with the microscope through
the solid object.
It is not necessary here to detail at length the wet method of
preparing sections. Briefly, the tissue is soaked in a solution of
gum, or of gum and syrup, and after being frozen by ether spray,
or by a mixture of ice and salt, is cut into sections either by
the Rutherford, Cathcart or some similar section-cutter, or by
apparatus which can be fitted to the more modern types of
microtome referred to below. This method, which is to-day
used mainly by pathologists, has two main disadvantages:
the prolonged action of watery fluids on the tissues, and the
impossibility of getting ribbons, each section having to be
picked up separately.
The general processes of the dry method employed in zoological
and botanical microtomy are, up to a certain point, practically
identified with those used for the preservation of animals and
their tissues for other branches of microscopic work. In the
first place the tissues must be killed; in the second, they must be
fixed, i.e. the protoplasm must be set or coagulated as far as
possible in the condition in which it appears in life; and in the
third, they must be hardened, i.e. in most cases dehydrated.
Killing may be effected by asphyxiation or narcotization
(nicotine, cocaine, chloral hydrate, &c.) in special cases, but is
generally achieved by fixing reagents, of which corrosive subli-
mate and other chlorides, picric, acetic, osmic and chromic
acids, alone or in combination, chromates and strong alcohol
are the most usual. These serve to a great extent also as harden-
ing agents, but alcohol, used after them, completes this process
effectively, and when not too strong (70%) is the best storage
fluid. The second set of processes relates to the staining,
without which transparent sections are almost invisible. The
stains are divisible into general stains, which dye the tissue
practically uniformly and indifferently; and selective stains,
which have affinity for special tissues or cell elements. Of the
latter group some fasten on nuclei, others only on the chromatin
of the nuclei; some on connective tissues, others on muscle
fibres and so on. It is probable that the action of all these
selective stains is produced by definite chemical combination
with compounds originally present in, generated in, or introduced
into the tissue selected. The most generally useful stains for
ordinary work belong either to the cochineal series (borax-car-
mine, carmalum, &c.), or to the logwood series (haematoxylin,
haemalum, iron haematoxylin, &c.); in both of these great
improvements have been introduced of late years by Dr Paul
Mayer. The activity of these stains apparently depends upon
the presence of alumina or of some similar base. For more
special researches, such as cytology, neuropathology, neuro-
histology, and so forth, greater dependence is placed on the
coal-tar colours, the name of which is legion. Some of these,
such as safranine or gentian violet, are regressive stains; that is
to say, the tissues are overstained uniformly, and the superfluous
colouring matter washed out either by alcohol or by weak
hydrochloric acid from the unselected parts. Others, such as
methyl green, are progressive that is, the colour is brought up
to the pitch required and the reaction promptly stopped. The
coal-tar stains can be used singly, or in combinations of two or
three. Some of the best, unfortunately, are not permanent.
A third group of stains is furnished by such reagents as silver
nitrate, gold chloride, and the like (impregnation stains), which
can be made not only to stain, but also to deposit a fine metallic
precipitate on certain structures. In the case of small and
delicate objects, the staining is done in the mass before any
further preparation for sections, but with larger animals, or
large pieces of resistant tissue, the stain is applied to the sections
only. The processes so far mentioned are applicable to many
branches of microscopic work.
When preparing tissues for sections the first step is complete
dehydration, generally effected by bringing the object into
absolute alcohol. It is then transferred to one of a group of
reagents, which are miscible with absolute alcohol, but would
form an emulsion with water, and are solvents of the embedding
medium. The embedding mass in most general use is paraffin
wax, melting at a temperature of 54 to 60 C., according to the
character of the object and the thickness of section required.
The object is transferred from absolute alcohol to benzol,
chloroform, cedar oil, or similar fluid to the melted paraffin; the
fluid diffuses and evaporates, leaving the tissues to be completely
permeated by the paraffin. This process can be greatly has-
tened by the use of a partial vacuum. When impregnation is
complete the paraffin is cooled rapidly, so as to assume a homo-
geneous non-crystalline condition, and the tissue thus comes to
form part of a block of soft but tenacious material, which pro-
tects it from damage by air or damp, and can be readily cut by a
razor. The block is then trimmed to the form of a triangle or
rectangle, and fixed by a clamp or by local melting in the holder
of the microtome.
The first automatic microtome suitable for cutting a block
of tissue into a continuous series of sections was made in 1883 in
the university workshops of Cambridge, from a design by W. H.
Caldwell and R. Threlfall. Only a single machine was made,
but in 1884 twelve machines were made by the Cambridge
Scientific Instrument Company from a design by Caldwell.
Since then numerous excellent and simpler forms of microtome
have been evolved. Some of these have distinct advantages over
others, but with microtomes as with other tools the success
of the results depends very largely on the manipulator, for every
one works best with his accustomed instrument. In one type
of microtome the razor is attached at one end only to a heavy
40 8
MICROTOMY
block, sliding backwards and forwards in a horizontal V-groove;
the paraffin block is fed to this either up a vertical guide
(Schanze, Reichert, &c.) or up an inclined plane (Thoma-Jung).
In another type the razor is firmly clamped at both ends, to
diminish vibration, and the paraffin block advances to it at the
end of a long lever on trunnion bearings (Cambridge rocker) or
up a vertical guide (Minot types).
In the selection of a microtome, apart from its steadiness,
rigidity, accuracy of workmanship, and so forth, it must be
borne in mind that, in general, simplicity of working parts
means longer life, and that an elaborate " automatic " mechan-
ism, by which a single movement is translated into several in
different directions, not only complicates the machine, but robs
the operator of those alterations of pace, rigidity, pressure, &c.,
which are often necessitated by the varying texture in different
parts of the object cut. For general use by less skilful students
in a laboratory, price, simplicity and rapidity of work recom-
mend the rocking microtome of the Cambridge Scientific Instru-
ment Company, but it tends to fail at large or hard objects.
For the all-round work of an investigator, its simplicity and
finish have made Jung's sliding microtome with the Naples
improvements deservedly popular for many years; it can be
fitted with special apparatus for cutting celloidin and frozen
objects, and it can be relied upon to cut any tissue, however
difficult; but it cannot be worked as rapidly as some others,
nor produce long ribbons of large objects. For this latter
purpose the Minot-Becker, Minot-Zimmermann and Reinhold-
Gilltay have been strongly recommended; these, however, are all
of more complicated construction, with corresponding liability
to uneven wear and damage; they are highly " automatic," leav-
ing nothing but pace under control of the operator, and they
are (particularly the last) expensive.
[In 1910 the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company issued
a new microtome designed primarily for cutting larger sections
than was possible in their earlier forms, which respectively dealt
with sections 12X20 mm. and 30 mm. in diameter; the new
instrument cuts sections measuring 150X120 mm. (6X4! in.)
embedded in paraffin or celloidin and of a thickness varying
from 0-002 to 0-06* mm., each division of the scale being equal to
0-002 mm. and the total distance of automatic feed being 21 mm.
The construction and action of the instrument can be understood by
referring to the figure; a detailed description is given, since the same
principles are utilized to a greater or less extent in all sliding
microtomes.
Large Sliding Microtome.
The object to be cut, having been embedded in a suitable prepara-
tion A, is fixed to a wooden block which is attached by clamps to
the object-holder B. The object-holder is provided with mechan-
ism by means of which the height of the block is determined;
this is effected by mounting the holder in a cup-shaped socket at
the extremity of a brass pillar E, which can be raised or lowered
and fixed in any position by a clamp. In addition, the direction
in which a section is cut can be varied by adjusting the four screws,
one of which is shown at C, which orientate the block. The object-
holder and feeding mechanism are carried on a sliding carriage
which rests at three points on two guides in the frame N, NI of
the instrument; and in order to secure easy running the necessary
lubrication of the bearing surfaces is provided for by a groove in
which oil is placed. The motion of the carriage in either direction
is effected by the handle G, connected to a system of levers H,
which, being constructed on geometrical principles, prevent any
side-play and ensure a uniform motion. The arrangement for
determining the thickness of the section cut consists of a stop-pin,
which, operating through the ratchet M, causes a toothed wheel
to revolve, which in turn raises the pillar K; the amount of the
motion can be read off by an index. On the return stroke of the
sliding carriage the stop-pin is again actuated in such a manner
that just before the knife R reaches the object-holder the mechan-
ism depresses this part of the instrument so that the knife is not
fouled ; and after its passage the object-holder is raised to the posi-
tion appropriate for taking the next section. The knife R is rigidly
set in two heavy brass clamps adjustable by the screws S, and these
clamps are attached to the frame of the instrument by the screws T.
The angle which the cutting edge makes with the frame is also
adjustable, and by means of a small angular scale engraved on
the knife-holders any setting can be easily determined or repeated.
The knife is flat on one side and hollow-ground on the other. In
using the microtome it is essential that the cutting edge of the
knife points towards the end of the instrument where the handle
is placed; the hollow-ground face should be uppermost, and the
flat surface should not be exactly horizontal but slightly inclined
so that the lower facet of the cutting edge is parallel to the frame.
As to the relation of the position of the knife to the direction of
motion, it is the usual practice, when paraffin sections are to be taken,
to have the cutting edge at right angles to the motion; when, on
the other hand, celloidin preparations are being cut, the knife
must be set obliquely across the frame, an angle of 30 being
convenient. This oblique setting is also recommended for paraffin
sections. In addition it must be remembered that celloidin prepar-
ations always require lubricating when being cut, and it is also
necessary to keep both the knife and the preparation constantly
moistened with either 80 % alcohol or with cedar-wood oil.]
The sections, when cut by the microtome with the knife
straight and the two sides of the rectangular paraffin block
parallel to it, in most cases can be got off in a continuous ribbon,
each sticking to its predecessor. This very desirable result
generally can be insured by a coating of softer paraffin; but if
the object be large, or brittle, or of varying texture, it is safer to
cut the sections singly from a triangular block with an oblique
knife. The sections or ribbon are often not quite flat, but
rolled, creased or compressed; they must be flattened before
being attached to the slide. It is possible to carry out these two
processes simultaneously by covering the carefully cleaned slide
with plenty of a very dilute solution of Mayer's
glycerine and albumen, and laying the sections on the
fluid and the slide on a hot-plate; as the water becomes
warm the sections flatten out, and as it evaporates
they settle down on the slide, and are held there by the
albumen (many other methods are in use). The slide
is then warmed to melt the paraffin, and plunged
into benzol, or some similar fluid, which removes
the paraffin; thence into absolute alcohol, which de-
hydrates and coagulates the albumen. If the tissue
has not been stained en bloc the sections can now be
stained on the slide. After staining they are fully
dehydrated, rendered transparent by oil of. cloves, and
mounted in xylol-dammar or Canada balsam. W.
Giesbrecht was the first to fix sections on the slide,
using a solution of shellac in creasote in 1881; and
also in the same year and in the laboratory of the
Naples aquarium, W. H. Caldwell first cut and fixed
ribbons of sections.
For ordinary work the paraffin method excels all
others for rapidity, certainty and cleanliness; but for
large and hard objects, or crumbling tissues (such as ova
with a large quantity of yolk), some manipulators prefer to
embed in celloidin. By this method, after dehydration, the tissue
is soaked in a mixture of absolute alcohol and ether; thence
transferred either to increasingly strong solutions of celloidin
in the same mixture or to a thin solution which is then boiled
down till strong. The celloidin mass is then hardened: at first,
if necessary, by drying; afterwards by a bath of chloroform or its
vapour. It can then be cut in the microtome, either wet, or (if
MIDAS MIDDLE AGES
409
previously cleaned with cedar oil) dry like a paraffin block. The
method is more tedious and more messy than the paraffin process;
but amongst its advantages must be reckoned that little or no
heat is required, and that the embedding mass is transparent,
though it does not allow of such thin sections as paraffin.
The above accounts present an outline of the complex processes
employed to-day, by which, on the one hand, sections 30 ju in
thickness may be made through the entire human brain; and, on
the other, organisms invisible to the naked eye may be cut into
a long ribbon of consecutive sections i n (one-thousandth of a
millimetre) thick, every minutest fragment being retained in its
proper place.
The standard book on the subject is Bolles Lee's Microtomist 's
vade-mecum. Other works are G. Mann, Methods and Theory of
Physiological Histology (Oxford, 1902), and A. Flatters, Methods in
Microscopical Research (London, 1905). (G. H. Fo.)
MIDAS, the name of several Phrygian kings. The first of
these was said to have been the son of Gordius and Cybele, whose
first priest he was, and in whose honour he founded a temple at
Pessinus. Having taken the drunken Silenus back to his youth-
ful charge Dionysus, he was rewarded by the god with the power
of transforming everything he touched into gold. Finding
himself in danger of starvation, even his food and drink being
changed by his touch, Midas entreated Dionysus to take back
the gift. By the command of the god he bathed in the river
Pactolus, which henceforth became auriferous (Ovid, Metam.
xi. 85-145; Hyginus, Fab. 191). Another story connects him
with the musical contest between Apollo and Marsyas (or Pan).
Having decided against the god, his ears were changed into those
of an ass. He concealed them under a Phrygian cap; but the
secret was discovered by his barber, who, being unable to keep it,
dug a hole in the ground and whispered into it " Midas has the
ears of an ass." He then filled up the hole, thinking his secret
safe; but the reeds which grew up over the spot proclaimed it to
all the world. Midas with the ass's ears was a frequent subject
of the Attic satyr-drama. There is no doubt that Midas was
the name of one or more real persons around whom religious
legends have grown up. The name " Midas the king " occurs on
a very ancient tomb in the valley of the Sangarius, the legen-
dary seat of the Phrygian kingdom. The Phrygian monarchy
was destroyed by the Cimmerians about 670 B.C., and the name
Midas became in Greek tradition the representative of this
ancient dynasty.
On the connexion between Midas and the Attic story see J. G.
Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. 134.
MIDDELBURG, the ancient capital of the province of Zeeland,
Holland, in the middle of the island of Walcheren, 4 m. by rail
N. by E. of Flushing, with which it is also connected by steam
tramway and by ship canal (1873), which continues to Veere
on the N.E. coast, with a branch eastward to Arnemuiden.
Pop. (1903), 19,002. Middelburg contains many splendid old
houses, which recall the prosperity which distinguished it until
the end of the i8th century. The beautiful town-hall, built by
Anton Keldermans about 1512, with a square tower 180 ft.
high, and a facade adorned with statues of the counts and coun-
tesses of Zeeland and Holland, contains the valuable city archives
and antiquarian and historical collections. The old abbey of
St Nicholas, founded in 1150, and now occupied by the provin-
cial council, has some fine old tapestry of the end of the i6th
century. The building was added to in the I4th and isth
centuries, and partly rebuilt after a fire in 1492. It was the
scene in 1505 of a meeting of the knights of the Golden Fleece,
and was frequently the residence of royal visitors, including
Maximilian, Philip the Fair and Charles V. The abbot of Middel-
burg formerly possessed a vote of his own in the Provincial
States. What was formerly the nave of the abbey church is
now the New Church, and the ancient choir constitutes the
Choir Church. These churches are interesting for the monu-
ments of William II., count of Holland, king of the Romans
(d. 1256), the i6th century scholar Hadrian Junius, and Jan
Pieterszoon; and the tombs of Jan and Cornelius Evertsen, who
fell in the naval war against England in 1666. The high tower
(280 ft.), known as de lange Jan, standing apart from the church
contains a good chime of bells. The corn exchange, the hof
St Joris and the hof St Sebastian (formerly buildings belonging
to the gilds of archers, and now places of amusement) also
deserve mention. The museum of antiquities belonging to the
Zeeland Society of Arts and Sciences (founded at Flushing in
1769, and transferred to Middelburg in 1801) contains a complete
collection of the fauna and flora of the province, many maps,
plans and drawings relating to Zeeland, the first telescope made
by Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Jansen in Middelburg in
1608, and some provincial Roman antiquities.
The extensive trade which Middelburg formerly carried on
with the East and West Indies and with England and Flanders,
was ruined by the war with England and the French occupation.
But the construction of the railway in 1872, followed by the
opening of the ship canal and the large dock (1876), as well as
the establishment, by the aid of the chamber of commerce, of
certain manufacturing industries (iron, machinery, furniture,
oil and cigars), lifted it out of its isolation.
MIDDELBURG, a town of the Transvaal, 98 m. E. by rail of
Pretoria, and 251 m. W. of Lourenco Marques. Pop. (1904),
5085 of whom 2343 were whites. It is prettily situated on the
high veld, 5090 ft. above the sea, on one of the head streams
of the Olifants River. Middelburg is the chief town of an adminis-
trative division of the same name, and is a trading centre for a
large district. It is also the centre of one of the richest coal-
fields in South Africa. From some of the adjacent collieries
excellent steam coal is obtained. Copper and cobalt are found
in the neighbourhood.
Middelburg was chosen in 1901 as the place of conference
for peace negotiations between the British and the Boers.
After the occupation of Pretoria in June 1900 by Lord Roberts
the Boer forces had been reduced to guerilla warfare, and Lord
Kitchener, learning that the Transvaal commandants were
despondent, invited General Botha to enter into negotiations,
on the basis of the recognition of British sovereignty. The
conference between Lord Kitchener and General Botha was
opened on the 28th of February and the negotiations, which
ended in failure, were protracted until the i6th of March (see
TRANSVAAL: History, The War of i8gg-igo2).
Middelburg is also the name of a town in the Cape Province,
South Africa, 250 m. N. by W. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904), 6137.
MIDDLE AGES, THE. This name is commonly given to that
period of European history which lies between what are known
as ancient and modern times, and which has generally been
considered as extending from about the middle of the sth to
about the middle of the isth centuries. The two dates adopted
in old textbooks were 476 and 1453, from the setting aside of the
last emperor in the West until the fall of Constantinople. In
reality it is impossible to assign any exact dates for the opening
and close of such a period. The trend of recent historical re-
search leads one even to doubt the validity of the very concep-
tion of any definite medieval period. The evolution of modern
European society has been continuous. Progress has not been
uniform. There was much retrogression with the intrusion of
new barbarian races; but from their absorption by the icth
century until the 2oth there is not a century in which some
notable gain was not made towards the attainments of modern
civilization. The correct perspective places between the sum-
mits of modern and ancient times, not a long level stretch of a
thousand years, with mankind stationary, spell-bound under
the authority of the Church, absorbed in war or monastic dreams,
but a downward and then a long upward slope, on both of
which the forces which make for civilization may be seen at
work.
It is clear that a survey of the history of these so-called
middle ages long use makes the term inevitable must include
not only the political phase, but also economics, religion, law,
science, literature, &c., since all are involved in the concept. A
hurried outline of each of these vital branches of our civilization
will at once reveal the falseness of the usual periodizing. It is
only after having traced these one by one that we can properly
review the process as a whole.
410
MIDDLE AGES
In political history, the epochal fact which marks the close of
ancient times is the decline of the Roman Empire. This was a
process extending over three or four centuries, in which no one
date lends itself to the historian. The deposition of Romulus
Augustulus, the last Roman emperor in the West, in 476, was
certainly not one of those events upon which the history of the
Western world depends. Outwardly it did not mark the end of
the Empire, but the restoration of imperial unity. The throne
in Italy had been vacant before, and the restoration of unity was
realized in fact under Justinian. There is no reason why the
date 476 should stand out in European history more strongly
than half a dozen other such dates. Yet we may say that the
5th century did witness the actual dismemberment of the Roman
Empire. The new nations in Spain, Gaul, parts of Italy and
Britain were forming the rude beginnings of what were to become
national states in the centuries following. Western Europe was
taken out of the imperial mould and broken up. This is a
revolution of sufficient magnitude to be regarded as politically
the opening of a new era. It had been long preparing in the
economic and administrative decline of the Empire, and in the
steady influx of Germanic peoples into Roman territory for over
two centuries; but the power of the old civilization to absorb the
new races was exhausted by the 5th century, and the political
history of Europe was turned into a different path. That path,
however, was not destined to end blindly in a " middle age."
The line of political development marked out in the 5th century
that of the national state still continues. The revolution in
which Alaric, Theodoric and Clovis figured did not set the prob-
lem for the middle ages only, as is frequently stated; its full
meaning did not appear until the Peninsular War, the Prussia
of Stein and Scharnhorst, and even Solferino and Sedan. Thus
the sth century politically introduces not so much the history
of the middle ages as that of modern Europe.
The immediate introduction, however, was a long one so long
and so distinct from the later development as to constitute in itself
a distinct phase. For five or six centuries from the 5th until
about the nth comparatively little permanent progress was
made. The Germanic tribes were still adjusting themselves
and slowly learning to combine their primitive institutions with
the remains of those of Rome; the premature union under
Charlemagne gave way before new invasions, and anarchy be-
came crystallized in feudalism. It was not until the I2th and
i3th centuries that modern national states really took shape:
England with its trial by jury, circuit courts, Magna Charta and
parliament; France under the strong hand of the Capetians. A
political middle age certainly lay between Theodosius and
William the Conqueror, or at least between Justinian and
Henry II. It is difficult to grasp its vastness. Few students of
history realize that the period from the Saxon to the Norman
Conquest of England would take us as far back as from George V.
to Edward I.; or that from Theodosius to Philip Augustus
there is an interval equal to that between the accession of Hugh
Capet and the French Revolution.
This, however, is not the period most frequently termed the
middle ages in political histories. It does not include those
two institutions which more than any others stand in popular
imagination as genuinely medieval the papal monarchy and the
Holy Roman Empire. The papacy received its full monarchial
structure under Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) in the middle of the
nth century; its political decline set in suddenly after the ponti-
ficate of Boniface VIII. at the opening of the i4th. The great
age of the Empire began slightly earlier, and continued until the
fall of the Hohenstaufen in the middle of the i3th century.
One cannot now deny the term middle ages to the period of
these two institutions. It has been consecrated to this use too
long. Yet when we include under a common name two eras so
distinct as this and that preceding, our term becomes so vague
as to be almost valueless. Moreover, it is doubtful if this second
period is really as " medieval " as it has seemed. Papal mon-
archy and Holy Roman Empire were not the only political
phenomena of their age, and it is possible that their vast pre-
tensions have somewhat blinded historians as to their real
importance. While they were struggling to enforce their claims
to universal sovereignty, the royal power, less extravagant but
more real, was welding together the feudal states of France and
moulding the England of to-day. Compared with this obscure
process this spread of the king's peace along the highways and
through the distant forest lands of the izth and i3th centuries
papal interdicts and jubilees, however impressive their spec-
tacle, are but fleeting shows. The chivalry of Germany pouring
through Alpine passes for an Italian campaign, or a coronation,
left little trace in history except the lesson of their futility.
There is much in the imperial and papal histories that is merely
spectacular and romantic; much that appeals to the imagina-
tion and lends itself to myth; and since the sources are abundant
the papal archives inexhaustible and the German chronicles
easily accessible an undue emphasis has been placed upon
them. It is at least evident that the political middle ages were
already disintegrating during the period of papal monarchy
and Holy Roman Empire.
In economic history there is a more definite line traceable.
The one great economic change brought about by the decline
of the Roman Empire was the lessening of urban life throughout
the greater part of Europe, the closing up of avenues of com-
munication and the predominance of isolated agricultural
communities. This phase began to give way in the nth century
to a commercial and industrial renaissance, which received a great
impetus from the crusading movements themselves largely
economic and by the i4th century had made the Netherlands
the factory of Europe, the Rhine a vast artery of trade, and
north Italy a hive of busy cities. The discovery of America and
the expansion of commerce merely readjusted conditions already
highly developed. The period of isolated economy which we
may term medieval lasted only from about the 5th to the izth
centuries. As for manufactures, the antique methods survived
until the i8th and iQth centuries.
In religious history to be distinguished from that of the
political organization referred to above as the papal monarchy
the official recognition of the Christian Church by Galerius in
311 serves as a convenient starting-point for what we know
as universal Christendom, though the slow disappearance of
paganism, as distinct from Christianity, stretches over at least
a century more. The Reformation of the i6th century has long
been regarded as the close of the period. The real close, how-
ever, is the present day as the result of the rationalism and
science of the i8th and .ipth centuries. The heroes of the
Reformation, judged by modern standards, were reactionaries.
Unconsciously and to its own ultimate damage the Reformation
forged the weapons of progress; but it was itself in no sense,
except the institutional and political, the end of that religious
history inaugurated before the Council of Nicaea. The real
change in attitude which marks the dawn of a new era
came in the generation of Voltaire. And " medievalism " is
only now on the defence against " modernism," both Catholic
and Protestant.
In legal history there was a distinct medieval period, when
Germanic customs superseded Roman law, that most splendid
of Rome's legacies. But the renaissance of law began relatively
early; by the i2th century it had created a university, by the
i3th it was helping to organize national states and laying the
basis for that order which the economic renaissance was already
demanding.
In science there was no great product in antiquity to be
lost. Compared with art or law, literature or philosophy,
ancient science (in our sense) was almost insignificant. The
promise in Aristotle of such production remained unfulfilled.
The 1 7th century is not so much a renaissance here as a mere
beginning. No one can deny the general unscientific, uncritical
nature of " medieval " thought. A single Roger Bacon does not
relieve his age of the charge. But the middle age in science
must include much of antiquity, including Pliny.
Philosophy was the one subject which had, clearly and
definitely, a medieval period. Scholasticism, which absorbed
the attention of most thinkers from about the nth to about the
MIDDLE AGES
411
1 5th centuries, is so easily marked off and played so considerable
a r61e in the academic history of that time, that historians often
refer to it as the only intellectual interest of " medieval " men.
Then, selecting some of the later and less virile scholastics as
victims, they ask how men could be seriously interested in t,heir
trivialities. But these men were not all busy over the problem
of how many angels could stand on a needle-point; nor were
they all dominated by the religious spirit of faith or intellectual
cowardice. They were searching for truth with scientific eager-
ness. Their very failure made possible the modern era. It is
perhaps unnecessary to point out how small a proportion of the
" intellectuals " were scholastics even in the i3th century.
In the realm of art the " middle ages " had already set in
before Constantine robbed the arch of Titus to decorate his
own, and before those museums of antiquity, the temples, were
plundered by Christian mobs. The victory of Christianity
iconoclastic in its primitive spirit was but a single chapter in
the story of decline. The process was completed by the misery
of the decaying empire, and by the Germanic invasions. The
barbarians, however, destroyed less than has been commonly
supposed. Destruction was more the product of necessity
than of wantonness. Thus public monuments became fortresses,
and antique sculpture was built into city walls. Such art as
continued was almost wholly religious; for in the wilderness of
the times the churches formed oases of comparative prosperity
and peace, and, even in the darkest times, wherever such oases
existed there the seeds of art took root. The Church architecture
of the " middle ages," then developed naturally and without a
break, through the Byzantine and Romanesque styles, out of the
secular and religious architecture of Greece and Rome. And,
with the return of comparatively settled and prosperous condi-
tions, not only architecture but the other arts also blossomed
under the influence of what was later stigmatized as the" Gothic "
spirit into new and original forms. Down to the Reformation
the churches continued to be, as the temples of the ancient
world had been, the main centres of the arts; yet the arts were
not confined to them, but flourished wherever, as in castles or
walled cities, the conditions essential to their development
existed. With the revival of civilized conditions in secular life,
secular ideals in art also revived; the ecclesiastical traditions
in painting and sculpture, which always tend to become stereo-
typed, began in the West to be encroached upon long before
the period of the " Renaissance." The I2th and i3th centuries,
which witnessed the great struggle between the secular and
spiritual powers in the state, witnessed also the rise of a literature
inspired by the lay spirit, and of an art which was already
escaping from the thraldom of the stereotyped ecclesiastical
forms. Gothic sculpture was not incidentally decorative, it was
an essential element in the harmony of the architectural design.
The elongated kings that guard the door of Chartres Cathedral,
or the portals with the Last Judgment, are a necessary element
in the facade. Thus fettered, even the realism of the Gothic
sculptors failed, except in rare instances, of its full expression.
The plastic arts were left for Italy, where antique models were
at hand, and the glory of its achievement in the i$th and i6th
centuries was so great as to obscure in men's eyes what had been
done before.
But this Italian renaissance was not the only one. It was
but one of many; and it was concerned with the two subjects
which perhaps least deeply influence the lives of the mass of men
literary humanism and art. It is obviously absurd, in the face
of the foregoing facts, to regard it as the end of a middle age in
anything but in its own field.
When one studies the history of Europe subject by subject,
as indicated above, and not merely in a monastic chronicle of
things in general, chosen according to the author's point of view,
one sees the old-time framework passing away. The traditional
idea of a barren middle age and a single glorious renaissance
proves false. An organic study of the past reveals a more
rational picture of the process which produced the Europe of
to-day. Cataclysm and special creation here as elsewhere give
way to evolution. The new synthesis reveals a universal
decline from the 5th to the roth centuries, while the Germanic
races were learning the rudiments of culture, a decline that was
deepened by each succeeding wave of migration, each tribal
war of Franks or Saxons, and reached its climax in the disorders
of the Qth and loth centuries when the half-formed civilization of
Christendom was forced to face the migration of the Northmen
by sea, the raids of the Saracen upon the south and the onslaught
of Hungarians and Slavs upon the east. That was the dark age.
It left Europe bristling with feudal castles, and already alert for
the march of progress. At once the march begins. Henry the
Fowler beats back the Slavs and places the outposts of Christen-
dom along the Elbe and the Oder. Otto I., his son, drives the
Magyars from southern Germany and establishes the East Mark
(Austria) to guard the upper Danube. The restoration of the
Empire in 962 marks the first milestone on the pathway of re-
covery. Already scholarship had found a home in monasteries
planted in the heart of the German forests. The succeeding
century brought the Empire to the acme of its power, until
Henry III. in the Synod of Sutri, sat in judgment on the impo-
tent and demoralized papacy. Meanwhile France had been
learning something even in its feudal anarchy. The monks of
Cluny were at work. The Capetians had begun. The great
monastery of Bee was drawing the sons of northern sea-robbers
to the service of that greatest civilizing force, the Church. The
progress made through even this darkest age may be measured
by the difference between the army of Rollo and that which
William the Conqueror gathered for the invasion of England.
There is a legend, current among historians from the days of
Robertson and Hallam, that as the year 1000 approached man-
kind prepared for the Last Judgment; that the earth " clothed
itself with the white mantle of churches," and like a penitent
watched in terror and in prayer for the fatal dawn. Contem-
porary sources fail to bear out this beautiful conception. Apart
from the fact that reckoning from the birth of Christ was by no
means universal, and consequently the mass of men were ignorant
that there was such a thing as the year 1000, one wonders how
that most enduring type of architecture, the Romanesque,
reached its maturity among men who thought that the earth
itself was so soon to " shrivel like a parched scroll." Recent
scholarship has absolutely disproved this legend, founded on a
few trite phrases in monastic chronicles, and still to be heard in
similar contexts. The year 1000 marks no epoch in medieval
history.
The latter half of the nth century witnessed the most remark-
able political creation in Europe since the days of Caesar, the
papal monarchy of Hildebrand. The great scholastic contro-
versies had already begun in the schools of France; the revival of
Roman law had called forth the university of Bologna, and the
canonists had begun the codification of the law of the Church.
The way was already cleared for the busy i2th century the
age of Louis VI. and Henry II., of Glanvill and Suger, of Abelard
and Maimonides, of Frederick Barbarossa and Alexander III., of
the emancipation of French communes and cities and the inde-
pendence of those of Lombardy, of the growth of gilds and the
extension of commerce, of trouvere and troubadour and the
beginnings of vernacular literature, of the creation of Gothic
art, of trial by jury and the supremacy of royal justice. Such are
but a fraction of its achievements. The I2th century stands
beside the i8th as one of the greatest creative centuries in human
history. The i3th like the igth applied these creations in the
transformation of society. The century of Dante was also that
of the first English parliament; its vast economic expansion
enabled the national state to triumph in both England and
France, and furnished the grounds for the overthrow of Boniface
VIII. Into the complex history of this momentous age it is
impossible to go in any detail. Sufficient to say that in the
opening quarter of the I4th century England and France at
least stood on the brink of " modern times." Then these two
nations entered upon that long tragedy of the Hundred Years'
War, a calamity absolutely immeasurable to both. But during
its massacres, jacqueries, plagues and famines, the cities of Italy,
growing rich with trade and manufactures, were in their turn
MIDDLEBORO MIDDLESBROUGH
412
the centres of progress, this time in a new direction, toward the
recovery of the antique past and the development of art.
This is the so-called Renaissance (?..). The humanists
which it produced, interested only in its splendid revelations,
forgot or ignored the achievements of the period which inter-
vened between Cicero and Petrarch. Then by the genius of
their work they fastened their mistaken perspective upon his-
torians and the cultured world at large. They struck upon the
unfortunate and opprobrious term " middle ages " for that
which stood between them and their classic ideals. The term
was first used in this sense by Flavio Biondo, whose " decades "
was an attempt to block out the annals of history from 410 to
1410. His treatment fell in admirably with the ideas of his age
and of that following. To Protestants the age of the papal
monarchy was like the reign of Anti-Christ. Then, after the
indifference of humanists and Protestant polemic, came the dis-
gust of men of science at the scholastic philosophy an attitude
best exhibited in Bacon's Advancement of Learning. The i8th
century was thus trebly barred from a knowledge of genuine
medieval history. Romanticism, that reaction in which Sir
Walter Scott, the Schlegels and Victor Hugo so largely figured,
was as far from understanding what it admired as classicism
had been from what it hated. Its extravagant praise of all that
savoured of the middle ages was still blind to their real progress
and work. They were, for it, the ages of romance and chivalry.
The view of the romanticists was as one-sided as any that had
gone before. It is only with the introduction of a wider outlook
in the scientific study of history that it has been possible to
straighten the perspective and modify the traditional scheme.
In the purely intellectual sphere it is certainly true that the
recovery of the antique world was of great importance; that it
made possible genuine criticism by presenting new points of
contrast and opening up fields that led away from theological
quibbles. But it did not mean the " double discovery of the
outer and inner world." Mankind did not, as Burckhardt and
J. A. Symonds lead one to imagine, suddenly throw off a cowl
that has blinded the eyes for a thousand years to the beauty of
the world around, and awaken all at once to the mere joy of
living. If any one was ever awake to the joys of living it was the
minnesinger, troubadour or goliard, and the world had to wait
until Rousseau and Burns before its external beauty was dis-
covered, or at least deeply appreciated, by any but a few Dutch
artists. Even Goethe crossed the Alps with his carriage shutters
closed. Mont Blanc is not mentioned by travellers until after
the middle of the i8th century. The discovery of the outer
world is a recent thing in art as well as in science. As for the
claim that the " Renaissance " delivered men from that blind
reliance upon authority which was typical of " medieval "
thought, that is a fallacy cherished by those who themselves
rely upon the authority of historians, blind to the most ordinary
processes of thought. In this regard, indeed, in spite of the
advance of scientific method and the wealth of material upon
which to base criticism, we are still for the most part in the
middle ages. The respect for anything in books, the dogma
of journalistic inerrancy which still numbers its devotees by
millions, the common acceptance of even scientific conceptions
upon the dicta of a small group of investigators, these are but a
few of the signs of the persistence of what is surely not a medieval
but a universal trait. The so-called Renaissance did much; but
it did not do the things attributed to it by those who see the
" middle ages " through humanist glasses.
Upon the whole, therefore, it would seem that not only was
there no one middle age common to all branches of human evolu-
tion, except the period more definitely marked as the dark age,
but that those characteristics which are generally regarded
as " medieval " were by no means limited to a single epoch of
European history. In short, the dark age was a reality; but
the traditional " middle ages " are a myth. (J. T. S.*)
MIDDLEBORO, a township of Plymouth county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, bounded on the N.W.
by the Taunton river. Pop. (1890), 6065; (1900), 6885 of
whom 920 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 8214. Area,
about 70 sq. m. The principal village also is named Middleboro;
it is 35 m. S. of Boston, is served by the New York, New' Haven
& Hartford railroad and by electric lines connecting with
Taunton, Boston, New Bedford and Cape Cod, and has a town-
house, a soldiers' monument, and a public library housed in a
building erected from a fund (part of which is used as a permanent
endowment) bequeathed by Thomas Sprout Peirce (1823-1901),
a merchant of the township, who, in addition, bequeathed about
$500,000 as a special trust-fund for the use and benefit of the
town of Middleboro; the income has been spent largely in the
construction of macadam roads, the erection of an almshouse
and the installation of special courses in the high school. The
village, a place of considerable natural beauty, is a summer
resort, and has various manufactures. Other villages in the
township are North, East and South Middleboro, and Rock.
The township had important herring fisheries in early times and
manufactured straw hats (from 1828) and ladies' dress goods.
Middleboro was settled about 1662 under the Indian name
Nemasket; became a part of the township of Plymouth in 1663;
and in 1669 was incorporated as a separate township, taking its
name probably from Middlesbrough, North Riding, York.
See Thomas Weston, History of the Town of Middleboro, Massa-
chusetts (Boston, 1906).
MIDDLEBURY, a village and the county-seat of Addison
county, Vermont, U.S.A., in Middlebury township, on Otter
Creek, about 31 m. N.N.W. of Rutland. Pop. of the village
(1890), 1762; (1900), 1807 (221 foreign-born); (1910), 1866;
of the township, (1900), 3045; (1910), 2848. Middlebury is
served by the Rutland railroad. It is picturesquely situated
near the Green Mountain range, and is the seat of Middlebury
College (chartered, 1800; co-educational since 1883), which offers
a classical course and a Latin-scientific course, and had in 1907-
1908 12 instructors and 203 students (84 of whom were women),
and a library of 35,000 volumes. The Sheldon art museum and a
public library are among the public institutions of the village,
and the principal buildings include the court-house and the
opera-house. The principal industrial establishments are marble
quarries, " Italian " marble works, iron foundries, lime-kilns,
flour-mills, and door, sash and lumber mills. About i m. north
of the village, in the township of Weybridge, there is a large
United States government breeding station for Morgan horses;
and merino sheep are raised in the vicinity.
The township of Middlebury was incorporated in 1761, and the
first settlement on the site of the present village was made in
1773. At the outbreak of the War of Independence the settle-
ment was deserted, and all except two or three of the houses
were destroyed by British troops; but the settlers returned
soon after the close of the war, and the township was formally
organized and sent a member to the state assembly in 1788.
Middlebury was incorporated as a borough in 1813, and as a
village in 1832.
MIDDLESBROUGH, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough and seaport in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England,
238^ m. N. by W. from London, on the North Eastern railway.
Pop. (1891), 75,532; (1901), 91,302. It lies on the south bank of
the Tees, 5 m. from its mouth in the North Sea, and is the centre
of one of the most important iron-working districts in the world.
It is wholly of modern growth, having been incorporated in 1853.
Its chief buildings are a fine town-hall with lofty clock-tower and
spire (1889), containing the municipal offices, free library, &c.;
the exchange, county court, Dorman memorial museum and
Roman Catholic cathedral. Besides iron and steel works, the
first of which was that of Messrs Bolckow, Vaughan & Co., there
are rolling-mills, tube works, wire-mills, engineering works, oil
works, chemical works, salt works and a considerable ship-
building industry. The district abounds in blast furnaces. The
docks are accessible to large vessels, the entrance having a depth
of 32 ft. Extensive dredging operations are carried on in the
river. The accommodation for shipping includes two graving
docks, two patent slips, &c. The entrance to the river is pro-
tected by two breakwaters named respectively the North Gare
and South Gare. The furnaces within the port produce some
MIDDLESEX, IST EARL OF MIDDLESEX
2,500,000 tons of pig iron annually. Middlesbrough is the seat
of a Roman Catholic bishop. The parliamentary borough
falling within the Cleveland division of the county, returns one
member. The county borough was created in 1888. The town
is governed by a mayor, ten aldermen and thirty councillors.
Area, 2823 acres.
The earlier history of the place is meagre. Where Middles-
brough now stands there were at one time a small chapel and
priory founded by Robert de Brus of Skelton Castle. These
were dedicated to St Hilda, and with some lands were given by
de Brus to the abbey of St Hilda at Whitby in 1130. The priory
fell into ruins at the time of the Reformation, and no trace now
remains beyond some stones built into the wall of a brewery.
The Oak Chair in the town-hall also is made from a fragment. In
1801 there were upon the site of Middlesbrough only four farm-
houses. In 1829 a company styling itself the Middlesbrough
Owners bought 500 acres of land, and began building in the town.
In 1830 the Stockton & Darlington railway was extended to
Middlesbrough; four years later the town was lighted with gas;
and after six years more a public market was established. The
census of 1831 showed the population to be 154; that of 1841
showed 5709. In 1842 the opening of the docks gave additional
importance to the town. From the year 1851, when John
Vaughan discovered the presence of ironstone in the Eston hills,
the town advanced rapidly.
MIDDLESEX, LIONEL CRANFIELD, IST EARL OF (1575-1645),
was a successful London merchant, who was introduced to King
James I. by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and entered
the royal service in 1605. In 1613 he was knighted and was
appointed surveyor-general of customs; in 1616 he became one
of the masters of requests, and in 1619 master of the court of
wards and liveries and chief commissioner of the navy. He was
returned to parliament as member for Hythe in 1614 and for
Arundel in 1621. Cranfield, who was also master of the ward-
robe, was responsible for many economies in the public service,
and his business acumen was very useful to the king. He took
part in the attack on Bacon in 1621, and although, contrary to
general expectation, he did not succeed Bacon as lord chancellor,
he was created Baron Cranfield in July of this year. In 1621
also he became lord high treasurer, and in September 1622 was
created earl of Middlesex, losing his positions and influence shortly
afterwards because he opposed the projected war with Spain, and
had incurred the hostility of Prince Charles and George Villiers,
duke of Buckingham. Impeached by the House of Commons
for corruption, he was found guilty by the House of Lords in May
1624 and was sentenced to lose all his offices, to pay a heavy fine
and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. However, he
was released from prison in a few days, was pardoned in the
following year, and was restored to his seat in the House of
Lords in 1640. The earl's second wife was Anne Brett (d. 1670).
a cousin of Buckingham's mother, whom he married somewhat
reluctantly in 1621 in order to ensure Buckingham's support.
Middlesex died on the 6th of August 1645, leaving with other
issue a son James (1621-1651), 2nd earl of Middlesex, who was a
partisan of the parliamentary party during the Civil War. James
was succeeded by his brother, Lionel, and when this earl died in
October 1674 his titles became extinct. The first earl's daughter
Frances married Richard Sackville, 5th earl of Dorset, and their
son Charles was created earl of Middlesex in 1675. Two years
later he became earl of Dorset, and the title of earl of Middlesex
was borne by the earls and dukes of Dorset until 1843.
MIDDLESEX, a south-eastern county of England, bounded
N. by Hertfordshire, E. by Essex, S.E. by the county of London,
S. by Surrey, and W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 283-3
sq. m., and, excepting Rutland, the county is the smallest in
England. The area outside the county of London, or extra-
metropolitan area, with which this article is mainly concerned,
is 233-8 sq. m. It lies entirely in the basin of the river Thames,
which forms its southern boundary. On the east it is separated
from Essex by the Lea, the largest northern tributary of the
Thames. The other rivers, in order westward, are the Brent,
the Crane or Yedding Brook, and the Colne. The waters of
several streams are collected in the artificial Brent reservoir near
Hendon, from which the Brent flows with a circuitous course to
the Thames at Brentford. The Crane, rising in the high ground
near Harrow-on-the-Hill, joins the Thames at Isleworth; and
the Colne, which rises on the elevated plain between Hatfield
and St Albans (Hertfordshire), traverses a flat valley on the
western boundary of the county, where it divides into several
channels, and joins the main river at Staines. The highest
ground, exceeding 400 ft. at several points, and reaching 503 ft.
above Stanmore, is found along the northern boundary, in a line
from Stanmore through Elstree, Chipping Barnet and Potter's
Bar. Two well-marked lines of heights, detached from the
main line, project southward, the eastern from Whetstone
through Finchley and Highgate to Hampstead, where, within
the county of London, a height of 443 ft. is found on Hampstead
Heath ; the western being the isolated elevation on which stands
Harrow-on-the-Hill. The hills skirting the Lea valley, in the
neighbourhood of Enfield, are abrupt, though of no great
elevation. Elsewhere the country is very slightly undulating
or quite flat, as along the banks of the Thames and Lea. The
Thames, however, beautifies its immediate neighbourhood, and
rich sylvan scenery is not wanting in the higher districts. The
greater part of the county was formerly densely forested and
sparsely populated, and the name of Enfield Chase, a royal
preserve in the north-east, still recalls this condition. In
modern times the visible influence of London has spread over
practically the entire county. Villages have grown into populous
suburbs; large institutions, for which sites adjacent to rather
than within the metropolis have been found preferable, are
numerous, and the development of suburban railway communi-
cations has brought fresh ground within reach of builders.
Geology. The county lies entirely within the structural basin
of the Thames, and, as in the neighbouring counties, the general
slope of the ground and dip of the strata is towards the south-east.
South of an irregular line passing from Uxbridge, north of Hayes,
by Hanwell and Ealing to Hyde Park and east of a similar line
from the upper side of the Park to Tottenham and on from that point
to Enfield, the only visible deposits are the gravels, loams, brick-
earths and sands laid down in former times by the Thames, with
contributions by the Lea and the Colne. These alluvial deposits
rise gradually northward from the Thames and westward from the
Lea, in a series of gentle terraces. The earliest portions of London
were built upon these terraces, because while they were dry at the
surface, water could be obtained by sinking shallow wells. The
alluvium has yielded many flint implements and the bones of the
mammoth, bear and rhinoceros, great elk and other extinct forms.
The loams are dug for bricks and the gravel for ballast, &c., about
West Drayton, Southall, Enfield and Tottenham.
The London clay, a marine deposit, is bluish where it has not
been turned brown by exposure to the weather. It underlies all
the river deposits and rises to the surface north and ; east of the
alluvial boundary indicated above. It gives rise to the undulating
grassy country round Harrow, Chipping Barnet and Elstree. Below
the London clay are the more sandy Reading beds, they may be
seen at Harefield and at South Mimms; inliers occur at Pinner and
Ruislip. Chalk is only visible on the side of the Colne valley at
Harefield, where it is quarried, and at South Mimms. Formerly,
the sandy and pebbly Bagshot beds covered all the London clay
area, but now only isolated patches remain, such as those on the top
of Harrow, Hampstead and Highgate hills. Long after the Bagshot
beds were laid down the country was covered by a variety of glacial
deposits; such are the pebble gravels of Stanmore Heath and the
district north of Barnet, the clay and sand of Finchley, Muswell
Hill and Southgate, the chalky boulder clay to be seen at Finchley,
Southgate and Potter's Bar. Several deep borings in the London
basin prove the existence, beneath the chalk, of beds which
do not crop out in Middlesex. The most interesting is that
at Meux's Brewery, Tottenham Court Road (about 1146 Ft.), which
passes through the following formations: gravel and clay, 21 ft.;
London clay, 64 ft.; Reading beds, 51 ft.; Thanet sand, 21 ft.; chalk,
655 ft.; upper greensand, 28 ft.; gault, 160 ft.; lower greensand,
64 ft. ; Devonian rocks, 80 ft. 1
Industries, &c. The climate of some of the high-lying districts
is particularly healthy. Little more than one-half the total area
of the county is under cultivation; and the grain crops, greatly
decreasing, are insignificant. The soil in the north and north-west
1 See " Geology of Part of the London Basin," Mem. Geol. Survey,
2 vols. ; "Soils and Subsoils," ditto; Proceedings of the Geolo-
gists' Association. A large model of the geology of London is
exhibited in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street,
London.
414
is heavy, poor clay; but the rich alluvial soil of the Thames Valley
is specially suitable for market gardens. On the outskirts of London
much land now built over was formerly devoted to market gardening.
The number of livestock decreases; in fact, agriculture as a whole
has slowly to give place to extension of building. Industries are
extensive and varied. The county is naturally, in view of the
proximity of London, closely intersected with railways, the following
companies, from east to west and south affording communi-
cations: Great Eastern, Great Northern, Midland, London & North-
Western Metropolitan, Great Central, Metropolitan District,
Great Western, London & South-Western. Moreover, in some parts
the tramway system has been extended over a wide area from
London; thus Uxbridge, in the extreme west of the county, is so
served The principal canals are the Grand Junction, running
west from Brentford to the Colne Valley, and thence northward;
with a branch (the Paddington Canal) connecting it with the
Regent's Canal in London ; and, in the east, the Lea navigation.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient county
is I8M20 acres, with a population in 1871 of 2,539,765; in 1891 of
3,251,671 ; and in 1901 of 3,585,323. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the population of Middlesex, exclusive of London, was 2302.
The extra-metropolitan area is 149,668 acres, with a population in
1901 of 798,738. The part of the ancient county transferred to
the county of London under the Local Government Act 1888 was
31,484 acres in extent, and 771 acres were then transferred to
Hertfordshire; while under the London Government Act 1899 the
southern part of Hornsey was transferred to London. The area
of the administrative county is 148,700 acres. The county contains
six hundreds. The municipal bproughs are Baling (pop. 33-3l).
Hornsey (72,056). The urban districts are Acton (37,744). Brent-
ford (15,171), Chiswick (29,809), Edmonton (46,899), Enfield
(42,738), Feltham (5280), Finchley (22,126), Friern Barnet (11,566),
Greenford (819), Hampton (6813), Hampton Wick (2606), Hanwell
(10,438), Harrow-on-the-Hill (10,220), Hayes (3000), Hendon
(22,450), Heston and Isleworth (30,863), Kingsbury (757), Ruishp-
Northwood (3850), Southall Norwood (13,200), Southgate (14,993).
Staines (6688), Sunbury-on-Thames (4544). Teddington (14,037),
Tottenham (102,541), Twickenham (20,991), Uxbridge (8585),
Wealdstone (5901), Wembley (4519). Willesden (114,811), Wood
Green (34,233). The county is in the jurisdiction of the central
criminal court, and the whole extra-metropolitan county is within
the metropolitan police district, the name of " Greater London "
covering it. There are one court of quarter sessions and eight petty
sessional divisions. The number of civil parishes is 60. Middlesex
(extra-metropolitan) is wholly in the diocese of London, excepting
a small portion in that of Oxford, and includes 153 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, wholly or in part. The extra-metropolitan
parliamentary divisions, each returning one member, are Enfield,
Tottenham, Hornsey, Harrow, Uxbridge, Brentford and Baling.
History, The district which is now Middlesex was colonized
in the 6th century by an offshoot of the East Saxon tribe, and
derived its name from its position between the kingdoms of the
East and West Saxons. In a charter dated 704 Middlesex is
mentioned by name as a dependency of Essex, but soon after it
acknowledged the supremacy of Mercia, and from 748 onwards
the Mercian council was held at London, and from 780 onwards
at Brentford. In the gth century Middlesex formed part of
the Danelagh, and in 993 Anlaf the Dane came with 93 ships
to Staines. The only reference to Middlesex in the Saxon
Chronicle occurs in 101 1 , when it was again overrun by the Danes.
The Conqueror's march upon London was preceded by a general
devastation of the surrounding country, the effects of which
are illustrated in the Domesday Survey by the diminution in
land values. At this time the district north of London formed
the vast forest of Middlesex, the greater part of which was dis-
afforested in the reign of Henry III. Enfield had woodlands
for 2000 pigs; Ruislip for 1500 pigs; and Kingsbury, Hillingdon
and Hendon for 1000 pigs each. Vineyards are mentioned
at Holborn, Colham, Kempton and Kensington; fishponds at
Harmondsworth and Harefield produced each 1000 eels.
As a shire Middlesex probably originated about the time of
the frith of 886, when it is described as the land dependent upon
London, and in 912 is referred to as " London and the land which
owed obedience thereto." During the Saxon period the exten-
sive manors held by the church of Canterbury, the bishop of
London and his canons of St Paul's, and the abbey of
Westminster were held as independent franchises, the courts
for St Paul's being held at Stepney and Fulham, for West-
minster at Westminster and Staines, and for Canterbury at
Harrow. By charter of Henry I. (confirmed by Stephen
and Henry II.) the citizens of London held Middlesex at
MIDDLETON, EARLS OF
farm for 300, with power to elect a sheriff from among their
number, and by charter from John the shrievalty of both
London and Middlesex was granted to the mayor and citizens
in fee. By charter of 1242 the common pleas for the county
of Middlesex were ordered to be held at the stone cross in the
Strand. Under a charter of 1447 the lord mayor was authorized
to nominate one of the city aldermen as justice of the peace for
Middlesex. The six modern hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne,
Gore, Isleworth, Ossulston, and Spelthorne have been scarcely
changed since the Domesday Survey, except that Isleworth was
then Honeslaw (Hounslow), while in the I2th century hidage
a hundred of " Mimes " is mentioned, corresponding with the
Domesday hundred of Edmonton. Middlesex has always been
included in the diocese of London. The archdeaconry of Middle-
sex, which includes part of Essex, is mentioned in 1151, but the
Middlesex portion was not subdivided into rural deaneries until
1857, when the deaneries of Fulham, Baling, Uxbridge, Staines,
Hampton, Enfield, Harrow and St Pancras were created. The
deaneries of Chelsea, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Hornsey, Ken-
sington, Paddington, St Marylebone, Westminster and Willesden
were created later, but Staines was abolished.
In 1215 Middlesex was ravaged by William, earl of Salisbury,
and Falkes de Breaute, and in the same year at Runnimede near
Staines John was forced to issue the Magna Carta. In the
Civil War of the i;th century Middlesex supported the Parlia-
mentary cause, joining in 1642 with Hertfordshire and Essex
in a petition that the votes of the bishops and popish lords might
be disallowed in the House of Lords, and that the forts and castles
of the kingdom might be placed in such hands as the Parliament
could confide in. Sir Denzil Hollis was defeated by the Royalists
at Brentford in 1642, and in 1645 a fruitless treaty between
Charles I. and the Parliament was concluded at Uxbridge.
Brentford had famous election contests in 1768 and 1769.
The woollen and leather industries flourished in Middlesex
in Norman times. London was the great place of slaughter,
and hides were tanned at Enfield. Bricks were also manu-
factured from early times, and Heston was noted for its wheat.
Paper was extensively manufactured in the i7th century, and
much distress was caused in 1636 by a decree prohibiting the
purchase of old rags for the Middlesex paper-mills for fear of the
plague. In 1640 the manufacturers of mohair yarn in Middlesex
appealed against a bill prohibiting the wearing of material made
of the said yarn during the winter season. In 1655 a certificate
of a hundred master tanners and other traders of Middlesex
approved an invention for converting raw hides into leather by
means of new liquor, with or without oak-bark.
Middlesex returned two members to parliament in 1295.
(For the representation of London, see LONDON.)
See John Norden, Speculum Britanniae: the firste parte, an histori-
call and chorographicall description of Middlesex (London, 1593;
reprinted 1637 and 1723) ; Daniel Lysons, The Environs of London
(1792-1796); Victoria County History, Middlesex.
MIDDLETON, EARLS OF. JOHN MIDDLETON, IST EARL OF
MIDDLETON (c. 1610-1674), belonged to a Kincardineshire family
which had held lands at Middleton since the i2th century. In
early life he served as a soldier in France; later he fought against
Charles I. both in England and in Scotland, being especially
prominent at the battle of Philiphaugh and in other operations
against the great Montrose. He held a high command in the
Scottish army which marched to rescue the king in 1648, and he
was taken prisoner after the battle of Preston. He joined
Charles II. when that monarch reached Scotland in 1650, but he
was soon at variance with the party which at that time was
dominant in church and state and was only restored to favour
after doing a public penance at Dundee. He was a captive for the
second time after the battle of Worcester, where he commanded
the Royalist cavalry, but he escaped from the Tower of London
to Paris. In 1653 Middleton was chosen by Charles II. to head
the projected rising in Scotland. He reached that country in
February 1654, but the insurrection was a complete failure. Its
leader, whr> cannot be held responsible for this result, remained
in Scotland^ :1 1655, when he rejoined Charles II., who made
MIDDLETON, A. MIDDLETON, C.
him an earl in 1656. He returned to England with the king in
1660 and was appointed commander-in-chief of the troops in
Scotland and lord high commissioner to the Scottish parliament,
which he opened in January 1661. He was an ardent advocate
of the restoration of episcopacy, this being one reason which led
to serious dissensions between the earl of Lauderdale and himself,
and in 1663 he was deprived of his offices. He was afterwards
(1667) governor of Tangier, where he died in June 1674.
His eldest son CHARLES, 2ND EARL OF MIDDLETON (c. 1640-
1719), held several offices under Charles II. and James II., being
envoy extraordinary at Vienna and afterwards joint secretary
for Scotland. In 1684 he became an English secretary of state,
and with Richard Graham, Viscount Preston, he had the difficult
task of managing the House of Commons for James II. He was
loyal to James after the king fled to France, although he re-
mained in England, where, as the leader of the moderate Jacob-
ites, he sought to bring about a restoration by peaceful means.
In 1693 the earl joined the exiled king at St Germains, where he
became his secretary of state; afterwards he held the same office
at the court of James Edward, the old pretender, in Flanders
and in Lorraine. He was partly responsible for the unsuccessful
expedition of the Jacobites to Scotland in 1707, and he resigned
his office as secretary in 1713. Middleton, who had been created
earl of Monmouth by the pretender, died in 1719. His titles had
been declared forfeited in 1695, but they were claimed by his son
John, who died unmarried about 1746. The earl was a Protes-
tant, although a lukewarm one, until 1701, when he yielded to the
dying wish of James II. and joined the Roman Catholic Church.
One of Middleton's kinsmen was SIR CHARLES MIDDLETON,
Bart. (1726-1813). Having served in the navy Middleton
was comptroller of the navy from 1778 to 1790, "standing
out through that period of inept administration as the pillar of
the service." In April 1805, at a most critical time, he was,
although eighty years of age, appointed first lord of the admiralty
by Pitt and was created Lord Barham. It has been usual to
regard Barham as a cipher at the admiralty board, but more
recent research, especially an examination of the Barham Papers,
has proved this to be the reverse of the truth. He enjoyed the
absolute confidence of Pitt, and it was his experience, industry
and energy which made possible the great campaign which
ended at Trafalgar. He resigned office in January 1806 and
died on the i7th of January 1813. His barony passed through
his daughter Diana (1762-1823) to the Noels, earls of Gains-
borough, by whom it is still held. The Barham Papers are being
edited by Sir J. K. Laughton (vol. i. 1907; vol. ii. 1910). See
also J. S. Corbett, The Campaign of Trafalgar (1910).
See A. C. Biscoe, The Earls'of Middleton (1876).
MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (1742-1787), American politician
and signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at
Middleton Place on the Ashley river, South Carolina, on the 26th
of June 1742. His family was one of the most prominent in the
colony. The grandfather, Arthur Middleton (1681-1737), was
president of the Council in 1721-1730 and as such was acting
governor in 1725-1730, and the father, Henry Middleton (1717-
1784), was speaker of the Assembly in 1745-1747 and again in
1754-1755, a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774-1776,
and its president from October 1774 to May 1775, a member of
the South Carolina Committee of Safety, and in 1775 president of
the South Carolina Provincial Congress. Like most wealthy
South Carolinians of the i8th century, Arthur Middleton was
educated in England at Hackney, at Westminster School, and
at St John's College, Cambridge. He then returned to South
Carolina, but soon afterwards went back to England to live, and
travelled on the Continent. In 1773 he again returned to
South Carolina, and in the controversies between the colonists and
the home government became a leader of the Whigs. He was
a member of the provincial Council of Safety in 1775-1776, and a
delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776-1777. In 1778 he
was elected governor of South Carolina, but owing to his dis-
satisfaction with the new state constitution he declined to serve.
He was captured by the British at Charleston in May 1780, was
exchanged in July 1781, was again a delegate to Congress in
1781-1783, and later served in the state legislature. He died on
the ist of January 1787 at Middleton Place, near Charleston.
His eldest son, HENRY MIDDLETON (1770-1846), was an
orator of ability, was governor of South Carolina in 1810-1812,
a representative in Congress in 1815-1819, and the United States
minister to Russia from 1820 to 1830, negotiating in 1824 a
convention " relative to navigation, fishing and trading in the
Pacific Ocean, and to establishments on the North-West Coast."
This was the first treaty between the United States and Russia.
MIDDLETON, CONYERS (1683-1750), English divine, was
born at Richmond in Yorkshire on the 27th of December 1683.
He graduated at Cambridge, took orders, and in 1706 obtained a
fellowship, which he soon resigned upon contracting an advanta-
geous marriage. In 1717 a dispute with Richard Bentley, who
made an extortionate demand on the occasion of Middleton 's being
created D.D., involved him in an acrimonious controversy. He
wrote several trenchant pamphlets, among them the " Remarks "
and " Further Remarks " on Bentley's Proposals for a New
Edition of the Greek Testament, an endeavour to visit his grievances
upon the text of the New Testament. In 1723 he was involved in
a lawsuit by personalities against Bentley, which had found their
way into his otherwise judicious tract on library administration,
written on the occasion of his appointment as university librarian.
In 1726 he offended the medical profession by a dissertation
contending that the healing art among the ancients was only
exercised by slaves or freedmen. Between the dates of these
publications he visited Italy, and made those observations on the
pagan origin of church ceremonies and beliefs which he sub-
sequently embodied in his Letter from Rome (1729). This
cogent tract probably contributed to prepare the storm which
broke out against him on his next publication (1731). In his
remonstrance with Daniel Waterland on occasion of the latter's
reply to Matthew Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation,
Middleton takes a line which in his day could hardly fail to
expose him to the reproach of infidelity. He gives up the
literal truth of the primeval Mosaic narratives; and, in pro-
fessing to indicate a short and easy method of confuting Tindal,
lays principal stress on the indispensableness of Christianity
as a mainstay of social order. This was to resign nearly every-
thing that divines of the Waterland stamp thought worth defend-
ing. Middleton was warmly assailed from many quarters, and
retreated with some difficulty under cover of a sheaf of apolo-
getic pamphlets and a more regular attendance at church. His
next important publication was a Life of Cicero (1741), largely
told in that statesman's own words. Though Middleton's
reputation was much enhanced by this piece of work, there is no
doubt that he drew largely from the scarce book of William
Bellenden, De tribus luminibus Romanorum. The work was
undertaken at the instance of Lord Hervey, in correspondence
with whom also originated his disquisition on The Roman Senate,
published in 1747. The same year and the following produced
the most important of all his writings, the Introductory Discourse
and the Free Inquiry " concerning the miraculous powers which
are supposed to have subsisted in the church from the earliest
ages." In combating this belief Middleton indirectly established
two propositions of capital importance. He showed that ecclesi-
astical miracles must be accepted or rejected in the mass; and he
distinguished between the authority due to the early fathers'
testimony to the beliefs and practices of their times, and their
very slender credibility as witnesses to matters of fact. Some
individual grudge seems to have prompted him to expose, in
1750, Bishop Sherlock's eccentric notions of antediluvian
prophecy, which had been published 25 years before. On the
28th of July 1750 he died at Hildersham, near Cambridge.
Middleton's most ambitious work is obsolete from no fault
of his, but his controversial writings retain a permanent place in
the history of opinion. In his more restricted sphere he may not
inappropriately be compared with Lessing. Like Lessing's,
the character of his intellect was captious and iconoclastic, but
redeemed from mere negation by a passion for abstract truth,
too apt to slumber until called into activity by some merely
personal stimulus. His diction is generally masculine and
416
MIDDLETON, T.
harmonious. Pope thought him and Nathaniel Hooke the
younger the only prose writers of the day who deserved to be
cited as authorities on the language. Samuel Parr, while expos-
ing his plagiarisms, heaps encomiums on his style. But his
best qualities, his impatience of superstition and disdain of mere
external authority, are rather moral than literary.
The best general view of his intellectual character and influence
is to be found in Sir Leslie Stephen's English Thought in the Eighteenth
Century, ch. vi. A handsome edition of his works, containing several
posthumous tracts, but not including the Life of Cicero, appeared
in 4 vols. in 1752 and in 5 vols. in 1755.
MIDDLETON, THOMAS (c. 1570-1627), English dramatist, son
of William Middleton, was born about 1570, probably in London.
There is no proof that he studied at either university, but he may
be safely identified with one of the Thomas Middletons entered
at Gray's Inn in 1503 and 1596 respectively. He began to write
for the stage with The Old Law, in the original draft of which, if
it dates from 1599 as is generally supposed, he was certainly not
associated with William Rowley and Philip Massinger, although
their names appear on the title-page of 1656. By 1602 he had
become one of Philip Henslowe's established playwrights. The
pages of Henslowe's Diary contain notes of plays in which he
had a hand, and in the year 1607-1608 he produced no less than
six comedies of London life, which he knew as accurately as
Dekker and was content to paint in more realistic colours. In
1613 he devised the pageant for the installation of the Lord
Mayor, Sir Thomas Middleton, and in the same year wrote an
entertainment for the opening of the New River in honour of
another Middleton. From these facts it may be reasonably
inferred that he had influential connexions. He was frequently
employed to celebrate civic occasions, and in 1620 he was
made city chronologer, performing the duties of his position with
exactness till his death.
The most notable event in his career was the production at the
Globe theatre in 1624 of a political play, A Game at Chess,
satirizing the policy of the court, which had just received a
rebuff in the matter of the Spanish marriage, the English and
Spanish personages concerned being disguised as the White
Knight, the Black King, and so forth. The play was stopped,
in consequence of remonstrances from the Spanish ambassador,
but not until after nine days' performances, and the dramatist
and the actors were summoned to answer for it. It is doubtful
whether Middleton was actually imprisoned, and in any case the
king's anger was soon satisfied and the matter allowed to drop,
on the plea that the piece had been seen and passed by the master
of the revels, Sir Henry Herbert. Middleton died at his house
at Newington Butts, and was buried on the 4th of July 1627.
He worked with various authors, but his happiest collaboration
was with William Rowley, this literary partnership being so
close that F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) treats the
dramatists together. The plays in which the two collaborated
are A Fair Quarrel (printed 1617), The World Lost at Tennis
(1620), an ingenious masque, TheChangeling (acted 1624, printed
1653), and The Spanish Gipsie (acted 1623, printed 1653). The
main interest of the Fair Quarrel centres in the mental conflict
of Captain Ager, the problem being- whether he should fight in
defence of his mother's honour when he no longer believes his
quarrel to be just. The underplot, dealing with Jane, her con-
cealed marriage, and the physician, which is generally assigned
to Rowley, was suggested by a story in Giraldi Cinthio's Hecatom-
mithi. The Changeling is the most powerful of- all the plays with
which Middleton's name is connected. The plot is drawn from
the tale of Alsemero and Beatrice- Joanna in Reynolds's Triumphs
of God's Reveng against Murther (bk. i., hist, iv.), but the
story, black as it is, receives additional horror in Middleton's
hands. The famous scene in the third act between Beatrice
and De Flores, who has murdered Piracquo at her instigation,
is admirably described by Swinburne:
" That note of incredulous amazement that the man whom she
has just instigated to the commission of murder ' can be so wicked '
as to have served her end for any end of his own beyond the pay of
a professional assassin, is a touch worthy of the greatest dramatist
that ever lived. . . . That she, the first criminal, should be honestly
shocked as well as physically horrified by revelation of the real
motive which impelled her accomplice into crime, gives a lurid
streak of tragic humour to the lifelike interest of the scene; as the
pure infusion of spontaneous poetry throughout redeems the whole
work from the charge of vulgar subservience to a vulgar taste for
the presentation or the contemplation of criminal horror."
Leigh Hunt thought that the character of De Flores, for effect
at once tragical, probable and poetical, " surpassed anything
with which he was acquainted in the drama of domestic life."
The underplot of the piece, though it is based on the humours of
a madhouse, has genuine comic flashes. The Spanish Gipsie has
a double plot based on the Fuerza de la sangre and the Gitanilla
of Cervantes. Much has been said on the collaboration of
Middleton with Rowley, who was much in demand with fellow-
dramatists, especially for his experience in low comedy. These
plays, even in scenes where the evidence in favour of one or other
of the collaborators is clear, rise to excellence which neither
dramatist was able to achieve alone. It was clearly no mechanical
partnership the limits of which can be said to be definitely
assigned when the actual text has been parcelled out between the
collaborators.
With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Roaring Girle, or Moll Cut-
Purse (1611). The frontispiece represents Moll herself in man's
attire, indulging in a pipe of tobacco. She was drawn or ideal-
ized from life, her real name being Mary Frith (i 584-1659 ?) , who
was made to do penance at St Paul's Cross in 1612. " Worse
things, I must confess," says Middleton in his preface, " the world
has taxed her for than has been written of her; but 'tis the excel-
lency of a writer to leave things better than he finds 'em." In the
play she is the champion of her sex, and is equally ready with
her sword and her wits. Middleton is also credited with a share
in Thomas Dekker's Honest Whore (pt. i., 1604). The Witch, first
printed in 1778 from a unique MS., now in the Bodleian, has
aroused much controversy as to whether Shakespeare borrowed
from Middleton or vice versa. The dates of both plays being
uncertain, there are few definite data. The distinction between
the two conceptions has been finely drawn by Charles Lamb, and
the question of borrowing is best solved by supposing that what
is common to the incantations of both plays was a matter of
common property. The Mayor of Quinborough was published
with Middleton's name on the title-page in 1661. Simon, the
comic mayor, is not a very prominent character in the plot,
which deals with Vortiger, Hengist, Horsus and Roxena among
other characters. One of its editors, Mr Havelock Ellis, thinks
the proofs of its authenticity as Middleton's work very slender.
It is generally supposed to have been a very early work subjected
to generous revision.
The plays of Middjeton still to be mentioned may be divided into
romantic and realistic comedies of London Life. Dekker had as
wide a knowledge of city manners, but he was more sympathetic
in treatment, readier to idealize his subject. Two New Playes.
Viz.: More Dissemblers besides Women. Women beware Women,
of which the former was licensed before 1622, appeared in 1657.
The plot of Women beware Women is a double intrigue from a con-
temporary novel, Hyppolito and Isabella, and the genuine history
of Bianca Capello and Francesco de Medici. This play, which ends
with a massacre appalling even in Elizabethan drama, may be taken
as giving the measure no mean one of Middleton's unaided
power in tragedy.
The remaining plays of Middleton are: Blurt, Master-Constable.
Or the Spaniards Night-walke (1602); Michaelmas Terme (1607),
described by A. C. Swinburne as an excellent Hogarthian comedy;
The Phcemx (1607), a version of the Haroun-al-Raschid trick;
The Famelie of Love (1608) ; A Trick to catch the Old-one (anonymously
printed, 1608) ; Your Five Gallants (licensed 1608) ; A Mad World,
my Masters (1608); A Chast Mayde in Cheapside (printed 1630),
notable for the picture of Tim, the Cambridge student, on his return
home; Anything for a Quiet Life (c. 1617, printed 1662); No Wit, No
Help like a Woman's (c. 1613, printed 1657); The Widdow (printed
1652), on the title-page of which appear also the names of Ben
Jonson and John Fletcher, though their collaboration may be
doubted. Eleven of his masques are extant. A tedious poem,
The Wisdom of Solomon paraphrased, by Thomas Middleton, was
printed in 1597, and Microcynicon, Six Snarling Satires by T. M.
Gent, in 1599- Two prose pamphlets, dealing with London life,
Father Hubbard's Tale and The Black Book, appeared in 1604 under
his initials. His non-dramatic work, however, even if genuine,
has little value.
MIDDLETON MIDDLEWICH
AUTHORITIES. His works were edited by Alexander Dyce (5 vols.)
in 1840, with a valuable introduction quoting many documents,
and by A. H. Bullen (8 vols.) in 1885. The Best Plays of Thomas
Middleton were edited for the Mermaid series (1887) by Havelock
Ellis with an introduction by A. C. Swinburne. See also Miss
P. G. Wiggin's Inquiry into the Authorship of the Middleton-Rowley
Plays (Boston, 1897), and the notice on Middleton in Professor
A. W. Ward's Hist, of Eng. Dram. Lit. (ed. 1899; ii., 493-540),
which contains a full account of Middleton's Game at Chesse. A
careful examination of the parallelisms between the plays of Shake-
speare and Middleton is made by D. Hugo Jung in " Das
Verhaltnis Thomas Middleton's zu Shakspere " (Munchener Beitrdge
zur roman. u. engl. Phil. vol. xxix., 1904).
MIDDLETON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Middleton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on
the Irk, near the Rochdale Canal, and on the Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway, 6 m. N.N.E. from Manchester. Pop. (1901),
25,178. The church of St Leonards is of mixed architecture,
with a low square tower. The oldest portion of the building (the
tower arch) dates from the i2th century, but the main portion
from 1412, and the south aisle from 1524. Two chapels in it con-
tain memorials of, and are named after, two ancient Lancashire
families, the Asshetons and the Hopwoods. The Queen Elizabeth
grammar-school, a building in the Tudor style, was founded
in 1572 by Nowell, dean of St Paul's, London. There are
a handsome town-hall and municipal technical schools. An
extensive system of tramways and electric light railways connects
the town with its suburbs and adjacent industrial centres. The
prosperity of the town dates from the introduction of manu-
factures at the close of the i8th century. The staple trade is the
spinning and weaving of cotton, and the other industries include
silk weaving, calico-printing, bleaching, dyeing, iron-founding and
the manufacture of soap and chemicals. There are collieries in
the neighbourhood. The town was incorporated in 1886, and the
corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 4775 acres.
MIDDLETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Middlesex
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Middletown, in
the south central part of the state, on the west bank of the
Connecticut river, about 30 m. from its mouth, and about
15 m. south of Hartford. Pop. (1890), 9013; (1900), 9589,
of whom 2316 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,851.
Within a radius of 2 m. from the city hall there was
found in 1910 most of the township's population of
20,749. The city is served by two branches of the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, by a line of coast
steamers, and by electric lines connecting with neighbouring
cities and villages. The city is connected by a long highway
bridge with the village of Portland in the township of Portland
(pop. in 1910, 3425; area 26 sq. m.), which is known for its
brown-stone quarries. Four miles south of Middletown is Chest-
nut Mountain (or Bull Hill), which commands a fine view; and
about 3 m. east are the " Narrows " of the Connecticut river,
where the water flows between high hills. Middletown has a
number of handsome residences. In High Street stand the
buildings of Wesleyan university (Methodist Episcopal), founded
in 1831 by the Rev. Wilbur Fisk, who became the first president,
and the Rev. Laban Clark (1778-1868), who became the first
president of the board of trustees. Women were first admitted
in 1872, but coeducation was later discontinued, and the last
freshman class of women students under the old system entered
in 1909. The university offers classical and scientific courses,
and in 1908-1909 had 36 instructors, 322 students (30 being
women), and a library of 79,000 volumes. In 1875-1877 the
work of the first agricultural experiment station in the United
States was carried on here under state supervision in Wesleyan
University, with Professor Wilbur Olin Atwater (1844-1907) as
director; it was then removed to New Haven. Middletown is also
the seat of the Berkeley divinity school (Protestant Episcopal),
founded in 1849 as the theological department of T'rinity College,
Hartford, rechartered and removed to Middletown in 1854, and
having in 1907 a faculty of 8, and 16 students; and the city has a
free public library (1874) with 17,700 vols. in 1907. South-east
of the city is the Connecticut hospital for the insane, and south-
XVIII. 14
west of the city, the Connecticut industrial school for girls
(reformatory). The total value of the factory products in 1905
was $5,604,676, an increase of 35 % over that for 1900. The
municipality owns and operates the waterworks.
Middletown occupies the site of an Indian village, Mattabesec
or Mattabesett (from Massa-sepues-et, " at a great rivulet or
brook "), the principal village of the Mattabesec Indians, an
Algonquian tribe which included the Wongunk, Pyquaug and
Montowese Indians and seems to have had jurisdiction over the
whole of south-western Connecticut. The township of Middle-
town was settled by whites in 1650, and until 1653, when the
present name was adopted, was known by the Indian name,
Mattabesett. It was incorporated in 1651; and the city was
chartered in 1784. Shipbuilding and commerce became the
principal sources of wealth. In the middle of the nineteenth
century Middletown was one of the leading cities of Connecticut,
and as late as 1886 it was a port of entry; but the development
of rival ports, especially New Haven, Hartford and Bridgeport,
into railway centres, retarded the growth of manufacturing,
and commerce declined after the Civil War.
MIDDLETOWN, a' city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the Wallkill river, 67 m. N.N.W. of New York City. Pop.
(1890) 11,977; (1900) 14,522, including 1700 foreign-born and 480
negroes; (1905, state census) 14,516; (1910) 15,313. It is served
by the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the
New York, Ontario & Western railways, and is connected by an
electric line with Goshen (pop. in 1910, 3081), the county-seat.
It is situated in an attractive dairy and agricultural country;
and in the city and vicinity there are many summer residences.
Here are the state homoeopathic hospital for the insane, a state
armoury, Thrall hospital, and Thrall library. Middletown is
primarily a manufacturing city, and has the car shops of the
New York, Ontario & Western railway. The value of its factory
products increased from $2,154,742 in 1900 to $3,356,330 in
1905, or 55-8 %. The municipality owns and operates its
waterworks. Middletown was settled about 1796 and owed its
early commercial importance to its being a " half-way house "
(whence its name) for travellers on the Minisink Road to
western New York, and it was for a time a terminus of the
Erie railroad. It was incorporated as a village in 1848, and
first chartered as a city in 1888.
MIDDLETOWN, a city of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the
Miami river, 34 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 7681; (1900),
9215, of whom 769 were foreign-born and 314 were negroes; (1910)
13,152. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &
St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati
Northern (New York Central system), and a branch of the
Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system) railways.
It is the trade centre of a rich and beautiful agricultural region
in which tobacco, wheat and Indian corn are the principal crops.
The river furnishes considerable water-power and the total factory
product in 1905 was valued at $8,357,993, an increase of
47-2 % over that in 1900. The waterworks are owned and
operated by the municipality. Middletown was laid out in 1802
and was named from its location between Cincinnati and Dayton;
it was incorporated in 1833.
MIDDLETOWN, a borough of Dauphin county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the east bank of the Susquehanna river, 9 m. below
Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 5080; (1900), 5608 (340 foreign-born
and 289 negroes) ; (1910), 5374. It is served by the Pennsylvania
and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by an electric
line to Harrisburg. The borough has a considerable trade with
the surrounding agricultural country, and owing to the proximity
of the Yorkhaven power-plant (across the river) and the excellent
railway service, is a manufacturing centre. The municipality
owns its electric lighting plant. Middletown was founded in
1 7 55 by Friends (from Philadelphia and other places in Pennsyl-
vania) and Scotch-Irish, and was so named because of its position
midway between Lancaster and Carlisle. It was first incorporated
as a borough in 1828.
MIDDLEWICH, an urban district in the Northwich parlia-
mentary division of Cheshire, England, 166 m. N.W. of London,
MIDHAT PASHA MIDIAN
on the London & North Western railway. Pop. (1901),
4669. It lies in open country near the river Dane, having water
communications by the Trent and Mersey canal, and a branch
giving access to the Shropshire Union canal. The church of St
Michael and All Angels is of various periods and contains
numerous monuments. In the streets not a few old buildings
remain, making for picturesqueness, and a number of the fine
timbered houses in which Cheshire abounds are seen in the
immediate neighbourhood. Middlewich shares in the salt
industry common to several towns, such as Northwich and
Winsford, in this part of the county; there are also chemical
works and a manufacture of condensed milk.
MIDHAT PASHA (1822-1884), Turkish statesman, the son
of a civil judge, was born at Constantinople in 1822. His father,
a declared partisan of reform, trained him for an administrative
career, and at the age of twenty-two he was attached as secretary
to Faik Effendi, whom he accompanied in Syria for three years.
On his return to Constantinople Midhat was appointed chief
director of confidential reports, and after a new financial mission
in Syria was made second secretary of the grand council. His
enemies, however, succeeded in ousting him from this post, and
caused him to be entrusted with the apparently impossible task
of settling the revolt and brigandage rampant in Rumelia. His
measures were drastic and their success was startling and the
government made him an official of the first rank and restored
him to his place in the grand council. In similar vigorous
fashion he restored order in Bulgaria in 1857. In 1860 he was
made vizier and pasha, and entrusted with the government of
Nisch, where his reforms were so beneficial that the sultan
charged him, in conjunction with Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha, to
prepare the scheme for adapting them to the empire which was
afterwards known as the law of the vilayets. After further
administrative work in his province, he was ordered to organize
the council of state in 1866, and was then made governor of
Bagdad, where his success was as decisive as at Nisch, but
attended with much greater difficulties. In 1871 the anti-reform
influence of the grand vizier, Mahmoud Nedim, seemed to
Midhat a danger to the country, and in a personal interview he
boldly stated his views to the sultan, who was so struck with their
force and entire disinterestedness that he appointed Midhat
grand vizier in place of Mahmoud. Too independent, however,
for the court, Midhat remained in power only three months, and
after a short governorship of Salonica he lived apart from affairs
at Constantinople until 1875.
From this time forward, however, Midhat Pasha's career
resolved itself into a series of strange and almost romantic
adventures. While sympathizing with the ideas and aims of the
" Young Turkey " party, he was anxious to restrain its impatience,
but the sultan's obduracy led to a coalition between the grand
vizier, the war minister and Midhat Pasha, which deposed him in
May 1876, and he was murdered in the following month. His
nephew Murad V. was in turn deposed in the following August
and replaced by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. Midhat Pasha now
became grand vizier , reforms were freely promised, and the
Ottoman parliament was inaugurated with a great flourish. In
the following February, however, Midhat was dismissed and
banished for supposed complicity in the murder of Abdul Aziz.
He then visited various European capitals, and remained for
some time in London, where he carefully studied the procedure
in the House of Commons. Again recalled in 1878, he was
appointed governor of Syria, and in August exchanged offices with
the governor of Smyrna. But in the following May the sultan
again ordered him to be arrested, and although he effected his
escape and appealed to the powers, he shortly afterwards saw fit to
surrender, claiming a fair hearing. The trial accordingly took
place in June, when Midhat and the others were sentenced to
death. It was, however, generally regarded as a mockery, and on
the intercession of the British government the sentence was com-
muted to banishment. The remaining three years of his life
were consequently spent in exile at Taif in Arabia, where he died,
probably by violence, on the 8th of May 1884. To great ability,
wide sympathies, and undoubted patriotism he added absolute
honesty, that rare quality in a vizier, for he left office as poor as
when he entered it. (G. F. B.)
MIDHURST, a market town in the north-western parlia-
mentary division of Sussex, England, 1 2 m. N. by E. of Chichester
by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway; served also
by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1674.
It is pleasantly situated on slightly rising ground near the river
Rother. The church of St Mary Magdalen and St Denis is a large
Perpendicular building. The town retains several picturesque
old houses, and in the vicinity, by the river, are the ruins of
the i6th century mansion of Cowdray, burnt down in 1793. A
grammar-school was founded at Midhurst in 1672 and attained
some eminence. After being closed for many years it was re-
opened in 1880. In 1906 a magnificent sanatorium for consump-
tives was opened about 4 m. from Midhurst; it bears the name of
King Edward VII., who laid its foundation stone and opened it.
The name of Midhurst (Middeherst, Mudhurst) first occurs in
the reign of Henry I. when Savaric Fitz-Cana held it of the honour
of Arundel, then presumably in the king's hands. The charter
of Henry I., although no longer extant, is quoted in later confir-
mation charters of Richard I., Henry III., Edward III. and
Richard II. . Franco de Bohun inherited Midhurst from his
uncle Savaric Fitz-Savaric, and the De Bohuns held the lordship
until 1499 when Sir David Owen obtained it through his marriage
with the daughter of the last male heir. He sold it to Sir William
Fitz- William, from whom it passed to Sir Anthony Browne and
descended to the viscounts Montague. Midhurst is definitely
called a borough in the reign of Edward I., but the borough-court
and market were probably in existence much earlier. It was
governed by a bailiff, elected annually, until the office lapsed,
probably early in the igth century. In an act of 1883 it is
mentioned as one of the towns which had long ceased to be
municipal. No charter of incorporation is known. Midhurst
returned two members to parliament from 1300-1301 till 1832,
and from that date one member until 1885 when it was dis-
franchised. In the reign of Henry VI. a market was held by the
burgesses every Thursday, and a fair on Whit-Tuesday, by
grant from Sir John Bohun. In 1888 the fair-days were the
6thof April, thegthof May andthe 29th of October. The market-
day was Thursday. Pleasure-fairs are still held on the 6th of
April and the 2gth of October, but there is no market.
MIDIAN (properly Madyan, so Sept.), in the Bible, one of the
peoples of North Arabia whom the Hebrews recognized as distant
kinsmen, representing them as sons of Abraham's wife Keturah
(" incense "). Thus the sons of Keturah are the " incense-men,"
not indeed inhabitants of the far south incense-land, but presum-
ably the tribes whose caravans brought the incense to Palestine
and the Mediterranean ports. So the Midianites appear in con-
nexion with the gold and incense trade from Yemen (Isa. Ix. 6),
and with the trade between Egypt and Syria (Gen. xxxvii. 28,36).
They appear also as warriors invading Canaan from the eastern
desert, and ravaging the land as similar tribes have done
in all ages when Palestine lacked a strong government (see
GIDEON). Again, they are described as peaceful shepherds, and
the pastures of the Midianites, or of the branch of Midian to which
Moses's father-in-law (Jethro or Reuel, orHobab) belonged, lay
near Mount Horeb (Exod. iii. i). The Kenites who had friendly
relations with Israel, and are represented in Judg. i. 16, iv. n,
as the kin of Moses's father-in-law, appear to have been but one
fraction of Midian which took a separate course from their early
relations to Israel. 1 Balaam, according to one version of the
story, was a Midianite (Num. xxii. seq.) and his association with
Moab has been connected with the statement in Gen. xxxvi. 35,
that the Edomite king Hadad defeated Midian in the land of
Moab; (see BALAAM, EDOM).
1 The admixture of Midianite elements in Judah and the other
border tribes of Israel is confirmed by a comparison of the names of
the Midianite clans in Gen. xxv. 4 with the Hebrew genealogies
(i Chrpn. ii. 46, Ephah; iv. 17, Epher; Gen. xlvi. 9, Hanoch).
Epher is also associated with 'Ofr near Hanakiya (Hanoch), three
days north from Medina, also with Apparu a Bedouin locality
mentioned by Assur-bani-pal. Ephah is probably the Hayapa
transported by Sargon to Beth-Omri (Samaria).
MIDLETON, VISCOUNT MIDRASH
419
A place Midian is mentioned in i Kings xi. 18, apparently
between Edom and Paran, and in later times the name lingered
in the district east of the Gulf of 'Akaba, where Eusebius knows
a city Madiam in the country of the Saracens and Ptolemy (vi. 7)
places Modiana. Still later Madyan was a station on the
pilgrim route from Egypt to Mecca, the second beyond Aila
(Elath). Here in the middle ages was shown the well from
which Moses watered the flocks of Sho'aib (Jethro), and the place
is still known as " the caves of Sho'aib." It has considerable
ruins, which have been described by Sir R. Burton (Land of
Midian, 1879).
This district which has on its east Taima, a centre of civilization
in the 5th century B.C., and on its south-east El-'Ola whose existence
as a seat of culture is_possibly even older, is identified by some
scholars with the Musran of the Minaean (south Arabian) inscrip-
tions, on which see SABAEANS, YEMEN. That this part of north-west
Arabia had frequent intercourse with Palestine appears.certain from
its commercial relations with Gaza; and the association of the
.Midianite Jethro with early Hebrew legislation, as also the possi-
bility that Mizraim (" Egypt ") in the Old Testament should be
taken in some cases to refer to this district, have an important
bearing upon several Old Testament questions. See MIZRAIM.
MIDLETON, WILLIAM ST JOHN FREMANTLE BRODRICK,
9TH VISCOUNT (1856- ), English politician, was the son of the
8th viscount (1830-1907). He came of a Surrey family who in
the i yth century, in the persons of Sir St John Brodrick and Sir
Thomas Brodrick, obtained grants of land in the south of Ireland.
Sir St John Brodrick settled at Midleton, between Cork and
Youghal in 1641; and his son Alan Brodrick (1660-1728),
speaker of the Irish House of Commons and lord chancellor of
Ireland, was created Baron Brodrick in 1715 and Viscount
Midleton in 1717 in the Irish peerage. In 1796 the title of Baron
Brodrick in the peerage of the United Kingdom was- created.
The English family seat at Peper Harow, near Godalming, Surrey,
was designed by Sir William Chambers. The 8th viscount was
. Conservative in politics, who for a few years had a seat in the
House of Commons, and who was responsible in the House of
Lords for carrying the Infants Protection Act. His brother, the
Hon. G. C. Brodrick, was for many years warden of Merton
College, Oxford. As Mr St John Brodrick, the 9th viscount had
a distinguished career in the House of Commons. After being
at Eton and Balliol, Oxford, and serving as president of the
Oxford Union, he entered parliament as conservative member
for one of the Surrey divisions in 1880. From 1886 to 1892 he
was financial secretary to the war office; under secretary for war,
1895-1898; under secretary for foreign affairs, 1898-1900;
secretary of state for war, 1900-1903; and secretary of state for
India, 1903-1905. He lost his seat for the Guildford division
of Surrey at the general election of January 1906. In March
1907 he was made an alderman of the London County Council.
He married, first in 1880, Lady Hilda (d. 1001), daughter of
the gth earl of Wemyss, by whom he had a family; and secondly
in 1903, Madeleine Stanley, daughter of Lady St Helier by her
first husband.
MIDLETON, or MIDDLETON, a market town of Co. Cork,
Ireland, on the river Owenacurra, 13 m. E. of Cork by the
Youghal branch of the Great Southern & Western railway.
Pop. (1901), 3361. The river here enters a branch of Cork
harbour. The surrounding hilly country is pleasant and fertile,
and furnishes the town with a good agricultural trade. There
are also whisky-distilleries. Ballinacurra, 15 m. south on the
estuary, serves as a small port. The grammar school was
founded in 1696, and here among its students were John Philpot
Curran and Isaac Butt. Midleton is governed by an urban
district council.
MIDNAPORE, a town and district of British India, in the
Burdwan division of Bengal. The town is 68 m. W. of Calcutta;
it has a station on the Bengal Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901),
33,140. It is an important centre of trade, being the terminus
of a navigable canal to Calcutta, and also the junction for the
Sini branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. There are manu-
factures of brass and copper wire. It has an American mission,
a municipal college, and a public library founded in 1852.
The DISTRICT OF MIDNAPORE has an area of 5186 sq. m. The
general appearance is that of a large open plain, of which the
greater part is under cultivation. In the northern portion the
soil is poor, and there is little wood. The country along the
western boundary, known as the Jungle Mahals, is undulating
and picturesque; it is almost uninhabited. The eastern and
south-eastern portions are swampy and richly cultivated. The
chief rivers of the district are the Hugli and its three tributaries,
the Rupnarayan, the Haldi and the Rasulpur. Th Midnapore
high-level canal used also for irrigation runs almost due east and
west from the town of Midnapore to Ulubaria on the Hugli 16 m.
below Calcutta, and affords a continuous navigable channel 53 m.
in length. There is also a tidal canal for navigation, 26 m.
in length, extending from the Rupnarayan river. The district
is traversed as well by the Bengal-Nagpur railway towards
Orissa, with a branch to Chota Nagpur. The jungles in the west
of the district yield lac, tussur, silk, wax, resin, fire-wood,
charcoal, &c., and give shelter to large and small game. The
principal exports are rice, silk and sugar; and the chief imports
consist of cotton cloth and twist. Salt, indigo, silk, mats and
brass and copper utensils are manufactured. Both silk and
indigo are decaying industries. The population in 1901 was
2,789,114, showing an increase of 6% in the decade.
The early history of Midnapore centres round the ancient town
of Tamluk, which in the beginning of the 5th century was an
important Buddhist settlement and maritime harbour. The first
connexion of the English with the district dates from 1760, when
Mir Kasim ceded to the East India Company Midnapore, Chitta-
gong, and Burdwan (then estimated to furnish one-third of the
entire revenue of Bengal) as the price of his elevation to the
throne of Bengal on the deposition of Mir Jafar.
MIDRASH, a very common term in Jewish writings for
" exposition " and a certain class of expository literature. The
word also occurs twice in the Old Testament (2 Chron. xiii. 22,
xxiv. 27; R.V. rather poorly " commentary ").
i. Introduction. The term (Heb. midrdsh from darash " to
search out, enquire ") denotes some explanation or exposition,
which, in contrast to the more literal exegesis (technically called
pgshat " simple "), endeavours to reach the spirit lying below the
text. It may be denned as a didactic or homiletic development
of some thought or theme, characterized by a more subjective,
imaginative and ampliative treatment. Jewish Midrash falls
broadly into two classes: Halaka (q.v.) or Htllaka (walking,
way, conduct) and Haggddah (narrative [with a purpose],
homily; Aramaic equivalent Aggddah; the incorrect form
Agadah rests upon a mistaken etymology). The former dealt
with legal and ritual matters; it flourished in the schools and
developed into the most subtle casuistry. The latter covered
all non-halakic exposition and was essentially popular. It
embraced historical and other traditions; stories, legends,
parables and allegories; beliefs, customs and all that may be
called folk-lore. It fed itself, not upon the laws, but upon the
narrative, the prophetical and the poetical writings of the Old
Testament, and it had a more spiritual and ethical tone than the
Halaka. In both classes, accepted tradition (written or oral)
was reinterpreted in order to justify or to deduce new teaching
(in its widest sense) , to connect the present with a hallowed past,
and to be a guide for the future; and the prevalence of this
process, the innumerable different examples of its working, and
the particular application of the term Midrash to an important
section of Rabbinical literature complicates both the study of the
subject and any attempt to treat it concisely. 1 Apart from the
popular paraphrastic translations of the Old Testament (see
TARGUM), the great mass of orthodox Rabbinical literature
consists of (i) the independent Midrashim, and (2) the Mishna
which, with its supplement the Gemara, constitutes the Talmud.
Both contain Halaka and Haggada, although the Mishna itself
is essentially Halaka, and the Midrashim are more especially
Haggadic; and consequently further information bearing upon
Midrash must be sought in the art. TALMUD. These two articles
1 For a careful study of the meaning of the term, see W. Bacher,
Jew. Quart. Rev. IV. 406-429.
420
MIDRASH
handle one of the most famous bodies of ancient literature,
which, in its turn, has given rise to innumerable Jewish and non-
Jewish works, and has many points of value and interest which
cannot be adequately discussed here. It must suffice, therefore,
to deal rather broadly with the subject, and to refer for fuller
details to the special encyclopaedias, viz.: Hamburger's Real-
Encyc. filr Bibel und Talmud, and the very elaborate articles in
the Jewish Encyclopedia.
2. Narrative Midrash. Oi the three different kinds _of
historical writing the genetic or scientific, the purely narrative
and the pragmatic it is the last which has prevailed among
religious historians. It is extremely difficult to avoid the subjec-
tive element in dealing with matters of fact, and the religious
treatment of history is influenced, however unconsciously, by the
mental environment of the writers. In giving greater promi-
nence to events of religious importance and to their bearing upon
the spiritual needs of contemporaries they view and interpret
the past in a particular light, and will see in the past those
growths which only in their own time have become mature. A
latent significance is found, a particular connexion is traced, and
a continuity is established, the true nature of which must be
tested by critical students. Now, it is subjective history which
we find in the earliest references to Midrash. The Midrash of the
prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22) like the Visions and the Histories
of Iddc and Shemaiah (ix. 29, xii. 15) which are quoted for the
lives of Solomon, Abijah and Jeroboam, are evidently quite
distinct from the sources cited in the parallel portions of the
earlier compilation, and the entire spirit of the narratives is
different. Similarly, there is a conspicuous difference of treat-
ment of the life of Joash in 2 Kings xi. seq., compared with 2
Chron. xxiii. seq., which refers to some Midrash of the Book of the
Kings (xxiv. 27). Although it is uncertain whether this com-
prehensive Midrash also included the " books of the Kings "
(xvi. n, xxvii. 7, &c.), and the Midrash of Iddo and other related
works, it is clear that the Book of Chronicles (q.v.) marks a very
noteworthy advance upon the records in the (canonical) Book of
Kings (9.!).). It is now recognized that the compiler of the former
has used many novel narratives of a particular edifying and
didactic stamp, and scholars are practically unanimous that
these are subsequent to the age of the Israelite monarchy and
present a picture of historical and religious conditions which
(to judge from earlier sources) is untrustworthy. At the same
time various details (as comparison with the Book of Kings
shows) are relatively old and, on a priori grounds, it is extremely
unlikely that the unhistorical elements are necessarily due to
deliberate imagination or perversion rather than to the develop-
ment of earlier traditions. The religious significance of the past
is dominant, and the past is idealized from a later standpoint;
and whether the narratives in Chronicles are expressly styled
Midrash or not, they are the fruit of an age which sought to
inculcate explicitly those lessons which, it conceived, were implied
in the events of the past. The value of the book lay not in
history for its own sake, but in its direct application to present
needs. But the tendency to reshape history for the edification
of later generations was no novelty when Chronicles was first
compiled (about 4th cent. B.C.), Pragmatic historiography is
exemplified in the earliest continuous sources (viz. of the " Deuter-
onomic " writers, i.e. allied to Deut., especially the secondary
portions); and there are many relatively early narratives in
which the details have been modified, and the heroes of
the past are the mouthpiece for the thought of a later writer or
of his age. Numerous instructive examples of the active
tendency to develop tradition may be observed in the relation-
ship between Genesis and the " Book of Jubilees," or in the
embellishments of Old Testament history in the Antiquities of
Josephus, or in the widening gaps in the diverse traditions of the
famous figures ol the Old Testament (Adam, Noah, Enoch,
Abraham, Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, &c.), as they appear in non-
canonical writings. In such cases as these one can readily
perceive the different forms which the same material elements
have assumed, and one may distinguish the unreliable accretions
which are clearly later and secondary. Accordingly, when
there are narratives which cannot be tested in this manner,
should they show all the internal marks of didactic expansion
and date from an age much later than the times with which they
deal, their immediate value will not necessarily lie in the details
which appear to be of historical interest, but in their contribution
to later forms of tradition and phases of thought. So far then,
Midrash tends to include moralizing history, whether we call it
narrative or romance, attached to names and events, and it is
obviously exemplified whenever there are unmistakable signs
of untrustworthy amplification and of some explicit religious
or ethical aim colouring the narrative. This, however, is only
one of the aspects which have to be taken into consideration
when one advances to the Rabbinical Midrash.
For Old Testament " Midrash " see further K. Budde, Zeitschr. /.
ait-test. Wissenschaft, xii. 37, seq., and commentaries on Chronicles
(g.v.). The elaborate study by the Jewish scholar Zunz (Die gottes-
dienstlichen Vortrdge, ch. viii.) is also valuable for bridging the gtilf
between the canonical and the non-canonical traditions and for its
just attitude to the criticism of historical traditions. The rigid line
between fact or fiction in religious literature, which readers often
wish to draw, cannot be consistently justified, and in studying old
Oriental religious narratives it is necessary to realize that the teach-
ing was regarded as more essential than the method of presenting
it. " Midrash " which may be quite useless for historical investiga-
tion may be appreciated for the light it throws upon forms of thought.
Historical criticism does not touch the reality of the ideas, and since
they may be as worthy of study as the apparent facts they clothe,
they thus indirectly contribute to the history of their period. In
any case, while the true historical kernel of the Midrashic narrative
(e.g. dealing with Adam, Moses or Isaiah) will always be a matter
of dispute, the teaching to which it is applied stands on an inde-
pendent footing as also does the application of that teaching to
other ages.
3. Continuity of Literature and Material. Amid obscure
vicissitudes in the 7th to 5th centuries, B.C., the Canonical books
of the Old Testament gradually began to assume their present
shape (see PALESTINE: History). The internal peculiarities show
that the compilations are the much edited remains of a larger
body of literature, and it may reasonably be supposed that the
older sources did net at once perish. There is literary critical
evidence for late insertions by exilic or later compilers; 1 the
compiler of Chronicles apparently refers to accessible works;
and there is a close material relationship between the Old Testa-
ment and later literature. All this suggests that Old Hebrew
writings, apart from those preserved in the Canon, persisted
to a relatively late period. No a priori distinction can be made^
and no precise chronological line can be drawn between the books
of the Canon (Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Ezekiel and
Proverbs had been at one time or another subjects of debate
among the Rabbis) and the Apocrypha (Ecclesiasticus, Judith,
Maccabees and Tobit, were "allowed"); and the intimate
relation between them appears in the character of the " Wisdom
Literature " (e.g. Proverbs, and the Wisdom of Solomon), in the
treatment of the stories of Esther and Daniel (the history of
Susanna), and also in the twofold recensions Ezra and i Esdras.
Historical or narrative Midrash is exemplified in the " canonical "
books Daniel, Esther, Jonah and Ruth, and in the " apocryphal "
stories of Daniel (viz. Susanna, where the point lies in the name
Daniel " God is judge "), Esther, Judith, Tobit (and the Ahiqar
cycle of stories), the story of Zerubbabel (i Esd. iii. seq., the
sequel of which belongs to the canonical Ezra) , and the martyrdom
of Eleazer (2 Mace. vi. seq., compare 4 Mace.). This is not the
place to notice the course of Jewish literary activity in Palestine
or Alexandria, whether along the more rigid lines of Pharisaic
legalism (the development of the canonical " priestly " law),
or the popular and less scholastic phases, which recall the earlier
apocalyptical tendencies of the Old Testament and were culti-
vated alike by early Jewish and Christian writers. But after the
fall of Jerusalem, partly through the need for systematizing the
traditional post-biblical law, and partly through disputes with
the Christians, orthodox Rabbinism received the stamp which
has since characterized it. The traditional or oral law was
codified in the Mishna (see TALMUD, i seq.), the Canon was
1 E.g. Judg. i. (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. " Historical Lit.,"
col. 2085, middle), 2 Sam. ix.-xx., &c.
MIDRASH
421
fixed, and the fluctuations in the MSS. of the Old Testament
(which, like the numerous variations in the Septuagint, compli-
cated exact exegesis) gave way to what was virtually a single
text. Moreover, the important body of apocalyptical and
pseudepigraphical literature, with all its links between Christi-
anity and Judaism, fell into disfavour on both sides. This
literature is especially valuable because it illustrates contem-
porary Halaka and Haggada, and it illuminates the circle of
thought with which Jesus and his followers were familiar; it thus
fills f.he gap between the Old Testament and the authoritative
Rabbinical Midrashim which, though often in a form several
centuries later, not rarely preserve older material. 1
A few miscellaneous examples of related Midrashic details may
be cited :
i. The book of Jubilees (a haggadic and halakic Midrash on
Genesis, about 2nd century B.C.), contains the story of the war
between Amorite Kings and Jacob (ch. xxxiv.). This is known
to the probably contemporary Testament of Judah and to much
later Midrashim (Mid. Wayyisa'u, Yalaut Shimeoni, also the apo-
cryphal "book of Jashar"), and is evidently connected with the
cryptic allusion to the capture of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 (R.V.
marg.). Unless we suppose that the latter was suddenly expanded
into the stories which thenceforth persisted, it may be inferred
that an old extra-canonical tradition (for which a case can be made)
continued to survive the compilation of Genesis (q.v.) and ultimately
assumed the various exaggerated forms now extant. Naturally
the probability of such a tradition the merest hint of which happens
to be preserved in Gen. loc. cit. does not prejudice the problem of its
origin or accuracy; in Jub. the story is useless for Jacob's history,
and is probably influenced by a recollection of more recent events
in the Maccabaean age.
ii. A curious account of war between Egypt and Canaan after
Joseph's death recurs in Jub. xli., Test, of Simeon, viii., and Benjamin
vii., and is connected with details (burial of Jacob's sons at Hebron)
recorded by Josephus (Ant. ii. 8). Josephus in turn has another
story wherein Moses leads the Egyptians against Ethiopia (Ant. ii.
10, for parallels see Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 2089 seq.), and this is
found in the late chronicles of Jerahmeel and the Book of Jashar
(cf . also Mid. Dibre ha-ydmlm shel-Mosheh ; see Jew. Ency. viii. 573
seq.). The former may be linked with Gen. 1. 9 (where the con-
course of chariots and horsemen would invite speculation), and the
latter with the Cushite wife of Moses; but although one may grant
that the canonical sources do riot by any means preserve all the older
current traditions, the contents of the latter cannot be recovered
from the later persisting Midrashim. 2
iii. The allusion in Jude v. 9 to the contention of the archangel
Michael for the body of Moses belongs to a group of traditions which
have been collected by R. H. Charles (Assumption of Moses, pp. 105
seq.), and it appears that the incident was familiar to Clement
of Alexandria, Origen and other early writers. Moreover, Jude v.
1 6 agrees very closely with the Latin version of the Testament of
Moses, which has other parallels in Matt. xxiv. 29; Acts vii. 36,
38 seq. (ibid. pp. Ixii. seq.). Here may be added Jannes and Jambres,
who withstood Moses (2 Tim. iii. 8); these or related names were
known to the elder Pliny (xxx. i. ii), Apuleius (first half of 2nd
century), Origen (who refers to a book of Jannes and Mambres),
and various earlier and later Jewish sources; see I. Abrahams, Ency.
Bib. col. 2327 seq.; H. St J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to con-
temporary Jewish thought (London, 1900), pp. 215 sqq.
iv. Jewish traditions of Abraham in Ur of the Chaldees recur
in the Targums, Midrashic works, and earlier in the book of Jubilees
(ch. xii., ed. Charles, p. 91 ; cf. also Judith v. 6 seq.). The legends
of his escape from a fiery furnace may have a philological basis (ur
interpreted as " fire "), but the allusion to the redemption of Abraham
in Isa. xxix 22 seems to indicate that older tradition was fuller than
the present records in Genesis, and supplies another example of the
link connecting the Old Testament with Rabbinical thought.
v. Not to multiply examples further, it may suffice to refer to
(a) the apparent belief that the serpent tempted Eve to unchastity
(2 Cor. xi. 2 seq., see Thackeray pp. 50 seq.) ; (6) the descent of the
angels upon earth (Gen. vi. I seq.; Jude 6, 14 seq., see Charles, Jub.
p. 33 seq., Clermont-Ganneau, Quart. Statements of the Pal. Explor.
Fund, 1903, pp. 233 seq. and the Midr. Abkir. see Jew, Ency. viii.
572); (c) the relationship between the Midrashic developments of
the story of Esther in Josephus, the' Greek and Old Latin Versions,
the Targums and later Jewish sources (see L. B. Paton, Comm. on
Esther, pp. 20, too and passim) ; and finally (d) the numerous minor
miscellaneous parallels noticed in recent annotated editions of the
1 On the history of his intermediate stage see E. Schiirer, Hist, of
Jew. People (Edinburgh, 1886), Germ. Gesch. Jud. Vplkes; M. Fried-
lander, Relig. Bewegungen innerhalb des Judentums im Zeitalter Jesu
(Berlin, 1905) ; W. Fairweather, Background of the Gospels (Edinburgh
1908). See also APOCALYPTIC LIT. and APOCRYPHAL LIT.
1 Note also the allusion to the wisdom of Moses in Acts vii. 22,
upon which contemporary writings are pretty well informed.
pseudepigraphical literature (especially those of R. H. Charles).
(See further TALMUD, 5.)
4. Midrashic Exposition. The Talmud poetically describes
Midrash as a hammer which wakes to shining light the sparks
which slumber in the rock; and the simile is a happy one when
one considers the exegetical implements, the workmen and
their workmanship. For the expository or interpretative
Midrash was bound up with rules and methods which often
appear crude and arbitrary, they are nevertheless those of the
age and they helped to build up lasting monuments. 3 It
was believed that the Written Word had an infinite fulness;
according to the Midr. Bemidbar Rabbak every word of the
Law had seventy different aspects, and Philo of Alexandria
held that there are no superfluous words in Scripture. Con-
sequently an exaggerated emphasis is often laid upon single
words; as, for example, in the school of Rabbi 'Aqiba, where
even individual letters were forced to reveal their meaning.
Thus, since the Hebrew elh, which marks the accusative, is
also the preposition " with," Deut. x. 20 (" thou shall fear
[eth-] Yahweh thy God ") was interpreted to include the venera-
tion of the doctors of the law along with Yahweh. 4 Many
examples of literal interpretation can of course be found,
but arbitrary cases of the kind just noticed are due either to
an obviously far-fetched interpretation or to the endeavour
to find some authoritative support for teaching which it was
desired to inculcate. Thus faulty proof rather than faulty
inference is illustrated when the word " in-number " (Ex. xii. 4)
was used to confirm the Halaka that the man who killed the
Passover Lamb must know how many people were about to
share it (Jew. Ency. viii. 570). Often the biblical text cannot
be said to supply more than a hint or a suggestion, and the
particular application in Halaka or Haggada must be taken on
its merits, and the teaching does not necessarily fall because
the exegesis is illegitimate. To take another specimen: the
Mekilta on Ex. xx. 25 infers from the unusual form of the word
"it," that the prohibition of iron applies only to it, i.e. the altar,
and not to stones used in building the temple. This Halaka
is followed by a haggadic explanation of the prohibition: " iron
abridges life while the altar prolongs it; iron causes destruction
and misery, while the altar produces reconciliation between
God and man; and therefore the use of iron cannot be allowed
in making the altar." 5 Such were the sparks that could be
hammered out of the rock, and it is instructive to observe
similar exegetical methods in the New Testament. Emphasis
upon a single word is illustrated by Gal. iii. 16, where the argu-
ment rests upon the word " seed " (and not the plural " seeds ")
in the proof-text, and the same word in Rabbinical writings
is used to support other arguments. 6 By identical kinds of
exegesis Lev. xix. 14 (not to put a stumbling block before the
blind) is the ground for cautioning a father against striking
an adult child, and Deut. xxv. 4 (the law of the muzzled ox)
is used to show that God's labourer is worthy of his hire. 7
Again, since through Eve sin entered into the world, woman
must be subordinate to man (i Tim. ii. 11-14), r > she who
has thus extinguished " the light of the world " should atone
by lighting the festal candles on the sabbath (Talm. Shabb. 56).
By the allegorical method Isa. Ixi. is interpreted as applying
to Jesus (Luke iv. 16-22), and frequently passages which origin-
ally had another application have a Messianic reference in
8 For the Rabbinical " rules " and examples of their working
see F. Weber, Jud. Theolpgie (Leipzig, 1897), pp. 109-125; C. A.
Briggs Study of Holy Scripture (Edinburgh, 1899), ch. xviii.; Jew.
Ency. xii. 30-33; S. Schechter, Hastings' s Diet. Bible, v. 59, 63; and
H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 119-131.
4 So Aquila, the disciple of 'Aqiba, translates the accusative
particle by <rvv; see W. R. Smith, Old Test, in the Jew. Church, p. 63.
5 Oesterley and Box, Religion and Worship of the Synagogue
(London, 1907), p. 80; pp. 44-97 deal with Midrashic and other
Jewish literature.
6 Mish. Sanhed. iv. 5, see A. Geiger, Zeit. f. morgenland. Gesell-
schajt, 1858, pp. 307 sqq., S. R. Driver, Expositor, ix. (1889), p.
18 seq.
7 The Talmud Mo'ed Oafan, 70, and New Testament (i Cor. ix. 9,
I Tim. v. 1 8) respectively.
422
MIDRASH
Christian and Rabbinical teaching. Similarly the application
of Hos. ii. 23, not to the scattered tribes of Israel, but to the
Gentiles, is common to the Mishna and to Romans ix. 25 seq
(Sanday and Headlam, Comment, ad loc.) The Apostle Paul
once a disciple of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel, uses in i Cor. x. 4
(" the spiritual rock that followed them ") a familiar Jewish
Haggada which, however, he reinterprets, even as, when he
identifies the " rock " with Christ, he diverges from the Alex-
andrian Philo who had identified it with Wisdom or the Wore
of God. Moreover, not only are passages thus taken out ol
their context, but they are combined, especially when they
contain the same words or phrases, or appear to have the same
or similar thoughts or aims. The Talmud, with a reference
to Prov. xxxi. 14 (" she bringeth her food from afar "), says
" the words of the Torah are poor (or deficient) in one place
but rich in another." Hence in the M id. Siphre on Numbers
xv. 39, " ye shall not seek after . . . your own eyes " is explained
to refer to adultery, after the words of Samson " she is pleasing
in my eyes " (Judg. xiv. 3); and on Deut. vi. 5 it charges man
to love the Lord " with all thy soul . . . even if he should
take away thy soul," the teaching being based upon Ps. xliv.
22." Similarly, in the New Testament, after the same method,
Mai. iii. i and Is. xl. 3 (linked by the phrase " to prepare the
way ") are combined in Mark i. 2 seq. ; Abraham's faith (Gen. xv. 6)
and temptation (xxii. i) are associated in James ii. 21-23, as
also in contemporary Jewish thought; and by other combined
quotations Paul enunciates the universality of sin (Rom. iii.
10 sqq.) and the doctrine that Christians are God's temple
(2 Cor. vi. 1 6 sqq). Proceeding upon such lines as these, the
Jews wove together their Midrashic homilies or sermons where,
though we may find much that seems commonplace, there are
illuminating parables and proverbs, metaphors and similes,
the whole affording admirable examples of the contemporary
thought and culture, both of the writers and what is often
overlooked the level of their hearers or readers. Like many
less ancient discourses, the Midrashim are apt to suffer when
read in cold print, and they are sometimes judged from a stand-
point which would be prejudicial to the Old Testament itself.
But they are to be judged as Oriental literature and if they
contain jarring extravagances and puerilities, one may recall
that even in modern Palestine it was found that the natives
understood Robinson Crusoe as a religious book more readily
than the Pilgrim's Progress (]. Robertson, Early Rel. of Israel,
1892, p. 66). In making allowance for the defects (without
which they would probably not have appealed to the age)
it must be remembered that some of the Rabbis themselves
recognized that the Midrashic Haggada was not always estimable.
An interesting example of combined quotation is illustrated in
Matt. xii. 4-8, where the teaching of Jesus on the law of the Sabbath
rests upon I Sam. xxi. 1-6, Num. xxviii. 9 seq. and Hos. vi. 6. Apropos
of this law the Rabbinical arguments are worth noticing. Appar-
ently the severe rules laid down in Jubilees 1. 8-12 (see R. H. Charles,
ad loc.) were exceptional. It was allowed that the Sabbath need
not be too rigorously kept, and this was justified by Exod. xxxi. 13,
where the singular use of the restrictive particle ak (EV " verily ")
supported the teaching that other Sabbaths need not be observed.
Also, from the words " holy unto you " j>. 14) it was taught that
" the Sabbath is given to you to desecrate in case of need, but thou
art not given to the Sabbath." Hence the Sabbath might be broken
when life was in danger. Moreover, it was argued that a battle
need not be stopped from religious considerations, e.g. the Sabbath
This was justified by Deut. xx. 20 " until it fall " (Talm. Shabb. 190).
Also, the Passover Lamb could be sacrificed on the Sabbath, and
justification for this was found in Num. ix. 2 " in its season " (Pesah
66a) See further on this subject, and on the evasions of the Sabbath
IAW C Ct->nnU*- n .. Oi /-*-. J,. r i_*_. .
vi r L. . ' J* ^' ty ~ i-'nvci, iiuswngs uici. iv. 320 seq
With the above interpretations, cf. A. H. McNeile on Matt, xii 5
John vu. 23: the a priori element in them perhaps suggests that
[these verses] were due to later reflexion on the part of Christians
who had realized the inadequacy of the law " (Swete's Camb Bibl
assays 1909, p. 226). For other examples illustrating Rabbinical
methods of exegesis in the New Testament, see McNeile, pp. 221 sqq
Our Lord s use of the Old Testament ") ; Briggs, op. cit. pp. 436,
1 Cited by S. Schechter, Hastings, Diet. Bible, v. 64.
sqq., and Thackeray, op. cit. (ch. vii. " use of the Old Testament,"
ch. viii. " St Paul the Haggadist "). The latter observes (p. 203) :
" the arguments by which Paul tried to convince his opponents
of the true meaning of the Old Testament as pointing forward to
Christ, are those which they would themselves have employed for
another purpose ; and to some extent we need not doubt that they
were selected for that very reason. They were the arguments which
were best calculated to appeal to them. ' Quite in accordance with
Rabbinical custom is the system of question and answer (Rom.
x. 5, seq., 16 seq.), and the argument in the sequence: statement,
objection and reply, appears already in the book of Malachi
5. The Jewish Midrashim. The earlier stages in the growth
of the extant Rabbinical Midrashim cannot be traced with any
certainty. Although there are several allusions to early written
works, other references manifest an objection to the writing
down of Haggada and Halaka. Perhaps it was felt that to
preserve uniformity of teaching in the schools it was undesir-
able to popularize the extant collections, or perhaps the refer-
ences must be reconsidered in the light of those significant
changes after the fall of Jerusalem which have been mentioned
above ( 3). 2 However this may be, the independent Halakoth
(where the oral decisions are interpreted or discussed on the
basis of the Old Testament) were gradually collected and arranged
according to their subject in the Mishnah and Tosephta (TALMUD,
i), while in the halakic Midrashim (where the decisions
are given in connection with the biblical passage from which
they were derived) they follow the sequence of the text of the
Old Testament. The Haggada was likewise collected according
to the textual sequence of the Old Testament. But the sermons
or discourses of the homiletic Midrashim are classified according
to the reading of the Pentateuch in the Synagogue, either the
three year cycle, or else according to the sections of the Penta-
teuch and Prophetical books assigned to special and ordinary
Sabbaths and festival days. Hence the latter are sometimes
styled Pesiqta (" section "). The homiletic Midrashim are
characterized by (a) a proem, an introduction based upon some
biblical text (not from the lesson itself), which led up to (b)
the exposition of the lesson, the first verse of which is more
fully discussed than the rest. They conclude (c) with Messianic
or consolatory passages on the future glory of Israel. A feature
of some Midrashim (e.g. nos. 4, $d, e, and 7 below) is the halakic
exordium which precedes the proems. 3
Among the more important Midrashim are: i. Mekilta (Aram.
" measure," i.e. " rule ") best known as the name of a now imperfect
halakic Midrash on Exod. xii. xxiii. 19 (also xxxi. 12-17 an d xxxv.
1-3). It represents the school of R. (Rabbi) Ishmael, is a useful
source for old Haggadah (especially on the narrative portions of
Exodus), and is interesting for its variant readings of the Canonical
Massoretic text. 4 Edited by Blasius Ugolinus, Thes. Antiq. Sacr.
xiv. (Venice, 1744, with a poor Latin translation), more recently by
J. H. Weiss (Vienna, 1865) and M. Friedmann (ibid. 1870), Germ.
trans, by J. Winter and A. Wunsche Leipzig, 1909). See further
J. Z. Lauterbach, Jew. Ency. viii. 444 seq.
ii. Siphra (Aram. " the book ") or Torath Kohdmm (" the
law of the priests "), a commentary on Leviticus, mainly
halakic, the text being a source for various maxims. (On Lev.
xix. 17 seq., neighbourly love and abstinence from vengeance con-
stitute, according to R. Aqiba, the great principle of the Torah.) It
is useful for the interpretation of the Mishnah treatises Qodashim
ind Teharoth. Latin trans, in Ugolinus, vol. xiv.; recent editions
Dy I. H. Weiss (Vienna, 1862), and with the commentary of Shim-
shpn (Samson) of Siens (Warsaw, 1866) ; see Jew. Ency. xi. 330 sqq.
iii. Siphre (Aram. " the books "), an old composite collection
of Halaka on Numbers, after R. Ishmael's school; and on Deut.
after that of R. Aqiqa, although the haggadic portions belong to the
ormer. Latin in Ugol. xv. ; recent edition, with good introduction
by Friedmann (Vienna, 1864) ; see Jew. Ency. xi. 332 seq.
The above works, although of 5th century or later date in their
Jresent form, contain much older material, which was perhaps first
'edacted in the earlier part of the 2nd century, A.D. They are of
2 See, on this point, Jew. Ency. viii. 549 seq., 552, 576; Schechter,
op. cit. p. 62; Strack, op. cit. pp. 10 sqq.
3 See more fully Jew. Ency. viii. 553. Cf. for the structure, the
lopeful concluding notes in the prophecies (e.g. Amos) and the dis-
course after the reading of the lesson from the prophets in Luke
'. 17 sqq., Acts xiii. 15 sqq.
4 See I. Abrahams in Swete'
pp. 174 seq.
Abrahams in Swete's Cambridge Bibl. Essays (1909),
MIDSHIPMAN
423
Palestinian origin, although the main redaction was made in Baby-
lonia.'
iv. Tanhuma, one of the oldest on the lessons of the Pentateuch,
with many proems ascribed to R. Tanhuma ben ("son of") Abba,
one of the most famous haggadists of Palestine (4th century), who
systematized and fixed the haggadic literature. This collection
of 158-161 homilies is also known as T. Yelammedenu, from the
opening words, Yel. Rabbenu, " our Rabbi teaches us " ; on the critical
questions connected with the titles and the present redaction
(probably 5th century), see Jew. Ency. viii. 560 seq., xii. 44 sqq.
Recent edition by Buber (Wilna, 1885).
v. Midrash Rabbah (or Rabboth) , a large collection of very diverse
origin and date, probably not completed before the I3th century.
It covers the Pentateuch (isi. ed., Constantinople, 1512) and the
"Five Rolls" (Pesaro, 1519; the whole printed first at Venice,
1545) : Germ, trans, by A. Wiinsche, Bibliotheca rabbinica (Leipzig,
1880-1885). The several portions are named after the ordinary
Jewish titles of the Old Testament books with the addition of
Rabbah " great." These are (a) Bereshith (" in the beginning,"
Gen. i. l) Rabbah, on Genesis, the oldest and most valuable of
haggadic Midrashim. Traditionally ascribed to R. Hoshaiah (3rd.
century), but in the main a redaction of 6th century. Ed. J.
Theodor; see Jew. Ency. iii. 62 seq.; viii. 557 seq. (b) Shemoth
(" names " Exod. i. l) R., a composite and incomplete work of
nth and I2th century date, but valuable nevertheless for its Tan-
huma homilies. Exod. i.-xi. is a commentary on the text in con-
tinuation of (a).'- See Jew. Ency. viii. 562 (c.) Wayyiqra (" and he
called ") R., on Leviticus, perhaps 7th century, based upon sources
in 2 and 50 above. It is characterized by its numerous proverbs
(e.g. on xix. 6: "do not care for the good pup of a bad dog, much
less for the bad pup of a bad dog "). See Jew. Ency. viii. 560,
xii. 478 seq. (d) Bemidbar (" in the desert of . . . ") R., 33 homilies
on Numbers, mainly derived from 4 above (though in an earlier
text), with a later haggadic exposition, perhaps of I2th century,
on Num. i.-vii. See Jew. Ency. ii. 669 sqq., viii. 562. (e) Debarim
(" words ") R., independent homilies on Deuteronomy, of about
A.D. 900, but with a good collection of Tanhumas and excerpts from
the old sources. See Jew. Ency. iv. 487 seq. (/) Shir (" song ")
R., or (after the opening words) Aggadath Hazith, a late compilation
of haggadah on Canticles, illustrating the allegorical interpretation
of the book in reference to the relation between God and Israel (so
already in the exegesis of R. Aqiba, cf. also 2 Esd. v. 24, 26, vii. 26).
For this and other Mid. on this popular book, see Jew. Ency.
viii. 564 seq., xi. 291 seq. Q>) Mid. Ruth or Ruth Rabbah,_ a com-
pilation including an exposition of I Chron. iv. 21-23, ?i. 13-15
and interesting Messianic references. For this and similar Mid.
or Ruth, see Jew. Ency. viii. 565, x. 577 seq. (h) Ekah (" how ")
Rabbathi, a compilation of about the 7th century on Lamentations,
from sources cited also in the Palestinian Talmud. Thirty-six
proems precede the commentary. See Jew. Ency. v. 85 seq. (i)
Mid. Koheleth or Koh. Rabbah, on Ecclesiastes; see Jew. Ency. vii.
529 sqq.; viii. 565. (j) Mid. Megillath Esther, dating, to judge from
its indebtedness to Josippon (the pseudo-Josephus), after loth
century. On this and other similar works dealing with this ever-
popular book, see Jew. Ency. v. 241, viii. 566, and Paton's Comment,
on Esther, p. 104.
vi. Pesiqta (" section ") or P. de-Rob Kahana, contains 33 or
34 homilies (on the principal festivals), the first of which opens with
a sentence of R. Abba bar Kahana, who was confused with a pre-
decessor, Rab Kahana. Although it goes back to early Haggada
it has received later additions (as is shown by the technique of the
proems). Edited by S. Buber (Lyck, 1868), Germ, trans, by A.
Wiinsche (Leipzig, 1885); see Jew. Ency. viii. 559 seq. Not to be
confused with this is:
vii. Pesiqta Rabbathi. A very similar but larger collection of
51 homilies, of which 28 have a halakic exordium prefixed to the
Tanhuma-proems, perhaps of gth century. Edited by M. Fried-
mann (Vienna, 1880). Quite another and later work is the Pes.
Zutarta or Leqah Tab of Tobiah b. Eliezer of Mainz (trans. Ugolinus,
vol. xv. seq. ; ed. Buber, 1880) ; see Jew. Ency. viii. 561 sqq.
viii. In addition to the more prominent Midrashim mentioned
above there are numerous self-contained works of greater or less
interest. Some are connected with Old Testament books; e.g.
Aggadath Bereshith, 83 homilies on Genesis, each in three parts
connected with a section from the lectionary of the Pentateuch,
and one from the Prophets, and a Psalm (ed. Buber, Cracow, 1903;
see Jew. Ency. viii. 563) ; the Mid. Tehillim on the Psalms (Germ,
trans. A. Wiinsche, Trier, 1892-1893), &c. Others are historical,
e.g. Pirqe or Baraitha de-Rabbi Eliezer, a fanciful narrative of events
'They contain (as I. Abrahams has pointed out to the present
writer) a good deal of haggada, but far more halakic material than
those which follow. The latter (nos. 4 sqq.) also contain halaka,
but the chief contents are haggadic and homiletical.
2 1. Abrahams points out to the writer that the rest is more
summary. This difference is accounted for by the fact that Exod.
xii. onwards and the rest of the Pentateuch have independent
Midrashim: the Law proper was held by the Rabbis to begin at
Exod. xii.
selected from the Pentateuch, &c.; the eschatology is interesting.
Though associated by name with a well-known 1st century Rabbi,
it is hardly earlier than the 8th (Latin trans, by Vorstius, Leiden,
1644; see Jew. Ency. viii. 567). Further, the Megillath Ta'anith
( ' roll of fasts "), an old source with a collection of miscellaneous
legends, &c. ; Megillath Antiokhos, on the martyrdom under Hadrian ;
Seder'Olam Rabbah, on biblical history from Adam to the rebellion
of Bar Kokba (Barcocheba) ; the " Book of Jashar "; the Chronicle
of Jerahmeel," &c. Liturgical Midrash is illustrated by the Haggada
shel Pesah, part of the ritual recited at the domestic service of the
first two Passover evenings. In Mid. Ta'ame Hdseroth we- Yetheroth,
Hebrew words written " defectively " or " fully," and other Masso-
retic details, are haggadically treated. Finally Kabbalah (q.v.) is
exemplified in Othiyyoth de R. Aqiba on the alphabet, and M.
Tadshe (or Baraitha de-R. Phinehas b. Ya'lr), on groups of numbers,
&c. ; of some interest for its relation to the book of Jubilees.
ix. Of collections of Midrash the chief are (a) the Yalquf Shimeoni,
which arranges the material according to the text of the Old Testa-
ment (extending over the whole of it), preserves much from sources
that have since disappeared, and is valuable for the criticism of the
text of the Midrashim (recent ed. Wilna, 1898) translation of the
Yalqut on Zechariah by E. G. King (Cambridge, 1882; see further
Jew. Ency. xii. 585 seq.). (b) Yal. ha-Makiri, perhaps later, covers
only certain books, is useful for older sources and their criticism;
portions have been edited by Spira (1894, on Isaiah); Buber (1899,
on Psalms); Griinhut (1902, on Proverbs), (c) Midrash ha-Gadol
{" the great "), an extensive thesaurus, but later (quoting from
Ibn Ezra, Maimonides, &c.) ; the arrangement is not so careful as
in (a) and (b). See further Jew. Ency. viii. 568 seq.
Of modern collections special mention must be made of A.
Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrasch (Leipzig, 1853) and A. Wiinsche's
valuable translations; to those already mentioned must be added
his Aus Israels Lehrhallen (excerpts of a more miscellaneous
character (Leipzig, 1907 sqq.).
Besides dictionary articles on this subject (S. Schiller-Szinessy,
Ency. Brit., 9th ed.; H. L. Strack, Real-Ency. j. Protest. Theol. u.
Kirche; and especially J. Theodor and others in the Jew. Ency),
see D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die halachischen Midraschim
(Berlin, 1888), and the great work by Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen
Vortrdge der Juden, 2nd ed. by N. Brtill (Frankfort on Main, 1892).
These, as also the citations in the course of this article, give fuller
information. (See further TALMUD.) (S. A. C.)
MIDSHIPMAN, the title in the British and American navies
of the " young gentlemen " who are serving in order to qualify
themselves to hold a commission as lieutenant. The English
midshipman was originally a petty officer, one of the crew under
the immediate orders of the boatswain. After the restoration
of King Charles II., in 1660, the king and his brother, James
Duke of York, lord high admiral, decided to train officers for the
sea service. They therefore decided to send a volunteer to each
ship of a squadron in commission, with a " letter of service,"
which instructed the admirals and captains that the bearer
was to be shown " such kindness as you shall judge fit for a
gentleman, both in accommodating him in your ship and in
furthering his improvement." He was to receive the pay of
a midshipman, and one midshipman less was to be borne in
the ship. Until 1729 the young gentlemen who entered the
British navy were known as " king's letter boys." In that
year the system was altered. A school, known as the naval
academy, was founded at Portsmouth in which forty lads
were to be trained for the sea service. In 1773 the school,
having proved unsatisfactory, was reorganized and the number
of boys to be trained there increased from forty to seventy.
In 1806 it was again reorganized, under the name of the naval
college, and was finally suppressed in 1837, when the practice
of training the boys under instructors in the ships was intro-
duced. A special school was re-established in 1857, and was
finally placed in the " Britannia." In the meantime the number
of midshipmen had increased far beyond one for a ship. A line-
of-battle ship in the i8th century carried as many as twenty-
four, and the title had come to be confined entirely to those
who were being trained as officers. The immense majority
of officers of the British navy never passed through the academy
or the college. They entered the ships directly as " captains'
servants " or " volunteers," and were rated midshipman, if there
was a vacancy, at the age of fifteen. As they were expected
to learn navigation, they were instructed by the master, and
at the age of seventeen were supposed to be qualified to be
masters' mates. To-day the midshipman is the officer of the
British and American navies who has passed through the
MIDSOMER NORTON MIEREVELT
424
preliminary schools and has been appointed to a ship. The French
equivalent Is aspirant, and other European navies use that
name, or cadet.
MIDSOMER NORTON, an urban district in the northern
parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 12$ m.
S.S.W. of Bath, on the Somerset & Dorset and the Great
Western railways. Pop. (1901), 5809. The town is pleasantly
situated in a hilly district, between two branches of the small
river Somer. The church of St John the Baptist, principally
Perpendicular, has in its tower three bells presented by
Charles II. Both this town and the adjacent urban district
of RADSTOCK (pop. 3355) have a considerable trade in coal,
which is mined in the vicinity. The coalfield extends north-
westward towards Bristol, and is of great importance to the
manufactures of that city.
MIDWIFE (Mid. Eng. midwif, mydwyf or medewife, from
preposition mid, with, and wife, i.e. woman, in the sense of
one who is with the mother, or from adjective mid, one who
is the means of delivering the mother, a woman who assists
other women in childbirth). As a class, midwives were recog-
nized in Egypt in the time of the Jewish captivity. It was
the universal practice in Europe until the middle of the i6th
century, as it is to-day in the East, that women should be
attended in confinement only by those of their own sex. From
that period more attention was given to the practice of mid-
wifery by the medical profession (see OBSTETRICS), while in
continental Europe, towards the close of the i7th century,
special schools were instituted for the proper training of mid-
wives. But it was not until well on in the igth century that
any supervision or regulation was imposed on those who acted
as midwives. Now in practically every European country
midwives are under strict state control, they are required to
undergo a course of thorough training, and their practice is
carefully regulated by legislation.
In France midwives (sages jemmes) are divided into a first and a
second class. Those qualifying for both classes go through a two
years' course of training and must qualify both in the theory and
practice of midwifery, as well as in anatomy, physiology and
pathology. A midwife of the first class has a superior status and
can practise in any part of France, while those of the second class
are restricted in their practice to the department for which the
certificate was issued. Their qualifications allow them also to
vaccinate and to prescribe certain antiseptic preparations. They
are not allowed to use instruments and must call in a medical man
in difficult cases. All cases must be reported to a central officer.
In Spain midwives are allowed to practise on the result of an ex-
amination after studies covering at least four half-years. The
diploma is issued by the director-general of public instruction. In
Germany midwives are appointed, recognized and authorized by
the state. They can conduct confinements independently and
without the aid of a medical man. They must be provided with
a certificate from the police authorities, and must reside in special
districts assigned to them by the authorities. In Austria midwives
before they are allowed to practise must pass a strict examination,
after having followed a six months' course at one of the state
schools of midwifery. They are subject to elaborate " instructions for
midwives " issued from time to time by the ministry of the interior.
In Italy a midwife must pass an examination and obtain a diploma
from a recognized authority; but in order to obviate the difficulty
which the poorer classes in the smaller communes would find in
obtaining properly-authorized midwives, a certificate of permission
to practise may be given to a certain number who have practised
without the sanction of the law satisfactorily during a term of five
years. These certificates are distributed by the prefect. In
Russia matters pertaining to the appointment, transfer, dismissal
and pay of midwives are under the charge of the medical depart-
ment of the ministry of the interior. In each town of a province
or region there is stationed one senior midwife and a number of
junior midwives in proportion to the number of districts in the
province. The examination of midwives and the issue of certificates
of competency is carried out by the Medico-Chirurgical Academy
and certain of the universities. A duly-licensed midwife, on pre-
sentation of her licence, is at once excluded from the tax-paying
class to which she may have belonged. The general code of Russian
laws lays down extensive rules for the carrying out of the duties of
midwives. In Norway all midwives are licensed after examination
and are under the control and inspection of the board of health.
Provision is made for infirm and aged midwives. They are usually-
paid by the parish, but also receive fees according to the means of
the person attended. In Sweden a certificate of competency and
of having passed an examination does not give a midwife a right
to practise until a note has been made on the certificate that the oath
of office has been duly taken. All midwives are under the control
of the board of health. When a midwife takes up her residence in
a parish, or moves from one place to another, she must announce
the fact within a month to the nearest appointed doctor and exhibit
her certificate. In towns a midwife must put up a notice board
outside her residence ; she must not absent herself from home without
leaving word as to where she may be found and at what hour she
will probably return. In the country a midwife may be paid out
of the poor rate. In Denmark, also, midwives are recognized by the
state, and the practise of midwifery is almost entirely in the hands
of women. In Holland a certain number of candidates are given
free training by the state in return for their practising midwifery
in scattered country districts at a fixed salary. Many of the states
of the United States have also passed laws for the registration of
midwives.
In England alone- there was no regulation of any kind so late as
1902. Any person, however ignorant and untrained, could describe
herself as a midwife and practise for gain. Several societies made
continuous efforts towards the close of the iQth century to obtain
legislation. A select committee on midwives registration reported
in 1892 that the evidence they had taken showed that there was at
the time " serious and unnecessary loss of life and health and per-
manent injury to both mother and child in the treatment of child-
birth, and that some legislative provision tor improvement and
regulation was desirable." A similar committee reported to the
same effect in 1893. Eventually a bill was drafted with the object
of securing the examination and registration of midwives, but,
although introduced several times into the House of Commons, it
was not successful until 1902. The Midwives Act 1902 forbids
any woman after the 1st of April 1905 to call herself " midwife "
without a certificate, or to act as a midwife for gain without a
certificate after the 1st of April 1910. Existing midwives (those
who held certificates in midwifery from certain recognized institu-
tions, or produced satisfactory evidence at the passing of the act
that they had been for at least one year in bona fide practice as
midwives, and bore good characters) were allowed to claim certifi-
cates within two years from the 1st of April 1903. The act created
a central midwives' board, whose duties are, inter alia, to regulate
the issue of certificates and the conditions of admission to the roll
of midwives; to regulate the course of training and conduct of
examinations; to regulate, supervise and restrict within due limits
the practice of midwives; to publish annually a roll of duly certified
midwives; to remove from the roll the name of any midwife who
disobeys the rules and regulations laid down from time to time ; to
issue and cancel certificates, &c. There is an appeal to the High
Court of Justice against removal of a name, but the appeal must
be made within three months. Local authorities are required to
exercise supervision over the midwives within their area; they must
investigate charges of malpractice, negligence or misconduct;
exercise the power of suspension and report convictions. They
must supply the central board with the names and addresses of
those practising within their area, and notify any death. The local
authority must appoint a committee to carry out its powers or duties
under the act, and may, if it think fit, delegate its powers to a lesser
local authority, such as a district council. The act provides for
penalties for obtaining a certificate by false representation or for
wilful falsification of the roll. The act does not apply to Ireland
or Scotland. (T. A. I.)
MIERES, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo,
12 m. by rail S.E. of Oviedo, on the river Caudal, a tributary
of the Nalon. Pop. (1900), 18,083. Mieres is the chief town
of a mountainous, fertile and well-wooded region in which
coal, iron, and copper are extensively mined and sulphur and
cinnabar are obtained in smaller quantities. The town contains
large iron foundries and chemical works, and has an active
trade in fruit, cider, timber and live stock.
MIEREVELT (MIEREVELD, or MIREVELDT), MICHIEL
JANSZ VAN (1567-1641), Dutch painter, was born at Delft,
the son of a goldsmith, who apprenticed him to the copperplate
engraver J. Wierix. He subsequently became a pupil of Willem
Willemz and Augusteyn of Delft, until Anthonie van Montfoort
(Blocklandt), who had seen and admire^ two of Mierevclt's
early engravings, " Christ and the Samaritan " and " Judith
and Holofernes," invited him to enter his school at Utrecht.
Devoting himself first to still life, he eventually took up por-
traiture, in which he achieved such success that the many
commissions entrusted to him necessitated the employment of
numerous assistants, by whom hundreds of portraits were
turned out in factory fashion. The works that can with cer-
tainty be ascribed to his own brush are remarkable for their
sincerity, severe drawing and harmonious colour, but compara-
tively few of the two thousand or more portraits that bear
MIERIS MIFFLIN
425
his name are wholly his own handiwork. He settled down
in his native town, but went frequently to The Hague, where
he entered the gild of St Luke in 1625. So great was his reputa-
tion that he was patronized by royalty in many countries
and acquired great wealth. The king of Sweden and the count
palatine of Neuburg presented him with golden chains, Arch-
duke Albrecht gave him a pension, and Charles I. vainly endea-
voured to induce him to visit the English court. Though
Mierevelt is chiefly known as a portrait painter, he also executed
some mythological pieces of minor importance. Many of his
portraits have been reproduced in line by the leading Dutch
engravers of his time. He died at Delft on the 27th of June
1641.
The Ryks Museum in Amsterdam has the richest collection
of Mierevelt's works, chief of them being the portraits of William,
Philip William, Maurice, and Frederick Henry of Orange,
and of the count palatine Frederick V. At The Hague Museum
are the portraits of four princes of the house of Orange, of
Frederick V., king of Bohemia, and of Louise de Coligny as a
widow. Other portraits by him are at nearly all the leading
continental galleries, notably at Brunswick (3), Gotha (2),
Schwerin (3), Munich (2), Paris (Louvre, 3), Dresden (4), Berlin
(2), and Darmstadt (3). The town hall of Delft also has
numerous examples of his work.
Many of his pupils and assistants rose to fame. The most
gifted of them were Paulus Moreelse and Jan van Ravesteyn.
His sons Pieter (1596-1623) and Jan (d. 1633), and his son-in-law
Willem Jacobz Delff, probably painted many of the pictures
which go under his name. His portrait was painted by Van
Dyck and engraved by Delff.
MIERIS, the name of a family of artists who practised paint-
ing at Leiden for three generations in the iyth and i8th centuries.
i. FRANS VAN MIERIS, the elder (? 1635-1681), son of Jan
van Mieris, a goldsmith and diamond setter, was born, according
to Houbraken, at Leiden on the i6th of April 1635, and died
there on the i2th of March 1681. His father wished to train
him to his own business, but Frans preferred drawing to chasing,
and took service with Abraham Torenvliet, a glazier who kept
a school of design. In his father's shop he became familiar
with the ways and dress of people of distinction. His eye was
fascinated in turn by the sheen of jewelry and stained glass;
and, though he soon gave up the teaching of Torenvliet for
that of Gerard Douw and Abraham van den Tempel, he acquired
a manner which had more of the finish of the exquisites of the
Dutch school than of the breadth of the disciples of Rembrandt.
It should be borne in mind that he seldom chose panels of which
the size exceeded 12 to 15 in., and whenever his name is
attached to a picture above that size we may surely assign
it to his son Willem or to some other imitator. Unlike Gerard
Douw when he first left Rembrandt, or Jan Steen when he
started on an independent career, Mieris never ventured to
design figures as large as life. Characteristic of his art in its
minute proportions is a shiny brightness and metallic polish.
The subjects which he treated best are those in which Be
illustrated the habits or actions of the wealthier classes; but
he sometimes succeeded in homely incidents and in portrait,
and not unfrequently he ventured on allegory. He repeatedly
painted the satin skirt which Ter Borch brought into fashion,
and he often rivalled Ter Borch in the faithful rendering of
rich and highly-coloured woven tissues. But he remained
below Ter Borch and Metsu, because he had not their delicate
perception of harmony or their charming mellowness of touch
and tint, and he fell behind Gerard Douw, because he was hard
and had not his feeling for effect by concentrated light and
shade. In the form of his composition, which sometimes
represents the framework of a window enlivened with greenery,
and adorned with bas-reliefs within which figures are seen
to the waist, his model is certainly Gerard Douw.
It is a question whether Houbraken has truly recorded this
master's birthday. One of his best-known pieces, a party of
ladies and gentlemen at an oyster luncheon, in the Hermitage
at St Petersburg, bears the date of 1650. Celebrated alike
for composition and finish, it would prove that Mieris had reached
his prime at the age of fifteen. Another beautiful example,
the " Doctor Feeling a Lady's Pulse " in the gallery of Vienna,
is dated 1656; and Waagen, in one of his critical essays, justly
observes that it is a remarkable production for a youth of
twenty-one. In 1657 Mieris was married at Leiden in the
presence of Jan Potheuck, a painter, and this is the earliest
written record of his existence on which we can implicitly rely.
Of the numerous panels by Mieris, twenty-nine at least are
dated the latest being an allegory, long in the Ruhl collection
at Cologne, illustrating what he considered the kindred vices
of drinking, smoking and dicing, in the year 1680.
Mieris had numerous and distinguished patrons. He received
valuable commissions from Archduke Leopold, the elector-
palatine, and Cosimo III., grand-duke of Tuscany. His practice
was large and lucrative, but never engendered in him either
carelessness or neglect. If there be a difference between the
painter's earlier and later work, it is that the former was clearer
and more delicate in flesh, whilst the latter was often darker
and more livid in the shadows. When he died his clients
naturally went over to his son Willem, who in turn bequeathed
his painting-room to his son Frans. But neither Willem nor
Frans the younger equalled Frans the elder.
2. WILLEM VAN MIERIS (1662-1747), son of Frans. His
works are extremely numerous, being partly imitations of the
paternal subjects, or mythological episodes, which Frans
habitually avoided. In no case did he come near the excellence
of his sire.
3. FRANS VAN MIERIS, the younger (1689-1763), also lived
on the traditions of his grandfather's studio.
The pictures of all the generations of the Mieris family were
successfully imitated by A. D. Snaphaan, who lived at Leipzig
and was patronized by the court of Anhalt-Dessau. To those who
would study his deceptive form of art a visit to the collection of
Worlitz near Dessau may afford instruction.
MIFFLIN, THOMAS (1744-1800), American soldier and
politician, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the loth
of January 1744, of Quaker parentage. He graduated at the
college of Philadelphia (now the university of Pennsylvania)
in 1760. As a member of the Pennsylvania house of representa-
tives in 1772-1775, he was an ardent Whig, and in 1774 was a
member of the first Continental Congress. After the outbreak
of the War of Independence he devoted himself chiefly to the
enlisting and drilling of troops, and was chosen major of a
regiment. In June 1775 he entered the continental service
as Washington's first aide-de-camp, and in August was chosen
quartermaster-general. He became a brigadier-general in
May 1776 and a major-general in February 1777. On the 5th
of June 1776 he was succeeded as quartermaster-general by
Stephen Moylan. Moylan, however, proved incompetent, and
Mifflin resumed the office on the ist of October. In the autumn
of 1777 Mifflin was a leader in the obscure movement known as
the Conway Cabal, the object of which was to replace Washington
by General Horatio Gates. On the ground of ill health Mifflin
tendered his resignation on the 8th of October, and on the 7th
of November Congress accepted his resignation as quartermaster-
general, but continued him in rank as major-general without
pay. On the same day he was appointed a member of the new
board of war, and on the following day was asked to continue
as quartermaster-general until his successor should be appointed.
On the 2ist of November he urged before the old board of war
and ordnance that Gates should be made president of the new
board of war " from a conviction that his military skill would
suggest reformations in the different departments of the army
essential to good discipline, order and economy, and that his
character and popularity in the army would facilitate the
execution of such reformations when adopted by Congress."
The attacks on Washington failed, and in March 1778 MifBin
was finally superseded as quartermaster-general by General
Nathanael Greene. In October of the same year he was removed
from the board of war. The sufferings of the troops at Valley
Forge having been charged to his mismanagement as quarter-
426
MIGNARD MIGNET
master-general, Congress, in June 1778, ordered an investigation;
but before this inquiry had proceeded far, Congress granted
him $1,000,000 to settle all claims against the office during his
administration. In February 1779 he resigned his commission
as major-general. During the war his eloquence was repeatedly
of assistance to Congress in recruiting soldiers. He was a
delegate in Congress in 1782-1784, and from November 1783 to
November 1784 was president, in which office he received
Washington's resignation of the command of the army and made
a congratulatory address. In 1785-1788 he was speaker of the
Pennsylvania general assembly (then consisting of only one
house); he was a member of the Federal Constitutional Con-
vention of 1787, and president of the state supreme executive
council (or chief executive officer of the state) in 1788-1700.
He was president of the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention
of 1789-1790; was the first governor of the state, from 1790 to
1799, after the adoption of the new state constitution; and
during the Whisky Insurrection assumed personal command
of the Pennsylvania militia. Towards the close of his last
term as governor he was elected a member of the state assembly,
but died during the first session, at Lancaster, on the 2oth of
January 1800.
See William Rawle, " Sketch of the Life of Thomas Mifflin,"
in Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (vol. 2, part 2,
Philadelphia, 1830); and J. H. Merrill, Memoranda relating to the
Mifflin Family (Philadelphia, 1890).
HIGNARD, PIERRE (1610-1695), called to distinguish
him from his brother Nicholas Le Remain, French painter,
was born at Troyes in 1610, and came of a family of artists.
In 1630 he left the studio of Simon Vouet for Italy, where he
spent twenty-two years, and made a reputation which brought
him a summons to Paris. Successful with his portrait of the king,
and in favour with the court, Mignard pitted himself against
Le Brun, declined to enter the Academy of which he was the
head, and made himself the centre of opposition to its authority.
The history of this struggle is most important, because it was
identical, as long as it lasted, with that between the old gilds
of France and the new body which Colbert, for political reasons,
was determined to support. Shut out, in spite of the deserved
success of his decorations of the cupola of Val de Grace (1664),
from any great share in those public works the control of which
was the attribute of the new Academy, Mignard was chiefly
active in portraiture. Turenne, Moliere, Bossuet, Maintenon
(Louvre), La Valliere, Sevigne, Montespan, Descartes (Castle
Howard), all the beauties and celebrities of his day, sat to him.
His readiness and skill, his happy instinct for grace of arrange-
ment, atoned for want of originality and real power. With
the death of Le Brun (1690) the situation changed; Mignard
deserted his allies, and succeeded to all the posts held by his
opponent. These late honours he did not long enjoy; in 1695
he died whilst about to commence work on the cupola of the
Invalides. His best compositions have been engraved by
Audran, Edelinck, Masson, Poilly and others.
MIGNE, JACQUES PAUL (1800-1875), French priest and pub-
lisher, was born at St Flour, Cantal, on the 25th of October 1800.
He studied theology at Orleans, was ordained priest in 1824 and
placed in charge of the parish of Puiseaux, in the diocese of
Orleans. In 1833 he went to Paris, and started L'Univers
religieux, which afterwards became Louis Veuillot's ultra-
montane organ. On severing his connexion with the paper
three years later, he opened at Petit Montrouge, near Paris,
the great publishing house which brought out in rapid succession
numerous religious works at popular prices. The best known
of these are: Scripturae sacrae cursus completus, and Theologiae
cursus (each in 28 vols., 1840-1845); Collection des auteurs
sacrts (100 vols., 1846-1848); Encyclopedic theologique (171
vols., 1844-1866); Patrologiae cursus completus, Latin series
in 221 vols. (1844-1855; 2nd edition, 1878 seq.) ; Greek series, first
published in Latin (85 vols., 1856-1861); with Greek text and
Latin translation (165 vols., 1857-1866). Unfortunately these
editions, brought out in great haste and often edited by super-
ficial scholars, do not come up to the requirements of modern
criticism. By far the most noteworthy is the Patrology,
which was superintended by the learned Benedictine J. B. Pitra.
Its vast scope leaves it still unique and valuable, where other
editions of special works do not exist. The indices in 3 vols.
are arranged so that one may easily find any reference in the
patristic writings. In February 1868 a great fire destroyed
the whole of Migne's printing premises, but he established
a new house in Paris, which was purchased in 1876 by the
publishers Gamier Freres, who still own all the works brought
out by Migne. He died in Paris on the 25th of October 1875.
For a more complete account of Migne's life, see the article in the
Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1906 seq.).
MIGNET, FRANCOIS AUGUSTE ALEXIS (1796-1884),
French historian, was born at Aix in Provence on the 8th of
May 1796, and died at Paris on the 24th of March 1884. His
father, a Vendean by birth, was an ordinary locksmith, who
enthusiastically accepted the principles of the French Revolution
and roused in his son the same love for liberal ideas. Francois
had brilliant successes when studying at Avignon in the lycec
where he was afterwards professor (1815); he returned to Aix
to study law, and in 1818 was called to the bar, where his elo-
quence would have ensured his success had he not preferred
the career of an historian. His abilities were shown in an
Eloge de Charles VII., which was crowned by the Academic
de Nimes in 1820, and a memoir on Les Institutions de Saint
Louis, which in 1821 was crowned by the Academic des Inscrip-
tions et Belles Lettres. He then went to Paris, where he was
soon joined by his friend and compatriot, Adolphe Thiers, the
future president of the French republic. He was introduced
by J. A. Manuel, formerly a member of the Convention, to the
Liberal paper, Courrier franQais, where he became a member
of the staff which carried on a fierce pen-and-ink warfare against
the Restoration. He acquired his knowledge of the men and
intrigues of the Napoleonic epoch from Talleyrand. He wrote
a Histoire de la revolution fran^aise (1824) in support of the
Liberal cause. It was an enlarged sketch, prepared in four
months, in which more stress was laid on fundamental theories
than on the facts, which are more rigidly linked together than
their historical sequence warrants. In 1830 he founded the
National with Thiers and Armand Carrel, and signed the journal-
ists' protest against the Ordonnances de juillet, but he refused
to accept his share of the spoil after his party had won. He
was satisfied with the modest position of director of the archives
at the Foreign Office, where he stayed till the revolution of 1848,
when he was dismissed, and retired permanently into private
life. He had been elected a member of the Academic des
Sciences Morales et Politiques, re-established in 1832, and
in 1837 was made the permanent secretary; he was also elected
a member of the Academic Francaise in 1836, and sought no
further honours. He was well known in fashionable circles,
where his witty conversation and his pleasant manners made
him a favourite. The greater part of his time was, however,
given to study and to his academic duties. Eulogies on his
deceased fellow-members, the Academy reports on its work and
on the prizes awarded by it, which it was part of Mignet's
duty as secretary to draw up, were literary fragments thoroughly
appreciated by connoisseurs. They were collected in Mignet's
Notices et portraits. He worked slowly when in his study, and
willingly lingered over research. With the exception of his
description of the French Revolution, which was chiefly a poli-
tical manifesto, all his early works refer to the middle ages De
La feodalite, des institutions de Saint Louis el de I 'influence de la
legislation de ce prince (1822); La Germanic au viii' et au ix'
siecle, sa conversion au christianisme, el son introduction dans
la sociite civilisee de I' Europe occidentale (1834); Essai sur la
formation territorial^ et politique de la France depuis la fin du
xi' siecle jusqu'd la fin du xv* (1836); all of these are rough
sketches showing only the outlines of the subject. His most
noted works are devoted to modern history. For a long time
he had been taken up with a history of the Reformation, but
only one part of it, dealing with the Reformation at Geneva,
has been published. His Histoire de Marie Stuart ( 2 vols. , 1 85 1 i
MIGNON MIGRATION
427
is well worth reading; the author made liberal use of some
important unpublished documents, taken for the greater part
from the archives of Simancas. He devoted some volumes
to a history of Spain, which had a well-deserved success
Charles Quint, son abdication, son sejour, et so, mart au monastere
de Yuste (1845); Antonio Perez et Philippe II. (1845); and
Histoire de la rivaliti de Francois I. et de Charles Quint (1875).
At the same time he had been commissioned to publish the
diplomatic acts relating to the War of the Spanish Succession
for the Collection des documents inedits; only four volumes of
these Negociations were published (1835-1842), and they do
not go further than the peace of Nijmwegen; but the intro-
duction is celebrated, and Mignet reprinted it in his Melanges
historiques.
See the eulogy of Mignet by Victor Duruy, delivered on entering
the Academic Francaise on the l8th of June 1885, and the notice
by Jules Simon, read before the Academic des Sciences Morales et
Politiques on the 7th of November 1885.
MIGNON, ABRAHAM (1640-1697), Dutch painter, was born
at Frankfort. His father, a merchant, placed him under the
still-life painter Jacob Merrel, by whom he was taken to Holland
about 1660. He then worked under de Heem at Utrecht,
where in 1675 he married the daughter of the painter Cornells
Willaerts. Sibylle Merian (1647-1717), daughter of the engraver
Matthew Merian, became his pupil and achieved distinction
as a flower painter. He died at Wetzlar. Mignon devoted
himself almost exclusively to flowers, fruit, birds and other
" still life," though at times he also attempted portraiture. His
flower pieces are marked by careful finish and delicate handling.
His favourite scheme was to introduce red or white roses in
the centre of the canvas and to set the whole group of flowers
against a dark background. Nowhere can his work be seen
to better advantage than at the Dresden Gallery, which contains
fifteen of his paintings, twelve of which are signed. Six of
his pictures are at the Louvre, four at the Hermitage, and
other examples are to be found at the museums of Amsterdam,
The Hague, Rotterdam, Brussels, Munich, Karlsruhe, Brunswick,
Cassel, Schwerin, Copenhagen and Turin.
MIGNONETTE, or MIGNONNETTE (i.e. "little darling"),
the name given to a popular garden flower, the Reseda odorata
of botanists, a " fragrant weed," as Cowper calls it, highly
esteemed for its delicate but delicious perfume. The mignonette
is generally regarded as being of annual duration, and is a
plant of diffuse decumbent twiggy habit, scarcely reaching
a foot in height, clothed with bluntish lanceolate entire or
three-lobed leaves, and bearing longish spikes technically
racemes of rather insignificant flowers at the ends of the
numerous branches and branchlets. The plant thus naturally
assumes the form of a low dense mass of soft green foliage
studded over freely with the racemes of flowers, the latter
unobtrusive and likely to be overlooked until their diffused
fragrance compels attention. It is probably a native of North
Africa and was sent to England from Paris in 1742; and ten
years later it appears to have been sent from Leiden to Philip
Miller at Chelsea. Though originally a slender and rather
straggling plant, there are now some improved garden varieties
in which the growth is more compact and vigorous, and the
inflorescence bolder, though the odour is perhaps less pene-
trating. The small six-petalled flowers are somewhat curious
in structure: the two upper petals are larger, concave, and
furnished at the back with a tuft of club-shaped filaments,
which gives them the appearance of being deeply incised,
while the two lowest petals are much smaller and undivided;
the most conspicuous part consists of the anthers, which are
numerous and of a brownish red, giving the tone of colour
to the inflorescence. In the varieties named Golden Queen
and Golden Machet the anthers have a decided tint of orange-
yellow, which imparts a brighter golden hue to the plants
when in blossom. A handsome proliferous or double-flowered
variety has also been obtained, which is a very useful decorative
plant, though only to be propagated by cuttings; the double
white flowers grow in large massive panicles (proliferous
racemes), and are equally fragrant with those of the ordinary
forms.
What is called tree mignonette in gardens is due to the skill of
the cultivator. Though practically a British annual, as already
noted, since it flowers abundantly the first season, and is utterly
destroyed by the autumnal frosts, and though recorded as being
annual in its native habitat by Desfontaines in the Flora Atlantica,
the mignonette, like many other plants treated in England as annuals,
will continue to grow on if kept in a suitable temperature. More-
over, the life of certain plants of this semi-annual character may
be prolonged into a second season if their flowering and seeding
are persistently prevented. In applying these facts to the pro-
duction of tree mignonette, the gardener grows on the young plants
under glass, and prevents their flowering by nipping off the blooming
tips of the shoots, so that they continue their vegetative growth
into the second season. The young plants are at first supported
in an erect position, the laterals being removed so as to secure clean
upright stems, and then at the height of one or two feet or more,
as may be desired, a head of branches is encouraged to develop itself.
In this way very large plants can be produced.
For ordinary purposes, however, other plans are adopted. In
the open borders of the flower garden mignonette is usually sown in
spring, and in great part takes care of itself; but being a favourite
either for window or balcony culture, and on account of its fragrance
a welcome inmate of town conservatories, it is also very extensively
grown as a pot plant, and for market purposes with this object it is
sown in pots in the autumn, and thinned out to give the plants
requisite space, since it does not transplant well, and it is thereafter
specially grown in pits protected from frosts, and marketed when
just arriving at the blooming stage. In this way hundreds of
thousands of pots of blooming mignonette are raised and disposed
of year by year.
In classifying the odours given off by plants Rimmel ranks the
mignonette in the class of which he makes the violet the type ; and
Fee adopts the same view, referring it to his class of " iosmoids "
along with the violet and wallflower.
The genus Reseda contains about fifty species, natives of Europe
and West Asia. R. luteola, commonly called dyer's-weed and weld,
yields a valuable yellow dye. R. alba is a fine biennial about 2 ft.
high, with erect spikes of whitish flowers.
MIGNONS, LES. In a general sense the French word mignon
means " favourite," but the people of Paris used it in a special
sense to designate the favourites of Henry III. of France,
frivolous and fashionable young men, to whom public malignity
attributed dissolute morals. According to the contemporary
chronicler Pierre de 1'Estoile, they made themselves " exceed-
ingly odious, as much by their foolish and haughty demeanour,
as by their effeminate and immodest dress, but above all by
the immense gifts the king made to them." The Guises appear
to have stirred up the ill will of the Parisians against them.
From 1576 the mignons were attacked by popular opinion,
and historians accredited without proof the scandalous stories
of the time. The best known of the mignons were the dukes
of Joyeuse and of Epernon.
MIGNOT, CLAUDINE FRANCOISE [commonly called MARIE]
(c. 1617-1711), French adventuress, was born near Grenoble,
at Meylan. At the age of sixteen she attracted the notice
of the secretary of Pierre des Fortes d' Amblerieux, treasurer
of the province of Dauphiny, and Amblerieux promised to
promote their marriage. He married the girl himself, however,
and left her his fortune. His will was disputed by his family,
and Claudine went to Paris in 1653 to secure its fulfilment. She
sought the protection of Francois de l'H6pital, marshal of
France, then a man of seventy-five. He married her within
a week of their first meeting, and after seven years of marriage
died leaving her part of his estate. By a third and morganatic
marriage in 1672 with John Casimir, ex-king of Poland, a few
weeks before his death, she received a third fortune. Imme-
diately on her marriage with Amblerieux she had begun to
educate herself, and her wealth and talents assured her a welcome
in Paris. She retired in her old age to a Carmelite convent
in the city, where she died on the 3oth of November 1711.
Her history, very much modified, was the subject of a play by
Bayard and Paul Duport, Marie Mignot (1829).
MIGRATION. Under this title will be considered movements
of men with intention of changing their residence or domicile.
Such migration (Lat. migrare) may be either external that
is, from one country to another, including emigration from
mother country to colony; or it may be internal that is, within
428
MIGRATION
the limits of a single country. Under external migration are
comprised emigration and immigration, denoting simply direction
from and to. The emigrants are at the same time the immi-
grants- that is, the material of the movement is the same,
but the effect upon the country giving up and the country
receiving the migrant requires separate treatment,
it is proper to separate emigration from immigration.
Tem-
porary migration, or travel lor purpo;
or pleasure, will be considered only incidentally, and because
in some cases it is difficult to distinguish between such
movements and permanent migration.
Migration in general may be described as a natural function
of social development. It has taken place at all times and
in the greatest variety of circumstances. It has been tribal,
national, class and individual. Its causes have been political,
economic, religious, or mere love of adventure. Its causes
and results are fundamental for the study of ethnology (forma-
tion and mixture of races), of political and social history (forma-
tion of states and survival of institutions), and of political
economy (mobility of labour and utilization of productive
forces). Under the form of conquest it makes the grand
epochs in history (e.g. the fall of 'the Roman Empire); under
the form of colonization it has transformed the world (e.g. the
settlement of America); under free initiative it is the most
powerful factor in social adjustment (e.g. the growth of urban
population). It must suffice here to indicate the character
of the principal movements in the past, and then describe
certain aspects of modern migration. The early move-
ments may be grouped as follows: (o) Prehistoric
migrations. Among savage and nomadic nations the
whole tribe often moves into new territory, either occupy-
ing it for the first time or exterminating or driving out the
indigenous inhabitants. We have only vague knowledge
of these early movements, laboriously gleaned from
archaeology, anthropology and philology. The cause has
been commonly said to be the pressure of population on
the food-supply. A more probable explanation is the love
of booty and the desire of the stronger to take possession
of the lands of the weaker, (b) Greek and Roman coloni-
zation. Both of these ancient civilizations extended their
influence through migration of individual families and the
planting of colonies. The motive seems to have been
primarily commercial that is, the love of gain. It may
have been partly a sort of " swarming " process, caused
by pressure of population at home. In some cases it had
a political motive, as the planting of military colonies
or providing new homes for the proletariat. The con-
sequences were of course momentous, (c) The German
Conquest. Beginning about the 5th century, the Roman
empire was overthrown by German tribes from the north
of the river Danube and east of the river Rhine. This
V ' olkerwanderung, as it is called by German historians,
again transformed the face of Europe, resulting in the
establishment of independent kingdoms and a great mix-
ture of races and institutions. It was coincident with the
building-out of the feudal system. The conquered in
many cases could be left as serfs and tillers of the soil,
while the conquerors seized the higher positions of
administration and power, (d) The later middle ages
saw many minor migratory movements, such as those
accompanying the crusades, the pushing of German
colonization among the Slavs, and the introduction of
Flemish weavers into England. The religious reformation
caused a considerable amount of expatriation, culminating
in the expulsion of the Huguenots from France, (e) The
period of discovery and colonization opened up a new era
for migration. The first expeditions were for adventure
and booty, especially the discovery of gold and silver.
Then came the establishment of commercial posts or
factories for the purposes of trade. Finally came coloni-
zation proper that is, the settlement of new countries
by Europeans intending to remain there permanently,
but still retaining their connexion with the mother country.
This meant the opening up of the world to commerce and
the extension of European civilization to vast areas formerly
peopled by savages or half-civilized peoples. It meant a
great outlet for the spirit of enterprise and adventure, relief
from over-population, an enormous increase in wealth and
power, and a struggle for supremacy among the nations of
Europe. Colonization and colonial policy excited immense
attention in Europe; and this extended into the igth century
(e.g. E. G. Wakefield's plans for colonization, and the various
colonization societies of modern times). The colonial policy
proper was broken down by the revolt of the North American
colonies from Great Britain, and later of Mexico and Central
and South America from Spain. (/) The movement of popula-
tion, however, has continued under the form of emigration.
This movement is characterized firstly by its magnitude;
secondly, by the fact that the emigrant changes his political
allegiance, for by far the greater part of modern emigration
is to independent countries, and even where it is to colonies
the colonies are largely self-governing and self-regarding; and
thirdly, it is a movement of individuals seeking their own
good, without state direction or aid. This is 20th-century
emigration, differing from all preceding forms and having an
importance of its own.
Statistics of Emigration. The direction of the modern movement
is from Europe to America, Australia and South Africa, as shown
in the following table:
Emigration from Certain States of Europe, 1890-1905. *
Year.
1
France.
e
3
'So
"3
a
Holland.
d
1
in
bo
3
4-1
1
Austria-
Hungary.
|j-d
c/)"~
Germany.
1890
1891
1892
"5,595
189,746
116,642
20,560
6,217
5,528
2976
3456
3526
4075
6290
37,025
37,72i
30,190
28,945
33,234
20,772
74,002
81,407
74.947
6693
6521
6689
97,103
120,089
116,339
1893
1894
142,269
114,566
5,586
3881
1267
4820
1146
38,707
34,102
30,093
26,656
65.554
25.536
5229
2863
87,677
40,964
1895
187,908
"S
1318
I3H
36,220
44,420
63.552
3 IO 7
37-498
1896
1897
1898
197,554
174,545
139,188
E
1429
760
928
1387
792
851
45,317
39,366
38,546
27,625
21,369
23,280
66,547
35,634
53,947
2441
1778
1694
32,152
23-249
20,966
1899
145,440
600
1347
47,058
17,539
99,299
1701
22,114
1900
1901
171,735
288,947
a
876
1019
1899
1874
55,452
48,892
2o!439
117,372
136.557
2650
2968
20,921
20,874
1902
295,443
E
1695
2301
44,401
23,880
185,449
3617
30,915
1903
292,033
"e
2101
2963
21,291
222,218
4669
35-453
1904
267,249
o
2269
2440
27,925
144,038
3727
27,265
1905
479,349
254
2297
3780
27,403
'
Great Britain and Ireland.
Year.
d
X
B
9
|-J
"O
c
d !
g
" QJ O
|
.d
1
I
c
J
tj.ti"
o 9 sp
tft
o
Z
M
B
Q
Id ^
1
C
t-H
^2
1890
1891
30,128
10,991
13.341
85,548
109,415
10,298
10,382
139,979
137,881
20,653
22,190
57,484
58,446
218^507
1892
4^275
17,049
74,681
10,442
133,815
23,325
52,902
210,042
1893
37,504
18,778
40,545
9,150
134,045
22,637
52,132
208,814
1894
9,678
5-642
17,792
4,105
99,590
14,432
42,008
156,030
1805
I5, I0 4
6,207
36,725
3,607
"2,538
18,294
54,349
185,181
1896
1897
1898
12,919
8,926
7,321
6,679
4,669
4,859
32,127
18,107
27,853
2,876
2,260
2,340
102,837
94,658
90,679
16,866
16,124
15,570
42,222
35-678
34,395
161,925
146,460
140,644
1899
12,028
6,699
63,101
2,799
87,400
16,072
42,890
146,362
1900
16,434
io,93i
92,833
3,570
102,448
20,472
45.905
168,825
1901
1902
1903
20,464
33,477
35,975
12,745
20,343
26,784
87,431
110,453
140,211
4-657
6,823
8,214
"1,585
137,121
177.581
20,920
26,285
36,801
39,2io
42,256
45,568
171,715
205,662
259,950
1904
22,264
9,034
175,733
37-445
58,257
271,435
1905
21,059
8,051
170,408! 41,510
50,159
262,077
1 The figures relate only to the emigrants of each nationality emigrat-
ing from their own country to countries outside of Europe.
2 Exclusive of emigrants to Spanish colonies.
' Russian emigrants from German ports.
MIGRATION
Since 1820 over twenty million persons have emigrated from
Europe to countries beyond the sea. The greater part of this
emigration has been to the United States of North America. The
history of emigration is well shown in the following table of emigra-
tion from Great Britain and Ireland. Down to 1853 the figures
include all emigrants from British ports; after 1853 emigrants of
British and Irish origin only.
Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland, 1815-1905.
429
it was speedily resumed on an enlarged scale owing especially to the
improved means of ocean transportation. It culminated in the
decade 1880-1890, and declined after the commercial crisis of 1893.
Later there was another increase.
The relative movement of nationalities is best presented by the
statistics of the United States. The nationality (country of origin
of immigrants coming to the United States, 1871-1895) is shown in
the following table:
All Emigrants.
To
British
North
America.
To
United
States.
To
Australia.
To
other
Places.
Total.
1815-1820 ( 5 years
1821-1830 (10
1831-1840 (10 ,,
1841-1850 (10
I85I-I852 ( 2
l .
70,438
139,269
322,485
429,044
75-478
50,359
99,801
308,247
1,094-556
511,618
9,036
67,882
127,124
109,413
2,731
1,805
4,536
34,168
8,221
123,528
249,911
703,150
1,684,892
704,730
1815-1852 (37 years) .
1,036,714
2,064,581
313-455
5l,46l
3,466,211
Emigrants of British and Irish Origin.
1853-1860 ( 8 years
1861-1870 (10
1871-1880 (10
1881-1890 (10
1891-1900 (10
1901-1905 ( 5
1 .
.
123,408
130,310
177,976
301,922
176,336
181,504
805,596
1,132,626
1,087,372
1-713,953
1.090,685
290,679
365,307
267,358
303,367
372,744
119,018
27,120
18,372
41,535
1 10,204
169,9161
258,942"
85,607'
1,312,683
1,571,829
1,678,919
2,558,535
1,644,981
584,910
1853-1905 (53 years) .
1,091,456
6,120,911
1,454,914
684,576
9-351,857
Nationality of Immigration to the United States.
Years
Anglo-Saxons, Celts, and
Welshmen
The general direction of emigration from Europe is shown in the
following table :
Emigration from various Countries of Europe.
England and Wales
Scotland ....
. 1,334.817
286 807
12-9
2-8
Total ....
Irish Ireland
. 1,621,624
1,334.635
15-7
12-9
Teutons
Austria
374 872
1-6
Germany ....
Netherlands
. 2,607,562
96,035
25-3
0-9
Total ....
7 078 J.6Q
2Q*8
Latins
Belgium
42 AA7
France
148,683
1-4
Italy .
ft ^ ^ I O A
Spam
14,292
O-2
Portugal
17,108
O-3
Total .
877.614.
8-1
Country of Destination.
Country.
British
United
North
Brazil.
Argentine.
Australasia.
Africa.
All other.
Total.
States.
America.
Great Britain and Ireland, 1905
122,370
82,437
15.139
26,307
15,824
262,077
Norway, 1905
19,638
1,386.
4
25
6
21,059
Sweden, 1903
35.439
329
51
118
38
35-975
Germany, 1905
26,005
243
333
674
84
57
7
27.403
Denmark, 1905
7-158
453
55
>9
366
8,051
Holland, 1905
2,282
-
IS
2,297
Belgium, 1905
2,162
2
101
275
2,540
France, 1905 . . . _ .
No
information
available.
Portugal, 1904 . . ." .
Spain, 1902
4-351
Cannot be given.
21,449
1,120
8,767
1.954
20,460
27-925
44,401
Italy, 1905
316,797
5.930
30,079
88,840
765
13,072
3.866
479.349
Switzerland, 1905 ....
4-349
53
471
5.049
Austria-Hungary, 1905 .
284,967
io,399
5,346
-
Statistics of Immigration. The statistics of the United States are
the most important and the most complete. The statistics since
1820 are shown in the following table:
Immigration into the United States, 1820-1905.
Scandinavians
Denmark
Norway
Sweden
159.759
. . . 331.258
. . . 660,193
i-5
3'2
6-4
Decade ending Aggregate Annual
Total ... . .
1,151,210
ii-i
3Oth June. Arrivals. Average.
1830 143.439 14.343
1840 599,125 59,912
Czechs, Magyars, Slavs
1850 1,713.251 171.325
1860 2,598,214 259,821
1870 2,314,824 231,482
1880 2,812,191 281,219
1890 5,246,613 524.661
Bohemia
Hungary
Poland
Rumania
Russia
- 77.247
- 256,347
141,908
. . . 10,377
. . . 500,797
0-7
2-5
1-4
O-I
4-8
1900 3,844,422 384.442
Total . . . . .
. . . 986,676
9'S
1901-1905 . . . 3,833,076 766,615
Total . . .23,116,501
I1S.716
I'l
Prior to 1820 there was no official record of immigration, but it is
estimated that the total number of immigrants from the close of the
Revolutionary War was 250,000. During the decade from 1820
Greeks Greece
Turks Turkey
7.325
. . . 3.4"
294
steadily increased, but never reached 100,000 per annum. In 1846
came the Irish potato famine, and an enormous emigration began,
followed by a very large German emigration from similar causes.
Total Europe ....
. . . 9,197,014
776,071
gfc-9
7-5
The Civil War of the United States interrupted the movement, but
366,454
3-1
- _ . __ J XT 1
1 Of these, 77,409 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal.
* Of these, 152,797 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal.
1 Of these, 69,052 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal.
Grand Total
. . . 10,339,539
IOO-O
430
MIGRATION
A very important transformation has taken place in the propor-
tionate number coming from different countries during the last half
of the igth century. At first the Irish and Germans were most
prominent. Of later years, the Italians, Czechs, Hungarians and
Russians were, as will be seen from the following table, numerously
represented.
Nationality of Immigrants to the United States,
Number.
Austria-Hungary 944.239
Belgium 16,884
Bulgaria, Servia and Montenegro . . . 6,637
Denmark 33-968
France 3L4I9
Germany 176,995
Greece 49,962
Holland i8,5i
Italy 959,768
Norway 103,065
30,532
35,185
658,735
10,243
154,607
17,820
10,909
Portugal
Rumania
Russia i .
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
United Kingdom
England
Ireland
Scotland
Wales
All other European countries
155,343
184,096
38,842
6,972
216
Total 3,645,018
V
/o
25-0
0-44
0-17
0-9
0-8
4-6
1-3
0-48
25-0
2-7
0-8
0-4
17-0
0-27
4-0
0-46
o-3
4-0
4-8
i-o
0-18
0-006
95
The following table shows the relative number of different nation-
alities represented in the immigration to the United States:
Country.
1861-70.
1871-80.
1881-90.
1891-1900.
Great Britain
Ireland . . . . .
Germany ....
Austria-Hungary
Norway and Sweden
Russia and Poland .
Italy
%
24-5
18-8
34-o
o-3
47
O-2
o-5
o/
/o
16-4
15-5
25-5
2-6
7-5
1-9
2-0
%
12-5
12-5
27-7
6-7
10-8
5-i
5'9
%
7-5
IO-O
14-0
16-0
8-6
14-0
18-0
Sex and Age. Of all the immigrants (1871-1895), 61-25% were
males and 38-75% were females.
This percentage remains fairly constant, but the proportion differs
somewhat among different nationalities. The following table shows
the proportions for 1905:
Males. Females.
Austria-Hungary 207,034
France 5,574
Germany 21,586
Holland 3,082
Italy 216,268
Russia iii,795
Sweden and Norway 29,907
United Kingdom
England 29,993
Ireland 18,754
Scotland 9,264
The immigrants were in the most vigorous period of life, few
children and few old people, as shown in the following table :
77,933
3,889
15,357
1,758
51,273
66,065
18,105
18,160
18,890
5,022
Ages of Immigrants to the United Stales, 1881-1800.
Country of
Under 15.
From 15 to 40.
Over 40 years.
Origin.
Number.
Per
cent.
Number.
Per
cent.
Number.
Per
cent.
Germany
386,934
26-6
904,002
62-2
162,034
II-2
Ireland
England
Sweden and
92,308
151,315
14-1
23-5
515.089
420,303
78-6
65-2
48,085
73,062
7-3
II-3
Norway .
Italy . . .
Russia (includ-
104,254
47,603
18-3
15-3
414,609
212,475
73-0
69-2
49,499
47,771
8-7
15-5
ing Poland) .
Austria . .
Scotland . .
Hungary
65.427
50.027
36,192
18,785
24-7
22-1
24-2
14-7
174,754
149,909
97,8i9
95,635
65-9
66-3
65-2
74-9
24,907
26,109
15,858
13,261
9-4
11-6
10-6
10-4
Occupation. The immigrants are for the most part unskilled
labourers. The statistics for the United States show the following
figures for the years 1881-1890:
Occupation of Immigrants to the United Slates.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Professional .
Skilled . . .
25.257
5 '4,552
J.749
25,859
27,006
540,411
Miscellaneous .
Not stated ....
Without occupation .
1,833,325
73,327
759,45
245,810
42,830
1,724,454
2,079,135
116,157
2,483,904
Total . . . / ,
3,205,911
2,040,702
5,246,613
Those " without occupation " are mostly women and children. The
" miscellaneous " are day labourers. It is probable that about
20% of the adult males are " skilled."
Immigration to Other Countries. In no other country is immigra-
tion conducted on so important a scale as in the United States. The
statistics are very imperfect. The main figures have already been
given in the table of emigration. Australia has an annual immigra-
tion of about 250,000, mostly of British origin. This is offset by a
very heavy emigration, which sometimes exceeds the immigration in
certain of the states. The immigration to Canada for the year 1905
was put down as 146,266, but a portion of this consisted of immi-
grants passing through to the United States. Brazil has had a large
immigration (in 1895 equal to 169,524, but in 1904 only 12,447).
The Argentine is credited with an immigration in 1905 of 177,117,
and Uruguay with an immigration in 1903 of 6247. In all the South
American immigration the countries principally represented are
those of southern Europe, especially Italy. The majority of the
immigrants are adult males and farm labourers.
Balance of Emigration and Immigration. Even in the case of
emigration from Europe to countries beyond the seas there is some
return movement. Emigrants who have been successful in business
return in order to end their days in the old country. Those who have
not succeeded return in order to be cared for by friends and relatives,
or simply from home-sickness. Thus, for Great Britain and Ireland,
while the emigration of persons of British and Irish origin was, in
1905, 262,077, the immigration of persons of the same category
was 122,712, leaving a net emigration of only 139,365. In the United
States' statistics we cannot distinguish in the outgoing passenger
movement emigrants from other persons. But if for a period of
years we take the total inward passenger movement and subtract
from it the total outward passenger movement, we ought to have
the net immigration. By this method we arrive at the conclusion
that while the gross immigration during the five years 1901-1905 was
3,833,076, the net immigration was only 1,779,976, showing an out-
ward movement of 273,134, or about 7-12 % of the total number of
immigrants.
Temporary Emigration. In many European countries there is
not only emigration beyond seas, but a very considerable movement
to neighbouring countries in search of work, and generally with the
intention of returning. Thus in Italy, the " permanent "emigration
(i.e. to countries beyond seas) numbered, in 1905, 447,083; the
" temporary " emigration to European or Mediterranean countries
amounted to 279,248. This temporary emigration is strongest in
the spring, and consists principally of adult males (agriculturists,
farm and day labourers, bricklayers and masons) in search of work.
It resembles somewhat the movement of Irish labourers into Great
Britain at harvest time. It is notorious that the Italians who
emigrate to the United States largely return.
Effects of Emigration. There are two views with regard to emigra-
tion: one unfavourable, viz., that it is a drain on population, reduc-
ing its economic strength and disturbing social and political relations ;
the second looking upon it as a reliet from over-population and a
congested labour market. As a matter of fact, emigration has not
succeeded in diminishing the population of Europe, which, on the
contrary, doubled during the igth century. The one great excep-
tion is Ireland, where population declined from 8,175,124 in 1841
to 4,458,745 in 1901. From 1851 to 1901 the total emigration from
Ireland was 3,881,246 or 72-5 % of the average population. Emigra-
tion, by carrying off the young men and women, also reduced the
Irish marriage and birth-rates, which were almost the lowest in
Europe. But hitherto the countries of strongest emigration (Eng-
land, Germany, &c.) have shown practically undiminished birth
and marriage-rates and a steady growth in population.
The intensity of emigration is measured not by the absolute
number_of emigrants, but by the number of emigrants to the total
population. Its, effect is shown by comparing the number of
emigrants with the excess of births over deaths per 1000 of the
population. This is shown in the following table (1905) :
MIGRATION
43
Excess of births
over deaths per
1000 Inhabitants.
Emigrants
per 1000
Inhabitants.
Great Britain and Ireland
1 1 -4
6-06
England and Wales
I2-O
4-96
Scotland
12-2
8-45
Ireland .
6-3
11-42
Germany
13-2
45
Switzerland
9'5
1-45
Sweden (1903) ....
10-6
6-89
Norway
12-6
9-11
Denmark
I3-5
3-12
Italy
10-6
J4'33
Austria-Hungary .
12-2
6-29
It will be observed that, with the exception of Ireland and Italy,
wherever there is a heavy emigration there is usually a considerable
excess of births over deaths, i.e. natural increase more than makes
up for the loss by emigration. Even taking Great Britain and
Ireland together, the loss by emigration per annum has not been
very large, as is shown by the following table :
Annual Emigration per 1000 of the Average Population
of Great Britain and freland.
1853-1855
1856-1860
1861-1870
1871-1880
8-4 1881-1890
4-3 1891-1895
5-2 1896-1900
5-1 1901-1905
"'I
5-i
37
5-5
Even in particular districts where emigration is heavy the loss
is made up by births. For instance, in 1891 the emigration from
the provinces of West Prussia and Posen was extraordinarily heavy
IO'9 and 10-4 per mille respectively but the excess of births over
deaths was 19-6 per mille. Emigration may give temporary relief
to congested districts, but it is not in itself a remedy for so-called
over-population.
It is difficult to analyse closely the economic effect of emigration,
because so much depends upon the character of the emigrants and
the condition of the labour market. The following considerations
have been urged at different times: Although emigration does not
diminish population, yet, as the emigrants are in the most productive
period of life (15 to 45), the country of emigration loses adults and
replaces them with children. It thereby loses the cost of rearing
that number of people to adult age, and is left with a disproportionate
number of children and old people. The age distribution of the
population of Ireland lends some support to this view. In the same
vein it is urged that voluntary emigration takes away the cream
of the working-classes. It is the man of energy, of some means, of
ambition, who takes the chances of success in the new country,
leaving the poor, the indolent, the weak and crippled at home. It
is maintained that such emigration institutes a process of selection
which is unfavourable to the home country.
On the other side, it is said that the men who are doing well at
home are the ones least likely to emigrate, because they have least
to gain. Modern means of transportation have made the voyage
so cheap that almost any one is able to go. It is therefore the rest-
less, the unsuccessful, or at least those not fitted ; for the strenuous
competition of the older countries, who are tempted to go. Emigra-
tion affords a natural outlet for the superfluous labour force of a
country. The supply of labour is somewhat reduced, but wages
are kept up for those who remain. Those who go find means of
bettering their own condition beyond the seas, where they become
producers of food and raw material for the home country, and at
the same time customers for her manufactured products. Emigra-
tion is therefore an economic gain, both directly and indirectly.
It is evident from these arguments that no general answer can be
given to the question. In some cases it may be an evil; in most,
when conducted under normal conditions, it would seem to offer
little danger.
The same remark would hold true in regard to the social and
political effects of emigration. In some cases, by taking away the
strong, self-reliant and energetic, it may result in the deterioration
of the home population. In other cases it allows restless spirits
who have failed at home to try again elsewhere. Often in cases of
political revolution the members of the defeated party have sought
refuge elsewhere, as after the revolutionary movements of 1848.
In case of conquest the conquered nationality takes to emigration
on an extensive scale, as after the absorption of Alsace-Lorraine
by Germany in 1871. The movement may be aided either by the
state or by private associations. Of such character have been the
state-aided emigration from Ireland, and the assisted emigration of
paupers, criminals and other persons in the effort to relieve a con-
gested population, or simply from the desire to get rid of undesirable
members of the community. Such efforts fail if the new countries
are unwilling to admit these persons. Finally, we have the expulsion
of the Jews from Russia as an example of the effort of a community
to get rid of an element which has made itself obnoxious to the local
sentiment.
Effects of Immigration The effects of emigration are negative
character; those of immigration are positive, (a) On population
immigration, of course, is a direct addition to the population of new
countries, and greatly accelerates the growth by natural increase
especially as the immigrants are in the most productive ages of
manhood and womanhood. In the United States, for instance out
of a population of 76,303,387 (in 1900), there were 26,147,407 persons
who were either foreign-born or who had one or both parents foreign-
born. This does not mean that the population would have been
twenty-six millions less if it had not been for immigration ; for the rate
of natural increase among the native-born might have maintained
itself. Nevertheless, immigration has probably stimulated the
growth of population. (6) Economic effects : The economic gain
of immigration to new countries is evident. It adds directly to
their available labour force, that is, to the number of adults engaged
in the work of producing wealth.
According to the United States census of 1900, out of 29,073,233
(1900) persons engaged in gainful occupations, 5,851,399 or 20-1 %,
were of foreign birth. If we add to these the native whites of foreign
parentage (5,300,924) we have 11,152,323 persons of foreign extrac-
tion or 39 4% of the total labour force. The foreign whites alone
constituted 10-4% of the total number of persons engaged in
agricultural pursuits; 11-4% of those in professional services; 25-7%
in domestic and personal services; 19-2% in trade and transporta-
tion; and 30-6% of those engaged in manufacturing and mechanical
industries. In addition to these, the native whites of foreign
parentage constituted, in agriculture, &c., 10-6%; in professional
service, 20-6%; in domestic and personal service, 16-4%; in trade
and transportation, 25-7 % in manufacturing and mechanical, 25-4%
of all those engaged in those occupations. The labour force of the
United States is thus made up very largely of immigrants and the
children of immigrants.
Attempts have sometimes been made to put a money value on
the economic gain by immigration. The amount of money brought
by the immigrants is not large, and is probably more than offset by
the money sent back by immigrants for the support of families and
friends at home or to aid them in following. The valuable element
is the able-bodied immigrant himself as a factor of production. It
is said, for instance, that an adult slave used to be valued at from
$800 to $1000, so that every adult immigrant may be looked upon as
worth that sum to the country. Or, it has been said that an adult
immigrant represents what it would cost to bring up a child from
infancy to the age, say, of 15. This has been estimated by Ernst
Engel as amounting to $550 for a German child. The most scientific
procedure, however, is to calculate the probable earnings of the
immigrant during the rest of his lifetime, and deduct therefrom his
expenses of living. The remainder represents his net earnings which
he will contribute to the well-being of the new country. W. Fan-
reckoned this to be, in the case of unskilled English emigrants, about
175. Multiplying the total number of adult immigrants by any one
of these figures, we get the annual value of immigration. Such
attempts to put a precise money value on immigration are futile.
They neglect the question of quality and of opportunity. The
immigrant is worth what it has cost to bring him up only if he is
able-bodied, honest and willing to work. If he is diseased, crippled,
dishonest or indolent, he may be a direct loss to the community
instead of a gain. So, too, the immigrant is worth his future net
earnings to the community only if there is a demand for his
labour.
Social and Political Effects of Immigration. The influx of
millions of persons of different nationality, often of a foreign
language and generally of the lower classes, would seem to be a
danger to the homogeneity of a community. The United States,
for instance, has felt some inconvenience from the constant
addition of foreigners to its electorate and its population. The
foreign-born are more numerously represented among the criminal,
defective and dependent classes than their numerical strength
would justify. They also tend to segregate more or less, especially
in large cities. Nevertheless, the process of assimilation goes on
with great rapidity. Intermarriage with the native-born occurs
to a considerable extent. The influence of the physical environment
leads to the adoption of the same mode of life. The most powerful
influences, however, seem to be social. These are common school
education and the adoption of one language (English) ; participation
in political life, which is granted to all adult males after five years'
residence; and the general influence of social standards embodied
in laws, institutions and customs already established. Doubtless
immigration in the last fifty years of the igth century had a
modifying effect on American life; but on the whole the power of a
modern civilized community working through individual freedom
to assimilate elements not differing from it too radically has been
displayed to a remarkable degree.
Restriction of Immigration. New countries have sought to escape
certain evils of indiscriminate immigration. These evils were as
follows: (a) The immigration of criminals, paupers, persons
diseased in mind or body, and persons unable to support themselves.
By the Acts of 1882 and 1893 such persons were refused admission
to the United States, and, when rejected, the steamship companies
that brought them were compelled to take them back. The number
debarred from 1896 to 1905 is shown in the following table:
432
MIGRATION
Causes.
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
Insane .
10
6
12
19
32
16
27
23
33
92
Paupers
Diseased
2010
2
1277
I
2261
2,S8
2599
348
2974
393
2798
309
3944
709
5812
1773
4798
1560
7898
2198
Assisted
3
79
82
2
SO
9
38
19
Convicts
i
2
8
4
7
9
51
35
39
Prostitutes
7
3
3
13
9
2 4
Contract Labourers
776
328
4'7
741
833
327
275
1086
1501
1164
All other . . .
i
i
I
I
i
6
7
2
20
445
Total debarred . .
2799
1617
3030
3798
4246
3516
4974
8 7 6 9
7994
11,879
Year.
No law of international comity is violated by the refusal to receive these unfortu-
nates. They should be taken care of at home. The English legislature in 1905
passed an act to prevent the landing of undesirable aliens, and the number refused
admission in 1906 was 493. (b) Immigration sometimes increases the
competition in the labour market, and thus lowers wages. One case
is particularly aggravating, viz. when employers import foreign
labourers in order to take the place of their men who are on strike.
In 1885 the United States passed what is called the Contract Labor
Law, forbidding the landing of any person who is under contract to
perform labour in the United States. It is very difficult to discover
such cases, but the number rejected is fairly large (see table above).
(c) The immigration of men of alien race who refuse to assimilate
with the natives is said sometimes to be a danger to the country.
This at least is the excuse for the entire exclusion of Chinese
labourers from the United States since 1882 (provisions made more
severe in 1888 and 1892) (see also the article COOLIE).
Internal Migration. In modern times there is constant movement
of population within national lines, from section to section, and
especially from rural districts to the cities. No record is kept ot
this, and we can trace it only through the census statistics of birth-
place. In the United States, for instance, it was shown in 1890
that more than 21-5 per cent, of the native-born inhabitants were
living in a state other than that in which they were born. Still
further, it appears that about one-half of the native-born inhabitants
had moved out of the county in which they were born. In 1890
there were 1,233,629 natives of the state of New York living in other
states. The movement is principally westwards in direction and
along parallels of latitude. For instance, New York has made large
contributions to the population of Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, Iowa and so on. Virginia has contributed largely to the popula-
tion of West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and
Missouri. In Europe there is a similar movement ; but it is difficult
to make comparisons, because of the differences in the administrative
areas. In England in 1891, 71-6% of the population were residing
in their native county; in Prussia, 69-7% in the kreis; in France,
81-7% in the department; in Austria, 80-2% in the bezirk; in
Switzerland, 82-1% in the canton where they were born (Weber,
Growth of Cities, p. 249). The most important phase of internal
migration is the movement from the rural districts to the cities. The
statistical results are shown in the following table extracted from the
admirable work of Weber, just quoted:
Year.
United
States.
In Towns of
8000 and over.
Rural
Districts.
o/
/o
o/
/o
o/
/o
1790-1800
35-i
60
34
1800-1810
36-4
69
35
1810-1820
33-o
33
33
1820-1830
33-6
82
31
1830-1840
32-7
68
30
1840-1850
35-9
99
3
1850-1860
35-6
75
30
1860-1870
22-6
59
15
1870-1880
30-1
40
27
1880-1890
24-9
61
15
1890-1900
20-8
37
H
Percentage of Population living in Towns of 10,000 and over at Three
Periods.
About 1800
or 1801.
About 1850
or 1851.
About 1890
or 1891.
England and Wales
21-3
39'5
61-7
Scotland
17-0
32-2
50-0
Australia (7 colonies)
41-4
Belgium
Netherlands
13-5
29-5
20-8
29-0
34-8
31-3
Prussia ( 1 8 1 6) . .
7'3
10-6
30-0
United States . .
3-8
I2-O
27-6
France
Denmark
9-5
10-9
14-4
9-6
25-9
23-6
Italy ....
2O-6
Ireland ....
7-8
IO-I
18-0
Norway ....
Switzerland (1822) .
Austria ....
3-3
4-3
4-4
5-3
7-3
5-8
16-7
16-5
15-8
Hungary
Sweden ....
Portugal . .
5-4
3-9
12-7
9-1
4'7
2-9
16-1
I3-7
12-7
Russia ....
3-7
5-3
/
9-3
Everywhere the city population is increasing faster than the
rural. In the United States the rate of increase per decade was as
follows :
In England and Wales the rural population increased in the
aggregate during the first half of the igth century, but at a
gradually diminishing rate; in the second half of the century
the population declined with varying regularity, until the decennium
1891-1900, when there was an increase. But notwithstanding
this aggregate increase there are many rural districts which still
show a steadily declining population. The urban population is
increasing, as shown in the .following table:
Decennial Rate of Increase or Decrease.
Urban. Rural.
o/ o/
/o /o
1851-1861 +21-9 -fi-88
1861-1871 +28-1 -5-86
1871-1881 +25-6 -3-84
1881-1891 +18-5 -2-76
1891-1900 +15-22 +2-94
Somewhat the same phenomenon is seen in France. According
to the census of 1891 not less than 55 out of the 87 departments
had decreased in population; and out of the 32 that had increased,
7 showed a decrease in their rural parts when the large towns were
deducted. In Germany the towns of 10,000 and over show a much
more rapid increase than the rural districts; and the same fact is
generally true of the other countries of Europe. This more rapid
increase of population in cities is due only in part to migration from
the country. Until the igth century deaths generally exceeded
births in cities, so that if it had not been for constant immigration
the cities would not only not have grown, but would have decreased
in population. Cities grow more rapidly now than formerly, because
the excess of deaths over births has been turned into an excess of
births over deaths. Thereby the cities are becoming less dependent
upon immigration for increase of population than formerly, but
the migration still goes on. The causes of migration from country
to city are mainly economic. In early stages of culture men are
scattered over the country, or at most gathered together in hamlets
and villages. Each of these is self-sufficing, having its own artisans
and handicraftsmen, and producing what it needs. With the
beginning of exchange commercial centres spring up, situated on
navigable streams and especially at points where land and water
journeys are broken. With the growth of manufactures, industrial
centres spring up where the division of labour can be fully provided
for. In modern times two factors have accelerated this process,
viz.: (i) the building of railways, which have developed commerce
to a very great degree and favoured the large towns at the expense
of the small ; and (2) the invention of machinery, which has greatly
increased the possibility of division -of labour and manufactures on
a large scale. The old handicraftsman has been superseded by
machine labour and the village artisan by the factory hand. At the
same time improvements in agriculture and the opening up of new
countries have enabled the modern community to gain its food and
raw material with a less expenditure of labour force, and the surplus
agricultural population has gone to the city. The attractive
influences upon individuals have been higher wages, greater scope
for the ambitious, and the social advantages of city life.
The general laws of internal migration may be summarized
(according to Ravenstein) as follows:
1. The great body of migrants proceed only a short distance.
2. The process of absorption goes on as follows: The inhabitants
of the country immediately surrounding a town of rapid growth
flock into it; the gaps thus left in the rural population are filled up
by migrants from more remote districts, until the attractive force
of one of the rapidly-growing cities makes its influence felt, step by
step, to the most remote corner of the land. Migrants enumerated
in a certain centre of absorption will consequently grow less with
the distance, proportionately to the native population which
furnishes them.
3- The process of dispersion is the inverse of that of absorption,
and exhibits similar features.
MIGRATION
4. Each main current of migration produces a compensating
countercurrent.
5. Migrants proceeding long distances generally go by preference
to one of the great cities of commerce or industry.
6. The natives of towns are less migratory than those of the rural
parts of the country.
7. Females are more migratory than males.
AUTHORITIES. The statistics of migration are to be found in the
official returns of different countries, especially the statistical tables
relating to emigration and immigration published by the British
Board of Trade, and the Reports (annual) of the Commissioner-
General of Immigration of the United States. For general discus-
sion see Philippovich, Auswanderung und Auswanderungspolitik
(Leipzig, 1892). An exhaustive bibliography will be found in an
article by same author, " Auswanderung, in Handworterbuch der
Slaatswissenschaften; R. Mayo-Smith, Emigration and Immigration,
with bibliography (New York, 1890). For internal migration see
A. F. Weber, Growth of Cities (New York, 1899). See also Ravenstein-,
"The Laws of Migration," in Journal of Royal Statistical Society
(1885 and 1889). Professor Flinders Petrie, in his Huxley Lecture
for 1906 on Migrations (reprinted by the Anthropological Institute),
deals with the mutations and movements of races from an anthro-
pological standpoint with profound knowledge and originality.
(R. M.-S.;T. A. I.)
MIGRATION, in Zoology. In zoology considerable import-
ance attaches to the problems of migration, by which is meant
the wandering of living creatures into another, usually distant,
locality in order to breed there; this implies a return, and the
double phenomenon is annual. All other changes of the abode
are either sporadic, epidemic, or fluctuating within lesser limits.
Further, migration should not be confounded with " spreading,"
which proceeds steadily, and in epicycles, with a totally different
result. It need not be emphasized that hard and fast lines
between these phenomena do not exist; they are often a question
of degree. For instance, when the common toad, which is
a strictly terrestrial creature, wanders every spring to a fre-
quently distant pool in order to spawn there, this is a true
migration. The same applies, strictly speaking, to those insects
which hibernate in the ground, at the root of the tree on which
they feed and breed. The grey plover breeds in the arctic
circle and winters in equatorial countries. To complicate matters
further, it is not necessary that the migration be undertaken
periodically, more than once, by the same individual. For
instance, the common eel ascends the rivers as an elver in its
youth; years after it returns to the sea, there to breed and to
die, whilst other fishes come and go, year after year. Further,
some of the larger birds, for instance swans and cranes, are
still immature in their second year, and yet they migrate like
their older relations. It seems permissible to use this fact
as an indication that the breeding as such is not the prime
reason of their wanderings. The fundamental impelling agent
must have been the want of food, and what we usually under-
stand by migration cannot suddenly have sprung into existence
to its full extent, but is more likely the cumulative effect of the
doings of countless generations. The faculty of shifting the
abode was of course always there, the necessity of moving further
on was also present, and those which went in the wrong direction
came to grief, while the others flourished and returned with
their progeny. They did not at first cover enormous distances,
but just enough to find unoccupied ground. The annual
repetiton became an established habit, at last an ineradicable
instinct. There can be but little doubt that the prime impulse
was want of food. The new growing grass on the prairie or
on the veldt attracts every year those creatures which live
upon pasture. The inter-tropical belt of the world is so crowded
with creatures that there is the keenest competition, whilst
in the temperate and cold regions is a long winter quiescence
unfit for the support of many creatures, whereas in the summer
these same regions are covered with new vegetation, with its
concomitant abundance of insects and other invertebrates.
The tables are decked again, and these opportunities are not
wasted.
The process of migration, in its most striking cases, is now
very complicated. Many a bird goes actually to the arctic
regions for the shortest of summers, but spends most of the
year within the tropics. On the other hand there are many
433
species which do not go so far north, but stop to breed in the
intermediate regions. We must not take the extremes when
trying to unravel the development of the problem. The
periodical migrations of mammals, with their more limited
extent and greater leisure, are less perplexing.
It has been argued with some show of reason that the real
home of a bird is that country in which it was born, in other
words where the species breeds, but this is not in every case
a valid conclusion. It applies to most creatures, but it can
well bear exceptions if we leave sentiment aside. When it
comes to a question of domicile, the ten weeks' sojourn of the
swift, Cypselus, in England are more than weighted down by
the nine months or more which these birds spend in southern
countries, although we do not know whether they are resident
there or roam about. The breeding time is the busiest period
of a bird's life; then the numbers of each species are suddenly
multiplied, and so is the stress of providing food, and the par-
ticular food which is best for the young may not be available
in every country. The idea that the arctic circle is the original
home of the numerous kinds of birds which breed in it, whence
they are now periodically driven away by stress, has been coupled
with the glacial epoch, that supposed solution of so many diffi-
culties. We have only to assume that the ol'd, permanent home
of these migrants was in the arctic region, that the progressing
glaciation drove them away, of course towards the equator,
and that, when times improved again, the birds returned to
their old home. This sounds very plausible, but it involves
huge assumptions. The birds, not the individuals, but the
species, are supposed to have inherited such a loving reminiscence
of their old home, that after thousands of years with most
of the small birds meaning as many generations they returned
at the first opportunity. It implies that their long continued
sojourn in foreign lands, where under this assumption
thousands of generations must have been bred and have spent
all their lives, was not sufficient to naturalize them, so to speak,
in other words to supplant the instinctive love of the primary
ancient home. That the last glacial epoch has driven the
limit of many kinds of animals and plants farther south is
as certain as that many have recovered the lost ground after
the reversion of the glaciation, but it must have been a very
slow and steady process of spreading. It may, and probably
does, account for the present annual visitations of arctic lands,
as a phenomenon which has been evolved de novo, which would
have come to pass even if no birds had existed in pre-glacial
times.
How do birds manage to find their way, thousands and
thousands of miles across land and water? This question
has been extolled as a mystery of mysteries. It has been
stated that the old birds show the way to the young, a specula-
tion which does not apply to those many cases in which old
and young notoriously travel at different times. It has been
assumed that they travel by sight, taking advantage of certain
landmarks; another untenable idea, since experience having
to be excluded in a flock of birds which made the journey for
the first time it implies that the young must have inherited
the reminiscence of those landmarks! Others have likened
the bird to a kind of compass, because in eastern Siberia E.
von Middendorff found some migration routes to coincide
with the direction of the magnetic pole. The whole question
reduces itself to a sense of direction, a faculty which is possessed
by nearly all animals; in some it is present to an astonishing
extent; but the manifestations of this sense vary only in degree.
The cat which escapes out of the bag finds its way back, directly
or after many adventures. The bee, after having loaded itself
with pollen, returns by the proverbial line to the hive which
may be a mile away, but, move the small entrance hole in the
meantime an inch to the right or left, and the bee will knock
its head against the hive and blunder about; move the hive
a few yards and bee after bee returning will be puzzled to find
its hive again. They, maybe with the help of landmarks,
have accustomed themselves to steer a course. Such instances
need not be multiplied. The principle is the same whether
434
the journey be one of a few yards or of many miles. Given
the sense of direction, it is no more difficult to steer a course
Lilt a\fiia\* "* *_" w*.v. j J
due north than it is to lay on south-east by east, provided
always the impetus to be on the move. There is no mystery,
except that we, the most intellectual of mankind, should so
well nigh have lost this sense, and even this fact is simply an
instance of the loss of a faculty through long-continued disuse.
Biras (The following account is to a great extent based upon
A Newton's article " Birds " in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) _ .
In almost all countries there are some species which arrive in
spring, remain to breed, and depart in autumn; others which
arrive in autumn, stop for the winter and depart in spring; and
others again and these are strictly the " birds of passage -
which show themselves but twice a year, passing through the
country without staying long in it, and their transient visits take
place about spring and autumn. These three apparently different
categories of migrants are all acted upon by the same impulse in
spite of the at first sight dissimilar nature of their movements.
The species which resort to Britain and to other temperate countries
in winter are simply those which have their breeding quarters
much nearer the poles, and in returning to them on the approach
of spring are but doing exactly as do those species which, having
their winter abode nearer the equator, come to us with the spring.
The birds-of-passage proper, like our winter visitants, have
their breeding quarters nearer the pole, but like our summer visit-
ants, they seek their winter abode nearer the equator, and thus
perform a somewhat larger migration. As H. Seebohm puts it
(Geograph. Distrib. of the family Charadriidae, London) :
" They all represent birds which breed in the north and winter
in the south. Every migratory bird wintering in England goes
north to breed, and every migratory bird breeding in England
goes south to winter. It is a rule without exception in the northern
hemisphere that each bird breeds in the extreme north point of
its migrations. To make the rule apply to the southern hemi-
sphere as well it must be modified as follows: each bird breeds in
the coldest climate which it visits on its migrations. ... It is a
remarkable fact that whilst there are many birds breeding in the
northern hemisphere and wintering in the southern, it is not known
that any land-bird breeds in the southern and habitually winters
in the northern! This is probably owing to the difference in the
distribution of the land, there being no antarctic breeding grounds.
. . . Birds breeding in the tropics are always resident, except
when they breed on mountains, where the climate causes them to
descend into the valleys for the winter."
In many countries we find that while there are some species,
such as in England the swallow or the fieldfare, of which every
individual disappears at one period of the year or another, there
are other species, such as the pied-wagtail or the woodcock, of
which only the majority of individuals vanish a few being always
present and these species form the so-called " partial migrants."
In England the song-thrushes receive in the autumn a considerable
accession in numbers from the birds which arrive from the north,
though the migration is by no means so well marked as it is on the
continent, where the arrival of the strangers sets all the fowlers
at work. In most localities in Britain the newcomers depart after
a short sojourn, and are accompanied by so many of the home-
bred birds that in some parts of the island it may be safely declared
that not a single song-thrush can be found from the end of November
to the end of January, while in others examples can always be seen.
Much the same may be said of the redbreast. Undeniably resident
as a species, attentive scrutiny will reveal the fact that its numbers
are subject to very considerable variation, according to the season
of the year. At no time do our redbreasts collect in bands, but
towards the end of summer they may be seen in the south of England
successively passing onward, the travellers being mostly if not
wholly young birds of the year; and so the great majority dis-
appear, departing it may be safely presumed for more southern
countries, since a few weeks later the markets of most towns, first
in France and then in Italy, are well supplied with this species.
But the migratory influence affects, though in a less degree, many
if not most of the redbreasts that remain with us. Every bird of
the northern hemisphere is to a greater or less degree migratory
in some part or other of its range.
Want of food, and perhaps of the special, proper kind during the
breeding season, seems to be the most obvious cause of migration,
and none can wonder that those animals which possess the power
of removing themselves from a place of scarcity should avail them-
selves of it, while it is unquestionable that birds possess this faculty
in the greatest degree. Even among those species which we com-
monly speak of as sedentary it is only the adults which maintain
their ground throughout the year. It has long been known that
birds-of-prey customarily drive away their offspring from their
own haunts so soon as the young are able to shift for themselves.
The reason generally, and no doubt truly, given for this behaviour,
which at first sight appears so unnatural, is the impossibility of
both parents and progeny getting a livelihood in the same vicinity.
The practice, however, is not limited to the birds-of-prey alone,
but is much more universal. We find it to obtain with the red-
MIGRATION
breast and if we watch our feathered neighbours closely we shall
perceive that most of them indulge in it. The period of expulsion,
it is true, is in some birds deferred from the end of summer or the
,
autumn 'in which it is usually performed, until the following spring,
when indeed from the maturity of the young it must be regarded
as much in the light of a voluntary secession on their part as in
that of an act of parental compulsion, but the effect is ultimately
the same.
The mode in which the want. of sustenance produces migration
may best be illustrated by confining ourselves to the unquestion-
ably migrant birds of our own northern hemisphere. As food
grows scarce towards the end of summer in the most northern limits
of the range of a species, the individuals affected thereby seek it
elsewhere. Thus doing, they press upon the haunt of other' in-
dividuals: these in like manner upon that of yet others, and so on,
until the movement which began in the far north is communicated
to the individuals occupying the extreme southern range of the
species at that season; though, but for such an intrusion, these
last might be content to stay some time longer in the enjoyment
of their existing quarters.
This seems satisfactorily to explain the southward movement of
all migrating birds in the northern hemisphere; but when we con-
sider the return movement which takes place some six months
later, doubt may be entertained whether scarcity of food can be
assigned as its sole or sufficient cause, and perhaps it would be safest
not to come to any decision on this point. On one side it may be
urged that the more equatorial regions which in winter are crowded
with emigrants from the north, though well fitted for the resort of
so great a population at that season are deficient in certain neces-
saries for the nursery. Nor does it seem too violent an assumption
to suppose that even if such necessaries are not absolutely wanting,
yet that the regions in question would not supply sufficient food
for both parents and offspring the latter being at the lowest
computation twice as numerous as the former- unless the numbers
of both were diminished by the casualties of travel. 1 But on the
other hand we must remember what has above been advanced in
regard to the pertinacity with which birds return to their accus-
tomed breed ing- places, and the force of this passionate fondness
for the old home cannot but be taken into account, even if we do
not allow that in it lies the whole stimulus to undertake the perilous
voyage.
A. R. Wallace in some remarks on the subject (Nature, x. 459)
ingeniously suggests the manner in which the habit of migration
has come to be adopted 2 :
" It appears to me probable that here, as in so many other cases,
' survival of the fittest ' will be found to have had a powerful
influence. Let us suppose that in any species of migratory bird,
breeding can as a rule be only safely accomplished in a given area;
and further, that during a great part of the rest of the year sufficient
food cannot be obtained in that area. It will follow that those birds
which do not leave the breeding area at the proper season will
suffer, and ultimately become extinct; which will also be the fate
of those which do not leave the feeding area at the proper time.
Now, if we suppose that the two areas were (for some remote ancestor
of the existing species) coincident, but by geological and climatic
changes gradually diverged from each other, we can easily under-
stand how the habit of incipient and partial migration at the proper
seasons would at last become hereditary, and so fixed as to be what
we term an instinct. It will probably be found that every grada-
tion still exists in various parts of the world, from a complete
coincidence to a complete separation of the breeding and the sub-
sistence areas; and when the natural history of a sufficient number
of species is thoroughly worked out we may find every link between
species which never leave a restricted area in which they breed
and live the whole year round, to those other cases in which the two
areas are absolutely separated."
A few more particulars respecting migration are all that can here
be given, and it is doubtful whether much can be built upon them.
It has been ascertained by repeated observation that in the spring-
movement of most species of the northern hemisphere the cock-
birds are always in the van of the advancing army, and that they
appear some days, or perhaps weeks, before the hens. It is not
difficult to imagine that, in the course of a journey prolonged
throughout some 50 or 60 of latitude, the stronger individuals
1 If the relative proportion of land to water in the southern
hemisphere were at all such as it is in the northern, we should no
doubt find the birds of southern continents beginning to press
upon the tropical and equatorial regions of the globe at the season
when they were thronged with the emigrants from the north, and
in such a case it would be only reasonable that the latter should be
acted upon by the force of the former, according to the explanation
given of the southward movement of northern migrants. But,
though we know almost nothing of the migration of birds of the
other hemisphere, yet, when we regard the comparative deficiency
of land in southern latitudes all round the world, it is obvious that
the feathered population of such as nowadays exists can exert
but little influence, and its effects may be practically disregarded.
2 In principle F. W. Hutton had already foreshadowed the same
theory (Trans. New Zeal. Inst., 1872, p. 235).
MIGRATION
should outstrip the weaker by a very perceptible distance, and it
can hardly be doubted that in most species the males are stronger,
as they are bigger than the females. Some observers assert that
the same thing takes place in the return journey in autumn
Seebohm, for instance, says that, from Europe, first go the young,
then the males, having finished their moult of autumn, and lastly
the females but on this point others are not so sure, which is not
surprising when we consider that the majority of observations have
been made towards what is the northern limit of the range of the
Passeres, to which the remark is especially applicable in the
British islands, France, North Germany and the Russian empire
for it is plain that at the beginning of the journey any inequality in
the speed of travelling will not have become so very manifest. There
is also another matter to be noticed. It has been suspected that
where there is any difference in the size of birds of the same species,
particularly in the dimensions of their wings, the individuals that
perform the most extensive journeys would be naturally those with
the longest and broadest remiges, and in support of this view it
certainly appears that in some of the smaller migrants such as the
wheatear (Saxicola oenanthe) and willow-wren (Phylloscopus trochilus)
the examples which reach the extreme north of Europe and there
pass the summer possess greater mechanical powers of flight than
those of the same species which stop short on the shores of the
Mediterranean. It may perhaps be also inferred, though precise
evidence is wanting, that these same individuals push further to
the southward in winter than do those which are less favoured in
this respect. It is pretty nearly certain that such is the case with
some species, and it may well be so with individuals. H. B. Tris-
tram has remarked (Ibis, 1865, p. 77) that, in many genera of birds,
" those species which have the most extended northerly have also
the most extended southerly range; and that those which resort
to the highest latitudes for nidification also pass further than others
to the southward in winter," fortifying his opinion by examples
adduced from the genera Turdus, Fringilla, Cypselus and Turtur.
For many years past a large number of persons in different
countries have occupied and amused themselves by carefully
registering the dates on which various migratory birds first make
their appearance, and there is now an abundance of records so
compiled. Still it does not seem that they have been able to
determine what connexion, if any, exists between the arrival of
birds and the weather; in most cases no corresponding observations
have been made about the weather in the places whence the travel-
lers are supposed to have come. As a rule it would seem as though
birds were not dependent on the weather to any great degree.
Occasionally the return of the swallow or the nightingale may be
somewhat delayed, but most sea-fowls may be trusted, it is said,
as the almanac itself. Foul weather or fair, heat or cold, the
puffins (Fralercula arctica) repair to some of their stations punctu-
ally on a given day as if their movements were regulated by clock-
work. Whether they have come from far or from near we know
not, but other birds certainly come from a great distance, and yet
make their appearance with scarcely less exactness. Nor is the
regularity with which certain species disappear much inferior;
every observer knows how abundant the swift (Cypselus apus) is
up to the time of its leaving its summer-home in most parts of
England, the first days of August and how rarely it is seen after
that time is past.
It must be allowed, however, that, with few exceptions, the mass
of statistics above spoken of has never been worked up and digested
so as to allow proper inferences to be made from it, and there-
fore it would be premature to say that little would come of it, but
the result of those exceptions is not very encouraging. E. von
Middendorff carefully collated the records of the arrival of migratory-
birds throughout the Russian Empire, but the insight into the
question afforded by his published labours is not very great. His
chief object has been to trace what he has termed the isepipteses
(I<ros = aequalis, IJKTTTTJCTIS = advolatus) or the lines of simul-
taneous arrival, and in the case of seven species these are laid
down on the maps which accompany his treatise. The lines are
found by taking the average date of arrival oi each species at each
place in the Russian dominions where observations have been regu-
larly made, and connecting those places where the dates are the
same for each species by lines on the map. The curves thus drawn
indicate the inequality of progress made by the species in different
longitudes, and assuming that the advance is directly across the
isepiptesial lines, or rather the belts defined by each pair of them,
the whole course of the migration is thus most accurately made
known. In the case of his seven sample species the maps show
their progressive advance at intervals of a few days, and the issue
of the whole investigation, according to him, proves that in the
middle of Siberia the general direction of the usual migrants is
almost due north, in the east of Siberia from south-east to north-
west, and in European Russia from south-west to north-east.
Thus nearly all the migrants of the Russian empire tend to con-
verge upon the most northern part of the continent, the Taimyr
peninsula, but it is almost needless to say that few of them reach
anything like so far, since the country in those high latitudes is
utterly unfit to support the majority. With the exception of
some details this treatise fails to show more. The routes followed
by migratory birds have been the subject of a very exhaustive
435
memoir by J. A. Palmed, but it would be beyond our limits to do
more than mention his results concisely. He enters very fully
into this part of the inquiry and lays down with much apparent
probability the chief roads taken by the most migratory birds of
the palaearctic region in their return autumnal journey, further
asserting that in the spaces between these lines of flight such birds
do not usually occur. Broadly speaking, the birds of Europe
Russia and Western Siberia go for the winter to Africa, those of
middle Siberia to Mongolia, and those of Siberia east of the Lena
go towards Japan.
But lay down the paths of migratory birds, observe their comings
and goings, or strive to account for the impulse which urges them
forward as we will, there still remains for consideration the most
marvellous thing of all how do the birds find their way so un-
erringly from such immense distances? This seems to be by far
the most inexplicable part of the matter. Year after year the
migratory wagtail will build her nest in the accustomed spot, and
year after year the migratory cuckoo will deposit her eggs in that
nest, and yet in each interval of time the former may have passed
some months on the shores of the Mediterranean, and the latter
absent for a still longer period, may have wandered into the heart
of Africa. That particular form of bluethroat which yearly repairs
to breed upon the mosses of the subalpine and northern parts of
Scandinavia (Cyanecula suecica) is hardly ever seen in Europe
south of the Baltic. Throughout Germany it may be said to be
quite unknown, being replaced by a conspicuously different form
(L. leucocyana), and as it is a bird in which the collectors of that
country, a numerous and well-instructed body, have long taken
great interest, we are in a position to declare that it is not known
to stop in its transit from its winter haunts, which we know to be
Egypt and the valley of the Upper Nile, to its breeding-quarters.
Other instances, though none so crucial as this, could be cited from
among European birds were there room here for them. In New
Zealand there are two cuckoos which are annual visitors: one, a
species ot Chrysococcyx, is supposed to come from Australia, the
other, Eudynamis taitensis is widely spread throughout Polynesia,
yet both these birds yearly make two voyages over the enormous
waste of waters that surrounds the country to which they resort
to breed. But space would utterly fail us were we to attempt to
recount all the examples of these wonderful flights. Yet it seems
impossible that the sense of sight should be the faculty whereby
they are so guided to their destination, any more than m the case
of those which travel in the dark. J. A. Palmn asserted (op.
cit. p. 195) that migrants are led by the older and stronger
individuals among them, and, observing that most of those
which stray from their right course are yearlings that have never
before taken the journey, he ascribed the due performance of
the flight to " experience." There are' many birds which cannot
be said to migrate in company. While swallows, to take a
sufficiently evident example, conspicuously congregate in vast
flocks and so leave our shores in large companies, the majority
of our summer- visitors slip away almost unobserved, each ap-
parently without concert with others. Experience here can only
signify the result of knowledge acquired on former occasions and
obtained by sight. Now it was stated by C. J. Temminck (Manuel
d' ornithologie, III. Introd., 1820) many years ago, and so far as
would appear the statement has not been invalidated, that among
migrants the young and the old always journey apart and most
generally by different routes. The former can have no " experi-
ence," and yet the greater number of them safely arrive at the
haven where they would be. The sense of sight, essential to a
knowledge of landmarks, is utterly insufficient to account for the
success that attends birds which travel by night, or in a single
flight span oceans or continents. Yet without it the idea of " ex-
perience " cannot be substantiated. We may admit that inherited
but unconscious experience, which is really all that can be meant
by instinct, is a factor in the whole matter certainly, as Wallace
seems to have proved, in originating the migratory impulse, but
yet every aspect of the question is fraught with difficulty.
Less than nothing is known about the speed at which birds fly
during their long stretches of migration. Gaetke, in his otherwise
very interesting book, has startled ornithologists by various state-
ments, but his calculations were based upon such crude observa-
tions that the results are ridiculous. For instance, he proved to
his satisfaction that the grey or hooded crow, Corvus comix, which
notoriously is not a fast bird, flies from Heligoland to the coast of
Lincolnshire in England at the rate of one hundred and twenty
miles an hour. To the little bluethroat he assigned a velocity of
two hundred and forty miles an hour, a statement as silly as that
made by some fanciful observer in Portugal who convinced himself
that " Turtle-doves leaving Kent or Surrey at dawn might easily
be the very birds that a few hours later were skimming over the
Portuguese pine forests on their way to Central Africa." Fifty
miles an hour would be a high average speed for most migratory
birds, and there are no reliable data to tell how long such birds can
continue their flight without interruption. All we seem to know
is that not a few kinds manage, in various parts of the world, to
cross enormous distances without the chance of a break. It was
Gaetke's notion that migration was for the most part carried on
at such a height in the air as to be beyond our ken, and that what
436
MIGRATION
comes to our perception consists chiefly of the abortive or unsuccess-
ful attempts, when birds are checked in their course, and being
unable to proceed present themselves to our sight and hearing.
Now for obvious reasons birds could not well fly at very great
heights in very thin air, as experiments with pigeons released from
balloons have shown, and the condor soaring far above the tops
of the Andes is a myth. The few trustworthy instances in which-
birds have been observed through a telescope passing across the
face of the moon have naturally yielded but vague calculations
as to distance and height. W. E. D. Scott (Bull. Nuttall Orn.
Club vi 97-100), computed heights varying from I to 2 m.
F M. Chapman's observations (Auk, 1888, pj. 37-39) resulted
in a height of from 1500 to 15,000 ft.; average, say, I m. If the
sky is' clouded and the birds fly above the clouds the migration
proceeds beyond our ken, and if for some reason or other they are
below the clouds the phenomenon becomes to us very noticeable.
It is well known " that on clear and bright nights birds are
rarely heard passing overhead, while on nights that are overcast,
misty and dark, especially if slight rain be falling, flocks may often
be heard almost continuously. It is in such weather, continues
Newton, that birds while migrating are most vociferous, doubtless
with the result that thereby the company of fellow-travellers is
kept together.
There yet remain a few words to be said on what may be termed
Exceptional Migration, that is when from some cause or other the
ordinary practice is broken through. The erratic movements of
the various species of crossbill (Loxia) and some allied forms afford
perhaps the best-known examples. In England no one can say in
what part of the country or at what season of the year he may not
fall in with a company of the common crossbill (L. curvirostra),
and the like may be said of many other lands. The food of these
birds consists mainly of the seeds of conifers, and as its supply in
any one locality is intermittent or precarious, we may not unreason-
ably guess that they shift from place to place in its quest, and may
thus find an easy way of accounting for their uncertain appearance.
The great band of nutcrackers (Nucifraga caryocatactes) which in
the autumn of 1844 pervaded western and central Europe (Bull.
Acad. Bruxelles, xi. 298), may also have been actuated by the
same motive, but we can hardly explain the roaming of all other
birds so plausibly. The inroads of the waxwing (Ampelis garrulus)
have been the subject of interest for more than 300 years, and by
persons prone to superstitious auguries were regarded as the fore-
runners of dire calamity. Sometimes years have passed without
the bird being seen in central, western or southern Europe, and then
perhaps for two or three seasons in succession vast flocks have
suddenly appeared. Later observation has shown that this species
is as inconstant in the choice of its summer as of its winter-quarters.
One of the most extraordinary events known to ornithologists is
the irruption into Europe in 1863 of Pallas's sand-grouse (Syrrhaptes
paradoxus). Of this bird, hitherto known only as an inhabitant of
the Tatar steppes, a single specimen was obtained at Sarepta on
the Volga in the winter of 1848. In May 1859 a pair is said to have
been killed in the government of Vilna, on the western borders of
the Russian empire, and a few weeks later five examples were pro-
cured, and a few others seen, in western Europe one in Jutland,
one in Holland, two in England and one in Wales. In 1860 another
was obtained at Sarepta; but in May and June 1863 a horde com-
puted to consist of at least 700 individuals overran Europe
reaching Sweden, Norway, the Faeroes and Ireland in the north-
west, and in the south extending to Sicily and almost to the frontiers
of Spain. On the sandhills of Jutland and Holland some of these
birds bred, but they were all killed off. A much greater visitation
took place in 1888, which met with the same fate. The number
of birds was quite incalculable, the wave extending from Norway
to southern Spain.
In comparison with the periodic annual migrations of so very
many birds, those of other creatures are scarce and insignificant,
excepting fishes.
Mammals. Few trustworthy observations have been recorded.
The most regular and least limited migrations seem to be those of
the eared seals. The walrus also goes each year to the north in
the summer, further south in the winter. Delphinapterus leucas,
one of the Cetacea, ascends the Amoor regularly on the breaking
of the ice, a distance of 400 m. up the stream, Some bats are
supposed to migrate. The American bison used to roam north
and south, according to the season, in search of pasture; and
similar periodic wanderings have often been recorded of various
kinds of game on the South African veldt. They are all obviously
a mere matter of commissariat and have little to do with the breed-
ing, except in the case of seals.
In one way the lemming's " migrations " are instructive. They
are quite sporadic. When, owing to combination of some favour-
able circumstances they suddenly increase, enormous numbers
forsake the highlands for the lowlands of Norway; not in a
methodical way, but quite lawlessly; that means to say they radiate
from their centres of dispersal. At any given spot, however, they
seem to keep to the same direction, and no obstacles seem to divert
their course. Those which arrive at the much indented coast are
known even to rush into the sea, where of course they get drowned
There is no sense in this. The overcrowded condition of their
home impels them to leave, and this impulse continues blindly.
They do not attempt to settle anywhere between their home and
the sea. A year or two after the irruption not a lemming is there
to be found, and where during their stampede they come across
suitable districts, they find these already occupied by resident
lemmings.
Such and similar irruptions have no doubt taken place often
during the world's history; and yet such sporadic stampedes into
a foreign country hardly ever lead to its regular settlement, especi-
ally when such a country possesses already a kindred fauna of its
own.
Fishes. Many fishes make periodic migrations for breeding
purposes, which by their numbers and the distances travelled
much resemble those of birds, but very little is known about these
fishes. Take the incredible masses of herrings and their kindred;
the collecting of the cod and its allies on their breeding-ground.
According to D. S. Jordan (A Guide to the Study of Fishes, New
York, 1905) some kinds are known mainly in the waters they make
their breeding-homes, as in Cuba, southern California, Hawaii or
Japan, the individuals being scattered at other times through the
wide seas. The tunny, which has a world-wide distribution,
arrives off the south coast of Portugal in the month of May;
enormous numbers pass through the Straits of Gibraltar and sup-
port great fishing industries in the Mediterranean. In the month
of August they return to the ocean! (Apesca do Alum no Algarve em
1898, por D. Carlos de Braganza, Lisboa, 1899; with many maps).
Many fresh-water fishes, as trout and suckers (quoting Jordan)
forsake the large streams in the spring, ascending the small brooks
where their young can be reared in greater safety. Still others,
known as anadromous fishes, feed and mature in the sea, but ascend
the rivers as the impulse of reproduction grows strong. Among
such fishes are the salmon, shad, alewife, sturgeon and striped
bass in American waters; Clupea alosa, the Allis shad, and C. finta,
the Twait shad, Alepocephalus rostratus, the " maifisch " of the
Rhine, in Europe. " The most remarkable case of the anadromous
instinct is found in the king-salmon or quinnat (Onchorhynchus
tschawytscha), of the Pacific coast. This great fish spawns in
November, at the age of four years and an average weight of twenty-
two pounds. In the Columbia river it begins running with the
spring freshets in March and April. It spends the whole summer,
without feeding, in the ascent of the river. By autumn the
individuals have reached the mountain streams of Idaho, greatly
changed in appearance, discoloured, worn and distorted. On
reaching the spawning-beds, which may be 1000 m. from the sea
in the Columbia, over 2000 m. in the Yukon, the female deposits
her eggs in the gravel of some shallow brook. The male covers
them and scrapes the gravel over them. Then both male and
female drift, tail foremost, helplessly down the stream; none, so
far as certainly is known, ever survive the reproduction act. The
same habits are found in the five other species of salmon in
the Pacific. The salmon of the Atlantic has a similar habit, but
the distance travelled is everywhere much less, and most of the
hook-jawed males drop down to the sea and recover, to repeat the
act of reproduction."
Few fishes are katadromous, i.e. their usual habitat is in rivers
and lakes, but they descend into the sea for breeding purposes.
The common eel is the classical example.
Insects. D. Sharp makes the following remarks (Cambridge
Nat. Hist, vi.): " Odonata are among the few kinds of insects that
are known to form swarms and migrate. Swarms of this kind
have been frequently observed in Europe and in North America;
they usually consist of a species of the genus Libellula, but species
of various other genera also swarm, and sometimes a swarm may
consist of more than one species.
" Locust swarms do not visit the districts that are subject to
their invasions every year, but as a rule only after intervals of a
considerable number of years. . . . The irregularity seems to
depend upon three facts, viz. that the increase of locusts is kept in
check by parasitic insects; that the eggs may remain more than
one year in the ground and yet hatch out when a favourable season
occurs, and that the migratory instinct is only effective when great
numbers of superfluous individuals are produced. ... It is well
established that locusts of the migratory species exist in countries
without giving rise to swarms or causing any serious injuries. . . .
When migration of locusts does occur it is attended by remarkable
manifestations of instinct. Although several generations may
elapse without a migration, it is believed that the locusts when they
migrate do so in the direction taken by predecessors. They are
said to take trial flights to ascertain the direction of a favourable
wind, and that they alight and wait for a change. The most
obscure point is their disappearance from a spot they have invaded.
A swarm will alight on a locality, deposit there a number of eggs,
and then move on. But after a lapse of a season or two there will
be few or none of the species present in the spot invaded. In other
cases they again migrate after growth to the land of their
ancestors. It has been ascertained by the United States Entomo-
logical Commission that such return swarms do occur."
See J. A. Palmeri, Om Foglarnes flyttningsvdgar (Helsingfors,
1874). The same in German: t)ber die Zugstrassen der Vogel
(Leipzig, 1896). In this and the work of von Middendorff, already
MIGUEL MILAN
cited, reference is made to almost every important publication on
the subject of migration, which renders a notice of its very extensive
literature needless here, and a pretty full bibliographical list
is given in Giebel's Thesaurus ornithologiae (i. 146-155). Yet
mention may be made of Schlegel's Over het trekken der Vogels
(Harlem, 1828); Hodgson's "On the Migration of the Natatores
and Grallatores as observed at Kathmandu " in Asiatic Researches
(xviii. 122-128), and Marcel de Serres's Des Causes des migrations
des animaux el particulierement des oiseaux et des poissons (Harlem,
1842). This last, though one of the largest publications on the
subject, is one of the least satisfactory. S. F. Baird's excellent
treatise " On the Distribution and Migrations of North American
Birds," Am. Journ. Sc. and Arts (2nd ser. 1866), pp. 78-90, 187-192,
337-347; reprinted Ibis 1867, pp. 257-293.' N. A. Severzoff,
" Etudes sur le passage des oiseaux dans 1'Asie centrale," Bull.
Soc. Nat. (Moscow, 1880), pp. 234-287; Menzbier, " Die Zugstras-
sen der Vogel im europaischen Russland," op. tit. (1886), pp.
291-369 ; Palm6n, Referat liber den Stand der Kenntniss des Vogelzuges,
Intern. Ornith. Congr., Budapest, 1891; W. W. Cooke and C. H.
Merriam, Report on Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley, U.S. Dep.
Agric.-Economic Ornithol., publ. 2 (Washington, 1888); Gaetke, Die
Vogelwarte Helgoland (Braunschweig, 1891). In English: Heligo-
land as an Ornithological Observatory (Edinburgh, 1895); A. Newton,
article " Migration," Diet. Birds (1893). (H. F. G.)
MIGUEL, MARIA EVARIST (1802-1866), usually known as
DOM MIGUEL, whose name is chiefly associated with his preten-
sions to the throne of Portugal, was tn*e third son of King John
VI. of Portugal, and of Carlota Joaquina, one of the Spanish
Bourbons; he was born at Lisbon on the 26th of October 1802.
In 1807 he accompanied his parents in their flight to Brazil,
where he grew up an uneducated and fanatical debauchee;
in 1821, on his return to Europe, it is said that he had not
yet learned to read. In 1822 his father swore fidelity to the
new Portuguese constitution which had been proclaimed in
his absence; and this led Carlota Joaquina, who was an abso-
lutist of the extremest Bourbon type, and hated her husband,
to seek his dethronement in favour of Miguel her favourite
son. The insurrections which ensued (see PORTUGAL) resulted
in her imprisonment and the exile of Miguel (1824), who spent
a short time in Paris and afterwards lived in Vienna, where
he came under the teaching of Metternich. On the sudden
death of John VI. in May 1826, Pedro of Brazil, his eldest
son, renounced the crown in favour of his daughter Maria da
Gloria, on the understanding that she should become the wife
of Miguel. The last named accordingly swore allegiance to.
Pedro, to Maria, and to the constitution which Pedro had
introduced, and on this footing was appointed regent in July
1827. He arrived in Lisbon in February 1828, and, regardless
of his promises, dissolved the new Cortes in March; having
called together the old Cortes, with the support of the reactionary
party of which his mother was the ruling spirit, he got himself
proclaimed sole legitimate king of Portugal in July. His
private life was characterized by the wildest excesses, and he
used his power to oppose all forms of liberalism.
The public opinion of Europe became more and more actively
hostile to his reign, and after the occupation of Oporto by
Dom Pedro in 1832, the destruction of Miguel's fleet by Captain
(afterwards Sir Charles) Napier off Cape St Vincent in 1833,
and the victory of Saldanha at Santarem in 1834, Queen Christina
of Spain recognized the legitimate sovereignty of Maria, and
in this was followed by France and England. Dom Miguel
capitulated at Evora on the 29th of May 1834, renouncing
all pretensions to the Portuguese throne. He lived for some
time at Rome, where he enjoyed papal recognition, but after-
wards retired to Bronnbach, in Baden, where he died on the
I4th of November 1866.
MIHRAB, a term in Mahommedan architecture given to the
niche which in a mosque indicates the direction of Mecca,
towards which the Moslems turn when praying.
MIKADO (Japanese for "exalted gate"), the poetical title
associated by foreign countries with the sovereign of Japan;
the Japanese title, corresponding to " emperor," is tenno, the
term kotci being used of his function in relation to external
affairs. By the constitution of 1889, the emperor of Japan
transferred a large part of his former powers as absolute monarch
to the representatives of the people, but as head of the empire
437
he appoints the ministers, declares war, makes peace and con-
cludes treaties, acting generally as a constitutional sovereign
but with all the personal authority attaching to his august
position. The history of the mikados goes back to very early
times, but from 1600 to 1868 the real power was in the hands
of the shoguns, who nevertheless were in ceremonial theory
always successively invested with their authority by the mikado.
The revolution of 1867 restored the real power into the mikado's
hands. (See JAPAN: History; and Muisu-Hixo.)
MIKIRS, a hill tribe of India, occupying two or three detached
tracts in Nowgong and Sibsagar districts of Eastern Bengal and
Assam, known as the Mikir hills. In 1901 their total number
was returned as 87,056. Mikir is the name given to them by the
Assamese; they call themselves Arleeng, which means " man " in
general. They have long settled down to agriculture, and are
distinguished from the tribes around them by the absence of
savagery. Their language, which has been studied by mission-
aries, seems to connect them with the Kuki-Chin stock on the
Burmese frontier.
See Sir C. Lyall, The Mikirs (1908).
MIKLOSICH, FRANZ VON (1813-1891), Austrian philologist,
was born at Luttenberg, Styria, on the 2gth of November 1813.
He graduated at the university at Gratz as a doctor of philo-
sophy, and was for a time professor of philosophy there. In 1838
he went to Vienna, where he took the degree of doctor of law.
He devoted himself, however, to the study of Slavonic languages,
abandoned the law, and obtained a post in the imperial library,
where he remained from 1844 to 1862. In the former year he
published a noteworthy review of Bopp's Comparative Grammar,
and this began a long series of works of immense erudition which
completely revolutionized the study of Slavonic languages. In
1849 Miklosich was appointed to the newly created chair of
Slavonic philology at the university of Vienna, and he occupied
it until 1886. He became a member of the Academy of Vienna,
which appointed him secretary of its historical and philosophical
section, a member of the council of public instruction and of the
upper house, and correspondent of the French Academy of
Inscription. His numerous writings deal not only with the
Slav languages, but with Rumanian, Albanian, Greek, and the
language of the gypsies. Miklosich died on the 7th of March
1891.
MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.),
a city of Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Milan,
93 m. by rail E.N.E. of Turin. Pop. (1881), 321,839; (1906),
560,613. It is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of
the II. army corps, the chief financial centre of Italy and the
wealthiest manufacturing and commercial town in the country.
It stands on the little river Olona, near the middle of the
Lombard plain, 400 ft. above sea-level.
The plain around Milan is extremely fertile, owing at once to
the richness of the alluvial soil deposited by the Po, Ticino, Olona
and Adda, and to the excellent system of irrigation. Seen from
the top of the cathedral, the plain presents the appearance of a
vast garden divided into square plots by rows of mulberry or
poplar trees. To the east this plain stretches in an unbroken
level, as far as the eye can follow it, towards Venice and the
Adriatic; on the southern side the line of the Apennines from
Bologna to Genoa closes the view; to the west rise the Maritime,
Cottian and Graian Alps, with Monte Viso as their central point ;
while northward are the Pennine, Helvetic and Rhaetian Alps,
of which Monte Rosa, the Saasgrat and Monte Leone are the
most conspicuous features. In the plain itself lie many small
villages; and here and there a larger town like Monza or Saronno,
or a great building like the Certosa of Pavia, makes a white
point upon the greenery. The climate is changeable and trying;
in summer it is intensely hot, in winter very cold. Snow is often
seen, and the thermometer is frequently below freezing-point.
In shape Milan is a fairly regular polygon, and its focus is
the splendid Piazza del Duomo, from which a number of broad
modern streets radiate in all directions. These streets are
connected by an inner circle of boulevards, constructed just
outside the canal, which marks the site of the town moat. The
438
MILAN
arches of Porta Nuova are almost the last trace of the inner
onstructed after the destruction of the city by Frederick
a to which also belonged the Porta del Fabbn, de-
o. Curious reliefs from the Porta Romana are to
bn the museum. Within this circle the majority of he
streets are narrow and crooked, while those between it and the
bSons though broader on the whole, have but little regularity.
M outer drcle of boulevards, planted with trees and com-
manding the view of the suburbs, lies just beyond the present
waUs of the city, erected by the Spaniards in the 1 6th century;
The entire length of these boulevards is traversed by an
electric tramway 7 m. long.
Occupying one end of the Piazza del Duomo is the famous
cathedral It is built of brick cased in marble from the quarries
which Gian Galcazzo Visconti gave in perpetuity to the cathedra
chapter. It was begun in 1386. The name of the original
architect is unknown, but it is certain that many German master-
masons were called to Milan to assist -the Italian builders. It
was then the largest church in existence, and now, alter at
Peter's at Rome and the cathedral of Seville, the Duomo of
Milan is the'largest church in Europe; it covers an area of 14,000
sq yds. and can hold 40,000 people. The interior is 486 ft.
long 189 ft. wide; the nave is 157 ft. high, and the distance from
the pavement to the top of the tower is 356 ft. The style is
Gothic very elaborately decorated, but it shows many peculiar-
ities for the work was continued through several centuries and
after many designs by many masters, notably by Amadeo who
carried out the octagonal cupola (the pinnacle of which dates
from 1774), and by Tibaldi, who laid down the pavement and
designed a baroque facade. This last feature was begun after
Tibaldi's design in 1615, but was not finished till 1805, when
Napoleon caused the work to be resumed. With its Renaissance
windows and portals this facade, though good in itself, was
utterly out of keeping with the general style of the church, and
in 1900 the removal of the inharmonious features was begun,
to be replaced in a style strictly in accordance with the Gothic
style of the rest of the building from the designs of Giuseppe
Brentano. In shape the church is cruciform, with double
aisles to the nave and aisles to the transepts. The roof is
supported by fifty-two pillars with canopied niches for statues
instead of capitals; the great windows of the choir, reputed to
be the largest in the world, are filled with stained glass of
1844. To the right of the entrance is the tomb of Arch-
bishop Heribert, the champion of Milanese liberty, while
beside him rests Archbishop Otto Visconti, the founder of that
family as a reigning house. The large bronze candelabrum in
the left transept is said to be i3th century work. In a crypt
under the choir lies the body of the cardinal saint Carlo Borromeo,
who consecrated the cathedral in 1577. It is contained in a
rock-crystal shrine, encased in silver, and is vested in full ponti-
fical robes blazing with jewels. The roof of the cathedral is
built of blocks of marble, and the various levels are reached by
staircases carried up the buttresses; it is ornamented with a
profusion of turrets, pinnacles and statues, of which last there
are said to be no fewer than 4440, of very various styles and
periods. In front of the cathedral rises a colossal bronze
equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II.
There are two noteworthy palaces in the Piazza del Duomo.
The first is the Palazzo Reale dating from 1772, but occupying
the site of the earliest mansion of the Viscontis and the Sforza;
its great hall is a handsome chamber with a gallery supported
by caryatides. Built into the palace is the ancient church of
San Gottardo, a Romanesque building which was built by
Azzone Visconti in 1328-1339, and was the scene of the murder of
Giovanni Maria Visconti in 1412. Its campanile is a beautiful
example of early Lombard terra-cotta work. The second
palace is that of the archbishops, the fine facade of which is the
work of Fabio Magnone. It has an older north colonnade, by
some attributed to Bramante, but, like many other buildings,
without sufficient evidence, and a fine court with double colon-
nades by Tibaldi, to whom the back facade is due. The Palazzo
della Ragione, erected in the Piazza dei Mercanti, just west of
the Piazza del Duomo, the central point of the medieval city,
in 1223-1238 by the podesta, Oldrado da Tresseno, whose eques-
trian portrait in high relief adorns it, still exists in fine preserva-
tion. It is a brick edifice with a portico on the ground floor and
a large hall on the upper. Close by to the south is the beautiful
Loggia degli Osii, erected in 1316, with two loggie or open
porticos, one above the other, in black and white marble.
Among the most interesting buildings in Milan is the ancient
church of S. Ambrogio. Here St Ambrose baptized St Augus-
tine- here he closed the doors against the emperor Theodosius after
his cruel massacre at Thessalonica; here the Lombard kings and the
early German emperors caused themselves to be crowned with the
iron crown of Lombardy, and the pillar at which they took their
coronation oaths is preserved under the lime-trees in the piazza.
The church was built by St Ambrose early in the 4th-century (on
the site of a temple of Bacchus it is said), but as it stands it is a
Romanesque basilica of the I2th century, recently well restored
(like many other churches in Milan), with a brick exterior, like so
many churches of Milan and Lombardy, curious galleries over the
facade and perhaps the most perfectly preserved atrium in exist-
ence The wooden door belongs to the original 4th century church ;
it has carvings with scenes from the life of David In a great
silver reliquary (modern) in the crypt lie the bones of St Ambrose,
above which rises the high altar, which retains its original decora-
tions the only intact example of its period (835). These consist
of reliefs in gold and silver enriched with enamel and gems, and are
the work of one Vuolfvinus, a German. The baldacchmo, with
sculptures of the I2th or early I3th century, is borne by four ancient
columns of porphyry, with gth-cer.tury capitals. In the tribune
are fine mosaics of the gth century, which, Burckhardt remarks,
completely break with Byzantine tradition. In the side chapel ot b.
Satiro are even earlier mosaics (5th century) ; there are also fine
frescoes by Borgognone and Bernardino Lamm. The lofty brick
campanile (789-824) is among the earliest in Italy, and is decorated
with coloured majolica disks. The court of the neighbouring
canonica is by Bramante, and so also may be the design of the
cloisters of the monastery of S. Ambrogio, now the military hospital.
S Lorenzo, in the south portion of the town, dates from before
AD 538, thus being practically contemporary with S. Vitale at
Ravenna (though Burckhardt considers it to belong to about
A D 300 and to be a part of the thermae or palace of Maximian),
biit'was burnt down and restored in 1071 (in the restoration Corinth-
ian capitals were used as bases). Thirty-three years later part of-
it collapsed, and a second fire followed in 1124. It was restored,
but collapsed again in 1573, and a great part of it had to be re-
constructed, including the dome (i574-i59i)- (The chapel of
S Aquilino, possibly a part of the original structure, contains
mosaics of the 5th or 6th century.) In plan the church is an
octagon supported at the corners by four square towers in brick-
work, which belong to the original structure. The interior with its
two orders is a very fine one, and its influence on Renaissance
architects has been very considerable. S. Eustorgio, one of the
largest Gothic churches in Milan, with some Romanesque survivals,
dates, as it stands, with its campanile, from the end of the I3th
century, and has a modern facade in the old style. It has some
interesting medieval works of sculpture, and a fine chapel (Cappella
Portinari), with a good dome and a beautiful frieze of angels, built
by Michelozzo in 1462-1468, and containing the splendid sculptured
tomb (a marble sarcophagus with reliefs, supported by statues) of
Peter Martyr (q.v.), the masterpiece of Giovanni di Balduccio of
Pisa (1339); the walls of the chapel are decorated with important
frescoes by Vincenzo Foppa of Brescia. S. Simplicianp, too,
though originally Romanesque, is now in the mam Gothic, and
has been much altered.
S. Vincenzo in Prato (833), now restored to its basihcan torm,
with nave and two aisles divided by columns and three apses, and
with small, flat arcading on the exterior, which is in brickwork ; S
Wltn sill. til, lia.L itl^tiuiug t-m cue tA-uv-mji, i^i *t ^ ,...
Satiro, founded in 879; S. Babila, also restored to its original form,
&c., are interesting for their Romanesque architecture. The small
domed structure on the left of S. Satiro is earlier than the church,
while the campanile is part of the original structure, though pre-
ceded in date by that of S. Ambrogio, which is one of the earliest
genuine campanili in Italy (789-824). The reconstruction of the
church of S. Satiro was Bramante's earliest work in Milan (after
1476). The choir is painted in perspective (there was no room to
build one), the earliest example of this device, which was so fre-
quently used in baroque architecture. The octagonal sacristy
(before 1488), with niches below and a gallery above,_ with stucco
decorations by Bramante himself (the frieze with putti and medal-
lions is ascribed to Caradosso), is a masterly work, and one of his
best. The Cistercian abbey-church of Chiaravalle, si m. south of
Milan, is a fine brick building in the plan of a Latin cross, with nave
and two aisles with round pillars, with a lofty domed tower, in the
so-called Romanesque Transition style, having comparatively
slender round pillars and cross vaulting, while the exterior is still
quite Romanesque. It was founded in 1135 by St Bernard and
consecrated in 1221. It is interesting as the model for the plan of
many other churches in Lombardy, e.g. S. Maria del Carmine and
MILAN
439
S. 'Francesco in Pavia. S. Marco, modernized inside, still retains
a beautiful facade of 1254 and a tower in brick as elsewhere
and contains another tomb by Balduccio. S. Maria Incoronata is
unique as a double Gothic church, in the horizontal sense (1451-
1487).
Of the secular buildings of the beginning of the 1 5th century,
the most notable is the Palazzo Borromeo, which still preserves its
Gothic courtyard. It has a good collection of Lombard pictures.
At no great distance from S. Ambrogip, in the Corso Magenta, is
the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, built by the Dominicans
about 1460, to which the Gothic fagade and nave belong. The
choir, crossing, and beautiful sixteen-sided dome, with the elegant
external decorations in terra-cotta and marble, are by Bramante
(c. 1492). Adjoining the church is the convent, long used as
barracks.' Leading from the fine cloisters, also the work of
Bramante, is the former refectory, on the walls of which
Leonardo da Vinci painted his celebrated " Last Supper," a work
which is unfortunately in a bad state of preservation.
Farther along the Corso, but nearer the Piazza del Duomo, is
San Maurizio, the interior of which is covered by exceedingly
effective frescoes by Luini and his contemporaries. The interior
was erected by Giovanni Dolcebuono, a pupil of Bramante, to whom
is also due S. Maria presso S. Celso (the interior and the baroque
facade are by Alessi). Thence the Via Bollo leads to the Piazza
della Rosa, in which is situated the renowned Biblioteca Ambrosiana,
erected in 1603-1609 by Fabio Manzone, to whom the Palazzo del
Senato is also due, rich in MSS. In the same building there is
also a picture gallery, in which is Raphael's cartoon for his fresco
the " School of Athens " in the Vatican. Situated just within the
Naviglio, the canal encircling the inner town (adjacent to San
Nazaro, which contains Bernardino Lanini's [fl. 1546] masterpiece,
the " Martyrdom of St Catherine "), is the Ospedale Maggiore.
This institution, which can accommodate 2400 patients, was founded
in the reign of Francesco Sforza. The principal court (there are
nine in all) is surrounded by fine arcades of the lyth century by
Ricchini. The entire edifice is covered externally with terra-cotta,
and its facade, designed by the Florentine Antonio Averulino
(Filarete) and begun in 1457, is superior to any other of the kind
in Milan.
The city is rich in works of art; for Milan, with the introduction
of the early Renaissance style by Filarete and Michelozzo after
1450^ became the home of a Lombard school of sculpture, among
the chief masters of which may be mentioned Giovanni Antonio
Amadeo, or Omodeo, 1 of Pavia (1447-1522), Cristoforo Solari,
and, the last of them, Agostino Busti, known as Bambaia (c.
1480-1548), whose work may be seen in the cathedrals of Como
and Milan and in the Certosa di Pavia. Subsequently, towards
the close of the isth century, the refined court of Lodovico Sforza
attracted such celebrated men as Bramante, the architect,
Gauffmo Franchino, the founder of one of the earliest musical
academies, and Leonardo da Vinci, from whose school came
Luini, Boltraffio, Gaudenzio Ferrari, Marco d'Oggiono, &c.
Later, Pellegrino Tibaldi and Galeazzo Alessi of Genoa (the for-
mer a man of very -wide activity) were the chief architects, and
Leone Leoni of Arezzo the chief sculptor. In still more recent
times Beccaria (1738-1794) as a jurist, Monti (1754-1828) as a
poet and Manzoni (1785-1873) as a novelist, have won for the
Milanese a high reputation.
The picture gallery of the Brera, one of the finest in Italy, occupies
an imposing palace with a good cWrtyard by Ricchini. It was
built as a Jesuit college in 1651, but since 1776 has been the seat
of the Accademia di Belle Arti, and contains besides the picture
gallery a library of some 300,000 volumes, a collection of coins
numbering about 60,000, and .an excellent observatory founded in
1766. The Brera Gallery, the nucleus of which was formed in
1806, possesses Raphael's famous " Sposalizio," and many pictures
and frescoes by Luini, Guadenzio Ferrari and Bramantino; the
collection of the works 'of Carlo Crivelli (fl. 1480) affords an in-
structive survey of his work, which connects the Paduan school
with the Venetian, here particularly well represented by works of
Paolo Veronese, Paris Bordone, Gentile Bellini, Cima da Conegliano,
Bonifazio, Moroni and Carpaccio. Additions are continually
made to it.
The Castel Sforzesco, or Castle of Milan, stands in the Parco
Nuovo; it was built in 1450 by Francesco Sforza on the site of one
erected by Galeazzo II. Visconti (1355-1378) and demolished in
1447 by the populace after the death of Filippo Maria Visconti.
After suffering many vicissitudes and being partially destroyed
more than once, it was restored including especially the splendid
entrance tower by Antonip Averulino (Filarete, 1451-1453), de-
stroyed by a powder explosion in 1521 in the 15th-century style
'See F. Malaguzzi Valeri, G. A. Amadeo, sctdtore e architetto
(Bergamo, 1905),
in 1893 sqq., and it is now a most imposing pile. Some of the fine
windows with their terra-cotta decorations are preserved. The
archaeological museum is housed here on the ground floor; besides
Roman and pre-Roman objects it contains fragments of the 9th'
century basilica of Santa Maria in Aurona, one of the first examples
of vaulted Lombard architecture; the bas-reliefs of the ancient
Porta Romana of Milan, representing the return of the Milanese
in 1171 after the defeat of Barbarossa; the remains of the church
of Santa Maria in Brera, the work of Balduccio da Pisa ; the grandiose
sepulchral monument of Bernab6 Visconti formerly in the church
of San Giovanni in Conca; the tomb of Regina della Scala, the wife
of Bernabo; the funeral monument of the Rusca family; the great
portal of the palace of Pigello Portinari, seat of the Banco Mediceo
at Milan, a work of Michelozzo; a series of Renaissance sculptures,
including works by Amadeo Mantegazza, Agostino Busti (sur-
named Bambaia), including fragments of the tomb of Gaston de
Foix. Several of the rooms occupied by the archaeological museum
bear traces of the decorations executed under Galeazzo Maria and
Lodovico il Moro, and one of them has a splendid ceiling with trees
in full foliage, painted so as to cover the whole vaulting, ascribed
to Leonardo da Vinci. In the upper rooms is placed a large collec-
tion of Milanese and central Italian ceramics, stuffs, furniture,
bronzes, ivories, enamels, glass and historical relics; together with
a picture gallery containing works by Vincenzo Foppa, Gianpictrino,
Boltraffio, Crivelli, Pordenone, Morone, Cariani, Correggio, Antonello
da Messina, Tiepolo, Guardi, Potter, Van Dyck and Ribeira.
The finest of the modern thoroughfares of Milan is the Via
Dante, constructed in 1888; it runs from the Piazza, de' Mercanti
to the spacious Foro Bonaparte, and thence to the Parco Nuovo,
the great public garden in which stands the Castello Sforzesco.
This park was once a national drilling ground, which was taken
over by the municipality with a view to erecting upon it a new
residential quarter, rendered necessary by the phenomenal
growth of the city during the last twenty-five years of the ipth
century. This design was happily abandoned, and around the
Parco Nuovo has grown up a new quarter of wide streets,
spacious gardens and private villas.
To the north of the castle is the Arena, a kind of circus erected
by Napoleon in 1805; while facing the castle on the opposite
side of the park is the Arco della Pace, begun by Napoleon in
1806 from the designs of Cagnola to mark the beginning of the
Simplon Road, but finished by the Austrians in 1833. Leading
east-north-east from the Piazza del Duomo, the centre of
Milanese traffic, especially of electric trams, is the Corso Vittorio
Emanuele. Connecting the piazza, with the neighbouring
Piazza della Scala is the famous Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, a
great arcade in the form of a Latin cross, with an octagon in the
centre, crowned at the height of 160 ft. with a glass cupola; it is
roofed with glass throughout, and is 320 yds. long, 16 yds. wide
and 94 ft. high. It has splendid facades at each end, and was
constructed in 1865-1867 at the cost of 320,000; it is the finest
of its kind in Europe.
In the Via Morone near the Piazza della Scala is a collection
of art treasures bequeathed to the town in 1879 by a Milanese
patrician, the Cavaliere Poldi-Pezzoli. It comprises valuable
pictures, textile fabrics, arms, armour and a number of antiqui-
ties, and is exhibited in the house once occupied by the founder.
In the middle of the neighbouring Piazza della Scala stands
Magni's monument of Leonardo da Vinci (1872). Opposite is
the celebrated Teatro della Scala, built in 1778 on the site of a
church founded by Beatrice della Scala, wife of Bernabo Visconti.
After the San Carlo at Naples it is the largest theatre in Europe,
and can seat 3600 spectators. Looking on to the piazza, is the
fine Palazzo Marino, the seat of the municipality since 1861; it
was built by Galeazzo Alessi in 1558, to whom the side facade
and the court are due, but was not completed until 1890, when
the main facade was erected by Luca Beltrami. S. Fedele by
Tibaldi (1569) is close by. Milan has a royal scientific and
literary academy with a faculty of philosophy, a royal technical
institute, a school of veterinary science, a royal school of agricul-
ture, a polytechnic with the Bocconi commercial school (founded
1898) and numerous other learned and educational institutions.
Milan has long been famous as one of the great musical centres
of Europe, and numerous students resort here for their musical
education. There are many philanthropic institutions, the most
interesting of which is the Albergo Popolare, an establishment
conducted on lines similar to the houses established in England
440
MILAN
by Lord Rowton in 1894- Sport and athletics are provided by a
number of clubs, notably the Touring Club Italiano, founded in
l8 Th'e modern industrial development of Milan with its suburbs
and neighbouring towns, such as Monza, Gallarate, Saronno, Busto
Arsizlo and Legnano, has been noteworthy. Machine-making on
a large scale is carried on by firms widely celebrated for the con-
struction of locomotives, railway trucks and carriages, steam-
boilers and motors, turbines, pumps, metal bridges and roofs.
Minor industries are represented by workshops for the production
of surgical, musical and geodetic instruments; of telephone and
telegraph accessories; dynamos, sewing-machines, bicycles and
automobiles. There is also a large carriage industry. In textile
industries silk holds the first place. The amount of silk handled
and woven in Milan is greater than that dealt with at Lyons.
Spinning and twisting are as highly developed as the weaving
industry. Milan is also the centre of the Italian cotton industry.
Cotton-weaving, dyeing and printing are extensively carried on.
Linen, flax, jute and wool are also spun and woven. The Milanese
manufactures of articles in caoutchouc and of electric cables have
acquired a world-wide reputation. In typography Milan is re-
nowned principally for its musical editions and for its hehotype
and zincotype establishments. There is, besides, a huge production
of posters for advertisement. The manufacture of furniture of all
kinds is still extensively carried on, Milan being the chief Lombard
market and centre of exportation. The towns of Cantu, Meda,
Lissone and Carugo supply Milanese firms with most of their mer-
chandise, the furniture being made by the workmen at their own
homes with materials supplied by the Milanese buyers, who also
advance the capital necessary for working expenses. Theatrical
costumes and appliances are also made in Milan, which is an im-
portant theatrical centre. ' House industry is still widely diffused
in Milan itself, especially as regards working in gold, silver, vulcanite,
bronze and leather. The motive power for much of the house
industry is supplied by electricity. The electricity is partly
furnished by hydraulic works at Paderno, 24 m. from Milan; the
horse-power is continually being increased owing to new needs.
Gas is also much used. Milan is also a centre of the export trade
in cheese; chocolate, biscuits, &c., are also manufactured.
The municipal schools of Milan are as well organized as any in
Italy, and the exhibit in connexion with them at the great inter-
national exhibition of 1906 was of interest. There were, in 1907,
76 buildings for schools and 47,968 pupils, while in the evening and
holiday classes there were 10,724 older pupils; 2,109,920 free rations
and 215,135 paid rations were distributed to 16,526 pupils, and
douches were supplied. Pizzoli's Tavolo Psicoscopico for examining
the mental qualities of the pupils is of interest. The international
exhibition of 1906 held in Milan was of considerable importance,
all the leading states of the world taking part in it. The retro-
spective exhibition of means of transport was interesting in view
of the recent opening of the Simplon tunnel, the occasion of the
exhibition. Among the most noteworthy exhibits were those of
machinery, of automobiles and bicycles, of agriculture, of transports
by sea, of modern art and architecture, of Italian home industries,
of the city of Milan; besides which, all the countries exhibiting had
their own separate pavilions.
Until 1898 the octroi circle did not extend beyond the walls;
but in that year it was found necessary, owing to the growth of the
city and of municipal expenditure, to include the external quarters
or Corpi Santi (a name also applied to the extramural portions of
Cremona and Pavia), with their large industrial population. Since
that time municipal finance has been in a prosperous condition.
The water supply, from wells some 150 ft. deep in the sub-soil,
is fairly good ; one of the towers of the Castello Sforzesco is used as
a distributing centre, while the sewerage system consists of 48 m.
of sewers on the single channel principle, with collectors discharging
into the Vettabia, a tributary of the Lambro.
In 1860 a large cemetery, the Cimitero Monumentale, was opened,
but found to be insufficient, it is reserved for important monuments,
that of Musocco, 3 m. from the city, being used for general purposes.
History (For earlier history see MEDIOLANUM). After the
establishment of the Lombard capital at Pavia in 569 Milan
remained the centre of Italian opposition to the foreign conquest.
The Lombards were Arians, and the archbishops of Milan from
the days of Ambrose had been always orthodox. Though the
struggle was unequal, their attitude of resolute opposition to the
Lombards gained for them great weight among the people, who
felt that their archbishop was a power around whom they might
gather for the defence of their liberty and religion. All tha.
innate hatred of the foreigner went to strengthen the hands of
the archbishops, who slowly acquired, in addition to their spiri-
tual authority, powers military, executive and judicial. These
powers they came to administer through their delegates, called
viscounts. When the Lombard kingdom fell before the Franks
under Charlemagne in 774, the archbishops of Milan were still
further strengthened by the close alliance between Charles and
the Church, which gave a sort of confirmation to their temporal
authority, and also by Charles's policy of breaking up the great
Lombard fiefs and dukedoms, for which he substituted the
smaller counties. Under the confused government of Charles's
immediate successors the archbishop was the only real power
in Milan. But there were two classes of difficulties in the situa-
tion, ecclesiastical and political; and their presenceTad a marked
effect on the development of the people and the growth of the
commune, which was the next stage in the history of Milan. On
the one hand the archbishop was obliged to contend against the
heretics or against fanatical reformers who found a following
among the people; and on the other, since the archbishop was
the real power in the city, the emperor, the nobles and the people
each desired that he should be of their party; and to whichever
party he did belong he was certain to find himself violently
opposed by the other two. From these causes it sometimes
happened that there were two archbishops, and therefore no
central control, or no archbishop at all, or else an archbishop in
exile. The chief result of these difficulties was that a spirit of
independence and a capacity of judging and acting for themselves
_was developed in the people of Milan. The terror of the Hun-
nish invasion, in 899, further assisted the people in their progress
towards freedom, for it compelled them to take arms and to
fortify their city, rendering Milan more than ever independent
of the feudal lords who lived in their castles in the country.
The tyranny of these nobles drove the peasantry and smaller
vassals to seek the protection for life and property, the equality
of taxation and of justice, which could be found only inside the
walled city and under the rule of the archbishop. Thus Milan
grew populous, and learned to govern itself. Its inhabitants
became for the first time Milanese, attached to the standard of
St Ambrose no longer subjects of a foreign conqueror, but a
distinct people, with a municipal life and prospects of their own.
For the further growth of the commune, the action of the great
archbishop, Heribert (1018-1045), the establishment of the
carroccio, the development of Milanese supremacy in Lombardy,
the destruction of Lodi, Como, Pavia and other neighbouring
cities, the exhibition of free spirit and power in the Lombard
league, and the battle of Legnano, see the articles ITALY and
LOMBARDS. In 1157 an almost circular moat, still preserved in
the inner canal or Naviglio, was constructed round the town;
but in 1162 Frederick Barbarossa took and almost entirely
destroyed the city, only a few churches surviving. The city
with its walls was, however, rebuilt five years later by the allied
cities of Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua and Verona._
After the battle of Legnano, in 1174, although the Lombard
cities failed to reap the fruit of their united action, and fell to
mutual jealousy once more, Milan internally began to grow in
material prosperity. After the peace of Constance (1183) the
city walls were extended; the art.s flourished, each in its own
quarter, under a syndic who watched the interests of the trade.
The manufacture of armour was the most important industry.
During the struggles with Barbarossa, when freedom seemed on
the point of being destroyed, many Milanese vowed themselves,
their goods and their families to the Virgin should their city
come safely out of her troubles. Hence arose the powerful
fraternity of the " Umiliati," who established their headquarters
at the Brera, and began to develop the wool trade, and subse-
quently gave the first impetus to the production of silk. From
this period also date the irrigation works which render the Lom-
bard plain a fertile garden. The government of the city con-
sisted of (a) a par}amento or consiglio grande, including all who
possessed bread and wine of their own a council soon found to
be unmanageable owing to its size, and reduced first to 2000,
then to 1500 and finally to 800 members; (b) a. credenza or
committee of 12 members, elected in the grand council, for
the despatch of urgent or secret business; (c) the consuls, the
executive, elected for one year, and compelled to report to the
great council at the term of their office.
The bitter and well-balanced rivalry between the nobles and
the people, and the endless danger to which it exposed the city
MILANESI MILAN OBRENOVICH IV.
owing to the fact that the nobles were always ready to claim the
protection of their feudal chief, the emperor, brought to the front
two noble families as protagonists of the contending factions
the Torriani of Valsassina, and the Visconti, who derived their
name from the office of delegates which they had held under the
archbishops. After the battle of Cortenova, in 1237, where
Frederick II. defeated the Guelph army of the Milanese and
captured their carroccio, Pagano della Torre rallied and saved
the remnants of the Milanese. This act recommended him to
popular favour, and he was called to the government of the city
but only for the distinct purpose of establishing the " catasta,"
a property tax which should fall with equal incidence on .every
citizen. This was a democratic measure which marked the
party to which the Torriani belonged and rendered them hateful
to the nobility. Pagano died in 1241. His nephew Martino
followed as podesta in 1256, and in 1259 as signore of Milan
the first time such a title was heard in Italy. The nobles, who
had gathered round the Visconti, and who threatened to bring
Ezzelino da Romano, the Ghibelline tyrant of Padua, into the
city, were defeated by Martino, and 900 of their number were
captured. Martino was followed by two other Torriani, Filippo
his brother (1263-1265) and Napoleone his cousin (1265-1277),
as lords of Milan. Napoleone obtained the title of imperial
vicar from Rudolph of Hapsburg. But the nobles under the
Visconti had been steadily gathering strength, and Napoleone
was defeated at Desio in 1277. He ended his life in a wooden
cage at Castel Baradello above Como.
Otto Visconti, archbishop of Milan (1262), the victor of Desio,
became lord of Milan, and founded the house of Visconti, who
ruled the city except from 1302 to 1310 till 1447, giving twelve
lords to Milan. Otho (1277-1295), Matteo (1310-1322), Galeazzo
(1322-1328), Azzo (1328-1339), Lucchino (1339-1349) and
Giovanni (1340-1354) followed in succession. Giovanni left
the lordship to three nephews Matteo, Galeazzo and Bernabo.
Matteo was killed (1355) by his brothers, who divided the
Milanese, Bernabo reigning in Milan (1354-1385) and Galeazzo
in Pavia (1354-1378). Galeazzo left a son, Gian Galeazzo, who
became sole lord of Milan by seizing and imprisoning his uncle
Bernabo. It was under him that the cathedral of Milan and
the Certosa di Pavia were begun. He was the first duke of Milan,
having obtained that title from the emperor Wenceslaus. His
sons Giovanni Maria, who reigned at Milan (1402-1412), and
Filippo Maria, who reigned at Pavia (1402-1447), succeeded him.
In 1412, on his brother's death, Filippo united the whole duchy
under his sole rule, and attempted to carry out his father's policy
of aggrandizement, but without success.
Filippo was the last male of the Visconti house. At his death
a republic was proclaimed, which lasted only three years. In
1450 the general Francesco Sforza, who had married Filippo's
only child Bianca Visconti, became duke of Milan by right of
conquest if by any right. Under this duke the castello was
rebuilt and the canal of the Martesana, which connects Milan
with the Adda, and the Great Hospital were carried out. Fran-
cesco was followed by five of the Sforza family. His son
Galeazzo Maria (1466-1476) left a son, Gian Galeazzo, a minor,
whose guardian and uncle Lodovico (il Moro) usurped the duchy
(1479-1500). Lodovico was captured in 1500 by Louis XII. of
France, and Milan remained for twelve years under the French
crown. In the partial settlement which followed the battle of
Ravenna, Massimiliano Sforza, a protege of the emperor, was
restored to the throne of Milan, and held it by the help of the
Swiss till 1515, when Francis I. of France reconquered the Milan-
ese by the battle of Marignano, and Massimiliano resigned the
sovereignty for a revenue from France. This arrangement did
not continue. Charles V. succeeded the emperor Maximilian,
and at once disputed the possession of the Milanese with Francis.
In 1522 the imperialists entered Milan and proclaimed Francesco
Sforza (son of Lodovico). Francesco died in 1535, and with him
ended the house of Sforza. From this date til^ the War of the
Spanish Succession (1714) Milan was a dependency of the Spanish
crown. At the close of that war it was handed over to Austria;
and under Austria it remained till the Napoleonic campaign of
441
1796. For the results of that campaign, and for the history of
Italian progress towards independence, in which Milan played a
prominent part by opening the revolution of 1848, with the
insurrection of the Cinque Giornate (March 17-22), by which the
Austrians were driven out; the reader is referred to the article
ITALY. The Lombard campaign of 1859, with the battles of
Solferino and Magenta, finally made Milan a part of the kingdom
of Italy.
LITERATURE. Pietro Verri, Storia di Milano; Corio, Storia di
Milano; Cantu, Illustrazione grande del Lombardo Veneto; the
Milanese chroniclers in Muratori's Rer. Ital. scriptores; Sismondi,
Italian Republics; Ferrari, Rivoluzione d' Italia; Litta, Famiglie
celebn, s.v. " Torriani," " Visconti," " Sforza " and "Trivulzi";
Muratori, Annali d'ltalia; Hallam, History of the Middle Ages;
and \ Mediolanum U vols., 1881); L. Beltrami, II Castello di Milano
(Mi an, 1894) ; L. del Mayno, Vicende militari del Castello di Milano
(Milan, 1894); F. Malaguzzi Valeri, Milano, 2 vols. (Bergamo,
1906) ; and C. M. Ady, A History of Milan under the Sforza (1907).
(H. F. B.;T. As.)
MILANESI, GAETANO (1813-1895), Italian scholar and writer
on the history of art, was born at Siena, where he studied law,
and in 1838 he obtained an appointment in the public library.
In 1856 he was elected member of the Accademia della Crusca,
in which capacity he took part in the compilation of its famous
but still unfinished dictionary, and two years later was appointed
assistant keeper of the Tuscan archives, in Florence; then he
took charge of the famous Medici archives, whence he collected
a vast body of material on the history of Italian art, not all of
which is yet published. In 1889 he became director of the
archives, but retired in 1892, and died three years later. His
most important publication is his edition of Vasari's works in
nine volumes, with copious and valuable notes (Florence, 1878-
1885). Of his other writings the following may be mentioned:
// diario inedito di Alessandro Sozzini (in the Archivio storico
Ilaliano, 1842); Documenti per la storia dell' arle senese, 3 vols.
(Siena, 1854-1856) and Discorsi sulla storia civile ed artistica di
Siena (Siena, 1862). He also edited a number of Italian classics.
See E. Ridolfi's article in the Nuova antologia (May 15, 1895);
and A. Virgili's article in the Atti della regia Accademia della
Crusca (Florence, 1898).
MILAN OBRENOVICH IV. (1854-1901), king of Servia,
was born on the 22nd of August 1854, at Jassy. He was the
grand-nephew of the famous Milosh, whose brother Jefrem
(d. 1856) had a son, Milosh (1829-1861), who married Maria
Katardzi, a Moldavian. Milan was their sou. While still very
young, he lost both his parents, and was adopted by his cousin,
Michael Obrenovich, who returned to Servia on the expulsion
of the Karageorgeviches in 1858 and became ruling prince on
the death of his father, Milosh, in 1860. During the reign of
Michael young Milan was educated in Paris, at the Lycee Louis-
le-Grand, where he displayed considerable precocity, but he was
only fourteen years of age when in 1868 his cousin was assassi-
nated and he succeeded to the throne under a regency. In 1872
he was declared of age, and taking the reins of government into
his own hands, soon manifested great intellectual power, coupled
with a passionate headstrong character. Eugene Schuyler, who
saw him about this time, found him " a very remarkable young
man . . . singularly intelligent and well-informed." By a
careful balancing of the Austrian and Russian parties in Servia,
with a judicious leaning towards the former, Prince Milan was
enabled in 1878, at the end of the Turkish War, to induce the
Porte to acknowledge his independence, and was proclaimed king
in 1882. (The history of his reign is told in detail under SERVIA.)
Acting under Austrian influence, King Milan devoted all his
energies to the improvement of means of communication and
the development of natural resources, but the cost, which was
unduly increased by reckless extravagance, led to proportionately
heavy taxation. This, coupled with increased military service,
rendered King Milan and the Austrian party most unpopular;
and his political troubles were further increased by the defeat of
the Servians in the war against Bulgaria, 1885-86. In 1885
(Sept.) the union of Rumelia and Bulgaria caused widespread
agitation in Servia, and Milan precipitately declared war upon
his kinsman Prince Alexander on the isth of November. After
442
MILA Y FONTANALS MILES
a short but decisive campaign, the Servians were utterly routed
at the battles of Slivinska and Pirot, and Milan's throne was
only saved by the direct intervention of Austria. Domestic
difficulties now arose which rapidly assumed a political signifi-
cance. In October 1875 King Milan had married Natalie, the
sixteen-years-old daughter of Peter Ivanovich Ketchko, a
Moldavian Boyar, who was a colonel in the Russian army, and
whose wife, Pulcheria, was by birth Princess Sturdza. A son,
Alexander, was born in 1876, but the king and queen showed
signs of friction. Milan was anything but a faithful husband.
Queen Natalie was greatly influenced by Russian sympathies;
and the couple, ill-assorted both personally and politically,
separated in 1886, when the queen withdrew from the kingdom,
taking with her the young prince, Alexander, afterwards king,
then ten years of age. While she was residing at Wiesbaden in
1888, King Milan succeeded in recovering the crown prince,
whom he undertook to educate; and in reply to the queen's
remonstrances, he exerted considerable pressure upon the
metropolitan, and procured a divorce, which was afterwards
annulled as illegal. King Milan now seemed master of the
situation, and on the 3rd of January 1889 promulgated anew
constitution much more liberal than the existing one of 1869.
Two months later (March 6) he suddenly abdicated in favour of
his son, a step for which no satisfactory reason was assigned,
and settled as a private individual in Paris. In February 1891 a
Radical ministry was formed, Queen Natalie and the ex-metro-
politan Michael returned to Belgrade, and Austrian influence
began to give way to Russian. Fear of a revolution and of
King Milan's return led to a compromise, by which in May 1891
the queen was expelled, and Milan was allowed a million francs
from the civil list, on condition of not returning to Servia during
his son's minority. Milan in March 1892 renounced all his rights,
and even his Servian nationality. The situation altered, how-
ever, after the young King Alexander in April 1893 had effected
his coup d'etat and taken the reins of government into his hands.
Servian politics began to grow more complicated, and Russian
intrigue was rife. In January 1894 Milan suddenly appeared at
Belgrade, and his son gladly availed himself of his experience and
advice. On the 29th of April a royal decree reinstated Milan
and Natalie, who in the meantime had become ostensibly recon-
ciled, in their position as members of the royal family. On the
2ist of May the constitution of 1869 was restored, and Milan
continued to exercise considerable influence over his son. The
queen, who had been residing chiefly at Biarritz, returned to
Belgrade in May 1895, after four years' absence, and was
greeted by the populace with great enthusiasm. In 1897 Milan
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Servian army. In this
capacity he did some of the best work of his life, and his success
in improving the Servian military system was very marked.
His relations with the young king also remained good, and for a
time it seemed as though all Russian intrigues were being checked.
The good relations between father and son were interrupted,
however, by the latter's marriage in July 1900. Milan violently
opposed the match, and resigned his post as commander-in-
chief; and the young king banished him from Servia and
threw himself into the arms of Russia. Milan retired to
Vienna, and there he died unexpectedly on the nth of
February 1901. Milan was an able, though headstrong man, but
he lived a scandalously irregular life, and was devoid of moral
principle. In considering his relations with his young son, it
must be remembered that in the dynastic and political condition
of Servia natural feeling was inevitably subordinated in Milan to
other considerations. (H. CH.)
MILA Y FONTANALS, MANUEL (1818-1884), Spanish
scholar, born at Villafranca del Panades, near Barcelona, on the
4th of May 1818, was educated first at Barcelona, and afterwards
at the university of Cervera. In 1845 he became professor of
literature at the university of Barcelona, and held this post till
his death at Villafranca del Panades on the i6th of July 1884.
The type of the scholarly recluse, Mila y Fontanals was almost
unknown outside the walls of the university till 1859, when he
was appointed president of the juegos florales at Barcelona.
On the publication of his treatise, De Los troiiadores en Espana
(1866), his merits became more generally recognized, and his
monograph, De La poesia herdico-popular castellana (1873)
revealed him to foreign scholars as a master of scientific method.
MILAZZO, a seaport on the north coast of Sicily, in the
province of Messina, 22 m. W. of Messina by rail. Pop. (1901),
16,422. It is mainly built on ,the low isthmus of a peninsula,
which stretches some 3 m. farther north and forms a good har-
bour: but the old town, which contains a castle, mainly the
work of Charles V., lies on a hill above. Milazzo is the ancient
Mylae, an outpost of Zancle, occupied before 648 B.C., perhaps
as early as 716 B.C. (E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, I., pp. 395,
587). It was taken by the Athenians in 426 B.C. The people of
Rhegium planted here the exiles from Naxos and Catana in 395
B.C. as a counterpoise to Dionysius' foundation of Tyndaris;
but Dionysius soon took it. In the bay Duilius won the first
Roman naval victory over the Carthaginians (260 B.C.).
MILDENHALL, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamen-
tary division of Suffolk, England, 765 m. N.N.E. from London
by a branch of the Great Eastern railway from Cambridge.
Pop. (1901), 3567. It lies on the edge of Mildenhall Fen, the
great Fen district stretching northward and westward from here.
The church of St Andrew has an Early English chancel with fine
east window and chancel arch. The remainder is principally
Perpendicular with a magnificent carved oak roof, ornate north
porch and lofty tower with fan tracery within. There is a
wooden market cross of the i5th century; the manor house is
a picturesque gabled building of the i7th century, and there
is a modern public hall. Flour milling is an industry. The
discovery of Roman remains indicates a small settlement.
MILDEW (0. Eng. meledeaw or mildeaw, explained as " meal-
dew," cf. Ger. Mehlthau, with more probability, as " honey-
dew," Goth, melith, honey, cf. Lat. mel, Gr. jutXt), a popular
name given to various minute fungi from their appearance, and
from the sudden, dew-like manner of their occurrence. Like
many other popular names of plants, it is used to denote different
species which possess very small botanical affinity. The term is
applied, not only to species belonging to various systematic
groups, but also to such as follow different modes of life. The
corn-mildew, the hop-mildew and the vine-mildew are, for
example, parasitic upon living plants, and the mildews of damp
linen and of paper are saprophytes (Gr. aairpos, rotten), that is,
they subsist on matter which is already dead. As regards mil-
dews in general, the conditions of life and growth are mainly
suitable nutrition and dampness accompanied by a high tempera-
ture. The life history of the same species of mildew frequently
covers two or more generations, and these are often passed on
hosts of different kinds. In some cases again the same genera-
tion confines its attack to the same kind of host, while in others
the same generation grows on various hosts (see FUNGI; HOP;
and WHEAT).
MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839- ), American soldier,
was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on the 8th of August
1839. He was engaged in mercantile pursuits in Boston when
the Civil War began, and he entered the army in September 1861
as a lieutenant in the 22nd Massachusetts volunteer infantry.
He served with distinction in the Peninsular campaign, and at
Antietam, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, where he received
a wound which incapacitated him up to the opening of Grant's
Virginia campaign of 1864. He had been commissioned in
September 1862 colonel of the 6ist New York volunteers,
commanded a brigade at the Wilderness and Spottsylvania, and
in May 1864 was rewarded for his gallant leadership by the grade
of brigadier-general of volunteers. He fought in the Cold
Harbor and Petersburg operations in 1864-65, was brevetted
major-general of volunteers for his conduct at Reams Station,
and at the close of the war was in temporary command of an
army corps. In July 1866 he was made colonel of a regular
infantry regiment, and in 1867 he was brevetted brigadier-
general in the regular army for his services at Chancellorsville
and major-general for his services at Spottsylvania. He was
promoted to be brigadier-general U.S.A. (Dec. 1880), and to be
MILETUS MILFORD
443
major-general (April 1890), and in 1895 succeeded General John
McA. Schofield as commanding general of the United States
army. He was conspicuously successful (1869-1886) in dealing
with Indian outbreaks, fighting the Cheyenne, Kiowa and
Comanche on Llano Estacado (1875) and the Sioux in Montana
(1876), capturing the Nez Perces under Chief Joseph (1877), and
defeating the Chiricahua Apaches under Geronimo (1886), and
he commanded the United States troops sent to Chicago during
the railway riots in 1894. He was in nominal direction of mili-
tary operations during the war with Spain in 1898, though his
personal share of the operations was confined to directing the
almost unopposed Porto Rico expedition. He was raised to the
rank of lieutenant-general in June 1900, and retired from active
service in August 1903. In 1905-1906 he was adjutant-general
and chief -of -staff under Governor William L. Douglas in Massa-
chusetts. He wrote Personal Recollections (1896), Military
Europe (1898) and Observations Abroad (1899).
MILETUS (mod. Palatia), an ancient city of Asia Minor, on the
southern shore of the Latmic Gulf near the mouth of the Maean-
der. Before the Ionic migration it was inhabited by Carians
(Iliad ii. 876; Herod, i. 146), and pottery, found by Th. Wiegand
on the spot proves that the site was inhabited, and had relations
with the Aegean world, in the latest Minoan age. The Greek
settlers from Pylos under Neleus are said to have massacred
all the men in the old city, and built for themselves a new one on
the coast. Miletus occupied a very favourable situation at the
mouth of the rich valley of the Maeander, and was the natural
outlet for the trade of southern Phrygia (Hipponax, Fr. 45).
It had four harbours, one of considerable size, and its power
extended inland for some distance up the valley of the Maeander,
and along the coast to the south, where it founded the city of
lasus. Its enterprise extended to Egypt, where it had much to
do with the settlement of Naucratis (q.v.). Very little " Nau-
cratiti " pottery, however, was found on the site by Wiegand, and
only in the Athena temple. The Black Sea trade, however, was
the greatest source of wealth to the Ionian cities. Miletus, like
the rest, turned its attention chiefly to the north, and succeeded
in almost monopolizing the traffic. Along the Hellespont, the
Propontis and the Black Sea coasts it founded more than sixty
cities among them Abydus, Cyzicus, Sinope, Dioscurias,
Panticapaeum and Olbia. All these cities were founded before
the middle of the 7th century; and before 500 B.C. Miletus was
decidedly the greatest Greek city. During the time when the
enterprise of the seafaring population raised Miletus to such
power and wealth nothing is known of its internal history,
though the analogy of all Greek cities, and some casual state-
ments in later writers, suggest that-the usual struggles took place
between oligarchy and democracy, and that tyrants sometimes
raised themselves to supreme power. Miletus was equally
distinguished at this early time as a seat of literature. The
Ionian epic and lyric poetry indeed had its home farther north;
philosophy and history were more akin to the practical race of
Miletus, and Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Hecataeus
all belonged to this city. The poet Timotheus and the famous
Aspasia were also natives. The three Ionian cities of Caria
Miletus, Myus and Priene spoke a peculiar dialect of Ionic.
The Mermnad kings of Lydia found in Miletus their strongest
adversary. War was carried on for many years, till Alyattes
III. concluded a peace with Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus; the
Milesians afterwards seem to have acknowledged peaceably the
rule of Croesus. On the Persian conquest Miletus passed under
a new master; it headed the Ionian revolt of 500 B.C., and was
taken by storm after the battle of Lade (see IONIA). Darius
massacred most of the inhabitants, transported the rest to Ampe
at the mouth of the Tigris, and gave up the city to the Carians.
This disaster was long remembered in Greece and made the
theme of a tragedy by Phrynichus. Henceforth the history of
Miletus has no special interest. It revived indeed when the
Persians were expelled from the coast in 479 B.C., became a mem-
ber of the Delian League (q.v.), revolted to Sparta in 412, passed
into Carian hands, and opposed Alexander on his southward
march, succumbing only to a siege in form (334 B.C.). It was a
town of commercial importance throughout the Graeco-Roman
period, and received special attention from Trajan. Its har-
bours, once protected by Lade and the other Tragasaean islands,
were gradually silted up by the Maeander, and Lade is now a hill
some miles from the coast. Ephesus took its place as the great
Ionian harbour in Hellenistic and Roman times. Miletus
became the seat of a Christian bishopric and was strengthened
by a Byzantine castle (Kaarpov rSiv UaXaruav) built above the
theatre; but its decay was inevitable, and its site is now a
marsh.
Since 1899 Miletus has been the scene of extensive excavations
directed by Dr Th. Wiegand for the Berlin Academy. The ruins
he about the base of a hillock projecting north-east into a bend of
the Maeander. On the north is a well-preserved theatre of Roman
times on the site of an older Greek building. When complete it
had 54 rows of seats. It was as large as any theatre in Asia Minor,
and is still imposing, the auditorium, though deprived of its upper
ranks and colonnade, rising nearly 100 ft. Cyriac of Ancona
described the building as practically complete in his day (1446).
The front is over 150 yds. long. East of this was the ancient
north harbour, now silted up, and on the hillside above it stood a
large heroon of Hellenistic time remarkable for being, like the
tomb of Brasidas at Amphipolis, within the walls. South of the
harbour head lies the Hellenistic agora with ruins of large magazines
of Doric style. South of these again lie a nymphaeum of the age
of Titus, and a senate-house of theatral form. On the east opens a
great hall surrounded by porticoes and enclosing a high altar of
Artemis, once richly adorned with reliefs. The Roman agora lies
beyond this again. A straight street leads south-west from the
north harbour to the Didyma Gate in the wall, which runs across
the neck of the peninsula and was rebuilt by Trajan, when he under-
took to raise the level of the outer quarters of the city; and
streets cross this at right angles in the geometric Hellenistic manner.
A Sacred Way lined with tombs, led to Didymi. Two temples
have been discovered by Dr Wiegand, one, on the south-east,
being a large sanctuary of Apollo Delphinius with triple colonnade
enclosing a court with central tripod. This seems to have been
the chief temple of the city and the place where public records,
treaties, &c., were engraved. The other temple, an archaic sanctu-
ary of Athena, lies west of the stadium.
See O. Rayet and A. Thomas, Milet et le golfe Latmique (1877);
Th. Wiegand, " Vorlaufige Berichte iiber die Ausgrabungen in Milet,"
in Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy (1900, foil.); A. von
Salis, " Die Ausgrabungen in Milet und Didyma " in Neue Jakrb.
J. d. k. Alt., xxv. 2, 1910. (D. G. H.)
MILFORD, a township of New Haven county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, separated from the township of
Stratford on the W. by the Housatonic river, and about 10 m.
S.W. of New Haven. Pop. (1890), 3811; (1900), 3783, including
541 foreign-born and 173 negroes; (1910), 4366. Area, about 16
sq. m. Milford is served by the New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford railroad, and by an electric line connecting with Bridgeport
and New Haven. Within its borders are various popular
beaches, including Woodmont (incorporated as a borough in
1903), Pond Point, Bay View, Fort Trumbull Beach (where a
fortification, named Fort Trumbull, was erected in 1776),
Myrtle Beach, Meadow's End, Walnut Beach and Milford Point.
The township is traversed by the Wepowaug river, which here
empties into the Sound. Milford is a typical old New England
town, and many of the permanent inhabitants are descendants
from the first settlers. The burying-ground includes the tomb
of Robert Treat (1622-1710), commander of the Connecticut
troops in King Philip's War, leader of the company that founded
Newark, New Jersey, governor of Connecticut (from 1683 to
1698) at the time its charter was demanded by Governor Andros
in 1686-1687, and deputy-governor in 1676-1683 and 1698-
1708; and also that of Jonathan Law (1674-1751), governor of
Connecticut from 1742 to 1751. Spanning the Wepowaug
river near a gorge and not far from its mouth is a granite bridge
and tower, built, as a memorial to the first settlers, in 1889, in
connexion with the celebration of the 25oth anniversary of the
founding of the town. Milford has a beautiful green of about
four acres, containing a soldiers' monument. It has also the
Taylor Library (founded in 1894), and along the Sound are many
summer residences. Named after Milford, England, it was
founded in 1639 by Rev. Peter Prudden and his followers from
New Haven and Wethersfield. The land was purchased from
the Indians for 6 coats, 10 blankets, i kettle, 1 2 hatchets, 1 2 hoes.
MILFORD MILITARY FRONTIER
444
24 knives and 12 small mirrors. A " church-state " was imme-
diately organized after the model of that of New Haven, but two
or three years later the town bestowed suffrage on six of its inhab-
itants who were not church members. These citizens were an
obstacle to the town's admission to the New Haven Jurisdiction,
which was formed in 1643, but in the following year a compromise
was effected and Milford was admitted on condition that, in the
future, suffrage should be granted only to church members and
that none of the objectionable six should be elected to any office
of the Jurisdiction. In 1664 Milford, with the other members of
the Jurisdiction, was absorbed by Connecticut; this caused con-
siderable dissatisfaction and some of the inhabitants under the
lead of Robert Treat removed to New Jersey and assisted in
the founding of Newark. The regicides Whalley and Goffe were
concealed in Milford from 1661 to 1664.
See M. Louise Greene, " Early Milford," in the Connecticut
Magazine, vol. v. (Hartford, 1899).
MILFORD, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 16 m. S.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 8780;
(1900) 11,376, of whom 3342 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
13,055. Within its area of about 15 sq. m. are a large rural
population and the village of Milford, on the Charles river, about
33 m. S.W. of Boston, served by the Boston & Albany, the New
York, New Haven & Hartford and the Grafton & Upton railways
(the last named having its passenger department operated by
electricity and its freight by steam, and connecting Milford with
North Grafton), and by inter-urban electric lines. The village
has a memorial hall, housing the public library, and in the town-
ship there is an excellent hospital, the gift of Eben. S. Draper.
The village is a shipping point for an agricultural and manufac-
turing district. In 1905 the value of the township's factory
products was $3,390,504 (32-8% more than in 1900). The most
important manufactures are boots and shoes; the industry was
established in 1795, and for many years the special product was
brogans for Southern negroes. In 1908 there were 12 large
granite quarries in the township (north and north-east of the
village). Milford granite is the typical stone of an area reaching
into Rhode Island south of the southern boundary of Providence
county; it is a biotite granite of post-Cambrian age, is generally
pinkish-gray in colour (owing to the large proportion of feldspar
among its constituents), and is widely used for building purposes.
The township was the east precinct of Mendon until 1780, when
it was incorporated; in 1835 parts of Holliston and Hopkinton
were annexed; in 1886 a part was separated as Hopedale.
See Adin Ballou, History of Milford (Boston, 1882); and T.
Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts,
New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Washington, 1908), Bulletin
354 of the U.S. Geological Survey.
MILFORD HAVEN, a market town, seaport, urban district
and contributory parliamentary borough of Pembrokeshire,
Wales, situated on the north shore of the celebrated harbour of
the same name. Pop. (1901), 5102, including the adjacent
village of Hakin. Milford Haven is the terminus of a branch-line
of the South Wales section of the Great Western railway. The
town possesses a pier and important dock accommodation, inclu-
ding a graving-dock 600 ft. long, and is the centre of a valuable
and increasing fishing industry. The promenade of Hamilton
Terrace commands a fine view of the broad expanse of the Haven
with its various towns and forts.
The present town of Milford Haven, originally a hamlet in
the parish of Steynton, is of modern growth, and was first called
into existence by the exertions of the Hon. R. F. Greville,
nephew of Sir William Hamilton, who in 1790 laid out a town on
this spot, the advantages of which as a convenient port for the
Irish traffic he clearly recognized. In the opening years of the
i9th century a royal dockyard was established here, but in 1814
dockyard and arsenal were removed to Paterchurch near Pem-
broke. The growth of the town was further checked twenty years
later by the development of Neyland, or New Milford, further
east on the Haven, whither the Irish packet service was trans-
ferred; but towards the close of the igth century the town
recovered much of its former prosperity. The importance of the
place is wholly due to its excellent situation on the splendid
land-locked harbour, which is here 2 m. broad.
Milford Haven itself, designated by the Welsh Aberdaugleddau,
as the estuary of the united East and West Cleddy rivers, has
played an important part on several occasions in the course of
history. Throughout Plantagenet times it formed the chief
point of embarcation for Ireland. It was from Milford Haven
that Henry II. set sail for the conquest of Ireland in 1172, and to
this harbour he made his return journey. In 1399 Richard II.
landed at Milford Haven from Ireland, shortly before his
surrender to Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., in whose
reign a FrSnch fleet with 12,000 men on board sailed to the Haven
and disembarked with the object of assisting the rebellion of
Owen Glendower. In 1485 Henry, earl of Richmond, disem-
barked here on his return from France, and was welcomed on
landing by Sir Rhys ap Thomas and much of the chivalry of
Wales. In 1588 the leading persons of Pembrokeshire, with
Bishop Anthony Rudd of St David's at their head, petitioned
Queen Elizabeth to fortify the Haven against the projected
Spanish invasion, upon which the block-houses of Dale and
Nangle at either side of the mouth of the harbour were accord-
ingly erected. During the igth century numerous forts have
been constructed for the protection of the Haven and of the royal
dockyard at Pembroke Dock.
MILICZ, or MILITSCH (d. 1374), Bohemian divine, was the most
influential among those preachers and writers in Moravia and
Bohemia who, during the i4th century, in a certain sense paved
the way for the reforming activity of Huss. The date of his
birth is not known, but he was in holy orders in 1350, in 1360
was attached to the court of the emperor Charles IV., whom he
accompanied into Germany in that year, and about the same
time also held a canonry in the cathedral of Prague along with
the dignity of archdeacon. About 1363 he resigned all his
appointments that he might become a preacher pure and simple;
he addressed scholars in Latin, and (an innovation) the laity in
their native Czech, or in German, which he learnt for the purpose.
He was conspicuous for his apostolic poverty and soon roused
the enmity of the mendicant friars. The success of his labours
made itself apparent in the way in which he transformed the
notorious " Benatki " street of Prague into a benevolent institu-
tion, " Jerusalem." As he viewed the evils inside and outside
the church in the light of Scripture, the conviction grew in his
mind that the " abomination of desolation " was now seen in the
temple of God, and that antichrist had come, and in 1367 he
went to Rome (where Urban V. was expected from Avignon) to
expound these views. He affixed to the gate of St Peter's a
placard announcing his sermon, but before he could deliver it
was thrown into prison by the Inquisition. Urban, however,
on his arrival, ordered his release, whereupon he returned to
Prague, and from 1369 to 1372 preached daily in the Teyn
Church there. In the latter year the clergy of the diocese com-
plained of him in twelve articles to the papal court at Avignon,
whither he was summoned in Lent 1374, and where he died in the
same year, not long after being declared innocent and authorized
to preach before the assembly of cardinals. He was the author
of a Libellus de Anlichristo, written in prison at Rome, a series of
Poslillae and Lectiones quadragesimales in Latin, and a similar
series of Postils (devotional tracts) in Czech.
See Count Liitzow, Life and Times of Master John Hus (1909),
pp. 27-38.
MILITARY FRONTIER (Ger. Militiirgrenze, Slav. Granitza),
a narrow strip of Austrian-Hungarian territory stretching along
the borders of Turkey, which had for centuries a peculiar military
organization, and from 1849 to 1873 constituted a crown-land.
As a separate division of the monarchy it owed its existence to
the necessity of maintaining during the i6th and i7th centuries
a strong line of defence against the invasions of the Turks, and
may be said to have had its origin with the establishment of the
captaincy of Zengg (a coast town about 35 m. south-east of
Fiume) by Matthias Corvinus and the introduction of Uskoks
(q.v.) into Croatia. By the close of the i7th century there were
three frontier " generalates " Carlstadt, Warasdin and Petrinia
MILITARY LAW
445
or Petrinja (the last also called the Banal). After the defeat
of the Turkish power by Prince Eugene it was proposed to
abolish the military constitution of the frontier, but the change
was successfully resisted by the inhabitants of the district; in fact
a new Slavonian frontier district was established in 1702, and
Maria Theresa extended the organization to the march-lands of
Transylvania (the Szekler frontier in 1764, the Wallachian in
I766). 1
As a reward for the service it rendered the government in
the suppression of the Hungarian insurrection in 1848, the
Military Frontier was erected in 1849 into a crown-land, with a
total area of 15,182 sq. m. and a population of 1,220,503. In
1851 the Transylvanian portion (1177 sq. m.) was incorporated
with the rest of Transylvania; and in 1871 effect was given to the
imperial decree of 1869 by which the districts of the Warasdin
regiments (St George and the Cross) and the towns of Zengg,
Belovar, IvaniC, &c., were " provincialized " or incorporated
with the Croatian-Slavonian crown-land. In 1872 the Banat
regiments followed suit; and in 1873 the old military organiza-
tion was abolished in the rest of the frontier. Not till 1881,
however, were the Croatian-Slavonian march-lands completely
merged in the kingdoms to which they naturally belonged.
The social aspect of the military frontier regime is interesting.
The zadruga system of land tenure was artificially kept in exist-
ence (see SEE VIA). Watch-towers with wooden clappers and
the beacons which flashed the alarm along the whole frontier
in a few hours are still features in the landscape.
MILITARY LAW, " the law which governs the soldier in
peace and in war, at home and abroad. At all times and in all
places the conduct of officers and soldiers as such is regulated by
military law." The above is the definition as given in the opening
chapter of the Manual of Military Law, which is issued under
the authority of the English War Office, and which is the text-
book used by all English courts martial. The definition is,
however, somewhat too wide, as the British system does not
exclude in time of peace the action of the civil courts. In time
of peace all persons who belong to the military class in most
European continental countries are judged by military law and
by military courts. There is also in most continental countries
an intermediate stage between war and peace, known as in ital
de siege, which may be declared for a fixed period for a district,
or even a city, by reason of domestic insurrection or the presence
of an enemy. It requires legislative enactment. Thirdly comes
a state of war, when the military authorities are supreme; and
whilst they can call upon the civil power to act in concert with
them, the military authority is final. This is a brief summary of
the system of military law that prevails in most countries of the
continent. The cardinal point of difference between the British
and the continental systems lies in the fact that in the United
Kingdom the soldier is not only a soldier, but a citizen also; and
although he may be tried for civil offences by a military tribunal,
the power is not exercised in all cases. Thus treason, treason-
felony, murder, manslaughter, rape, are brought before a civil
court in times of peace, if the offence is committed in the United
Kingdom, or if it is committed anywhere else in the king's
dominions, except Gibraltar, within a hundred miles from a
place where the offender can be tried by a civil court.
Minor civil offences, when not committed within military lines, or
when the person affected by the offence is a civilian, or when it is
a case for a jury, or where intricate questions of law may arise,
may also be brought before a civil tribunal. But an offence, of
whatever nature, committed on active service would be brought
before a military tribunal.
The military law of England in early times existed, like the
1 By 1848 the following had come to be the division of the Mili-
tary Frontier: (i) The Carlstadt (Carlowalz), Warasdin and Banal
Generalate; corresponding to the original three generalates. (2)
The Slavonian Generalate; (district of Mitrovica). (3) The Banat
Generalate; south and east of Temesvar, and (4) The Transylvanian
Generalate. Twelve towns, known as " military communities,"
had communal constitutions not unlike those of the free towns of
Hungary-Carlopago, Zengg, Petrinia, Kostajnica, Belovar, Ivanic,
Brod, Peterwardein, Carlowitz, Semlin, Pancsova and Weisskirchen.
forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were
raised for a particular service, and were disbanded upon the
cessation of hostilities. The crown, of its mere ant.
prerogative, made laws known as Articles of War, L "^
for the government and discipline of the troops while
thus embodied and serving. Except for the punishment of deser-
tion, which offence was made a felony by statute in the reign of
Henry VI., these ordinances or Articles of War remained almost
the sole authority for the enforcement of discipline until i68q,
when the first Mutiny Act was passed and the military forces of
the crown were brought under the direct control of parliament.
Even the Parliamentary forces in the time of Charles I. and
Cromwell were governed, not by an act of the legislature, but by
articles of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized
by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons, exercising in that
respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making
by prerogative was, however, held to be applicable during a state
of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in time of peace
were ineffectual. Subject to this limitation it existed for con-
siderably more than a century after the passing of the first
Mutiny Act. From 1689 to 1803, although in peace time the
Mutiny Act was occasionally suffered to expire, a statutory
power was given to the crown to make Articles of War to operate
in the colonies and elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner
as those made by prerogative operated in time of war. In 1715,
in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in respect
of the forces in the kingdom. But these enactments were apart
from and in no respect affected the principle acknowledged all
this time that the crown of its mere prerogative could make
laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time
of war. The Mutiny Act of 1803 effected a great constitutional
change in this respect: the power of the crown to make any
Articles of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative
merged in the act of parliament. So matters remained till the
year 1879, when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last
Articles of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated
for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be
awarded, and the Articles of War, while repeating those provi-
sions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with
offences for which imprisonment was the maximum punishment
as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure.
The act and the articles were found not to harmonize in all
respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their
language sometimes obscure. In 1869 a royal commission
recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelli-
gible shape. In 1878 a committee of the House of Commons
endorsed this view and made certain recommendations as to the
way in which the task should be performed. In 1879 the govern-
ment submitted to parliament and passed into law a measure
consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Articles of
War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects.
This measure was called the " Army Discipline and Regulation
Act 1879." After one or two years' experience of its working
it also was found capable of improvement, and was in its turn
superseded by the Army Act 1881, which now forms the founda-
tion and the main portion of the military law of England. It
contains a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Articles
of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a
nullity; for it enacts that no crime made punishable by the act
shall be otherwise punishable by such articles. As the punish-
ment of every conceivable offence is provided for by the act,
any articles made thereunder can be no more than an empty
formality having no practical effect. Thus the history of English
military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each
having a distinct constitutional aspect: (i) that prior to 1689,
when the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers
of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly
governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) that between 1689 and
1803, when the army, being recognized as a permanent force, was
governed within the realm by statute and without it by the pre-
rogative of the crown; and (3) that from 1803 to 1879, when it
was governed either directly by statute or by the sovereign under
446
MILITARY LAW
an authority derived from and defined and limited by statute
Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in
effect altogether inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to
make rules of procedure, having the force of law, which regulati
the administration of the act in many matters formerly deal
with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must no
be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, an(
must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made
Thus in 1879 the government-and discipline of the army became
for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or
the close supervision of parliament.
A further notable change took place at the same time
The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion
for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory
that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless
with the consent of parliament, is against law. Each session
therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both
Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on
the other hand, is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional
traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section
providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual
act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a
standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parlia-
ment, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain
number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and a
body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in
exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one
year.
Military law is thus chiefly to be found in the Army Act and
the rules of procedure made thereunder, the Militia Acts, the
Reserve Forces Acts and the Volunteer Acts, together with
certain acts relating to the yeomanry, the Territorial and Reserve
Forces Act 1907, and various royal warrants and regulations.
In the Army (Annual) Act 1906 important amendments were
made to the Army Act for the purpose of preventing soldiers
convicted of offences against discipline under the act, and not
discharged with ignominy, being subjected to the stigma attach-
ing to imprisonment. This was effected by creating a new pun-
ishment, termed detention, the places in which soldiers undergo
detention being termed detention barracks. The change, while
principally one of nomenclature, removed an undoubted griev-
ance. The Army Act itself is, however, the chief authority.
Although the complaint has been sometimes made, and not
without a certain amount of reason, that it does not accomplish
much that it might in point of brevity, simplicity and clearness
of expression, it is a very comprehensive piece of legislation, and
shows some distinct improvements upon the old Mutiny Acts and
Articles of War.
When a person subject to military law commits an offence he
is taken into military custody, which means either arrest in his
own quarters or confinement. He must without unnecessary
delay be brought before his commanding officer, who upon in-
vestigating the case may dismiss the charge, if in his discretion
he thinks it ought not to be proceeded with, or may take steps to
bring the offender before a court martial. Where the offender is
not an officer he may dispose of the case summarily, the limit of
his power in this respect being seven days' imprisonment with
hard labour, a fine not exceeding zos. for drunkenness, certain
deductions from pay, confinement to barracks for twenty-eight
days, this involving severe extra drills, deprivations and other
minor punishments. Where the offence is absence without leave
for a period exceeding seven days, the commanding officer may
award a day's imprisonment in respect of each day of such absence
up to twenty-one. It is only in the case of the imprison-
ment exceeding seven days that the evidence before the com-
manding officer is taken on oath, and then' only in the event of
the accused so desiring it. The commanding officer is enjoined
by regulation not to punish summarily the more serious kind of
offences, but his legal jurisdiction in this respect is without limit
as regards any soldier brought before him, and when he has dealt
summarily with a case the accused is free from any other liability
in respect of the offence thus disposed of. In any instance where
the commanding officer has summarily awarded imprisonment,
fine or deduction from pay, the accused may claim a district
court martial instead of submitting to the award.
Ordinary courts martial are of three kinds, viz. (i) a regimental
court martial, usually convened and confirmed by the command-
ing officer of the regiment or detachment, presided over by an
officer not under the rank of captain, composed of at least three
officers of the regiment or detachment with not less than one
year's service, and having a maximum power of punishment of
forty-two days' detention; (2) a district court martial, usually
convened by a general officer having authority to do so, consis-
ting of not less than three officers, each with not less than two
years' service, and having a maximum power of punishment of
two years' imprisonment; (3) a general court martial, the only
tribunal having authority to try a commissioned officer, and with
a power of punishment extending to death or penal servitude,
for offences for which these penalties are authorized by statute;
it consists of not less than nine officers in the United Kingdom,
India, Malta and Gibraltar and of five elsewhere, each of whom
must have had over three years' service, five being not under
the rank of captain. There is another kind of tribunal, viz. a
field general court martial. It is convened (i) by any officer in
command of a detachment or portion of troops beyond the seas
when not on active service, or by any officer in immediate com-
mand of a body of forces on active service where it appears to
him on complaint or otherwise that a person subject to military
law has committed an offence. The officer must be satisfied that
it is not practicable, with due regard to the public service, to try
the person by an ordinary court martial. The quorum of the
court is three, if consistent with military exigencies, and each
member must have held a commission for not less than a year.
The quorum may be reduced when the public service requires it.
The procedure of ordinary courts martial is observed as far as
possible, and the proceedings always should be in writing when
possible. But in the circumstances in which these courts are
assembled, it is not always possible to adhere to the technical
rules which obtain in the ordinary tribunals, although the broad
principles are not violated. The evidence on a field general
court martial is taken on oath. The prisoner may cross-examine
the witnesses for the prosecution, and may call any available
witnesses for his defence. The prisoner is allowed to address the
court in his own defence.
The Army Act prescribes the maximum punishment which may
ae inflicted in respect of each offence. That of death is incurred
ay various acts of treachery or cowardice before the enemy, or by,
when on active service, interfering with or impeding authority,
leaving without orders a guard or post, or when sentry sleeping or
3eing drunk on a post, plundering or committing an offence against
the person or property of an inhabitant, intentionally causing false
alarms, or deserting. Whether upon active service or not, a soldier
also becomes liable to the punishment of death who mutinies or
ncites to or joins in or connives at a mutiny, who uses or offers
violence to or defiantly disobey^ the lawful command of his superior
officer when in the execution of his office. Penal servitude is the
maximum punishment for various acts and irregularities upon active
iervice not distinctly of a treacherous or wilfully injurious character,
or using or offering violence or insubordinate language to a superior,
or disobeying a lawful command when upon active service. The
same punishment is applicable when not upon active service to a
iecond offence of desertion or fraudulent enlistment (i.e. enlistment
>y one who already belongs to the service), certain embezzlements
of public property, wilfully releasing without authority a prisoner
or wilfully permitting a prisoner to escape, enlisting when previously
discharged from the service with disgrace without disclosing the
circumstances of such discharge, or any other offence which by the
ordinary criminal law of England is punishable with penal servitude,
mprisonment for two years is the maximum punishment for minor
orms and degrees of those offences which if committed upon active
service would involve death or penal servitude, such as using or
offering violence or insubordinate language to a superior or disobey-
ng a lawful command, and for the following offences: resisting an
escort, breaking out of barracks', neglect of orders, a first offence
n desertion or attempted desertion or aiding or conniving at deser-
ion, or of fraudulent enlistment, absence without leave, failure to
appear at parade, going beyond prescribed bounds, absence from
ichool, malingering or producing disease or infirmity, maiming with
ntent to render a soldier unfit for service, an act of a fraudujent
ature, disgraceful conduct of a cruel, indecent or unnatural kind,
runkenness, releasing a prisoner without proper authority or
MILITARY LAW
allowing him to escape, being concerned in the unreasonable deten-
tion of a person awaiting trial, escaping or attempting to escape from
lawful custody, conniving at exorbitant exactions, making away
with, losing by neglect, or wilfully injuring military clothing or
equipments, ill-treating a horse used in the service, making false
or fraudulent representations in public documents, making a wilfully
false accusation against an officer or soldier, making a false confession
of desertion or fraudulent enlistment, or a false statement in respect
of the prolongation of furlough, misconduct as a witness before a
court martial or contempt of such court, giving false evidence on
oath, any offence specified in relation to billeting or the impressment
of carriages, making a false answer to a question put upon attesta-
tion, being concerned in unlawful enlistment, using traitorous or
disloyal words regarding the sovereign, disclosing any circumstance
relating to the numbers, position, movements or other circumstances
of any part of His Majesty's forces so as to produce effects injurious
to His Majesty's service, fighting or being concerned in or conniving
at a duel, attempting suicide, obstructing the civil authorities in the
apprehension of any officer or soldier accused of an offence, any con-
duct, disorder or neglect to the prejudice of good order and military
discipline, any offence which if committed in England would be
punishable by the law of England. There is another offence which
can be committed by officers only, namely " scandalous conduct
unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman." It
necessitates cashiering, a punishment which in the case of an officer
may be awarded as an alternative to imprisonment in several other
instances. There is also an offence peculiar to officers and non-
commissioned officers, that of striking or ill-treating a soldier or
unlawfully detaining his pay. A sentence of cashiering as dis-
tinguished from that of dismissal in the case of an officer involves
an incapacity to serve the crown again. An officer may be also
sentenced to forfeiture of seniority of rank and to reprimand or
severe reprimand. A non-commissioned officer may be sentenced
to be reduced to a lower grade or to the ranks, and where sentenced
to penal servitude or imprisonment the tribunal also has power to
deprive him of his seniority. The Army Council in England, or the
commandcr-in-chief in India or in either of the presidencies, may also
cause a non-commissioned officer to be reduced to a lower grade or to
the ranks. An acting non-commissioned officer may be ordered by
his commanding officer for an offence or for inefficiency or otherwise
to revert to his permanent grade in other words, to forfeit his
acting rank.
It will have been observed that persons subject to military law
are liable to be tried by court martial for offences which if committed
in England would be punishable by the ordinary law, and to suffer
either the punishment prescribed by the ordinary criminal law or
that authorized for soldiers who commit offences to the prejudice
of good order and military discipline. The effect of the latter alter-
native is that for many minor offences for which a civilian is liable
to a short term of imprisonment, or perhaps only to a fine, a soldier
may be awarded two years' imprisonment or detention. A court
martial, however, cannot take cognizance of the crimes of treason,
murder, manslaughter, treason-felony or rape if committed in the
United Kingdom. If one of these offences be committed in any
place within His Majesty's dominions other than the United Kingdom
or Gibraltar, a court martial can deal with it only if it be committed
on active service or in a place more than loo miles from a civil
court having jurisdiction to try the offence. With regard to all
civil offences the military law, it is to be understood, is subordinate
to the ordinary law, and a civilian aggrieved by a soldier in respect
of a criminal offence against his property or person does not forfeit
his right to prosecute the soldier as if he were a civilian.
The crimes for which soldiers are most usually tried are desertion,
absence without leave, loss of necessaries, violence or insubordina-
tion to superiors, drunkenness, and various forms of conduct to the
prejudice of discipline. The punishments are, generally speaking,
gauged as much with regard to the character and antecedents of
the prisoner as to the particular offence. For a first offence of an
ordinary kind a district court martial would give as a rule fifty-six
days' imprisonment with hard labour, for a second or graver crime
eighty-four days. There are not many instances in which the
period of imprisonment exceeds six months. Corporal punishment,
which had been practically limited to offences committed upon
active service, and in 1879 to crimes punishable with death, was
finally abolished in 1881, and a summary punishment substituted.
The practice of marking a soldier with the letters " D " (deserter)
or " BC " (bad character), in order to prevent his re-enlistment, was
abolished in 1879 in deference to public opinion, which erroneously
adopted the idea that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons
or in some other manner involving torture. Many military men
regretted its abolition, and maintained that if the practice were still
in force the army would not be tainted by the presence of many bad
characters who find means of eluding the vigilance of the authorities
and enlisting after previous discharge.
The course of procedure in military trials is as follows. When a
soldier is remanded by his commanding officer for trial by a district
or general court martial, a copy of the charge, together with the
statements of the witnesses for the prosecution (called the sum-
mary of evidence), is furnished to him, and he is given proper oppor-
tunity of preparing his defence, of communicating with his witnesses
447
or legal adviser, and of procuring the attendance of his witnesses.
I- urther, if he desires it, a list of the officers appointed to form the
court shall be given him. Any officer is disqualified to sit as a
member who has convened the court, who is the prosecutor or a
witness for the prosecution, who has made the preliminary inquiry
into the facts, who is the prisoner's commanding officer, or who has
a personal interest in the case. 'The prisoner may also object to
any officer on the ground of bias or prejudice, similarly as a civilian
might challenge a juror. Except as regards the delay caused by
the writing out of the evidence, the procedure at a court martial
is very much the same as that at an ordinary criminal trial the
examination and cross-examination of the witnesses, addresses of the
prosecutor and prisoner, and the rules governing the admission or
rejection of evidence being nearly identical. At a general court
martial, and sometimes at a district court, a judge advocate repre-
senting the judge advocate general officiates, his functions being
very much those of a legal assessor to the court. He advises upon
all points of law, and sums up the evidence just as a judge charges a
jury. When the prisoner pleads guilty the court finds a verdict
accordingly, reads the summary of evidence, hears any statement
in 'mitigation of punishment, and takes evidence as to character
before proceeding to pass sentence. The sentence is that of the
majority of the court, except where death is awarded, when two-
thirds of the members in the case of a general court martial and the
whole in that of a field general court martial must concur. When an
acquittal upon all the charges takes place the verdict is announced
in open court, and the prisoner is released without any further
proceeding. When the finding is " guilty," evidence as to character
is taken, and the court deliberates in private upon the sentence, but
the result is not made known until the proceedings are confirmed and
promulgated. No conviction or sentence has any effect until it is
thus confirmed by the proper authority. The confirming authority
in the case of a regimental court is the commanding officer, in that
of a district court martial an officer authorized to convene general
courts martial or some officers deriving authority to confirm the
findings and sentences of district courts martial, and in that of a
general court, if held in the United Kingdom, His Majesty, and if
abroad in most cases the general officer commanding. The con-
firming authority may order the reassembling of the court in order
that any question or irregularity may be revised and corrected, but
not for the purpose of increasing a sentence. He may, however,
of his own discretion and without further reference to the court,
refuse confirmation to the whole or any portion of the finding or
sentence, and he may mitigate, commute or entirely remit the punish-
ment. In the case of a general court martial the proceedings are
sent to the judge advocate general, who submits to the sovereign
his opinion as to the legality of the trial and sentence. If they are
legal in all respects he sends the proceedings to the Army Council,
upon whom rests the duty of advising the sovereign regarding the
exercise of clemency. In addition to confirmation, however, every
general or district court martial held out of India has another ordeal
to go through. It is reviewed and examined in the office of the judge
advocate general, and any illegality that may be disclosed is cor-
rected and the prisoner is relieved of the consequences. To a certain
extent a protection against illegality also exists in the case of regi-
mental courts martial. A monthly return of those held in each
regiment is laid before the general commanding, by whom any ques-
tion that might appear to him doubtful would be referred to the
adjutant general or the judge advocate general for decision. It is
to be noted, however, that the judge advocate general, although
fulfilling duties which are in their nature judicial, is only an adviser.
He is not actually a judge in an executive sense, and has no authority
directly to interfere with or correct an illegal conviction. In many
cases the law thus provides no remedy for an officer or soldier who
may have been wronged by the finding or sentence of a court martial
for instance, through a verdict not justified by the evidence or
through a non-observance of the rutes and practice prescribed for
these tribunals. A person who has suffered injustice may appeal
to the king's bench division of the high court of justice. But,
speaking generally, that tribunal would not interfere with a court
martial exercising its jurisdiction within the law as regards the pri-
soner, the crime and the sentence. In most cases, therefore, the
virtual protector of an accused person against illegality is the judge
advocate general, who personally advises the sovereign and the
military authorities that the law shall be complied with (see
JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL).
The Army Act applies to European officers and soldiers serving
in India in the same manner as to the rest of the army, but natives
of India are governed by their own Articles of War, and in the case of
civil offences they are dealt with according to the provisions of the
Indian penal code. There are j'udge advocates general for each of
the presidencies, and a deputy judge advocate at each of the more
important military centres.
Important changes were made in the system of courts of
inquiry by an Army Order of the loth cf February 1902. A
court of inquiry is and has been an assembly of officers di-
rected by a commanding officer to collect evidence and report with
respect to a transaction into which he cannot conveniently
MILITARY LAW
himself make inquiry. But now, whenever any inquiry
affects the character or military reputation of an officer
or soldier, full opportunity must be given him of being
P resent at the inquiry and of g ivin g an X evidence
or making any statement, or cross-examining
adverse witnesses, or producing witnesses, on his own behalf.
Evidence may now be ordered to be taken on oath if the
assembling officer thinks the case requires it. No proceedings
of a court of inquiry, no confession, statement or answer,
is admissible in a court martial. But an officer or soldier
tried by court martial in respect of matter which has been
the subject of a court of inquiry is entitled to a copy of the
proceedings on payment of the cost of the copy. The
finding and sentence are only valid after confirmation by
the proper military authority. A sentence of death or penal
servitude can only be confirmed by the general or field officer in
command of the forces with which the prisoner is present. The
rule which allows the prisoner and his wife to tender their evi-
dence on oath under the Criminal Evidence Act 1898 as regards
evidence is applicable to field general courts martial. It is use-
ful to note that the Army Act, sec. 70, enables His Majesty to
make new provisions under the hand of a secretary of state for,
amongst other things, the assembly and the procedure of courts
of inquiry. The power to make changes by Army Order or
rule is only limited by the principle that the rules must not be
contrary to or inconsistent with the act.
In an authoritative report published by the Norwegian
government, and compiled by a trained Norwegian lawyer who
visited the various countries, the systems of twenty-
c " t ' aeatal two states are reviewed. The earliest military law
military ...... ... . . -.. . _. J .
Law. stl ll ln force is found in Norway and Denmark,
and dates from 1683, while England and Sweden
date from 1881. Sweden has a military penal code, and England
is ruled by the Army Act. There are two kinds of military
courts of first instance: (i) those belonging to separate military
bodies, such as divisions, brigades, regiments; (2) those having
jurisdiction in a certain territory, and their seat determined. In
times of war the courts must follow the military bodies. In
Bavaria and Switzerland a military jury is attached to a court
martial. In several states " auditors," i.e. judicial guides, are
attached to courts martial. In some a military jurisconsult
(lawyer) is attached as judge, always a fixed post. This obtains
in Sweden, Finland, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland and Portugal.
In Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Belgium, Great Britain,
Germany, Austria, United States, Spain, Wiirttemberg and
Switzerland the presiding officer is chosen for the single trial.
In other states the military judges are appointed for a certain
term, usually six months. The quorum of judges required
on military courts on the continent differs. Seven judges sit in
Belgium, Holland, France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Turkey and
Wurttemberg; three only, in cases of ordinary offences com-
mitted by non-commissioned officers and soldiers in Switzerland,
Russia, the United Kingdom, United States and Bavaria. In
grave cases in the United Kingdom five to nine sit, nine in Russia,
five to thirteen in the United States. In Norway and Denmark
the court is of thirteen up to twenty-five, unless replaced by a
commission and a military lawyer.
In Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Bavaria and
other places in Germany, special summary courts martial are
Summary held when necessary. Certain forms and legal
Courts guarantees are then dispensed with. Such are held
in Belgium and Holland " in a town or place in state
of siege." La Prevdte is a special court of a judge assisted by a
registrar, for vagabonds, servants, sutlers, and with a very
limited competence over soldiers who have committed a petty
offence, held in time of war in France, Rumania and Greece.
The United Kingdom has a summary court martial when the
regular court martial cannot be held without injuring the
military service. In the United States there are the "field
officers' court martial " and " military commission," consisting
of three officers. The second is for judging spies and some other
matters that escape the jurisdiction of the regular courts martial.
A special military tribunal in Germany judges the officials
attached to the army. Courts of honour exist in Russia,
Germany, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Austria-Hungary and Spain.
Great Britain and the United States have the system of a
" court of inquiry." This was only a commission of inquiry,
but it is now public, the accused is present, and the witnesses
are sworn.
Soldiers not on active service, says the Swedish report,
should be answerable for infractions of common law under the
jurisdiction of the civil courts. All infractions of
military order or discipline committed by soldiers, Competence
whether on active service or no, should be judged
military courts. In time of war, it is equally ad-
mitted, military courts must judge all offences, even offences
at common law, committed by soldiers forming part of an
army on campaign. The difference lies in regard to offences
committed in time of peace. Sweden, Great Britain, France,
Italy and the United States, as a general rule, place
offences against the common law (infractions de droit commun)
in time of peace under the jurisdiction of the civil courts.
In the United States offences against good order, in Great
Britain personal offences (such as drunkenness), are judged
by courts martial. In most other states the general rule is that
soldiers, even in time of peace, if on actual service are judged
by courts martial. In the case of complicity between a soldier
and a civilian, sometimes one is judged by a military and the
other by a civil court (in Germany, Switzerland and Spain),
sometimes both by a military court (Belgium, Italy, Servia,
Rumania and Greece); sometimes it depends on the nature of
the crime in the United Kingdom, United States, Sweden,
Finland, Holland and Portugal. In Norway a mixed tribunal
judges them.
The procedure in military courts differs according to the countries.
In some systems (a) the examination and preparation of evidence
are confided to a juge d' instruction; (6) in other systems _^ .
they are confided to a special commission of inquiry;
(c) again, in other places they are left to the court martial itself that
will judge the case. The United Kingdom and the United States
follow the last plan. There is no preparatory examination in these
two countries. A commission of inquiry for the preparation of
evidence is held in Norway, Denmark, Germany, Wurttemberg,
Austria-Hungary, Servia, Belgium and Holland. An auditor
directs these courts of inquiry. In Russia an officer acts as juge
d' instruction; in grave cases he must be a military jurisconsult.
In Italy, Spain, Rumania, Greece and Turkey an officer acts as
juge d' instruction.
The proceedings before a court martial are usually public, except
in the case of matters that offend morality, compromise public
order, or where publicity is considered injurious to the - fc/ .
interests of the service (cases of discipline, disclosing
plans, &c.). This docs not apply (except in Great Britain and the
United States) to the proceedings before the courts charged with
preliminary investigation. In several states, i.e. Norway, Denmark,
Holland, Austria, Servia, Germany and Wurttemberg, the public
prosecutor is also the counsel pf the accused. The auditor who directs
the court of inquiry fills these offices (except in cases of small
importance in Germany and Wurttemberg). In other states there
is a special office of public prosecutor. In Spain, Portugal, Rumania,
Greece and Turkey he is an officer. In Russia, Belgium, Bavaria,
Switzerland and Italy he is a military lawyer. In these countries
the accused has the right to choose a counsel, or one is assigned
him. In the United Kingdom and the United States, when the
matter is grave, the direction of the case is put in the hands of a
judge advocate. In the United States the judge advocate is the
public prosecutor.
There is no superior tribunal to which to appeal in Denmark,
Great Britain and the United States. In Denmark the cases are
sent to the auditor-general, who can annul if there is
error in form, and send back the case to be tried anew. A P eal '
In Great Britain and the United States judgment in hel ""-
ordmary cases must be confirmed by the commanding J
officer by whose order the court was called. He can
lighten the sentence. In certain cases of great gravity it must go
to the head of the state, after passing the revision of the judge
advocate general, who in Great Britain is the constitutional adviser
orthe crown as regards courts martial from the view of legality.
There is also in these two countries a special revision of judgments
in the judge advocate general's office. This revisional power is
the safeguard of military justice, as all decisions are reviewed, and
if any illegality is pointed out the proceedings are consequently
quashed. The effect of this disapproval is not merely to annul the
MILITIA
proceedings, but it also prevents the accruing of any disability or
forfeiture. The British judge advocate's office has been much
strengthened. It now consists of: (i) The judge advocate general
(one of H.M. judges) ; (2) a deputy judge advocate general, who is a
trained lawyer; (3) a deputy judge advocate, also a trained lawyer;
(4) a military officer of the rank of colonel who has been called to the
bar; (5) in South Africa (since 1899, and on a five-years' appointment
from 1902) a colonel who has been called to the bar.
In Germany there is no appeal, except for officials attached to the
army. In Austria-Hungary the sentence can be lightened by the
commanding officer. It can also be returned for trial by a superior
court if it appears to him too light. In Spain all judgments have to
be confirmed, and if confirmation is refused, it is carried before the
supreme court of the navy and army. The condemned has no power
of appeal himself, but all cases of death or life sentences go before the
supreme court of the navy and army. Russia only requires the con-
firmation of the commanding officer. In Rumania and Greece all
condemned prisoners in time of peace can demand a court of
revision, composed of a general and four superior officers. In time
of war the court may be composed of three.
Certain forms of punishment, in all countries but the United States,
can be given by the superior officer, without judicial intervention,
for small purely military offences, where a summary
^""y- procedure is required. The offender, if he prefers, may
be carried before court-martial. The punishment is
immediately carried into force, but the person punished
can complain to higher military authority. In that case, if the
complaint is not admitted, the punishment is enhanced. The com-
monest of these disciplinary punishments are deprivation of liberty,
confined to barracks, arrests and prison. Certain special punish-
ments obtain in certain countries for instance, imprisonment in
Turkey may be accompanied by a bread-and-water diet; and officers
in Finland and Russia may be deprived of advancement.
In 1908 France took steps to abolish courts-martial in time of
peace, all common law offences to be judged by the ordinary courts,
and breaches of military discipline such as rebellion, insubordination,
desertion and the like by mixed courts composed of civil and military
magistrates.
See Clode, Military Forces of the Crown; T. Gram, Fonctionnement
de la justice militaire dans les different! Etats de I' Europe. QNO. S.)
MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier,
militia, military service), a term used generally for organized
military forces which are not professional in character and not
permanently embodied. All ancient armies, with the exception
of the personal guards of their leaders, were militias or national
levies, remaining under arms for the war or the campaign and
returning to their ordinary occupations at the close of each
military episode. Militias such as those of the Greek city-states
and that of Rome were of course highly trained to the use of
arms; so were the barbarian " nations in arms "; which overcame
the professionalized Roman armies of the Empire; and although
i the Eastern Empire these new fighting elements were absorbed
into a fully organized regular arm, in the West the tribal militia
system gradually developed into feudalism. The noble and
be knight indeed spent the greater part of their lives in the field
and devoted themselves from their youth to the cult of arms,
but the feudal tenantry, who were bound to give forty days'
war service and no more, and the burghers who, somewhat later
the history of civilization, formed the efficient garrisons of
the walled towns were true militias. The English Yeomanry
adeed almost ruled the battlefield.
In the isth century the introduction of firearms began to
veigh down the balance in favour of the professional soldier.
Vrtillery was always the arm of the specialist. The develop-
nent of infantry, " fire-power," with the early arquebus and
nusket, called for the highest skill and steadiness in the individual
oldier, and cavalry too adopted the new weapon in the form
af long and expensive wheel-lock pistols. In the new military
Drganization there was no place for the unprofessional soldier.
The r61e of the unprofessional combatant, generally speaking,
vas that of an insurgent harassing small detachments of the
enemy, cutting off stragglers, and plundering convoys. Towards
be end of the first civil war in England (1645) the country-folk
Danded themselves together to impose a peace on the two
varring armies, but their menace was without effect, and they
vere easily disarmed by Fairfax and Cromwell, who did not
even trouble to hold them as prisoners. The calling out of the
mere ban of Franche-Comte in 1675 displayed its ludicrous
aefficiency, and thereafter in France, which set the fashion to
44-9
Europe in all military matters, the " provincial militia," which
Louvois and Barbezieux raised in place of the discredited
arriere ban, was employed partly to find drafts for and partly
to augment the regular army.
When a first line army was large enough to absorb the fighting
strength of the country there was neither room nor need for
a true militia force. This was the case with France under
Napoleon's regime, but things were different elsewhere. In
Great Britain the county militia (whose special history is
briefly sketched below) was permanently embodied during
the greater part of the Napoleonic Wars. Destitute as it was
of technical and administrative services, of higher staffs and
organization, and even of cavalry, this militia was a regular
army in all but name. Combining continuous service with
territorial recruiting as it did, it consisted of men of a better
stamp than the casually recruited regular forces. In those
days, the militia was a county force commanded by the lords-
lieutenant and officered by men of influence; it was not
administered by the War Office.
In other countries, Napoleon's invading armies had only to
deal with regular or professional troops. Once these were
crushed, nothing remained for the beaten side but to make
peace with the conqueror on such terms as could be obtained.
Militias existed in name as organizations, for the production
of more or less unwilling drafts for the line, but the fundamental
militia obligation of defending the fatherland as distinct from
defending the state, produced only local and occasional outbursts
of guerrilla warfare. In the Crimean War, the 1859 war in
Italy, the 1866 war in Germany, and other wars (the Hungarian
War of 1848-49 excepted) the forces, other than the regular
troops, engaged in first line were guerrilleros, insurgents,
Garibaldians, &c., and behind the forces in first line there were
draft-supplying agencies, but no true militia. Only the British
militia and the Prussian landwehr represented the self-contained
army of second line, and of these the former was never put to
the test, while the latter, responding feebly to a political call to
arms in 1850, was in consequence so entirely reorganized that it
formed a mere rear rank to the line troops. This latter system,
consecrated by the German successes of 1870, became the
universal model for the continent of Europe, and organized and
self-contained militias to-day are only to be found in states
maintaining first line armies of " general service " professionals,
or in states which maintain no first line troops whatever. In
the first class are the auxiliary forces of the British Empire and
the United States, in the second the Swiss, Norwegian, Dutch
and Swedish forces.
MILITIA OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
The title of " militia " disappeared from the list of the British
forces in 1908, on the conversion of the existing self-contained
militia into an army " special reserve " which is restricted to the
r61e of providing drafts for the first line. 1 The "self-contained"
second line army of the present day is the Territorial Force (see
UNITED KINGDOM: Army).
The county organization of England, with which throughout
the militia was closely associated, began with the advent of the
Saxons. The prototype of the militia was the Fyrd. In this force
as reorganized by Alfred liability of service was general on the part
of every able-bodied male between the ages of 16 and 60. Although
the title of " The Fyrd " survived until long after the Norman Con-
quest, the force established by King Alfred was known as the general
levy, which was bound to appear armed when ordered to aid in sup-
pressing domestic riots as well as in defending the realm against
invasion by foreign foes. Service was restricted to the counties,
except in case of invasion, when it was extended to the whole
kingdom. For centuries these remained with little alteration as
the principles governing the national forces ot the kingdom, and
form in effect with certain developments the basis of the modern
militia system. The Norman Conquest was immediately followed
by the introduction of the feudal levy in addition to the general
levy, the distinction between these forces being that while obligation
to serve in the latter rested upon every male within certain limits of
1 Various dominions and colonies of the British Empire have
militias, for which see UNITED KINGDOM: Army. For the Swiss
Militia System, which is in many respects the archetype of modern
militias, see SWITZERLAND; and for the organized militia of the
United States see UNITED STATES.
xvm. 15
450
MILITIA
age, service in the feudal levy depended upon tenure of land under
the king as feudal lord. The general levy was not m any case
liable for service overseas, but the king for a long time employed his
feudal tenants in continental wars until they, too, successfully resisted
the demand. Personal service formed the basis of both levies, but
service by deputy, or payment in lieu of personal service, and the
calling out of a quota only, were allowed from very early times.
The feudal levy was discontinued during the Commonwealth and
abolished at the Restoration; but liability to serve in the general
levy has never been extinguished, but remains in the statutory and
practical form of liability to serve both in the general and local
militia. Even at the abolition of these forces the statutory liability
to service in them was not done away with. Inspections of arms
and the assembly and training of the men raised under this national
system were secured from time to time by means of " assizes of
arms," " views of armour," " commissions of array," and " com-
missions of musters," dating from early in the I2th century down to
the l6th century. The machinery employed to carry out the law
formed the basis of the existing procedure for the enforcement of
the ballot for the militia, which thus bears a strong resemblance
to the means adopted from ancient times. These constitutional
powers were frequently abused by " electing " or impressing men to
serve out of the kingdom, but this was checked in the year 1327 by an
Act of Parliament, which strictly regulated the scope and limits of
military service within the kingdom at the charge of the parishes or
counties, but provided for service abroad at the charge of the Crown.
" Commissions of musters " were a development of preceding
measures for raising men and material for military service, under
which the commissioners registered and mustered persons liable
to serve, sorted them into bands and trained and exercised them at
the charge of the county. These bands became known as train or
trained bands, and were mustered annually. With them were asso-
ciated lieutenants of counties, first appointed in 1549 by Edward
VI., subsequently in Queen Mary's reign called lords lieutenant, and
after the Restoration appointed as statutory officers for the militia,
their commissions at the present day being issued under the Militia
Act. There does not appear to have been any clearly defined
regimental organization in existence until these bands or companies
were called into active service, but the Acts of the Commonwealth
supplied this defect, and initiated a permanent regimental system.
One of the earliest attempts to reform the force since the time of
King Alfred was made by Charles I. in 1629, when Orders in Council
were issued instructing lords lieutenant to put the militia on a better
footing and to fill up vacancies among the officers. Cromwell
subsequently issued similar orders couched in strong terms, though
under the Commonwealth the duties of lords lieutenant were not
recognized, the militia being raised by commissioners. The great
services rendered by the militia in the " crowning mercy " of Wor-
cester are a historic exception to the general decadence of second
line troops in the 1 7th and i8th centuries (see GREAT REBELLION).
At the Restoration an act was passed declaring that the control of
the militia was the prerogative of the king. By the same statute
the militia of each county was placed under the lieutenant, who was
vested with the appointment of officers, but with a reservation to
the Crown in the way of commissioning and dismissal. The cost of
the annual training for fourteen days fell upon the local authority.
Offences against discipline were dealt with by the civil magistrates,
but with a power to the officers of fining and of imprisoning in de-
fault. Upon this footing the militia of England remained for nearly
a century with the general approval of the community. It was
recognized as an instrument for defence and for the preservation of
internal order, while it was especially popular from the circumstance
that from its constitution and organization the Crown could not use
it as a means of violating the constitution or abridging the liberty
of the subject. It was controlled and regulated in the county ; it
was officered by the landowners and their relatives, its ranks were
filled by men not depending for their subsistence or advancement
upon the favour of the Crown; its numbers and maintenance were
beyond the royal control; its government was by statute. While
the supreme command was distinctly vested in the Crown, every
practical security was thus taken against its use by the Crown for
any object not constitutional or legitimate. It was regarded as,
and was, in fact, the army of the state as distinguished from the
standing army, which was very much the army of the king personally.
The latter consisted of hired soldiers, and was more than once
recruited by a conscription, confined, however, to persons of the
vagrant class not having a lawful employment, while the former was
mainly composed of those having a fixed abode and status. The
militia thus enjoyed for many years as compared with the regular
forces a social as well as a constitutional superiority. To this,
however, along with the general breakdown of militia systems under
the new " professional ' conditions of warfare, explained above,
and perhaps the practice of trying military offences by civil courts,
may be attributed the disrepute into which the militia fell and the
inefficiency it displayed, with the exception of the trained bands of
London, until it was reorganized in 1757. Under the act of 1662
all train bands were discontinued in the counties, but those of Lon-
don, with their auxiliaries, remained until 1794, when they were
reorganized as the City of London Militia. In 1688 an act was
passed raising the militia for one year, and for some time it was an
annually sanctioned force as the regular army is to-day. In 1690,
on the occasion of the threatened French invasion, the militia was
embodied; and again in 1715 and 1745 during the troubles caused
by the Old and Young Pretenders. In a pamphlet of 1712 the Eng-
lish militia was estimated at 7450 horse and 84,391 foot soldiers.
From 1715 until 1734, and again from that year until 1757, with
the exception of 1745, no votes were taken in parliament for the
militia.
The foregoing remarks apply only to the English militia and its
predecessors. Ireland and Scotland did not furnish any regular
militia until 1715 and 1797 respectively, although in Scotland
militia existed long before 1797, e.g. in Perthshire in 1684; and in
addition corps of fencibles were raised and embodied. The Irish
militia when first raised in 1715 was restricted to Protestants between
the ages of 16 and 60, who were bound to appear or provide substi-
tutes. The force was not made subject to military law, but various
military offences were punishable by fine or imprisonment. Several
amendments and other acts followed until 1793, when a new act
was passed providing for raising a force of militia by ballot among
men between the ages of 18 and 45, to serve for four years. Each
county was liable to a fine of 5 for each man deficient, and enlist-
ment in the army was prohibited. Other amendments followed
from time to time, and notably one in 1797 abolishing religious
restrictions for the supplementary militia, and another in 1802
removing the same restrictions in the case of the general militia.
Finally, all the acts were consolidated in 1809 by an act which
fixed establishments, provided for raising the men by ballot, but
gave power to the lord-lieutenant to authorize voluntary enlist-
ment by means of bounties, and also to suspend the raising of any
regiment. The Scottish militia was at first raised by ballot among
men between the ages of 19 and 30. In 1802 former acts were re-
placed by an Act providing for the organization of the militia on a
basis similar to that on which the militia of England was organized
by the Consolidation Act passed in that year.
To return to England, the immediate cause of the organic reform
carried out in 1757 was the disclosure of the inefficiency of the
militia during the Rebellion of 1745. The act of 1662 followed the
old law by requiring owners of property to furnish men, horses and
arms in proportion to the value of their property, and the liability
of persons of small property was to be discharged out of a rate levied
in the parish. This was entirely altered in 1757, a liability on the
part of the county or parish being substituted for a liability on the
part of individuals. Each county was required to furnish a quota
apportioned among the various parishes; men were to be chosen by
lot to serve for three years (this being the first provision of a fixed
term of service) or to provide, or pay 10 for the provision of, a
substitute, and vacancies were to be filled from time to time by a
like process of ballot. The ages of liability were from 18 to 45.
The system thus legalized is practically the existing though sus-
pended ballot system. The force was to be annually trained and exer-
cised for a limited period, and in case of invasion or danger thereof,
or in case of rebellion, the Crown could order it or any portion of
it to be embodied; but only on condition of informing parliament
(which was if not sitting to be summoned for the purpose). During
the embodiment or annual training it was subject to the Mutiny
Act, except that no punishment during training was to extend to
" life or limb " ; to prevent an unconstitutional use of the militia
by the Crown, the estimate for its training was framed each year,
not by an executive minister of the sovereign, but by the House of
Commons itself. Upon the initiative of a committee of the house,
an act was passed providing for the pay'and clothing of the militia
for the year. The king directly appointed the permanent staff
and was given a veto on the appointment and promotion of the offi-
cers, who were to have a property qualification.
Under this act 30,000 militiamen were raised by ballot and em-
bodied from 1759 to 1763. This force was exclusively " Protestant,"
and remained so until 1802. The service of the militia as thus
arranged remained nearly in the same state until 1870. Pitt's
reform, however, was followed by numerous amendments, new
enactments, and other changes, of which the following is a summary
in chronological order:
1758. Men volunteering to serve recognized as counting towards 1
quota.
1761. Raising of quota made compulsory on counties under penalt
of fines.
Mutiny Act applied to militia when out for training as well as
when embodied.
'775- (American War.) Act passed empowering embodiment of
militia in case of colonial as well as domestic rebellion.
1786. Charge on parishes for storage of arms, &c., transferred to
counties.
1795. Enlistment into regulars encouraged.
1796. Supplementary militia formed, consisting of 63,878 men.
1798. (Irish Rebellion.) English militia volunteered for service in
Ireland.
1799. Irish militia volunteered to serve in Great Britain.
15,000 militiamen volunteered to regular army.
1803. 45,492 men raised for militia by ballot, but of these 40,99*
were substitutes.
1805. Militia affiliated to line for purposes of recruiting for regulars.
MILK
1806. Training Act to raise by ballot 200,000 men to be trained
for one whole year, and then to discharge them from train-
ing for two years.
1808. Difficulties having arisen under above Act, local militia
(which is in effect the old general levy) established in addi-
tion to general militia then embodied.
27,000 militiamen volunteered to regular army during pre-
ceding twelve months.
1811. English militia, hitherto not liable to serve out of the king-
dom, now made liable to serve in any part of the United
Kingdom under certain restrictions, which were subse-
quently (in 1859) removed.
Method of obtaining men from militia for regulars further
systematized.
1812. In this year there were 250 regiments of local militia, with
an establishment of 240,388 men and 214,418 actually
enrolled.
1813. During ten years, from 1803 to 1813, nearly 100,000 militia-
men joined the regular army.
Act passed to enable militia to serve abroad as militia with
their own officers. Three strong battalions joined the
British army in France.
1815. Militiamen recruited in great numbers the army which fought
at Waterloo.
Local militia ceased to be raised.
1816. Local militia and Ballot Act suspended.
General militia disembodied.
1820-21-25. Militia called out for training.
1829. Act passed suspending ballot for the general militia.
1831. Militiamen raised by ballot in accordance with Order in
Council, 27th of December 1830. This was the last occa-
sion on which the ballot was put in force.
In the latter stages of the great French war the tendency of the
government was to use the general militia rather as a reservoir
producing drafts (in the end whole units) for service abroad, and the
local militia as the real defensive force. During the height of the
war (in 1812) the relative position of the various branches of the army
was as follows: First line, the standing army; second line, the
general or regular militia, which as the war went on were more and
more used abroad; third line, the local militia, with the survivors
of the volunteers, who at that time numbered about 68,000 men.
After the peace of 1815 the militia was allowed practically to fall
into abeyance, and although the permanent staff was maintained,
it had no duties to perform. In 1848 the Prime Minister intimated
in parliament his intention to re-establish the militia, but it was not
until 1852, after an unsuccessful attempt to resuscitate the local
militia, that the general militia of England was reorganized under a
system of voluntary enlistment with the ballot in reserve, Scotland
and Ireland being included in 1854. The property qualification
of officers which had hitherto existed (with exception in favour of
ex-officers of the army and navy) was reduced, and after a further
reduction in 1854, abolished in 1869. Larger powers respecting
the militia were conferred upon the Crown, and during the Crimean
War the queen was authorized to embody the militia whenever a
state of war existed with any foreign power. In that war the militia
was embodied and did garrison duty not only in the United Kingdom
but in the Mediterranean garrisons, thus enabling the authorities
to send most of the available regular troops to the scene of hostilities.
It further contributed many officers and some 30,000 men to the line.
During the Indian Mutiny it filled scarcely less useful functions when
again called out. The acceptance of voluntary offers of service in
the Channel Islands and Isle of Man was definitely authorized in
1859, and extended to service in Malta, and Gibraltar in 1875.
In 1871 an important constitutional change was made. It was
part of the new army system inaugurated in that year that the con-
trol of the militia should be removed from the lord-lieutenant of the
county and vested wholly in the Crown. It now virtually ceased to
exist as a distinct body, and in 1881 it became a part of the regular
forces with a limitation as to the time and area and other conditions
of service. Militia battalions were united with the line battalions
to form territorial regiments, the artillery and engineers being also
closely associated with the regular services. Various amendments
and new enactments followed, all in the direction of increasing the
usefulness of the militia, rendering it more efficient and readier for
service, though at the same time making it more and more a means
for supplying recruits, both officers and men, to the regular army.
The officers, who were commissioned by the Crown, were in 1877
iade subject at all times to military law. Non-commissioned
cers and men were only so subject when embodied or out for
ining, with extension in the case of men convicted of offences
committed during training until the expiration of the punishment. 1
Enlistment was voluntary, compulsory service by ballot remained
451
-
izini
1 This, though here mentioned as part of a process of " regular-
:mg " the militia, was in fact a reform that was advisable under any
conditions. The new Territorial Force when created out of the
Volunteer Force (which had no such liabilities except when training
or serving with regulars) was made subject to military law, officers
at all times, men whenever under instruction.
legal, but suspended. The period of engagement was for six years,
re-engagements for periods of four years up to the age of 45
being permitted. Bounties were paid to militiamen at various
rates upon enlistment, conclusion of training, re-engagement, enlist-
ment into reserve or special service section, Land other special
circumstances. Recruit training, maximum six months, as a rule
did not exceed three months. Recruits were either drilled immedi-
ately upon enlistment at any time of the year, which is now the most
usual system, or else at preliminary drills (first instituted in 1860),
immediately preceding the annual training of the corps. The annual
training varied with the different branches of the service. The usual
term for infantry was 27 days, but when on manoeuvres this was
generally extended to 34 days, 56 days being the legal maximum.
Artillery and fortress engineers trained for 41 days and submarine
mining engineers for 55 days. Trainings took place for the most
part in camp or barracks, and large numbers of militia battalions
were latterly called on to take part in field manoeuvres. The militia
dep6ts occupied as a rule the same barracks, and officers and men
wore (with slight distinctions) the same uniform as the regulars.
The militia occupied an important position in the mobilization
scheme for national defence. The permanent staff (adjutant,
quartermaster, and an establishment of non-commissioned officers
and buglers or drummers, all regulars) was engaged during the
non-training period of the year in recruiting, care of arms, clothing
&c., and in drilling recruits. The general lines of the system, as
regards training are still followed with the Special Reserve, though
the constitution of the new force is very different.
The militia ordinarily was liable only for service in the United
Kingdom, but by legislation in 1899 may voluntarily serve in any
part of the world, including India. During 1899-1900, 22,000
militiamen were thus accepted for service abroad, the bulk of them
proceeding to the seat of war in South Africa.
The militia reserve consisted of men selected from the ranks of the
militia for special enlistment for service in the regular army when
called upon in emergencies, in the following proportions to the
establishments of the various corps: Artillery., one-third; engineers
and infantry, one-fourth ; medical staff corps, one-half. The militia
reserve was first formed in 1867, and in 1900 numbered 30,000 men.
During an emergency in 1878, 20,000 militia reservists joined the
regular army. The term " militia " reserve was therefore a complete
misnomer, and the force so called was purely an army reserve.
The special service section of the militia was formed by royal warrant
in 1898, and consisted of (i) militia units and (2) individual militia-
men. A militia unit was considered as available for special service
if not less than 75 % of the officers and men present at training made
a voluntary offer to engage for special service in any part of the world,
and if in the infantry at least 500 and in the artillery at least 250
men were accepted as qualified. Individual militiamen engage
to serve either with their militia unit if it were registered for service,
or else for special service with the regular forces. Liability for
service was limited to twelve months. Men of the special service
section could also belong to the militia reserve, and receive a bounty
in addition to that given for the reserve. The result of this special
section was not up to 1900 satisfactory. Very few units could
qualify for registration, and the response of individual men was
comparatively insignificant.
During and after the South African War, while militia recruiting
for the regulars showed a constant increase compared with preceding
years, the strength of the militia itself decreased year after year.
Its militia character had been diminishing ever since the creation of
the " militia reserve " and the close affiliation of the force to the
regular army. For good or evil, then, it had become in the first
place a draft-producing agency, and on the reorganization of the
forces of the Crown into two lines by Mr Haldane the old " con-
stitutional force " was frankly reorganized as a reserve for the line,
enlistment and training conditions remaining somewhat similar to
those in vogue in the militia, but the liability for service abroad
becoming the first and most important condition in the " special
reservist s " enlistment.
MILK (O. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root,
cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. AjueXYetc), the fluid secreted by the
mammary glands of the division of vertebrate animals called
Mammalia (see MAMMARY GLAND), and primarily devised for
the nourishment of their own young.
The milk of various domesticated animals is more or less used
by man for food. The milk of the cow, which may be taken
as typical of all others, and is indeed by far the most important
and valuable of all (see DAIRY AND DAIRY FARMING), is, when
newly drawn, an opaque white fluid, with a yellowish tinge, soft,
bland and sweetish to the taste, and possessed of a faintly
animal odour. This odour, according to Schreiner, is due to
the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and disappears after a
short exposure. The specific gravity of milk ordinarily ranges
from 1-029 to 1-033, verv seldom reaching 1-035 or falling so
low as 1-027. ! In chemical constitution it consists of an emulsion
452
MILKWORT
of fatty globules (cream) in a watery alkaline solution of casein,
and a variety of sugar, peculiar to milk, called lactose. The
fat (which when separated we know as butter) and the lactose
constitute the carbonaceous portion of the milk regarded as
food. The casein, which forms the principal constituent of
cheese, and a certain proportion of albumen which is present,
form the nitrogenous, while the complex saline substances and
water are the mineral constituents. These various substances
are present in the proportions which render milk a perfect and
typical food suitable to the wants of the young of the various
animals for whom it is provided by nature. The milk of
animals, so far as is known, contains them, although they are
present in somewhat different proportions. It is probable that
the milk of ruminants possesses certain physical and physio-
logical distinctions from that of non-ruminant animals, which
will account for the virtues attributed to the milk of the ass and
mare. The following table exhibits the chemical constitution
of the kinds of milk most frequently used by man:
Cow.
Goat.
Ewe. 1
Mare.
Ass.
Human.
h .
I
Ji
j*
B
O
b
'M **
_s
.5 >>
1
a
1
1
B
Ml
s
B
O
U
>
>
U
U
Water. .
86-87
87-00
84-48
83-70
90-310
91-65
88-02
Fat . . .
3-50
4-00
6-u
4-45
1-055
O-II
2-90
Casein and
albumin .
[475
4-10
3-94
5-16
1-953
1-82
i -60
Sugar .
4-00
4-28
4-68
5-73
6-285
6-08
7-3
Ash. . .
0-70
0-62
0-79
0-96
0-369
o-34
0-31
In addition to these constituents milk contains small propor-
tions of the gases carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen
and oxygen, and minute quantities of other principles, the
constant presence and essential conditions of which have not
been determined. These consist of galactin and lactochrome,
substances peculiar to milk, discovered by Winter Blyth, with
certain animal principles such as leucin, pepton, kreatin,
tyrosin, &c. The salts in milk consist, according to the average
of numerous analyses by Fleischmann, of the following
constituents:
Potash I7-34
Magnesia .... 4-07
Ferric oxide . . . 0-62
Phosphoric acid
Chlorine
Lime
Soda
28-31
16-34
27-00
10-00
Milk thus is not to be regarded as a definite chemical compound
nor even as a mixture of bodies in fixed and invariable propor-
tions. Not only does the milk of different races and breeds of
cows vary within comparatively wide limits; the milk of the
same animal is subject to extensive fluctuation. The principal
causes of variation in the individual are age, period of lactation,
nature and amount of food, state of health, and treatment, such as
frequency of milking, &c. The following table indicates the
range of normal variations:
Water 90-00 to 83-65
Fat . . .-' 2-80 4-50
Casein and albumin 3-30 5-55
Sugar 3-00 ,, 5-50
Ash 0-70 0-80
The average quantity of milk yielded by cows is also highly
variable, both in individuals and breeds.
Milk and Disease. Although the milk of a perfectly healthy cow
may be absolutely sterile, it is difficult to obtain it in that condition.
In the report of the joint committee appointed for the purpose by
the county boroughs of Bradford, Hull, Leeds, Rotherham and
Sheffield in 1908, the following conclusions were drawn: (l) Cows'
milk freshly drawn from the udder by ordinary methods contains
bacteria. They are more numerous in the first flow of the milk.
(2) There is a great increase in contamination in the milk at each
stage before it reaches the customer. This is due to (a) the dirty
condition of the' cows' udders, (V) the imperfect cleansing of the cans
and of the hands of the milkers. The committee recommend:
1 Ewe's milk is exceedingly variable, especially in its percentage of
fat. The above analysis is one of nine by Dr Arthur Voelcker, in
which the fat was found to range from about 2 to I2|%.
" (i) The washing of the udder and flanks with soap and water, and
similar attention to the hands of the milker. (2) Efficient steriliza-
tion of all vessels by steam if possible, or by abundance of boiling
water. (3) Rejection of the first draw of the milk from each teat.
(4) Avoidance of any work raising dust immediately before or during
milking. (5) Removal of the milk of each cow immediately from
the shed. (6) Ventilation and cleanliness of the cowsheds. This
provides for the reduction as far as possible of contamination during
the milking process itself. As any bacteria present in the milk
tend to multiply rapidly on the way to the consumer, it is mainly a
question of the time which elapses before consumption. It is, there-
fore, further recommended (a) that the milk be rapidly cooled or
chilled, as the lower the temperature the less dp the bacteria multiply,
(i) that contamination during railway transit be avoided by dust-
proof locked milk cans.
By treating milk at a temperature of 60 C. for one hour, 70 C.
for ten minutes, and 95 C. for one minute, tubercle bacilli, if present,
will certainly be killed. Cholera and typhoid organisms are less
resistant, and are killed more quickly than tubercle bacilli at the
above temperatures. Only a single pathogenic species can with-
stand the short boiling to which milk is ordinarily treated in domestic
management, and this is the anthrax bacillus containing spores.
The danger from this source is remote, as the microbe does not form
spores within the animal body. Even in the worst cases, therefore,
only vegetable forms, easily destroyed by boiling, can find their way
into the milk from the body of the cow.
The lactic acid bacillus, always present in unboiled milk (to which
the souring of milk is due), is easily destroyed by heat; but the
bacillus mesentericus, often found in it, forms spores, which are
not destroyed by ordinary boiling, and germinate when the
milk is kept at a moderately warm temperature, producing a brisk
fermentation whereby a large volume of gas is liberated. The
fundamental idea of Soxhlet's method for sterilizing milk is to boil
it for forty minutes in small bottles holding just enough for one meal,
and closing the same with an impervious stopper, which is only re-
moved just before use. Milk so treated will keep at the ordinary room
temperature, as the spores of the B. mesentericus do not develop
below 15 C.; but if it be introduced into the alimentary canal of a
child the spores will rapidly multiply, and in such cases large quanti-
ties of gas, giving rise to flatulency, will be formed, and possibly
also poisonous decomposition products of albuminoid matter. To
render milk sterile in the strict sense of the word it is necessary to
raise it to a temperature of about 120 C. for twenty minutes. Under
these conditions the lactose decomposes into dark-brown fission
products, the fat loses its emulsified condition and separates out as
cream which cannot be made to diffuse again even by shaking, and
the albuminoids are converted into a form very difficult of digestion.
In short, there is the greatest difficulty in freeing milk on a large
scale from germs without at the same time seriously prejudicing its.
flavour and nutritive value. Since, then, the destruction of the
hardy germs is so difficult, the greater care should be taken, by wash-
ing the udder, hands and milk vessels, to secure extreme cleanliness in
the preparation of milk intended for infant consumption. Steriliza-
tion then becomes an easier task, the milk drawn under these con-
ditions being very poor in spore-forming bacteria. It is imperative
that cream destined for butter-making should be free from patho-
genic organisms. The organisms of cholera, typhoid fever and
tuberculosis present in butter retain their vitality for a long time.
As butter is consumed in the raw state, a trustworthy preliminary
treatment of the cream is in the highest degree desirable. Schuppan
has shown that it is possible to produce good butter from Pasteurized
or even sterilized cream, and Weigmann introduced the plan of arti-
ficially souring cream by means of pure cultures of B. acidi lactici.
Since Metchnikoff's introduction (see LONGEVITY) of the use of
soured milk for dietetic purposes the lactic acid bacillus destroying
pathogenic bacteria in the intestine a great impetus has been given
to the multiplication of laboratory preparations containing cultures
of the bacillus; and in recent years much benefit to health has,
in certain cases, been derived from the discovery.
See also the articles ADULTERATION ; DAIRY AND DAIRY FARMING ;
INFANCY; DIETETICS; FOOD and FOOD PRESERVATION; in the last
of which the preparation of condensed milk is described.
MILKWORT, in botany, the common name for plants of the
genus Poly gala (natural order Polygalaceae), a large genus widely
dispersed in temperate and tropical regions and represented by
a few species in Britain. The common species, P. vulgaris, is
a small wiry perennial found on heaths and in meadows through-
out the British Isles. The stems are 2 to 10 in. long and bear
narrow rather tough leaves and small, ^ to 5 in. long, white,
pink, blue, lilac or purple flowers. The flowers (see fig.) are
peculiar in form and arrangement of parts; they have five free
sepals the two inner of which (6) are large petaloid and winglike,
forming the most conspicuous part of the flower; the petals are
united below with the sheath of the eight stamens forming a
tube split at the base behind; their form recalls that of the pea
family. The name Polygala is from the Greek iroXiis, much,
MILL, JAMES
and 7<iXa, milk, the plant being supposed to increase the yield
of milk in cows. Some species with showy flowers are known
in cultivation as greenhouse, or hardy annual or perennial, herbs
or shrubs. The root of P. Senega, snake-root, a North American
species is officinal. Sea milkwort is the common name for
Glaux maritima, a small succulent herb found on seashores and
in estuaries in the British Isles; it belongs to the primrose order
(Primulaceae) .
After Berg & Schmidt, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.
Polygala Senega.
A, Flower; a, small sepals; b, large sepals; c, keel, representing
the anterior petal ; d, its fimbriated edge ; e, lateral petals.
B, The 8 stamens united into a sheath below; h, anthers
(magnified).
MILL, JAMES (17.73-1836), historian and philosopher, was
born on the 6th of April 1773, at Northwater Bridge, in the
parish of Logic-Pert, Forfarshire, the son of James Mill, a shoe-
maker. His mother, Isabel Fenton, of a good family which had
suffered from connexion with the Stuart rising of 1745, resolved
that he should receive a first-rate education, and sent him first
to the parish school and then to the Montrose Academy, where
he remained till the unusual age of seventeen and a half. He
then entered the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished
himself as a Greek scholar. In October 1798 he was licensed
as a preacher, but met with little success. From 1790 to 1802,
in addition to holding various tutorships, he occupied himself
with historical and philosophical studies. Finding little prospect
of a career in Scotland, in 1802 he went to London in company
with Sir John Stuart, then member of parliament for Kin-
cardineshire, and devoted himself to literary work. From 1803
to 1806 he was editor of an ambitious periodical called the
Literary Journal, which professed to give a summary view of
all the leading departments of human knowledge. During this
time he also edited the St James's Chronicle, belonging to the
same proprietor. In 1804 he wrote a pamphlet on the corn
trade, arguing against a bounty on the exportation of grain.
In 1805 he published a translation (with notes and quotations) of
C. F. Villers's work on the Reformation, an unsparing exposure
of the alleged vices of the papal system. In 1805 he married
Harriet Burrow, whose mother, a widow, kept an establishment
for lunatics in Hoxton. He then took a house in Pentonville,
where his eldest son, John Stuart Mill (q.v.), was born in 1806.
About the end of this year he began his History of India, which
he took twelve years to complete, instead of three or four, as
he had expected.
In 1808 he became acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, and
was for many years his chief companion and ally. He adopted
Bentham's principles in their entirety, and determined to devote
all his energies to bringing them before the world. Between
1806 and 1818 he wrote for the Anti- Jacobin Review, the British
Review and the Electric Review; but there is no means of
tracing his contributions. In 1808 he began to write for the
Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed steadily till 1813,
his first known article being " Money and Exchange." He
also wrote on Spanish America, China, General Miranda, the
East India Company, and the Liberty of the Press. In the
Annual Review for 1808 two articles of his are traced a " Review
of Fox's History," and an article on " Bentham's Law Reforms,"
probably his first published notice of Bentham. In 1811 he
co-operated with William Allen (1770-1843), quaker and chemist,
in a periodical called the Philanthropist. He contributed
largely to every number his principal topics being Education,
453
Freedom of the Press, and Prison Discipline (under which he
expounded Bentham's "Panopticon"). He made powerful
onslaughts on the Church in connexion with the Bell and Lan-
caster controversy, and took a prominent part in the discussions
which led to the foundation of London University in 1825. In
1814 he wrote a number of articles, containing an exposition of
utilitarianism, for the supplement to the fifth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, the most important being those en
" Jurisprudence," " Prisons " and " Government."
In 1818 the History of India was published, and obtained a
great and immediate success. It brought about a change in the
author's position. The year following he was appointed an
official in the India House, in the important department of
the examiner of Indian correspondence. He gradually rose
in rank till .he was appointed, in 1830, head of the office,
with a salary of 190x3, raised in 1836 to 2000. His great
work, the Elements of Political Economy, appeared in 1821
(3rd and revised ed. 1826).
From 1824 to 1826 Mill contributed to the Westminster Review,
started as the organ of his party, a number of articles in which
he attacked the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews and ecclesi-
astical establishments. In 1829 appeared the Analysis of the
Human Mind. From 1831 to 1833 Mill was largely occupied in
the defence of the East India Company, during the controversy
attending the renewal of its charter, he being in virtue of his
office the spokesman of the court of directors. For the London
Review, founded by Sir William Molesworth in 1834, he wrote
a notable article entitled " The Church and its Reform," which
was much too sceptical for the time, and injured the Review.
His last published book was the Fragment on Mackintosh (1835).
He died on the 23rd of June 1836.
Mill had a thorough acquaintance with Greek and Latin
literature, general history, political, mental and moral philosophy.
His intellect was logical in the highest degree; he was clear and
precise, an enemy of loose reasoning, and quick to refute pre-
vailing fallacies. All his work is marked by original constructive
thought, except in a few subjects, in which he confessedly
expounded Bentham's views. At a time when social subjects
were as a rule treated empirically, he brought first principles to
bear at every point. His greatest literary monument is the
History of India. The materials for narrating the acquisition by
England of its Indian Empire were put into shape for the first
time; a vast body of political theory was brought to bear on the
delineation of the Hindu civilization; and the conduct of the
actors in the successive stages of the conquest and administra-
tion of India was subjected to a severe criticism. The work
itself, and the author's official connexion with India for the last
seventeen years of his life, effected a complete change in the
whole system of governing that country.
Mill played a great part also in English politics, and was,
more than any other man, the founder of what was called
" philosophic radicalism." His writings on government and his
personal influence among the Liberal politicians of his time
determined the change of view from the French Revolution
theories of the rights of man and the absolute equality of men
to the claiming of securities for good government through a
wide extension of the franchise. Under this banner it was that
the Reform Bill was fought and won. His Elements of Political
Economy, which was intended only as a textbook of the subject,
shows all the author's precision and lucidity. As Dr J. K.
Ingram said, it has the "character of a work of art." It
followed up the views of Ricardo, with whom Mill was always
on terms of intimacy. Its interest is mainly historical, as an
accurate summary of views which are now largely discarded.
Among the more important of its theses are: (i) that the chief
problem of practical reformers is to limit the increase of popu-
lation, on the assumption that capital does not naturally
increase at the same rate as population (ii. 2, art. 3); (2) that
the value of a thing depends entirely on the quantity of labour
put into it; and (3) that what is now known as the " unearned
increment " of land is a proper object for taxation. The work
as a whole is a striking example of the weakness of treating
MILL, JOHN MILL, JOHN STUART
454
economic problems from a purely a priori standpoint by the
deductive method.
By his Analysis of the Mind and his Fragment on Mackintosh
Mill acquired a position in the history of psychology and ethics.
He took up the problems of mind very much after the fashion
of the Scottish school, as then represented by Reid, Stewart and
Brown, but made a new start, due in part to Hartley, and still
more to his own independent thinking. He carried out the
principle of association into the analysis of the complex emotional
states, as the affections, the aesthetic emotions and the moral
sentiment, all which he endeavoured to resolve into pleasurable
and painful sensations. But the salient merit of the Analysis
is the constant endeavour after precise definition of terms and
clear statement of doctrines. The Fragment on Mackintosh is
a severe exposure of the flimsiness and misrepresentations of
.Sir James Mackintosh's famous Dissertation on the Progress of
Ethical Philosophy (1830), and discusses the foundations of
ethics from the author's utilitarian point of view.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians, vol.
ii. (1900), and article in Diet. Nat. Biog.; A. Bain, James Mill
(1882); G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mitt (1881); James
McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (1885); J. S. Mill, Autobiography
(1873) ; Th. Ribot, La Psychologie anglaise (1870; Eng. trans., 1873) ;
J. Morley in Fortnightly Review, xxxvii. (1882); Graham Wallas,
The Life of Francis Place (1898).
MILL, JOHN (c. 1645-1707), English theologian, was born
about 1645 at Snap in Westmorland, entered Queen's College,
Oxford, as a servitor in 1661, and took his master's degree in
1669 in which year he spoke the " Oratio Panegyrica " at the
opening of the Sheldonian Theatre. Soon afterwards he was
chosen fellow and tutor of his college; in 1676 he became chaplain
to the bishop of Oxford, and in 1681 he obtained the rectory of
Bletchington, Oxfordshire, and was made chaplain to Charles II.
From 1685 till his death he was principal of St Edmund's Hall;
and in 1704 he was nominated by Queen Anne to a prebendal
stall in Canterbury. He died on the 23rd of June 1707, just a
fortnight after the publication of his Greek Testament.
Mill's Novum testamentum grascum, cum lectionibus variantibus
MSS. exemplarium, versionum, editionum SS. patrum et scrip-
torum ecclesiasticorum, et in easdem notis (Oxford, fol. 1707), was
undertaken by the advice and encouragement of John Fell (q.v.),
his predecessor in the field of New Testament criticism ; it represents
the labour of thirty years, and is admitted to mark a great advance
on all that had previously been achieved. The text indeed is that
of R. Stephanus (1550), but the notes, besides embodying all pre-
viously existing collections of various readings, add a vast number
derived from his own examination of many new MSS, and Oriental
versions (the latter unfortunately he used only in the Latin transla-
tions). Though the amount of information given by Mill is small
compared with that in modern editions, it is probable that no one
person, except perhaps Tischendorf, has added so much material
lor the work of textual criticism. He was the first to notice, though
only incidentally, the value of the concurrence of the Latin evidence
with the Codex Alexandrinus, the only representative of an ancient
non- Western Greek text then sufficiently known; this hint was not
ilost on Bentley (see Westcott and Hort, Introduction to New Testa-
ment). Mill's various readings, numbering about thirty thousand,
were attacked by Daniel Whitby (1638-1726) in his Examen as
destroying the validity of the text; Antony Collins also argued in
the same sense though with a different object. The latter called
forth a reply from Bentley (Phileleutherus lipsiensis). In 1710
Kuster reprinted Mill's Testament at Amsterdam with the readings
of twelve additional MSS.
MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873), English philosopher and
economist, son of James Mill, was born on the 2oth of May 1806
in his father's house in Pentonville, London. He was educated
exclusively by his father, who was a strict disciplinarian, and
at the age of three was taught the Greek alphabet and long lists
of Greek words with their English equivalents. By his eighth
year he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Anabasis, and the
whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes
Laertius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato (see his Auto-
biography}. He had also read a great deal of history in English
Robertson's histories, Hume, Gibbon, Robert Watson's Philip II.
and Philip III., Hooke's Roman History, part of a translation
of Rollin's Ancient History, Langhorne's Plutarch, Burnet's
History of My Own Times, thirty volumes of the Annual Register,
Millar's Historical View of -the English Government, Mosheim's
Ecclesiastical History, M'Crie's Knox, and two histories of the
Quakers. A contemporary record of Mill's studies from eight to
thirteen is published in Bain's sketch of his life. It shows that
the Autobiography rather understates the amount of work done.
At the age of eight he began Latin, Euclid, and algebra, and
was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the
family. His main reading was 'still history, but he went through
all the Latin and Greek authors commonly read in the schools
and universities, besides several that are not commonly read by
undergraduates. He was not taught to compose either in Latin
or in Greek, and he was never an exact scholar; it was for the
subject matter that he was required to read, and by the age of
ten he could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father's
History of India was published in 1818; immediately thereafter,
about the age of twelve, John began a thorough study of the
scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical
treatises in the original. In the following year he was introduced
to political economy and studied Adam Smith and Ricardo with
his father.
Not unnaturally the training which the younger Mill received
has aroused amazement and criticism; and it is reasonable to
doubt whether the material knowledge which he retained in
the result was as valuable to him as his father imagined. It is
important, however, to note that the really important part of
the training was the close association which it involved with the
strenuous character and vigorous intellect of his father. From
his earliest days he spent much time in his father's study and
habitually accompanied him on his walks in North London.
Much therefore of what he acquired was assimilated without
difficulty, and the accuracy of his impressions was tested by his
subsequently drafting a resume of their conversations. He thus
learned early to grapple with difficulties and to accustom himself
to the necessity of precision in argument and expression. It
was an inevitable result of such an education that Mill acquired
many of his father's speculative opinions, and his father's way
of defending them. But he did not receive the impress passively
and mechanically. " One of the grand objects of education,"
according to the elder Mill, " should be to generate a constant
and anxious concern about evidence." The duty of collecting
and weighing 'evidence for himself was at every turn impressed
upon the boy, he was taught to accept no opinion on authority.
He was deliberately educated as an apostle, but it was as an
apostle of reasoned truth in human affairs, not as an apostle of
any system of dogmatic tenets. It was to prevent any falling
off from this high moral standard till it should become part of
his being that his father kept the boy so closely with himself.
Mill expressly says that his childhood was not unhappy. It
seems unhappy only when we compare it with the normal life
of a boy and decline to imagine its peculiar enjoyments and
aspirations. Mill complains that his father often required more
than could be expected of him, but his tasks were not so severe
as to prevent him from growing up a healthy and high-spirited
boy, though he was not constitutionally robust, and his pursuits
were so different from those of other boys of the same age.
From May 1820 till July 1821 Mill was in France in the family
of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Bentham. Away
from his father he maintained his laborious habits. Copious
extracts from a diary kept by him at this time are given by
Bain; they show how methodically he read and wrote, studied
chemistry and botany, tackled advanced mathematical problems,
made notes on the scenery and the people and customs of the
country. He also gained a thorough acquaintance with the
French language. On his return in 1821 he added to his work
the study of psychology, and that of Roman law, which he read
with John Austin, his father having half decided on the bar as
the best profession open to him. In 1822, however, when he had
just completed his seventeenth year, this intention was aban-
doned, and he entered as a clerk in the examiner's office of
the India House, " with the understanding that he should be
employed from the beginning in preparing drafts of despatches,
and be thus trained up as a successor to those who then filled
the highest departments of the office."
MILL, JOHN STUART
Mill's work at the India House, which was henceforth his
livelihood, did' not come before the public; hence some have
scouted his political writings as the work of an abstract philo-
sopher, entirely unacquainted with affairs. From the first he
was more than a clerk, and after a short apprenticeship he was
promoted, in 1828, to the responsible position of assistant-
examiner with a salary of 600 a year. The duty of the so-called
examiners was to examine the letters of the agents of the
Company in India, and to draft instructions in reply. The
character of the Company's government was almost entirely
dependent upon their abilities as statesmen. For twenty years,
from 1836 (when his father died) to 1856, Mill had charge of the
Company's relations with the native states, and in 1856 he
became chief of the office with a salary of 2000. In the
hundreds of despatches that he wrote in this capacity, much,
no doubt, was done in accordance with established routine, but
few statesmen of his generation had a wider experience of the
responsible application of the principles of government. About
this work he said little in the Autobiography, probably because
his main concern there was to expound the influences that
effected his moral and mental development.
About the time of his entering the India House Mill read
Dumont's exposition of Bentham's doctrines in the Traite de
Legislation, which made a lasting impression upon him. When
he laid down the last volume, he says, he had become a different
being. It gave unity to the detached and fragmentary parts
of his knowledge and beliefs. The impression was confirmed
by the study of the English psychologists, as well as Condillac
and Helvetius, and in 1822-1823 he established among a few
friends the " Utilitarian " Society, taking the word as he tells
us, from Gait's Annals of the Parish. Two newspapers were
open to him the Traveller, edited by a friend of Bentham's,
and the Morning Chronicle, edited by his father's friend Black.
One of his first efforts was a solid argument for freedom of
discussion, in a series of letters to the Chronicle apropos of the
prosecution of Richard Carlile. But he watched all public
incidents with a vigilant eye, and seized every passing oppor-
tunity of exposing departures from sound principle in parliament
and courts of justice. Another outlet was opened up for him
(April 1824) by the starting of the Westminster Review, and still
another in the following year in the Parliamentary History and
Review. This year also he found a congenial occupation in
editing Bentham's Rationale of Judicial Evidence. All the time,
his mind full of public questions, he discussed eagerly with the
many men of distinction who came to his father's house. He
engaged in set discussions at a reading society formed at Grote's
house in 1825, and in set debates at a Speculative Society formed
in the same year.
From the Autobiography we learn that in 1826 Mill's enthu-
siasm was checked by a misgiving as to the value of the ends
which he had set before him. This expression was the result,
10 doubt, of his strenuous training and the comparative lack
if congenial friendships. His father was reserved, undemonstra-
ive even to the pitch of chilling sternness, and among young
ill's comrades contempt of feeh'ng was almost a watchword.
imself absorbed in abstract questions and projects of general
ihilanthropy, he had been careless of personal attachment.
in the other hand without experience he could not have been
prepared for the actual slowness of the reformer's work. In
1826 he looked back to four years of eager toil. What were
the results? He had become convinced that his comrades in
the Utilitarian Society, never more than ten, had not the stuff
in them for a world-shaking propaganda; the society itself was
dissolved; the Parliamentary Review was a failure; the West-
minster did not pay its expenses; Bentham's Judicial Evidence
produced little effect on the reviewers. His own reception at
the Speculative Debating Society, where he first measured his
strength in public conflict, was calculated to produce self-
distrust. He found himself looked upon with curiosity as a
precocious phenomenon, a " made man," an intellectual machine
set to grind certain tunes. The outcome of this period of
depression was a broadening of Ms outlook on the problems
455
which he had set himself to solve. He now saw that regard for the
public good was too vague an object for the satisfaction of a
man's affections. It is a proof of the dominating force of his
father's character that it cost the younger Mill such an effort to
shake off his stern creed about poetry and personal emotion.
Like Plato, the elder Mill would have put poets under ban as
enemies of truth, and he subordinated private to public affections.
Landor's maxims of " few acquaintances, fewer friends, no
familiarities " had his cordial approval. These doctrines the
younger Mill now felt himself forced in reason to abandon.
Too much in awe of his father to make him a confidant, he
wrestled in the gloomy solitude of his own mind. He gained
from the struggle a more catholic view of human happiness,
at delight in the poetry of nature and the affections as well
as the poetry of heroic unselfishness, a disposition to study
more sympathetically the point of view of opponents, a more
courteous style of polemic, a hatred of sectarianism, an ambition,
no less noble and disinterested, but moderated to practical 1
possibilities.
In the course of the next few years he wrote comparatively-
little, but he continued his reading, and also derived much
benefit from discussions held twice a week at Grote's house in
Threadneedle Street. Gradually also he had the satisfaction of
seeing the debates in the Speculative Society becoming famous
enough to attract men with whom it was profitable for him to-
interchange opinions, among others Maurice and John Sterling.
He ceased to attend the society in 1829, but he carried away
from it the strengthening memory of failure overcome by per-
severing effort, and the important doctrinal conviction that a;
true system of political philosophy was " something much more
complex and many-sided than he had previously had any idea
of, and that its office was to supply, not a set of model institutions
but principles from which the institutions suitable to any given
circumstances might be deduced."
The first sketch of Mill's political philosophy appeared in a
series of contributions to the Examiner in the autumn of 1830
entitled " Prospects in France." He was in Paris soon after
the July Revolution, and made the acquaintance of the leading
spirits among the younger men; in his discussion of their pro-
posals we find the germs of many thoughts afterwards more
fully developed in his Representative Government. It is from
this time that Mill's letters supply a connected account of his
life (see Hugh Elliott, Letters of John Stuart Mill, 1910).
The letters in the Examiner may be taken as marking the
close of his period of meditative search, and his return to hopeful
aspiring activity. It was characteristic of his nature that he
should be stirred to such delight by the Revolution in France,
and should labour so earnestly to make his countrymen under-
stand with what gravity and sobriety it had been effected.
Their own Reform Bill came soon after and it is again character-
istic of Mill at once of his enthusiasm and of his steady deter-
mination to do work that nobody else seemed able or willing to
do that we find him in the heat of the struggle in 1831 writing
to the Examiner a series of letters on " The Spirit of the Age '*
which drew from Carlyle the singular exclamation " Here is a
new mystic!" How little this criticism was justified may be
seen from the fact that Mill's inductive logic was the direct result
of his aspirations after political stability as determined by the
dominion of the wisest (Examiner letters). " Why is it," he
asked, " that the multitude accept implicitly the decisions of
the wisest, of the specially skilled, in physical science? " Because
in physical science there is all but complete agreement in opinion.
" And why this agreement?" Because all accept the same
methods of investigation, the same tests of truth. Is it possible
then to obtain unanimity as to the methods of arriving at con-
clusions in social and political matters, so as to secure similar
agreement of opinion among the specially skilled, and similar
general respect for their authority ? The same thought appears
in a review of Herschel's Natural Philosophy, written about the
same time. Mill remarks that the uncertainty hanging over
the very elements of moral and social philosophy proves that
the means of arriving at the truth in those sciences are not yet
45 6
MILL, JOHN STUART
properly understood. " And whither," he adds, " can mankind
so advantageously turn, in order to learn the proper means, and
to form their minds to the proper habits, as to that branch of
knowledge in which by universal acknowledgment the greatest
number of truths have been ascertained, and the greatest possible
degree of certainty arrived at ? "
By 1831 the period of depression had passed; Mill's enthusiasm
for humanity had been thoroughly reawakened, and had taken
the definite shape of an aspiration to supply an unimpeachable
method of search for conclusions in moral and social science.
No mystic ever worked with warmer zeal than Mill. But his
zeal encountered a check which baffled him for several years,
and which left its mark in various inconsistencies and inco-
herences in his completed system. He had been bred by his
father in a great veneration for the syllogistic logic as an antidote
against confused thinking. He attributed to his early discipline
in this logic an impatience of vague language which in all likeli-
hood was really fostered in him by his study of the Platonic
dialogues and of Bentham, for he always had in himself more of
Plato's fertile ingenuity in canvassing the meaning of vague
terms than the schoolman's rigid consistency in the use of them.
Be this as it may, .enthusiastic as he was for a new logic that
might give certainty to moral and social conclusions, Mill was
no less resolute that the new logic should stand in no antagonism
to the old. In his Westminster review of Whately's Logic in 1828
(invaluable to all students of the genesis of Mill's logic) he
appears, curiously enough, as an ardent and brilliant champion
of the syllogistic logic against highfliers such as the Scottish
philosophers who talk of " superseding " it by " a supposed
system of inductive logic." His inductive logic must " supple-
ment and not supersede." But for several years he searched
in vain for the means of concatenation.
Meantime, while recurring again and again, as was his custom,
to this cardinal difficulty, Mill worked indefatigably in other
directions where he saw his way clear. The working of the
new order in France, and the personalities of the leading men, had
a profound interest for him; he wrote on the subject in the
Examiner. He had ceased to write for the Westminster in 1828;
but during the years 1832 and 1833 he contributed many essays
to Tail's Magazine, the Jurist, and the Monthly Repository.
In 1835 Sir William Molesworth founded the London Review
with Mill as editor; it was amalgamated with the Wesminsler
(as the London and Westminster Review) in 1836, and Mill
continued editor (latterly proprietor also) till 1840. Much of
what, he wrote then was subsequently incorporated in his
systematic works: some of his essays were reprinted in his first
two volumes of Dissertations and Discussions (1859). The
essays on Bentham and Coleridge constituted the first manifesto
of the new spirit which Mill sought to breathe into English
Radicalism. But the reprinted papers give no just idea of the
immense range of Mill's energy at this time. His position in the
India Office, where alone he did work enough for most men, cut
him off from entering parliament; but he laboured hard though
ineffectually to influence the legislature from without by com-
bating the disposition to rest and be thankful. In his Auto-
biography he admits that the attempt to form a Radical party
in parliament at that time was chimerical.
It was in 1837, on reading Whewell's Inductive Sciences and
re-reading Herschel, that Mill at last saw his way clear both to
formulating the methods of scientific investigation and joining
on the new logic as a supplement to the old. The Logic was
published in 1843. In J 844 appeared his Essays on Some
Unsettled Questions in Political Economy. These essays were
worked out and written many years before, and show Mill in
his first stage as a political economist. Four out of the five
essays are elaborate and powerful solutions of perplexing tech-
nical problems the distribution of the gains of international
commerce, the influence of consumption on production, the
definition of productive and unproductive labour, the precise
relations between profits and wages. Though Mill appears here
purely as the disciple of Ricardo, striving after more precise
statement, and reaching forward to further consequences, we
can well understand in reading these essays how about the
time when he first sketched them he began to be conscious
of power as an original and independent thinker.
That originality and independence became more conspicuous
when he reached his second stage as a political economist,
struggling forward towards the standpoint from which his
systematic work was written.' It would seem that in his fits
of despondency one of the thoughts that marred his dreams of
human improvement was the apparently inexorable character
of economic laws, condemning thousands of labourers to a
cramped and miserable existence, and thousands more to semi-
starvation. From this oppressive feeling he found relief in the
thought set forth in the opening of the second book of his
Political Economy that, while the conditions of production
have the necessity of physical laws, the distribution of what is
produced among the various classes of producers is a matter
of human arrangement, dependent upon alterable customs and
institutions. There can be little doubt that this thought,
whether or not in the clear shape that it afterwards assumed,
was the germ of all that is most distinctive in his system of
political economy. This system, which for many years sub-
sequently was regarded as authoritative, has been subjected to
vigorous criticism by later economists, and it is perhaps not too
much to say that it now possesses mainly an historical interest.
Its chief importance is perhaps the stress which it laid on the
vital connexion which must subsist between true economic theory
and the wider facts of social and national development.
While his great systematic works were in progress, Mill wrote
very little on events or books of the day. He turned aside for
a few months from his Political Economy during the winter of the
Irish famine (1846-1847) to advocate the creation of peasant-
proprietorships as a remedy for distress and disorder in Ireland.
He found time also to write elaborate articles on French history
and Greek history in the Edinburgh Review apropos of Michelet,
Guizot and Grote, besides some less elaborate essays.
The Political Economy was published in 1848. Mill could now
feel that his main work was accomplished ; he remained, however,
on the alert for opportunities of useful influence, and pressed
on with hardly diminished enthusiasm in his search for useful
truth. Among other things, he made a more thorough study
of socialist writers, with the result that, though he was not
converted to any of their schemes as being immediately practic-
able, he began to look upon some more equal distribution of the
produce of labour as a practicability of the remote future, and
to dwell upon the prospect of such changes in human character
as might render a stable society possible without the institution
of private property. This he has called his third stage as a
political economist, and he says that he was helped towards it
by the lady, Mrs Taylor, 1 who became his wife in 1851. It is
generally supposed that he writes with a lover's extravagance
about this lady's powers-when he compares her with Shelley and
Carlyle. But a little reflection will show that he wrote with his
usual accuracy and sobriety when he described her influence on
him. He expressly says that he owed none of his technical
doctrine to her, that she influenced only his ideals of life for the
individual and for society; the only work perhaps which was
directly inspired by her is the essay on the enfranchisement of
women (Dissertations, vol. ii.). It is obvious from what he says
that his inner life became very different after he threw off his
father's authority. This new inner life was strengthened and
enlarged by Mrs Taylor.
During the seven years of his married life Mill published less
than in any other period of his career, but four of his most
1 Mrs Taylor (Harriet Hardy) was the wife of John Taylor, a
wholesale druggist in the city of London. She was a confirmed
invalid, and lived in the country, where Mill visited her regularly
for twenty years, with the full consent of her husband, a man
of limited mental powers, but of high character and unselfish-
ness. Mill's friendship with Mrs Taylor and their marriage in
1851 involved a break with his family (apparently due to his
resentment at a fancied slight, not to any bitterness on their
part), and his practical disappearance from society. (On these
points see Mary Taylor, Mrs Mill's grand-daughter, in Elliott's
edition of the Letters.)
MILL, JOHN STUART
closely reasoned and characteristic works, the Liberty, the
Utilitarianism, the Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, and the
Subjection of Women, besides his posthumously published essays
on Nature and on the Utility of Religion, were thought out and
partly written in collaboration with his wife. In 1856 he became
head of the examiner's office in the India House, and for two
years, till the dissolution of the Company in 1858, his official
work, never a light task, kept him fully occupied. It fell to
him as head of the office to write the defence of the Company's
government of India when the transfer of its powers was pro-
posed. Mill was earnestly opposed to the transfer, and the
documents in which he substantiated the proud boast for the
Company that " few governments, even under far more favour-
able circumstances, have attempted so much for the good of
their subjects or carried so many of their attempts to a
beneficial issue," and exposed the defects of the proposed new
government, are models of trenchant and dignified pleading.
On the dissolution of the Company Mill was offered a seat in
the new council, but declined, and retired with a pension of
1500. His retirement from official work was followed almost
immediately by his wife's death at Avignon, whither they had
come in the course of a tour. So great was the shock that for
the rest of his life he spent most of his time at a villa at St Veran,
near Avignon, returning to his Blackheath residence only for a
short period in each year. He sought relief in active literary
occupation, in politics, sociology and psychology. He pub-
lished, with a touching dedication to his wife, the treatise on
Liberty, which they had wrought out together. He then turned
to politics, and published, in view of the impending Reform Bill,
a pamphlet on parliamentary reform. The chief feature in this
was an idea concerning which he and Mrs Mill often deliberated
the necessity of providing checks against uneducated demo-
cracy. His suggestion of a plurality of votes, proportioned to
the elector's degree of education, was avowedly put forward only
as an ideal; he admitted that no authentic test of education
could for the present be found. An anonymous Conservative
caught at the scheme in another pamphlet, proposing income
as a test. Soon after Mill supported in Fraser's, still with the
same object, Hare's scheme for the representation of minorities.
In the autumn of the same year he turned to psychology,
reviewing Bain's works in the Edinburgh Review. In his Repre-
sentative Government (1860) he systematized opinions already
put forward in many casual articles and essays. His Utili-
tarianism (published in Fraser's in 1861) was a closely-reasoned
systematic attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory
and remove misconceptions of it. He was especially anxious
to make it clear that he included in "utility " the pleasures of
the imagination and the gratification of the higher emotions,
and to show how powerfully the good of mankind as a motive
appealed to the imagination. His next treatise, The Subjection
of Women, was not published till i860. 1 His Examination of
Hamilton's Philosophy, published in 1865, had engaged a large
share of his time for three years before.
While mainly occupied in those years with philosophical
studies, Mill did not remit his interest in current politics. He
supported the North in the American crisis of 1862, using all his
strength to explain what has since been universally recognized
as the issue really at stake in the struggle, the abolition of slavery.
It was characteristic of the closeness with which he watched
current events, and of his zeal in the cause of " lucidity," that
when the Reader, an organ of science and unpartisan opinion,
fell into difficulties in 1865 Mill joined with some distinguished
men of science and letters in an effort to keep it afloat. He
supplied part of the money for carrying it on, contributed several
articles, and assisted the editor, Fraser Rae, with his advice.
The effort was vain, though such men as Herbert Spencer,
1 He was one of the founders, with Mrs P. A. Taylor, Miss Emily
Davies and others, of the first women's suffrage society, which
developed into the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies,
and his writings are still the most important theoretical statement
of the case for women's suffrage. He presented to Parliament the
first petition on the subject (see further Blackburn, Women's Suffrage
Record).
457
Huxley, Tyndall, Cairnes, Mark Pattison, F. Harrison, Sir
Frederick Pollock and Lockyer were among the contributors.
. In 1865 he agreed to stand as parliamentary candidate for
Westminster, on conditions strictly in accordance with his
principles. He would not canvass, nor pay agents to canvass
for him, nor would he engage to attend to the local business of
the constituency. He was with difficulty persuaded even to
address a meeting of the electors. The story of this remarkable
election has been told by James Beal, one of the most active
supporters of Mill's candidature. In parliament he adhered to
his life-long principle of doing only work that needed to be done,
and that nobody else seemed equally able or willing to do. It
may have been a consciousness of this fact which prompted a
remark, made by the Speaker, that Mill's presence in parliament
elevated the tone of debate. The impression made by him in
parliament is in some danger of being forgotten, because he was
not instrumental in carrying any great measure that might serve
as an abiding memorial. But, although his first speech on the
bill for the prevention of cattle diseases excited the opposition
of country members, and a subsequent speech against the
suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland was very
unfavourably received, Mill thoroughly succeeded in gaining
the ear of the House. The only speech made by him during his
three years in parliament that was listened to with impatience
was, curiously enough, his speech in favour of counteracting
democracy by providing for the representation of minorities.
His attack on the conduct of Governor Eyre in Jamaica (q.v.)-
was listened to, but with repugnance by the majority, although
his action in this matter in and out of parliament was far
from being ineffectual. He took an active part in the debates
on Disraeli's Reform Bill (moving an amendment to omit the
word " man " and insert " person "), and helped to extort from
the government several useful modifications of the Bill for the
Prevention of Corrupt Practices. The reform of land tenure in
Ireland, the representation of women, the reduction of the
national debt, the reform of London government, the abrogation
of the Declaration of Paris, were among the topics on which he
spoke with marked effect. He took occasion more than once
to enforce what he had often advocated in writing, England's
duty to intervene in foreign politics in support of the cause of
freedom. As a speaker Mill was somewhat hesitating, pausing
occasionally as if to recover the thread of his argument, but he
showed great readiness in extemporaneous debate. Viewed as
a candidate for ministerial office, he might be regarded as a failure
in parliament, but there can be no doubt that his career there
greatly extended his influence.
Mill's subscription to the election expenses of Bradlaugh, and
his attitude towards Governor Eyre, are generally regarded as
the main causes of his defeat in the general election of 1868.
But, as he suggests himself, his studied advocacy of unfamiliar
projects of reform had made him unpopular with " moderate
Liberals." He retired with a sense of relief to his cottage and
his literary life at Avignon. His parliamentary duties and the
quantity of correspondence brought upon him by increased
publicity had absorbed nearly the whole of his time. The scanty
leisure of his first recess had been devoted to writing his St
Andrews rectorial address on higher education and to answering
attacks on his criticism of Hamilton; of the second, to annotating
in conjunction with Bain and Findlater, his father's Analysis
of the Mind. Now he looked forward to a literary life, and his
letters show how much he enjoyed the change. His little cottage
was filled with books and newspapers; the beautiful country
round it furnished him with a variety of walks; he read, wrote,
discussed, walked, botanized. He was extremely fond of music,
and was himself a fair pianist. His step-daughter, Miss Taylor
(d. January 1907), was his constant companion after his wife's
death. " Helen," he wrote to W. T. Thornton, an old colleague
in the India House, " has carried out her long-cherished scheme
(about which she tells me she consulted you) of a ' vibratory '
for me, and has made a pleasant covered walk, some 30 ft. long,
where I can vibrate in cold or rainy weather. The terrace, you
must know, as it goes round two sides of the house, has got itself
xvru. 15 a
45 8
MILL, JOHN STUART
dubbed the ' semi-circumgyratory.' In addition to this, Helen
has built me a herbarium, a little room fitted up with closets
for my plants, shelves for my botanical books, and a great
table whereon to manipulate them all. Thus, you see, with my
herbarium, my vibratory, and my semi-circumgyratory, I am
in clover; and you may imagine with what scorn I think of the
House of Commons, which, comfortable club as it is said to be,
could offer me none of these comforts, or, more perfectly speak-
ing, these necessaries of life." Mill was an enthusiastic botanist
all his life long, and a frequent contributor of notes and short
papers to the Phytologist. One of the things that he looked
forward to during his last journey to Avignon was seeing the
spring flowers and completing a flora of the locality. His
delight in scenery frequently appears in letters written to his
friends during his summer and autumn tours.
Yet he did not relax his laborious habits nor his ardent out-
look on human affairs. The essays in the fourth volume of his
Dissertations on endowments, on land, on labour, on meta-
physical and psychological questions were written for the
Fortnightly Review at intervals after his short parliamentary
career. One of his first tasks was to send his treatise on the
Subjection of Women (written 1861, published 1869, many edi-
tions) through the press. The essay on Theism was written
soon after. The last public work in which he engaged was the
starting of the Land Tenure Reform Association. The inter-
ception by the state of the unearned increment, and the promo-
tion of co-operative agriculture, were the most striking features
in his programme. He wrote in the Examiner and made a public
speech in favour of the association a few months before his
death. The secret of the ardour with which he took up this
question probably was his conviction that a great struggle was
impending in Europe between labour and capital. He regarded
his project as a timely compromise.
Mill died at Avignon on the 8th of May 1873. He was a man
of extreme simplicity in his method of life. Though occasionally
irritable in speech, in his written polemics he was remarkable
for courtesy to opponents and a capacity to understand their
point of view. His references to his friends were always generous,
and he was always ready to assist those whose work needed help.
For example, he desired to guarantee the cost of the first books
of Bain and Herbert Spencer. A statue in bronze was placed
on the Thames Embankment, and there is a good portrait by
Watts (a copy of which, by Watts himself, was hung in the
National Gallery).
The influence which Mill's works exercised upon contemporary
English thought can scarcely be overestimated. His own writings
and those of his successors (e.g. J. E. Cairnes and Alexander Bain)
practically held the field during the third quarter of the igth century
and even later. In philosophy his chief work was to systematize
and expound the utilitarianism of his father and Bentham (see
UTILITARIANISM). He may, in fact, be regarded as the final exponent
of that empirical school of philosophy which owed its impulse to
John Locke, and is generally spoken of as being typically English.
Its fundamental characteristic is the emphasis laid upon human
reason, i.e. upon the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate
for themselves rather than to accept the authority of others. Know-
ledge must be based upon experience. In reasserting and amplifying
the empirical conclusions of his predecessors, especially in the sphere
of ethics, Mill's chief function was the introduction of the humanist
element. This was due, no doubt, to his revulsion from the sternness
of his upbringing and the period of stress through which he passed
in early manhood, but also to the sympathetic and emotional quali-
ties which manifested themselves in his early manhood. We have
.seen, for example, that he was led to investigate the subject of logic
because he found in attempting to advance his humanitarian schemes
in politics an absence of that fundamental agreement which he recog-
nized as the basis of scientific advance. Both his logical and his
metaphysical studies were thus undertaken as the pre-reguisites of
a practical theory of human development. Though he believed that
the lower classes were not yet ripe for socialism, with the principles
of which he (unlike James Mill and Bentham) was in general agree-
ment, his whole life was devoted to the amelioration of the conditions
of the working classes. This fact, no doubt, should be taken into
account in any detailed criticism of the philosophic work ; it was taken
up not as an end but as ancillary to a social and ethical system.
Reference to the articles on LOGIC, METAPHYSICS, &c., will show
that subsequent criticism, however much it has owed by way of
stimulus to Mill's strenuous rationalism, has been able to point to
much that is inconsistent, inadequate and even superficial in his
by
left
writings. Two main intellectual movements from widely different
standpoints have combined to diminish his influence. On the one
hand there has arisen a school of thinkers of the type of Thomas Hill
Green, who have brought to bear on his metaphysical views the
idealism of modern German thinkers. On the other hand are the
evolutionists, who have substituted for the utilitarian ideal of the
" greatest happiness " those of " race-preservation " and the " sur-
vival of the fittest " (see ETHICS, ad. fin. ; SPENCER). In the sphere
of psychology, likewise e.g. in 'connexion with Mill's doctrine of
Association of Ideas (q.v.) and the phrase " Mental Chemistry," b"
which he sought to meet the problems which Associationism lef
unsolved modern criticism and the experimental methods of the
psycho-physiological school have set up wholly new criteria,
with a new terminology and different fields of investigation (see
PSYCHOLOGY).
A similar fate has befallen Mill's economic theories. The title
of his work, Principles of Political Economy, with some of their
Applications to Social Philosophy, though open to criticism, indicated
a less narrow and formal conception of the field of the science than
had been common amongst his predecessors. He aimed in fact
at producing a work which might replace in ordinary use the Wealth
of Nations, which in his opinion was " in many parts obsolete and
in all imperfect." Adam Smith had invariably associated the
general principles of the subject with their applications, and in
treating those applications had perpetually appealed to other and
often far larger considerations than pure political economy affords.
And in the same spirit Mill desired, whilst incorporating all the
results arrived at in the special science by Smith's successors, to
exhibit purely economic phenomena in relation to the most advanced
conceptions of his own time in the general philosophy of society,
as Smith had done in reference to the philosophy of his century.
This design he certainly failed to realize. His book is very far
indeed from being a " modern Adam Smith." It is an admirably
lucid, and even elegant, exposition of the Ricardian economics, the
Malthusian theory being of course incorporated with these; but,
notwithstanding the introduction .of many minor novelties, it is
in its scientific substance little or nothing more.
With respect to economic method he shifted his position, yet to
the end occupied uncertain ground. In the fifth of his early essays
he asserted that the method a priori is the only mode of investiga-
tion in the social sciences, and that the method a posteriori " is
altogether inefficacious in those sciences as a means of arriving at
any considerable body of valuable truth." When he wrote his
Logic he had learned from Comte that the a posteriori method
in the form which he chose to call " inverse deduction " was the
only mode of arriving at truth in general sociology; and his ad-
mission of this at once renders the essay obsolete. But, unwilling
to relinquish the a priori method of his youth, he tries to establish
a distinction of two sorts of economic inquiry, one of which, though
not the other, can be handled by that method. Sometimes he
speaks of political economy as a department " carved out of the
general body of the science of society;" whilst on the other hand
the title of his systematic work implies a doubt whether political
economy is a part of " social philosophy " at all, and not rather
a study preparatory and auxiliary to it. Thus, on the logical as
well as the dogmatic side, he halts between two opinions. Not-
withstanding his misgivings and even disclaimers, he yet remained
as to method a member of the old school, and never passed into
the new " historical " school.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Works: System of Logic (2 vols., 1843; gth ed.,
1875; " People's " ed., 1884); Essays on some Unsettled Questions of
Political Economy (1844, ed. 1874); Principles of Political Economy
(2 vols., 1848; many ed., especially ed. by W. I. Ashley, 1909);
On Liberty (1859; ed. Courtney, 1892; W. B. Columbine, 1903;
with introd. Pringle-Pattison, 1910); Thoughts on Parliamentary
Reform (1859); Dissertations and Discussions (i., ii., 1859; iii.,
1867; iv., 1876); Considerations on Representative Government
(1861; 3rd ed. 1865); Utilitarianism (1863); Examination of Sir
W. Hamilton's Philosophy (1865); Aug. Comte and Positivism (1865,
ed. 1908); Inaugural Address at the University of St Andrews (1867);
England and Ireland (1868); Subjection of Women (1869; ed. with
introd. by Stanton Coit, 1906) ; Chapters and Speeches on the Irish
Land Question (1870). The Autobiography appeared in 1873 (ed.
1908), and Three Essays on Religion (1874). Many of these have
been translated into German, and there is a German edition by
Th. Gomperz (12 vols., 1873-1880). A convenient edition in the
New Universal Library appeared between 1905 and 1910.
Biographical and Critical. Many of Mill's letters are published
in Mrs Crete's life of her husband, in Duncan's Life of Herbert
Spencer, in the Memories of Caroline Fox, and in Kingsley's letters.
There are also editions of the correspondence with Gustave d'Eichtal
and Comte (specially that of Levy-Bruhl, 1899). By far the most
illuminating collection is that of Hugh Elliott, Letters of John Stuart
Mill (2 vols., IQIO), which contains letters to John Sterling, Carlyle,
E. Lytton Bufwer (Lord Lytton), John Austin, Alex. Bain, and
many leading French and German writers and politicians. These
letters are essential to an understanding of Mill's life and thought.
Besides the Autobiography and many references in the writings of
Mill's friends (e.g. Alex. Bain's Autobiography, 1904), see further
MILL MILLAIS, SIR J. E.
459
A. Bain, John Stuart Mill, a Personal Criticism (1882); Fox Bourne,
Life of J. S. Mill (1873); John (Viscount) Morley, Miscellanies
(1877), " 239-327) J. E. Cairnes, /. 5. Mill (1873), on economic
theories; W. L. Courtney, Mataphysics of J. S. Mill (1879) and
Life (1889); Douglas, John Stuart Mill, a Study of his Philosophy
(1895), and Ethics of J. S. Mill (1897); Albee, Hist, of Eng. Utili-
tarianism (1902); Sir Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians
(1900); J. MacCunn, Six Radical Thinkers (1907); Fred. Harrison,
Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill (1899); John Watson, Comte, Mill and
Spencer (1895); T. Whittaker, Comte and Mill (1905); Charles
Douglas, J. S. Mill, a Study of his Philosophy (1895); J. Rickaby,
Free Will and Four English Philosophers (1906); J. M. Robertson,
Modern Humanists (1891); D. G. Ritchie, Principles of State Inter-
ference (1891) ; W. Graham, English Political Philosophy from Hobbes
to Maine (1899). There are also a number of valuable French
and German criticisms, e.g. Taine, Positivisme anglais, etude sur
Stuart Mill (Paris, 1864); F. A. Lange, Mills Ansichten uber die
soziale Frage (Duisburg, 1866); Littr6, A. Comte et Stuart Mill
(3rd ed., Paris, 1877); Cauret, Philosophic de Stuart Mill (Paris,
1885); Gomperz, John S. Mill, ein Nachruf (Vienna, 1889); S.
Sanger, J. S. Mill, sein Leben und Lebenswerk (Stuttgart, 1901);
S. Becher, Erkenntnistheorelische Untersuchungen zu Stuart Mills
Theorie der Kausalitdt (1906) ; E. M. Kantzer, La Religion de J. S.
Mill (1906). See also histories of modern philosophy.
See further LOGIC (Historical Sketch) ; PSYCHOLOGY ; ASSOCIATION
OF IDEAS. (W. M.; J. M. M.)
MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the
late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mold, a mill, molere,
to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word
appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. miihle),
the term given to the apparatus or machinery used in the grind-
ing of corn into flour, and hence applied to similar mechan-
ical devices for grinding, crushing to powder, or pulping other
substances, e.g. coffee-mill, powder-mill. " Mill " was first used
of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word
attached descriptive of the motive power, e.g. wind-mill, water-
mill, &c. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding
mechanism. The old hand-mill was known as a " quern," a
word which appears in this sense in many Indo-European
languages; the ultimate root is gar-, to grind. " Quern " (see
FLOUR) is only remotely connected with " churn " (q.v.). The
word is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw
material is transformed into a condition ready for use or into a
stage preparatory to other processes, e.g. saw-mill, rolling-mill,
&c., or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used
in manufactures, e.g. cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to
various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see
ORE-DRESSING).
In the engineering industries milling machines constitute a
very important class of machine tools, the characteristic of which
is that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see
TOOLS). In coins the " milling is the serrated edge, called
" crenneling " by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals, 1697,
p. 225), which is formed on them to prevent clipping and
filing. Coins made by the old process of hammering were apt
to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the
introduction of the screw press, which came to be known as a
mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Silver Coinage, 1695, p. 93),
permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations,
which in consequence were termed milling. This machine also
enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such
as the Decus et tutamen suggested by Evelyn (see W. J.
Hocking, Catalogue of the Coins, &<;., in the Museum of the Royal
Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the loth
century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher
(d. 1556), who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother
Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in
1561, it was used for twelve years, and was then abandoned
owing to the opposition of the mint officials to Mestrel, who was
executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the
precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced
by one Peter Blondeau in 1662, when it permanently superseded
hammering. In the United States of America the term " milling "
or " milled " is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin;
this is known in the British mint as " marking " (see MINT).
MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829-1896), English painter,
was born at Southampton on the 8th of June 1829, the son of
John William Millais, who belonged to an old Norman family
settled in Jersey for many generations, and Emily Mary, nee
Evamy, the widow of a Mr Hodgkinson. After his birth the
family returned to Jersey, where the boy soon began to sketch.
At the age of eight he drew his maternal grandfather. He went
to school for a short time, but showed no inclination for study,,
and was afterwards educated entirely by his mother. In 1835
the family removed to Dinan in Brittany, where he sketched the
French officers, to their great amusement, and in 1837, on the
family's return to Jersey, he was taught drawing by a Mr Bissel.
In 1838 he came to London, and on the strong recommendation
of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P.R.A., his future was decided. He
was sent at once to Sass's school, and entered the Academy
schools in 1840. He won a silver medal from the Society of Arts
in 1839, and carried off all the prizes at the Royal Academy.
He was popular amongst the students, and was called " the
child," because he wore his boyish costume till long after the
usual age. In 1840 and the immediately succeeding years he
made the acquaintance of Wordsworth and other interesting
and useful people. He was at this time painting small pictures,
&c., for a dealer named Thomas, and defraying a great part of
the household expenses in Gower Street, where his family lived-
In 1846 he exhibited " Pizarro seizing the Inca of Peru " at the
Royal Academy, and in 1847 " Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of
Odo." In the latter year he competed unsuccessfully at the
exhibition of designs for the decoration of the Houses of Parlia-
ment, sending a very large picture of " The Widow's Mite,"
which was afterwards cut up. In the beginning of 1848 he and
W. Holman Hunt, dissatisfied with the theory and practice of
British art, which had sunk to its lowest and most conventional
level, initiated what is known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement,
and were joined by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and afterwards by
five others, altogether forming the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
Rossetti was then engaged, under the technical guidance of Hunt,
upon his picture of " The Girlhood of Mary Virgin," which, with;
Hunt's " Light of the World " and Millais's " Christ in the House
of His Parents," forms what has been called the trilogy of Pre-
Raphaelite art. According to Millais, the Pre-Raphaelites had
but one idea " to present on canvas what they saw in Nature."
Millais's first picture on his new principles was a banquet scene
from Keats's " Isabella " (1849), and contains all the character-
istics of Pre-Raphaelite work, including minute imitation of
nature down to the smallest detail, and the study of all persons
and objects directly from the originals. The tale was told with
dramatic force, and the expression of the heads was excellent.
His next important picture, " Christ in the House of His Parents,"
or " The Carpenter's Shop " (1850), represented a supposed
incident in the childhood of our Lord treated in a simply realistic
manner, and drew down upon him a storm of abuse from nearly
all quarters, religious and artistic. The rest of his more strictly
Pre-Raphaelite pictures " The Return of the Dove to the Ark,"
" The Woodman's Daughter " and the " Mariana " of 1851,.
" The Huguenot " and " Ophelia " of 1852, " The Proscribed
Royalist " and " The Order of Release " of 1853 met with less
opposition, and established his reputation with the public.
Indeed, this may be said to have been accomplished by the
" Huguenot " and " Ophelia," the refined sentiment and exquisite
execution of which appealed to nearly all who were unprejudiced.
The public were also greatly influenced by the splendid champion-
ship of Ruskin, who, in letters to The Times, and in a pamphlet
called " Pre-Raphaelitism," enthusiastically espoused the cause
of the Brotherhood. In 1851 Millais, who had refused to read
Modern Painters, where the supposed principles of the Brother-
hood were first recommended, became acquainted with Ruskin,
and in 1853 went to Scotland with him and Mrs Ruskin, the latter
of whom sat for the woman in " The Order of Release." He
made several designs for Ruskin, and painted his portrait. In
1855 Millais exhibited " The Rescue," a scene from a fire, which
drew great attention, from the frantic expression of the mother
and the brilliant painting of the glare. In the Paris Exhibition
of this year he was represented by " The Order of Release,"
" Ophelia " and " The Return of the Dove." This was also the
460
MILLAR MILLAU
year of his marriage with Mrs Ruskin (Euphemia Chalmers,
daughter of Mr George Gray of Bowerswell, Perth), who had
obtained a decree of the nullity of her previous marriage. The
newly-wedded couple went to live at Annat Lodge, near Bowers-
well, where " Autumn Leaves," described by Ruskin as " the
first instance of a perfect twilight," was painted. This and
" Peace Concluded " were singled out for special praise by
Ruskin in his notes on the Academy Exhibition of 1856, which
contained, with other works by Millais, the picture of " A Blind
Girl," with a beautiful background of Icklesham and its common.
The principal pictures of 1857 were " Sir Isumbras at the Ford,"
and " The Escape of a Heretic," both of which were violently
attacked by Ruskin, who was kinder to the " Apple-blossoms "
and " Vale of Rest " of 1859, extolling the power of their painting,
but still insisting on the degeneracy of the artist. The " Black
Brunswicker " of 1860 was in motive very like the " Huguenot,"
but it was less refined in expression, and a great deal broader in
execution, and may be said to mark the end of the period of
transition from his minute Pre-Raphaelite manner to the masterly
freedom of his mature style. From 1860 to 1869 the invention
of Millais was much employed in illustration, especially of Trol-
lope's novels, beginning with Framley Parsonage in the Cornhill
Magazine. He made altogether eighty-seven drawings for
Trollope, and was the cleverest and one of the most prolific of
the book illustrators of the 'sixties. He contributed to Moxon's
illustrated edition of Tennyson's Poems, and made occasional
drawings for Once a Week, the Illustrated London News, Good
Words, and other periodicals and books. In 1863 he was elected
a Royal Academician. The most important pictures of this and
the next few years were " The Eve of St Agnes," remarkable for
the painting of moonlight, " Romans leaving Britain " (1865),
" Jephthah " (1867), " Rosalind and Celia " (1868), " A Flood,"
and " The Boyhood of Raleigh " (1870). All these were executed
in a very broad and masterly manner. In many of his pictures
of this period, such as " The Boyhood of Raleigh," his children
were his models, and formed the subject of many more, like
" My First Sermon," " My Second Sermon," " Sleeping,"
" Awake," " Sisters," " The First Minuet," and " The Wolf's
Den." He now painted many single figures with more or less
sentiment, like " Stella," " Vanessa," and " The Gambler's
Wife," with occasionally a more important composition, like
" Pilgrims to St Paul's," and " Victory, O Lord " (exhibited
1871), representing Aaron and Hur holding up Moses' hands
(Exod. xvii. 12). With it was exhibited the first and most
popular of his pure landscapes, called " Chill October," which
was followed at intervals by several others remarkable for literal
truth to nature and fine execution. They were all from Perth-
shire, where he generally spent the dutumn, and included
" Scotch Firs " and " Winter Fuel " (painted in 1874), " Over
the Hills and Far away," and " The Fringe of the Moor "
(1875) and " The Sound of Many Waters " (1876). A later
series was painted in the neighbourhood of Murthly, a village
in the parish of Little Dunkeld, Perthshire, where he rented a
house and shooting from 1881 to 1891. It was to painting
nature and the world around him that he principally devoted
himself for the last twenty-five years of his life, abandoning
imaginative or didactic themes. To this period belong a number
of pictures of children, with fancy titles, like " Cherry Ripe,"
" Little Miss Muffet," " Bubbles," and others well known by
reproductions in black and white and in colour for the illustrated
papers; and also some charming studies of girlhood, like
" Sweetest eyes were ever seen," and " Cinderella." Amongst
his more serious pictures were " The Princes in the Tower "
(1878), " The Princess Elizabeth " (1879), two pictures from
Scott" Erne Deans " and " The Master of Ravenswood "
painted for Messrs Agnew in 1877 and 1878, and " The North-
West Passage," sometimes regarded as his masterpiece, repre-
senting an old mariner (painted from Edward John Trelawney,
the friend of Byron) listening to some tale of Arctic exploration
in a room overlooking the sea and strewn with charts. " A
Yeoman of the Guard " (1877) was perhaps his most splendid
piece of colour, and was greatly admired at the Paris Exhibition
of 1878, where it was sent with '^ Chill October " and three others
of his pictures. But perhaps the works of his later years by
which he will be most remembered are his portraits especially
his three portraits of Gladstone (1879, 1885 and 1890), and those
of John Bright, of Lord Tennyson, and of Lord Beaconsfield,
which was left unfinished at his death. He also painted the
marquess of Salisbury, Lord Rosebery, the dukes of Devonshire
and Argyll, Cardinal Newman, Thomas Carlyle, Sir James Paget,
Sir Henry Irving, George Grote, Lord Chief Justice Russell,
J. C. Hook, R.A., and himself (Uffizi Gallery, Florence). He
drew Charles Dickens after his death. Amongst his finer
portraits of women were those of Mrs Bischoffsheim, the duchess
of Westminster, Lady Campbell and Mrs Jopling.
No very serious interruption of his usual life as a prosperous
English gentleman occurred in these years, except the death of his
second son, George, in 1878. In 1875 he went to Holland, one
of his few visits to the Continent. In 1879 he left Cromwell
Place for a house at Palace Gate, Kensington, which he built,
and where he died. In 1885 he was created a baronet, on the
suggestion of Mr Gladstone. In 1892 his health began to break
down. After a bad attack of influenza he was troubled with a
swelling in his throat, which proved to be due to cancer. He
suffered much from depression, but worked when he could, and
derived much pleasure in painting several pictures, including
" St Stephen," " A Disciple," " Speak ! Speak ! " (which was
bought out of the Chantrey Bequest), and " The Forerunner "
his last exhibited subject-picture. His finely-characterized
portraits of Mr John Hare, the actor, and Sir Richard Quain
belong also to his last years. In 1895, in consequence of the
illness of Lord (then Sir Frederick) Leighton, he was called upon
to preside at the annual banquet of the Royal Academy, and on
the death of Lord Leighton he was elected to the presidential
chair. He died on the i3th of August 1896, and was buried in St
Paul's Cathedral. The Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy
in 1898 was devoted to his works. The list of his honours at
home and abroad is a long one. Millais was one of the greatest
painters of his time, and did more than any other to infuse a new
and healthy life into British art. He had not the .imagination
of an idealist, but he could paint what he saw with a force which
has seldom been excelled. As a man he was manly, frank and
genial, devoted to his art and his family, and very fond of sport,
especially hunting, fishing and shooting. He was greatly loved
by a very large circle of friends. He was singularly handsome,
and had a fine presence. The National Gallery of British Art
possesses many of his finest works. He is also represented in
the National Gallery, in the National Portrait Gallery, the
Victoria and Albert Museum, and in the public galleries at
Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham.
AUTHORITIES. T. G. Millais, Life and Letters, &c.; Ruskin's
Modern Painters, Notes on Royal Academy Exhibitions, Pre-Raphaelit-
ism, &c.; Catalogues of Grosvenor Gallery (summer of 1886); and
of Royal Academy (winter of 1898); M. H. Spielmann, Millais and
his Works (London, 1896); A. L. Baldry, Sir J. E. Millais, his Art
and Influence (London, 1899). (C. Mo.)
MILLAR, ANDREW (1707-1768), British publisher, was born
in 1707. About 1729 he started business as a bookseller and
publisher in the Strand, London. His own judgment in literary
matters was small, but he collected an excellent staff of literary
advisers, and did not hesitate to pay what at the time were
considered large prices for good material. " I respect Millar,
sir," said Dr Johnson in 1755, " he has raised the price of
literature." He paid Thomson 105 for The Seasons, and
Fielding a total sum of 700 for Tom Jones and 1000 for Amelia.
He was one of the syndicate of booksellers who financed
Johnson's Dictionary, and on him the work of seeing that book
through the press mainly fell. He also published the histories
of Robertson and Hume. He died at his villa at Kew Green,
near London, on the 8th of June 1 768.
MILLAU, a town of southern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Aveyron, on the right bank of the
Tarn at its confluence with the Dourbie, 74 m. N. of Beziers on
the Southern railway. Pop. (1906), 16,853. Millau lies in a
MILLBURY MILLENNIUM
461
rich valley 1200 ft. above the sea surrounded by the spurs of
the Levezou, Causse Noir and Larzac ranges. The streets are
narrow and some of the houses of great antiquity, but the town
is surrounded by spacious boulevards. One of its squares is
bordered on two sides by wooden galleries supported on stone
columns. The only buildings of special interest are the Roman-
esque church of Notre Dame, restored in the i6th century, and
the fine Gothic belfry of the old h6tel de ville. Millau is seat of a
sub-prefect, and possesses tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce
and a communal college. The principal industry is the manu-
facture of gloves, and various branches of the leather industry are
carried on. The chief articles of trade are skins, wool, wine and '
Roquefort cheese.
In the middle ages Millau was the seat of a viscounty held
by the counts of Barcelona and afterwards by the counts of
Armagnac. In the i6th century it became one of the leading
strongholds of Calvinism in southern France. In 1620 it
revolted against Louis XIII., and after its submission Richelieu
caused its fortifications to be dismantled. The edict of Nantes
hastened the decline of the town, which did not recover its
prosperity till after the Revolution.
MILLBURY, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
on the Blackstone river, 5 m. S.S.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890),
4428; (1900) 4460 (1176 foreign-born); (1905, state census)
4631; (1910) 4740. Area, 15-79 sq. m - Millbury is served by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany
railways, and by electric interurban railways. It lies for the
most part in the valley of the Blackstone river, from which
water-power is derived for its mills; among its manufactures are
cotton, linen, felt and woollen goods, hemp thread, and foundry
and machine-shop products. The municipality owns and
operates the waterworks and electric-lighting plant. Millbury
was formed in 1813 from the North Parish of Sutton; in 1851 a
part of Auburn was annexed to the township.
MILLEDGEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Baldwin
county, in the central part of Georgia, U.S.A., on the Oconee
river, at the head of navigation, 32 m. E.N.E. of Macon. Pop.
(1890), 3322; (1900), 4219, of whom 2663 were negroes. It is
served by the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways.
Milledgeville is situated in the Cotton Belt, and its principal
industry is the preparation of cotton for the markets. The
importance of the place, however, is mainly educational and
historical. It is the seat of the Middle Georgia Military and
Agricultural College, which occupies the old capitol building,
and of the Georgia Normal and Industrial College for girls (1889;
enrolment 1908-1909, 653), which is a part of the University of
Georgia, and occupies the site of the old state penitentiary.
About 2 m. north-west of Milledgeville is the state juvenile
reformatory; 2 m. south of the city are the state asylums for
white and negro insane; and 3 m. north-west is the state prison
farm. Milledgeville was founded in 1803, and was named in
honour of John Milledge (1757-1818), a representative in
Congress in 1792-1793 and 1795-1802, governor of Georgia in
1802-1806, a United States senator in 1806-1809, and a benefactor
of the state university. In 1804 it was made the seat of the
state government in place of Louisville (capital in 1795-1804;
pop. in 1900, 1009), a dignity it held until 1868. The city was
first chartered in 1836. Although admirably situated for trade
and manufacturing, Milledgeville was surpassed in both by
Macon, which became the commercial emporium of middle
Georgia; but it was a favourite place of residence for the wealthy
and cultivated class of Georgians before the Civil War. It was
seized by General William T. Sherman on the 23rd of November
1864. In order to remove the state documents beyond reach of
the enemy, Governor Joseph E. Brown called upon the convicts
in the penitentiary for aid, granting them pardons in return for
their services.
MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy
of biennium, triennium, from Lat. mille, a thousand, and annus,
year), literally a period of a thousand years. The term js
specially used of the period of 1000 years during which Christ,
as has been believed, would return to govern the earth in person.
Hence it is used to describe a vague time in the future when all
flaws in human existence will have vanished, and perfect good-
ness and happiness will prevail. The attribution of a mystic
significance to the millennium-period, though perhaps not
prominent in that theory of Christian eschatology to which the
names Millenarianism and Chiliasm (from Gr. xtXuw, a thousand)
are given, is quite common in non-Christian religions and
cosmological systems.
Faith in the nearness of Christ's second advent and the
establishing of his reign of glory on the earth was undoubtedly
a strong point in the primitive Christian Church. In the antici-
pations of the future prevalent amongst the early Christians
(c. 50-150) it is necessary to distinguish a fixed and a fluctuating
element. The former includes (i) the notion that a last terrible
battle with the enemies of God was impending; (2) the faith in
the speedy return of Christ; (3) the conviction that Christ will
judge all men, and (4) will set up a kingdom of glory on earth.
To the latter belong views of the Antichrist, of the heathen world-
power, of the place, extent, and duration of the earthly kingdom
of Christ, &c. These remained in a state of solution; they were
modified from day to day, partly because of the changing circum-
stances of the present by which forecasts of the future were
regulated, partly because the indications real or supposed of
the ancient prophets always admitted of new combinations and
constructions. But even here certain positions were agreed on
in large sections of Christendom. Amongst these was the
expectation that the future kingdom of Christ on earth should
have a fixed duration according to the most prevalent opinion,
a duration of one thousand years. From this fact the whole
ancient Christian eschatology was known in later tunes as
" chiliasm " a name which is not strictly accurate, since the
doctrine of the millennium was only one feature in its scheme of
the future.
i. This idea that the Messianic kingdom of the future on earth
should have a definite duration has like the whole eschatology
of the primitive Church its roots in the Jewish apocalyptic
literature, where it appears at a comparatively late period. At
first it was assumed that the Messianic kingdom in Palestine
would last for ever (so the prophets; cf. Jer. xxiv. 6; Ezek.
xxxvii. 25; Joel iv. 20; Dan. vi. 27; Sibyll. iii. 49 seq., 766;
Psalt. Salom. xvii. 4; Enoch Ixii. 14), and this seems always to
have been the most widely accepted view (John xii. 34). But
from a comparison of prophetic passages of the Old Testament
learned apocalyptic writers came to the conclusion that a dis-
tinction must be drawn between the earthly appearance of the
Messiah and the appearance of God Himself amongst His people
and in the Gentile world for the final judgment. As a necessary
consequence, a limited period had to be assigned to the Messianic
kingdom. According to the Apocalypse of Baruch (xl. 3) this
kingdom will last " donee finiatur mundus corruptions. " In
the Book of Enoch (xci. 12) "a week " is specified, in the Apoca-
lypse of Ezra (vii. 28 seq.) four hundred years. This figure,
corresponding to the four hundred years of Egyptian bondage,
occurs also in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 990). But this is the only
passage; the Talmud has no fixed doctrine on the point. The
view most frequently expressed there (see Von Otto in H ilgenf eld's
Zeitschrift, 1877, p. 527 seq.) is that the Messianic kingdom will
last for one thousand (some said two thousand) years. " In
six days God created the world, on the seventh He rested. But
a day of God is equal to a thousand years (Ps. xc. 4). Hence the
world will last for six thousand years of toil and labour; then will
come one thousand years of Sabbath rest for the people of God
in the kingdom of the Messiah." This idea must have already
been very common in the first century before Christ. The
combination of Gen. i., Dan. ix. and Ps. xc. 4 was peculiarly
fascinating.
Nowhere in the discourses of Jesus is there a hint of a limited
duration of the Messianic kingdom. The apostolic epistles are
equally free from any trace of chiliasm (neither i Cor. xv. 23 seq.
nor i Thess. iv. 16 seq. points in this direction). In Revelation
however, it occurs in the following shape (ch. xx.). After
462
MILLENNIUM
Christ has appeared from heaven in the guise of a warrior, and
vanquished the antichristian world-power, the wisdom of the
world and the devil, those who have remained steadfast in the
time of the last catastrophe, and have given up their lives for
their faith, shall be raised up, and shall reign with Christ on this
earth as a royal priesthood for one thousand years. At the end
of this time Satan is to be let loose again for a short season; he
will prepare a new onslaught, but God will miraculously destroy
him and his hosts. Then will follow the general resurrection
of the dead, the last judgment, and the creation of new heavens
and a new earth. That all believers will have a share in the first
resurrection and in the Messianic kingdom is an idea of which
the author of Revelation knows nothing. The earthly kingdom
of Christ is reserved for those who have endured the most terrible
tribulation, who have withstood the supreme effort of the world-
power that is, for those who are actually members of the church
of the last days. The Jewish expectation is thus considerably
curtailed, as it is also shorn of its sensual attractions. " Blessed
and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection; on such the
second death hath no power; but they shall be priests of God and
of Christ, and shall reign with Him a thousand years." Other
ancient Christian authors were not so cautious. Accepting the
Jewish apocalypses as sacred books of venerable antiquity, they
read them eagerly, and transferred their contents bodily to
Christianity. Nay more, the Gentile Christians took possession
of them, and just in proportion as they were neglected by the
Jews who, after the war of Bar-Cochba, became indifferent to
the Messianic hope and hardened themselves once more in
devotion to the law they were naturalized in the Christian com-
munities. The result was that these books became " Christian "
documents; it is entirely to Christian, not to Jewish, tradition
that we owe their preservation. The Jewish expectations are
adopted for example, by Papias, by the writer of the epistle of
Barnabas, and by Justin. Papias actually confounds expressions
of Jesus with verses from the Apocalypse of Baruch, referring
to the amazing fertility of the days of the Messianic kingdom
(Papias in Iren. v. 33). Barnabas (Ep. 15) gives us the Jewish
theory (from Gen. i. and Ps. xc. 4) that the present condition of
the world is to last six thousand years from the creation, that at
the beginning of the Sabbath (the seventh millennium) the Son
of God appears, to put an end to the time of " the unjust one,"
to judge the ungodly and renew the earth. But he does not
indulge, like Papias, in sensuous descriptions of this seventh
millennium; to Barnabas it is a time of rest, of sinlessness, and of
a holy peace. It is not the end, however; it is followed by an
eighth day of eternal duration " the beginning of another
world." So that in the view of Barnabas the Messianic reign
still belongs to OVTOS 6 aiuv. Justin (Dial. 80) speaks of
chiliasm as a necessary part of complete orthodoxy, although he
knows Christians who do not accept it. He believes, with the
Jews, in a restoration and extension of the city of Jerusalem; he
assumes that this city will be the seat of the Messianic kingdom,
and he takes it as a matter of course that there all believers
(here he is at one with Barnabas) along with patriarchs and
prophets will enjoy perfect felicity for one thousand years. That
a philosopher like Justin, with a bias towards an Hellenic con-
struction of the Christian religion, should nevertheless have
accepted its chiliastic elements is the strongest proof that
these enthusiastic expectations were inseparably bound up with
the Christian faith down to the middle of the 2nd century. And
another proof is found in the fact that even a speculative Jewish
Christian like Cerinthus not only did not renounce the chiliastic
hope, but pictured the future kingdom of Christ as a kingdom
of sensual pleasures, of eating and drinking and marriage
festivities (Euseb. H. E. iii. 28, vii. 25).
After the middle of the 2nd century these expectations were
gradually thrust into the background. They would never have
died out, however, had not circumstances altered, and a new
mental attitude been taken up. The spirit of philosophical and
theological speculation and of ethical reflection, which began to
spread through the churches, did not know what to make of the
old hopes of the future. To a new generation they seemed paltry,
earthly and fantastic, and far-seeing men had good reason to
regard them as a source of political danger. But more than this,
these wild dreams about the glorious kingdom of Christ began to
disturb the organization which the churches had seen fit to intro-
duce. In the interests of self-preservation against the world,
the state and the heretics, the Christian communities had formed
themselves into compact societies with a definite creed and con-
stitution, and they felt that their existence was threatened by
the white heat of religious subjectivity. So ea rly as the year 1 70,
a church party in Asia Minor the so-called Alogi rejected the
whole body of apocalyptic writings and denounced the book of
Revelation as a book of fables. All the more powerful was the
reaction. In the so-called Montanistic controversy (c. 160-220)
one of the principal issues involved was the continuance of the
chiliastic expectations in the churches. The Montanists of Asia
Minor defended them in their integrity, with one slight modifica-
tion: they announced that Pepuza, the city of Montanus, would
be the site of the New Jerusalem and the millennial kingdom.
After the Montanistic controversy chiliastic views were more and
more discredited in the Greek Church; they were, in fact, stigma-
tized as " Jewish " and consequently " heretical." It was the
Alexandrian theology that superseded them; that is to say, Neo-
Platonic mysticism triumphed over the early Christian hope of
the future, first among the " cultured," and then, when the
theology of the " cultured " had taken the faith of the " un-
cultured " under its protection, amongst the latter also. About
the year 260 an Egyptian bishop, Nepos, in a treatise called
eXeyxos aXhjyopLffTiav , endeavoured to overthrow the Origenistic
theology and vindicate chiliasm by exegetical methods. Several
congregations took his part; but ultimately Dionysius, bishop of
Alexandria, succeeded in healing the schism and asserting the
allegorical interpretation of the "prophets as the only legitimate
exegesis. During this controversy Dionysius became convinced
that the victory of mystical theology over " Jewish " chiliasm
would never be secure so long as the book of Revelation passed
for an apostolic writing and kept its place among the homolo-
goumena of the canon. He accordingly raised the question
of its apostolic origin; and by reviving old difficulties, with
ingenious arguments of his own, he carried his point. At the
time of Eusebius the Greek Church was saturated with prejudice
against the book and with doubts as to its canonicity. In the
course of the 4th century it was removed from the Greek canon,
and thus the troublesome foundation on which chiliasm might
have continued to build was got rid of. The attempts of Metho-
dius of Tyre at the beginning of the 4th century and Apollinarius
of Laodicea about 360 to defend chiliasm and assail the theology
of Origen had no result. For many centuries the Greek Church
kept Revelation out of its canon, and consequently chiliasm
remained in its grave. It was considered a sufficient safeguard
against the spiritualizing eschatology of Origen and his school to
have rescued the main doctrines of the creed and the regula fidei
(the visible advent of Christ; eternal misery and hell-fire for the
wicked). Anything beyond this was held to be Jewish. It was
only the chronologists and historians of the church who, following
Julius Africanus, made use of apocalyptic numbers in their
calculations, while court theologians like Eusebius entertained
the imperial table with discussions as to whether the dining-hall
of the emperor the second David and Solomon, the beloved of
God might not be the New Jerusalem of John's Apocalypse.
Eusebius was not the first who dabbled in such speculations.
Dionysius of Alexandria had already referred a Messianic pre-
diction of the Old Testament to the emperor Gallienus. But
mysticism and political servility between them gave the death-
blow to chiliasm in the Greek Church. It never again obtained
a footing there; for, although, late in the middle ages, the book
of Revelation by what means we cannot tell did recover its
authority, the Church was by that time so hopelessly trammelled
by a magical cultus as to be incapable of fresh developments.
In the Semitic churches of the East (the Syrian, Arabian and
Ethiopian), and in that of Armenia, the apocalyptic literature
was preserved much longer than in the Greek Church. They
were very conservative of ancient traditions in general, and hence
MILLER, H.
463
chiliasm survived amongst them to a later date than in
Alexandria or Constantinople.
But the Western Church was also more conservative than
the Greek. Her theologians had, to begin with, little turn for
mystical speculation; their tendency was rather to reduce the
gospel to a system of morals. Now for the moralists chiliasm
had a special significance as the one distinguishing feature of the
gospel, and the only thing that gave a specifically Christian
character to their system. This, however, holds good of the
Western theologians only after the middle of the 3rd century.
The earlier fathers, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian, believed in
chiliasm simply because it was a part of the tradition of the church
and because Marcion and the Gnostics would have nothing to do
with it. Irenaeus (v. 28, 29) has the same conception of the
millennial kingdom as Barnabas and Papias, and appeals in
support of it to the testimony of disciples of the apostles. Hip-
polytus, although an opponent of Montanism, was nevertheless a
thorough-going millennarian (see his book De Antichristo) .
Tertullian (cf. especially Adv. Marcion., 3) aimed at a more
spiritual conception of the millennial blessings than Papias had,
but he still adhered, especially in his Montanistic period, to all
the ancient anticipations. It is the same all through the 3rd and
4th centuries with those Latin theologians who escaped the
influence of Greek speculation. Commodian, Victorinus Petta-
vensis, Lactantius and Sulpicius Severus were all pronounced
millennarians, holding by the very details of the primitive
Christian expectations. They still believe, as John did, in the
return of Nero as the Antichrist; they still expect that after the
first resurrection Christ will reign with his saints " in the flesh "
for a thousand years. Once, but only once (in the Gospel of
Nicodemus) , the time is reduced to five hundred years. Victori-
nus wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John; and all
these theologians, especially Lactantius, were diligent students of
the ancient Sibylline oracles of Jewish and Christian origin, and
treated them as divine revelations. As to the canonicity and
apostolic authorship of the Johannine Apocalypse no doubts
were ever entertained in the West; indeed an Apocalypse of
Peter was still retained in the canon in the 3rd century. That
of Ezra, in its Latin translation, must have been all but a canoni-
cal book the numbers of extant manuscripts of the so-called
4 Ezra being incredibly great, while several of them are found
in copies of the Latin Bible at the beginning of the i6th century.
The Apocalypse of Hermas was much read till far through the
middle ages, and has also kept its place in some Bibles. The
apocalyptic " Testamenta duodecim patriarcharum " was a
favourite reading-book ; and Latin versions of ancient apocalypses
are being continually brought to light from Western libraries
(e.g. the Assumptio Mosis, the Ascensio Jesajae, &c.). All these
facts show how vigorously the early hopes of the future main-
tained themselves in the West. In the hands of moralistic
theologians, like Lactantius, they certainly assume a somewhat
grotesque form, but the fact that these men clung to them is the
clearest evidence that in the West millennarianism was still a
point of " orthodoxy " in the 4th century.
This state of matters, however, gradually disappeared after
the end of the 4th century. The change was brought about by
two causes first, Greek theology, which reached the West
chiefly through Jerome Rufinus and Ambrose, and, second, the
new idea of the church wrought out by Augustine on the basis of
the altered political situation of the church. Augustine was the
first who ventured to teach that the catholic church, in its
empirical form, was the kingdom of Christ, that the millennial
kingdom had commenced with the appearing of Christ, and was
therefore an accomplished fact. By this doctrine of Augustine's,
the old millennarianism, though not completely extirpated, was
at least banished from the official theology. It still lived on,
however, in the lower strata of Christian society; and in certain
undercurrents of tradition it was transmitted from century to
century. At various periods in the history of the middle ages
we encounter sudden outbreaks of millennarianism, sometimes
as the tenet of a small sect, sometimes as a far-reaching movement.
And, since it had been suppressed, not, as in the East, by
mystical speculation, its mightiest antagonist, but by the political
church of the hierarchy, we find that wherever chiliasm appears
in the middle ages it makes common cause with all enemies of
the secularized church. It strengthened the hands of church
democracy; it formed an alliance with the pure souls who held
up to the church the ideal of apostolic poverty; it united itself
for a time even with mysticism in a common opposition to the
supremacy of the church; nay, it lent the strength of its convic-
tions to the support of states and princes in their efforts to break
the political power of the church. It is sufficient to recall the
well-known names of Joachim of Floris, of all the numerous
Franciscan spiritualists, of the leading sectaries from the T3th to
the i sth century who assailed the papacy and the secularism of
the church above all, the name of Occam. In these men the
millennarianism of the ancient church came to life again ; and in
the revolutionary movements of the isth and i6th centuries
especially in the Anabaptist movements it appears with all its
old uncompromising energy. If the church, and not the state,
was regarded as Babylon, and the pope declared to be the Anti-
christ, these were legitimate inferences from the ancient traditions
and the actual position of the church. But, of course, the new
chiliasm was not in every respect identical with the old. It
could not hold its ground without admitting certain innovations.
The " everlasting gospel " of Joachim of Floris was a different
thing from the announcement of Christ's glorious return in the
clouds of heaven; the " age of the spirit " which mystics and
spiritualists expected contained traits which must be character-
ized as " modern "; and the " kingdom " of the Anabaptists in
Minister was a Satanic caricature of that kingdom in which the
Christians of the 2nd century looked for a peaceful Sabbath rest.
Only we must not form our ideas of the great apocalyptic and
chiliastic movement of the first decades of the i6th century
from the rabble in Miinster. There were pure evangelical forces
at work in it; and many Anabaptists .need not shun com-
parison with the Christians of the apostolic and post-apostolic
ages.
The German and Swiss Reformers also believed that the end of
the world was near, but they had different aims in view from
those of the Anabaptists. It was not from poverty and apoca-
lypticism that they hoped for a reformation of the Church. In
contrast to the fanatics, after a brief hesitation they threw millen-
narianism overboard, and along with it all other " opiniones
Judaicae." They took up the same ground in this respect which
the Roman Catholic Church had occupied since the time of
Augustine. How millennarianism nevertheless found its way,
with the help of apocalyptic mysticism and Anabaptist influences
into the churches of the Reformation, chiefly among the Re-
formed sects, but afterwards also in the Lutheran Church, how
it became incorporated with Pietism, how in more recent times
an exceedingly mild type of " academic " chiliasm has been
developed from a belief in the verbal inspiration of the Bible,
how finally new sects are still springing up here and there with
apocalyptic and chiliastic expectations these are matters which
cannot be fully entered upon here.
See Schurer, Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte
(1874), 28, 29; Corrodi, Kritische Geschichte des Chiliasmus
(1781); R. H. Charles, The Doctrine of a Future Life (1899); Book
of the Secrets of Enoch (1896), pp. xxvii-xxx, ch. xxxii. 2-xxxiii. 2;
Apocalypse of Baruch (1896), xxix. 3-8 (notes); Book of Enoch
(index, s.v. " Messianic Kingdom "); Bousset, Religion des Juden-
thums (1903), 273-276; C. A. Briggs, The Messiah of the Apostles,
p. 284 seq. ; Sabatier, Les Origines litteraires et la composition de
I' Apocalypse de St Jean (1887) ; Spitta, Die Offenbarung des Johannes
untersucht (1889). See also ESCHATOLOGY and works there quoted.
(A. HA.)
MILLER, HUGH (1802-1856), Scottish geologist and man of
letters, was born in humble circumstances at Cromarty, on the
roth of October 1802; his father, Hugh Miller, a seaman, was
drowned when he was but five years old. His primary education
was acquired at a dame's school and afterwards at the parish
school, and at the age of six he had learned that " the art of
reading is the art of finding stories in books." At the age of
twelve he began to write verses. Two of his mother's brothers,
James and " Sandy " Wright, hard-working men at Cromarty,
MILLER, JOAQUIN MILLER, W.
offered to assist him to enter the ministry, but he felt no call to
the sacred office, and from 1820 to 1822 he was apprenticed to a
stone-mason. During the next few years he obtained employ-
ment as a journeyman mason in Edinburgh, Inverness and
various other parts of Scotland. The writing of verses occupied
his leisure hours, and in 1826 he sent to the Scotsman an " Ode on
Greece " which was refused. It was not until 1829 that he met
with his first success in the publication of Poems written in the
Leisure Hours of a Journeyman Mason. These were printed and
issued from the office of 'the Inverness Courier. Miller now
turned his attention to prose and contributed many essays to the
Inverness Courier. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " These made
so favourable an impression that they were soon afterwards
reprinted separately. They marked the advent of a writer
gifted with no ordinary powers of narration and with the
command of a pure, nervous and masculine style."
At the age of thirty-two he was still a stone-mason, but in the
latter part of 1834 he was offered a post as accountant in the
Commercial Bank of Scotland, and was almost immediately
transferred to the Cromarty branch. His prose writings had now
attracted much notice, and he next issued in 1835 Scenes and
Legends of the North of Scotland, or the traditional history of Cro-
marty, in which he introduced some memoranda on the geology.
This work met with a cordial reception. Miller, while still a
stone-mason, had observed the abundant fossils in the Jurassic
shales on the shores of Ethie, but it was not until 1830 that he
first obtained remains of fossil fishes in the Old Red Sandstone.
These for many years he collected and studied as far as he could,
and in 1837 some of his specimens were brought to the notice of
R. I. Murchison and Professor Agassiz. In the following year
he was in communication with Murchison and his career as a
geologist was definitely opened.
In 1837 Miller married Lydia Falconer Frazer (i8u?-i876),
a lady of good position and great natural ability, whom he had
met six years previously. He set up his household in Cromarty,
on a salary of sixty pounds a year, aided by the small sums he
then earned by literary work; and his wife took a few pupils.
Mrs Miller eventually became well known under the pseudonym
of Mrs Harriet Myrtle as author of the Ocean Child (1857)
and other story-books for children.
Soon after his marriage, Miller became greatly stirred by the
internal dissensions in the Church of Scotland, of which he was a
staunch member, and he published two pamphlets which brought
him to the notice of some of the prominent members of the liberal
church party. In. 1839 he went by invitation to Edinburgh to
edit a new Whig newspaper, the Witness, which was intended to
support the views of those who after the disruption in 1843 formed
the Free Church. The paper rapidly attained a large circulation ;
and this was no doubt largely due to his own literary and scientific
essays. In 1840 he contributed a series of articles on The Old Red
Sandstone, and these were reprinted in book form in the following
year. The charm of this work was widely appreciated, as was
also the natural sagacity shown in the descriptions and restora-
tions of some of the fossil fishes. His Footprints of the Creator
was published in 1849, and My Schools and Schoolmasters in 1854.
He was engaged on the final proofs of his Testimony of the Rocks
on the day of his death. During the last year of his life he suffered
from inflammation of the lungs; and the strain of ill-health
proving too severe, he died by his own hand in Edinburgh on
the 23rd of December 1856. By request of his wife, The Cruise
of the Betsey, -with Rambles of a Geologist (1858) previously
printed only in the Witness newspaper was published under
the editorship of the Rev. W. S. Symonds.
In memory of Hugh Miller a monument was erected by public
subscription in 1860 at Cromarty; and the cottage in which he
was born was acquired at a later period by his son Hugh. In it
have been placed part of his library, a set of the Witness
newspaper, some letters addressed to him, and a number of geo-
logical specimens, including many referred to in his Old Red
Sandstone. On the 22nd of August 1902 the centenary of his
birth was celebrated at Cromarty, and was attended by
scientific representatives from all parts of the world.
His elder son, Hugh Miller (1850-1896), passed through the
Royal School of Mines and joined the Geological Survey in
England in 1873; afterwards he was transferred to Scotland
and surveyed the country around Cromarty and other parts of
Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. He was author of Landscape
Geology, 1891.
See The Life and Letters of Hugh Miller, by Peter Bayne (2 vols.,
1871) ; Hugh Miller; his work and influence, address by Sir A. Geikie,
at the centenary celebration. (H. B. Wo.)
MILLER, JOAQUIN (CINCINNATUS HEINE) (1841- ),
American poet, was born in Indiana, on the loth of November
1841, and was educated for the law. After some experiences of
mining and journalism in Idaho and Oregon, he settled down in
1866 as judge in Grant county, Oregon, and during his four
years' tenure of this post he began to write verse. In 1870 he
travelled in Europe, and in 1871 he published his first volume of
poetry, full of tropical passion, Songs of the Sierras, on which his
reputation mainly rests. His Songs of the Sunlands (1873)
followed in the same vein, and after other volumes had appeared,
his Collected Poems were published in 1882. He also wrote plays,
The Danites in the Sierras having some success as a sensational
melodrama. On his return from Europe he became a journalist
in Washington, but in 1887 returned to California. His pen-
name, " Joaquin Miller," by which he is known, was assumed by
him when he published his first book, in consequence of his
having written an article in defence of Joaquin Murietta, the
Mexican brigand.
Revised editions oi his Complete Poetical Works appeared at
San Francisco in 1902.
MILLER, JOE (JOSEPH or JOSIAS( (1684-1738), English actor,
first appears in the cast of Sir Robert Howard's Committee at
Drury Lane in 1709 as Teague. Trinculo in The Tempest, the
First Grave-digger in Hamlet and Marplot in The Busybody, were
among his many favourite parts. He is said to have been a
friend of Hogarth. He died on the i6th of August 1738. After
his death, John Mottley (1692-1750) brought out a book called
Joe Miller's Jests, or Wit's Vade Mecum (1739), a collection of
contemporary and ancient coarse witticisms, only three of which
are told of Miller. Owing to the quality of the jokes in Mottley's
book, their number increasing with each of the many subsequent
editions, any time-worn jest has, somewhat unjustly, come to be
called " a Joe Miller."
MILLER, SAMUEL FREEMAN (1816-1890), American jurist,
was born in Richmond, Kentucky, on the 5th of April 1816, of
Pennsylvania- German stock. He was brought up on a farm, was
a clerk in a drug-store, graduated from the medical department
of Transylvania University in 1838, and practised medicine in
Barboursville, Kentucky, until 1847. In that year he was
admitted to the bar, and entered politics as a Whig. His anti-
slavery sympathies induced him to settle in Iowa, where in 1850
he freed his slaves and began to practise law in Keokuk, and he
soon became a leader of the Republican party in the state. In
1862 he succeeded Justice Peter V. Daniel (1784-1860), as a
justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, and served until his death in
Washington, D.C., on the I3th of October 1890, when he was
senior justice. Miller was a man of great mental force and
individuality, and his judgments carried great weight. In 1877
he was a member of the electoral commission, which adopted his
motion that Congress could not " go behind the returns " as
properly accredited by state officials. He was a prominent
member of the Unitarian Church and for three years was president
of its national conference. He published a volume of Lectures
on the Constitution of the United States (New York, 1891).
See Wm. A. Maury, in The Juridical Review of Edinburgh (for
January 1891), and Chas. M. Gregory, in Yale Law Journal (for
April 1908).
MILLER, WILLIAM (1782-1849), leader of the Second
Adventists in America, was born on the sth of February 1782 at
Pittsfield, Massachusetts. He was a recruiting officer at the
beginning of the War of 1812, and after Plattsburg he was
promoted captain, retiring from the army in 1815. About 1816
he settled in Low Hampton, Washington county, New York.
MILLER, W. MILLERITE
465
He now joined the Baptist Church at Low Hampton, and, after
two years of minute study of the Bible, about 1818 became a
Second Adventist. In 1831 he began to lecture, arguing that the
" two thousand three hundred days " of Daniel viii. 14 meant
2300 years, and that these years began with Ezra's going up to
Jerusalem in 457 B.C., and therefore came to an end in 1843, and
urging his hearers to make ready for the final coming of Christ in
that year. To his many followers, after the year 1843 had passed,
he proclaimed that 1844 was the year, that his error was due to
following Hebrew instead of Roman chronology, and that the
22nd of October was to be the day. There was renewed excite-
ment among Miller's followers; many of them left their business,
and in white muslin robes, on house tops and hills, awaited the
epiphany. In spite of disappointment, many still believed with
him that the time was near. He returned to Low Hampton and
died there on the 2oth of December 1849. The Adventists or
Millerites, who were formed into a single body in a convention
called by him in April 1845, have since separated into several
sects: the Evangelical Adventists (1147 in the United States in
1908), who believe in everlasting punishment; the Seventh Day
Adventists (64,332), who observe the seventh day, and practise
the sacrament of foot- washing; the Advent Christians (26,500),
the Churches of God in Jesus Christ (2872), and the Life and
Advent Union (3800). Their total number in the United States
in 1908 was about 99,300. Miller published in 1833 a pamphlet
which was the basis of his lectures; these were published in 1842
as Evidence from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of
Christ about the Year 1843.
See Sylvester Bliss, Memoirs of William Miller (Boston, 1853) ;
James White, Sketches of the Christian Life and Public Labors of
William Miller (Battle Creek, 1875); and Edward Eggleston's novel,
End of the World (1872).
MILLER, WILLIAM (1795-1861), British soldier, who took
a prominent part in the South American Wars of Liberation,
entered the British artillery service in 1811, and till 1814 he was
continuously on active service with Wellington's army in the
Peninsula. In the latter year he accompanied the ill-fated New
Orleans expedition. After the general peace he travelled for two
years about Europe, and then went to South America. The war
which culminated in the expulsion of the Spaniards was just
breaking out, arid he took command in the Chilean artillery,
with which he served during the Chilean part of the war. As a
major he commanded the marines on Cochrane's vessel, the
" O'Higgins." In 1821 he landed in Peru, to assist General San
Martin against the Spanish General Canterac. He was made
general of brigade, and became very intimate with Simon*Bolivar.
He rendered the most conspicuous services at Junin (Aug. 6,
1824), and his regiment, the "Hussars of Junin," covered itself
with glory in the decisive victory of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824).
From 1830 to 1839 he filled various high military and political
affices in Peru. In the latter year he was involved in the fall of
Santa Cruz, and went into exile. For some years he filled the post
of British Consul- General of the Pacific Coast. He died on board
H.M.S. " Naiad " at Callao, on the 3ist of October 1861.
See the Memoirs published by his brotherjohn Miller(London, 1 827).
MILLER, WILLIAM (1796-1882), Scottish line-engraver, was
born in Edinburgh on the 28th of May 1796. After studying in
London under George Cook, a pupil of Basire's, he returned to
Edinburgh. He executed plates after Thomson of Duddingston,
Macculloch, D. O. Hill, Sir George Harvey, and other Scottish
landscapists, but his chief works were his transcripts from Turner.
The first of these was the Clovelly (1824), of TheSouthern Coast, a.
publication undertaken by George Cook and his brother William
B. Cook, to which Miller also contributed the Combe Martin
and the Portsmouth. He was engaged on the illustrations of
England and Wales, 1827-1838; of The Rivers of France, 1833-
1835; of Roger's Poems, 1834; and very largely on those of The
Prose and Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, 1834. In The Pro-
vincial Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of Scotland, 1826, he
executed a few excellent plates after Thomson and Turner.
Among his larger engravings of Turner's works may be mentioned
"The Grand Canal, Venice"; "The Rhine, Osterprey and
Feltzen "; " The Bell Rock "; " The Tower of London "; and
" The Shepherd." The art of William Miller was warmly appre-
ciated by Turner himself, and Ruskin pronounced him to be on
the whole the most successful translator into line of the paintings
of the greatest English landscapist. His renderings of complex
Turnerian sky-effects are especially delicate and masterly. To-
wards the end of his life Miller abandoned engraving and occupied
his leisure in the production of water-colours, many of which
were exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was
an honorary member. He resumed his burin, however, to
produce two final series of vignettes from drawings by Birket
Foster illustrative of Hood's Poems, published by Moxon in 1871.
Miller, who was a Quaker, died on the 2oth of January 1882.
MILLER, WILLIAM HALLOWES (1801-1880), British
mineralogist and crystallographer, was born at Velindre near
Llandovery, Carmarthenshire, on the 6th of April 1801. He
was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he gradu-
ated in 1826 as fifth wrangler, and became a fellow in 1829.
For a few years he was occupied as a college tutor and during
this time he published treatises on hydrostatics and hydro-
dynamics. He also gave special attention to crystallography,
and on the resignation of W. Whewell he succeeded in 1832 to
the professorship of mineralogy, a post which he occupied until
1870. His chief work, on Crystallography, was published in
1838. He was elected F.R.S. in 1838. In 1852 he edited a
new edition of H. J. Brooke's Elementary Introduction to Miner-
alogy. He assisted in 1843 the committee appointed to super-
intend the construction of the new Parliamentary standards
of length and weight (see Phil. Trans., 1856). He died in
Cambridge on the 2oth of May 1880.
MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (1850- ), French socialist
and politician, was born in Paris on the loth of February 1859.
He was educated for the bar, and made his reputation by his
defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche
and Duc-Quercy, the instigators of the strike at Decazeville
in 1883; he then took Laguerre's plaoe on M. Clemenceau's
paper, La Justice. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies
for the department of the Seine in 1885 as a radical socialist.
He was associated with MM. Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan
as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike (1892). He had long had
the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation, and after
the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians his
influence grew. He was chief of the Socialist left, which then
mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in
the press, La Petite Republique. His programme included
the collective ownership of the means of production and the
international association of labour, but when in June 1899
he entered Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet of " republican defence "
as minister of commerce he limited himself to practical reforms,
devoting his attention to the improvement of the mercantile
marine, to the development of trade, of technical education,
of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions
of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate
department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and
insurance office was also raised to the status of a " direction. "
The introduction of trades-union representatives on the Supreme
Labour Council, the organization of local labour councils, and
the instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in
communication with the councils of the trades-unions, were
valuable concessions to labour, and he further secured the
rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection
of the working-classes. His name was especially associated
with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which
became law in 1905. He became in 1898 editor of La Lantertie.
His influence with the extreme Socialists had already declined,
for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition
had disintegrated the party.
For his administration in the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet see
A. Lavy, L'CEuvre de Millerand (1902); his speeches between 1899
and 1907 were published in 1907 as Travail et travailleurs.
MILLERITE, a mineral consisting of nickel sulphide, NiS.
Crystals belong to the rhombohedral system and have the form
4 66
MILLER'S THUMB MILLET, J. F.
of slender needles arranged in divergent groups or of delicate
fibres loosely matted together. The colour is brass-yellow
and the lustre metallic. Before the chemical composition
of the mineral had been determined it had been known as
"capillary pyrites" or "hair pyrites" (Ger., Haarkies),
and was not distinguished from the capillary forms of pyrites
and marcasite: the name millerite was given by W. Haidinger
in 1845, in honour of W. H. Miller. The hardness is 3-3^ and
the specific gravity 5-65. There are perfect cleavages parallel
to the faces of the rhombohedron (100); and gliding planes
parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (no), on which secon-
dary twinning may be readily produced artificially by pressure.
Typical specimens of millerite are found in the coal measures
in the neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil in South Wales, where
the delicate needles and fibres occur with crystals of quartz
and pearl-spar in the fissures of septarian nodules of clay-
ironstone. Radiating groups of needles are found with ankerite
in cavities in haematite in the Sterling mine at Antwerp in
Jefferson county, New York. At the Gap mine in Lancaster
county, Pennsylvania, the mineral occurs as fibrous encrusting
masses with a velvety lustre. The most perfect crystals are
those formerly found with calcite, diopside and a bright green
chrome-garnet in a nickel mine at Orford in Sherbrooke county,
Quebec. (L. J. S.)
MILLER'S THUMB (Cottus gobio), a small fish, abundant in
all rivers and lakes of northern and central Europe with clear
water and gravelly bottom. The genus Cottus, to which the
miller's thumb belongs, is easily recognized by its broad, flat
head, rounded and scaleless body, large pectoral and narrow
ventral fins, with two dorsal fins, the anterior shorter than
the posterior; the praeoperculum is armed with a simple or
branched spine. The species of the genus Cottus are rather
numerous, and are confined to the north temperate zone of the
globe, the majority being marine, and known by the name of
" bullheads." The miller's thumb is confined to fresh water;
and only one other freshwater species is found in Europe, C.
poecilopus, from rivers of Hungary, Galicia, and the Pyrenees;
some others occur in the fresh waters of northern Asia and North
America. The miller's thumb is common in all suitable localities
in Great Britain, but is extremely rare in Ireland; in the Alps
it reaches to an altitude exceeding 7000 ft. Its usual length
is from 3 to 5 in. Generally hidden under a stone or in a
hollow of the bank, it watches for its prey, which consists of
small aquatic animals, and darts when disturbed with extra-
ordinary rapidity to some other place of refuge. The female
deposits her ova in a cavity under a stone, whilst the male
watches and defends them until the young are hatched and able
to shift for themselves.
MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- ), American artist,
was born at Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November
1846. He was a drummer boy with the Union forces in the
Civil War; graduated from Harvard College in 1869; and in
1871 entered the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp, where
he studied under Van Lerius and De Keyser. In 1873 he was
made secretary of the Massachusetts commission to the Vienna
Exposition. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he was
correspondent of the London Daily News and Graphic, and of
the New York Herald. On his return he was made a member
from the United States of the International Art Jury at the Paris
Exposition of 1878. He was director of decorations at the
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and in 1898 he went to
Manila as war correspondent for The Times and for Harper's
Weekly. In 1880 he became a member of the Society of
American Artists, and in 1885 was elected to full membership
in the National Academy of Design, New York, and was for
one term its vice-president; he became a member also of the
American Water Color Society and of the Institute of Painters
in Oil Colours, London. As a decorative artist his work may
be seen at Trinity Church, Boston; the Bank of Pittsburg; and
the Capitol at St Paul, Minnesota. His pictures are in many
public collections: among them are " A Cosy Corner," in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; " At the Inn," in the
Union League Club, New York; and " Between two Fires,"
in the Tate Gallery, London. He also wrote essays and short
stories, and an English version of Tolstoi's Sebastopol (1887);
and among his publications are The Danube (1891), Capillary
Crime and other Stories (1892), and Expedition to the Philip-
pines (1899).
MILLET (or MILE), JEAN' FRANCOIS (c. 1642-1679), com-
monly called FRANCISQUE, was born at Antwerp about 1642,
and is generally classed amongst the painters of Flanders on
account of the accident of his birth. But his father was a
Frenchman, a turner in ivory of Dijon, who took service with
the prince of Conde and probably returned after a time to his
native country. He remained long enough in Antwerp to
apprentice his son to an obscure member of a painter family
called Laurent, pupil of Gabriel Franck. With Laurent, Francis-
que left Antwerp for Paris, and there settled in 1660 after marry-
ing his master's daughter. He was received a member of the
Academy of Painting at Paris in 1673, and after gaining consider-
ation as an imitator of the Poussins he died in 1679, bequeathing
his art and some of his talents to one of his sons. Francisque
probably knew, as well as imitated, Nicolas Poussin, Caspar
Dughet and Sebastian Bourdon; and it is doubtless because
of his acquaintance with these travelled artists that, being
himself without familiarity with the classic lands of Italy and
Greece, he was able to imagine and reproduce Italian and
Arcadian scenery with considerable grace and effectiveness.
It is indeed surprising to observe, even at this day how skilfully
he executed these imaginary subjects, enlivened them with
appropriate figures, and shed over them the glow of a warm
yet fresh and sparkling tone. Twelve of his most important
landscapes, which remained in the palace of the Tuileries, were
destroyed by fire; and though many of his pieces may still be
found catalogued in Continental and English collections, others
in great number remain unknown and unacknowledged.
His son JEAN FRANCOIS MILLET, the younger (1666-1723),
also called Francisque, was born in Paris, and was made a
member of the Academy of Painting in 1709. He is not quite
so independent in his art as his father; but he had clever friends,
and when he wanted figures to his landscapes, he consulted
Watteau, and other followers of the " court shepherdess "
school. In the museum of Grenoble is a " Paysage " by him
which is prettily adorned with Watteau's figures.
MILLET, JEAN FRANC.OIS (1814-1875), French painter,
who came of a peasant family, was born on the 4th of October
1814 in .the hamlet of Gruchy, near Greville (La Manche), in
the wild and picturesque district called La Hague. His boyhood
was passed working in his father's fields, but the sight of the
engravings in an old illustrated Bible set him drawing, and
thenceforth, whilst the others slept, the daily hour of rest was
spent by Millet in trying to render the familiar scenes around
him. From the village priest the lad learnt to read the Bible
and Virgil in Latin, and acquired an interest in one or two
other works of a high class which accompanied him through
life; he did not, however, attract attention so much by his
acquirements as by the stamp of his mind. The whole family
seems, indeed, to have worn a character of austerity and dignity,
and when Millet's father finally decided to test the vocation
of his son as an artist, it was with a gravity and authority which
recalls the patriarchal households of Calvinist France. Two
drawings were prepared and placed before a painter at Cher-
bourg named Mouchel, who at once recognized the boy's gifts,
and accepted him as a pupil; but shortly after (1835) Millet's
father died, and the eldest son, with heroic devotion, took
his place at home, nor did he return to his work until the pressing
calls from without were solemnly enforced by the wishes of his
own family. He accordingly went back to Cherbourg, but
after a short time spent there with another master (Langlois)
started with many misgivings for Paris. The council-general
of the department had granted him a sum of 600 francs, and
the town council promised an annual pension of 400, but in
spite of friendly help and introductions Millet went through
great difficulties. The system of the Ecole des Beaux Arts
MILLET
467
was hateful to him, and it was not until after much hesitation
that he decided to enter an official studio that of Delaroche.
The master was certainly puzzled by his pupil; he saw his ability,
and, when Millet in his poverty could not longer pay the monthly
fees, arranged for his free admission to the studio, but he tried
in vain to make him take the approved direction, and lessons
ended with " Eh, bien, allez a votre guise, vous etes si nouveau
pour moi que je ne veux rien vous dire." At last, when the
competition for the Grand Prix came on, Delaroche gave Millet
to understand that he intended to secure the nomination of
another, and thereupon Millet withdrew himself, and with his
friend Marolle started in a little studio in the Rue de 1'Est. He
had renounced the beaten track, but he continued to study hard
whilst he sought to procure bread by painting portraits at
10 or 15 francs apiece and producing small " pastiches" of
Watteau and Boucher. In 1840 Millet went back to Greville,
where he painted " Sailors Mending a Sail " and a few other
pictures reminiscences of Cherbourg life.
His first success was obtained in 1844, when his " Milkwoman "
and " Lesson in Riding " (pastel) attracted notice at the Salon,
and friendly artists presented themselves at his lodgings only
to learn that his wife had just died, and that he himself had
disappeared. Millet was at Cherbourg; there he remarried,
but having amassed a few hundred francs he went back to Paris
and presented his " St Jerome " at the Salon of 1845. This picture
was rejected and exists no longer, for Millet, short of canvas,
painted over it " Oedipus Unbound," a work which during the
following year was the object of violent criticism. He was,
however, no longer alone; Diaz, Eugene Tourneux, Rousseau,
and other men of note supported him by their confidence and
friendship, and he had by his side the brave Catherine Lemaire,
his second wife, a woman who bore poverty with dignity and
gave courage to her husband through the cruel trials in which
he penetrated by a terrible personal experience the bitter secrets
of the very poor. To this date belong Millet's " Golden Age,"
" Bird Nesters," " Young Girl and Lamb," and "Bathers"; but to
the " Bathers " (Louvre) succeeded " The Mother Asking Alms,"
" The Workman's Monday," and " The Winnower." This last
work, exhibited in 1848, obtained conspicuous success, but did not
sell till Ledru Rollin, informed of the painter's dire distress,
gave him 500 francs for it, and accompanied the purchase with
a commission, the money for which enabled Millet to leave Paris
for Barbizon, a village on the skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau.
There he settled in a three-roomed cottage for the rest of his
life twenty-seven years, in which he wrought out the perfect
story of that peasant life of which he alone has given a " complete
impression." Jules Breton has coloured the days of toil with
sentiment; others, like Courbet, whose eccentric " Funeral at
Ornans " attracted more notice at the Salon of 1856 than
Millet's " Sowers and Binders," have treated similar subjects as
a vehicle for protest against social misery; Millet alone, a peasant
and a miserable one himself, saw true, neither softening nor
aggerating what he saw. In a curious letter written to M.
ensier at this date (1850) Millet expressed his resolve to break
once and for all with mythological and undraped subjects, and
he names of the principal works painted subsequently will
how how steadfastly this resolution was kept. In 1852 he pro-
duced " Girls Sewing," " Man Spreading Manure "; 1853, " The
leapers "; 1854, " Church at Greville "; 1855 the year of the
International Exhibition, at which he received a medal of second
class" Peasant Grafting a Tree "; 1857, " The Gleaners "; 1859,
" The Angelus," " The Woodcutter and Death "; 1860, " Sheep
Shearing "; 1861, " Woman Shearing Sheep," " Woman Feed-
ing Child"; 1862, "Potato Planters," "Winter and the
Crows"; 1863, "Man with Hoe," "Woman Carding"; 1864,
" Shepherds and Flock, Peasants Bringing Home a Calf Born
in the Fields"; 1869, "Knitting Lesson"; 1870, "Butter-
making"; 1871, "November recollection of Gruchy." Any
one of these works will show how great an influence Millet's
previous practice in the nude had upon his style. The dresses
worn by his figures are not clothes, but drapery through which
the forms and movements of the body are strongly felt, and
their contour shows a grand breadth of line which strikes the
eye at once. Something of the imposing unity of his work
was also, no doubt, due to an extraordinary power of memory,
which enabled Millet to paint (like Horace Vernet) without
a model; he could recall with precision the smallest details of
attitudes or gestures which he proposed to represent. Thus
he could count on presenting free from afterthoughts the vivid
impressions which he had first received, and Millet's nature
was such that the impressions which he received were always
of a serious and often of a noble order, to which the character of
his execution responded so perfectly that even a " Washerwoman
at her Tub " will show the grand action of a Medea. The drawing
of this subject is reproduced in Souvenirs de Barbizon, a pamphlet
in which M. Piedagnel has recorded a visit paid to Millet in 1864.
His circumstances were then less evil, after struggles as severe
as those endured in Paris. A contract by which he bound
himself in 1860 to give up all his work for three years had placed
him in possession of 1000 francs a month. His fame extended,
and at the exhibition of 1867 he received a medal of the first
class, and the ribbon of the Legion of Honour, but he was at
the same moment deeply shaken by the death of his faithful
friend Rousseau. Though he rallied for a time he never com-
pletely recovered his health, and on the zoth of January 1875
he died. He was buried by his friend's side in the churchyard
of Chailly. His pictures, like those of the rest of the Barbizon
school, have since greatly increased in value.
See the article BARBIZON; also A. Sensier, Vie et teuvre de J. F.
Millet (1874) ; PiiSdagnel, Souvenirs de Barbizon, &c. (1876) ; D. C.
Thomson, The Barbizon School (1891); Richard Muther, J. F.
Millet (1905) ; Gensel, Millet und Rousseau (1902). (E. F. S. D.)
MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of migllo =
Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility), a name applied
with little definiteness to a considerable number of often very
variable species of cereals, belonging to distinct genera and even
subfamilies of Gramineae. Common millet is Panicum milia-
ceum (German Hirse). It is probably a native of Egypt and
Arabia but has been cultivated in Egypt, Asia and southern
Europe from prehistoric times. It is annual, requires rich
but friable soil, grows to about 3 or 4 ft. high, and is character-
ized by its bristly, much branched nodding panicles. One
variety has black grains. It is cultivated in India, southern
Europe, and northern Africa, and ripens as far north as southern
Germany, in fact, wherever the climate admits of the production
of wine. The grain, which is very nutritious, is used in the
form of groats, and makes excellent bread
when mixed with wheaten flour. It is
also largely used for feeding poultry, for
which purpose mainly it is imported.
Hungarian grass, Setaria italica (also
called Panicum italic-urn), a native of
eastern Asia is one of the most whole-
some and palatable Indian cereals. It
is annual, grows 4 to 5 ft. high, and
requires dry light soil. German Millet
(Ger. Kolbenhirse, Mohar) is probably
merely a less valuable and dwarf variety
of 5. italica, having an erect, compact,
and shorter spike. The grains of both are
very small, only one half as long as those
of common millet, but are exceedingly
prolific. Many stalks arise from a single
root, and a single spike often yields 2 oz.
of grain, the total yield being five times
that of wheat. They are imported for
poultry feeding like the former species
and for cage-birds, but are extensively
used in soups, &c., on the Continent.
Numerous other species belonging to the
vast genus Panicum the largest among
grasses, of which the following are among fl _
the most important are also cultivated
in tropical or subtropical countries for their grain or as fodder
4 68
MILLIGAN MILLIPEDE
grasses, or both, each variety of soil, from swamp to desert,
having its characteristic forms.
Polish millet is P. sanguinale; P. frumentaceum, shamalo, a
Deccan grass, is probably a native of tropical Africa; P. decom-
positum is the Australian millet, its grains being made into cakes
by the aborigines. P. maximum is the Guinea grass, native of
tropical Africa; it is perennial, grows 8 ft. high, and yields abun-
dance of highly nutritious grain. P. spectabile is the coapim of
Angola, but has been acclimatized in Brazil and other tropical
countries. Other gigantic species 6 or 7 ft. high form the field-
crops on the banks of the Amazon. Of species belonging to allied
genera, Pennisetum typhoideum, bajree, sometimes also called
Egyptian millet or pearl millet, 'is largely cultivated in tropical
Asia, Nubia and Egypt. Species of Paspalum, Eleusine and
Milium, are also cultivated as millets. For Indian millet, see
DURRA.
MILLIGAN, WILLIAM (1821-1892), Scottish theologian,
was born on the isth of March 1821, the eldest son of the Rev.
George Milligan and his wife Janet Fraser. He was educated
at the High School, Edinburgh, and, from the age of fourteen,
at the university of St Andrews, where he graduated in 1839.
In 1843 at the disruption he took the side of those who remained
in the Establishment, and in 1844 became minister of Cameron
in Fifeshire. In 1845, his health having given way, he went
to Germany, and studied at the university of Halle. After
his return to Scotland and his resumption of his clerical duties
he began to write articles on Biblical and critical subjects for
various reviews. This led to his appointment in 1860 to the
professorship of Biblical criticism in the university of Aberdeen.
In 1870 he was appointed one of the committee for the revision
of the translation of the New Testament. His fervent piety, and
his wide interest in educational and social questions, extended
his influence far beyond the circle of theologians. His contribu-
tions to periodical literature for many years were numerous
and valuable; but his reputation chiefly rests on his works on
the Resurrection (1890) and Ascension of our Lord (1892), his
Baird lectures (1886) on the Revelation of St John, and his
Discussions (1893) on that book. All these volumes are dis-
tinguished by great learning and acuteness, as well as by breadth
and originality of view. He died on the nth of December
1892.
MILLINER, originally a dealer in goods from the city of
Milan in Italy, whence the name. Such goods were chiefly
steel work, including cutlery, needles, also arms and armour
and textile fabrics, ribbons, gloves and " Milan bonnets."
The " milliners " of London, though never formed into a Livery
Company seem to have been associated with the " Cappers and
Hurers," which later were amalgamated with the " Haber-
dashers " (<?..). Minsheu's derivation of the word from 'mille,
thousand (" as having a thousand small wares to sell "), though
a typical instance of guessing etymologies, shows the miscella-
neous character of their trade in the i6th and I7th centuries.
The modern use of the word is confined chiefly to one who makes
and sells bonnets and hats for women; but articles of " millinery "
include ribbons, laces, &c., usually retailed by haberdashers.
MILLIPEDE, the popular name of the best known members
of a group of the Arthropoda, scientifically known as Diplopoda,
and formerly united with the Chilopoda (see CENTIPEDE), the
Pauropoda and the Symphyla as an order of the class Myriapoda.
This classification, however, has of late years been abandoned
on account of the recognition of closer affinity between the
Chilopoda (centipedes) and the Hexapoda (insects) than between
the Chilopoda and Diplopoda. By modern writers the above-
mentioned groups of " tracheate " Arthropoda are either
regarded as independent classes of this phylum Arthropoda,
or associated in two superclasses, the Opisthogonea or Opistho-
goneata for the Chilopoda and Hexapoda; and the Prosogonea
or Prosogoneata for the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla.
The structural character upon which these superclasses are
based is the position of the generative apertures which open
anteriorly in the Prosogonea and posteriorly in the Opisthogonea.
Although the Pauropoda and Symphyla are not, strictly speak-
ing, Diplopoda, these three groups of prosogoneate arthropods
are here for convenience considered together.
CLASS DIPLOPODA.
Structure. The anterior extremity is provided with a distinct
head which by its general form and the nature of its appendages
is as sharply marked off from the body as is the case in the Hexa-
poda. It always bears at least three pairs of appendages, the eyes
when present and, in the Oniscomorpha a peculiar sense organ.
The inferior edge of the
head plate overhangs the
mouth and is termed the
labrum. The exoskeleton
of a typical somite consists
of the following elements:
a dorsal plate, a ventral
plate, and a pleural plate on
each side. To the external
margin of the ventral plate
or sternum is articulated a
pair of legs and between the
leg and the pleural plate is
situated the spiracle of the
tracheal system. But the
segmentation of the Diplo-
poda presents two marked
peculiarities. The first is
the fact that, with the ex-
ception of a few of the
anterior i leg-bearing seg-
ments and perhaps one or
two of those at the posterior
end of the body, a single
dorsal plate or tergum with
its pleural plates overlies FlG , ._ Sp i rostreptus ^tatus, an
Oriental species of the Spirostrep-
toidea, lateral view, showing the
a.v
After Pocock in Max Weber's Zool. Ergebnisse.
&c., IV., PI. XXI., fig. 8, 1894.
repugnatorial pores on the sides of the
segments.
c, head with eyes and antennae.
tg ', tergal plate of first segment.
a.tg, tergal plate of last or anal
segment.
a.st, sternal plate of ditto.
a.v, anal valve.
two sternal plates, two
pairs of legs and two pairs
of spiracles. Hence the
segments appear to be
double and to be furnished
with twice as many legs as
is normal in the Arthropoda
a peculiarity which has
suggested the term " Dip-
lopod " or " double-footed,"
for this group. It is
generally believed that each tergal plate results from the coalescence
of the terga of two originally distinct adjoining segments; but the
same effect would be produced by the enlargement of one of a pair
of terga and the complete excalation of the other. It is in favour
of the latter view that there is only a single pair, and not two pairs,
of stink-glands on each so-calleu double tergal plate. Unfortun-
ately the history of the development of the segments does not
clear up the difficulty since the terga of the double segments are
single from the first, and no evidence either of fusion or excalation
is supplied. The second of the two peculiarities above-mentioned
is the great development of the tergal sclerite as compared with
the sternal. Only very rarely (i.e. in Platydesmus) is there a broad
sternal area. In the majority of cases the lateral edges of the tergum
are bent downwards and inwards towards the mid ventral line;
the sternum at the same time is so much reduced that the basal
segments of the legs of opposite sides are almost in contact. The
.-ft
. A B
After Silvestri, Ann. Mus. Genova, (a), xvi, figs. 17, 19, 25.
FIG. 2. The Gnathochilarium or jaws of second pair of various
Chilongatha.
A, of Spirostreplus. B, of Julus. C, of Glomeris.
c, cardo. m, mentum.
st, stipes. pm, promentum.
/, linguae. h, hypostoma.
pleural plate on each side usually disappears either by suppression
or by fusion with the tergum. The sterna with their attached
legs often remain free. But quite commonly the coalescence of
the skeletal elements is carried to such an extreme that each seg-
ment is a solid ring with two pairs of movable appendages. The
last segment is differently constructed from the others. It is
always limbless, and usually consists of a complete tergal ring, a
single sternal plate, and a pair of movable anal valves which are
normally closed, but are capable of being opened for the passage
of faeces. These anal valves are possibly the homologues of the
plural scutes of a normal segment. The appendages are modified
MILLIPEDE
469
as a single pair of antennae, two or three pairs of jaws and a variable
number of walking-legs, of which one or more pairs may be trans-
formed into gonopods. The antennae are short and very similar
to the legs. They are preoral in position, and usually consist of
Seven segments, the seventh or distal segment being small, as a
rule, and furnished with a sense organ which is probably olfactory
or tactile in function. The mandibles or jaws of the first pair are
the most anterior of the postoral appendages. They are large,
powerful, and usually consist of three or two segments, a basal or
mi
\
After Voges.
FIG. 3. Inner view of ventral area of a single segment of Julus,
much enlarged to show the structure and arrangement of the
tracheal organs. The two pairs of tracheae are seen in situ, the
posterior pair overlapping the anterior.
h. Posterior margin of the body- /, Fine tracheae given off from it.
ring (tergum). ms, Respiratory muscle attached
r, Anterior border. to tracheal sac.
st, Tubular chamber of tracheae, m, Ventral body muscle.
cardo, which is sometimes absent, a second or stipes, and a third
or mala, the latter being supplied with a strong tooth and pectinate
lamellae. In all Diplopods, with the exception of the Pselapho-
gnatha, there are only two pairs of jaws, those of the second pair
forming a large plate, the gnathochilarium, which acts as a lower
lip. It consists of several distinct sclerites, two external on each
side, the proximal known as the cardo, the distal as the stipes, the
latter being tipped with one or two lobes (malae) and far exceeding
the cardo in size. Between the external plates there is a median
proximal plate (mentum) generally of large size and often itself
subdivided, and a pair of distal plates (linguae). Behind the base
of the gnathochilarium there is a single large transverse plate, the
hypostoma. In the Pselaphognatha, the jaws representing the
gnathochilarium are differently constructed and an additional pair,
the maxillulae, has been recently detected between the gnathochi-
larium and the mandibles. Behind the gnathochilarium, which
from embryological data appears to result from the modification
of a single pair of appendages, a legless somite has been detected
in some embryos. Possibly the plate referred to above as the
hypostoma is its sternal element.
The heart is a median dorsal vessel composed of a series of
chambers each giving off a pair of arteries and furnished with a
pair of orifices or ostia. According to Newport, the anterior
chamber lying in the second segment is prolonged into an aortic
trunk from which arise three pairs of lateral arteries dipping down
on each side of the alimentary canal and uniting beneath it in a
common ventral vessel. The heart is enveloped in a delicate
pericardial membrane and is supported by lateral alary muscles.
The alimentary canal is a simple tube extending usually straight
through the body from mouth to anus. Only in the Oniscomorpha
is it lopped, thus suggesting the origin of this short-bodied group
of millipedes from longer, more vermiform ancestors. A pair of
so-called salivary glands opens into the fore-gut near its anterior
extremity and one or two pairs of malpighian tubes communicate
with the hind-gut at its junction with the broad mesenteric portion
of the canal. Respiration is effected by means of tracheal tubes
which communicate with the exterior by means of spiracles situated
just above the bases of the walking limbs. Each spiracle leads
into a longer or a shorter pouch whence the tracheae, which are of
two kinds, arise. In the majority of the orders the tracheae are
tufted, that is to say, they form two bundles of short simple tubules
springing from the innermost corners of each pouch. In the
Oniscomorpha, however, each pouch gives rise to a number of long
tubes which extend through the body and somewhat resemble
those of the Chilopoda except that they neither branch nor are
extensive. As in the Chilopoda and Hexapoda the tracheae are
strengthened and kept expanded by a slender spiral filament.
The ventral nerve cord consists of two strands so closely approxi-
mated as to be practically fused, with a small ganglionic enlarge-
ment for each pair of legs. Hence in the double segments there
are two such ganglia, which in addition to the crural nerve give off
on each side a large branching nerve to other organs in the segment.
In the Opisthospermophora (Julus, Spirostreptus) and the Onisco-
morpha (Glomens, Sphaerotherium) the ganglia are spaced at equal
distances on the cord, but in the Merochaeta (Polydesmus) they
are grouped in pairs to correspond to the spacing of the legs. The
apodous penultimate and anal segments are innervated from the
last ganglion of the cord, as are also the gonopods of the males of
c~ cb oc
J3
ngon
After G. C. Bourne, /. Linn. Soc. xk., PI. 29, 1886.
FIG. 4. Diagram of the nervous and circulatory system of Sphae-
rotherium obtusum, a South African species of Oniscomorpha.
c, Head. gP and gl 22 , Second and twenty-
oc, Eye-cluster. second ganglia of chain, the
ant, Antenna. posterior nerve of each gan-
md, Basal segment of mandible. glion, Ig.n, supplies the leg,
<g 2 and tg lz , Part of the terga of the anterior, tr.n, the tra-
the second and thirteenth cheal sac and other organs.
segments. n.gon, Nerve to gonopods.
cb, Cerebral ganglia supplying tr, Tracheal tubes with spiral
the eyes and antennae. filament.
oes, Oesophagus, cut through. tr.s, Tracheal sac.
sb.gl, Suboesophageal or first
ganglion of ventral chain.
the Oniscomorpha. The first (suboesophageal) ganglion of the cord
supplies the mandibles and gnathochilarium and is connected by
the oesophageal commissures with the bilobed cerebral nerve
whence arises the nerves for the eyes, when present, and the
antennae.
Eyes are sometimes absent, as in all the genera of Merochaeta
and in many genera of other groups, as in Siphonophora, one of the
Colobognatha, and several of the Juloidea (Typhloblaniulus). In
other cases they are represented by one or two ocelli on each side
(Stemmiuloidea) ; or by a vertical series of ocelli as in the Glomeroidea
and Polyzonium amongst the Colobognatha. But in the majority
of the orders they are represented by triangular or subspherical
aggregations of ocelli recalling in a certain degree those of the Litho-
biomorpha amongst the Chilopoda. They are simple in structure
and consist externally of a cuticular corneal thickening or lens
and internally of a retinular layer of enlarged epidermic cells, the
470
internal or proximal ends of which are continuous with the fibres
of the optic nerve. The ovary is unpaired and extends almost
the entire length of the body beneath the alimentary canal.
The oviducts are sometimes separate tubes (Lysiopetalum), some-
times confluent and divided just before terminating in the two
orifices behind the base of the legs of the second pair (Julus). I he
testes and seminal ducts occupy the same position and extent as
the ovary and oviducts. The ducts are sometimes coiled, some-
times divided, sometimes united. The two testes are sometimes
united by transverse branches across the middle line, and are some-
times branched posteriorly. They bear short caecal diverticula in
which the semen is developed. There are no accessory glands
associated with the generative organs; but in some forms, e.g.
Polyxenus, there is a .pair of receptacula seminis extending back-
wards alongside the ovary and opening into the oviduct.
ant
post
After Pocock, J. Linn. Sac. rri., PI. 25.
p IG j. Gonopods of Trigoniulus andersoni, one of the Opistho-
spermophora (Spiroboloidea).
A, Anterior view, and B, lateral views of the apparatus, ant,
anterior, and post, posterior portions of the coleppod ensheathing
the phallopod, of which the proximal portion, ph, is shown.
C, Phallopod removed from the coleopod.
The secondary sexual characters of the males are of great
taxonomic importance. The seminal ducts, like the oviducts,
open behind the legs of the second pair. Associated with them in
the Limacomorpha (Glomeridesmus) , there is a pair of very long
retractile penes. In the Spirostreptoidea and Juloidea the penes
are much shorter and have coalesced. Sometimes they are un-
developed (Spiroboloidea). In other cases, the Merochaeta,
Oniscomorpha, &c., the ducts traverse the coxae of the legs of the
second pair. But in all these groups, with the exception of the
Oniscomorpha, semen is transferred from the genital orifices, with
or without the aid of the penes, either into the first or second pairs
of appendages of the seventh segment which are modified in various
ways, and are termed phallopods. When the posterior legs are so
modified the anterior are as a rule even more profoundly altered
to form a protective sheath, or coleopod, for the phallopod ; and as
a further precaution the entire apparatus is usually withdrawn
within the seventh segment. In the Oniscomorpha the semen is
transferred into a pair of receptacles developed upon the coxae of
the legs of the last pair, which are chelate. The male appendages
that are modified in the above described ways are comprehensively
spoken of as gonopods. Other secondary sexual characters, like
the stridulating organs of the males of some Oniscomorpha, the
suctorial pads on the legs of Spirostreptoidea, the development of
angular processes upon the mandible or first tergal plate, or of fine
ridges in the gnathochilarium all of which are concerned in
enabling the male to maintain a secure hold upon the female are
of great taxonomic use in distinguishing the genera and species.
The most important glands in the Diplopoda are the repugnatorial
or stink-glands, which, except in the Oniscomorpha, Limacomorpha
and Ascospermophora, open by pores upon the sides of more or
fewer of the segments. They secrete a fluid with an unpleasant
odour, breaking up in one case into cyanide of potassium, and are
practically the only means of protection, apart from the hard
exoskeleton, which Diplopods possess. In some millipedes silk
glands also exist and open upon papillae upon the posterior border
of the last tergal plate. They are found in the Ascospermophora,
Stemmiuloidea and Proterospermophora, and are used for spin-
ning nests for the eggs and protective cases for the young during
exuviation.
Classification. The existing members of the class Diplopoda
may be classified as follows :
Subclass i. PSELAPHOGNATHA.
Order: Penicillata (Polyxenus).
2. CHILOGNATHA.
Order: Oniscomorpha (Glomeris, Zephronia). '
Limacomorpha (Glomeridesmus).
Colobognatha (Polyzonium, Siphonophora).
Ascospermophora (Chordeuma).
Proterospermophora (Lysiopetalum) .
Merochaeta (Polydesmus).
Opisthospermophora.
Suborder: Stemmiuloidea (Stemmiulus).
Spiroboloidea (Spirobolus) .
Spirostreptoidea (Spirostreptus) .
Juloidea (Julus, Nemasoma).
MILLIPEDE
Subclass PSELAPHOGNATHA
Diplopods with the soft integument strengthened by weakly
chitinized sclerites and furnished above and on the head with trans-
verse rows of short, stout, somewhat squamiform bristles; laterally,
on each side of the principal segments, with a thick tuft of long
bristles and with a large, silky, white tuft projecting backwards
from the posterior extremity. Mandibles one-jointed. Behind
them a pair of small, one-jointed maxillulae, attached to a median
membranous " lingua." Behind the " lingua " and maxillulae, a
large, double, transverse plate with a long, external sclerite bearing
distally in Polyxenus an inner short-lobate process and an outer
long spiny palpiform branch. The latter, however, is absent in
Lophoproctus. These sclerites probably represent the gnatho-
chilarium of the Chilognatha, but the homology between the
skeletal elements of the jaws in question is not clearly understood.
It has been suggested that they represent two pairs of jaws, but
embryological proof of this does not exist.
nut U>.
mxint
A, after Carpenter.Q./.Jl/.S. 49, PI. 28, fig. i.
B, after Latzel, Die Myr. Ost. Ung. Man. II., PI. ii., 1884.
FIG. 6. Jaws of Polyxenus lagurus.
A, Jaws of second and third pairs, mxl, maxillula; mx.p, palpi-
form branch of maxilla; mx.lb, lobate process of maxilla; mx.ext,
external plate of maxilla perhaps corresponding to the stipes of
the gnathochilarium of the Chilognatha; mx.int, internal plate of
maxilla, perhaps corresponding to the mentum and promentum
of the gnathochilarium (by Carpenter mx.int is regarded as an
appendage posterior to the maxilla) ; mb, membrane.
B, Mandibles of Polyxenus lagurus.
Order Penicillata ( = Ancyrotricha).
Head large, usually with lateral eyes. Antennae eight-jointed,
attached near the middle of the front of the head. On the dorsal
side of the body there are eleven segments,
simple and compound. The first four of
these bear one pair of legs each, the suc-
ceeding four two pairs of legs, the ninth
segment one pair, making a total of thirteen
pairs of legs. The tenth and eleventh or
anal segment are legless. There is a
narrow sternal area separating the bases of
the legs of the two sides. There are no
repugnatorial glands. In the male none of
the legs are modified as gonopods, but the
coxa of each of the legs of the second pair is
furnished with a conical penis, which during
copulation, it may be supposed, is inserted
into the genital orifice of the female, which
occupies a corresponding position in that
sex. The young when first hatched has
only three pairs of legs and five segments.
The millipedes of this order are all of small
size, measuring at most only a few millimetres
in length. The best-known genera are
Polyxenus and Lophoproctus, both of which
occur in Europe. Other forms have been
discovered in the West Indies, North and
South America, and Ceylon; and it is
probable that the group has an almost cos-
mopolitan range. They live under stones
or the loosened bark of trees. The carbon-
iferous fossil, Palaeocampa, is usually re-
ferred to this subclass.
Subclass CHILOGNATHA.
Diplopods with firmly chitinized exo-
skeleton, sometimes thickly, sometimes
sparsely covered with short, simple hairs,
but never decorated with tufts or rows of peculiarly modified bristles.
After Bode.
FIG. 7. Ventral
view of Polyxenus
lagurus much en-
larged, actual length
a fittle over ^th of
an inch.
a, Position of gener-
ative openings.
MILLIPEDE
Mandibles, two : or three-jointed ; maxillulae absent, the jaws of the
second pair being represented by the gnathochilarium described
above.
Order Oniscomorpha.
Body short and broad, hemispherical in transverse section-
convex above, flat below, and capable of being spherically coiled'
I he exoskeleton of a typical compound segment consists of a
vaulted tergum, a pair of free pleural sclerites, two pairs of smal
tracheal sclerites and two pairs of legs, the latter attached to the
ventral membrane, which has no sternal plates. The tergal plate
are twelve or thirteen in number, whereof the first is very small
the second enormously expanded laterally, and the last, also en
larged and probably representing at least three segments, extend
laterally and posteriorly like a hood over the posterior end of thi
fc
After Pocock, in Max Weber's Zool. Ergebnisse, &c., IV., PI. n.
FIG. 8. Sphaeropoeus hercules, a Sumatran species of the
Oniscomorpha.
A, Lateral view of the entire animal, c, head; ant, antenna;
tg 1 , tg 2 and tg, tergal plates of first, second and thirteenth
segments; Ig, extremities of some of the anterior legs.
B, Gonopods of the male. gp l and gp 2 , anterior and posterior
pairs of gonopods, both being chelate claspers; pen, processes arising
from the basal segments of the gonopods of the second pair, which
act as penes.
C, Vulvae or genital plates attached to the basal segments of
the legs of the second pair in the female, g.o, genital orifice.
body without forming a chitinous ring round the anal valves and
sternum. In the male the legs of the penultimate pair are some-
times modified as claspers; those of the last pair are always enlarged
and prehensile, and bear on their coalesced basal segments a pair
of sperm-carrying processes analogous to the phallopods of other
groups. Apart from these organs the male has no penis, the seminal
ducts perforating the coxae of the legs of the second pair. This
order contains two well-marked suborders, the Glomeroidea and
the Zephronioidea. The Glomeroidea, comprising the families
Glomeridae, Gervaisiidae, Onomeridae, have the antennae approxi-
mated on the head, the eyes uniserial and twelve (rarely eleven)
tergal plates. To this group belong the common pill-millipedes of
Europe and North Africa. In North America the Onomeridae
alone are found. The Zephronioidea, with the single family Zeph-
roniidae, have the antennae at the sides of the head, the eyes com-
posed of a spherical cluster of ocelli, and always thirteen tergal
plates. This group is common in the tropical and southern con-
tinents of the Old World, having representative genera in South
Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand.
They are much larger forms than the Glomeroidea, large specimens
caching two or three inches in length. In addition to the characters
nentioned above the Oniscomorpha differ from all other Diplopods
having long tubular tracheae and the alimentary canal bent upon
Order Limacomorpha.
Resembling the Oniscomorpha in the shape and structure of a
typical segment, except that the tracheal plates are unrepresented ;
' i the facts that the last tergal plate does not form a complete ring
ound the anal area, and that the last pair of legs in the male are
modified; but differing from them in that the body consists of
nineteen or twenty segments, is elongate, and tapers anteriorly and
"osteriorly, the second and last tergal plates being small; in the
. resence in the male of a pair of long hairy protrusible penes between
the legs of the second and third pairs, and in the structure of the
gonopods, which, instead of being chelate, terminate in a slender,
tapering tarsal segment. This order contains two families : Zeph-
roniodesmidae (Zephroniodesmus) and Glomeridesmidae (Glomerisdes-
mus), the former from tropical Asia, the latter from tropical America.
The largest of these millipedes reach a length of only about 7 mm.
Nothing special is known of their habits.
Order Colobognatha.
Body elongate, capable of being spirally coiled, consisting of a
large and indefinite number of segments, each being furnished with
a distinct often large sternal area, and with the pleural sclerite or
membrane distinct from the tergum. The last tergal plate forms
a complete ring round the anal valves. Legs with coxal pouches-
those of the seventh segment transformed into gonopods of a verv
simple type m the male, which is also furnished with a double penis
completely or partially confluent with the coxae of the legs ofthe
second pair. Head always small, frequently triangular or piriform,
in the latter case the gnathites reduced in size and complexity
Kepugnatonal pores present and lateral. The genera of this order
A
f-*p
D .-/^fr
After Pocock, /. Linn. Sac. ndv., PI. 37.
FIG. g.Glomeridesmus marmoreus, one of the Limacomorpha.
A, Lateral view, c, head with antennae; tg 1 , tergal plate of first
segment ; an.tg, tergal plate of last or anal segment.
B, Lower view of one of the segments, tg, inferior edge of the
tergal plate; pi, pleural sclerite; lg l , basal segment of leg.
C, Posterior extremity of body, an.tg, tergal plate of anal seg-
ment ; cop.lg. gonopod or copulatory leg.
D, Legs of the third pair with extruded penes, pen, in front of
them.
are divisible into three families: the Platydesmidae (Platydesmus,
Pseudodesmus), Polyzonidae (Polyzonium, Siphonotus), Siphono-
phoridae (Siphonophora). Of these the Platydesmidae have de-
parted least and the Siphonophoridae most from the typical
Diplopod in the structure of the mouth parts. The group is for
the most part tropical, one genus only, Polyzonium, extending as
far north as Central Europe.
Order Ascospermophora.
Body elongate, consisting of from twenty-six to thirty-two
segments, but not varying within specific limits; the pleurae
coalesced with _ the terga, the sterna free. More or fewer of the
anterior ten pairs of legs may be modified in the males, but no true
ahallopods are differentiated, the function of seminal receptacles
aeing performed (according to C. Verhoeff) by the exsertile coxal
pouches of the two pairs of legs of the eighth segment. The seminal
ducts in the male perforate the coxae of the legs of the second pair.
There are no repugnatorial pores, and the terga are furnished with
three pairs of symmetrically placed hairs or bristles. On the
xjsterior border of the last tergal plate there is a pair of spinning
>apillae. The millipedes of this order, also called Coelochoeta,
are referable to several families: Chordeumidae (Chordeuma),
'raspedosomidae (Craspedosoma) , Heterochordeumidae (Heterochor-
deuma), &c. The Heterochordeumidae belong to the Oriental region,
extending from India to New Zealand. The others are particularly
abundant in genera and species in North and Central America and
iurope; but are unknown in Africa, south of the Sahara.
Order Proterospermophora.
Differing from the Ascospermophora in that the number of seg-
ments is large and variable; they are furnished with repugnatorial'
jores, and not with the three pairs of setae. In the males the
anterior appendages of the seventh segment are modified as phallo-
pods, and the seminal ducts perforate the coxae of the legs of the
econd pair.
This order, containing the family Lysiopetalidae (Lysiopetalum),
s widely distributed in Europe and North America. Large ex-
amples of some of the species, e.g. L. xanthinum, reach a length of
. or 5 ins.
Order Merochaeta.
Resembling the Proterospermophora in having only the anterior
appendages of the seventh segment converted into phallopods and
he seminal ducts perforating the coxae of the second legs in
he males; but differing essentially in that the sterna are
472
MILLIPEDE
solidly welded to the rest of the exoskeleton of the segments, which
are either nineteen or twenty in number, in the absence of eyes
and of spinning papillae, and in having six-
jointed legs. This order is cosmopolitan
in distribution and consists of a very large
number of genera which by some authors
are referred to the single family Poly-
desmidae ; by others to numerous families.
Many species are brightly coloured, and
some individuals of the Oriental genus
After Pocock, in Max Weber's Zool. Ergebnisse, &c.,
IV., PI. xx.
FIG. 10.
Platyrhachus mirandus, a Sumatran
species of Polydesmidae, to show the form
characteristic of the order Merochaeta.
c, Head.
ant, Antenna.
lg l , Tergal plate of first body segment.
tg 7 , Ditto of seventh.
a.tg, Tergal plate of anal segment.
The figure also shows the repugnatorial
pores which are present upon the majority
of the segments, the laterally expanded
tergal plates, and the presence of two pairs
of legs for each of the segments except the
two last, the four first and the seventh ; the
latter, since the figured specimen was a
male, has the anterior leg converted into
a phallopod which is concealed beneath
the body.
Platyrhachus may reach a length of 5 ins. The segments are usually
provided with lateral laminate or tubercular expansions bearing
the repugnatorial pores, which are only very rarely absent.
Order Opisthospermophora.
Resembling the Proterospermophora in possessing a large and
variable number of segments, each of which, with the exception of
the last and the anterior four or five, is furnished with a pair of
repugnatorial pores, but differing essentially from them in that the
posterior pair of appendages of the seventh segment are converted
into phallopods, and the anterior into protective coleopods m the
male and that the seminal ducts in this sex do not perforate the
coxae of the legs of the second pair but are usually associated with
a distinct penis situated immediately behind them. The genera
of this order present greater diversity of structure than is found in
the other orders and are referred to four suborders, which by some
zoologists are erected to ordinal rank, namely, the Stemmiuloidea
(Monochaeta) ; the Spiroboloidea (Anochaeta) ; the Spirostreptoidea
(Diplochaeta) ; and the Juloidea (Zygochaeta).
In the Stemmiuloidea the sterna are free and the pleurae partially
so; the terminal segment of the legs is bisegmented; there are two
pairs of spinning papillae on the last tergite; the penis is a single
long tube, and the eyes are represented by one or two large lenses
on each side of the head. The genus Steittmiulus, constituting the
Stemmiulidae, is represented by a few species recorded from the
Oriental, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions. In the possession of
silk-glands this suborder resembles the Ascospermophora and
Proterospermophora, and should perhaps rank as an order apart
from the Opisthospermophora.
The Spiroboloidea, containing one family, the Spirobolidae
(Spirobolus, Rhinocricus, &c.), have the sterna and pleurae coalesced,
the tarsi undivided; no spinning papillae, no penis, the eyes repre-
sented by an aggregation of ocelli ; and the first five segments each
with a single pair of legs, the sixth carrying two pairs. This group
attains its maximum of development in the tropics, where species
and genera are numerous and specimens of large size, i.e. 6 ins. or
over, are met with.
The Spirostreptoidea resemble the Spiroboloidea in many par-
ticulars, but the fourth segment is footless, and the fifth has two
pairs of limbs; the male has a distinct and double penis, and in both
sexes the stipites of the gnathochilarium extend to the proximal
end of the mentum, which is relatively small. The distribution of
this order, which contains several families: Spirostreptidae (Spiro-
streptus, Rhynchoproctus), Cambalidae (Cambala, Julomorpha), &c.,
is practically the same as that of the Spiroboloidea. Specimens
over 6 ins. in length are met with in the tropics of Africa and Asia.
The Juloidea differ from the Spirostreptoidea in having the third
segment limbless, the first, second and fourth with a single pair of
appendages, and the stipites of the gnathochilarium much expanded
and meeting for a considerable distance in the middle line behind
the very small promentum.
The best marked family of this group is the Julidae, which is
widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. Its species and
genera (Julus, Pachyiulus) are abundant in Europe. Another
European family, the Nemasomidae, is founded for the genus
Nemasoma, which is remarkable for having the sterna free.
Habits, &c. Millipedes are principally cryptozoic, living under
stones or logs of wood in damp, secluded localities. They feed
almost wholly upon decaying vegetable matter, and drink a con-
siderable quantity of water. Some of the tropical species emerge
in numbers from their hiding-places after heavy rains, and crawl
over the ground and bushes in search of moisture in broad day-
light. Their method of progression over level ground is quite
peculiar. The body is held in a straight line and is propelled by
a succession of wave-like movements of the legs, which are moved
in groups, the groups on the right and left side exactly correspond-
ing. Some forms, e.g. Stemmiulus, have been described as attempt-
ing to evade capture by a hopping action caused by vigorous
jerking and wriggling of the body. Many of the species are very
conspicuously coloured and the association of brilliant colouring
with the existence of the nauseous secretion of the repugnatorial
glands suggests that the coloration is aposematic or of warning
significance.
Copulation between the sexes takes place before oviposition.
In the Opisthospermophora the males and females coil together
with the ventral surface of the anterior ends of their bodies opposed,
the male holding the female securely by the head while the extended
phallopods carrying the semen are brought into contact with her
genital orifice. In the Polydesmidae pairing is effected in the same
way except that the male and female instead of intercoiling remain
extended, the male clasping the female with his legs. In the Onisco-
morpha the sexes also pair front to front, not head to head, however,
but head to tail, so that the gonopods in the anal segment of the
male can be applied to the second pair of postoral appendages in
the female. Some males of this group, e.g. Sphaerotherium, have
a stridulating organ on their posterior gonopods and stridulate
when finding the females.
The method of disposing of the young, which usually have only
three pairs of legs at hatching, differs in various groups. In Julus
and Polydesmus the female burrows below
the surface and makes a subspherical nest
of small blocks of earth which are
moistened with the salivary secretion and
moulded to the proper shape between her
jaws and anterior legs. When the re-
ceptacle is nearly finished she deposits
her eggs in it, and, closing the aperture,
leaves the whole to its fate. On the
other hand, a female specimen of the
South African species, Archispirostreptus
erythrocephalus, that lived in the London
Zoological Gardens, buried herself, coiled
round the eggs, and remained with her
young for some time after they were
hatched. Again, millipedes, like the
Stemmiuloidea and Ascospermophora,
which possess silk-glands, spin silken
cases for the protection of their eggs.
Immature specimens of these groups ov -
spin similar silken cases at the time of *1G. ii. Larva of
exuviation; and cases, resembling the Strongylosoma Guertnn,
nests, are likewise made for purposes of ?ne of the Polydesmidae,
moulting by immature forms of some J ust hatched.
exotic species of Polydesmidae, e.g. by the tropical African Oxydes-
mus. There is good reason to think, however, that the animal
makes use of its own voided excrement in the formation of these
receptacles.
A considerable number of Chilognatha of doubtful systematic
position have been recorded from beds of the carboniferous forma-
tion. The best known are Acantherpestes and Euphoberia. Speci-
mens referred to existing genera have been discovered in amber
beds of Oligocene age.
CLASS PAUEOPODA.
As in the Diplopoda there is a distinct head bearing a pair of
antennae and two pairs of jaws. On each side of the head there is
an eye-like spot which may conceivably represent a degenerate eye,
although the external cuticle shows no corneal thickening nor the
epidermis retinular specialization, and optic nerves are absent from
the brain. The antennae are structurally unique in the Arthropoda.
There are four short basal segments from the distal of which arise
two one-jointed branches, an external thinner and an internal
thicker. The external or postaxial branch is tipped with a single
long annulate flagelliform bristle with a rounded apical knob ; and
the internal or preaxial branch with two similar but shorter bristles
and a globular, usually pedunculated, sense organ between them.
The mandibles or jaws of the first pair are large and one-jointed.
Those of the second pair are very short, piriform, and attached to
the ventral side of the head by a long, rod-like sclerite. Between
these two pairs of jaws there is a horny framework forming a kind
of lower lip to the mouth. The correspondence between these
mouth parts and those of the Diplopoda is not understood. No
doubt the mandibles are homologous in the two groups; but whether
the jaws of the second pair in the Pauropoda correspond to the
maxillulae of the Pselaphognatha, or to part of the gnathochilarium
in the Chilognatha, or whether the chitinous framework alone or
in conjunction with the pair of jaws answers to the gnathochilarium
From Balfour, after Metsch-
MILLIPEDE
are questions to which no answer can as yet be given. Judging
from the segmentation and the appendages the body is composed
of twelve somites, including the last or anal, which, like the pen-
ultimate somite, is limbless. Each somite in front of the penultimate
ant
ftfff
A and B, after Kenyon, Tufts Coll. Studies, iv., 1895; C, after Hansen, Vid. Meddd.,
1901, PI. VI., fig. 30; D. and E, after Kenyon.
FIG. 12. PAUROPUS.
A. Pauropus huxleyi (?). c, head; ant. antenna; tg l and /g s , first
and fifth double tergal plates; Ig 1 , first walking-leg ( = 2nd post-
cephalic appendage); /g 9 , ninth walking-leg; a.sg, anal segment;
st, setae.
B. Eurypauropus spinosus. Lettering as in A.
C. Brachypauropus superbus. Lettering as in A and B ; (tg l ) =
first and second terga; tg & , = ninth and tenth terga.
D. Jaws of Pauropus huxleyi; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; Ib,
labial framework.
E. Antenna of Eurypauropus spinosus; fl, flagella; gl, sensory
organ.
bears a single pair of legs, nine pairs of which are fully developed
ambulatory limbs, while those of the first segment are reduced to
After Lubbock.
FIG. 13. Enlarged view of Pauropus huxleyi, from ventral side,
a pair of bud-like processes. The first and last pairs of ambulatory
limbs consist of five segments; in the remaining pairs the terminal
segment may be subdivided into two, so that there may be six
segments in all. The ambulatory limbs are usually terminated by
three claws, a principal and two subsidiary, each claw being accom-
panied by a membranous pad. Between these limbs, which are
relatively longer and stronger than in the Diplopoda. and evenly
spaced on each side of the body, extends a soft-skinned sternal
area. The distensible pleural region of the body is also membra-
nous, but the dorsal area is covered by chitinous plates or terga,
usually six in number, excluding that of the anal segment; each of
the anterior five of these overlies two limb-bearing somites, the
first covering the somite of the rudimentary limbs and of the first
pair of locomotor legs, the second those of the second and third
pairs of locomotor legs, and so on. This condition is an adumbra-
tion of the far completer fusion of somites seen in the Diplopoda.
The sixth tergal plate belongs to the limbless penultimate somite.
The duplex character of the first five terga is suggested in Pauropus
by the presence of two rows of sensory bristles; there being only
one such row upon the sixth tergum. In the aberrant genus Brachy-
pauropus the evidence is practically completed by the correspon-
dence in number between the terga and pairs of legs, there being a
divisional line between the two rows of setae. On each side of the
body there are five long pubescent tactile setae situated on the
second to the sixth terga in Pauropus, and on the pleural area
corresponding to these terga in Brachypauropus.
The cerebral mass of the nervous system is large and when viewed
from above is seen to consist of two lobes defined by a median groove.
In the absence of eyes no optic nerves are given off. Beneath
these are two antennal lobes whence arise, close together, the
antennal nerves. Two short commissural cords connect the cerebral
mass with the suboesophageal ganglion, a composite mass formed of
the nervous centres which supply the two pairs of jaws and the
rudimentary legs of the first pair. Behind this large ganglion the
cord, which shows superficially no trace of its double origin, presents
a ganglionic swelling for each pair of legs. No circulatory or
respiratory organs have been detected.
The alimentary canal consists of a short, narrow fore-gut, a large,
straight mid-gut, and a moderately long hind-gut which is itself
composed of two parts, an anterior narrow tube which opens into
tn ft f
-vd'
f Iff*
After Kenyon, Tufts Coll. Studies, iv., 1895.
Fic._i4. PAUROPODA.
A. Alimentary canal of Pauropus; fg, fore-gut; sg, salivary gland;
mg, mid-gut; hg, anterior portion of hind-gut; a, anus; m.p.t., mal-
pighian tubule.
B. Female genital organs of Eurypauropus; ov, ovary; ovid,
oviduct; rs, receptaculum seminis; go, genital orifice.
C. Male genital organs of Pauropus; t l and C, anterior and pos-
terior portions of testes; vd l , 'vd?, vd 3 , yasa deferential vs.s, vesi-
cula seminalis; cd, common duct; go, genital orifices.
D. Lateral view of Pauropus; c, head; ant. antenna; tg l ,tg*,
first and fifth tergal plates; a.sg, anal segment; st, lateral bristles;
Ig.r, rudimentary leg; lg l and Ig? first and ninth fully formed
walking legs; p, penis.
a dilated, piriform, posterior portion, narrowing gradually to
terminate in the anus. Opening into the anterior extremity of the
fore-gut there is a pair of " salivary " glands. Malpighian tubes
have been found in some forms, i.e. females of Eurypauropus
spinosus, but not in any examples, male or female, of Pauropus
huxleyi. Where present they open at the point of union of the mid-
474
MILLIPEDE
and hind-guts. The generative organs in the female are very
simple, and much like those of the Diplopoda. In the male they
are highly complex, and unlike those of any known Arthropod in
certain particulars. The wide, unpaired ovary extends nearly to
the posterior end of the body. Anteriorly it passes into an oviduct
which is unpaired throughout its length. The posterior portion of
the duct is wide. The anterior, an abruptly narrowed tube, curves
round the nerve-cord and opens by a single sub-median orifice in the
third segment. Just within the orifice there opens into the oviduct
the short duct of a spherical receptaculum seminis. In the male
the testis is never paired. Sometimes it is single, sometimes
divided into an anterior and a posterior mass, and sometimes
merely constricted. It lies above the intestine in the posterior
half of the body in the adult, but at least in the young in some
cases, where as many as four divisions have been detected, its
position is more lateral. Leading from the sperm masses there
may be as many as three slender short ducts which soon expand
into wider tubes. These tubes, regarded as seminal vesicles, after
forming a complex of loops, coils and caecal prolongations, ulti-
mately unite beneath the intestine in a single tube which passing
forwards divides on each side of the alimentary canal to terminate
in the two penes situated just behind the bases of the second pair
of complete legs, that is to say, the legs of the third segment. Just
at the root of the penis there is an accessory gland on the duct,
and a little farther back a much larger glandular swelling.
The Pauropoda are divided into three rather sharply defined
groups or families which may be briefly characterized as follows :
Pauropodidae. -Head not covered by the first tergal plate. Anal
segment not covered by the sixth tergal plate. Terga of the first
ten body segments fused in couples. Tactile setae situated on the
lateral portions of the terga which are neither sculptured nor spinous.
(Pauropus, Stylopauropus .)
Brachypauropodidae. Head and anal segment free and the terga
smooth as in the last ; but each of the double terga of the Pauropodidae
divided into an anterior and posterior plate by a transverse band
of membrane and each of these into a pair of plates by a longitudinal
integumental strip. The tactile setae arising from the pleural area
of the segments. (Brachypauropus.)
Eurypauropodidae. Body wide and onisciform, the head and the
anal segment concealed dorsally by the first and penultimate terga
respectively. Terga fused as in the Pauropodidae, but thickly
spinous or sculptured. The tactile setae situated beyond the edge
of the terga, as in the Brachypauropodidae. (Eurypauropus.)
The genus Pauropus is probably world-wide in distribution, since
it has been discovered in Europe, North and South America, and in
Siam. The two known species of Brachypauropus were found
respectively in Italy and Austria. Eurypauropus has representatives
in North America and Europe. Examples of Pauropus are extremely
agile, recalling the centipede Lithobius in their movements; those
of Eurypauropus, on the contrary, are extremely slow and quite
comparable in lack of agility to the common pill-millipede. They
are usually found in woods, under stones, fallen branches, dead
leaves or other damp situations. They are believed to be vegetable
feeders and are oviparous. The young upon hatching has four
segments and three pairs of legs representing the first three pairs
of ambulatory legs of the adult. The two last segments are apodous,
the first bears the first pair of legs, and the second the second and
third pairs. The young passes through four successive moults,
and gradually acquires its full complement of segments and limbs.
CLASS SYMPHYLA.
Prosogoneate Arthropods, differing in many important particulars
from the Diplopoda and Pauropoda. The axis of the head lies in
the same straight line as that of the body, as in the Chilopoda, and
not at right angles to it as in the Diplopoda and Pauropoda. There
are no eyes. The antennae are very long and many-jointed. Four
pairs of gnathites attached to the under-side of the head have been
detected. The first pair (mandibles) are two-jointed, as in many
Diplopods. The second pair (maxillulae) are minute, one jointed
and articulated to a median lobe or hypopharynx which is supported
by two chitinous skeletal rods. The third pair (maxillae) consist
of a long, basal segment terminating distally in two lobes; near the
distal end of the basal segments there is externally a minute one- or
two-jointed process, regarded as a palpus. Between the maxillae
lies a large, double plate (labium or maxillae of second pair) which
is attached proximally to two rod-like basal segments and terminates
distally in two pairs of short lobes. The body is long and narrow
and bears on its dorsal side fifteen tergal plates. The first of these,
immediately succeeding the head, is very short; the remainder
are large and sub-equal in size. The adult animal is furnished
with twelve pairs of walking legs, which, with the exception
of the first pair, are alike in size and segmentation. Each
consists of five segments, the distal of which is long and termi-
nates with two powerful claws. The proximal segment bears
internally a slender, cylindrical process which may be termed the
parapod. It has been asserted that the segment bearing this para-
pod is in reality the second and that the true basal segment or coxa
is embedded in the ventral integument. The legs of the first and
second pairs never have the parapod, but they are invariably
present in the remaining ten pairs. The legs of the first pair
/!:,,,
are never more than four-jointed; they are always smaller than
the others, and are sometimes reduced to mere bud-like pro-
cesses. They belong to the first segment behind the head. The
segment represented by the last tergal plate has no ambulatory
limbs; but articulated to its posterior
border is a pair of large, backwardly
directed sclentes, which are_ perforated
by the ducts of two spinning glands.
These segments are regarded by some
authors as the appendages of the last
After Latzel, Die Myr. Osl. Ung. Mm. II. PI. L.
1884.
A. Mandibles or jaws of first pair of
Scolopendrella ; md l , md 2 , first and second
segments; /, tendon; c, part of ventral
skeleton of head.
B. Jaws of second pair; mxl, maxillula;
hyp, hypopharynx.
C. Jaws of third and fourth pairs; mx,
maxilla; p.mx, maxillary palp; Ib.mx,
maxillary lobes; Ib.st, sternal plate of
jaw of fourth pair or labium; Ib 1 , lb 2 , first
and second segments of labium. (Figs.
A, B, C modified from Hansen, Q.J.ltf.S.,
47, pi. I.)
D. Posterior end of body from below;
lg n , 'eg of nth pair: /g 12 , rudimentary
leg of I2th pair of immature specimen;
sc, exsertile sac; ent., parapod; pap,
sensory papilla; cere, cercus or spin-
ning sclerite: dl, duct of silkgland; a,
anus.
FIG. 15.
segment, and have been compared to the cercopods of insects. At-
tached also to the sides of the last segment in front of the spinning
mamilla there is a sub-conical papilla bearing an apical seta arising
from a cuplike depression. It has been suggested that these
papillae also represent a pair of appendages. In that case the
last segment must be double and bear two pairs of appendages.
Thus there may be as many as fourteen pairs of trunk append-
ages. There are, however, only twelve pairs known to exist with
certainty. These are represented by as many segments on the
ventral side; but are numerically less by two than the terga. It is
not known whether this very unusual phenomenon is to be accounted
for by the addition of two supernumerary terga or by the excalation
of two pairs of appendages. The legs of the first pair are basally
in contact; the rest are separated by a triangular sternal
area. At the base of the legs, with
the exception of those of the first
and last pair, there is a slit-like
orifice recalling the coxal sacs of
certain Diplopoda (e.g. Lysiopetalum,
Platydesmus). In internal anatomy
the Symphyla closely resemble the
Diplopoda. The alimentary canal
is straight and simple, with a pair
of " salivary " glands opening into
the fore-gut, and a pair of malpighian
tubes joining the hind-gut close to its
communication with the mid-gut.
There is a dorsal heart with seg-
mental ostia and valves, and also
a supraneural vessel. The silk
glands, which occur in both sexes,
are situated as in Lysiopetalum.
The generative glands and ducts,
which are paired, lie between the
alimentary canal above and the nor-
mally constructed nerve-cord below,
and are accompanied in the male
by a pair of seminal vesicles; and
the orifice lies ventrally in the third
segment behind the head. A peculi-
arity in which the Symphyla differ
from all " tracheate " arthropoda is
the presence of a single pair of ^
- fi
sn pr o magnified (slightly
tracheal tubes opening by a pair of m ? dlfied from Packard) a,
cessive moults.
The known species of Symphyla are referred to two genera,
Scolopendrella and Scutigerella, which together constitute the family
Scolopendrellidae. The chief difference between the two lies in the
form of the tergal plates, which in Scolopendrella have the posterior
MILLOM MILLVILLE
475
angles produced and angular.whereas in Scutigerella they are rounded.
Both genera are widely distributed and are represented, in Europe,
South America, Siam, &c. Large specimens reach a limit of between
six and seven millimetres. They live in earth, beneath stones, dead
leaves or fallen branches, and resemble diminutive centipedes (Scolo-
pendra or Lithobius) both in appearance and movements. The
Symphyla have frequently been compared with the Thysanurous
Hexapods, the parapods with their adjacent exsertile vesicles in
Scolopendrella being_very similar to the abdominal appendages and
vesicles of such an insect as Machilis; while the posterior spinning
sclerites or cerci of the former bear much resemblance to the cerco-
pods of Japyx._ It must be remembered, however, that the spinning
glands of certain Diplopods occupy the same position as those of the
Symphyla and open upon papilliform processes of the last tergal
plate, which are certainly not appendages. Hence; 1 if the papillae
are the homologues of the cerci in Scolopendrella, these cerci cannot
be morphologically comparable to the cercopods of Japyx or other
insects. But even if the full force of the arguments in favour of
relationship between the Symphyla and the Hexapoda be admitted,
the Symphyla, nevertheless, differ essentially from the Hexapoda
in the anterior position of the generative orifice, and in the presence
of twelve pairs of similar ambulatory limbs. (R. I. P.)
MILLOM, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, in the extreme south-west of
the county, on the Furness railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901), 10,426. The church of Holy Trinity, Early Norman and
Decorated in date, is chiefly of interest for its curious pillars,
alternately round and octagonal, and for a window in the north
aisle, which has five lights, and is known, on account of its
unique shape, as the " fish-window." A massive roodstone
stands in the churchyard. Millom Castle, dating from shortly
after the Conquest, was fortified in the i4th century by Sir John
Huddlestone, whose descendants held it until 1774. For centu-
ries, they exercised the power of life and death; a stone stands
where the gallows were formerly erected, and indicates that here
they exercised jura regalia. Though strongly built, the castle
was never of great size, and it has been largely dismantled. A
fine carved staircase, however, still exists in the main chapel.
In 1648 the Parliamentary forces besieged Millom Castle, and
early in the igth century its park was converted into farmland.
In the neighbourhood of Millo'm there are blast furnaces and
highly productive mines of red haematite ore. The deposit lies
partly under the foreshore of the river Duddon, and a company
has expended upwards of 120,000 upon a sea-wall and
embankment to protect the mine from the sea.
MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736), English actor, was a member of
the company at Drury Lane from 1695 almost uninterruptedly
to the time of his death, playing and creating hundreds of parts.
He was at his best in tragedy. His wife was an actress, and
their son William " the younger Mills " was also an actor
of some merit.
MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832- ), American legislator,
was born in Todd county, Kentucky, on the 3oth of March
1832. He went to Texas in 1839, studied law, and was admitted
to the bar by a special act of the legislature before he was
twenty-one. He entered the Confederate army in 1861, took
part as a private in the battle of Wilson's Creek, and as colonel
commanded the Tenth Texas Infantry at Arkansas Post,
Chickamauga (where he commanded a brigade during part of
the battle), Missionary Ridge and Atlanta. He served in the
national House of Representatives as a Democrat from 1873 to
1892 and in the Senate from 1892 to 1899. He made the tariff
his special study, and was long recognized as the leading authority
in Congress. As chairman of the Ways and Means Committee
of the House of Representatives in 1887-1889 during President
Cleveland's first administration, he led the fight for reform.
From his committee he reported in April 1888 the " Mills Bill,"
which provided for a reduction of the duties on sugar, earthen-
ware, glassware, plate glass, woollen goods and other articles,
the substitution of ad valorem for specific duties in many cases,
and the placing of lumber (of certain kinds), hemp, wool, flax,
borax, tin plates, salt and other articles on the free list. This bill
was passed by the Democratic House on the 2ist of July, and was
then so amended by a Republican Senate as to be unacceptable
to the house. The tariff thus became the chief issue in the presi-
dential campaign of 1888. In 1891 Mills was a candidate in the
Democratic caucus for Speaker of the house, but was defeated
by Charles F. Crisp (1845-1896) of Georgia. During the free
silver controversy he adhered to the Cleveland section of the
Democratic party, and failed to be re-elected when his term in
the Senate expired in 1899. He then retired to Corsicana,
Texas, where he engaged in business and the practice of law.
MILLSTONE GRIT, in geology, a series of massive sandstones,
grits and conglomerates with alternate shales, the whole resting
directly upon the Carboniferous Limestone or upon intervening
shales (Yoredale, Limestone Shales), usually in stratigraphical
continuity. Its occasional coal-seams show that conditions
of coal-formation had already begun. In Great Britain its
outcrop extends from the Bristol Coalfield through South and
North Wales to its fullest development in the north-midland
counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire, and thence to Scotland,
where the Roslin Sandstone of the Lothians and the Moor Rock
of Lanark and Stirling are considered its equivalents. Character-
ized by grits and sandstones of the same general type, though
individually variable, as sandbanks formed on the shoaling
of the Carboniferous sea, yet often persistent over wide areas,
the formation, estimated as 5000 ft. thick in Lancashire, con-
tains typically the following grits in descending order: First, or
'Rough Rock; second, or Haslingden Flags (Lancashire); third,
or Chatsworth Grit (the last two being the Middle Grits of
Yorkshire); fourth and fifth, or Kinderscout Grits and the
Shale Grits. The first and third, the most persistent, are often
coarse and pebbly, like the Kinderscout Grits. In the north of
England these grits lose their identity. In South Wales the
Millstone Grit, immediately succeeding the Carboniferous
Limestone, consists of 450 ft. of grit and shale, its upper member
being the massive pebbly Farewell Rock. It extends into the
Bristol Coalfield, though not recognized in the Devonshire Culm.
In Ireland certain grey grits and flags are assigned to it.
In northern France and Belgium it loses its individuality
and is merged in the Coal-measures. It reappears east of
the Rhine, but is unrecognizable in the somewhat different
Carboniferous succession of eastern Europe. In America the
Pottsville Conglomerate, 1500 ft. thick in the south Appa-
lachians, with workable coals, and widely unconformable upon
the Mississippian, introduces the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carbon-
iferous) system, and approximately represents the Millstone
Grit of western Europe, as does the red conglomerate of Nova
Scotia.
The shales of the Millstone Grit include thin beds of marine
goniatites (Glyphioceras bilingue, Gastrioceras carbonarium) ,
Pterinopecten papyraceus, and Lingula mytiloides, while the grits
contain Lepidodendron, Sligmaria and calamites. In Scotland
plants and estuarine fishes differ markedly above and below
the Roslin Sandstone.
The English Millstone Grit produces a characteristic scenery
of wild moorland plateaux, or alternations of shale-valleys
and rugged grit-ridges. The grits furnish valuable building-
stones and grindstones. They also afford an excellent water
supply. (C. B. W.*)
MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
on the Maurice river, 40 m. S. by E. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(1800) 10,002; (1900) 10,583 (598 foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 11,884; ( 1 9 I ) I2 >4S I - It is served by the West Jersey
& Seashore railway, by electric lines to Philadelphia, Bridgeton,
Vineland and Fairton, and by schooners and small freight
boats. Peaches and small fruit are cultivated extensively
in the surrounding country. In the north part of the city is
a large public park, in which a beautiful lake 3 m. long and about
i m. wide has been formed by damming the river. Glass and
moulding sand is found in the vicinity, and the city is engaged
principally in the manufacture of glass (especially druggists'
ware). The value of the city's factory products increased
from $2,513,433 in 1900 to $3,719,417 in 1905, or 48%; and of
the total value in 1905, $2,332,614, or 62-7%, was the value
of the glass products. Millville was incorporated as a town
in 1801, was chartered as a city in 1866, and its charter was
revised in 1877.
MILMAN MILKER, VISCOUNT
MILMAN, HENRY HART (1791-1868), English historian and
ecclesiastic, third son of Sir Francis Milman, Bart., physician
to George III., was born in London on the loth of November
1791. Educated at Eton and at Brasenose College, Oxford,
his university career was brilliant. He gained the Newdigate
prize with a poem on the Apollo Bel-Mere in 1812, was elected
a fellow of Brasenose in 1814, and in 1816 won the English
essay prize with his Comparative Estimate of Sculpture and
Painting. In 1816 he was ordained, and two years later was
presented to the living of St Mary's, Reading. Milman had
already made his appearance as a dramatic writer with his
tragedy Fazio (produced on the stage under the title of The
Italian Wife). He also wrote Samor, the Lord of The Bright
City, the subject of which was taken from British legend, the
" bright city " being Gloucester; but he failed to invest it with
serious interest. In subsequent poetical works he was more
successful, notably the Fall of Jerusalem (1820) and the Martyr of
Antioch (1822). The influence of Byron is seen in his Belshazzar
(1822). A tragedy, Anne Boleyn, followed in 1826; and Milman
also wrote " When our heads are bowed with woe," and other
hymns; an admirable version of the Sanskrit episode of Nala and
Damayanti; and translations of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus
and the Bacchae of Euripides. In 1821 he was elected professor
of poetry at Oxford, and in 1827 he delivered the Bampton
lectures on the character and conduct of the apostles as an
evidence of Christianity. His poetical works were published
in three volumes in 1839.
Turning to another field, Milman published in 1829 his
History of the Jews, which is memorable as the first by an English
clergyman which treated the Jews as an Oriental tribe, recognized
sheikhs and amirs in the Old Testament, sifted and classified
documentary evidence, and evaded or minimized the miraculous.
In consequence, the author was violently attacked and his inevit-
able preferment was delayed. In 1835,' however, Sir Robert Peel
made him rector of St Margaret's, Westminster, and canon
of Westminster, and in 1849 he became dean of St Paul's. By
this time his unpopularity had nearly died away, and generally
revered and beloved, he occupied a dignified and enviable
position, which he constantly employed for the promotion of
culture and in particular for the relaxation of subscription
to ecclesiastical formularies. His History of Christianity to the
Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire (1840) had been com-
pletely ignored; but widely different was the reception accorded
to the continuation of his work, his great History of Latin
Christianity (1855), which has passed through many editions. In
1838 he had edited Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, and in the following year published his Life of Gibbon.
Milman was also responsible for an edition of Horace, and when
he died he had almost finished a history of St Paul's Cathedral,
which was completed and published by his son, A. Milman
(London, 1868), who also collected and published in 1879 a
volume of his -essays and articles. Milman died on the 24th of
September 1868, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. By his
wife, Mary Ann, a daughter of Lieut.-General William Cockell,
he had four sons and two daughters. His nephew, Robert
Milman (1816-1876), was bishop of Calcutta from 1867 until his
death, and was the author of a Life of Torquato Tasso (1850).
See A. C. Tait, Sermon in Memory of H. H. Milman (London,
1868), and Arthur Milman, H. H. Milman (London, 1900). See
also the Memoirs of R. Milman, bishop of Calcutta, by his sister,
Frances Maria Milman (1879).
MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRY (1800-1885), French zoologist,
the son of an Englishman, was born in Bruges on the 23rd of
October 1800, but spent most of his life in France. At first he
turned his attention to medicine, in which he graduated at Paris in
1823; but his passion for natural history soon prevailed, and he
gave himself up to the study of the lower forms of animal life.
One of his earliest papers (Recherches anatomiques sur les crus-
taces), which was presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1829,
formed the theme of an elaborate and eulogistic report by G.
Cuvier in the following year. It embodied the results of two
dredging expeditions undertaken by him and his friend J. V.
Audouin during 1826 and 1828 in the neighbourhood of Granville,
and was remarkable for clearly distinguishing the marine fauna
of that portion of the French coast into four zones. Much of
his original work was published in the Annales des sciences
nalurettes, with the editorship of which he was associated from
1834. Of his books may be mentioned the Histoire naturelle
de crustaces (3 vols., 1837-1841), which long remained a standard
work; Histoire naturelle des coralliaires, published in 1858-1860,
but begun many years before; Lemons sur la physiologic et
I'analomie comparee de I'homme et des animaux (1857-1881), in
14 volumes; and a little work on the elements of zoology, origin-
ally published in 1834, but subsequently remodelled, which
enjoyed an enormous circulation. He was appointed in 1841
professor of entomology at the museum d'histoire naturelle,
where twenty-one years later he succeeded Geoffrey Saint-
Hilaire in the chair of zoology. The Royal Society in 1856
awarded him the Copley medal in recognition of his zoological
investigations. He died in Paris on the 29th of July 1885.
His son, Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835-1900), who became
professor of ornithology at the museum in 1876, devoted himself
especially to fossil birds and deep-sea exploration.
MILNER, ALFRED MILNER, VISCOUNT (1854- ), British
statesman and colonial administrator, was born at Bonn on
the 23rd of March 1854, the only son of Charles Milner, M.D.,
whose wife was a daughter of Major-General Ready, sometime
governor of the Isle of Man. His paternal grandfather, an
Englishman, settled in 'Germany and married a German lady;
and their son, Charles Milner, practised as a physician in London
and became later Reader in English at Tubingen University.
Alfred Milner was educated first at Tubingen, then at King's
College, London, and under Jowett as a scholar of Balliol
College, Oxford, from 1872 to 1876. He graduated in 1877,
with a first class in classics, having won the Hertford, Craven,
Eldon and Derby scholarships, and was elected to a fellowship
of New College. At Oxford he formed a close friendship with
Arnold Toynbee, and was associated with his schemes of social
work; and subsequently he wrote a tribute to his friend, Arnold
Toynbee: a Reminiscence (1895). In 1881 he was called to the
bar at the Inner Temple and joined the staff of the Pall Mall
Gazette under John Morley, becoming assistant editor under
W. T. Stead. In 1885 he abandoned journalism, and became
Liberal candidate for the Harrow division of Middlesex at the
general election, but was defeated. He acted as private secretary
to Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen, and in 1887, when Goschen
became chancellor of the exchequer, was appointed his principal
private secretary. It was by Goschen's influence that in 1889
he was made under-secretary of finance in Egypt. He remained
in Egypt four years, his period of office coinciding with the
first great reforms, after the danger of bankruptcy had been
avoided. Milner returned to England in 1892, and was appointed
chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, being made C.B.
in 1894 and K.C.'B. in 1895. Shortly after his return to
England he published his England in Egypt, which at once
became the authoritative account of the work done since the
British occupation.
Sir -Alfred Milner remained at the Board of Inland Revenue
until 1897. He was regarded as one of the clearest-headed and
most judicious officials in the British service, and his position
as a man of moderate Liberal views, who had been so closely
associated with Goschen at the Treasury, Cromer in Egypt and
Hicks-Beach (Lord St Aldwyn) and Sir W. Harcourt while at
the Inland Revenue, marked him out as one in whom all parties
might have confidence. The moment for testing his capacity
in the highest degree had now come. In April Lord Rosmead
resigned his posts of high commissioner for South Africa and
governor of Cape Colony. The situation resulting from the
Jameson raid (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA) was one
of the greatest delicacy and difficulty, and Mr Chamberlain,
now colonial secretary, selected Milner as Lord Rosmead's
successor. The choice was cordially approved by the leaders
of the Liberal party, and warmly recognized at a farewell
dinner presided over by Mr Asquith (March 28th, 1897). The
MILNER, VISCOUNT
477
appointment was avowedly made in order that an acceptable
British statesman, in whom public confidence was reposed,
might go to South Africa to consider all the circumstances,
and to formulate a policy which should combine the upholding
of British interests with the attempt to deal justly with the
Transvaal and Orange Free State governments.
Sir Alfred Milner reached the Cape in May 1897, and after
the difficulties with President Kruger over the Aliens' Law
had been patched up he was free by August to make himself
personally acquainted with the country and peoples before
deciding on the lines of policy to be adopted. Between August
1897 and May 1898 he travelled through Cape Colony, the
Bechuanaland Protectorate, Rhodesia and Basutoland. The
better to understand the point of view of the Cape Dutch
and the burghers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State,
Milner also during this period learned both Dutch and the
South' African " Taal." He came to the conclusion that there
could be no hope of peace and progress in South Africa while
there remained the " permanent subjection of British to Dutch
in one of the Republics." He also realized as was shown
by the triumphant re-election of Mr Kruger to the presidency
of the Transvaal in February 1898 that the Pretoria govern-
ment would never on its own initiative redress the grievances
of the " Uitlanders." In a speech delivered at Graaf Reinet,
a Bond stronghold, on the 3rd of March 1898, he made it clear
that he was determined to secure freedom and equality for the
British subjects in the Transvaal, and he urged the Dutch
colonists to induce the Pretoria government to assimilate its
institutions, and the temper and spirit of its administration,
to those of the free communities of South Africa. The effect of
this pronouncement was great, and it alarmed the Afrikanders,
who at this time viewed with apprehension the virtual resump-
tion by Cecil Rhodes of his leadership of the Progressive (British)
party at the Cape. That Milner had good grounds for his view
of the situation is shown in a letter written (March ir)
by Mr J. X. Merriman to President Steyn of the Free State:
" The greatest danger (wrote Mr Merriman) lies in the attitude
of President Kruger and his vain hope of building up a State
on a foundation of 'a narrow unenlightened minority, and his
obstinate rejection of all prospect of using the materials which
lie ready to his hand to establish a true republic on a broad
liberal basis. Such a state of affairs cannot last. It must
break down from inherent rottenness." Though this was
recognized by the more far-seeing of the Bond leaders, they were
ready to support Kruger, whether or not he granted reforms,
and they sought to make Milner's position impossible. His
difficulties were increased when at the general election in Cape
Colony the Bond obtained a majority. Acting strictly in a con-
stitutional manner, Milner thereupon (Oct. 1898) called upon
Mr W. P. Schreiner to form a ministry, though aware that
such a ministry would be opposed to any direct intervention
of Great Britain in the Transvaal. Convinced that the existing
state of affairs, if continued, would end in the loss of South
Africa by Britain, Milner came to England in November 1898.
He returned to the Cape in February 1899 fully assured of the
support of Mr Chamberlain, though the government still
clung to the hope that the moderate section of the Cape and
Free State Dutch would induce Kruger to deal justly with the
Uitlanders. He found the situation more critical than when
he had left, ten weeks previously. Johannesburg was in a
ferment, while General Sir William Butler, who acted as high
commissioner in Milner's absence, had allowed it to be seen
that he did not take a favourable view of the Uitlander griev-
ances. On the 4th of May Milner penned a memorable despatch
to the Colonial Office, in which he insisted that the remedy for the
unrest in the Transvaal was to strike at the root of the evil the
political impotence of the injured. " It may seem a paradox,"
he wrote, " but it is true that the only way for protecting our
subjects is to help them to cease to be our subjects." The
policy of leaving things alone only led from bad to worse, and
" the case for intervention is overwhelming." Milner felt that
only the enfranchisement of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal
would give stability to the South African situation. He had
not based his case against the Transvaal on the letter of the
Conventions, and regarded the employment of the word " suze-
rainty " merely as an " etymological question," but he realized
keenly that the spectacle of thousands of British subjects in the
Transvaal in the condition of " helots " (as he expressed it)
was undermining the prestige of Great Britain throughout
South Africa, and he called for " some striking proof " of the
intention of the British government not to be ousted from its
predominant position. This despatch was telegraphed to
London, and was intended for immediate publication; but it
was kept private for a time by the home government. Its
tenor was known, however, to the leading politicians at the
Cape, and at the instance of J. H. Hofmeyr a conference was
held (May 3i-June 5) at Bloemfontein between the high com-
missioner and the president of the Transvaal. Milner then
made the enactment by the Transvaal of a franchise law
which would at once give the Johannesburgers a share in the
government of the country his main, and practically his only,
demand. The conference ended without any agreement being
reached, and the diplomatic discussion which followed (see
TRANSVAAL) gradually became more and more contentious.
When war broke out, October 1899, Milner rendered the military
authorities " unfailing support and wise counsels," being, in
Lord Roberts's phrase " one whose courage never faltered."
In February 1901 he was called upon to undertake the adminis-
tration of the two Boer states, both now annexed to the British
Empire, though the war was still in progress. He thereupon
resigned the governorship of Cape Colony, while retaining the
post of high commissioner. The work of reconstructing the
civil administration in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony
could only be carried on to a limited extent while operations
continued in the field. Milner therefore returned to England
to spend a " hard-begged holiday," which was, however, mainly
occupied in work at the Colonial Office. He reached London
on the 24th of May 1901, had an audience with the king on
the same day, was made a G.C.B. and privy councillor, and
was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Milner of
St James's and Cape Town. Speaking next day at a luncheon
given in his honour, answering critics who ' alleged that with
more time and patience on the part of Great Britain war
might have been avoided, he asserted that what they were
asked to " conciliate " was " panoplied hatred, insensate am-
bition, invincible ignorance." Meanwhile the diplomacy of 1899
and the conduct of the war had caused a great change in the
attitude of the Liberal party in England towards Lord Milner,
whom Mr Leonard Courtney even characterized as "a lost
mind." A violent agitation for his recall, in which Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman joined, was organized, but without success,
and in August he returned to South Africa, where he plunged
into the herculean task of remodelling the administration.
In the negotiations for peace he was associated with Lord
Kitchener, and the terms of surrender, signed at Pretoria on
the 3ist of May 1902, were drafted by him. In recognition
of his services he was, on the isth of July, made a viscount.
Immediately following the conclusion of peace Milner published
(June 21) the Letters Patent establishing the system of crown
colony government in the Transvaal and Orange River colonies,
and exchanging his title of administrator to that of governor.
The reconstructive work necessary after the ravages of the
war was enormous. He provided a steady revenue by the
levying of a tax of 10% on the annual net produce of the gold
mines, and devoted special attention to the repatriation of the
Boers,, land settlement by British colonists, education, justice,
the constabulary, and the development of railways. While
this work of reconstruction was in progress domestic politics
in England were convulsed by the tariff reform movement
and Mr Chamberlain's resignation. Milner, who was then
spending a brief hoh'day in Europe, was urged by Mr Balfour to
take the vacant post of secretary of state for the colonies. This
offer he declined (Oct. i, 1903), considering it more important to
complete his work in South Africa, where economic depression
478
MILNER, J. MILO OF GLOUCESTER
was becoming pronounced. He was back in Johannesburg
in December 1903, and had to consider the crisis in the
gold-mining industry caused by the shortage of native labour.
Reluctantly he agreed, with the assent of the home govern-
ment, to the proposal of the mineowners to import Chinese
coolie's on a three years' contract, the first batch of Chinese
reaching the Rand in June 1904.
In the latter part of 1904 and the early months of 1905 Lord
Milner was engaged on the elaboration of a scheme to provide
the Transvaal with a system of " representative " government,
a half-way house between crown colony administration and
that of self-government. Letters patent providing for repre-
sentative government were issued on the 3ist of March 1905.'
For some time he had suffered in health from the incessant
strain of work, and he determined to retire. He left Pretoria
on the 2nd of April and sailed for Europe on the following day.
Speaking at Johannesburg on the eve of his departure, he re-
commended to all concerned the promotion of the material pros-
perity of the country and the treatment of Dutch and British on
an absolute equality. Having referred to his share in the war,
he added: " What I should prefer to be remembered by is a
tremendous effort subsequent to the war not only to repair
the ravages of that calamity but to re-start the colonies on a
higher plane of civilization than they have ever previously
attained." He left South Africa while the economic crisis was
still acute and at a time when the voice of the critic was audible
everywhere; but, in the words of the colonial secretary (Mr
Alfred Lyttelton) he had in the eight eventful years of his
administration " laid deep and strong the foundation upon
which a united South Africa would arise to become one of the
great states of the empire." On his return home his university
honoured him with the honorary degree of D.C.L.
Experience in South Africa had shown him that underlying
the difficulties of the situation there was the wider problem of
imperial unity. In his farewell speech at Johannesburg he
concluded with a reference to the subject. " When we who
call ourselves Imperialists talk of the British Empire we think
of a group of states bound, not in an alliance for alliances
can be made and unmade but in a permanent organic union.
Of such a union the dominions of the sovereign as they exist
to-day are only the raw material." This thesis he further
developed in a magazine article written in view of the colonial
conference held in London in 1907. He advocated the creation
of a permanent deliberative imperial council, and favoured
preferential trade relations between the United Kingdom and
the other members of the empire; and in later years he took
an active part in advocating the cause of tariff reform and
colonial preference.
In March 1906 a motion censuring Lord Milner for an infraction
of the Chinese labour ordinance, in not forbidding light corporal
punishment of coolies for minor offences in lieu of imprisonment,
was moved by a Radical member of the House of Commons.
On behalf of the Liberal government an amendment was moved,
stating that " This House, while recording its condemnation
of the flogging of Chinese coolies in breach of the law, desires,
in the interests' of peace and conciliation in South Africa; to re-
frain from passing censure upon individuals." The amendment
was carried by 355 votes to 135. As a result of this left-handed
censure, a counter-demonstration was organized, led by Sir
Bartle Frere, and a public address, signed by over 370,000
persons, was presented to Lord Milner expressing high apprecia-
tion of the services rendered by him in Africa to the crown and
empire.
See also E. B. Iwan-Muller, Lord Milner and South Africa (London,
1902) ; W. B. Worsfold, Lord Milner' s Work in South Africa (London,
1906); W. T. Stead, " Sir Alfred Milner," in The Review of Reviews,
vol. xx. (1899); and the bibliography to SOUTH AFRICA.
MILNER, JOSEPH (1744-1797), English evangelical divine,
was born at Leeds and educated at Leeds grammar-school
and Cambridge. After taking his degree he went to Thorparch,
1 Owing to the advent of a Liberal ministry in England, December
1905, this scheme remained inoperative (see TRANSVAAL: History).
Yorkshire, as curate and assistant schoolmaster. Subsequently
he became head master of Hull grammar-school, and in
1768 he was chosen afternoon lecturer at Holy Trinity church,
Hull. He became a strong supporter of the evangelical move-
ment of the period, and greatly contributed to its success in
Hull. In addition to his work as head master, he took
charge of North Ferriby parish, about 9 m. from Hull. His
published works include essays and numerous sermons, but
his best known work is the History of the Church of Christ (Lon-
don, 1794-1809). He lived to complete the first three volumes,
and two more were added by his brother, Isaac Milner (1750-
1820), dean of Carlisle, who re-edited the whole work in 1810.
MILNGAVIE (locally pronounced Millguy), a police burgh
of Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3481. It lies
6 m. N.N.W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. The
chief industries include bleach-fields, dye-works, a distillery
and a paper mill; but the town is largely a residential quarter
for Glasgow business men. Close to the town are two reservoirs,
Mugdock (62 acres) and Craigmaddie (88 acres), in which is
stored the water from Loch Katrine. Mugdock Castle, if m.
N. of Milngavie, is an old stronghold of the Grahams; in Balder-
nock parish, about 2 m. E., stands a cromlech, called "the
Auld Wives' Lift " (400 ft. high), commanding a fine view of
the lands between the Forth and Clyde. Dougalston Loch,
\ m. S.E., contains several rare aquatic plants.
MILO, or MILON, of Crotona, Greek athlete, lived about the
end of the 6th century B.C. He was six times crowned at the
Olympic games and six times at the Pythian for wrestling,
and was famous throughout the civilized world for his feats
of strength such as carrying an ox on his shoulders through
the stadium at Olympia. In his native city he was much
honoured, and he commanded the army which defeated the
people of Sybaris in 511. The traditional account of his death
is often used to point a moral: he found a tree which some
woodcutters had partially split with a wedge, and attempted
to rend it asunder; but the wedge fell out, and the tree closed
on his hand, imprisoning him till wolves came and devoured
him. His name became proverbial for personal strength
(Diod. Sic. xii. 9; Pausanias vi. 14; Strabb vi. 263; Herodotus
iii. 137).
MILO, TITUS ANNIUS, Roman political agitator, was the
son of C. Papius Celsus, but was adopted by his mother's father,
T. Annius Luscus. He joined the Pompeian party, and organized
bands of mercenaries and gladiators to support the cause by
public violence in opposition to P. Clodius, who gave similar
support to the democratic cause. Milo was tribune of the
plebs in 57 B.C. He took a prominent part in bringing about
the recall of Cicero from exile, in spite of the opposition of
Clodius. In 53, when Milo was candidate for the consulship
and Clodius for the praetorship, the two leaders met by acci-
dent on the Appian Way at Bovillae and Clodius was murdered
(January 52). MiTo was impeached; his guilt was clear, and
his enemies took every means of intimidating his supporters
and his judges. Cicero was afraid to speak, and the extant
Pro Milone is an expanded form of the unspoken defence.
Milo went into exile at Massilia, and his property was sold
by auction. He joined M. Caelius Rufus in 48 in his rising
against Caesar, but was slain near Thurii in Lucania. His
wife was Fausta, daughter of the dictator Sulla.
MILO OF GLOUCESTER, lord of Brecknock and earl of
Hereford (d. 1143), was the son of Walter of Gloucester, who
appears as sheriff of that county between 1104 and 1121. Milo
succeeded his father about the latter year. He was high in
the service of Henry I. between 1130 and 1135, and combined
the office of sheriff with that of local justiciar for Gloucester-
shire. After the death of Henry I. he declared for Stephen,
at whose court he appears as constable in 1136. But in 1139,
when the empress Matilda appeared in England, he declared
for her, and placed the city of Gloucester at her disposal; he
was further distinguished by sacking the royalist city of Wor-
cester and reducing the county of Hereford. In 1141, at
Matilda's coronation, he was rewarded with the earldom of
MILORADOVICH MILTIADES
479
Hereford. He remained loyal to the empress after her defeat
at Winchester. John of Salisbury classes him with Geoffrey
de Mandeville and others who were non tarn comites regni quam
hastes publici. The charge is justified by his public policy;
but the materials for appraising his personal character do
not exist.
See the Continuation of Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848-
1849); the Cartulary of Gloucester Abbey (Rolls series); and J. H.
Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville (1892).
MILORADOVICH, MICHAEL ANDRIJEVICH, COUNT (1770-
1825), Russian general, saw service under Suvarov in the wars
against Turkey and Poland, and in the campaign of Italy and
Switzerland (1799) earned much distinction as a commander
of advanced troops. In 1805, having attained the rank of
lieutenant-general, he served under Kutusov in the campaign
of Austerlitz, taking part in the actions of Enns and Krems
and in the decisive battle of the 2nd of December, in which his
column held the Pratzen heights. In the Turkish War he
distinguished himself at Giurgevo (1807). Promoted general
of infantry in 1810, he commanded a corps at Borodino, and
subsequently inflicted the defeat of Tarutino (or Winkovo) on
Murat, king of Naples (October 18, 1812). His corps was
one of those most active in the pursuit of Napoleon's Grande
Armee, and in 1813 he led the rear-guard of the Allies after
their earlier defeats. At the victory of Kulm he was present
in command of a Russian-Prussian corps, which he led at
Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814. From 1818 to the time
of his death he was military governor of St Petersburg. He
perished in the popular outbreak in the capital, on the 26th
(i4th o.s.) of December 1825.
MILOSH OBRENOVICH I. (1780-1860), prince of Servia,
founder of the Obrenovich dynasty, was born in 1780 of poor
Servian peasants. When he later became prince of Servia he
used to tell how for a penny a day he drove cattle from Servia
to Dalmatia. His half-brother, Milan Obrenovich, who had
developed into a successful exporter of cattle and pigs into
Austria, associated him in his own export trade and otherwise
supported him. Partly from gratitude and partly because
the family name of his half-brother was already honourably
known in the country, Milosh adopted that name as his own,
and called himself Obrenovich, instead of Theodorovich. Kara-
george, the leader of the first Servian revolution against the
Turks, appointed Milosh Obrenovich in 1807 a voyvode, i.e.
district commander of the national army and civil administrator.
As such he distinguished himself in many battles, and was
reputed a wise and energetic administrator and a just judge.
When in 1813 the Turks under ' the Grand Vizier Khurshid
occupied Servia, and Karageorge and almost all his Voyvodes
left the country for Austria, Milosh, although strongly advised
to follow their example, refused to do so. He remained in the
country, surrendered to the Turks, and was recognized by them
as the voyvode of Rudnik (Central Servia). As he was then
practically the only chief of the nation, the Turks called him to
Belgrade, where he was kept through the year 1814 as a hostage.
But he found means to prepare a new rising of the Servians
against the Turks, and on Palm Sunday 1815 he appeared
with his voyvode's standard before the people round the small
church of Takovo, and started the second and successful in-
surrection. Not so much by his victories on the battlefields
as by his clever exploitation of the international difficulties
of Turkey, and of the known weakness of the Turkish pashas
for " baksheesh " no doubt also by his statesmanlike modera-
tion he succeeded in less than two years in obtaining from
the Porte the practical recognition of the Servian people's right
to self-government. The National Assembly in 1817 elected
him prince of Servia.
From that year began the organization of Servia by the
Servians as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire.
But its existence as such rested on no safe and legal basis,
except on the readiness of the Servians to defend it with all
their might and on the goodwill of the sultan and his " Sublime
Porte." Milosh therefore worked hard to obtain some sort
of international recognition of the semi-independent status
of Servia. Russia came to his assistance, and by the Treaty
of Adrianople of 1829 the Porte engaged formally to grant
Servia full autonomy. This engagement was somewhat devel-
oped in the Hatti-sherif of 1830, which added to Servia three
districts (Krushevats, Alexinats, Zaechar), acknowledged her
full autonomy, recognized Milosh as hereditary prince of Servia,
and declared that the Turks in Servia could have properties
and live only in fortified places where there were Turkish
garrisons, and not in other towns and villages. Milosh won
for his family the hereditary right to the throne of Servia with-
out the co-operation of Russia. The creation of a hereditary
dynasty in Servia was outside the Russian Balkan policy of that
time, and this great and independent success of Milosh was
the first cause of Russia's dissatisfaction with him. The second
cause was that, yielding to the pressure exercised on him by
his own people, he gave the country a constitution without
asking " the protector of Servia," the tsar, for his approval
of the step. The third cause was that Milosh consistently
resented the interference of Russia in the internal affairs of the
principality. The climax of his misdeeds, from the Russian
point of view, was that on the occasion of his visit to the Sultan
Mahmud II. in 1836 he persuaded the British ambassador,
Lord Ponsonby, that it would be useful to establish a British
consulate in Belgrade. The first British consul in Servia,
Colonel Hodges, became speedily an intimate friend of Prince
Milosh, who probably under his new friend's influence began
to agitate to replace the exclusive protectorate of Russia by
the joint protectorate of all the great Powers of Europe. The
cabinet of St Petersburg now decided to remove Milosh from
the throne of Servia, and, supported by the Russian consul-
general, the leaders of the Servian opposition, who posed
as champions of a constitutional system, succeeded in forcing
him to abdicate in 1839. After his abdication Milosh lived
mostly on his estates in Rumania, or in Vienna. In December
1858 the National Assembly of Servia, having dethroned Prince
Alexander Karageorgevich, recalled Milosh to the throne of
Servia. Milosh came, accompanied by his son Michael, and
began to reign in his own old fashion; but death closed his
activity on the I4th (27th n.s.) of September 1860. He was
buried in the cathedral of Belgrade. (C. Mi.)
MILTIADES, the name of two Athenian statesmen and
generals of a family (the Philaidae) of Aeginetan origin, which
claimed descent from Aeacus.
1. MILTIADES (6th century B.C.), the son of Cypselus, a promi-
nent opponent of Peisistratus. According to Herodotus (vi.
36, 37) he led a colony to the Thracian Chersonese at the request
of the Doloncians, who, hard pressed by the Absinthians (or
Apsinthians), were advised by the Delphian oracle to invite
to their country the man who should first show them hospi-
tality after leaving the temple. Since, however, the Athenians
had from c. 600-590 B.C. held Sigeum in the Troad, whence
they had fought against Mitylene, it is probable that the
Doloncians appealed for help to Athens, and that Peisistratus
took the opportunity of getting rid of one of his chief opponents
by sending Miltiades. He became " tyrant " of the Chersonesus,
which he fortified by a wall across the isthmus from Cardia
to Pactya. He was captured by the people of Lampsacus, but
released on the intercession of Croesus of Lydia. He was
succeeded by Stesagoras, son of his half-brother, Cimon.
2. MILTIADES (died c. 488 B.C.), the victor of Marathon, was
another son of Cimon. On the death of Stesagoras, he was
sent to the Chersonese (? about 518-516) by Hippias no doubt
to support Hegesistratus at Sigeum (see PEISISTRATUS). He
entrapped and imprisoned the chief men of Chersonesus, which
was then in a turbulent condition, and strengthened himself
by an alliance with Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian prince
Olorus (Herod, vi. 39). He led a contingent in the Scythian
expedition of Darius Hystaspis and, according to Herodotus,
advised the leaders who were left at the Danube bridge to
destroy it and leave Darius to his fate. This story is improbable,
as Darius left Miltiades in possession of the Chersonese for some
480
MILTON
twenty years longer, though Persian forces were frequently
in the neighbourhood. Miltiades was, according to Herodotus,
expelled by Scythian invaders, but was brought back by the
Doloncians, and subsequently captured Lemnos and Imbros
for Athens from the so-called Pelasgian inhabitants, who were
Persian dependents. Having thus (probably) incurred the
enmity of Darius, Miltiades fled to Athens on the approach
of the Persians under Datis and Artaphernes, leaving his son
Metiochus a prisoner in Persian hands, and was at once impeached
unsuccessfully on the charge of tyranny in the Chersonese. 1
Possibly the story of his having tried to destroy the Danube
bridge was invented or exaggerated at this time as an argument
in his favour (see Grote, History of Greece, i vol., ed. 1907, p. 119
note). Since, however, Herodotus almost certainly relied on
Alcmaeonid tradition, which was hostile to Miltiades, the
whole story is uncertain; the statement that he fled before a
Scythian invasion is especially improbable. If Miltiades really
recommended the destruction of the bridge, we may infer that
the Herodotean story of his flight before the Scythians is a
misunderstanding of the fact that his residence in Chersonese
after the Scythian invasion was insecure and not continuous.
On the approach of the Persians Miltiades was made one of
the ten Athenian generals, and it was on his advice that the
polemarch Callimachus decided to give battle at Marathon
(q.v.). Subsequently he used his influence with the Athenians
to induce them to give him a fleet of seventy ships without
any indication of his object (Herod, vi. 132-136). Cornelius
Nepos (Miltiades, c. vii.), probably on good authority (? Eph-
orus), states that he had a commission to regain control over
the Aegean. No doubt his object was to establish an outer
line of defence against future Persian aggression. Herodotus
says that, having besieged Paros vainly for nearly a month,
he made a secret visit to Timo, a priestess of Demeter in Paros,
with a view to the betrayal of the island, and being compelled
to flee wounded himself severely in attempting to -leap a fence
(but see Ephorus in Fragm. hist. gr. 107).
On his return to Athens he was impeached by Xanthippus,
who was allied by marriage to the Alcmaeonids, on the ground
that he had " deceived the people," and only escaped on the
strength of his past services with a fine of 50 talents. The
facts of the trial and the charge are difficult to recover, nor
do we know why the siege was raised. Some authorities hold
that he was bribed to this course, and hence that the charge
was one of treason; others suggest that he retired in the belief
that a Persian fleet was approaching. All that is known is
that he died of his wound (489-488), without paying the fine,
which was paid subsequently by his son Cimon (q.v.). He
appears to have been a man of strong determination and great
personal courage, of a type characteristic of the pre-Cleisthenic
constitution. His absence in the Chersonese during the first
years of the new democracy (508-493?) and his patrician line-
age account naturally for the difference which existed, between
him and the popular leaders Themistocles and Aristides.
See the passages of Herodotus and Cornelius Nepos, quoted above,
and histories of Greece. On the Parian expedition and the trial,
R. W. Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., vol. 2, appendix xi. ; on the foreign
policy of Miltiades see THEMISTOCLES. (J. M. M.)
MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674), English poet, was born in Bread
Street, Cheapside, London, on the 9th of December 1608.
His father, known as Mr John Milton of Bread Street, scrivener,
was himself an interesting man. He was a native of Oxford-
shire, the son of a Richard Milton, yeoman of Stanton-St-John's,
one of the sturdiest adherents to the old Roman Catholic religion
in his district, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford,
where he turned Protestant. According to the poet's earliest
biographer, John Milton senior was disinherited in the beginning
of Queen Elizabeth's reign for reading the Bible. With a good
education and good abilities, especially in music, he may have
lived for some time in London by musical teaching and practice.
1 So Herodotus; but the story is difficult to believe in view of the
fact that the family of Miltiades was distinctively tiiaarlpavvos.
Possibly the trial is merely a hostile version of the ordinary test of
a man's qualification for office
Not till 1595, at all events, when he must have been long past
the usual age of apprenticeship, do we hear of his preparation
for the profession of a scrivener; and not till February 1599-1600,
when he was about thirty-seven years of age, did he become
a qualified member of the Scriveners' Company. It was then
that he set up his " house and shop " at the sign of the Spread
Eagle in Bread Street, and began his business of drawing up
wills, marriage-settlements, and the like, with such related
business as that of receiving money from clients for investment
and lending it out to the best advantage. It was at the same
time that he married, not, as stated by Aubrey, a lady named
Bradshaw, but Sarah Jeffrey, one of the two orphan daughters
of a Paul Jeffrey, of St Swithin's, London, " citizen and merchant-
taylor," originally from Essex, who had died before 1583. At
the date of her marriage she was about twenty-eight years of
age. Six children were born to the scrivener and his wife, of
whom three survived infancy Anne, who married Edward
Phillips; John, the poet; and Christopher (1615-1693), who was
knighted and made a judge under James II.
The first sixteen years of Milton's life, coinciding exactly
with the last sixteen of the reign of James I., associate themselves
with the house in Bread Street. His father, while
prospering in business, continued to be known as a
man of " ingeniose " tastes, and acquired distinction
in the London musical world of that time. He contributed
a madrigal to Thomas Morley's Triumph of Oriana (1601),
four motets to Sir William Leighton's Tears and Lamentations
of a Sorrowful Soul (1614), and some hymn tunes one of which,
" Yor," is still in common use in Thomas Ravenscroft's
Whole Book of Psalms (1621). Music was thus a part of the
poet's domestic education from his infancy. Again and again
Milton speaks with gratitude and affection of the ungrudging
pains bestowed by his father on his early education. " Both at
the grammar school and also under other masters at home,"
is the statement in one passage, " he caused me to be instructed
daily. " When Milton was ten years of age his tutor was
Thomas Young (1587-1655), a Scottish divine, who afterwards
became master of Jesus College, Cambridge. Young's tutorship
lasted till 1622, when he accepted the pastorship of the congre-
gation of English merchants in Hamburg. Already, however,
for a year or two his teaching had been only supplementary to
the education which the boy was receiving by daily attendance
at St Paul's public school, close to Bread Street. The head-
master of the school was Alexander Gill, an elderly Oxford
divine, of high reputation for scholarship and teaching ability.
Under him, as usher or second master, was his son, Alexander
Gill the younger, also an Oxford graduate of scholarly reputa-
tion, but of blustering character. Milton's acquaintanceship
with this younger Gill, begun at St Paul's school, led to subse-
quent friendship and correspondence. Far more affectionate
and intimate was the friendship formed by Milton at St Paul's
with his schoolfellow Charles Diodati, the son of an Italian
physician, Dr Theodore Diodati, a naturalized Englishman
settled in London, and much respected, both on his own account
and as being the brother of the famous Protestant divine, Jean
Diodati of Geneva. Young Diodati, who was destined for his
father's profession, left the school for Trinity College, Oxford,
early in 1623; but Milton remained till the end of 1624. In
that year his elder sister, Anne, married Edward Phillips, a
clerk in the Government office called the Crown Office in
Chancery.
Milton had then all but completed his sixteenth year, and
was as scholarly, as accomplished and as handsome a youth as
St Paul's school had sent forth. We learn from himself that
his exercises " in English or other tongue, prosing or versing,
but chiefly this latter," had begun to attract attention even
in his boyhood. Of these poems the only specimens that now
remain are two copies of Latin verses, preserved in a common-
place book of his (printed by the Camden Society in 1877),
and his " Paraphrase on Psalm CXIV " and his " Paraphrase on
Psalm CXXXVI." At the age of sixteen years and two months,
Milton was entered as a student of Christ's College, Cambridge,
MILTON
481
in the grade of a " Lesser Pensioner," and he matriculated
two months later, on the Qth of April 1625. The master of
Christ's was Dr Thomas Bainbrigge; and among the thirteen
fellows were Joseph Meade, still remembered as a commentator
on the Apocalypse, and William Chappell, afterwards an Irish
bishop. It was under Chappell's tutorship that Milton was
placed when he first entered the college. At least three students
who entered Christ's after Milton, but during his residence,
deserve mention. One was Edward King, a youth of Irish
birth and high Irish connexions, who entered in 1626, at the
age of fourteen, another was John Cleveland, afterwards known
as royalist and satirist, who entered in 1627; and the third was
Henry More, subsequently famous as the Cambridge Platonist,
who entered in 1631, just before Milton left. Milton's own
brother, Christopher, joined him in the college in February
1630-1631, at the age of fifteen.
Milton's academic course lasted seven years and five months,
bringing him from his seventeenth year to his twenty-fourth.
The first four years were his time of undergraduateship. It
was in the second of these the year 1626 that there occurred
the quarrel between him and his tutor, Chappell, which Dr
Johnson, making the most of a lax tradition from Aubrey,
magnified into the supposition that Milton may have been one
of the last students in either of the English universities that
suffered the indignity of corporal punishment. The legend
deserves no credit; but it is certain that Milton, on account
of some disagreement with Chappell, left college for a time,
though he did not lose his term; and that when he did return,
he was transferred from the tutorship of Chappell to that of
Nathaniel Tovey. From the first of the Latin elegies one infers
that the cause of the quarrel was some outbreak of self-assertion
on Milton's part. We learn indeed, from words of his own
elsewhere, that it was not only Chappell and Bainbrigge that
he had offended by his independent demeanour, but that,
for the first two or three years of his undergraduateship, he was
generally unpopular, for the same reason, among the younger
men of his college. They had nicknamed him " the Lady "
a nickname which the students of the other colleges~took up,
converting it into "the Lady of Christ's"; and, though the
allusion was chiefly to the peculiar grace of his personal appear-
ance, it conveyed also a sneer at what the rougher men thought
his unusual prudishness, the haughty fastidiousness of his
tastes and morals. A change in this state of things had certainly
occurred before January 1628-1629, when, at the age of twenty,
he took his B.A. degree. By that time his intellectual pre-
eminence had come to be acknowledged. His reputation
for scholarship and literary genius, extraordinary even then,
was more than confirmed during the remaining three years
and a half of his residence in Cambridge. A fellowship in
Christ's which fell vacant in 1630 would undoubtedly have
been his had the election to such posts depended then absolutely
on merit. As it was, the fellowship was conferred, by royal
favour on Edward King, his junior in college standing by sixteen
months. In July 1632 Milton completed his career at the
university by taking his M.A. degree. Tradition still points
out Milton's rooms at Christ's College. They are on the first
floor on the first stair on the north side of the great court.
Of Milton's skill at Cambridge, in what Wood calls " the
collegiate and academical exercises," specimens remain in
his Prolusiones quaedam oratoriae. They consist of seven
rhetorical Latin essays, generally in a whimsical vein, delivered
by him, either *.n the hall of Christ's College or in the public
university schools. To Milton's Cambridge period belong
four of his Latin " Familiar Epistles," and the greater number
of his preserved Latin poems, including: (i) the seven pieces,
written in 1626, which compose his Elegiarum liber, two of
the most interesting of them addressed to his friend, Charles
Diodati, and one to his former tutor, Young, in his exile at Ham-
burg; (2) the five short Gunpowder Plot epigrams, now appended
to the Elegies: and (3) the first five pieces of the Sylvarum liber,
the most important of which are the hexameter poem " In
quintum novembris " (1626), and the piece entitled Naturam
xvm. 16
non pati senium (1628). Of the English poems of the Cambridge
period the following is a dated list: " On the Death of a fair
Infant " (1625-1626), the subject being the death of the first-born
child of his sister Anne Phillips; " At a Vacation Exercise in
the College" (1628), the magnificent Christmas ode; "On the
Morning of Christ's Nativity " (1629) ; the fragment called " The
Passion " and the " Song on May Morning," both probably
belonging to 1630; the sonnet " On Shakespeare," certainly
belonging to that year, printed in the Shakespeare folio of 1632;
the two facetious pieces " On the University Carrier " (1630-
1631); the "Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester"
(1631); the sonnet "To the Nightingale," probably of the
same year; the sonnet " On arriving at the Ags of twenty-
three," dating itself certainly in December 1631.
Just before Milton quitted Cambridge, his father, then verging
on his seventieth year, had practically retired from his Bread
Street business, leaving the active management of it to a partner,
named Thomas Bower, a former apprentice of his, and had
gone to spend his declining years at Horton in Buckinghamshire,
a small village near Colnbrook, and not far from Windsor. Here,
in a house close to Horton church, Milton mainly resided for
the next six years from July 1632 to April 1638.
Although, when he had gone to Cambridge, it had been with
the intention of becoming a clergyman, that intention had been
abandoned. His reasons were that " tyranny had invaded
the church," and that, finding he could not honestly subscribe
the oaths and obligations required he " thought it better to
preserve a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking,
begun with servitude and forswearing." 1 In other words,
he was disgusted with the system which Laud was establishing
and maintaining in the Church of England. " Church-outed
by the prelates," as he emphatically expresses it, he seems to
have thought for a time of the law, but he decided that the
only life possible for himself was one dedicated wholly to scholar-
ship and literature. His compunctions on this subject, expressed
already in his sonnet on arriving at his twenty-third year, are
expressed more at length in an English letter of which two
drafts are preserved in Trinity College, Cambridge, sent by
him, shortly after the date of that sonnet, and with a copy
of the sonnet included, to some friend who had been remon-
strating with him on his " belatedness " and his persistence
in a life of mere dream and study. There were gentle remon-
strances also from his excellent father. Between such a father
and such a son, however, the conclusion was easy. What it
was may be learnt from Milton's fine Latin poem Ad patrem.
There, in the midst of an enthusiastic recitation of all that his
father had done for him hitherto, it is intimated that the agree-
ment between them on their one little matter of difference was
already complete, and that, as the son was bent on a private
life of literature and poetry, it had been decided that he should
have his own way, and should in fact, so long as he chose, be
the master of his father's means and the chief person in the
Horton household. For the six years from 1632 this, accordingly,
was Milton's position. In perfect leisure, and in a pleasant
rural retirement, with Windsor at the distance of an easy walk,
and London only about 17 m. off, he went through, he tells
us, a systematic course of reading in the Greek and Latin classics,
varied by ma'thematics, music, and the kind of physical science
we should now call cosmography.
It is an interesting fact that Milton's very first public appear-
ance in the world of English authorship was in so honourable
a place as the second folio edition of Shakespeare in 1632. His
enthusiastic eulogy on Shakespeare, written in 1630, was one
of three anonymous pieces prefixed to that second folio. Among
the poems actually written by Milton at Horton the first,
in all probability, after the Latin hexameters Ad patrem, were
the exquisite companion pieces L' Allegro and II Penseroso.
There followed, in or about 1633, the fragment called Arcades.
It was part of a pastoral masque performed by the young people
of the noble family of Egerton before the countess-dowager
1 See the preface to Book II. of his Reason of Church Government
(1641-1642), which is of great biographical interest.
482
MILTON
of Derby, at her mansion of Harefield, about 10 m. from
Horton. That Milton contributed the words for the enter-
tainment was, almost certainly, owing to his friendship with
Henry Lawes, who supplied the music. Next in order among
the compositions at Horton may be mentioned the three short
pieces, " At a Solemn Music," " On Time," and " Upon the
Circumcision"; after which comes Comus, the largest and
most important of all Milton's minor poems. The name by
which that beautiful drama is now universally known was not
given to it by Milton himself. He entitled it, more simply
and vaguely, " A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634,
on Michaelmas night, before John Earl of Bridgewater, Lord
President of Wales " (1637). The earl of Bridgewater, the
head of the Egerton family, had ' been appointed president
of the council of Wales; among the festivities on his assumption
of the office, a great masque was arranged in the hall of Ludlow
Castle, his official residence. Lawes supplied the music and
was stage manager; he applied to Milton for the poetry; and
on Michaelmas night, the zpth of September 1634, the drama
furnished by Milton was performed in Ludlow Castle before a
great assemblage of the nobility and gentry of the Welsh princi-
pality, Lawes taking the part of "the attendant spirit," while
the parts of " first brother," " second brother " and " the lady,"
were taken by the earl's three youngest children, Viscount
Brackley.Mr Thomas Egerton and Lady Alice Egerton.
From September 1634 to the beginning of 1637 is a compara-
tive blank in our records. Straggling incidents in this blank
are a Latin letter of date December 4, 1634, to Alexander
Gill the younger, a Greek translation of " Psalm CXIV.," a visit
to Oxford in 1635 for the purpose of incorporation in the degree
of M.A. in that university, and the beginning in May 1636 of a
troublesome lawsuit against his now aged and infirm father.
The lawsuit, which was instituted by a certain Sir Thomas
Cotton, bart., nephew and executor of a deceased John Cotton,
Esq., accused the elder Milton and his partner Bower, or
both, of having, in their capacity as scriveners, misappro-
priated divers large sums of money that had been entrusted
to them by the deceased Cotton to be let out at interest.
The lawsuit was still in progress when, on the 3rd of April
1637, Milton's mother died, at the age of about sixty-five. A
flat blue stone, with a brief inscription, visible on the chancel-
pavement of Horton church, still marks the place of her burial.
Milton's testimony to her character is that she was " a most
excellent mother and particularly known for her charities
through the neighbourhood." The year 1637 was otherwise
eventful. It was in that year that his Comus, after lying in
manuscript for more than two years, was published by itself,
in the form of a small quarto of thirty-five pages. The author's
name was withheld, and the entire responsibility of the publica-
tion was assumed by Henry Lawes. Milton seems to have
been in London when the little volume appeared. He was a
good deal in London, at all events, during the summer and
autumn months immediately following his mother's death.
The plague, which had been on one of its periodical visits of
ravage through England since early in the preceding year, was
then especially severe in the Horton neighbourhood, while
London was comparatively free. It was probably in London
that Milton heard of the death of Edward King, who had sailed
from Chester for a vacation visit to his relatives in Ireland,
when, on the loth of August, the ship in perfectly calm water
struck on a rock and went down, he and nearly all the other
passengers going down with her. There is no mention of this
event in Milton's two Latin " Familiar Epistles " of September
1637, addressed to his friend Charles Diodati, and dated from
London; but in November 1637, and probably at Horton,
he wrote his matchless pastoral monody of Lycidas. It was his
contribution to a collection of obituary verses, Greek, Latin
and English, inscribed to the memory of Edward King by his
numerous friends, at Cambridge and elsewhere. The collection
appeared early in 1638. The second part contained thirteen
English poems, the last of which was Milton's monody, signed
only with his initials " J. M."
Milton was then on the wing for a foreign tour. He had
long set his heart on a visit to Italy, and circumstances now
favoured his wish. The vexatious Cotton lawsuit, after hanging
on for nearly two years, was at an end, as far as the elder Milton
was concerned, with the most absolute and honourable vindica-
tion of his character for probity, though with some continuation
of the case against his partner, Bower. Moreover, Milton's
younger brother Christopher, though but twenty-two years of
age, and just about to be called to the bar of the Inner Temple,
had married; and the young couple had gone to reside at Horton
to keep the old man company.
Before the end of April 1638 Milton was on his way across
the channel, taking one English man-servant with him. At
the time of his departure the last great news in England was
that of the National Scottish Covenant. To Charles the news
of this " damnable Covenant," as he called it, was enraging
beyond measure; but to the mass of the English Puritans it
was far from unwelcome, promising, as it seemed to do, for
England herself, the subversion at last of that system of
" Thorough," or despotic government by the king and his
ministers without parliaments, under which the country had
been groaning since the contemptuous dissolution of Charles's
third parliament ten years before. Through Paris, where
Milton received polite attention from the English ambassador,
Lord Scudamore, and had the honour of an introduction to_
the famous Hugo Grotius, then ambassador for Sweden at the
French court, he moved on rapidly to Italy, by way of Nice.
After visiting Genoa, Leghorn and Pisa, he arrived at Florence,
in August 1638. Enchanted by the city and its society, he
remained there two months, frequenting the chief academies
or literary clubs, and even taking part in their proceedings.
Among the Florentines with whom he became intimate
were Jacopo Gaddi, founder of an academy called the Svogliati,
young Carlo Dati, author of Vile de' pittori antichi, Pietro
Frescobaldi, Agostino Coltellini, the founder of the Academy
of the Apatisti, the grammarian Benedetto Buommattei,
Valerio Chimentelli, afterwards professor of Greek at Pisa,
Antonio Francini and Antonio Malatesti. It was in the neigh-
bourhood of Florence also that he " found and visited " the
great Galileo, then old and blind, and still nominally a prisoner
to the Inquisition for his astronomical heresy. 1
By way of Florence and Siena, he reached Rome some time
in October, and spent about another two months there, not only
going about among the ruins and antiquities and visiting the
galleries, but mixing also, as he had done in Florence, with the
learned society of the academies. Among those with whom he
formed acquaintance in Rome were the German scholar, Lucas
Holstenius, librarian of the Vatican, and three native Italian
scholars, named Alessandro Cherubini, Giovanni Salzilli and
a certain Selvaggi. There is record of his having dined once,
in company with several other Englishmen, at the hospitable
table of the English Jesuit College. The most picturesque
incident, however, of his stay in Rome was his presence at
great musical entertainment in the palace of Cardinal Francesco
Barberini. Here he had not only the honour of a specially kind
reception by the cardinal himself, but also, it would appear,
the supreme pleasure of listening to the marvellous Leonora
Baroni, the most renowned singer of her age.
Late in November he left Rome for Naples.. Here he met the
aged Giovanni Battista Manso, marquis of Villa (1560-1645),
the friend and biographer of Tasso, and subsequently the friend
and patron of Marini. He had hardly been in Naples a month,
however, when there came news from England which not only
stopped an intention he had formed of extending his tour to
Sicily and thence into Greece, but urged his immediate return
home. "The sad news of civil war in England," he says,
" called me back; for I considered it base that, while my fellow-
countrymen were fighting at home for liberty, I should be
travelling at my ease for intellectual culture" (Defensio
secunda). In December 1638, therefore, he set his face northwards
1 This interview forms the subject of one of W. S. Landor's
Imaginary Conversations.
MILTON
483
again. His return journey, however, probably because he
learnt that the news he had first received was exaggerated
or premature, was broken into stages. He spent a second
January and February (1638-1639) in Rome, in some danger, he
says, from the papal police, because the English Jesuits in
Rome had taken offence at his habit of free speech, wherever
he went, on the subject of religion. From Rome he went to
Florence, his second visit to the city, including an excursion
to Lucca, extending over two months; and not till April 1639 did
he take his leave, and proceed, by Bologna and Ferrara, to
Venice. About a month was given to Venice; and thence,
having shipped for England the books he had collected in Italy,
he went on, by Verona and Milan, over the Alps, to Geneva.
In this Protestant city he spent a week or two in June, forming
interesting acquaintanceships there too, and having daily
conversations with the great Protestant theologian Dr Jean
Diodati, the uncle of his friend Charles Diodati. From Geneva
he returned to Paris, and so to England. He was home again in
August 1639, having been absent in all fifteen or sixteen
months.
Milton's Continental tour, and especially the Italian portion
of it, which he describes at some length in his Defensio secunda,
remained one of the chief pleasures of his memory through
all his subsequent life. Nor was it without' fruits of a literary
kind. Besides two of his Latin Epistolae familiares, one
to the Florentine grammarian Buommattei, and the other to
Lucas Holstenius, there have to be assigned to Milton's sixteen
months on the Continent his three Latin epigrams Ad Leon ora m
Romae canentem, his Latin scazons Ad Salsillum poetam romanum
aegrotantem, his fine Latin hexameters entitled Mansus, ad-
dressed to Giovanni Battista Manso, and his five Italian sonnets,
with a canzone, in praise of a Bolognese lady.
His bosom friend and companion from boyhood, Charles
Diodati, died in Blackfriars, London, in August 1638, not
four months after Milton had gone away on his tour. The
intelligence did not reach Milton till some months afterwards,
probably not till his second stay in Florence; and, though he
must have learnt some of the particulars from his friend's uncle
in Geneva, he did not know them fully till his return to England.
How profoundly they affected him appears from his Epitaphium
Damonis, then written in memory of his dead friend. The
importance of this poem in Milton's biography cannot be
overrated. It is perhaps the noblest of all his Latin poems;
and, though written in the artificial manner of a pastoral, it is un-
mistakably an outburst of the most passionate personal grief.
In this respect Lycidas, artistically perfect though that poem
is, cannot be compared with it; and it is only the fact that
Lycidas is in English, while the Epitaphium Damonis is in Latin,
that has led to the notion that Edward King of Christ's College
was peculiarly and pre-eminently the friend of Milton in his
youth and early manhood.
We should not have known, but for an incidental passage
in the Epitaphium Damonis, that, at the time of his return
from Italy, he had chosen a subject for a great poem from the
Arthurian legend. The passage (lines 160-178) is one in which,
after referring to the hopes of Diodati's medical career so
suddenly cut short by his death, Milton speaks of himself
and of his own projects in his profession of literature. Milton
wrote that he was meditating an epic of which King Arthur was
to be the central figure, but which should include somehow
the whole cycle of British and Arthurian legend. This epic
was to be in English, and he had resolved that all his poetry
for the future should be in the same tongue.
Not long after Milton's return the house at Horton ceased
to be the family home. Christopher Milton and his wife went
to reside at Reading, taking the old gentleman with them, while
Milton himself preferred London. He had first taken lodgings
in St Bride's Churchyard, at the foot of Fleet Street; but,
after a while, probably early in 1640, he removed to a " pretty
garden house " of his own, at the end of an entry, in the part
of Aldersgate Street which lies immediately on the city side
of what is now Maidenhead Court. His sister, whose first
husband had died in 1631, had married a Mr Thomas Agar,
his successor in the Crown Office; and it was arranged that
her two sons by her first husband should be educated by their
uncle. John Phillips, the younger of them, only nine years
old, had boarded with him in the St Bride's Churchyard lodgings;
and, after the removal to Aldersgate Street, the other brother,
Edward Phillips, only a year older, became his boarder also.
Gradually a few other boys, the sons of well-to-do personal
friends, joined the two Phillipses, whether as boarders or for
daily lessons, so that the house in Aldersgate Street became
a small private school.
The Arthurian epic had been given up, and his mind was
roving among many other subjects, and balancing their capa-
bilities. How he wavered between Biblical subjects and heroic
subjects from British history, and how many of each kind
suggested themselves to him, one learns from a list in his own
handwriting among the Milton MSS. at Cambridge. It contains
jottings of no fewer than fifty-three subjects from the Old
Testament, eight from the Gospels, thirty-three from British
and English history before the Conquest, and five from Scottish
history. It is curious that all or most of them are headed or
described as subjects for " tragedies," as if the epic form had
now been abandoned for the dramatic. There are four separate
drafts of a possible tragedy on the Greek model under the title
of Paradise Lost, two of them merely enumerating the dramatis
personae, but the last two indicating the plot and the division
into acts. In 1641 he wrote in the Reason of Church Government
that he was meditating a poem on high moral or religious subjects.
But the fulfilment of these plans was indefinitely postponed.
Milton became absorbed in the ecclesiastical controversies
following on the king's attempt to force the episcopal system
on the Scots.
Of the first proceedings of the Long Parliament, including
the trial and execution of Strafford, the impeachment and
imprisonment of Laud and others, and the breakdown of the
system of Thorough by miscellaneous reforms and by guarantees
for parliamentary liberty, Milton was only a spectator. It
was when the church question emerged distinctly as the question
paramount, and there had arisen divisions on that question
among those who had been practically unanimous in matters
of civil reform, that he plunged in as an active adviser. There
were three parties on the church question. There was a high-
church party, contending for episcopacy by divine right,
and for the maintenance of English episcopacy very much
as it was; there was a middle party, defending episcopacy
on grounds of usage and expediency, but desiring to see the
powers of bishops greatly curtailed, and a limited episcopacy,
with councils of presbyters round each bishop, substituted
for the existing high episcopacy; and there was the root-and-
branch party, as it called itself, desiring the entire abolition
of episcopacy and the reconstruction of the English Church
on something like the Scottish Presbyterian model. Since the
opening of the parliament there had been a storm of pamphlets
from these three parties. The manifesto of the high-church
party was a pamphlet by Joseph Hall, bishop of Exeter, entitled
" Humble Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament."
In answer to Hall, and in representation of the views of the root-
and-branch party, there had stepped forth, in March 1640-1641,
five leading Puritan parish ministers, tie initials of whose
names, clubbed together on the title-page of their joint pro-
duction, made the uncouth word " Smectymnuus." These
were Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young,
Matthew Newcomen and William Spurstow. Thomas Young
was the Scottish divine who had been Milton's tutor in Bread
Street; he had returned from Hamburg in 1628, and had been
appointed to the vicarage of Stowmarket in Suffolk. The
famous Smectymnuan pamphlet in reply to Hall was mainly
Young's. What is more interesting is that his old pupil Milton
was secretly in partnership with him and his btpther-Smec-
tymnuans. Milton's hand is discernible in a portion of the
original Smectymnuan pamphlet; and he continued to aid the
Smectymnuans in their subsequent rejoinders to Hall's defences
MILTON
of himself. In May 1641 he put forth a defence of the Smec-
tymnuan side in Of Reformation touching Church Discipline in
England and the Causes that hitherto have hindered it. He
reviewed English ecclesiastical history, with an appeal to his
countrymen to resume that course of reformation which he
considered to have been prematurely stopped in the preceding
century, and to sweep away the last relics of papacy and prelacy.
Among all the root-and-branch pamphlets of the time it stood
out, and stands oat still, as the most thorough-going and
tremendous. It was followed by four others in rapid succession,
Of Prelatical Episcopacy and whether it may be deduced from
the Apostolical Times (June 1641), Animadversions upon the
Remonstrant's Defence against Smectymnuus (July 1641), The
Reason of Church Government urged against Prelaty (Feb.
1641-1642), Apology against a Pamphlet called a Modest Confuta-
tion of the Animadversions, &c. (March and April 1641-1642).
The first of these was directed chiefly against that middle party
which advocated a limited episcopacy, with especial reply to
the arguments of Archbishop Ussher, as the chief exponent of
the views of that party. Two of the others, as the titles imply,
belong to the Smectymnuan series, and were castigations of
Bishop Hall. The greatest of the four, and the most important
of all Milton's anti-episcopal pamphlets after the first, is that
entitled The Reason of Church Government. It is there that
Milton takes his readers into his confidence; speaking at length
of himself and his motives in becoming a controversialist.
Poetry, he declares, was his real vocation; it was with reluctance
that he had resolved to " leave a calm and pleasing solitariness,
fed with cheerful and confident thoughts, to embark in a
troubled sea of noises and hoarse disputes"; but duty had
left him no option. The great poem or poems he had been
meditating could wait; and meanwhile, though in prose-
polemics he had the use only of his " left hand/' that hand
should be used with all its might in the cause of his country)
and of liberty. The Apology was in answer to a Modest
Confutation of a Slanderous and Scurrilous Libel, the joint work
of Hall and his son, attacking Milton's personal character.
The parliament had advanced in the root-and-branch direction
so far as to have passed a bill for the exclusion of bishops from
the House of Lords, and compelled the king's assent to that
bill, when, in August 1642, the further struggle between Charles
and his subjects took the form of civil war. The Long Parlia-
ment moved on more and more rapidly in the root-and-branch
direction, till, by midsummer 1643, the abolition of episcopacy
had been decreed, and the question of the future non-prelatic
constitution of the Church of England referred to a synod of
divines, to meet at Westminster under parliamentary authority.
Of Milton's life through those first months of the Civil War
little is known. He remained in his house in Aldersgate Street,
teaching his nephews and other pupils; and the only scrap
that came from his pen was the semi-jocose sonnet bearing the
title " When the Assault was intended to the City." In the
summer of 1643, however, there was a great change in the
Aldersgate Street household. About the end of May, as his
nephew Edward Phillips remembered, Milton went away on a
country journey, without saying whither or for what purpose;
and, when he returned, about a month afterwards, it was with
a young wife, and with some of her sisters and other relatives in
her company. He had, in fact, been in the very headquarters
of the king and the Royalist army in and round Oxford; and
the bride he brought back with him was a Mary Powell, the
eldest daughter of Richard Powell, of Forest Hill, near Oxford.
She was the third of a family of eleven sons and daughters,
of good standing, but in rather embarrassed circumstances,
and was seventeen years and four months old, while Milton
was in his thirty-fifth year. However the marriage came about,
it was a most unfortunate event. The Powell family were
strongly Royalist, and the girl herself seems to have been
frivolous, and entirely unsuited for the studious life in Aiders-
gate Street. Hardly were the honeymoon festivities over,
when, her sisters and other relatives having returned to Forest
Hill and left her alone with her husband, she pined for home
again and begged to be allowed to go back on a visit. Milton
consented, on the understanding that the visit was to be a brief
one. This seems to have been in July 1643. Soon, however,
the intimation from Forest Hill was that he need not look ever
tb have his wife in his house again. The resolution seems to
have been mainly the girl's own; but, as the king's cause was
then prospering in the field, Edward Phillips was probably
right in his conjecture thai the whole of the Powell family
had repented of their sudden connexion with so prominent
a Parliamentarian and assailant of the Church of England as/
Milton. While his wife was away, his old father, who had'
been residing for three years with his younger and lawyer
son at Reading, came to take up his quarters in Aldersgate
Street.
Milton's conduct under the insult of his wife's desertion
was most characteristic. Always fearless and speculative,
he converted his own case into a public protest against the i
existing law and theory of marriage. The Doctrine and Disci-
pline of Divorce, Restored to the good of both Sexes from the Bondage I
of Canon Law 'and other Mistakes was the title of a pamphlet
put forth by him in August 1643, without his name, but with
no effort at concealment, declaring the notion of a sacramental
sanctity in the marriage relation to be a clerically invented
superstition, and arguing that inherent incompatibility of char-
acter, or contrariety of mind, between two married persons is a
perfectly just reason for divorce. If the date, the ist of August,
is correct, the pamphlet must have been written almost immedi-
ately on his wife's departure and before her definite refusal
to return. There was no reference to his own case, except by
implication ; but the boldness of the speculation roused attention
and sent a shock through London. It was a time when the
authors of heresies of this sort, or of any sort, ran considerable
risks. The famous Westminster Assembly of Divines, called
by the Long Parliament, met on the ist of July 1643. Whether
Milton's divorce tract was formally discussed in the Assembly
during the first months of its sitting is unknown; but it is certain
that the London clergy, including not a few members of the
Assembly, were then angrily discussing it in private. That
there might be no obstacle to a more public prosecution, Milton
put his name to a second and much enlarged edition of the
tract, in February 1644, dedicated openly to the parliament
and the assembly. Then, for a month or two, during which
the gossip about him and his monstrous doctrine was
spreading more and more, he turned his attention to other
subjects.
Among the questions in agitation in the' general ferment
of opinion brought about by the Civil War was that of a reform
of the national system of education and especially of the univer-
sities. To this question Milton made a contribution in June
1644, in a small treatise, Of Education, in the form of a letter j
to Samuel Hartlib, a German then resident in London and
interesting himself busily in all philanthropic projects and
schemes of social reform. In the very next month, however,
July 1644, he returned to the divorce subject in a pamphlet
addressed specially to the clergy and entitled The Judgment
of Martin Bucer concerning Divorce. The outcry against him
then reached its height. He was attacked in pamphlets;
he was denounced in pulpits all through London, and especially
by Herbert Palmer in a sermon preached on the I3th of August,
before the two Houses of Parliament; strenuous efforts were
made to bring him within definite parliamentary censure. In
the cabal forrned against him for this purpose a leading part
was played, at the instigation of the clergy, by the Stationers'
Company of London, which had a plea of its own against him
on the ground that his doctrine was not only immoral, but had
been put forth in an illegal manner. His first divorce treatise,
though published immediately after the " Printing Ordinance "
of the parliament of the I4th of June 1643, requiring all publica-
tions to be licensed for press by one of the official censors, and to
be registered in the books of the Stationers' Company, had
been issued without license and without registration. Com-
plaint to this effect was made against Milton, with some others
MILTON
485
liable to the same charge of contempt of the printing ordinance,
in a petition of the Stationers of the House of Commons in
August 1644; and the matter came before committee both in
that House and in the Lords.
It is to this circumstance that the world owes the most
popular and eloquent, if not the greatest, of all Milton's prose
writings, his famous Areopagitica, a Speech of Mr John Milton
for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, to the Parliament of
England. It appeared on the 25th of November 1644, deliber-
1 ately unlicensed and unregistered, and was a remonstrance
addressed to the parliament, as if in an oration to them
face to face, against their ordinance of June 1643 and the
whole system of licensing and censorship of the press. Nobly
eulogistic of the parliament in other respects, it denounced their
printing ordinance as utterly unworthy of them, and of the
new era of English liberties which they were initiating, and
called for its repeal. Though that effect did not follow, the
pamphlet virtually accomplished its purpose. The licensing
system had received its death-blow; and, though the Stationers
returned to the charge in another complaint to the House of
Lords, Milton's off ence against the press ordinance was condoned.
He was still assailed in pamphlets, and found himself " in a
world of disesteem "; but he lived on through the winter of
1644/5 undisturbed in his house in Aldersgate Street. To
this period there belong, in the shape of verse, only his sonnets
ix. and x., the first to some anonymous lady, and the second
" to the Lady Margaret Ley," with perhaps the Greek lines
entitled Philosophus ad regem quendam. His divorce specula-
tion, however, still occupied him; and in March 1644/5 he
published simultaneously his Tetrachordon: Expositions upon
the four chief places of Scripture which treat of Marriage, and his
Colaslerion, a Reply to a nameless Answer against the Doctrine
and Discipline of Divorce. In these he replied to his chief recent
assailants, lay and clerical, with merciless severity.
Through the latter part of 1644, Milton had been saved from
the penalties which his Presbyterian opponents would have
inflicted on him by the general championship of liberty of
opinion by Cromwell and the army Independents. Before
the middle of 1645 he, with others who were on the black books
of the Presbyterians as heretics, was safer still. Milton's
position after the battle of Naseby may be easily understood.
Though his first tendency on the Church question had been to
some form of a Presbyterian constitution for the Church, he
had parted utterly now from the Scots and Presbyterians,
and become a partisan of Independency, having no dread of
" sects and schisms," but regarding them rather as healthy
signs in the English body-politic. He was, indeed, himself one
of the most noted sectaries of the time, for in the lists of sects
drawn out by contemporary Presbyterian writers special
mention is made of one small sect who were known as Miltonists
or Divorcers.
So far as Milton was concerned personally, his interest in
the divorce speculation came to an end in July or August 1645,
vhen, by friendly interference, a reconciliation was effected
between him and his wife. The ruin of the king's cause at
Naseby had suggested to the Powells that it might be as well
for their daughter to go back to her husband after their two
years of separation. It was not, however, in the house in
Jdersgate Street that she rejoined him, but in a larger house,
vhich he had taken in the adjacent street called Barbican,
for the accommodation of an increasing number of pupils.
The house in Barbican was tenanted by Milton from about
August 1645 to September or October 1647. Among his first
occupations there must have been the revision of the proof
heets of the first edition of his collected poems. It appeared
as a tiny volume, copies of which are now very rare, with the
title, Poems of Mr John Milton, both English and Latin, compos' d
at several times. Printed by his true Copies. The songs were
set in Musick by Mr Henry La-wes. . . . The title-page gives the
date 1645, but the and of January 1645/6 seems to have
been the exact day o* its publication. Whether because his
pedagogic duties now --ngrossed him or for other reasons, very
few new pieces were added in the Barbican to those that the
little volume had thus made public. In English, there were
only the four sonnets now numbered xi.-xiv., the first two
entitled " On the Detraction which followed upon my writing
certain Treatises," the third "To Mr Henry Lawes on his
Airs," and the fourth" To the Religious Memory of Mrs Catherine
Thomson," together with the powerful anti-Presbyterian
invective or " tailed sonnet " entitled " On the New Forcers
of Conscience under the Long Parliament "; and in Latin there
were only the ode Ad Joannem Rousium, the Apologus de
Rustico et Hero, and one interesting " Familiar Epistle " (April
1647) addressed to his Florentine friend Carlo Dati.
Seme family incidents of importance belong to this time of
residence in Barbican. The fall of Oxford in 1646 compelled
the whole of the Powell family to seek refuge in London, and
most of them found shelter in Milton's house. His first child,
a daughter named Anne, was born there on the apth of July
that year; on the ist of January 1646/7 his father-in-law
Richard Powell died there, leaving his affairs in confusion; and
in the following March his own father died there, at the age
of eighty-four, and was buried in the adjacent church of St
Giles, Cripplegate.
From Barbican Milton removed, in September or October
1647, to a smaller house in that part of High Holborn which
adjoins Lincoln's Inn Fields. His Powell relatives had now left
him, and he had reduced the number of his pupils, or perhaps
kept only his two nephews. But, though thus more at leisure,
he did not yet resume his projected poem, but occupied himself
rather with three works of scholarly labour which he had already
for some time had on hand. One was the compilation in English
of a complete history of England, or rather of Great Britain,
from the earliest times; another was the preparation in Latin
of a complete system of divinity, drawn directly from the Bible;
and the third was the collection of materials for a new Latin
dictionary. Milton had always a fondness for such labours of
scholarship and compilation. Of a poetical kind there is nothing
to record, during his residence in High Holborn, but an experi-
ment in psalm-translation, in the shape of Ps. Ixxx.-lxxxviii.
done into service-metre in April 1648, and the sonnet to Fairfax,
written in September of the same year.
The crushing defeat of the Scottish army by Cromwell in the
three days' battle of Preston (1648) and the simultaneous
suppression of the English Royalist insurrection in the south-
east counties by Fairfax's siege and capture of Colchester, left
King Charles at the mercy of the victors. Milton's sonnet
" On the Lord General Fairfax, at the siege of Colchester,"
attested the exultation of the writer at the triumph of the
parliamentary cause. His exultation continued through what
followed. When the king was beheaded (1649) the first English-
man of mark out of parliament to attach himself openly to the
new republic was John Milton. This he did by the publication
of his pamphlet entitled " Tenure of Kings and Magistrates,
proving that it is lawful, and hath been held so in all ages, for
any who have the power, to call to account a Tyrant or wicked
King, and, after due conviction, to depose and put him to death,
if the ordinary Magistrate have neglected or denied to do it."
It was out within a fortnight after the king's death, and was
Milton's last performance in the house in High Holborn. The
chiefs of the new republic could not but perceive the importance
of securing the services of a distinguished man who had so
opportunely and so powerfully spoken out in favour of their
tremendous act. In March 1649, accordingly, Milton was
offered, and accepted, the secretaryship for foreign tongues to
the council of state of the new Commonwealth. The salary
was to be 288 a year (worth about 1000 a year now). To be
near his new duties in attendance on the council, which held
its daily sittings for the first few weeks in Derby House, close to
Whitehall, but afterwards regularly in Whitehall itself, he
removed at once to temporary lodgings at Charing Cross. In
the very first meetings of council which Milton attended he
must have made personal acquaintance with President Brad-
shaw, Fairfax, Cromwell himself, Sir Henry Vane, Whitelocke,
MILTON
Henry Marten, Haselrig, Sir Gilbert Pickering and the other
chiefs of the council and the Commonwealth, if indeed he had
not known some of them before. After a little while, for his
greater convenience, official apartments were assigned him in
Whitehall itself.
At the date of Milton's appointment to the secretaryship
he was forty years of age. His special duty was the drafting
in Latin of letters sent by the council of state, or sometimes by
the Rump Parliament, to foreign states and princes, with the
examination and translation of letters in reply, and with
personal conferences, when necessary, with the agents of foreign
powers in London, and with envoys and ambassadors. As
Latin was the language employed in the written diplomatic
documents, his post came to be known indifferently as the
secretaryship for foreign tongues or the Latin secretaryship.
In that post, however, his duties, more particularly at first,
were very light in comparison with those of his official colleague,
Walter Frost, the general secretary. Foreign powers held aloof
from the English republic as much as they could; and, while
Frost had to be present in every meeting of the council, keeping
the minutes, and conducting all the general correspondence,
Milton's presence was required only when some piece of foreign
business turned up. Hence, from the first, his employment
in very miscellaneous work. Especially, the council looked to
him for everything in the nature of literary vigilance and literary
help in the interests of the struggling Commonwealth. He was
employed in the examination of suspected papers, and in inter-
views with their authors and printers; and he executed several
great literary commissions expressly entrusted to him by the
council. The first of these was his pamphlet entitled Observa-
tions on the Articles of Peace (between Ormonde and the Irish).
It was published in May 1649, and was in defence of the republic
against a complication of Royalist intrigues and dangers in
Ireland. A passage of remarkable interest in it is one of eloquent
eulogy on Cromwell. More important still was the Eikonoklastes
(which may be translated " Image-Smasher "), published by
Milton in October 1649, by way of counterblast to the famous
Eikon Basilike (" Royal Image "), which had been in circulation
in thousands of copies since the king's death, and had become a
kind of Bible in all Royalist households, on the supposition that
it had been written by the royal martyr himself (see GAUDEN,
JOHN). In the end of 1649 there appeared abroad, under the
title of Defensio regia pro Carolo I., a Latin vindication of the
memory of Charles, with an attack on the English Common-
wealth. As it had been written, at the instance of the exiled
royal family, by Salmasius, or Claude de Saumaise, of Leiden,
then of enormous celebrity over Europe as the greatest scholar of
his age, it was regarded as a serious blow to the infant Common-
wealth. Milton threw his whole strength into a reply through
the year 1650, interrupting himself only by a new and enlarged
edition of his Eikonoklastes. His Latin Pro populo anglicano
defensio (1651), ran at once over the British Islands and the
Continent, and was received by scholars as an annihilation of
Salmasius. Through the rest of 1651 the observation was that
the two agencies which had co-operated most visibly in raising
the reputation of the Commonwealth abroad were Milton's books
and Cromwell's battles.
Through the eventful year 1651, in addition to the other duties
of his secretaryship, Milton acted as licenser and superintending
editor of the Mercurius polUicus, a newspaper issued twice a
week, of which Marchamont Nedham was the working editor
and proprietor. Milton's hand is discernable in some of the
leading articles.
About the end of 1651 Milton left his official rooms in White-
hall for a " garden house " he had taken on the edge of St
James's Park in what was then called Petty France, Westminster,
but is now York Street. The house, afterwards 19 York Street,
was occupied by James Mill and William Hazlitt in succession,
and was not pulled down till 1877. Milton had now more to do
in the special work of his office, in consequence of the increase
of correspondence with foreign powers. But he had for some
time been in ailing health; and a dimness of eyesight which had
been growing upon him gradually for ten years had been settling
rapidly, since his labour over the answer to Salmasius, into total
blindness. Before or about May 1652, when he was but in his
forty-fourth year, his blindness became total, and he could go
about only with some one to lead him. Hence a rearrangement
of his secretarial duties. Such of these duties as he could per-
form at home, or by occasional visits to the Council Office near,
he continued to perform; but much of the routine work was done
for him by an assistant, a well-known German, George Rudolph
Weckherlin, succeeded later by Philip Meadows and, eventually,
by Andrew Marvell. Precisely to this time of a lull in Milton's
secretaryship on account of his ill-health and blindness we have
to refer his two great companion sonnets "To the Lord General
Cromwell " and " To Sir Henry Vane the Younger/"'
In 1652 died his only son, who had been born at Whitehall in
the March of the preceding year. His wife died in 1653/4, just
after she had given birth to his third daughter, Deborah. With >
the three children thus left him Anne, but six years old, Mary,
not four, and the infant Deborah the blind widower lived on in
his house in Petty France in such desolation as can be imagined.
He had recovered sufficiently to resume his secretarial duties;
and the total number of his dictated state letters for the single
year 1652 is equal to that of all the state letters of his preceding
term of secretaryship put together. To the same year there
belong also three of his Latin " Familiar Epistles." In Decem-
ber 1652 there was published Joannis Philippi Angli responsio
ad apologiam anonymi cujusdam tenebrionis, being a reply by
Milton's younger nephew, John Phillips, but touched up by
Milton himself, to one of several pamphlets that had appeared
against Milton for his slaughter of Salmasius.
In December 1653 Cromwell's formal sovereignty began under
the name of the Protectorate, passing gradually into more than
kingship. This change from Government by the Rump and its
council to government by a single military lord protector and
his council was regarded by many as treason to the republican
cause, and divided those who had hitherto been the united
Commonwealth's men into the "Pure Republicans," represented
by such men as Bradshaw and Vane, and the " Oliverians, "
adhering to the Protector. Milton, whose boundless admiration
of Cromwell had shown itself already in his Irish tract of 1649
and in his recent sonnet, was recognized as one of the Oliverians.
He remained in Oliver's service and was his Latin secretary
through the whole of the Protectorate. For a while, indeed,
his Latin letters to foreign states in Cromwell's name were but
few Thurloe, as general secretary, officiating as Oliver's right-
hand man in everything, with a Philip Meadows under him, at a
salary of 200 a year, as deputy for the blind Milton in foreign
correspondence and translations. The reason for this temporary
exemption of Milton from routine duty may have been that he
was then engaged on an answer to the pamphlet from the Hague
entitled Regii sanguinis clamor ad coelum adversus parricidas
anglicanos (March 1652). Salmasius was now dead, and the
Commonwealth was too stable to suffer from such attacks; but
no Royalist pamphlet had appeared so able or so venomous as
this in continuation of the Salmasian controversy. All the
rather because it was in the main a libel on Milton himself did a
reply from his pen seem necessary. It came out in May 1654,
with the title Joannis Miltoni Angli pro populo anglicano defensio
secunda (Second Defence of John Milton, Englishman, for the
People of England) . The author of Regii sanguinis clamor was Dr
Peter du Moulin the younger, a naturalized French Presbyterian
minister, then moving about in English society, close to Milton;
but, as that was a profound secret, and the work was universally
attributed on the Continent to an Alexander More or Morus, a
French minister of Scottish descent then a professor at Middel-
burg, who had certainly managed the printing in consultation
with the now deceased Salmasius, and had contributed some
portion of the matter Milton made More the responsible person
and the one object of his invective. The savage attacfcon More's
personal character, however, is but part of the Defensio secunda.
It contains passages of singular autob ographical and histori-
cal value, and includes laudatory skriches of such eminent
MILTON
487
uv*
n
t- rt
Commonwealth's men asBradshaw, Fairfax, Fleet wood, Lambert
and Overton, together with a long panegyric on Cromwell himself
and his career, which remains to this day unapproached for
elaboration and grandeur by any estimate of Cromwell from
any later pen.
From about the date of the publication of the Defensio secunda
to the beginning of 1655 the only specially literary relics of
Milton's life are his translations of Ps. i.-viii. in different
metres, done in August 1654, his translation of Horace's Ode, i. 5,
done probably about the same time, and two of his Latin
"Familiar Epistles." The most active time of his secretaryship
for Oliver was from April 1655 onwards. In that month, in the
course of a general revision of official salaries under the Protec-
torate, Milton's salary of 288 a year hitherto was reduced to
200 a year, with a kind of redefinition of his office, recognizing
it, we may say, as a Latin secretaryship extraordinary. Philip
Meadows was to continue to do all the ordinary Foreign Office
work, under Thurloe's inspection; but Milton was to be called
in on special occasions. Hardly was the arrangement made
when a signal occasion did occur. In May 1655 all England was
horrified by the news of the massacre of the Vaudois Protestants
(Waldenses) by the troops of Emanuele II., duke of Savoy and
prince of Piedmont, in consequence of their disobedience to an
edict requiring them either to leave their native valleys or to
conform to the Catholic religion. Cromwell and his council
took the matter up with all their energy; and the burst of indig-
nant letters on the subject despatched in that month and the
next to the duke of Savoy himself, Louis XIV. of France, Cardinal
Mazarin, the Swiss cantons, the states-general of the United
Provinces, and the kings of Sweden and Denmark, were all by
Milton. His famous sonnet " On the Late Massacre in Pied-
mont " was his more private expression of feeling on the same
occasion. This sonnet was in circulation, and the case of the
Vaudois Protestants was still occupying Cromwell, when, in
August 1655, there appeared the last of Milton's Latin pamphlets.
It was his Pro se defensio ... in answer to an elaborate self-
defence which More had put forth on the Continent since
Milton's attack on his character. In that year also appeared
Milton's Scriptum domini protectoris . . . contra hispanos.
Through the rest of Cromwell's Protectorate, Milton's life
was of comparatively calm tenor. He was in much better health
than usual, bearing his blindness with courage and cheerfulness;
he was steadily busy with important despatches to foreign powers
on behalf of the Protector, then in the height of his great
foreign policy; and his house in Petty France seems to have been,
more than at any previous time' since the beginning of his blind-
ness, a meeting-place for friends and visitors, and a scene of
pleasant hospitalities. The four sonnets now numbered xix.-
xxii., one of them to young Lawrence, the son of the president
of Cromwell's council, and two of the others to Cyriack Skinner,
once his pupil, belong to this time of domestic quiet, as do also
no fewer than ten of his Latin " Familiar Epistles." His
marriage with Katherine Woodcock on the i2th of November
1656 brought him a brief period of domestic happiness; but,
ter only fifteen months, he was again a widower, by her
death in childbirth in February 1657/8. The child dying with
her, only the three daughters by the first marriage remained,
e touching sonnet which closes the series of Milton's Sonnets
lis sacred tribute to the memory of his second marriage and
the virtues of the wife he had so soon lost. Even after that
loss we find him still busy for Cromwell. Andrew Marvell, in
September 1657 succeeded Meadows, much to Milton's satisfac-
tion, as his assistant secretary; but this had by no means relieved
him from duty. Some of his greatest despatches for Cromwell,
including letters, of the highest importance, to Louis XIV.,
Mazarin and Charles Gustavus of Sweden, belong to the year
1658.
There is, unfortunately, no direct record to show what
Cromwell thought of Milton; but there is ample record of what
Milton thought of Cromwell. " Our chief of men," he had called
Cromwell in his sonnet of May 1652; and the opinion remained
unchanged. He thought Cromwell the greatest and best man
of his generation, or of many generations; and he regarded Crom-
well's assumption of the supreme power, and his retention of that
power with a sovereign title, as no real suppression of the republic,
but as absolutely necessary for the preservation of the republic,
and for the safeguard of the British Islands against a return of
the Stuarts. Nevertheless, under this prodigious admiration of
Cromwell, there were political doubts and reserves. Milton was
so much of a modern radical of the extreme school in his own
political views and sympathies that he cannot but have been
vexed by the growing conservatism of Cromwell's policy through
his Protectorate. To his grand panegyric on Oliver in the
Defensio secunda of 1654 he had ventured to append cautions
against self-will, over-legislation and over-policing; and he cannot
have thought that Oliver had been immaculate in these respects
through the four subsequent years. The attempt to revive an
aristocracy and a House of Lords, on which Cromwell was latterly
bent, cannot have been to Milton's taste. Above all, Milton
dissented in loto from Cromwell's church policy. It was_Milton's
fixed idea, almost his deepest idea, that there should be no such
thing as an Established Church, or state-pala clergy, of any sort
or denomination or mixture of denominations, in any nation,
and that, as it had been the connexion between church and state,
begun by Constantine, that had vitiated Christianity in the
world, and kept it vitiated, so Christianity would never flourish
as it ought till there had been universal disestablishment and
disendowment of the clergy, and the propagation of the gospel
were left to the zeal of voluntary pastors, self-supported, or
supported modestly by their flocks. He had at one time looked
to Cromwell as the likeliest man to carry this great revolution in
England. But Cromwell, after much meditation on the subject
in 1652 and 1653, had come to the opposite conclusion. The
conservation of the Established Church of England, in the form
of a broad union of all evangelical denominations of Christians,
whether Presbyterians, or Independents, or Baptists, or moderate
Old Anglicans, that would accept state-pay with state-control,
had been the fundamental notion of his Protectorate, persevered
in to the end. This must have been Milton's deepest disap-
pointment with Cromwell's rule.
Cromwell's death on the 3rd of September 1658 left the Protec-
torship to his son Richard. Milton and Marvell continued in
their posts, and a number of the Foreign Office letters of the
new Protectorate were of Milton's composition. In October
1658 appeared a new edition of his Defensio prima, and, early in
1659, a new English pamphlet, entitled Treatise of Civil Power
in Ecclesiastical Causes showing that it is not lawful to compel in
Matters of Religion, in which he advocated the separation of
Church and State. To Richard's Protectorate also belongs one
of Milton's Latin " Familiar Epistles."
The last of his known official performances in his Latin secre-
taryship are t'wo letters in the name of William Lenthall, as the
speaker of the restored Rump, one to the king of Sweden and one
to the king of Denmark, both dated the isth of May 1659. Under
the restored Rump, if ever, he seemed to have a chance for his
notion of church-disestablishment; and accordingly, in August
1659, he put forth, with a prefatory address to that body, a
pamphlet entitled Considerations touching the likeliest means to
remove Hirelings out of the Church. The restored Rump had no
time to attend to such matters. They were in struggle for their
own existence with the army chiefs; and to prevent the restora-
tion of the monarchy, to argue against it and fight against it to
the last, was the work to which Milton set himself; the preserva-
tion of the republic in any form, and by any compromise of
differences within itself, had become his one thought, and the
study of practical means to this end his most anxious occupation.
In a Letter to a Friend concerning the Ruptures of the Common-
wealth, written in October 1659, he had propounded a scheme of
a kind of dual government for reconciling the army chiefs with
the Rump; through the following winter, marked only by two of
his Latin " Familiar Epistles," his anxiety over the signs of the
growing enthusiasm throughout the country for the recall of
Charles II. had risen to a passionate vehemence which found
vent in a pamphlet entitled The Ready and Easy Way to Establish
488
MILTON
a Free Commonwealth, and the Excellence thereof compared with
the Inconveniences and Dangers of readmitting Kingship to this
Nation. An abridgment of this pamphlet was addressed by
him to General Monk in a letter entitled " The Present Means
and Brief Delineation of a Free Commonwealth " (March 1660).
Milton's proposal was that the central governing apparatus of
the British Islands for the future should consist of one indis-
soluble grand council or parliament, which should include
all the political chiefs, while there should be a large number of
provincial councils or assemblies sitting in the great towns
for the management of local and county affairs.
Not even when the king's cause was practically assured would
Milton be silent. In Brief Notes upon a late Sermon, published
in April 1660, in reply to a Royalist discourse by a Dr Matthew
Griffith, he made another protest against the recall of the Stuarts,
even hinting that it would be better that Monk should become
king himself; and in the same month he sent forth a second
edition of his Ready and Easy Way, more frantically earnest
than even the first, and containing additional passages of the
most violent denunciation of the royal family, and of prophecy of
the degradation and disaster they would bring back with them.
This was the dying effort. On the asth of April the Convention
Parliament met; on the ist of May they resolved unanimously
that the government by King, Lords and Commons should be
restored ; and on the 2gth of May, Charles IL made his triumphal
entry into London. The chief republicans had by that time
scattered themselves, and Milton was hiding in an obscure part of
the city.
How Milton escaped the scaffold at the Restoration is a
mystery now, and was a mystery at the time. The Commons
voted that he should be taken into custody by the serjeant-at-
arms, for prosecution by the attorney-general on account of his
Eikonoklastes and Defensio prima, and that all copies of those
books should be called in and burnt by the hangman. There
was a story that Milton had once protected Davenant and now
owed his immunity to him; but it is more likely that he was
protected by the influence of Marvell, by Arthur Annesley, after-
wards earl of Anglesey, and by other friends who had influence
at court. At all events, on the 2pth of August 1660, when
the Indemnity Bill did come out complete, with the king's
assent, Milton did not appear as one of the exceptions on any
ground or in any of the grades. From that moment, therefore,
he could emerge from his hiding, and go about as a free man.
Not that he was yet absolutely safe. There were several public
burnings by the hangman at the same time of Milton's con-
demned pamphlets; and the appearance of the blind man him-
self in the streets, though he was legally free, would have caused
him to be mobbed and assaulted. Though the special prosecution
ordered against him by the Commons had been quashed by the
subsequent Indemnity Bill, the serjeant-at-arms hid taken him
into custody. Entries in the Commons journals of the i;th and
1 9th of December show that Milton complained of the exorbitant
fees charged by the serjeant-at-arms for his release, and that the
matter was referred to a committee at the instance of Andrew
Marvell.
Milton did not return to Petty France. For the first months
after he was free he lived as closely as possible in a house near
what is now Red Lion Square, Holborn. Thence he removed,
apparently early in 1661, to a house in Jewin Street, in his old
Aldersgate Street and Barbican neighbourhood. In Jewin Street
Milton remained for two or three years, or from 1661 to 1664.
This is the time of which he says:
"... though fallen on evil days,
On evil days though fallen, and evil tongues,
In darkness, and with dangers compassed round,
And solitude."
The " evil days " were those of the Restoration in its first or
Clarendonian stage, with its revenges and reactions, its return
to high Episcopacy and suppression of every form of dissent and
sectarianism, its new and shameless royal court, its open procla-
mation and practice of anti-Puritanism in morals and in litera-
ture no less than in politics. For the main part of this world of
the Restoration Milton was now nothing more than an infamous
outcast, the detestable blind republican and regicide who had,
by too great clemency, been left unhanged. The friends that
adhered to him still, and came to see him in Jewin Street, were
/few in number, and chiefly from the ranks of those noncon-
forming denominations, Independents, Baptists or Quakers,
who were themselves under similar obloquy. Besides his two
nephews, the faithful Andrew Marvell, Cyriack Skinner and some
others of his former admirers, English or foreign, we hear chiefly
of a Dr Nathan Paget, who was a physician in the Jewin Street
neighbourhood, and of several young men who would drop in
upon him by turns, partly to act as his amanuenses, and partly
for the benefit of lessons from him one of them a Quaker youth,
.named Thomas Ellwood. With all this genuine attachment
to him of a select few, Milton could truly enough describe his
condition after the Restoration as one of " solitude." Nor was
this the worst. His three daughters, on whom he ought now to
have been able principally to depend, were his most serious
domestic trouble. The poor motherless girls, the eldest in her
seventeenth year in 1662, the second in her fifteenth and the
youngest in her eleventh, had grown up, in their father's blind-
ness and too great self-absorption, ill-looked-after and but poorly
educated; and the result now appeared. They " made nothing
of neglecting him"; they rebelled against the drudgery of reading
to him or otherwise attending on him; they " did combine
together and counsel his maid-servant to cheat him in her
marketings"; they actually "had made away some of his
books, and would have sold the rest."
It was to remedy this state of things that Milton consented
to a third marriage. The wife found for him was Elizabeth
Minshull, of a good Cheshire family, and a relative of Dr Paget.
They were married on the 24th of February 1662/3, the wife
being then only in her twenty-fifth year, while Milton was in his
fifty-fifth. She proved an excellent wife; and the Jewin Street
household, though the daughters remained in it, must have been
under better management from the time of her entry into it.
Meanwhile, he had found some solace in renewed industry of
various kinds among his books and tasks of scholarship, and more
particularly he had been building up his Paradise Lost. He had
begun the poem in earnest, we are told, in 1658 at his house in
Petty France, not in the dramatic form contemplated eighteen
years before, but deliberately in the epic form. He had made
but little way when there came the interruption of the anarchy
preceding the Restoration and of the Restoration itself; but the
work had been resumed in Jewin Street and prosecuted there
steadily, by dictations of twenty or thirty lines at a time to
whatever friendly or hired amanuensis chanced to be at hand.
Considerable progress had been made in this way before his third
marriage; and after that the work proceeded apace, his nephew,
Edward Phillips, who was then out in the world on his own
account, looking in when he could to revise the growing
manuscript.
It was not in the house in Jewin Street, however, that Paradise
Lost was finished. Not very long after the third marriage,
probably in 1664, he removed to another house, with a garden,
in " Artillery Walk, leading to Bunhill Fields." Here Paradise
Lost was certainly finished before July 1665 Aubrey says in
1663 for when Milton and his family, to avoid the Great
Plague of London, went into temporary country-quarters in a
cottage in Chalfont St Giles, Buckinghamshire, 1 the finished
manuscript was taken with him, in probably more than one
copy. This we learn from Thomas Ellwood, who had taken the
cottage for him, and was allowed to take a copy of the manu-
script way with him for perusal, during Milton's stay at Chal-
font (Life of Thomas Ellwood, 1714). The delay in the publica-
tion of the poem may be explained partly by the fact that the
official licenser hesitated before granting the necessary imprima-
tur to a book by a man of such notorious republican antecedents,
and partly by the paralysis of all business in London by the Great
Fire of September 1666. It was not till the 27th of April 1667
that Milton concluded an agreement, still preserved in the British
1 Milton's cottage here is still standing, and is open to visitors.
Museum, with Samuel Simmons, printer, of Aldersgate Street,
London, to dispose of the copyright for 5 down, the promise
of another 5 after the sale of the first edition of 1300 copies,
and the further promise of two additional sums of 5 each
after the sale of two more editions of the same size respec-
tively. It was as if an author now were to part with all his
rights in a volume for 17, IDS. down, and a contingency of
52, ics. more in three equal instalments. The poem was duly
entered by Simmons as ready for publication in the Stationers'
Registers on the 2oth of the following August; and shortly after
that date it was out in London as a neatly printed small quarto,
with the title Paradise Lost: A Poem written in Ten Books: By
John Milton. The reception accorded to Paradise Lost has been
quoted as an example of the neglect of a great work, but the sale
of an edition of 1300 copies in eighteen months proves that the
poem found a wide circle of readers. " This man cuts us all out,
and the ancients too " is the saying attributed to Dryden on the
occasion ; and it is the more remarkable because the one objection
to the poem which at first, we are told, " stumbled many " must
have " stumbled " Dryden most of all. Except in the drama,
rhyme was then thought essential in anything professing to be
a poem; blank verse was hardly regarded as verse at all; Dryden
especially had been and was the champion of rhyme, contending
for it even in the drama. That, notwithstanding this obvious
blow struck by the poet at Dryden's pet literary theory, he should
have welcomed the poem so enthusiastically and proclaimed its
merits so emphatically, says much at orce for his critical percep-
tion and for the generosity of his temper. According to Aubrey,
Dryden requested Milton's leave to turn the poem into a rhymed
drama, and was told he might " tag his verses if he pleased."
The result is seen in Dryden's opera, The Slate of Innocence and
the Fall of Man (1675). One consequence of Milton's renewed
celebrity was that visitors of all ranks again sought him out for
the honour of his society and conversation. His obscure house
in Artillery Walk, Bunhill, we are told, became an attraction
now, " much more than he did desire," for the learned
notabilities of his time.
Accounts have come down to us of Milton's personal appearance
and habits in his later life. They describe him as to be seen every
other day led about in the streets in the vicinity of his Bunhill
residence, a slender figure, of middle stature or a little less, generally
dressed in a grey cloak or overcoat, and wearing sometimes a small
silver-hilted sword, evidently in feeble health, but still looking
younger than he was, with his lightish hair, and his fair, rather than
aged or pale, complexion. He would sit in his garden at the door
of his house, in warm weather, in the same kind of grey overcoat,
" and so, as well as in his room, received the visits of people of dis-
tinguished parts, as well as quality." Within doors he was usually
dressed in neat black. He was a very early riser, and very regular
in the distribution of his day, spending the first part, to his midday
dinner, always in his own room, amid his books, with an amanuensis
to read for him and write to his dictation. Music was always a
chief part of his afternoon and evening relaxation, whether when
he was by himself or when friends were with him. His manner with
friends and visitors was extremely courteous and affable, with just
a shade of stateliness. In free conversation, either at the midday
dinner, when a friend or two happened, by rare accident, to be
present, or more habitually in the evening and at the light supper
which concluded it, he was the life and soul of the company, from
his " flow of subject " and his " unaffected cheerfulness and civility,"
though with a marked tendency to the satirical and sarcastic in his
criticisms of men and things. This tendency to the sarcastic was
connected by some of those who observed it with a peculiarity of
his voice or pronunciation. " He pronounced the letter r very hard,"
\ubrey tells us, adding Dryden's note on the subject : " litera canina,
he dog-letter, a certain sign of a satirical wit." He was extremely
emperate in the use of wine or any strong liquors, at meals and at
,11 other times; and when supper was over, about nine o'clock, " he
moked his pipe and drank a glass of water, and went to bed."
ie suffered much from gout, the effects of which had become apparent
n a stiffening of his hands and finger-joints, and the recurring
attacks of which in its acute form were very painful. His favourite
>oets among the Greeks were Homer and the Tragedians, especially
iuripides; among the Latins, Virgil and Ovid; among the English,
Spenser and Shakespeare. Among his English contemporaries, he
thought most highly of Cpwley. He had ceased to attend any
church, belonged to no religious communion, and had no religious
observances in his family. His reasons for this were a matter for
curious surmise among his friends, because of the profoundly religious
character of his own mind; but he does not seem ever to have
MILTON 489
furnished the explanation. The matter became of less interest
perhaps after 1669, when his three daughters ceased to reside with
him, having been sent out " to learn some curious and ingenious
sorts of manufacture that are proper for women to learn, particularly
embroideries in gold or silver. After that the household in Bunhill
consisted only of Milton, his wife, a single maid-servant, and the
" man " or amanuensis who came in for the day.
The remaining years of Milton's life, extending through that
part of the reign of Charles II. which figures in English history
under the name of the " Cabal Administration," were by no
means unproductive. In 1669 he published, under the title of
Accedence commenced Grammar, a small English compendium of
Latin grammar that had been lying among his papers. In 1670
there appeared, with a prefixed portrait of him by Faithorne,
done from the life, his History of Britain . . . to the Norman
Conquest, being all that he had been able to accomplish of his
intended complete history of England; and in the same year
a Latin digest of Ramist logic, entitled Artis logicae plenior
institutio, of no great value, and doubtless from an old manu-
script of his earlier days. In 1671 there followed his Paradise
Regained and Samson Agonistes, bound together in one small
volume, and giving ample proof that his poetic genius had not
exhausted itself in the preceding great epic. In 1673, at a
moment when the growing political discontent with the govern-
ment of Charles II. and the conduct of his court had burst forth
in the special form of a " No-Popery " agitation and outcry,
Milton ventured on the dangerous experiment of one more
political pamphlet, in which, under the title " Of True Religion,
Heresy, Schism, Toleration, and what best means may be used
against the growth of Popery," he put forth, with a view to
popular acceptance, as mild a version as possible f his former
principles on the topics discussed. In the same year appeared
the second edition of his Poems . . . both English and Latin,
which included, with the exception of the Sonnets to Cromwell,
Fairfax, Vane and the second address to Cyriack Skinner, all the
minor poems.
Thus we reach the year 1674, the last of Milton's life. One
incident of that year was the publication of the second edition
of Paradise Lost, with the poem rearranged as now into twelve
books, instead of the original ten. Another was the publication
of a small volume 1 containing his Latin Epistolae familiares,
together with the Prolusiones oratoriae of his student-days at
Cambridge these last thrown in as a substitute for his Latin
state-letters in his secretaryship for the Commonwealth and the
Protectorate, the printing of which was stopped by order from
the Foreign Office. A third publication of the same year, and
probably the very last thing dictated by Milton, was a transla-
tion of a Latin document from Poland, relating to the recent
election of the heroic John Sobieski to the throne of that kingdom,
with the title A Declaration or Letters Patents of the Election of
this present King of Poland, John the Third. It seems to have
been out in London in August or September 1674. On Sunday
the |>th of the following November Milton died, in his house in
Bunhill, of " gout struck "in," at the age of sixty-five years and
eleven months. He was buried, the next Thursday, in the
church of St Giles, Cripplegate, beside his father; a considerable
concourse attending the funeral.
Before the Restoration, Milton what with his inheritance from
his father, what with the official income of his Latin secretaryship
must have been a man of very good means indeed. Family
Since then, however, various heavy losses, and the
cessation of all official income, had greatly reduced his estate,
so that he left but 900 (worth about or over 2700 now) besides
furniture and household goods. By a word-of-mouth will, made
in presence of his brother Christopher, he had bequeathed the
whole to his widow, on the ground that he had done enough
already for his " undutiful " daughters, and that there remained
for them his interest in their mother's marriage portion of
1000, which had never been paid, but which their relatives, the
Powells of Forest Hill, were legally bound for, and were now in
*Joannis Miltonii Angli epistolarum familiarum liber unus;
quibus accesserunt ejusdem (jam olim in collegia adolescentis)
prolusiones quaedam oratoriae (1674; translation by J. Hall, 1829).
49
MILTON
circumstances to make good. The daughters, with the Powells
probably abetting them, went to law with the widow to upset
the will; and the decision of the court was that they should
receive 100 each. With the 600 thus left, the widow, after
some further stay in London, retired to Nantwich in her native
Cheshire. There, respected as a pious member of a local Baptist
congregation, she lived till 1727, having survived her husband
fifty-three years. By that time all the three daughters were
also dead. The eldest, Ann Milton, who was somewhat deformed,
had died not long after her father, having married " a master-
builder," but left no issue; the second, Mary Milton, had died,
unmarried, before 1694; and only the third, Deborah, survived
as long as her step-mother. Having gone to Ireland, as com-
panion to a lady, shortly before her father's death, she had
married an Abraham Clarke, a silk-weaver in Dublin, with whom
she returned to London about 1684, when they settled in the
silk-weaving business in Spitalfields, rather sinking than rising
in the world, though latterly some public attention was paid to
Deborah, by Addison and others, on her father's account. One
of her sons, Caleb Clarke, had gone out to Madras in 1703, and
had died there as "parish-clerk of Fort George" in 1719,
leaving children, of whom there are some faint traces to as late
as 1727, the year of Deborah's death. Except for the possibility
of further and untraced descent from this Indian grandson of
Milton, the direct descent from him came to an end in his grand-
daughter, Elizabeth Clarke, another of Deborah's children.
Having married a Thomas Foster, a Spitalfields weaver, but
afterwards set up a small chandler's shop, first in Holloway and
then in Shoreditch, she died at Islington in 1754, not long after
she and her husband had received the proceeds of a performance
of Comus got up by Dr Johnson for her benefit. All her children
had predeceased her, leaving no issue. Milton's brother Chris-
topher, who had always been on the opposite side in politics, rose
to the questionable honour of a judgeship and knighthood in the
latter part of the reign of James II. He had then become a
Roman Catholic which religion he professed till his death in
retirement at Ipswich in 1692. Descendants from him are
traceable a good way into the i8th century. Milton's two
nephews and pupils, Edward and John Phillips, both of them
known as busy and clever hack-authors before their uncle's
death, continued the career of hack-authorship, most industri-
ously and variously, though not very prosperously, through the
rest of their lives: Edward in a more reputable manner than
John, and with more of enduring allegiance to the memory of his
uncle. Edward died about 1695; John was alive till 1706.
Their half-sister, Ann Agar, the only daughter of Milton's sister
by her second husband, had married, in 1673, a David Moore, of
Sayes House, Chertsey; and the most flourishing of all the lines
of descent from the poet's father was in this Agar-Moore branch
of the Miltons.
Of masses of manuscript that had been left by Milton, some
portions saw the light posthumously. Prevented, in the last year
of his life from publishing his Latin State Letters in the
108 same volume with his Latin Familiar Episiles, he had
""committed the charge of the State Letters, prepared for
the press, together with the completed manuscript of his Latin
Treatise of Christian Doctrines, to a young Cambridge scholar,
Daniel Skinner, who had been among the last of his amanuenses,
and had, in fact, been employed by him especially in copying out
and arranging those two important MSS. Negotiations were on
foot, after Milton's death, between this Daniel Skinner and the
Amsterdam printer, Daniel Elzevir, for the publication of both MSS.,
when the English government interfered, and the MSS. were sent
back by Elzevir, and thrown aside, as dangerous rubbish, in a
cupboard in the State Paper Office. Meanwhile, in 1676, a London
bookseller, named Pitt, who had somehow got into his possession
a less perfect, but still tolerably complete, copy of the State Letters,
had brought out a surreptitious edition of them, under the title Literae
pseudo-senatus anglicani, Cromwellii . . . nomine etjussu conscriptae
a Joanne Miltono. No other posthumous publications of Milton's
appeared till 1681, when another bookseller put forth a slight
tract entitled Mr John Milton's Character of the Long Parliament and
Assembly of Divines, in 1641, consisting of a page or two, of rather
dubious authenticity, said to have been withheld from his History
of Britain in the edition of 1670. In 1682 appeared A Brief History
of Moscovia, and of other less-known Countries lying Eastward of Russia
as far as Cathay . . . undoubtedly Milton's, and a specimen of
those prose compilations with which he sometimes occupied his
leisure. Of the fate of his collections for a new Latin Dictionary,
which had swelled to three folio volumes of MS., all that is known
is that, after having been used by Edward Phillips for his Enchiridion
and Speculum, they came into the hands of a committee of Cambridge
scholars, and were used for that Latin dictionary of 1693, called
The Cambridge Dictionary, on which Ainsworth's Dictionary was
based. In 1698 there was published in three folio volumes, under
the editorship of John Toland, the first collective edition of Milton's
prose works, professing to have been printed at Amsterdam, though
really printed in London. A very interesting folio volume, published
in 1743 by " John Nickolls, junior," under the title of Original Letters
and Papers of State addressed to Oliver Cromwell, consists of a number
of intimate Cromwellian documents that had somehow come into
Milton's possession immediately after Cromwell's death, and were
left by him confidentially to the Quaker Ellwood. Finally, a chance
search in the London State Paper Office in 1823 having discovered
the long-lost parcel containing the MSS. of Milton's Latin State
Letters and his Latin Treatise of Christian Doctrine, as these had been
sent back from Amsterdam a hundred and fifty years before, the
Treatise on Christian Doctrine was, by the command of George IV.,
edited and published in 1825 by the Rev. C. R. Sumner, keeper of
the Royal Library, and afterwards bishop of Winchester, under the
title of Joannis Milton'i Angli de doctrina Christiana libri duo
posthumi. An English translation, by the editor, was published
in the same year. Those state papers of Milton which had not been
already printed were edited by W. D. Hamilton for the Camden
Society, in 1859.
Milton's literary life divides into three almost mechanically
distinct periods: (i) the time of his youth and minor poems,
(2) his middle twenty years of prose polemics, and (3) the time
of his later Muse and greater poems.
Had Milton died in 1640, when he was in his thirty-second
year, and had his literary remains been then collected, he would
have been remembered as one of the best Latinists
of his generation and one of the most exquisite of
minor English poets. In the latter character,
more particularly, he would have taken his place as one of that
interesting group or series of English poets, coming in the next
forty years after Spenser, who, because they all acknowledged
a filial relationship to Spenser, may be called collectively the
Spenserians. In this group or series, counting in it such other
true poets of the reigns of James I. and Charles I. as Phineas
and Giles Fletcher, William Browne and Drummond of Haw-
thornden, Milton would have been entitled, by the small collec-
tion of pieces he had left, and which would have included his
Ode on the Nativity, his L' Allegro and // Penseroso, his Comus
and his Lycidas, to recognition as indubitably the very highest
and finest. There was in him that peculiar Spenserian something
which might be regarded as the poetic faculty in its essence, with
a closeness and perfection of verbal finish not to be found in the
other Spenserians, or even in the master himself. Few as the
pieces were, and owning discipleship to Spenser as the author did,
he was a Spenserian with a difference belonging to his own consti-
tution which prophesied, and indeed already exhibited, the
passage of English poetry out of the Spenserian into a kind that
might be called the Miltonic. This Miltonic something, dis-
tinguishing the new poet from other Spenserians, was more than
mere perfection of literary finish. It consisted in an avowed
consciousness already of the os magna soniturum, " the mouth
formed for great utterances," that consciousness resting on a
peculiar substratum of personal character that had occasioned
a new theory of literature. " He who would not be frustrate of
his hope to write well hereafter on laudable things ought himself
to be a true poem " was Milton's own memorable expression
afterwards of the principle that had taken possession of him
from his earliest days; and this principle of moral manliness as
the true foundation of high literary effort, of the inextricable
identity of all literary productions in kind, and their coequality
in worth, with the personality in which they have their origin,
might have been detected, in more or less definite shape, in all
or most of the minor poems. It is a specific form of that general
Platonic doctrine of the invincibility of virtue which runs
through his Comus.
That a youth and early manhood of such poetical promise
should have been succeeded by twenty years of all but incessant
prose polemics has been a matter of regret with many. But this
MILTON
491
is to ignore his political and social side. If Burke, whose whole
public career consisted in a succession of speeches and pamphlets,
is looked back upon as one of the greatest men of his century
on their account, why should there be regret over the fact
that Milton, after having been the author of Comus and Lycidas,
became for a time the prose orator of his earlier and more tumul-
tuous generation? Milton was not only the greatest pamph-
leteer of his generation head and shoulders above the rest but
there is no life of that time, not even Cromwell's, in which the
history of the great Revolution in its successive phases, so far as
the deep underlying ideas and speculations were concerned,
may be more intimately and instructively studied than in
Milton's. Then, on merely literary grounds, what an interest
in those prose remains! Not only of his Areopagitica, admired
now so unreservedly because its main doctrine has become
axiomatic, but of most of his other pamphlets, even those the
doctrine of which is least popular, it may be said confidently
that they answer to his own definition of " a good book," by
containing somehow " the precious life-blood of a master-
spirit." From the entire series there might be a collection of
specimens, unequalled anywhere else, of the capabilities of that
older, grander and more elaborate English prose of which the
Elizabethans and their immediate successors were not ashamed.
Nor will readers of Milton's pamphlets continue to accept the
hackneyed observation that his genius was destitute of humour.
Though his prevailing mood was the severely earnest, there are
pages in his prose writings, both English and Latin, of the most
laughable irony, reaching sometimes to outrageous farce, and
some of them as worthy of the name of humour as anything in
Swift. Here, however, we touch on what is the worst feature in
some of the prose pamphlets their measureless ferocity, their
boundless licence in personal scurrility.
While it is wrong to regard Milton's middle twenty years of
prose polemics as a degradation of his genius, and while the fairer
contention might be that the youthful poet of Comus and Lycidas
actually promoted himself, and became a more powerful agency
in the world and a more interesting object in it for ever, by
consenting to lay aside his " singing robes " and spend a portion of
his life in great prose oratory, who does not exult in the fact that
such a life was rounded off so miraculously at the close by a final
stage of compulsory calm, when the " singing robes " could be
resumed, and Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson
Agonistes could issue in succession from the blind man's chamber?
Of these three poems, and what they reveal of Milton, no need
here to speak at length. Paradise Lost is one of the few monu-
mental works of the world, with nothing in modern epic literature
comparable to it except the great poem of Dante. This is best
perceived by those who penetrate beneath the beauties of the
merely terrestrial portion of the story, and who recognize the
coherence and the splendour of that vast symbolic phantasma-
gory by which, through the wars in heaven and the subsequent
revenge of the expelled archangel, it paints forth the connexion
of the whole visible universe of human cognisance and history
with the grander, pre-existing and still environing world of the
eternal and inconceivable. To this great epic Paradise Regained
is a sequel, and it ought to be read as such. The legend that
Milton preferred the shorter epic to the larger is quite incorrect.
All that is authentic on the subject is the statement by Edward
Phillips that, when it was reported to his uncle that the shorter
epic was " generally censured to be much inferior to the other,"
he " could not hear with patience any such thing." The best
critical judgment now confirms Milton's own, and pronounces
Paradise Regained to be not only, within the possibilities of its
briefer theme, a worthy sequel to Paradise Lost, but also one of
the most artistically perfect poems in any language. Finally,
the poem in which Milton bade farewell to the Muse, and in
which he reverted to the dramatic form, proves that to the very
end his right hand had lost none of its power or cunning.
Samson Agonistes is the most powerful drama in the English
language after the severe Greek model, and it has the additional
interest of being so contrived that, without any deviation from
the strictly objective incidents of the Biblical story which it
enshrines, it is yet the poet's own epitaph and his condensed
autobiography.
Much light is thrown upon Milton's mind in his later life, and
even upon the poems of that period, by his posthumous Latin
Treatise of Christian Doctrine. It differs from all his other prose
writings of any importance in being cool, abstract and didactic.
Professing to be a system of divinity derived directly from the
Bible, it is really an exposition of Milton's metaphysics and of
his reasoned opinions on all questions of philosophy, ethics and
politics. The general effect is to show that, though he is rightly
regarded as the very genius of English Puritanism, its represen-
tative poet and idealist, yet he was not a Puritan of what may be
called the first wave, or that wave of Calvinistic orthodoxy
which broke in upon the absolutism of Charles and Laud, and
set the English Revolution agoing. He belonged distinctly to
that larger and more persistent wave of Puritanism which,
passing on through Independency, and an endless variety of sects,
many of them rationalistic and freethinking in the extreme,
developed into what has ever since been known as English
Liberalism. The treatise makes clear that, while Milton was a
most fervid theist and a genuine Christian, believing in the
Bible, and valuing the Bible over all the other books in the world,
he was at the same time one of the most intrepid of English
thinkers and theologians. (D. MA.;X.)
Considerable interest attaches among collectors to the variety
of prints representing portraits of Milton. So far as the original
contemporary portraits are concerned, which have p^^^g
inspired the large number of engravings, the following
may be mentioned: (i) The existing Janssen painting, 1618
(" aetatis suae 10 "), which belonged to Mrs Milton. (2) An
unknown painting of 1623 (?i62o), from which was taken an
engraving in the Gentleman's Magazine for September 1787
(" aet. suae 12 "). (3) The " Onslow " painting of Milton when a
Cambridge scholar (lost), which belonged to Mrs Milton and in
1794 was in Lord Onslow's possession; a copy by Van der Gucht
was made for Lord Harcourt and is still at Nuneham. (4)
William Marshal's engraved frontispiece to Moseley's edition of
the poems (1645). (5) William Faithorne's engraving of Milton
from life, at the age of sixty-two, in Milton's History of Britain
(1670). (6) Faithorne's original drawing for the above, belonging
in 1909 to Sir R. H. Hobart. (7) The Bayfordbury (or Tonson)
drawing (probably by Faithorne, or (?) by White or Richardson)
at Bayfordbury Park near Hertford. (8) A drawing by George
Vertue in Dr Williamson's collection. (9) A clay bust (? by
Pierce or Simon) at Christ's College. (10) A -miniature by Cooper
( I 653), which is, however, considered by Dr G- C. Williamson not
to be of Milton at all. (n) A painting by Pieter Van der Plas
(d. 1704) in the National Portrait Gallery. (12) An oil painting
at Christ's College. (13) The " Woodcock " miniature of Milton
when about forty-eight. In Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey,
a bust by Rysbrack was put up in 1737. A monument in St
Giles, Cripplegate, by John Bacon, R.A., was erected by Samuel
Whitbread in 1793; and a modern statue by Horace Montford
also stands there. A memorial window in St Margaret's, West-
minster, with an inscription by J. G. Whittier, was presented
by G. W. Childs, of Philadelphia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. MSS. of the poems of Milton's earlier period in
his own handwriting are preserved in the library of Trinity College,
Cambridge. These are not enumerated among the gifts made by
Sir Henry Newton Puckering in 1691, but presumably belonged to
him, and came to the library at his death in 1700, as they were found
by Charles Mason, a fellow of the college, among papers and books
which had been his. They were bound in a folio volume by the
care of Thomas Clarke, afterwards Master of the Rolls, in 1736.
Besides the poems, with many interlineations and corrections,
the MS. contains suggestions, and in some cases fully developed
plans, for works generally dramatic in form. This manuscript volume,
invaluable as an index to Milton's methods of work, was reproduced
in facsimile (Cambridge, 1899) by W. Aldis Wright.
The first complete edition of The Poetical Works of Mr John Milton
. . . was printed by Jacob Tonson in 1695. In 1732 Richard
Bentley put forward a curious edition of Paradise Lost in which long
passages were rejected and placed in the margin on the ground that
they were interpolations made possible by Milton's blindness.
The Latin and Italian poems, with a translation by William Cowper,
492
MILTON MILWAUKEE
were printed by W. Hayley in 1808. The most important of the
numerous later editions of Milton's poetical works are by H. J. Tockl
(6 vols., 1801); J. Mitford (" Aldme edition, .3 .vols., 1832); T.
Keightley (2 vols., 1859), whose notes are most original and interest-
ing- D.Masson(" Library "or "Cambridge "edition, 3 vols., i874;of
which a new edition appeared in 1890, with memoir, introduction,
notes and an essay on Milton's English and versification); John
Bradshaw (new " Aldine edition," 2 vols., 1892) ; also a careful reprint
retaining the peculiarities of the earlier printed copies, by H. C.
Bceching ("Oxford edition," 1904); and another, with variant
readings, by W. Aldis Wright (Cambridge University Press, 1903).
The prose works were first partially collected in 1697. They were
, i . , i_ \ _x-_o\ 1 /"* C. .,* li mmfjkm U/-vAi
^ v John .
numerous annotated editions of separate works.
The earliest life of Milton is contained in Wood MS. D. 4 in the
Bodleian Library, Oxford, and was printed in the Eng. Hist. Review
for January 1902, also by E. S. Parsons in Colorado College Studies,
No. X (1903). The author, who sympathized with the poet's
political views, is unknown, but the name of Milton's friend, Dr
Nathan Pagct, is suggested. His account formed the basis of the
life given by Anthony 4 Wood in Fasti oxonienses (1691). Wood
was also indebted to John Aubrey, whose Brief Liven were not printed
until later. The life by his nephew Edward Phillips was prefixed
to the Letters of State printed in 1694, and reprinted by William
Godwin in his Lives of E. and J. Phillips (1815). Samuel Johnson s
famous Life of Milton (1779), which contains some valuable
criticism, is written from a somewhat unfriendly standpoint. The
records of Milton's official life, available in the State Papers, were
first made use of by H. J. Todd in a third edition (1829) of his Milton.
All the available information was gathered in Professor Masson s
Life of John Milton; narrated in Connexion with the Political, Ecclesi-
astical and Literary History of his Time (6 vols., 1859-1880, with
index, 1894; new ed. of vol. i., 1881) which contains ample reference
to original authorities. Shorter works are Milton und seine Zeit
(2pts., 1877, 1879), by Alfred Stern; Milton (1879), by Mark Pattison
in the " English Men of Letters " series, and Life of John Milton
(1890) by Dr Richard Garnett in the " Great Writers" series, with
a bibliography by J. P. Anderson.
The sources of Paradise Lost have given rise to much discussion.
It has been supposed to owe something to Adamo, a comedy by
Giovanni Battista Andreini (1578-1652), to the Paraphrase associated
with the name of Caedmon which was printed at Amsterdam in
1655 by Francis Junius, and to the Lucifer and other plays of Joost
van den Vondel. Parallelisms between Vondel and Milton were
pointed out by Mr Edmund Gosse in Literatures of Northern Europe
(1879), and the comparison was carried further in Mr G. Edmund-
son s Milton and Vondel; A Curiosity of Literature (1885), a book
which aroused much discussion. A valuable contribution to Miltonic
criticism was made in 1893 by Mr Robert Bridges in an essay on
Milton's Prosody. This was reprinted in 1901, with some additional
matter and an essay on " Classical Metres in English Verse " by
W. J. Stone. Amongst other critical essays should be mentioned
essays by Macaulay (Edinburgh Review, 1825); Walter Bagehot
(Literary Studies, vol. i., 1879); S. T. Coleridge (Seven Lectures on
Shakespeare and Milton 1856); Edward Dowden (Transcripts and
Studies, 1888); Edmond Scherer (Etudes sur la litteralure contem-
poraine, vol. vi., 1882); Augustine Birrell (Obiter dicta, second series
1887); Walter Raleigh (Milton, 1900); E. Allodoli, Giovanni Milton
e I'ltalia (Prato, 1907).
Concordances of Milton's Poetical Works were compiled by G. L.
Prendergast (Madras, 1856-1857); by C. J. Cleveland (1867), based
on a verbal index used in an American edition 1853, of the Poetical
Works; by John Bradshaw (1894), by L. E. Lockwood, Lexicon to
the English Poetical Works of John Milton (New York, 1907).
The tercentenary of Milton's birth was celebrated in 1908 in
Cambridge, London and elsewhere. An exhibition of the portraits
of Milton, authentic and supposed, with a great collection of valuable
editions of the poet's works, was held in June and July at Christ's
College, Cambridge. The catalogue of this exhibition, drawn up
by Dr G. C. Williamson, forms a valuable bibliography and icono-
graphy of the poet. A collection of Milton autographs, early editions
and portraits was also held in December at the British Museum,
and the anniversary itself was celebrated by a special meeting of
the British Academy, at which papers by Professors W. J. Courthope,
Edward Dowden and others were read. There was a religious
service at St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, and a banquet at the Mansion
House.
MILTON, a township of N.E. Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 7 m. S. of Boston, the Neponset river forming a
large part of its N. and N.W. boundary. Pop. (1890), 4278;
(1000), 6578 (1840 being foreign-born) ; (1905, state census), 7054 ;
(1910) 7924. It is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford railway, and is primarily a residential suburb of Boston,
with which it is connected by electric lines. The township
covers an area of about 13 sq. m., and includes the villages of
Milton, East Milton and Mattapan. The country is rolling and
hilly, the Blue Hills (with the exception of a part included in
Braintree in 1712 and now in Quincy) lying in Milton. On
Great Blue Hill, the highest (635 ft. above tide-level), great fires
were kindled at the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act, of the
adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and of the sur-
renders of Burgoyne and Cooiwallis; beacon fires were burned
during the American War of Independence; an " observatory "
for tourists was built at an early date; and in 1885 the Blue Hill
Observatory for meteorological investigation was established by
Abbott Lawrence Rotch (b. 1861), who made important investi-
gations concerning clouds, and attracted attention by his use of
kites for obtaining meteorological data. Milton Academy (a
non-sectarian school) was founded in 1798, opened in 1805, and
suspended in 1867; a new academy was opened in 1885. There
is a public library, which was opened in 1871, and in 1909 had
more than 20,000 volumes. Cunningham Park is under the
control of the trustees of a fund left for the benefit of the town-
ship, and contains a gymnasium, skating-pond, tennis courts,
&c., open to townspeople only. Hutchinson Field, another
public park, is a part of the estate of the last royal governor,
Thomas Hutchinson; Governor Jonathan Belcher also lived in
Milton for a time. There are two granite quarries in the town-
ship immediately north-west of the Blue Hills; the granite is of
the " dark Quincy " variety dark bluish grey in colour and
is used chiefly for monuments. Milton, originally a part of
Dorchester, was first settled in 1640, and was called Uncata-
quissett. The township was separated from Dorchester and
incorporated in 1662. It owes its name either to its early paper
and grist mills (Milton being abbreviated from Milltown) or to
Milton Abbey, Dorset, whence members of the Tucker family
came, it is supposed, to Milton about 1662. In 1712 the Blue
Hill lands were divided between Milton and Braintree, and in
1868 part of Milton was included in the new township of Hyde
Park. In Milton, on the 9th of September 1774, at the house of
Daniel Vose, a meeting, adjourned from Dedham, passed the
bold " Suffolk Resolves " (Milton then being included in Suffolk
county), which declared that a sovereign who breaks his compact
with his subjects forfeits their allegiance, that parliament's
repressive measures were unconstitutional, that tax-collectors
should not pay over money to the royal treasury, that the towns
should choose militia officers from the patriot party, that they
would obey the Continental Congress and that they favoured a
Provincial Congress, and that they would seize crown officers as
hostages for any political prisoners arrested by the governor; and
recommended that all persons in the colony should abstain from
lawlessness.
See A. K. Tcele, History of Milton, Mass., 1640 to 1887 (Milton,
1887).
MILTON, a borough of Northumberland county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river at the mouth of Lime-
stone Run, about 66 m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 5317;
(1900), 6175 (166 foreign-born); (1910), 7460. It is served by
the Pennsylvania, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways,
and is connected with Lewisburg and Watsontown by an electric
line. Milton has an attractive public park, is in an agricultural
region, and has various manufactures. It was founded in 1792,
and incorporated as a borough in 1817. In 1880 it was in great
part destroyed by fire.
MILWAUKEE, a city and the county-seat of Milwaukee
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., the largest city of the state, at the
mouth of the Milwaukee river on the W. shore of Lake Michigan,
about 85 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 285,315; (1910),
373.857. The Milwaukee river entering the city from the
north is joined about J m. from its mouth by the Menominee
flowing from the west and a short distance from the lake by the
Kinnikinnic flowing from the south. These rivers are navigable
for lake traffic into the heart of the city. Milwaukee Bay, into
which their combined waters empty, is an inlet of Lake Michigan,
about 6 m. across. By the construction of extensive piers and
breakwaters a fine harbour of refuge has been created; and its
inner harbour is deep enough for the largest lake-steamers.
MILWAUKEE
From the shore of the lake the land rises, rather abruptly in
most places, to a height of from 75 to 100 ft. From a broad
plateau overlooking the lake the land slopes gradually westward
to the river, again rising on the north, west and south to a
height of 125 ft. or more. The rivers separate the city into three
distinctly marked divisions of varying character known as the
east, west and south sides. The manufactories are largely on
the " flats " along the rivers and on the south side. The exten-
sive use as building material of cream-coloured brick made in
the vicinity gives the city its nickname, " the Cream City."
The city has many beautiful parks and squares, the most
picturesque of which is Juneau Park, along the lake bluff. It
contains statues of Leif Ericsson and Solomon Juneau. Other
parks are Lake Park, also on the lake shore, at North Point,
where stands the waterworks pumping station with its tall tower;
Riverside and Kilbourn Parks, east and west respectively of the
upper Milwaukee river, in the northern part of the city, Washing-
ton Park on the west side, containing a menagerie and a herd of
deer; Sherman Park on the west side, and Kosciusko, Humboldt
and Mitchell Parks on the south side. McKinley Park on the
lake shore south of the city, and Whitefish Bay 6 m. north of the
city, are popular bathing resorts. In addition to the statues in
Juneau Park there is a statue of Kosciusko in the park of that
name; one of Washington and a soldiers' monument on Grand
Avenue; a statue of Henry Bergh in front of the city hall; one
of Robert Burns in the First Ward Park, and, in Washington
Park, a replica of Ernst Rietschel's Schiller-Goethe monument in
Jena, given to the city in 1908 by the Germans of Milwaukee.
Of the several cemeteries, that of Forest Home, south-west of the
city, is the largest and most beautiful. The city is well sewered,
and has an excellent water-supply system owned by the munici-
pality and representing an investment of more than $5,000,000.
The water is obtained from Lake Michigan through an intake
far out in the lake. Through a tunnel m. long, constructed in
1888, water is pumped by means of one of the largest single
pumps in the world from the lake into the upper Milwaukee
river, which is thus completely flushed by fresh water every
twenty-four hours.
Milwaukee is one of the most healthful of the larger cities of
the United States. Its average annual death-rate for 1900-1904
was 13-6. The proximity of Lake Michigan cools the atmosphere
in summer and tempers the cold in winter. As a result, the
extremes of heat and cold are not as great as those in most
inland cities. The mean monthly temperatures vary between
20 in January and 70 in July, with extremes of 100 and -25.
The mean annual precipitation is 31-4 in.
Suburbs. Milwaukee proper occupies 22i sq. m., a small area as
compared with other cities near it in population Detroit (36 sq. m.)
and Washington, D.C. (69^ sq. m.). As a result, the population
has overflowed into several populous suburbs industrially a part
of a " greater " Milwaukee. Of these by far the most important
are the township of Wauwatosa (pop., 1905, 11,132; 1910, 11,536),
and the city of the same name, separated from the township in 1897
and having in 1910 a population of 3346; the city and township are
on the Menominee river, immediately adjoining the city on the
west. The first settlement was made here in 1835. Wauwatosa
has important manufactures, including machinery, brick, lime, beer,
chemicals and wooden-ware, and extensive market gardens and
nurseries and valuable stone quarries. It has a Carnegie library,
and is the seat of an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary
(1865), of Lutheran homes for the aged and orphan, of the Milwaukee
county hospital for the insane, of the Milwaukee sanatorium for
nervous diseases, and of the north-western branch of the national
soldiers' home, which has grounds covering 385 acres and with main
affording quarters for over 2000 disabled
building and barracks ai _,
veterans, and has a hospital, a theatre, and a library of 15,000
volumes. Within the limits of Wauwatosa also are the State Fair
grounds. Other suburbs are West Allis pop., 1905, 2306; U. S. cen-
sus 1910, 6645), an incorporated rapidly growing manufacturing
city on the west; Cudahy (pop., 1910, 3691), a manufacturing
village south of Milwaukee, largely devoted to meat packing; South
Milwaukee (pop. 1910, 6092), an incorporated city with several
large manufactories, and North Milwaukee (pop., 1910, 1860), a
village immediately adjoining the city on the north.
Public Buildings, Institutions, &c. The principal public building
in the city is the Federal building (1895-1898), the post office, custom-
house and local headquarters for the United States courts. The
public library and museum, on the north side of Grand Avenue, in
493
addition to an excellent collection of natural history, palaeontology
<xc., contained in 1909 a library of about 190,000 volumes The
:ity hall on the east side is surmounted by a tal! clock-tower
containing one of the largest bells in the world. The Laytoir Art
Gallery contains one of the best collections of paintings west of the
Alleghames. The chamber of commerce, and the Pabst, Mitchell
North- Western Life Insurance, Germania Sentinel and Wells build-
ings, are among the principal business structures. In Milwaukee
are St John s Roman Catholic Cathedral and All Saints Protestant
Episcopal Cathedral the city is the see of a Roman Catholic arch-
bishopric (established in 1892) and of a Protestant Episcopal
bishopric. Among other church structures are Plymouth Congrega-
tional, Westminster Presbyterian, Church of Gesu (Roman Cathode)
and Trinity Lutheran. The hotels include the Pfistcr on the east
side and the Plankinton, the Republican and the Schlitz on the west
side. Among the theatres are the Davidson, Majestic, Schubert
Bijou, Alhambra and the Pabst German. During the summer there
are open-air theatres in several private parks or "gardens." The
social clubs include the Milwaukee, Deutscher-Concordia, University
and Marquette clubs. The predominance of Germanic influence
in the city is evidenced by at least 75 musical clubs and numerous
lurnveretn societies. There are 12 hospitals (3 of them city in-
stitutions), 6 orphan asylums, 4 homes for the aged, a foundlings'
home and a state industrial school for girls.
The educational institutions are numerous. Marquette University
was established in 1906 by a union of Marquette College (1881) a
Roman Catholic school of high rank, and existing schools of medicine
pharmacy, dentistry and law; in 1908 it added a department of
engineering, and in that year it had 81 instructors and 630 students.
Milwaukee-Downer College (for girls), in the north-east part of the
city was established in 1895 by a consolidation of Milwaukee College
tor girls, and Downer College, formerly at Fox Lake. Other in-
stitutions are Concordia College (1881, Lutheran), a state normal
school (1880), the Wisconsin College of physicians and surgeons
U?93), the national German-American teachers' seminary (normal),
Milwaukee academy (1864), Milwaukee University school, Milwaukee
school of engineering (1904), Milwaukee Turnverein school of
physical culture, one of the largest schools of the sort in the United
States, St John's Catholic institute, Our Lady of Mercy academy
(Roman Catholic), Wisconsin academy of music, the Wisconsin
school of art (art students' league), a Catholic normal school,
St Rose s manual training school, the industrial chemical institute
(the only technical school for brewers in the United States) and
several business and commercial schools. At St Francis, adjoining
the city on the south, is the seminary of St Francis of Saks (Roman
Catholic), and St Joseph's institute for deaf mutes (Roman Catholic).
The Milwaukee public school system comprises four high schools,
a high school of trades, and in addition to the ordinary grades, a
kindergarten department and day schools for the blind and deaf.
Transportation. Milwaukee is favourably situated commercially,
with excellent facilities for shipping both by lake and rail afforded
by four trunk lines and a dozen lines of lake steamboats. It is
served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St Paul, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Grand
Trunk, and the Pere Marquette railways. The last-named connects
with the main line at Ludington, Michigan, by means of a railway
ferry across Lake. Michigan; the Grand Trunk has a railway ferry
from Milwaukee to Grand Haven. The city's extensive street railway
system connects with interurban electric lines leading to Waukesha,
Oconomowoc and Watertown on the west, Sheboygan and Fond du
Lac on the north, and Chicago and intermediate points along the
lake shore on the south.
Trade and Commerce. Commercially Milwaukee is one of the
most important of the inland cities of the United States, although
its trade it largely domestic. It is a distributing point for a con-
siderable part of Wisconsin, and several states farther west, its
wholesale business aggregating about $350,000,000 annually. The
country produce sold in Milwaukee averages about $75,000,000
i year in value. The chief commodities of trade are coal, grain,
umber, flour and various products of the city's own manufactories.
Milwaukee is an important grain shipping port in 1908 it shipped
28,618,519 bushels of grain and 3,752,033 barrels of flour, and its
25 elevators have a capacity of over 12,500,000 bushels. It is one
of the largest distributing centres in the country for coal, which
s received by lake, and stored in enormous coal docks for trans-
shipment by rail throughout the west and north-west. The city
s a port of entry, and in 1908 its imports were valued at $3,080,437,
and its exports at only $75,525.
Manufactures. In 1905 the total value of Milwaukee's factory
products was 8138,881,545, 25-3% more than in 1900. In the
nanufacture of malt liquors and malt Milwaukee stands first among
the cities of the United States and of the world. The total value
of these products for 1905 was $29,909,248, of which $22,134,580
was the value of malt liquors and $3,774,668 was the value of malt.
In 1905 Milwaukee manufactured 77-1 % of the malt liquors manu-
actured in the state and 7-4% of the entire product of the United
States. Other products exceeding $1,000,000 in value were:
eather ($14,074,397), Milwaukee being second in the manufacture
of leather among the cities of the United States ; foundry and machine
494
MILWAUKEE
shop products ($10,232,723); iron and steel ($7,010,793); flour and
grist-mill products ($6,320,428); slaughtering and meat-packing
products ($5,958,515); men's clothing ($4,759.548); boots and
shoes ($2,929,405); electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies
($2,257,229); chewing and smoking tobacco ($1,966,930) and
cigars and cigarettes ($1,540,019); furniture ($1,767,290); trunks
and valises ($1,623,310); hosiery and knit goods ($1,535,176);
confectionery ($1,379,668); stoves and furnaces ($1,288,931);
leather gloves and mittens ($1,207,633); structural iron work
($1,037,217); wooden packing boxes ($1,024,750); and paints
($i 015,774). Among Milwaukee's largest industrial establish-
ments are: the Pabst and the Schlitz breweries, on the west side
of the city, the machine shops (35 acres) of the Allis-Chalmers
Company at West Allis, employing about 5000 men and making
engines of all kinds; and the plant of the Illinois Steel Company,
at Bay View on the south side, which covers 154 acres. The flour
mills of Milwaukee have a capacity of about 12,000 barrels a day.
Two of the city's tanneries are among the largest in America. In
the Menominee river valley the peculiar cream-coloured Milwaukee
bricks are made. North of the city on the Milwaukee river are
extensive cement works.
Newspapers. The first newspaper in Milwaukee, the Advertiser,
began publication in 1836. The first German newspaper was
established in 1844. In 1909 there were eleven daily newspapers,
as follows: Evening Wisconsin (1847; Republican), Free Press
(1901; Independent Republican), Journal (1882; Independent
Democrat), News (1886; Independent), and Sentinel (1837;
Republican), the oldest paper in continuous publication, Daily
Commercial Letter (Commercial), Reporter (legal and commercial),
Dziennik Milwaucki (Polish), Kuryer Polski (1888; Republican;
Polish); Germania Abendpost (1872; Independent; German); and
Der Herald (1854; Independent; German). Of more than a hundred
other publications thirty-two, 10 monthly or quarterly and 22
weekly, were published in German. There are 5 Polish weekly
publications, 3 Bohemian, I Italian and one periodical for the
blind.
Population. The population of Milwaukee in 1840 was only
1712. During the following decade there was a steady flow of
immigrants from the eastern states and from Europe, with the
result that in 1850, two years after the admission of Wisconsin
to the Union, the population was 20,061. The population at the
succeeding decennial censuses was as follows: (1860), 45,246;
(1870), 71,440; (1880), 115,587; (1890), 204,468; (1900), 285,315.
In 1905, according to the state census, the population was
312,948. The fact that out of a population of 285,315 in 1900,
88,991 were foreign-born, and 235,889 were of foreign parentage,
that 53,854 were born in Germany, that 124,211 had both parents
born in Germany, and that 26,834 additional had one or the other
parent born in Germany, stamps the character of Milwaukee's
population. The negro population in 1900 was only 862. The
proportion of illiterates is small. Of the male population, aged
10 years or more, only 3206 (2968 foreign-born whites; 194
native-born whites) were illiterate in 1900.
Government. Milwaukee is governed under a city charter
of 1874, providing the form of city government most common
in America, a mayor (elected biennially) and a single board of
aldermen. There are the usual administrative boards whose
members are appointed by the mayor, some of them with the
approval of the board of aldermen, though the board of school
directors is elected by direct popular vote. Two boards of
civil service commissioners, one for fire and police departments
and one for all other departments, have supervision over the
city's civil service.
The assessed valuation of taxable property, in the city, in August
1906 was $201,585,127, of which $157,611,560 represented realty
and $43,973,567 personality. The valuation is about 60 % of the
actual value. The tax rate for all purposes in that year was $2-26
per $100. According to a special report of the census the cost of
the city government of Milwaukee in 1906 was smaller per capita
than that of any other city in the country with a population of over
300,000. At the close of the year 1906 the total debt was $8,835,049,
and the funded debt was $8,106,500.
History. The first Europeans known to have visited the site
of Milwaukee were Father Jacques Marquette, the Jesuit
missionary, and his companion, Louis Joliet, who on their return
in the autumn of 1673 to the mission of St Francis Xavier at
De Pere from their trip down the Mississippi, skirted the west
shore of Lake Michigan in their canoes from Chicago northward.
Milwaukee Bay is distinctly marked in the map attributed to
Marquette, the original of which is now in the Jesuit College at
Montreal, Canada; it was discovered in a convent in Montreal
by Felix Martin (1804-1886), of the Society of Jesus, and was
copied by Parkman. In 1679 La Salle and his party probably
stopped here on their way south, and in the Jesuit Relations of
that year the name Milwaukee first appears, as " Millioke. "
This, and the various other spellings of the name, attempted to
reproduce the Indian name of the village here, which Kelton
thinks was pronounced Minewagi and meant " there is a good
point " or " there is a point where huckleberries grow," in allu-
sion to the fertile soil. Doubtless the coureurs du bois who at
this time began to frequent the Wisconsin forests, touched at the
bay many times within the succeeding years as the place was
known to be a favourite rendezvous of the Fox (or Outagamie)
Indians. In 1690-1700 Father St Cosme, a Recollet friar, was
here, finding bands of Mascoutens, Fox, Winnebago and
Potawatomi. He called the river " Melwarik," " Melwarck "
and " Meliwarik."
For more than half a century no definite reference to the place
can be found. In 1760 its advantageous situation attracted
the adventurous trader, Alexander Henry, the first Englishman
known to have visited the spot. Three years later (1763) there
was a French fur-trading post here, but it is uncertain just when
it was established or how long it was maintained. In 1795
Jacques Vieau, a Frenchman in the employ of the North-Western
Fur Company, established a permanent post here, which seems
to have continued, under his direction, with practically no inter-
ruption until 1820, when it was superseded by that of Astor's
American Fur Company. Vieau built a dwelling and a ware-
house and conducted extensive trading operations. In 1818
there joined the settlement a young Frenchman named Laurent
Solomon Juneau (1793-1856), who married one of Vieau's
daughters and eventually bought out his business. Juneau and
several others who arrived at about the same time built homes on
the east side of the river near the foot of the present Wisconsin
Street. Vieau's house and store was at this time on the south
side. Milwaukee was on the direct route of travel between Fort
Dearborn (Chicago) and the flourishing settlement at Green Bay,
and at once after the treaties between the United States and
the Menominee in 1831 and 1833 for the extinguishing of the
Indian titles, settlers began to come to the neighbourhood. A
map of 1830 shows a small settlement on " Milwalky Bay";
and the treaty of the 8th of February 1831 speaks of the " Mil-
wauky or Manawauky River." Morgan L. Martin (1805-1887)
of Green Bay, a lawyer and judge, and a delegate to Congress in
1845-1847 from Wisconsin territory, explored the harbour
facilities in 1833 and made a map of the place which he called
" Milwaukie." He entered into an agreement later in the same
year with Juneau and Michael Dousman for its development. A
saw-mill was built in 1834, and settlers began to arrive. The
east side was platted in the summer of 1835, and very soon after-
ward the plat of a settlement on the west side was also recorded,
Byron Kilbourn being the chief projector and proprietor of the
latter. The rival settlements, officially known as Milwaukee
East Side and Milwaukee West Side, bore the popular designa-
tions of " Juneautown " and " Kilbourn town." A third settle-
ment, begun on the south side by George H. Walker and known
as " Walker's Point," was subsequently platted independently.
The rivalry between the east and west side towns was intense, the
plats were so surveyed that the streets did not meet at the river,
and there were bitter quarrels over the building of bridges.
Milwaukee county was set off from Brown county in 1834, and
in 1836 the establishment of townships was authorized. Under
this act the east and west sides were independently incorporated
in February 1837. A realization that the continuation of inde-
pendent and rival corporations retarded growth eventually led
to a compromise by which the two were united as two wards
of the same village in 1839, the autonomy of each being still
recognized by an odd arrangement whereby each maintained
practically independent management of its finances and affairs.
Walker's Point, the south side, was annexed as a third ward
in 1845, an d in 1846 the three wards were incorporated as the
city of Milwaukee, of which Solomon Juneau was elected first
MIMETITE MIMICRY
495
mayor. The influence of this early rivalry may be seen in
several provisions of the existing city charter.
About 1840 a strong tide of immigration from Germany set
in, continuing steadily for a half-century. It was greatly
accelerated by the German revolutionary movements of the late
'forties, which added to the city's population a considerable
element of educated Germans of the upper class. From this time
the Teutonic character of the population was marked. The first
newspaper, the Advertiser, began publication in 1836; the
first bank was established in 1837. In 1839 George Smith
and Alexander Mitchell established the Fire and Marine Insur-
ance Company Bank. As " Mitchell's Bank " this institution
was known for forty years as one of the strongest banking houses
west of the Alleghanies, its notes passing at par during panics
in which even the government issues were depreciated. Through
it the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul and other western railways
were financed. Beer was first brewed in Milwaukee in 1840.
Milwaukee was connected with Chicago by telegraph in 1849,
and by railway in 1856. Previous to this, however, in 1851,
the first train ran over the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul railway
to Waukesha, and in 1857 through trains were run over the same
road to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien.
See J. S. Buck, Pioneer History of Milwaukee (4 vols., Milwaukee,
1876-1886); A. C. Wheeler, Chronicles of Milwaukee (Milwaukee,
1861); E. S. Mack, " The Founding of Milwaukee " in Proceedings
of the State Historical Society for 1906 (Madison, 1907); and L. M.
Larson, Administrative History of Milwaukee (Madison, Wisconsin,
1908).
MIMETITE, a mineral consisting of lead chloro-arsenate,
(PbCl)Pb 4 (AsO 4 )3, crystallizing in the hexagonal system and
closely resembling pyromorphite (q.v.) in appearance and general
characters. The arsenic is usually partly replaced by equivalent
amounts of phosphorus, and there may thus be a gradual passage
from mimetite to pyromorphite. The two species can, as a rule,
only be distinguished by chemical analysis, and because of their
close resemblance the less frequently occurring chloro-arsenate
was named mimetite or mimetesite, from Gr. /ujurjTifa, imita-
tor. Crystals of pyromorphite though usually optically uniaxial
are sometimes biaxial, but in mimetite this anomalous
character is almost always present; a cross-section of a hexa-
gonal prism of mimetite shows a division into six optically
biaxial sectors or a complex lamellated structure. In colour
mimetite is usually yellow or brown, rarely white or colourless;
the lustre is resinous to adamantine. The hardness is 33, and
the specific gravity 7-0-7-25. Like pyromorphite, mimetite
is found in the upper parts of veins of lead ore, where it has been
formed by the oxidation of galena and mispickel. When
found in large amount it is of importance as an ore of lead.
The best crystallized specimens are those from Johanngeorgen-
stadt in Saxony and Wheal Unity in Cornwall. It was formerly
found in considerable amount at Dry Gill in Cumberland, as
six-sided barrel-shaped crystals of a brownish-red or orange-
yellow colour and containing a considerable proportion of phos-
phoric acid; this variety has been called campylite, from Gr.
KdjUTruXos, curved, on account of the remarkable curvature -of the
faces of the crystals. (L. J. S.)
MIMICRY, in zoology, the deceptive and advantageous
resemblance presented by defenceless and edible species of
animals to other species of animals living in the same locality,
which are harmful or distasteful and are consequently avoided
by all or by a majority of the enemies of the class to which the
mimetic and usually the mimicked species belong. Mimicry
is a special form of protective resemblance, differing from ordinary
protective resemblance as exemplified by the similarity of the
resting goat-sucker to a piece of bark or of leaf- and stick-insects
to the objects after which they are named, in that the imitated
object belongs to the animal kingdom and not to the vegetable
kingdom or to inorganic nature. Although, like protective resem-
blance, quite independent of affinity between the organisms con-
cerned in the likeness, mimicry occurs most commonly between
animals structurally similar, and therefore related, to one another,
the relationship may be close or remote. For instance, the
commonest and best-known cases are found in insects where
both mimic and model may belong to the same genus, sub-family,
family or order, or to different orders. More rarely it occurs
between members of distinct classes of the same sub-kingdom,
i.e. between spiders and ants or spiders and beetles; yet even in
this case both mimic and model have in common certain funda-
mental structural points to which the finishing touches complet-
ing the mimetic likeness are superadded. Still more rarely
mimicry exists between totally unrelated species like cater-
pillars and snakes or spiders and snails. But in no case does it
appear that the modifications in shape and colour, which con-
tribute to bring about a mimetic resemblance, are greater
and more elaborate than those which result in the simpler
examples of ordinary protective resemblance.
The principle of protective resemblance, for which the term
mimicry, as above defined, was originally employed, was first
explained by H. W. Bates. Subsequently the meaning of the
word was extended by F. Muller to include cases of mutual
resemblance between two or more noxious species inhabiting
the same area. Hence the resemblances belonging to the first
category are commonly termed " Batesian mimicry," and those
belonging to the second category " Mullerian mimicry," or more
properly " Mullerian resemblance." The difference between the
two phenomena is essential and evident; but without experi-
mental information as to palatability it is impossible to know
with certainty to which of the two a particular case of mimicry
is to be assigned. Over and over again extended knowledge on
this point and inferences drawn from other facts have shown the
certainty or probability of examples of mimicry being in reality
" Mullerian," which were previously accepted without question
as " Batesian." A simple illustration will serve to explain these
two aspects of mimicry and to show the advantage in the struggle
for existence that mimicry confers upon the species concerned.
There is a common English Syrphid fly (Eristalis tenax) known
as the drone-fly from its resemblance to a large hive or honey bee.
Honey bees are protected from a large number of insect enemies
because they sting and are distasteful. Insect-eating birds soon
learn to associate distastefulness with the size, form and colour
of the bees, and consequently leave them alone after one or more
trials. But flies of the drone-fly kind cannot sting, and, so far
as is known, are perfectly innocuous and edible. The advantage
to the fly of its deceptive resemblance to the bee is theoretically
perfectly evident and practically can be demonstrated by
experiment. It is in the first place a matter of common know-
ledge that human beings who have been taught to avoid handling
bees invariably fear to touch drone-flies, unless specially trained
to distinguish the one from the others. Moreover, Professor
Lloyd Morgan found that young birds that had tasted and re-
jected workers of the hive bee as unpalatable subsequently
refused to taste not only drones, which have no sting, but also
drone-flies. So far as our information at present extends the
resemblance between these two insects is a simple case of mimicry
in the Batesian sense of the word. That is to say, an edible
species is protected by resembling one that is inedible. But if it
be discovered, as is possible, that the drone-fly is also inedible,
the mimicry must be ascribed to the Mullerian category, and the
reason for it becomes less evident. In what way, it may be asked,
are two or more distasteful species of insects, occurring in the
same locality, benefited by resembling each other? The
ingenious explanation suggested by Fritz Muller for similar cases
met with in butterflies is probably the true answer. This
explanation depends upon what is now an experimentally demon-
strated fact that insectivorous birds, and probably other animals,
have no instinctive knowledge of what insects are edible and what
inedible. This knowledge is acquired by experience; and since
it is not, at all events as a rule, taught by the first taste to any
individual bird, it is reasonable to infer that a considerable
amount of injury, sufficient to disable if not to kill, is annually
inflicted upon insects belonging to species protected by distaste-
fulness or kindred qualities. Now insects that possess noxious
attributes, and the same is true of other animals, usually have a
conspicuous warning coloration which appeals to the eyes of
enemies and helps them to remember more easily the cause of an
49 6
MIMICRY
unpleasant experience, helps in fact to establish a psychical
association between a particular style of coloration and a nasty
taste or a painful wound. This being so, it is evident that if all
the distasteful species in a given area are differently coloured,
some individuals of all the species will be annually sacrificed to
the experimental tasting of inexperienced foes before the numer-
ous lessons have been learnt. But if all the species in question
resemble each other the resemblance will be mutually beneficial
to them because the association between the two attributes they
have in common, namely distastefulness and a particular scheme
of colour, will be rapidly established. One lesson only, instead
of many, has to be learnt; and once learnt at the expense of a few
individuals of one or two species it will thereafter be applied
indiscriminately to all. This type of mimicry has been well
denned by Professor E. B. Poulton as the unification of warning
colours.
Since belief in the adequacy of the two theories, above outlined,
to account for the facts they profess to explain, depends ultimately
upon the testimony that can be brought forward of the usefulness
of warning characters, of the deception of mimicry and of the capacity
for learning by experience possessed by enemies, it is necessary to
give some of the evidence that has been accumulated on these points,
(l) In South America there are butterflies formerly grouped as
Heliconidae which are conspicuously coloured, slow of flight and
abundant in individuals so as to be susceptible of easy capture.
They possess scent glands. By observation and experiment it was
discovered independently by Messrs Bates, Wallace and Bell that
they are not attacked by birds nor by many other enemies that
prey upon unprotected Lepidpptera. (2) As the result of a series
of trials made in Calcutta F. Finn came to the conclusion that young
birds have no instinctive knowledge of the unpalatability of dis-
tasteful insects, but that experimental tasting soon teaches them to
recognize and avoid species they have previously rejected with
dislike, and that having once learnt the lesson they long remember
it. (3) That birds may also be deceived by insects that mimic
those they have found to be uneatable has been shown by the above-
quoted experiment with the drone-fly and the honey-bees made by
Professor Lloyd Morgan. He also found that chickens that had been
given meal moistened with quinine and placed upon glass slips
banded black and yellow, afterwards refused to touch meal moistened
with water and spread upon the same slips, although they had
previously eaten it with readiness off plain coloured slips. With
two exceptions, these chickens that had learnt to associate black
and yellow banding with a bitter taste also refused to touch the
caterpillar of the cinnabar moth (Euchelia jacobaeae) , which is banded
with these colours. Moreover, young birds that had been taught
by experience that these caterpillars are uneatable also left wasps
untouched. (4) Guy Marshall once offered to a baboon a dis-
tasteful butterfly (Acraea anemosa), holding the insect in such a
way as to display its bright red and black markings to the monkey.
It was taken but rejected after being tasted. A specimen of another
butterfly (Precis sesamus) which mimics the Acraea was then offered
in the same manner. The baboon took it, held it in her hands for
a few moments, and then let it escape uninjured without trying to
taste it. But when another butterfly of the same species, but with
the wings cut off, was offered to her she promptly ate it without
showing any sign of dislike. The results of this experiment with the
baboon and of those with the birds are precisely what would be
expected if the theory of mimicry is true. Experiments to test
distastefulness have also been made with various kinds of insecti-
vorous Arthropoda, like spiders and mantises. These experiments
have shown that Arthropods also have their likes and dislikes in
the matter of insect-food and frequently refuse to eat insects which
are warningly coloured and are distasteful to vertebrated enemies.
They appear, however, to have no appreciation of mimetic and warn-
ing colours, and have therefore not influenced in any way the evolu-
tion of mimetic resemblances dependent upon hues and patterns.
Nevertheless, as explained below, it seems to be highly probable
that ant-imitating insects and spiders, when the resemblance is
dependent to a greater extent upon size, shape and movement than
upon tint, have acquired their mimetic likeness especially to protect
them from the attacks of such insect-enemies as predaceous wasps
of the family Pompilidae, flies of the family Asilidae, and from so-
called parasitic hymenoptera of the family Ichneumonidae, as well
as from other insect-eating Arthropods.
The term mimicry has also been applied to resemblances of a
different kind from the two enumerated above resemblances,
that is to say, by which predaceous species are supposed to be
enabled to approach or mix without detection with animals they
prey upon or victimize in other ways. To this end the resem-
blance may be actually to the species victimized or preyed upon
or else to a species which the species preyed upon does not fear.
This phenomenon is termed " aggressive mimicry " as opposed to
the Batesian and Mullerian phenomena, which are termed
" protective mimicry." A few possible cases of aggressive
mimicry are enumerated in the following summary of some of the
recorded cases of mimicry in different classes of the animal
kingdom; but the phenomenon is of comparatively rare occur-
rence, and the supposed instances may be susceptible of other
interpretations, excluding them altogether from mimicry, or
bringing them under the Batesian or Mullerian interpretation of
the phenomenon.
Among mammalia there are no certain cases of mimicry known.
It has been claimed that the resemblance between some of the
Oriental tree-shrews of the genus Tupaia and squirrels comes under
the category of aggressive mimicry, the tupaias being enabled by
their likeness to approach and pounce upon small birds or other
animals which, mistaking them for the vegetable-feeding squirrels,
make no effort to get put of the way. But this hypothesis cannot
be accepted as furnishing a satisfactory explanation of the likeness.
For in the first place there seems to be no good reason for thinking
that the Tupaias feed to any considerable extent upon prey of that
kind, and in the second place the resemblance is due to characters
which may be merely adaptations to a similar mode of life. A long
and bushy tail, for instance, is a useful balancer and is a not un-
common feature in mammals which lead an active arboreal life.
Similarly the dull coloration of the two sets of animals is very pos-
sibly procryptic and serves to hide both shrews and squirrels from
enemies. Hence there seem to be good reasons for regarding the
likeness in question as due to similarity in habitat and not as mimetic.
In East and South Africa there is a genus of Mustelidae known as
Ictonyx (Zorilla) which possesses a foetid odour and is warningly
coloured with black and white bands after the manner of skunks.
There also occurs in South Africa another member of this family
(Poecilogale albinucka) , which is very similarly coloured. It is possible
that this resemblance is mimetic in the Batesian sense of the word,
and that the Poecilogale, if inoffensive, profits by its likeness to the
highly offensive and warningly coloured Ictonyx. But, on the
other hand, Poecilogale may itself be a protected form since sub-
caudal stink-glands are commonly found in species of the weasel
tribe. If this be the case the two species probably furnish an
instance of true Mullerian mimicry. In South America there is
considerable superficial resemblance between the little bush dog
(Speothos venaticus) of Guiana and Brazil and the large weasel-like
animal of the same countries the tayra (Galera barbara). The
tayra is, when adult, black beneath and on the legs, and not un-
commonly has a considerable quantity of greyish hair on the head.
In these particulars, as well as in size and shortness of leg, the dog
resembles the weasel ; and since there are good reasons for believing
that the latter is protected alike by ferocity and stink-glands, it is
quite possible that the dog, of unusual coloration and form for the
Canidae, is protected from the attacks of pumas, jaguars and ocelots
by his likeness to the tayra.
A few cases of mimicry have been recorded in birds. The common
cuckoo and some other species inhabiting Africa and Asia closely
resemble sparrow-hawks. Some cuckoos are singular for their habit
of using the nests of smaller birds to lay their eggs in, so that the
young may be reared by foster-parents; and it has been suggested
that the object of the likeness exhibited to the hawk is to enable
the cock cuckoo either to frighten the small birds away from their
nests or to lure them in pursuit of him, while the hen bird quietly
and without molestation disposes of her egg. The fact that both
sexes of the cuckoo resemble the hawk does not necessarily prove
this suggested explanation to be false; but if it be true that the
smaller passerine birds are duped by the similarity to the bird of
prey, it may be that the cuckoos themselves escape molestation
from larger hawks on account of their resemblance to the sparrow-
hawk. Another species of this group, the black cuckoo of India,
apparently mimics the black drongo-shrike (Dicrurus ater), the
resemblance between the two species being very close. The drongo
is a fierce and powerful bird which will not tolerate a strange bird
of the size of a cuckoo near its nest, yet on account of its resemblance
to the drongo, the hen cuckoo is enabled, it has been claimed, to
lay her egg in the nest of the drongo, which mistakes the cuckoo
for one of its own kind. In this case also both sexes of the cuckoo
mimic the drongo, whereas according to the theory it would be
necessary for the hen bird alone to do so. This suggests that the
resemblance to the pugnacious drongo may be beneficial in protect-
ing the defenceless cuckoo from enemies.
Some observations, however, of Guy Marshall on the inedibility
of certain birds suggest that the resemblance between cuckoos and
hawks on the one hand and cuckoos and drongos on the other may
be susceptible of another explanation in full agreement with the
theory of mimicry as propounded by Bates. He found that a South
African drongo (Dicrurus (Buchanga) assimilis) was rejected after
one or two attempts to eat it by a hungry mongoose (Herpestes
galera) which had been starved for purposes of the experiment.
The drongo is blue and black and is, he believes, warningly coloured.
The same mongoose also refused to eat a kestrel (Cerchneis rupico-
loides) and a hobby (Falco subbuleo), although it devoured certain
MIMICRY
497
other birds that were given to it. It is clearly possible, therefore,
that cuckoos which mimic drongos and hawks may be protected from
those enemies which find these birds distasteful.
One of the most perfect cases of mimicry in birds is presented by
a Madagascar thrush or babbler (Tylas eduardi), which resembles
feather for feather a shrike (Xenopirostris polleni), from the same
island. The Tylas has departed from the normal coloration of its
group to take on that of the shrike, a comparatively powerful and
pugnacious bird. Analogous cases are supplied by the mimicry
that exists between some of the orioles (Mimeta) and the friar-birds
(Philemon or Tropidorhynchus) of the Austro-Malayan Islands. The
friar-birds are noisy and pugnacious species of the group of honey-
eaters, and mob hawks and other birds of prey, which leave them
unmolested. Ths general style of coloration of orioles is gaudy
yellow and black, rendering them invisible in sunlit foliage, and
quite different from the more sombre hues of the friar-birds; but
in the islands of Bourou, Timor and Ceram the orioles have not only
assumed the tints of friar-birds in general, but in each of the islands
named a species of oriole has acquired the little peculiarities in colour
of plumage possessed by the friar-bird of the same locality. There
seem to be no reasons for doubting that these are cases of genuine
protective mimicry.
Apparently the only instances of mimicry known amongst reptiles
occur amongst snakes; and in all the cases quoted by Wallace
harmless snakes mimic venomous species. In tropical America
the genus Elaps, which is both poisonous and warningly coloured, is
a model for several innocuous snakes. In Guatemala Elaps fulvus
is mimicked by Pliocerus equalis; in Mexico Elaps corallinus by
Homalocranium semicinctum, and in Brazil, Elaps lemniscatus by
Oxyrhopus trigeminus. In South Africa the harmless egg-eating
snake (Dasypellis scaber) is very like the Cape adder (Bitis atropos) ;
and in Ceylon the harmless Colubrine Lycodon aulicus is alleged
to mimic Bungarus ccylonicus, an ally of the deadly krait of India.
Considering, however, the numbers of venomous and innocuous
snakes that occur in most tropical countries, it might be supposed
that mimicry in this order of reptiles would be of commoner occur-
rence than appears to be the case. It must be remembered, however,
that apart from size and colour all snakes resemble each other in a
general way in their form and actions. They present a strong
family likeness which is not found in any other terrestrial vertebrated
animals with exception of some lizards and possibly Caecilians
amongst the Amphibia. So close indeed is the similarity that many
monkeys, apes and human beings have an apparently instinctive
fear of all snakes and do not discriminate between poisonous and
non-poisonous forms. Hence it may be that innocuous snakes are
in many instances sufficiently protected by their likeness in shape
to poisonous species that close and exact resemblance in colour to
particular species is superfluous.
As a possible instance of mimicry in fishes, A. T. Masterman
recalls the fact that two species of weever (Trachinus draco and T.
vipera), have the same habitat in British waters as certain species
of soles (e.g. Solea vulgaris). The wecvers are poisonous and the
venom is concentrated principally in the six spines of the first dorsal
fin. These spines are sharp and connected by a black membrane
which projects, when the fish is disturbed, as a danger singal, it is
believed, above the surface of the sand in which the fishes lie hid
awaiting prey. For protective purposes soles, which are edible,
also lie buried in or on the sand which they match in colour, with
the exception of the right or upper pectoral fin which has a large black
patch. When disturbed the soles raise this black fin and, as a rule,
hold it rigid so that it becomes a very conspicuous object. If the
view that the sole is protected by the blackness of the pectoral
fin resembling the blackness of the dorsal fin of the weever, be
correct, these fishes furnish an instance of Batesian mimicry.
Furthermore, there is a common littoral fish in the Mediterranean
(Uranoscopus scaber), belonging to the same family as Trachinus,
exhibiting the same habits and living on the same ground, which
also has a jet black erectile dorsal fin, and is believed to be poisonous.
It is probable that the resemblance between Uranoscopus and
Trachinus with respect to the colour of the dorsal fin is mutually
beneficial to the two fishes. If so, the likeness must be regarded as
an instance of Mullerian mimicry.
It is amongst Arthropods, however and especially amongst
insects that mimicry, both Batesian and Mullerian, occurs in
greatest profusion and perfection.
In insects of the order Orthoptera, departure from the normal in
form and colour, carrying with it similarity to other living things,
usually takes the line of protective resemblance to parts of plants.
This is well exemplified by the leaf-insects (Phyllium) and stick-
insects (Bactra), where the likeness to the models after which they
are named is procryptic; and also by various species of tropical
Mantidae which resemble flowers for the purpose of alluring insects
within striking distance and perhaps also for concealing their
identity from enemies. Some cases of genuine mimicry, however,
are known in the order. Perhaps the best is that of the Sudanese
Locustid (Myrmecophana fallax), which is strikingly ant-like. The
head is large, the neck slender, the antennae short and the legs
longish, and the appearance of the long stalk-like waist of the ant
is produced by a patch of whitish hair on each side of the forepart
of the abdomen which has the effect of cutting away the parts of
the segments so covered, leaving a narrow dark-coloured median
area to represent the waist. This at least is the method of disguise
suggested by examination of the dried insect; but representatives
of the same or an allied species found in Mashonaland were observed
in the living state to be green with the antlike parts represented in
black pigment. These parts were quite conspicuous against the
green of the plants frequented by the insects, wherever the green
portions were rendered invisible by the same background. Ant-
mimicry has also been recorded in the case of the larva of one of the
Indian species of Mantidae. Again, several species of this order
have become profoundly modified in form in imitation of inedible
beetles. In the Philippines, a cricket (Scepaslus pachyrhynchoides),
has taken on the shape and coloration of a species of Apocyrtus, a
hard and inedible weevil (Curculionidae) ; and Phoraspis, a kind of
grasshopper similarly resembles ladybirds (Coccinellidae). A species
of beetle (Caria dilatata) of this family in Borneo is mimicked by a
species of a genus allied to Gammarotettix not only in shape and colora-
tion but also in the habit of remaining still when disturbed. In the
same island a species of Gryllacris mimics Pheropsophus aquatus, a
' Bombardier " beetle which ejects a puff of volatile formic acid
when attacked; and Condylodera tricondyloides mimics different
species of tiger-beetles (Cicindelidae) at different stages of its growth
Finally the larva of one of the Bornean Mantidae, which is a floral
simulator in its pupal and adult stages, closely resembles in its black
and red coloration the larva of the stinking and warningly coloured
bug Eulyes amoena.
Comparatively few cases of mimicry in the Neuroptera have been
observed. There are records, however, of species of Manlispa
mimicking the wasp Polistes in North America and Borneo and
Belonogaster in South Africa; and other species of the genus imitate
parasitic hymenoptera of the genera Bracon and Mesostenus.
Coleoptera (beetles) supply instances of mimicry of ants, wasps
and Ichneumonids, and some defenceless forms of this order mimic
others that are protected. A good illustration of wasp-mimicry is
furnished by a large heteromerous beetle (Coloborhombus fasciati-
pennis) from Borneo which is remarkably like a large wasp (Myg-
nimia aiticulus) from the same island. The front wings of the wasp
have a conspicuous white patch near the tip and a patch similar in
size and colour is present on the wings of the beetle, which, unlike the
majority of beetles, habitually keeps its wings extended, and since
the elytra are exceptionally short the wings are not covered by
them when folded. The resemblance also extends to the general
form of the body and to the length and thickness of the wings and
antennae. The elytra are equally reduced, and apparently for the
same purpose, in an Australian Longicorn beetle (Esthesis ferrugineus) ,
which, like so many wasp-like Hymenoptera, has the body banded
red and black. This beetle probably mimics the Australian hornet
(Abispa australis). In the European Longicorn (Clytus arietis), on
the other hand, the elytra are of normal length and are banded with
yellow stripes. The beetle, moreover, is of slender build and all its
actions are suggestively wasp-like. This may, however, be an in-
stance of Mullerian rather than of Batesian mimicry, the beetle
being itself inedible; for Shelford has stated his conviction that
the Bornean representatives of the sub-family (Clytinae), to which
Clytus arietis belongs, are all highly distasteful and are warningly
coloured, as are members of this sub-family from other parts of the
world.
In the Philippine Islands several species of Longicorns of the genus
Doliops mimic hard inedible weevils (Curculionidae) of the genus
Pachyrhynchus. The antennae of these weevils are short and end
in a knob; those of the Longicorns are very much larger, but the
weevil-like look is produced by the presence of a knob-like swelling
upon the third joint, the terminal portion of the antenna being so
extremely fine as to be almost invisible. Similar modification of
the-antennae in the Longicorn Esligmenida variabilis brings about
the resemblance between this beetle and a beetle, Estigmena chinen-
sis, one of the Phytophaga of the family Hispidae. Numerous
instances of mimicry in this order of insects have recently been
recorded frcm Borneo by R. W. C. Shelford, a large number of them
being in all probability Mullerian.
Instances of ant-mimicry, unique in the method employed to
bring about the resemblance, are supplied by some insects of the
Homopterous group of the Rhynchota, belonging to the family
Membracidae. In one of these \Heteronotus trinodosus), the dorsal
area of the forepart of the thorax is developed into a plate
which projects backwards over the body of the insect, which
retains its normal form, and conceals all but the head, wings and.
legs. This shield if shaped in such a manner as to resemble
closely the body of an ant, the median portion of the shield being
deeply constricted in imitation of the waist and the terminal portion
sub-globular like the abdomen of the ant. This insect comes from
Central America. Still more curious is the mimicry of another^of
these insects from Venezuela which is found in company with
a leaf-cutting; ant (Oecodoma cepkalotes) of that country. When
pursuing their operations of leaf-storage, these ants present the
appearance of a crawling crowd of leaf-particles, fragments of leaves
being carried by the insects in such a way as to conceal to a great
extent the insect underneath, of which little more than the dark
coloured legs project beyond the burden. The immature form
of the above-mentioned species of Membracidae mimics both ant
498
MIMICRY
and leaf-particle. The legs and lower part of the body are dark
coloured, but the dorsal surface of the thorax and abdomen is
coloured green and is raised so as to form a crest with jagged edges
exactly reproducing the irregular margin of a fragment of leaf cut
out by the mandibles of the ant. In Borneo the Hpmopteron
Issus bruchoides mimics a species of Curculionid beetle of the genus
Alcides.
In the Hemipterous group of the Rhynchota ant-mimicry is
illustrated by the larva of a British species of Reduviidae (Nabts
lativentris) in which the forepart of the abdomen is furnished on
each side with a patch of white hairs leaving a central narrow dark
portion in imitation of the waist of the ant ; and also by an East
African species (Myrmoplasta mira) which in its general form exhibits
a close resemblance to an ant (Polyrrhacis gagates) which occurs in
the same neighbourhood. Another instance in this group is supplied
by a Bornean species of Reduviidae which mimics a species of the
genus Bracon, one of the parasitic Hymenoptera.
Typical dipterous insects (flies) closely resemble in general form
aculeate Hymenoptera belonging to the families of bees and wasps.
The changes in colour and structure required to complete the resem-
blance to particular species are comparatively slight and much less
complicated than those needed to produce a likeness to other pro-
tected insects. Hence we find that the majority of flies that mimic
insects of other orders have bees or wasps for their models. Many of
the Syrphidae are banded black and yellow and present a general
resemblance to wasps, especially when they alight, the resemblance
being enhanced by a twitching action of the abdomen imitating the
similar action so familiar in species of stinging hymenoptera. These
flies are characterized by a peculiar method of night. They commonly
hang poised in the air, then dart with lightning swiftness to another
spot and poise themselves again. This habit, the origin of the name
hover-flies," is probably connected with their mimetic coloration.
If they flew like ordinary flies their resemblance to Hymenoptera
would be obscured by the rapidity of their flight and they might
be caught on the wing by insectivorous birds or other insects;
but when poised they display their coloration. When the latter is
lost during flight, the rapidity of theii movement defies pursuit.
The particular likeness to a honey-bee presented by one member
of this family, the drone-fly (Eristalis tenax), has been already
referred to. But the likeness probably goes deeper than superficial
resemblance that appeals to the eye, for spiders which distinguish
flies from bees by touch and not by sight, treat drone-flies after
touching them, not in the fearless way they evince towards blue-
bottles (Calliphora), but in the cautious manner they display to-
wards bees and wasps, warily refraining from coming to close
quarters until their prey is securely enswathed in silk. This forcibly
suggests that the drone-fly mimics a honey-bee not only in appear-
ance but also in the feel of its hairs or the nature of its buzz. Other
flies of the genus Volucella, larger and heavier in build than Eristalis,
resemble humble-bees in colour and form, and it was formerly
supposed that the purpose of this similarity was to enable the flies to
enter with impunity the nests of the humble-bees and to lay their
eggs amongst those of the latter insects. But it has been ascer-
tained that the species of Volucella which behave in this manner
also visit for a like purpose the nests of wasps, which they do not
resemble. Hence it is probable that this case of mimicry is purely
of a protective and not of an aggressive nature and serves to save
the flies from destruction by insectivorous enemies. The same
explanation no doubt applies to the mimicry, both in Borneo and
South Africa, of hairy bees of the family Xylocopidae by Asilid
flies of the genus Hyperechia, and also to other cases of mimicry of
Hymenoptera as well as of inedible beetles of the family Lycidae by
Diptera. Numerous other cases of mimicry between Diptera and
Hymenoptera might be cited.
The Lepidoptera furnish more instances of mimicry, both
Batesian and Mtillerian, than any other order of insects. In
the majority of cases both model and mimic belong alike to the
Lepidoptera, and it is often uncertain whether both are inedible
(Mullerian mimicry) or whether inedibility is the 'attribute only of
the model (Batesian mimicry). A large number of cases that were
formerly regarded as belonging to the latter category are now
suspected of belonging rather to the former. Sometimes Lepi-
doptera mimic protected members of other orders of insects such
as Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Hemiptera ; but perhaps the most
singular illustrations of the phenomenon known in the order are
exemplified by the larvae of the hawk-moth Chaerocampa, which
imitate the heads of snakes. Professor Poulton long ago suggested,
and supported the suggestion by experimental evidence on a lizard,
that the larvae of two British species, C. elpenor and C. porcellus,
are protected by the resemblance to the heads of snakes presented
by the anterior extremities of their bodies which are ornamented
with large eye-like spots. When the larvae are disturbed the
similarity is produced with startling suddenness by the telescopic
contraction of the anterior segments in such a manner as to suggest
a triangular, pointed head with two large dorsal eyes. Subsequent
observers (A. Weismann, Lady Verney) have shown by experiment-
ing upon birds that this suggestion is correct; and Guy Marshall
found that baboons which are afraid of snakes are also afraid of
the snake-like larva of the South African Chaerocampa osiris.
Finally Shelford states that the anterior end of a Bornean species
(C. myodon) offers a striking and detailed resemblance to the head
of a snake (Dendrophis picta).
Instances of ant-mimicry in this order are sometimes confined to
the larval stage. The early larval stage of the " Lobster Moth "
(Stauropusfagi), for example, presents a general resemblance, due to
a combination of shape, colour, attitude and movements, to black
ants, the swollen head and the caudal disk with its two tentacles
representing respectively the abdomen and antenna-bearing head
of the model. A parallel case of mimicry exists at Singapore be-
tween the larva of a Noctuid moth and the common red tree-ant
(Oecophylla smaragdina). In this case also the posterior end of the
larva represents the anterior end of the ant. Another instance of
mimicry affecting the larval form is supplied by the moth Endromis
versicolor, the caterpillars of which resemble the inedible larvae of
saw-flies. The resemblance that certain moths e.g. Trochilium
apiforme, crabroniforme present to bees and wasps is effected in the
main by the loss of the scales from the wings, leaving these organs
transparent. It is important to note that the scales are present when
the moths first emerge from the pupa-case, but are loosely attached
and fall off with the first flight.
Of the multitudes of cases of mimicry between different species
of Lepidoptera, a few only can be selected for description. These
cases, however, have a peculiar interest and importance for they have
been studied in fuller detail than any others and the discovery of a
particular instance in South America first suggested to Bates the
theoretical explanation of this bionomical phenomenon. On the
Amazons and in other parts of South America there are butterflies
of the group Ithomiinae which are distasteful and have all the charac-
ters of specially protected species, being conspicuously coloured, slow
of flight, careless of exposure and abundant in individuals. The
wings are transparent and are black-bordered and black-barred,
the anterior wing having two black bars and the posterior one. This
type of colouring is also found in genera of quite distinct sub-families
of butterflies, namely in Danainae and Pierinae, as well as in some
diurnal moths, all of which occur in the same district as the Itho-
miinae. The following species may be cited as instances of this
type of pattern: Methona confusa, Thyridia psidii, Eutresis imita-
trix and Dirgenna dero (Ithomiinae); Itura ilione and /. phenarete
(Danainae); Dismcrphia arise (Pierinae) ; Anthomyza buckleyi (moth
of the family Pericopidae) and Gastnia linus (moth of the family
Castniidae). So alike in form, colour and mode of flight are those
Lepidoptera that when on the wing it is almost or quite impossible
to distinguish one from the other, and the resemblance between
members belonging to different sub-families cannot be assigned to
affinity. Microscopical examination of the wings, moreover, has
shown that the transparency of the wings, common to all, has
been acquired by a different modification of the scales in each
of the genera exhibiting the Ithomiine type of coloration. That the
Danaine and Ithomiine species are distasteful is known. Itura,
for example, belonging to the former, has protrusible scent-emitting
processes at the end of the abdomen; and Thyridia has scent-pro-
ducing tufts of hair on the edge of the posterior-wing. Bates offered
no satisfactory explanation of the resemblance between these
two genera and others of the same protected sub-families; but he
did not hesitate to ascribe the resemblance to them presented by
the Pierine, Dismorphia (Leptalis) arise, to mimicry, believing Dts-
morphia to be unprotected and noting that it departed widely in the
matter of coloration from typical members of the sub-family to which
it belongs. Although mimicry in the Lepidoptera has been carried
to a greater extreme in South America than in any other country
of the world, remarkable instances of it have taken place in
the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. A classical and highly com-
plex case first investigated and explained by R. Trimen is that of
Papilio dardanus which is widely distributed in Africa and is repre-
sented by several sub-species or geographical races. The most
primitive of these is antinorii from Abyssinia, which is non-mimetic
and has the two sexes nearly alike. The males of the other sub-
species are much like the males of antinorii; but the females are
widely different and mimic various species of inedible butterflies
belonging to the protected groups of the Danainae and Acraeinae.
One of these sub-species, merope, which ranges from the west coast
to Victoria Nyanza, is polymorphic and occurs under three forms,
namely (a) hippocoon, which mimics the Danaine Amauris niavius;
(b) trophonius, which mimics the Danaine Limnas chrysippus;
(c) planemoides, which mimics the Acraeine Planema poggei. Oddly
enough one or more of these forms may occur in other sub-species.
For example, the sub-species cenea which occurs in south and south-
east Africa not only has the form cenea mimicking two Danaines,
Amauris echeria and A. albimaculata, but also the hippocoon form
which resembles a local race of Amauris niavius, known as domini-
canus. The sub-species polytrophus from the Kikuyu Escarpments .
also has the planemoides and cenea forms and another form trimeni,
which is intermediate between the unmodified female of anlinorii
and hippocoon, and like the latter is mimetic of Amauris niavius
dominicanus. Finally the sub-species tibullus from the east coast
has the cenea-form, the trimeni-form and probably the planemoides-
form. The study of this intricate case is not yet completed and it
is at present unknown whether it is an instance of Batesian or
Mullerian mimicry. Special attention may be drawn to two pheno-
mena connected with it, both of not uncommon occurrence in
MIMICRY
499
mimetic Lepidoptera. The first is the occurrence of mimicry
only in the female sex. The reason for this is to be found in
the greater need of protection of the female which is slower in flight
than the male and is exposed to special danger of attack when resting
to lay her eggs. The second noteworthy phenomenon is the mimi-
cry of more than one protected species by members of a single
species. This is a not uncommon occurrence, and in the case of
Batesian nr'micry the explanation is probably this. When an
edible species gains protection by mimicking a distasteful one, there
is a likelihood of its increasing in numbers until it equals or surpasses
its model in this respect. Were this to take pjace the purpose of
the mimicry would be abortive, because enemies would probably
not refrain from slaughter if even every alternate capture proved
palatable. It is advantageous therefore that the numbers of the
mimetic species should be fewer than those of the model; and this
appears to be achieved in some cases by the individuals of the mime-
tic species dividing themselves between two or more models.
Spiders furnish numerous instances of mimicry. Though simple
in kind, many of these are as perfect illustrations of the phenomenon
as any found in the animal kingdom.
Amongst the orbweavers of the family Argyopidae there are
species belonging to the genera Cyclosa and Cyrtophora which closely
resemble small snail-like gastropods as they cling to the underside
of leaves with their legs drawn up. Other members of the same
family like Araneus coccinella, and Paraplectana thorntoni
imitate beetles of the family Coccinellidae which are known
to be distasteful; and certain genera of the family Salticidae
(Horna.lattusa.nd Rhanis) closely resemble small hard-shelled beetles.
The most perfect cases, however, are exhibited by those species
which imitate ants. The structural modifications required to con-
vert a spider into the image of an ant are of a more complicated
character than those that serve the same purpose in an insect. All
insects have the same regional division of the body into head, thorax
and abdomen, the same number of legs, a pair of antennae and a
segmented abdomen. Spiders on the contrary have no antennae,
no separate " head," an unsegmented abdomen and an additional
pair of legs. In the majority of ant-imitating spiders the forepart
of the cephalothorax is constricted on each side to resemble the neck
of the insect, and in many cases the similarity is increased by the
presence of a stripe of white hairs which has the optical effect
of cutting out an extra piece of integument, exactly as occurs in
analogous cases in insects. Narrowing of the posterior portions of
the spider's cephalothorax and sometimes of the anterior end of the
abdomen reproduces the slender waist of the ant, and frequently
transverse bands of hairs represent the segmentation of this region
in the insect. The legs become slender and those of the first or of
the second pairs are held up and carried in front of the head to simu-
late the antennae of the ant. Added to this the spiders commonly
copy to the life the mode of progression and the restless activities
of their models.
The likeness presented varies considerably in degree from a general
resemblance to several species, such as is seen in the Salticid spider
(Peckhamia picala) of North America, to a close similarity to particular
species. To this category belong Myrmarachne plataleoides, one of
the Salticidae, and Amyciaea forticeps, one of the Thomisidae,
which in India imitate and live with the vicious little red ant
(Oecophylla smaragdina) ; also Myrmarachne pravidens, which mimics
the red and black Indian ant (Sima rufonigra); and the South
American species of Clubiomdae, e.g. Myrmecium nigrum, which is
an accurate copy of the large black ant (Pachycondyla villosa).
Sometimes it is only the males of a species of spider that mimic
ants, as in the case of Ildebaha mutUloides and /. myrmicaeformis,
two South American species of the family Argyopidae, in which the
females are protected by strong spine-armature. The males are
without these protective spines and are exposed to special dangers
as they wander in search of the webs of the females. In South
Africa too the males of a species of Eresidae (Seothyra) resemble
and are found in company with a large ant (Camponotus fulvopilosus) ,
which is common on the veld. Like the males of Ildebaha, those of
Seothyra wander about by day in search of the females which live
concealed in burrows. Many other spiders belonging to the Theri-
diidae and Linyphiidae also mimic ants ; but it is needless to enumer-
ate them, the most perfect examples of this phenomenon being
found in the families Clubionidae and Salticidae.
Ant-mimicking spiders have been seen now and again to devour
their models. It has therefore been suggested by some and taken
for granted by others that the resemblance comes under the category
of aggressive mimicry and that the ants are deluded by this resem-
blance into regarding the spiders as members of their own species.
That the ants do not destroy them is certain; but that they are
deceived by the superficial similarity of the spiders to themselves
is highly improbable, for these insects are capable of distinguishing
a strange ant belonging to the same species if it comes from another
colony. Moreover, the above-suggested explanation does not
coincide with the explanation of the likeness to ants shown by
certain insects such as Myrecophana fallax, the ant and leaf-like
Membracid Homopteron and the larvae of the lobster-moth (Stauro-
posfagi) , which are plant-eaters. It is probable that one explanation
namely, that of protection covers all cases of ant-mimicry ; and this
xplanation lies in all probability in the immunity from the attacks
of most insectivorous enemies that ants enjoy, and especially from
predaceous wasps of the family Pompilidae which annually destroy
thousands upon thousands of spiders to feed their larvae; and since
more than one observer has testified to the fear and abhorrence these
wasps -have of ants, it is needless to look farther for the benefit
ant-mimicry is to spiders. These wasps, moreover, also provision
their nurseries with caterpillars, grasshoppers and other insects.
Hence it may be inferred that the insects which imitate ants profit
in the same way that spiders do from this form of mimicry.
In the above-cited historical instance of mimicry amongst some
South American Lepidoptera which formed the foundation of Bates'
theory, species of butterflies, belonging to the Ithomiine genus
Itura and the Danaine genus Thyridia, both unpalatable forms,
resemble each other. This is a very simple case of the possession
of the same type of coloration by two or more protected insects
inhabiting the same district. The significance of this phenomenon, as
already stated, was first explained by Fritz Muller; but although the
term " Mullerian mimicry " has been assigned to this and similar
instances, they are not strictly speaking cases of mimicry at all but
of warning coloration. Poisonous or noxious animals usually have
some special advertising attribute, sometimes the display of con-
spicuous coloration, as in the skunk; sometimes the emission of
sound as in the rattlesnake; sometimes a combination of the two,
as in the common porcupine and the large black scorpions of Africa
and India. Such characters have been termed by Professor Poulton
" aposematic." Neither of the above-mentioned animals is
mimicked; but where two or more noxious animals, inhabiting the
same district, resemble each other, both being aposematically or
warningly coloured, the likeness is said to be " synaposematic."
Synaposemasy is Mullerian mimicry. Finally, the likeness of an
edible species to a warningly coloured inedible one in the same
locality is termed " pseudaposematic," in allusion to the pretentious-
ness or falsity of the warning signal. Pseudaposemasy is Batesian
mimicry.
An important phenomenon connected with insect mimicry is
the convergence of several species in the same area towards a common
type of coloration and shape, exhibited by one or more than one
protected form. The resemblance shows various grades of complete-
ness; and the convergent mimics may be themselves noxious, or
edible and innocuous. In other words the insects entering into
the combination may furnish instances of Batesian and of Mullerian
mimicry. Very commonly different species of aculeate Hymenop-
tera, inhabiting the same district, form the centres of mimetic attrac-
tion for insects of various orders, so that a considerable percentage
of the insect-fauna can be arranged in groups according to the
pattern of the particular model the species have copied. Good
illustrations of this law have been discovered by Guy Marshall
in Mashonaland. He found on the same day on a bud of vetch,
specimens of black ants (Camponotus sericeus and C. cosmicus),
black ant-like Hemipterous insects (Megapetus atratus) and the ant-
like Orthopteron (Myrmecophana fallax) (cf. supra). In this little
coterie the ants are beyond question the models towards which the
bug and the grasshopper have converged in appearance. Since
many of the insects of the order Hemiptera are distasteful, the mimi-
cry of the bug (Megapetus) is in this case probably Mullerian or
synaposematic ; the grasshopper (Myrmecophana), on the other hand,
is probably edible and the mimicry is Batesian or pseudaposematic.
This is a simple case consisting of a small number of component
species. Others are more complex, numerous species being in-
volved. In Mashonaland, for instance, a large number of genera and
species of Hymenoptera belonging to the Apidae, Eumenidae,
Sphegidae, Pompilidae, Scoliidae, Tiphiidae and Mutillidae, resemble
each other in having black bodies and dark blue wings. The same
style of coloration is found in Coleoptera of the families Cetoniidae
and Cantharidae; in Diptera of the families Asilidae, Bombylidae,
Tabanidae and Tachinidae; in Hemiptera of the family Reduviidae
and in Lepidoptera of the family Zygaenidae. In this instance the
Hymenoptera, of which the coloration is synaposematic, form
together a composite model which the other insects have mimicked.
Of the latter, the Lepidopteron (Tascia homochroa) is distasteful,
as also are the beetles of the family Cantharidae (e.g Lytta moesta).
Probably the bugs too (e.g. Ha.rpa.ctor tristis) are protected. The
mimicry of these insects therefore is synaposematic; but some, at all
events, of the flies like the Bombylid Exoprosopa umbrosa, probably
form pseudaposematic elements in the group. Into another category
Hymenoptera enter not as models but as mimics, the models being
inedible Malacodermatous beetles mostly belonging to the genus
Lycus and characterized by orange coloration set off by a large black
patch upon the posterior end of the elytra and a smaller black spot
upon the thorax. Towards this Lycoid centre have converged
Coleoptera (beetles) of the sub-order Lamellicornia (Copridae),
Phytophaga ; Heteromera (Cantharidae) and Longicornia ; Hemiptera
of the families Pyrrhocoridae, Lygaeidae and Reduviidae; Lepidop-
tera of the families Arctiidae and Zygaenidae; Diptera of the family
Asilidae; and lastly Hymenoptera of the families Braconidae, Pom-
pilidae, Crabronidae and Eumenidae. With the exception of the
Asilid fly and perhaps some of the Longicorn and Phytophagous
beetles, which are probably protected Batesian mimics, all the other
species constituting the above-mentioned assemblage are, it is
believed, Mullerian or synaposematic mimics. In the three cases
5
MIMNERMUS MINA
cited above, with the exception of the first, the synaposematic
mimics are vastly in excess of the pseudaposematic ; this appears
to be the general rule elsewhere. Frequently the groups are composed
solely of protected species, so far as is at present known; and some-
times solely, in all probability, of unprotected species with exception
of course of the model. An example of the latter occurs in Singapore
where the vicious red spinning-ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) is
mimicked by the larva of a Noctuid moth and by spiders belonging to
two distinct families, namely, Saltiicus platalemdes (Salticidae) and
Amyciaea forticeps (Thomisidae), there being no reason to suppose
that either the moth larva or the spiders arc protected forms. Mimetic
aggregations of species similar to those mentioned above have been
found in other countries; but the instances cited are sufficient to
show how widespread are the influences of mimicry and Row pro-
foundly it has modified the insect fauna of various parts of the world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. W. Bates, Trans. Linn. Soc. (Lond., 1862);
id The Naturalist on the Amazons (1879); T. Belt, The Naturalist in
Nicaragua (2nd ed. 1888) ; F. A. Dixey, Rep. Brit. Assoc. (1894^ p. 692 ;
id. Tr. Ent. Soc. (London, 1894), p. 249; id., op. at. (1896;; p. 65;
id., op. cit. (1897), p. 317; also Proc. Ent. Soc. (Lend. 1897), pp. xx.-
xxxii. and xxxiv.-xlvii. ; F. Finn, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Ixiv.,
(1895); Ixv. (1896) and Ixvi. (1897); E. Haase, Bibliotheca zoologica,
(1891-1893, Stuttgart; English trans, by C. M. Child, 1896) ;G. A. K.
Marshall, Trans. Ent. Soc. (London, 1902), pp. 287- 584 (annotated by
E. B. Poulton); A. T. Masterman, Journ. Linn. Soc., xxx., 239-244
(1908) ; R. Meldola, Proc. Ent. Soc. London (1877), p. 12 ; id. Ann.Mag.
Nat. Hist. (s)x. (1882) ; C. Lloyd Morgan, Habit and Instinct (London,
1896) ; id. Animal Behaviour, pp. 164-165 (London, 1900) ; F. Muller,
Kosmos (May 1879), p. 100; (trans.) Proc. Ent. Soc.London (1879), xx. ;
A. Newton, A Dictionary of Birds, p. 572-575 (London, 1893-1896);
E. G. Peckham, Occasional Pap. Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin, i. (1889) ;
R. I. Pocock, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., pp. 256-270 (1909); id. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 944-959 (1909); E. B. Poulton, Proc. Zool. Soc.
London (1887), 191-274; id. The Colours of Animals, 216-244 (1890);
id. " Natural Selection the Cause of Mimetic Resemblance and Com-
mon Warning Colour," Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxvi. (1898) prevised
and amplified in Essays on Evolution, pp. 220-270 (1908) ; id. " Mimi-
cry and Natural Selection," Verhandl.d. V. internal, zool. Congr. Berlin
(Jena, 1902); revised in Essays on Evolution, 271-292^ id. "The
Place of Mimicry in a Scheme of Defensive Coloration," Essays on
Evolution, pp. 293-382 (1908); W. P. Pycraft, The Story of Bird Life,
pp. 32-33 (" Mimicry "), (1899) ; M. Roelofe, C.R. Soc. Ent. Belg. (2),
R. Trimen, Trans. Linn. Soc., xxvi. p. 497 (1870); A. R. Wallace,
Proc. Zool. Soc. (1863), pp. 26-28 ; id. Trans. Linn. Soc., xxv. pp. 19-22
(1866); id. The Malay Archipelago, ii. (London, 1869); id. Contri-
butions to the Theory of Natural Selection, pp. 103-106 (London, 1875) ;
id. Darwinism, pp. 239-265 (London, 1889) ; A. Weismann, The Evolu-
tion Theory, Eng. trans. (London, 1904). (R. I. P.)
MIMNERMUS of Colophon, Greek elegiac poet, flourished
about 630-600 B.C. His life fell in the troubled time when the
Ionic cities of Asia Minor were struggling to maintain themselves
against the rising power of the Lydian kings. One of the extant
fragments of his poems refers to this struggle, and contrasts
the present effeminacy of his countrymen with the bravery of
those who had once defeated the Lydian king Gyges. But his
most important poems were a set of elegies addressed to a flute-
player named Nanno, collected in two books called after her
name. Mimnermus was the first to make the elegiac verse the
vehicle for love-poetry. He set his own poems to the music of the
flute, and the poet Hipponax says that he used the melancholy
co/jos Kpo5t7p, "the fig-branch strain," said to be a peculiar
melody, to the accompaniment of which two human purificatory
victims were led out of Athens to be sacrificed during the festival
of Thargelia (Hesychius, s.v.).
Edition of fragments in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici Graeci; see also
G. Vanzolini, Mimnermo (1883), a study of the poet, with notes and
a metrical version of the fragments.
MIMOSA (so named from the movements of the leaves in
many species which " mimic " animal sensibility), a genus of the
natural order Leguminosae, which gives its name to the large
sub-order Mimoseae (characterized by usually small regular
flowers with valvate corolla), to which belongs also the nearly
allied genus Acacia. They are distributed throughout almost
all tropical and subtropical regions, the acacias preponderating
in Australia and the true mimosas in America. The former
are of considerable importance as sources of timber, gum and
tannin, but the latter are of much less economic value, though a
few, like the talh (M . ferruginea) of Arabia and Central Africa, are
important trees. Most are herbs or undershrubs, but some South
American species are tall woody climbers. They are often prickly.
Branch and leaves of the
sensitive plant (Mimosa pu-
dica'), showing the petiole
in its erect state, a, and in
its depressed state, 6; also
the leaflets closed (c), and
the leaflets expanded (d);
p, pulvinus.
The roots of some Brazilian species are poisonous, and that
of M. pudica, has irritating properties. The mimosas, how-
ever, owe their interest and their extensive cultivation, partly to
the beauty of their usually bipin-
nate foliage, but still more to the
remarkable development in some
species of the sleep movements
manifested to some extent by
most of the pinnate Leguminosae,
as well as many other (especially
seedling) plants. In the so-called
" sensitive plants " these move-
ments not only take place under
the influence of light and dark-
ness, but can be easily excited by
mechanical and other stimuli.
When stimulated say, at the
axis of one of the secondary
petioles the leaflets move up-
wards on each side until they meet,
the movement being propagated
centripetally. It may then be
communicated to the leaflets of
the other secondary petioles, which close (the petioles, too, con-
verging), and thence to the main petiole, which sinks rapidly
downwards towards the stem, the bending taking place at the pul-
vinus (p in figure) or swollen base of the leafstalk. When shaken
in any way, the leaves close and droop simultaneously, but if
the agitation be continued, they reopen as if they had become
accustomed to the shocks. The common sensitive plant of hot-
houses is M. pudica, a native of tropical America, but now
naturalized in corresponding latitudes of Asia and Africa, but
the hardly distinguishable M. sensitiva and others are also
cultivated. Species of the closely allied genus Schrankia are
known as sensitive-briar in the southern United States.
MIMULUS, in botany, a genus (nat. order Scrophulariaceae),
of showy, hardy or half-hardy, herbaceous, rarely shrubby
plants, natives of the extra-tropical or mountainous parts of both
old and new worlds excepting Europe, but chiefly American.
The plants have opposite, undivided leaves, and axillary,
generally solitary flowers with a two-lipped, gaping corolla. The
herbaceous species thrive best in damp situations; the shrubby
species, of which M. glutinosus (formerly called Diplacus) is best
known, are adapted for pot culture in the greenhouse. M.
luteus, the monkey-flower of gardens, has yellow flowers with two
dark marks in the mouth of the corolla; M. Langsdorfii, an
American species, has become naturalized by river-sides in many
parts of Britain.
M. moschatus, musk, a native of north-western America, with
small, nearly regular, yellow flowers, diffuse hairy stem and hairy
scented leaves, is a well known and favourite perennial for pot
culture and outside borders.
MINA, FRANCISCO ESPOZ Y (1781-1836) Spanish guerrillero
leader and general, was born at Ydozin in Navarre on the i7th
of June 1781. His father, Juan Esteban Espoz y Mina, and his
mother Maria Teresa Hundain y Ardaiz, belonged to the class
of yeomen. Mina remained working on the small family inheri-
tance till 1808. When Napoleon endeavoured to seize Spain in
that year he enlisted in the regiment of Doyle, and then passed to
the guerrilla band commanded by his nephew Xavier Mina.
When Xavier was captured by the French on the 2ist of March
1810, seven men of the band elected to follow Francisco; and on
the ist of April of the same year the Junta of Aragon gave him
the command of the guerrilleros of Navarre.^ His first act was
to arrest and shoot at Estella, one Echevarria, who, under pretence
of being a patriotic guerrillero, was in fact a brigand. The
national government at Cadiz gave him rank, and by the 7th of
September 1812, he had been promoted to be commander-in-
chief in Upper Aragon, and on the left bank of the Ebro. In the
interval he claimed that he had fought 143 actions big and little,
had been repeatedly wounded with bullet, sword and lance, had
taken 13 fortified posts, and 14,000 prisoners, and had never been
MINARET MINAS GERAES
surprised by the French. Though some maintain that he was
not at his best as a leader in battle, as a strategist he was very
successful, and he displayed great organizing capacity. The
French authorities were compelled to allow him to levy customs
dues on all goods imported into Spain, except contraband of war,
which he would not allow to pass without fighting. The money
thus obtained was used to pay his bands a regular salary. He was
able to avoid levying excessive contributions on the country and
to maintain discipline among his men, whom he had brought to a
respectable state of efficiency in 1812. Mina claimed that he
immobilized 26,000 French troops which would but for him have
served with Marmont in the Salamanca campaign. In the cam-
paign of 1813 and 1814 he served with distinction under the duke
of Wellington. After the restoration of Ferdinand he fell into
disfavour. On the 25th and 26th of September he attempted to
bring about a rising at Pamplona in favour of the Liberal party,
but failed, and went into exile. His political opinions were
democratic and radical, and as a yeoman he disliked the hidalgos
(nobles). The revolution of 1820 brought him back, and he
served the Liberal party in Galicia, Leon and Catalonia. In the
last district he made the only vigorous resistance to the French
intervention in favour of Ferdinand VII. On the ist of Novem-
ber 1825 he was compelled to capitulate, and the French allowed
him to escape to England by sea. In 1830 he took part in an un-
successful rising against Ferdinand. On the death of the king
he was recalled to Spain, and the government of the regent
Christina gave him the command against the Carlists in 1835,
though they feared his Radicalism. By this time, years, exposure
and wounds had undermined his health. He was also opposed to
Thomas Zumalacarregui (q.v.) , an old officer of his in the War of
Independence, and an even greater master of irregular mountain
warfare. His health compelled him to resign in April 1835, and
his later command in Catalonia was only memorable for the part
he took in forcing the regent to grant a constitution in August
1836. He died at Barcelona on the 24th of December 1836.
Mina was a brave and honest man, who would have conducted
the war against the French in 1810-12 with humanity if they
had allowed him, but as they made a practice of shooting those
of his men whom they took, he was compelled to retaliate. He
finally forced the French to agree to an exchange of prisoners.
AUTHORITIES. In 1825 Mina published A Short Extract from the
Life of General Mina, in Spanish and English, in London. Mention
is made of him in all histories of the affairs of Spain during the first
third of the igth century. His full Memoirs were published by his
widow at Madrid in 1851-1852. (D. H.)
MINARET (from the Arabic mandral; manar or minar is
Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which nar, fire, is lit), a lofty,
turret peculiar to Mahommedan architecture. The form is
derived from that of the Pharos, the great lighthouse of Alexan-
dria, in the top storey of which the Mahommedan conquerors
in the 7th century placed a small praying chamber. The light-
house form is perpetuated in the minarets which are found
attached to all Mahommedan mosques, and probably had
considerable influence on the evolution of the Christian church
tower (see an exhaustive study in Hermann Thiersch, Pharos
A nlike, Islam und Occident, 1 909) . The minaret is always square
from the base to the height of the wall of the mosque to which it is
attached, and very often octangular above. The upper portion is
divided into two or three stages, the wall of the upper storey being
slightly set back behind the one below, so as to admit of a narrow
balcony, from which the azan, or call to prayer, is chanted by the
muazzin (muezzin, moeddin). In order to give greater width to
the balcony it is corbelled out with stalactitic vaulting. The
balconies are surrounded with stone balustrades, and the upper
storeys are richly decorated; the top storey being surmounted
with a small bulbous dome. The earliest minaret known is that
which was built by the caliph Walid (A.D. 705) in the mosque of
Damascus, the next in date being the minaret of the mosque of
Tulun, at Cairo (A.D. 879), with an external spiral flight of steps
like the observatory towers in Assyrian architecture. This mina-
ret as also the example of El Hakim (996), is raised on great
square towers. The more remarkable of the-other Cairene minarets
are those of Imam esh-Shafi (1218), Muristan al Kalaun (1280),
Hassan (1354), Barkuk (A.D. 1382) and Kait Bey (A.D. 1468).
Of the same type are the two minarets added to the mosque of
Damascus in the i sth century. In Persia the minarets are gener-
ally circular, with a single balcony at the top, corbelled out and
covered over. In India, at Ghazni, there are no balconies, and
the upper part of the tower tapers upwards; the same is notice-
able at Delhi, where the minaret of Kutab is divided into six
storeys with balconies at each level. In the well-known tomb of
the Taj Mahal the four minarets are all built in white marble, in
three storeys with balconies to each storey, and surmounted
by open lanterns. The minarets of Constantinople are very
lofty and wire-drawn, but contrast well with the domes of the
mosques, which are of slight elevation as compared with those at
Cairo.
MINAS [MINOlDES] (c. 1790-1860), Greek scholar, was a
native of Macedonia. During the Greek War of Independence
he migrated to Paris, where he tried to enlist the sympathies of
Europe on behalf of his countrymen and to promote the study
of ancient and modern Greek. But his chief claim to recognition
consists in his discovery of two important MSS. (amongst others)
in the monastery of Mt Athos during his exploration of the
libraries of Turkey and Asia, at the instance of M. Villemain,
minister of public instruction in France. One of these contained
the last part of a treatise on the Refutation of all Heresies, now
generally admitted to be the work of Hippolytus (q.v.), the other
the greater portion of the Fables of Babrius.
MINAS GERAES (i.e. " general mines "), popularly MINAS, an
inland state of Brazil, bounded N. by Goyaz and Bahia, E. by
Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, S. by Rio de Janeiro
and Sao Paulo, and W. by Sao Paulo, Matto Grosso and Goyaz.
It is very irregular in outline and covers an area of 221,861 sq. m.
upon the great Brazilian plateau. Among the Brazilian states
it is fifth in size and first in population 3,184,099 in 1890, and
3,594,471 in 190.
The surface of Minas Geraes is broken by mountain ranges and
deeply eroded rivercourses, the latter forming fertile valleys shut
in by partly barren uplands, or campos. The reckless destruc-
tion of forests along the watercourses also adds to the barren
aspect of the country. The principal mountain ranges are the
Serra da Mantiqueira on its southern frontier and its N. exten-
sion, the S. do Espinhaco, which runs parallel to the Serra do
Mar, or coast-range, and separates the inland or'campo region
from a lower forested zone between the two ranges. Most of the
wooded district south of the Mantiqueira belongs to the states of
Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but east of the Espinhaco it
belongs to Minas Geraes and extends eastward to the Serra das
Aymores, on the frontier of Espirito Santo. This zone has an
abundant rainfall, dense forests and a fertile soil. It is drained
by the Doce, Mucury, Jequitinhonha and Pardo, which have
their sources on the eastern slopes of the Espinhaco and cut their
way through the Aymores to the sea. The tributaries of the
Rio Doce cover the slopes of the Serra do Espinhaco for a distance
north and south of about 200 m. The southern part of this
region is well populated, and is covered with coffee and sugar
plantations. On the western frontier a northern extension of
the great central chain of Goyaz forms the water-parting between
the drainage basins of the Sao Francisco and Tocantins, and is
known at different points as the Serra do Paranan, Serra de Sao
Domingos and Serra das Divisoes. South-east of this chain,
between the headwaters of the Parana and Sao Francisco, are
the Serra da Canastraand Serra da Matta da Corde, an irregular
chain of moderate elevation running north and south. The
highest elevations in the state, so far as known, are Itatiaya
(8898 ft.) in the Serra da Mantiqueira, and Caraca (6414 ft.),
near Ouro Preto, in the Serra do Espinhaco. The hydrography
of the campo region of Minas Geraes is extremely complicated.
The Mantiqueira-Espinhaco chain shuts out the streams flowing
directly east to the Atlantic, and the boundary ranges on the
west shut out the streams that flow into the Tocantins, though
their sources are on the actual threshold of the state. Between
these two mountain chains the head streams of the Parana and
Sao Francisco are intermingled the one flowing inland and
502
MINAS GERAES
southward to the great La Plata estuary, the other northward and
eastward across the arid highlands of Brazil to the Atlantic coast
in 10 30' S. lat. Less than 100 m. from the city of Rio de Janeiro
and about 60 m. from the coast is the source of the Rio Grande,
the larger of the two rivers that form the Parana. It rises near
the peak of Itatiaya, on the northern slopes of the Mantiqueira,
and flows north-west and west across the Minas plateau, receiving
several large tributaries from the south. North and parallel
with its course is a low watershed, which separates its drainage
basin both from that of the Sao Francisco and from that of the
Parnahyba, the northern confluent of the Parana. The latter
rises on the western slopes of the Serra da Malta da Corde, and
one of its northern tributaries has its source in a " knot " of the
Serra dos Pyrenees, from which streams flow eastward to the
Sao Francisco and northward to the Tocantins. The central
and greater part of the state, however, is included in the drainage
basin of the upper Sao Francisco. Its source is in the Serra da
Canastra, and its general course across the state is north by east,
during which it receives the Paracatu, Urucuia, Pardo and
Carinhanha from the west and the Verde Grande and das Velhas
from the east. Part of these rivers are navigable for small
steamers, and the Sao Francisco must some day be of great
importance in the development of Central Brazil. All these
rivers of the Brazilian plateau are interrupted by falls and rapids.
The climate of Minas Geraes is characterized by high sun tempera-
tures and cool nights, the latter often dropping below the freezing
point on the higher campos. The mean annual temperature is
about 85 in the Sao Francisco valley, 77 on the campos of the
S.E., and 70 on the campos of the W. The year is divided into
two seasons wet and dry the former lasting from November to
May. This division is not so clearly marked in the south,
especially in the " matta " (forest) regions, where the rainfall
ranges from 59 to 65 in. There is much malaria in the wooded
districts of the east and on the higher campos, where the daily
extremes of temperature are great, lung and bronchial diseases
are common. Some of the high plains, however, as at Barbacena,
serve as health resorts for the coast districts.
Minas Geraes is a mining state, though the mining industry has
lost much of its importance through the decline in the output of
gold and diamonds. Gold is widely diffused, and abandoned
" washings " all over the state show how general the industry
was at one time. There were in 1008 five deep mines worked by
English companies and one by a French company. One of
these, the Morro Velho mine, belonging to an English company,
is not only the deepest gold-mine in existence (over 2000 ft.),
but it has been worked since 1725, and since 1835 by its present
owners. Silver is not mined by itself, but is found in combination
with gold. In 1908 a rich goldfidd was discovered in the northern
part of the state, 5 m. from Monies Claros, in the valley of the
Verde Grande River, and attracted large numbers of miners.
There are many rich deposits of iron ores in the state, but they
only produce a small quantity of charcoal iron for local con-
sumption. Manganese ore is mined for export, and bismuth is
reported to have been discovered. Minas Geraes is most widely
known for its diamonds, which are found in widely separated
parts of the state. The largest and most productive field is that
of Diamantina (q.v.) on the head-waters of the Jequitinhonha
River, where diamonds were discovered about 1725, and where
the celebrated " diamond reservation " an oval-shaped territory
8 leagues wide by 16 leagues long (Mawe), with Tejuco, now
Diamantina, very nearly in the centre was established in 1730.
The mines became crown property, gold-mining was forbidden,
and no one was permitted to enter the reservation without a
licence. The state monopoly was abolished in 1832, and mining
has since been carried on by private enterprise. John Mawe
estimates that the annual product was 1000 oz. during the
first twenty years, and Castelnau estimates the value of the
total output down to 1849 at 300,000,000 fr. No estimate can
be made of the contraband, which must have been large.
A great decline in the output occurred during the last half
of the ipth century; but a new field was discovered in 1908
at Abbadia dos Dourados, in the western part of the state.
Other valuable stones, the topaz, chrysolite, aquamarine
amethyst and tourmaline are found.
Agriculture and grazing have become the main dependence
of the population the former in the lower, forested region of the
south-east, where coffee and sugar-cane are the principal pro-
ducts, and the latter on the higher campos and river valleys, and
on the mountain slopes, where large herds of cattle are to be
found, and milk, butter and cheese are produced. The shipping
of fresh milk to Rio de Janeiro and butter-making are compara-
tively new industries. The river valleys of the campo region
are also cultivated to some extent. Among the general products
are Indian corn, tobacco, mandioca, beans, pork and cotton.
Wheat has been produced in some localities, but not on a paying
basis, and experiments have also been made with tea. There is
a large variety of fruits, and the cultivation of grapes for wine-
making is developing into a profitable industry. Railway com-
munication with Minas Geraes includes the following lines: the
Central do Brazil (formerly known as the Dom Pedro II.), which
starts from Rio de Janeiro and penetrates nearly to Pirapora (its
objective point), at the head of navigation of the Sao Francisco
River, with branches into neighbouring districts; the Leopoldina,
from Rio de Janeiro into the forested region of eastern Minas;
the Minas and Rio, from Cruzeiro, on the Sao Paulo branch of
the Central dc Brazil, into southern Minas; the Mogyana, from
Campinas, Sao Paulo, and runs to Uberaba in western Minas, and
is intended to cross into Goyas; and the Bahia & Minas, from
the port of Caravellas, in southern Bahia, which runs a short
distance into Minas Geraes, and is planned to extend to Phila-
delphia and beyond. Another line from the port of Victoria,
Espirito Santo, northward to Diamantina, Minas Geraes, was
under construction in 1908. River transport has some local
value on the upper Sao Francisco and its larger tributaries, and
this will be greatly increased when the Central do Brazil railway
reaches the head of navigation on that river.
The population of Minas Geraes is chiefly of Portuguese
origin, which has been constantly strengthened by immigrants
from the mother country. A considerable admixture from other
nationalities has resulted from the influx of mining adventurers,
and some German colonies have been established in the state.
The negro population is large, and there is a still larger contingent
of mixed races. The capital is Bello Horizonte (q.v.),ot Cidade
de Minas; other important cities and towns are: the former
capital, Ouro Preto, Barbacena, Diamantina, Baependy (pop.
22,817 in I 89o), on the head-waters of the Rio Verde, the centre
of a rich tobacco-producing district; Curvello (8071), north of
Sahara in the Rio das Velhas Valley, the centre of a cotton-
growing district and cotton manufactures; Entre Rios (7681),
in the coffee district of south-east Minas; Januaria (5888), a river
port of the Sao Francisco in northern Minas; Juiz de Fora;
Marianna (4751), an episcopal town east of Ouro Preto, Mar de
Hespanha (18,712), the centre of a productive and populous
agricultural municipality of south-east Minas; Paracatu (21,418),
an important commercial centre of western Minas near the
Goyaz frontier; Queluz (12,600), on the Central do Brazil railway;
Congonhas do Campo (10,902), in the municipality of Queluz,
celebrated for its miracle-working image, its great church and
chapels, and the pilgrimages to its shrine; Sabara (4959), a rail-
way junction on the Central do Brazil, and port on the Rio das
Velhas; Congonhas de Sabara (14,066), in the municipality of
Sabara, where the celebrated Morro Velho gold-mine is situated;
Sao Joao d' El-Rei (15,820) an important commercial mining
and pastoral centre, near the Rio das Mortes, connected with the
Central do Brazil railway by a branch called the Oeste de Minas;
and Uberaba (12,231), a commercial town of the western campos
of Minas, connected with Sao Paulo by the Mogyana and Sao
Paulo railways.
Minas Geraes was first explored by Fernando Dias Paes Leme
between 1664 and 1677, though he was not the first European
to penetrate it. The discovery of gold in 1692-1695 by bands
of adventurers from the Sao Paulo settlements, led to every
occupation and profession being abandoned in the mad rush for
the new mines. Minas Geraes at first formed part of the
MINBAR MINEHEAD
503
capitania of Sao Paulo, but in 1720 it became a separate govern-
ment and was brought more directly under the Portuguese crown.
The arbitrary restrictions imposed upon the colonists aroused
dissatisfaction among them and eventually led to conspiracy in
1789, inspired by a fear that the Portuguese government was
about to enforce the collection of its "fifths" of the mining
output, which had largely fallen into arrears. Among the
conspirators was one Jose Alves Maciel, who had just returned
from France where he had met Thomas Jefferson and had
become infected with French revolutionary ideas. A number of
residents became involved, among them the poet Thomaz
Antonio Gonzaga. Reckless talk in public places led to the
arrest of the conspirators. Only one was executed, a poor,
uneducated subaltern militia officer Joaquim Jose da Silva
Xavier, nicknamed O Tiradentes (the Tooth-puller), the others
being imprisoned or banished. Tiradentes has since been glorified
as the pro-martyr of Brazilian independence. In 1822 Minas
became a province of the empire created by Dom Pedro I.,
though a revolutionary outbreak had occurred in Ouro Preto
the year before. In 1842 a long series of quarrels in Rio de
Janeiro culminated in a revolution in Minas Geraes and Sao
Paulo, which was suppressed at Santa Luzia, Minas Geraes, on
the 20th of August of that year. The abolition of slavery in 1888
caused much discontent among the planters and in the following
year Minas Geraes promptly adhered to the declaration of the
republic in Rio de Janeiro.
MINBAR, or MIMBAR, a term in Mahommedan architecture for
the pulpit in a mosque from which the Friday or Mahommedan
Sabbath sermon is given (see PULPIT).
MINBU, a district and division of Upper Burma. The district
has an area of 3299 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 233,377,
showing an increase of 8% in the decade and a density of 71
inhabitants to the sq. m. The district may be said to consist
of low plain-land towards the Irrawaddy, and of undulating
country inland rising higher and higher westwards towards the
Arakan hills. Between the plain and the Arakan Yoma range
is a distinct line of hills running north and south, and usually
called the Nwa-Madaung hills. The submontane valleys are
largely cultivated, but are deadly except to those born in them.
The chief streams besides the Irrawaddy are the Mon, the Maw,
and the Salin, which are largely used for irrigation. At Minbu
town the Irrawaddy is 3 miles wide, with many islands and sand-
banks. There are considerable fisheries along the Irrawaddy
and on the Paunglin lake, which is a lagoon fed from the Irra-
waddy. The rights are sold yearly by public auction, and realize
an average of 1000. Oil has been discovered near the mud
volcanoes of Minbu, but it seems to lie at too great a depth to be
profitably worked.
There is a large area of reserved forest in the district. The
chief crops raised are rice, gram, millet, beans, peas, sesamuin and
tobacco. The betel-vine is largely cultivated along the Mon
River. The district, which was in a chronically disturbed state
before the annexation, was not reduced till two years afterwards,
many officers losing their lives, among them Phayre, the first
deputy-commissioner. The annual rainfall varies greatly over
the district. It is very considerable on and under the Arakan
Yomas, and very slight towards the Irrawaddy. The thermo-
meter rises to over 100 in the hot months, and the mean of
minimum in December is about 49. MINBU, the district head-
quarters, stands on the Irrawaddy. It had a population of
5780 in 1901. The river steamers in the dry season can come
no nearer than two miles to the south of the town.
The division includes the districts of Thayetmyo, Pakokku,
Minbu and Magwe. It has a total area of 17,172 sq. m. and a
population (1901), of 1,076,280, showing an increase of 8% in the
decade and giving a density of 63 inhabitants to the square
mile. It bestrides the Irrawaddy. (J. G. Sc.)
MINCHINHAMPTON, a town in the Stroud parliamentary
division of Gloucestershire, England, 4 m. S.E. of Stroud. Pop.
(1901), 3737. It lies high on a slope of the Cotswold Hills;
Minchinhampton Common being a fine open upland. The church
of Holy Trinity, largely reconstructed, contains many brasses
and memorials. The manufacture of woollen cloth is the long-
established staple of Minchinhampton. Prehistoric remains
have been discovered on the common, and earthworks are also
seen; while the name of Woeful Dane Bottom, a neighbouring
valley, perhaps indicates the scene of a defeat of the Danes
(c. 918).
MINDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, 44 m. by rail to the W.S.W. cf Hanover, on the left
bank of the Weser, which is spanned by two bridges. Pop.
(1905), 25,428. The older parts of the town retain their narrow
and crooked streets. The cathedral tower dating from the nth
century, illustrates the first step in the growth of the Gothic spire
in Germany. The nave was erected at the end of the i3th
century, and the choir in 1377-1379. Among the chief edifices are
the old church of St Martin; the town hall, with a Gothic facade;
the law courts and the government offices, constructed, like many
of the other buildings, of a peculiar veined brown sandstone found
in the district. The town has a statue of Frederick William I.,
the great elector of Brandenburg. Minden contains a gymnasium
and several hospitals, besides other charitable institutions. Its
industries include linen and cotton weaving, dyeing, calico
printing, brewing, ship-building and the manufacture of tobacco,
glass, soap, chocolate, leather, lamps, chicory and chemicals.
There is also some activity in the building of small craft.
Minden (Mindun, Mindo), apparently a trading place of some
importance in the time of Charlemagne, was made the seat of a
bishop by that monarch, and subsequently became a flourishing
member of the Hanseatic League. In the I3th century it was
surrounded with walls. Punished by military occupation and a
fine for its reception of the Reformation, Minden underwent
similar trials in the Thirty Years' War. In 1648 the bishopric
was converted into a secular principality under the elector of
Brandenburg. From 1807 to 1814 Minden was included in the
kingdom of Westphalia, and in the latter year it passed to
Prussia. In 1816 the fortifications, which had been razed by
Frederick the Great after the Seven Years' War, were restored
and strengthened, and as a fortress of the second rank it remained
the chief military place of Westphalia down to 1873, when the
works were finally demolished. About 3 m. to the south, of
Minden is the so-called " Porta Westfalica," a narrow defile by
which the Weser quits the mountains. The bishopric of Minden
embraced an area of about 400 sq. m. and had about 70,000
inhabitants.
The battle of Minden was fought on the ist of August 1759
between the Anglo-Allied army commanded by duke Ferdinand
of Brunswick and the French under Marshal Coutades, the latter
being defeated. The most brilliant episode of the battle was
the entire defeat of the French cavalry by the British infantry
(with whom there were some Hanoverian troops) ; but Minden,
though it is one of the brightest days in the history of the British
army, has its dark side also, for the British cavalry commander
Lord George Sackville (see SACKVILLE, VISCOUNT) refused to
obey the order to advance, several times sent by Duke Ferdinand,
and thereby robbed the victory of the decisive results which were
to be expected from the success of the infantry. For an account
of the battle and of the campaign of which it is the centre, see
SEVEN YEARS' WAR.
See Stoy, Kurzer Abriss der Geschichte Mindens (Minden, 1879);
Bolische, Skizzen aus Mindens Vergangenheit (Minden, 1897);
Holscher, Beschreibung des vormaligen Bistumes Minden (Miinster,
1877).
MINEHEAD, a market town and seaside resort in the Welling-
ton parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 188 m.
W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 2511. The town has three parts: the
Upper, built on the sides of a lofty foreland known as North Hill;
the Lower; and the Quay Town, with many ancient houses,
stretching for about a mile beside the harbour. It is much
visited for the sake of its mild climate, the grand cliffs, moors and
hills of the neighbourhood, and the beach, admirably suited for
bathing. St Michael's, the parish church, has a striking Perpen-
dicular tower, an arch of carved oak dividing its nave and
54
MINEO MINERAL DEPOSITS
chancel, a magnificent rood-loft, and a 13th-century monument
doubtfully described as the tomb of Bracton, the famous lawyer,
whose birthplace, according to local tradition, was Bratton
Court in the vicinity. Coaches for Porlock and Lynton start
from the town.
There is no evidence of the existence of Minehead (Mannheoe,
Manehafd, Mynneheved) in Roman or Saxon times. The town
owed its origin and growth to its position on the shores of the
Bristol Channel, and its good harbour developed an oversea
trade with Bristol, South Wales and the Irish ports. The De
Mohun family were overlords of the town from 1086 to the
I4th century, when they were followed by the Luttrells, who are
the present owners. It is possible that Minehead had a corporate
existence during the i sth century, as certain documents executed
by the portreeve and burgesses at that date are preserved, but
no record of the grant of a charter has been found. A charter of
incorporation given by Elizabeth in 1558 vested the government
in a portreeve, a steward and twelve burgesses, the continuance
of the corporation being subject to the port and harbour being
kept in repair. This condition being unfulfilled, the charter
lapsed in the reign of James I., and an attempt to obtain its
renewal in the i8th century failed. The corporation was replaced
by two constables chosen annually in the court leet of the manor
until 1894, when an urban district council was appointed. The
borough returned two members to parliament from 1558 until
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. A weekly market on
Tuesdays and a fair (Sept. 29 to Oct. 2) were held by the lord
of the manor from the isth century, but the date of the grant
has not been found. In 1465 a second annual fair on the ist
of May was granted by Edward IV., which is still held on the
Wednesday in Whitsun week. The other fair has been dis-
continued, and the market day has been changed to Wednesday.
During the i6th, lyth and i8th centuries Minehead had a con-
siderable coastwise trade in wool, grain and wine, but began to
decline owing to the migration of the woollen industry to the
north of England, and to the decay of the herring fishery. A
renewal of prosperity began when it acquired a reputation as a
watering-place.
See Victoria County History: Somerset; F. Handcock, Parish and
Borough of Minehead (1903).
MINEO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 34 m. S.W. of
Catania by rail. Pop. (1901), 9828. It occupies the site of the
ancient Menaenum, founded by Ducetius in 459 B.C. There is
some doubt as to whether this town was also the birthplace of
Ducetius, owing to confusions in nomenclature (see E. A. Free-
man, History of Sicily, ii. 361). Remains of ancient fortifica-
tions still exist, though it seems uncertain whether they are of
Greek or of Byzantine origin (Notizie de.gli Scavi, 1899, p. 70).
Four miles to the north is the Lacus Palicorum, a small lake in a
crater, which still sends up carbonic acid gas. By it was the
temple of the Palici, twin Sicel gods, the most holy place in Sicily,
where an oath taken was especially binding, and an inviolable
asylum for fugitive slaves. There is now nothing to suggest twin
deities; in ancient times there were probably two craters, whereas
now there is only one. It was here that Ducetius, a few years
later, founded a new seat for his power, the city of Palica.
MINERAL DEPOSITS. The subject of mining (q.v.) can only
be properly understood after the general features of mineral
deposits have been elucidated. In this article deposits of all
kinds of useful minerals are included, 'whether they are metalli-
ferous or earthy. In general practice it is customary to treat the
former under the name " ore-deposits " and the latter as the
" non-metallics." This is warranted because in a large degree
different geological problems are presented and different methods
of mining are pursued. Nevertheless there are other important
similar or common features and they may be classed together
without great disadvantage.
The word " ore " is used in several meanings, each of which
depends for its special significance upon the connexion. In
Qn ^ purely scientific applications " ore " implies simply
. a metalliferous mineral, and in this sense it appears
in works on mineralogy and petrology. In former years and in
connexion with practical mining an ore was defined as a com-
pound of metal or of metals with one or more non-metallic
elements, called mineralizers, of which oxygen and sulphur were
the chief. The ore must, in addition, be sufficiently rich to
be mined at a profit. Native metals not being compounds
were not considered ores. The product of the copper mines on
Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, was, and to a great extent
is still, called copper rock rather than copper ore, and native
gold in quartz is often described as gold quartz rather than
gold ore, but these restrictions are gradually disappearing.
An ore may therefore be defined as a metalliferous mineral
or aggregate of metalliferous minerals mingled with a greater
or less amount of barren materials called the " gangue,"
and yet rich enough to be mined at a profit. When not
proved to be sufficiently rich to be remunerative, the aggre-
gate is called " mineral." The " mineral " of to-day may be
changed by the advent of a railway or the rise in the price of
metal into the " ore " of to-morrow. The question has re-
peatedly appeared in litigation involving contracts or property
rights.
Since the greater number of the ores are believed to have been
precipitated from aqueous solution, or to have been otherwise
formed through the agency of water, the term " ore-deposit "
has resulted; and inasmuch as nearly all the other useful minerals
owe their origin to the same agent, the term " mineral deposit "
is equally well justified. A few, however, have been produced
in a different way, such as certain iron ores of igneous origin;
certain igneous rocks used for building stone, as in the case of
granite; and the accumulations of vegetable material in coal beds.
These latter, the igneous masses and the vegetable accumula-
tions, being placed in two divisions by themselves, we may
group the larger number into two main classes, depending on
their precipitation from solution or from suspension. In the
case of solution we will further subdivide on the place, and there-
fore in large part on the cause, of precipitation, since these are
the questions chiefly involved in actual development.
Especially in connexion with ore-deposits widening experience
has modified the older conceptions of relative values in the several
types. In the early days of geology, Cornwall and Saxony were
the two regions where the most active and influential students
of ore-deposits were trained and where the principal books relat-
ing to mining originated. The pronounced and characteristic
fissure veins of England and Germany became the standards
to which the phenomena met elsewhere were referred, and by
means of which they were described. This particular form, the
fissure vein along a fault, assumed a predominating importance,
both in the thought and in the literature of the day. Widening
experience, however, especially in the Cordilleran region of North
America, in the Andes of South America, in Australia and in
South Africa, has brought other types into equally great and
deserved prominence. Comprehensive treatment to-day there-
fore departs somewhat from earlier standards.
As far as analyses and estimates permit, the common useful
metals occur in the earth's crust in approximately
the following percentages: occurrence.
I.
Aluminium
8-13
7-
Copper
o-oooox
2.
Iron .
471
8.
Lead
O-OOOO3C
3-
Manganese
0-07
9-
Zinc .
O-OOOOJC
4-
Nickel .
O-OI
10.
Silver
o-oooooox
5-
Cobalt .
0-0005
ii.
Gold . .
o-ooooooox
6.
Tin
o-ooox oooox
12.
Platinum
o-oooooooo*
By the letter x is meant some undetermined digit in the corre-
sponding place of decimals. Apart from aluminium, iron,
manganese and nickel, the figures show how small is the con-
tribution made by even the commoner metals to that portion
of the mass of the globe which is open to observation and
investigation.
As compared with the earth's crust at large certain of the
metals are known to be locally present in favourable, usually
igneous, rocks in richer amounts, according to the following
determinations which have been made upon large samples
of carefully selected materials. Copper, 0-009%;
MINERAL DEPOSITS
505
0-0011-0-008; zinc, 0-0048-0-009; silver, 0-00007-0-00016; gold,
0-00002-0-00004. Iron and aluminium seldom fail, and vary
from i to 2% as a minimum, up to 25% as a maximum.
In order that the several metals may constitute ores, their
percentages must be the following the percentages of each
vary with favourable or unfavourable conditions at the mine,
and can therefore be expressed only in a general way; ores
favourable to milling and concentration may go below these
limits, and the mingling of two metals of which one facilitates the
extraction of the other may also reduce the percentages:
Aluminium 30 Nickel . . 2-5
Copper . 2-10 Platinum . 0-00005
Gold . . 0-00300016 Silver . . 0-03-0-16
Iron . . 35-65 Tin . . . 1-5-3
Lead. . 2-25 Zinc. . . 5-25
Manganese 40-50
Cobalt is a by-product in the metallurgy of nickel and is usually
in much inferior amount to the latter.
When we compare the first and second tabulations with the
third it is at once apparent that with the possible although only
occasional exception of iron the production of an ore-body from
the normal rocks which constitute the outer mass of the earth
requires the local eoncentration of each of the metals by one or
several geological processes, and to a degree that is only occasion-
ally developed in the ordinary course of nature. It is, therefore,
an instance of somewhat exceptionally good fortune when one
is discovered, and it is only the part of ordinary prudence to
develop and utilize it as one would treat a resource which is
limited and subject to exhaustion.
The minerals which constitute ore-bodies are divided into two
Classes ef great classes: the ores proper, which contain the
Mineral. metals; and the barren minerals or gangue, which
reduce the yield.
The ores are generally and naturally subdivided into two
groups: first, the sulphides and related compounds containing
arsenic, antimony, tellurium and selenium; and, second, the
oxidized compounds embracing oxides, carbonates, sulphates,
silicates, phosphates, arsenates, chromates, &c. With the oxides
are placed, because of related geological occurrence, a few rare
compounds with chlorine, bromine and iodine into which silver
more than any other metal enters, and to the same group we may
add a few metals which occur in the native state. Iron, manga-
nese, aluminium and tin differ from the rest of the metals in their
original occurrence in the oxidized form, whereas the others with
the exception of gold, platinum, and possibly copper, in their first
precipitation in ore-bodies are in the form of sulphides or related
compounds. Only by subsequent changes, characteristic of the
upper parts of the deposits, do they pass by oxidation into the
minerals of the second group.
With regard to the nature and source of the water which serves
to gather up the widely disseminated metals and concentrate
them in ore-bodies two contrasted views are now current, not
necessarily antagonistic but applied in different degrees by
different observers. The older view attributes the water primarily
to the lainfall, and therefore it is called meteoric water. After
falling upon the surface the meteoric water divides into three
parts. The first, and smallest, evaporates; the second, the largest
portion, joins the surface drainage and is called the run-off;
while the third, intermediate in amount, sinks into the ground
and mingles with the ground-waters. The ground-waters rise
in springs, usually fed from no great depth, and themselves pass
into the surface drainage after a small subterranean journey.
While as a rule the ground-water level is fairly definite, yet it
sometimes displays even in the same mining district great
irregularity.
The section of active circulation and work of the descending
meteoric waters between the surface and the ground-water level
was called by Franz Posepny (1836-1895) the vadose or shallow
region (" Genesis of Ore-deposits," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min.
Eng., xxiii., xxiv., 1893; reprinted as a book, 2nd ed., 1902). It
has been long recognized by miners as the home of the oxidized
ores, and the place of the work of the descending waters. The
deep-waters are relatively motionless and their movements as
far as visible are comparatively slow. But the really important
feature of the ground-water as regards the filling of veins is the
depth to which it extends. This remained a somewhat indefinite
matter until L. M. Hoskins showed mathematically that cavities
in the firmest rocks became impossibilities at about 10,000 metres.
Down to some such limiting depth as an extreme the ground-
water was believed by many to descend; to migrate laterally; to
experience the normal increase of temperature with depth; the
effect of pressure; the increased efficiency as a solvent peculiar
to the conditions; and finally with a burden of dissolved gangue
and ore to rise again, urged on by the " head " of the descending
column. In its ascent it was supposed to fill the veins. Mining
experience has, however, indicated that the known ground-
waters are comparatively shallow and seldom extend lower than
500-600 metres. It is conceivable that during faulting and the
formation of great dislocations this upper reservoir might be
tapped into greater depths and set in limited circulations through
deeper-seated rocks. But so far as these objections have weight
they have greatly restricted the vertical range of the meteoric
ground-waters as they were formerly believed to exist.
In contrast with the meteoric waters outlined above, other
waters are believed by many geologists to be given off by the
deep-seated intrusive rocks, and are generally called magmatic.
We are led to this conclusion by observing the vast quantities of
steam and minor associated vapours which are emitted by vol-
canoes; by the difficulty of accounting in any other way for the
amount and composition of certain hot springs; and by the
marked and characteristic association of almost all ore-deposits
in the form of veins with eruptive rocks. That igneous masses
have been connected with the formation of veins is further
brought out by the following general consideration, which has
hitherto received too little attention. Aside from pegmatites,
veins rich enough to be mined and even large veins of
the barren gangue-minerals are exceptional phenomena when
we compare the regions containing them with the vast areas
of the earth which have been carefully searched for them
and which have failed to reveal them. As components of the
earth's crust the useful metals except iron and aluminium are
extremely rare. Some sharply localized, exceptional, and briefly
operative cause must have brought the veins into being. The
universal circulation of the ground-water of meteoric origin fails
to meet this test, since if it is effective we ought at least to find
veins of quartz and calcite fairly universal in older rocks. In
North America, moreover, by far the greater number of veins
which have been studied date from the Mesozoic and Tertiary
times. The ore deposits of older date are chiefly of iron and man-
ganese and can be satisfactorily explained in many cases by the
reactions of the vadose region, or by crystallization from molten
masses.
In summary it may be stated that the meteoric waters are of
great importance and of unquestioned efficiency in the shallow
vadose region, or, as named by C. R. van Hise, " the zone of
weathering." In it the disintegration of rocks exposes them to the
searching action of solutions, and the portions of ore-bodies
already deposited undergo great modifications. The deeper and far
more immovable ground-water probably extends to but moderate
depth and is chiefly affected as regards movement by the head of
waters entering heights of land and by local intrusions of igneous
rocks. It is very doubtful if the normal increase of temperature
with depth produces much effect. The meteoric waters are of
altogether predominant importance in all surface concentrations
of a mechanical character. The magmatic waters, on the other
hand, seem to be of paramount importance and of great efficiency
in producing the deposits of ores in the contact zones next
eruptives, and in the formation of veins which are reasonably
to be attributed to uprising heated waters in regions of expiring
vulcanism. They start with their burden of dissolved metals
and minerals under great heat and pressure, amid conditions
favouring solution, and migrate to the upper world into cooling
and greatly contrasted conditions which favour precipitation.
Undoubtedly they are responsible for many low-grade deposits
MINERAL DEPOSITS
which have later been enriched by the action of descending
meteoric waters. They are more copiously yielded, so far as we
may judge, by acidic magmas than by basic ones.
The natural waterways are furnished by the cavities in rocks.
They vary in size from very minute pores, where movement is
slow because of friction, but where solution takes place, through
others of all dimensions up to great fault-zones. The smallest
cavities are the natural pores of minerals; cleavage cracks; the
voids along the contacts of different minerals; cracks from crush-
ing during dislocation; cellular lavas; volcanic necks; voids
among the grains, pebbles, or boulders of fragmental rocks;
joints; caves, and faults. So far as waters have deposited ores
and yielded ore-bodies by subterranean circulations the latter are
guided by some such controlling influence as these in all cases,
and they will be selected as the governing principle in a large part
of the scheme of classification. The types will be reviewed in the
following order:
I. OF IGNEOUS ORIGIN.
A. Eruptive masses of non-metalliferous rock.
B. Basic segregations from fused and cooling magmas.
C. Deposits produced in contact metamorphism, most commonly
by the action of intrusive masses on limestones.
D. Pegmatites.
II. PRECIPITATED FROM SOLUTION.
A. Surface deposits.
B. Impregnations in naturally open-textured rocks.
C. Impregnations and replacements of naturally soluble rocks.
D. Deposits along broken anticlinal summits and in synclinal
troughs.
E. Deposits in shear zones.
F. Deposits in faults.
G. Deposits in volcanic necks.
III. DEPOSITED FROM SUSPENSION.
A. Placers.
B. Residual deposits.
IV. CARBONACEOUS DEPOSITS FROM VEGETATION.
I. OF IGNEOUS ORIGIN. A. Eruptive Masses of Non-metalliferous
Rock. Among the non-metallic objects of mining and quarrying
which are of igneous nature, building stone is the chief. Granites,
syenites, and other light-coloured rocks are the most important.
These rocks occur as intrusive masses called bosses when of limited
extent and diameter, and bathyliths when of vast, irregular area.
The main point of importance is the jointing and cleavage, which
should in each case yield blocks as nearly rectangular as possible so
as to save tool treatment. Dark, basic igneous rocks in dikes, sills
and surface flows are employed for macadam, and are often of
excellent quality for this purpose.
B. Basic Segregations from Fused and Cooling Magmas. A few
ore-bodies, of which the best-known involve iron, are believed to
result directly in the igneous processes by which molten rock cools
and crystallizes. Thus magnetite, one of the common iron ores, is a
widely distributed component in the eruptive rocks, rarely if ever
failing in any variety. It is one of the first minerals to crystallize,
and it possesses a much higher specific gravity than the other con-
stituents. There is reason, therefore, to believe that, forming in
some molten magmas in relatively large quantity, it sinks to or
toward the bottom of the mass until the latter is at least greatly
enriched with it, if not actually changed to iron ore. If the molten
rock, after passing through a stage of partial crystallization, moves
toward the surface of the earth, the body of ore may occupy almost
any position in it other than ihe bottom. The flowing of the magma
in original movements or from pressure sustained in subsequent
metamorphic processes, or both, may give the ore the lenticular
shape which is quite characteristic of magnetite bodies the world
over. Almost all iron ores of recognized eruptive origin contain
titanium oxide in amounts from a few units to over 40%. They
are most frequently found in dark basic rocks. These ores are not
at present of much commercial value because of the difficulties of
treating titaniferous varieties in the modern blast furnace practice,
but there is little doubt that in the near future they will be
extensively mined.
Non-titaniferous magnetites, which often form lenses in gneissoid
rocks of more acidic character than those with which the titaniferous
are associated, are likewise believed by some observers to be of
igneous origin, but there are equally positive believers in sedimentary
deposition followed by metamorphism.
Besides magnetite : chromite is a characteristically igneous mineral
and is always found in the richly magnesian rocks. Whether the
relatively large masses which appear in serpentine are direct crystal-
lizations from fusion, or whether they have segregated from a finely
disseminated condition during the change of the original eruptive
to serpentine, is a matter of dispute, but the general trend of later
opinion is toward an original igneous origin. Although not strictly
an ore, corundum is another mineral which is the direct product of
igneous action.
A form of ore-body which marks a connecting and transitional
member between those just treated and those of the next group is
furnished by the sulphides of iron, nickel and copper which are found
in the outer borders of basic igneous intrusions. Observers differ
somewhat as to the relative importance to be attributed to reactions
purely of the nature of crystallization from fusion or those brought
about by the agency of gases or other highly heated solvents in the
cooling stages. The most important example is afforded by the
mingled ores of nickel and copper which are developed in their largest
form in the region of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and are now the
principal source of nickel for the world. 1 The ores are chalcopyrite
and pyrrhotite, the latter containing throughout its mass at Sudbury
the mineral pentlandite, a rich nickel-iron sulphide and the real
source of the nickel. With the base metal there are also found
minute traces of the metals of the platinum group. Wherever
these ore-bodies have been observed they invariably occur in the
borders of intrusive masses. The sulphides constitute an integral
part of the rocky mass, which shows almost no signs of alteration or
vein production in the ordinary sense. Only some slight rearrange-
ments have subsequently taken place through the agency of water,
but all this is a small factor in the total.
C. Ore-Bodies produced by Contact Metamorphism. Great bodies
of igneous rock have often been forced in a molten and highly heated
condition through other rocks when at a distance below the surface
of the earth. After coming to rest they have remained during the
cooling stages for long periods in contact with the surrounding wajls.
All molten igneous magmas are more or less richly charged with
aqueous vapour, doubtless in a dissociated state; with carbonic
acid and probably with other gases, especially those involving sul-
phur. During the cooling stages the gases are emitted and carry
with them silica, iron, alumina and metallic elements in less amount,
of which copper is the commonest, but among which are also num-
bered lead, zinc, gold and silver, if the rock standing next the intru-
sive mass is limestone, the silica and iron, and to a less degree the
alumina, combine with the lime to the elimination of the carbonic
acid and produce extensive zones of lime silicates, of which garnet is
the most abundant. Disseminated throughout these garnet-zones
are large and small masses of pyrite and chalcopyrite, oftentimes
in amounts sufficient to yield large ore-bodies. Again in the lime-
stone outside the garnet-zones, but none the less closely associated
with them, are bodies of sulphides containing copper. The copper
ores of Bisbee and Morenci, Arizona, of Aranzazu near Concepcion
del Oro, Mexico, and of many other parts of the world not yet studied
in detail are of this type. The eruptive which most frequently
produces contact zones is of a marked acidic or siliceous character,
since among eruptives these are the ones most richly charged with
ases. When the copper ores are of low-grade in their original
eposition it often happens that processes of secondary enrichment,
which are later described, are required to bring them up to a richness
which warrants mining. Less often than copper appear lead, zinc
or gold ores in the same relations.
D. Pegmatites. <)ne other phase of eruptive activity needs also
to be briefly mentioned before passing to the discussion of the ore-
bodies, which have hitherto chiefly occupied students of the subject.
In the regions surrounding intrusive masses of granite we almost
always see dikes or veins of coarsely crystalline quartz, felspar and
mica radiating outward, it may be, for very long distances.
They are believed to be produced by emissions from the eruptive
similar to those which yield the garr.et-zones just mentioned.
The veins are technically called pegmatites. They are character-
istic carriers of tin and of minerals containing the rare earths, and less
commonly are known to yield gold or copper.
II. PRECIPITATED FROM SOLUTION. A. Surface Deposits. The
chief ore-body under this type is furnished by iron. The peculiar
chemical property possessed by this metal of having two oxides,
a ferrous, which is relatively soluble, and a ferric, which is insoluble,
leads to its frequent precipitation from bodies of standing or com-
paratively quiet waters. Ferruginous minerals of all sorts, but more
particularly pyrite and siderite, pass into solution in the descending
oxidizing or carbonated surface waters, either as ferrous sulphate,
or as salts of organic acids, or ferrous carbonate, the last-named
dissolved in an excess of carbonic acid. On being exposed to the
atmosphere when the solutions come to rest, or to the breaking up of
organic acids, or to alkaline reagents, or sometimes to fresh-water
algae, the hydrated sesquioxide 2Fe 2 O3, 3H 2 O is precipitated as the
familiar beds of bog ore. The ore usually forms earthy aggregates
or crusts and cakes, but may also, as in the interesting case of the
Swedish lake deposits, yield small concretions. Bog _ores are not
very rich in iron and are apt to have much sand and clay intermingled.
If subsequently buried under later sediments they may become
dehydrated and changed to red hematite, as in the case of some of
the Clinton iron ores of the eastern United States. These widely
extended beds in the lower strata of the Upper Silurian are often
oolitic red hematites, consisting of concentric shells of iron oxide and
'A. H. Barlow, " On the Sudbury Deposits," Geol. Suney of
Canada Ann. Kept., vol. xiy., part H; A. P. Coleman, Ann. Report
of the Ontario Bureau of Mines, vol. xiv., part iii. (1905).
MINERAL DEPOSITS
507
chalcedonic silica, deposited around grains of sand. The most
extensive of all ore-beds of this type and the mainstay of the German
and Belgian smelting industry, are the Jurassic ores, locally called
minette, of Luxemburg and the neighbouring territories. Three
principal and several subordinate beds are distinguished, which
furnish a product ranging from 30 to 40% of iron and between I and
2 % of phosphoric oxide (PaOs). They are generally believed to have
been deposited on the bottoms of embayments of the Jurassic sea.
The iron was furnished by the drainage of the land and was preci-
pitated, according to Van Werweke, as silicate, carbonate, sulphide
and as several forms of oxide. More than two billions of tons
are believed to be available. Very similar deposits occur in the
Cleveland district, England, in the Middle Lias.
In the presence of much organic matter which creates reducing
conditions, concretions and even beds of spathic ore or black-band
may result and afford the ores of this type extensively utilized in the
Scottish iron industry and formerly of some importance in the
eastern United States.
The brown hematites often have more or less manganese, and
manganese ores themselves may result by closely related reactions,
since manganese is very similar to iron in its chemical properties.
Aluminium is yielded by deposits of bauxite, the hydrated oxide,
which in the states of Georgia and Alabama, of the United States,
are the result of surface precipitations. In the depths it is believed
that pyritous shales exist. The oxidation of the pyrite supplies
sulphuric acid which takes into solution the alumina of the shales.
Rising to the surface along a marked series of faults, the aluminium
sulphate meets calcium carbonate in an overlying limestone, and the
aluminium hydrate is precipitated as concretions at the vents of the
springs.
Of scientific importance but as yet not of commercial value are
the siliceous sinters deposited around the vents of hot springs
which yield appreciable amounts of both the precious and the base
metals. While surface precipitations in every particular, they are
yet chiefly important in casting light on the processes of vein
formation in the depths.
Non-metallic minerals which are deposited from solution on the
surface of the earth are the salines, rock-salt, related potassium
salts, gypsum and the rarer nitrates. The alkaline chlorides and
gypsum are derived, in nearly all cases, from impounded bodies of
sea-water, which, exposed to evaporation with or without constant
renewal, finally yield beds of rock-salt and related minerals. Shallow
estuaries cut off from the sea, it may be by the sudden rising of a
bar during a heavy storm or brines impounded in deep bays with
a shallow connexion as in the " bar theory " of Ochsenius, have
given rise to the great stores of these minerals which are so ex-
tensively mined. The potassium compounds have only been found
as yet in large quantities in the Stassfurt region of Germany, and
seem to be due to the fact that in this locality the mother-liquors
of the rock-salt deposits failed to escape, and were evaporated to
dryness. The nitrates are chiefly obtained in northern Chile and
are the result of the reaction of nitrogenous organic matter, upon
alkaline minerals and under conditions where there is enough but
not too much water.
Another very important mineral found in surface deposits formed
from solution is asphalt. It has happened in various parts of the
world, but especially in the island of Trinidad, in the Carribean
Sea, that petroleum with an asphalt base has reached the surface,
has evaporated, and has become oxidized so as to leave a residuum
of asphalt suitable for street-paving or other purposes. _ So-called
pitch-lakes are afforded which may be of great commercial_value.
Again, if large sheets, crusts, stalactites and stalagmites are
deposited from calcareous water by the escape of the solvent
carbonic acid, beautiful ornamental stones are afforded, generally
known as Mexican onyx.
B. Impregnations in Open-textured Rocks. In a number of instances
in various parts of the world naturally open-textured rocks have
been discovered so richly impregnated with the metalliferous
minerals as to be ores. The enriching minerals have been intro-
duced in solution, and the solvent has found its way through the
rock because of its natural character, and not because geological
movements have opened it. Porous sandstones are one of the
most common cases. Deposits of silver ores have been extensively
mined at St George in southern Utah, consisting of films of argentite
and cerargyrite, which have been precipitated upon fossil leaves,
sticks, and in the sandstone itself. Over wide areas in the northern
United States, copper in various minerals has been discovered in
sandstones of Permian or Triassic age. At Silver Cliff, Colorado,
silver ores have impregnated a volcanic tuff, while at the Boleo
mines in Lower California tuffs yield copper ores. In at least two
of the great copper mines on Lake Superior the native metal im-
pregnates a conglomerate, and in a number of others it has enriched
a cellular basalt, filling the blow-holes with shots and pellets. In
the Commern district between Bonn and Aachen, sandstones of
the Triassic Buntersandstein contain knots of galena, distributed
over wide areas as impregnations. Organic matter is believed to
have precipitated the galena by a reducing action upon percolating
solutions of lead.
All these porous rocks have been fed by solutions which have
entered along waterways, clearly due to faults or some extensive
breaks which have provided introductory conduits. The solutions
have then been tapped off from the main passages by the porous
rock. They are, therefore, closely connected with faults.
Non-metallic minerals in the form of petroleum and asphalt may
also impregnate sedimentary beds or other rocks of open texture.
Many oil wells derive their supplies from lenticular beds of sand-
stone in the midst of impervious shales, and others, as those in the
Mexican fields near Tampico, from volcanic tuffs. Asphalt may
saturate both sandstones and limestones in such richness as to
furnish a natural paving material when crushed, heated and laid.
Brines are also yielded by porous strata and supply much of the
salt of the world.
C. Impregnations and Replacements of Naturally Soluble Rocks.
Ore-deposits of great importance appear in different regions which
can only be interpreted as having been formed by the replacement
of some or all of a rock with the metallic minerals. The most
common rock to yield in this way is limestone, because of its soluble
nature, but important cases occur of others composed of silicates.
Replacement implies the precipitation of the ore and gangue,
molecule by molecule, in the position of the original minerals but
without, as in pseudomorphs, the necessary reproduction of crystal-
line _ forms. Some waterway must of course introduce the ore-
bearing solutions, but it may be slight compared with the great
size of the resulting ore-bodies. Lead and zinc ores, often carrying
some silver, are those most widely distributed, as they were also
the earliest recognized in deposits of this character. More than
any other metals their association with limestone is pronounced.
The replacements may be found near the supply fissure as in the
great zinc deposits near Aachen, or the supply fissures may be
obscure as at Leadville, Colorado. While ores occur in the lime-
stone, they are often close along its contact with some relatively
impervious stratum, which seems partly to have directed the cir-
culations, partly to have checked or stagnated them, while pre-
cipitation took place. With the lead and zinc sulphides, pyrites
and chalcopyrite are commonly associated in greater or less degree,
the copper increasing locally. All the sulphides are exposed to
oxidation above the ground-waters and mining in the upper levels
has been often directed against the carbonate and sulphate of lead,
or the mingled carbonate and hydrated silicate of zinc.
A non-metallic deposit formed by replacement and of much
scientific interest is furnished by sulphur when derived from gypsum,
as in the Sicilian and other localities of Europe.
D. Deposits along Anticlinal Summits and in Synclinal Troughs.
When strata experience folding they are violently strained at the
bends, and, if stiff or brittle like limestone, often crack in limited
fissures, which in anticlines open upward and in synclines downward.
They thus yield joints in relatively great numbers. Softer rocks,
such as shales, are moulded by the strains without fracturing.
Very gentle folds seern to have yielded such abundance of cracks
in the lead and zinc district of the Upper Mississippi Valley as to
cause the so-called " gash veins " which have been worked for
many years. The crevices are not all vertical, but often run
horizontally and are due to the parting and buckling of individual
beds. The resulting ore-bodies are chiefly limited to a single great
stratum, and are believed to have been formed by the infiltration
of galena, blende and pyrite from overlying formations.
When strata are stiff enough to buckle under violent folding and
part so as to produce openings of a crescentic cross-section which
afterwards become filled, there result the " saddle-reefs " so re-
markably illustrated in the gold veins of Victoria, Australia, and in
pitching anticlines of a much larger character in Nova Scotia.
Of far the greatest importance of all the ore-bodies in troughs
are the iron ores of the Lake Superior region, now the most pro-
ductive of all the iron-mining districts. In a series of sedimentary
formations, generally of Huronian age, and with associated eruptives,
there occur strata consisting of a cherty iron carbonate, which were
probably originally marine deposits akin to glauconite. They rest
upon relatively impervious rocks, and are often penetrated by
basaltic dikes. The entire series has been folded, so that the cherty
carbonates, shattered by the strains, have come to rest in troughs
of relatively tight, impervious rocks. The descending surface
waters have next altered them, have taken the iron into solution,
and have redeposited it in the troughs as a slightly hydrated red
hematite. The silica has usually been precipitated elsewhere.
The most important of the non-metallics which occur along
anticlinal summits are petroleum and natural gas, but it is true
only in a very limited sense that they are introduced in solution.
The general cause of the accumulation is, however, the same as
that of the metallic minerals, i.e. that storage cavities are afforded.
In the most productive oil-fields it is the general experience to find
the oil and gas impounded in porous rocks, either sandstones or
limestones, at the crests of anticlines and beneath impervious
shales which do not shatter or crack with gentle folding.
E. Deposits in Shear-Zones. It sometimes happens both in
massive rocks and in sediments that strains of compression have
been eased by local crushing along comparatively narrow belts
without appreciable or measurable displacement of the sides such
as would be required by a pronounced fault. The word shear-zone
has become quite widely used in recent years as a descriptive term
applicable to these cases.
508
MINERAL DEPOSITS
The gold-bearing reefs of the Transvaal present a good illustration.
Beds of conglomerate consisting chiefly of quartz and quartzitc
pebbles have experienced crushing and shattering, and have had
their natural porosity much enhanced by these after-effects.
Solutions of gold, coming through, have encountered pyrites and
have had the gold precipitated upon the pyrites, which is itself
often broken and granulated. In other regions shearing has led to
sheeting and opening of the rocks by many parallel cracks but
almost always with such marked displacement that the next type
most correctly describes them. From any point of view the shear-
zone is a natural transition to the fault and closely related to it.
F. Deposits in Faults. This type of ore-body was one of the
earliest established, and has always figured very prominently in the
minds of students of the subject since the first systematic formula-
tions of our knowledge. The dislocation of the earth's crust by
faults has furnished either clean-cut fissure or else lines of closely
set parallel fractures, whose combined displacement has been
comparatively great. The faults go to relatively profound depths
and they furnish therefore waterways of extended character, which
may reach from regions of heat and pressure in depth to regions of
cold and diminishing pressure above; thus from conditions favour-
able to solution below to conditions favouring precipitation toward
the surface. Faults often occur, moreover, in connexion with
eruptive outbreaks, and therefore in circumstances especially
favourable to ore deposition. From all these reasons it is not
surprising that the " true fissure vein " based on a profound fault
has been the ideal of the prospector's search in many parts of the
world, and has often been his reward. The historic veins of Corn-
wall and of Saxony are of this type, also the great silver veins of
Mexico, the gold veins of California, the great silver-gold deposits
of the Comstock lode, and many in South America.
Faulting often leads to great shattering of the country rock,
and instead of being a clean-cut open cavity, there results a brecci-
ated belt which may then be cemented by infiltrating ore and gangue.
In the midst of this the richer ore occurs as bonanzes or chutes,
which are succeeded by leaner stretches. The movement of the
walls produces the polished surfaces specifically called " slicken-
sides," parallel to which the ore-chutes often run. The change in
the character of the entering solu-
tions from time to time gives a
banded character to the deposit, so
that from both walls toward the
centre corresponding layers succeed
one another. At the centre the last
layers may meet as interlocking
crystals in the familiar comb-in-
comb structure or they may leave
cavities called " vugs " into which
beautiful and perfectly formed crys-
tals project (see fig.). Fault fissures
swell and pinch affording wide and
narrow places in the resulting ore-body. They often intersect each
other and one may throw or heave another, according to the me-
chanics of faulting as set forth under the article on GEOLOGY.
While fault-fissures have in no way failed in later years to be
appreciated by mining geologists, yet they do not hold that pre-
dominant place which in the days of more limited experience was
theirs. On the contrary, other types such as contact zones, re-
placements and impregnations are found to be of scarcely inferior
importance. Nevertheless the last two, at least, must usually owe
to the fault-fissure the waterway which has brought in the solutions.
A very peculiar non-metallic deposit found in fault-fissures and
imitating the ordinary veins in all essentials is furnished by the
asphaltic minerals, often described as asphaltic coals and known
in mineralogy as " grahamite," " albertite," " uintaite," " gil-
sonite," &c. Petroleums with asphaltic bases have percolated
into fault-fissures and have there deposited on evaporation and
oxidation their dissolved burdens. The black coaly mineral
presents all the geological relations of a fissure vein and is mined
like so much ore.
G. Volcanic Necks. A very unusual ore-body is furnished by
this type, which is only known in a few instances. In two mines,
however, in Colorado, the Bassick and the Bull-Domingo, there
occur chimneys of elliptical cross-section filled with rounded
boulders, and believed with much reason to be the tubes of small
explosive volcanoes. After brief periods of activity they became
waterways for uprising heated solutions which filled the interstices
with ore.
III. DEPOSITED FROM SUSPENSION. The ores which result
from this process are all formed upon the surface of the earth and
through the action of water. They are primarily the result of the
weathering of rocks and of the removal of the loose products thus
afforded in the ordinary processes of erosion.
A. Placers. Many useful minerals, including some of a metallic
character, are 'very resistant to the agents of decomposition which
cause the disintegration of the common rocks. Thus magnetite is
a mineral present in a minor capacity in all cruptives and in fairly
large percentage in many of the basic types. It is proof against
protracted exposure to natural reagents, and it is heavy. Becoming
freed by the disintegration of the containing rock it is mingled with
the transported materials of running streams, and settles with
other heavy minerals wherever the current slackens to a sufficient
degree. Concentration may thus ensue and beds of black sand
result. If again deposits of loose sand containing more or less
magnetite are exposed to the surf of the ocean, or even to the
waves of lakes, a similar sorting action takes place on the beach.
The magnetite remains behind while the undertow removes the
lighter materials. Iron sands of either of these varieties are usually
too rich in titanium to be of commercial value, but with the magnet-
ite may be gold or platinum in sufficient amount to be of value.
While magnetite is the commonest of the ores to be found in
placers, gold is the metal which usually gives them value. Wherever
systems of drainage have eroded gold-bearing rocks, the gold has
passed into the streams with the other detrital materials, and,
even though in very fine flakes, being yet very heavy has sunk to
the bottom in the slackened water and has there enriched the gravel.
The gold tends to work its way through the gravels even to the
bed-rock, or to some bed of interstratified and impervious clay,
and th ?re to be relatively rich. It favours also the insides of bends
and the heads of quiet reaches. When a small tributary stream
joins a larger one and is both checked itself and checks the current
of the large one, the gold, as in the Klondike, tends to settle in
relatively great abundance.
Pot-holes, strangely enough, or related rock-cavities, often fail
to yield the nuggets, apparently because the swirl of the water and
grit has ground them to impalpable powder. The particles have
then been washed elsewhere.
When the gold-bearing gravels are panned down a small residue
is obtained of all the heavy minerals in the gravel. Magnetite is
the commonest and gives the technical name of " black sand " to
the concentrate. With it, however, there are almost always found
garnet and other less familiar minerals. If the stream valley has
been hunted over by sportsmen with shot-guns or rifles, the lost shot
and bullets are commonly caught in the pan. Even diamonds
have been rarely noted and they may, indeed, be specially sought
in gravels.
Along sea-beaches where great beds of auriferous gravel have
been attacked by the surf, concentrated bars carrying nuggets and
flakes of gold in workable quantity have not infrequently resulted.
Cape Nome, Alaska, is perhaps the most productive of all. The
gold in the beach-placers is usually worn by the constant attrition
into extremely fine particles, and the flakes or colours are more
difficult to save than in the case of stream-placers.
In some regions of gold-bearing rocks, as in the south-eastern
United States, the products of superficial decay of rocks may
remain in situ and be sufficiently charged with gold to be washed
for the yellow metal. They are different from the usual placer
deposit although hydraulicked in the same way. They might be
properly considered residual deposits under the next head.
Auriferous stream-gravels of ancient and long-abandoned systems
of drainage may remain beneath lava flows or later sedimentary
accumulations and be the objects of underground mining. Both
in Australia, where they are called " deep leads," and in California,
where they are called " buried channels " or " deep gravels," they
have been for many years the objects of mining. In California
the bed-rock is usually slate or schist and a series of technical
terms have resulted descriptive of the rich streaks. The bed-rock
is called the rim-rock; the pay-streaks which appear on its sides,
bench-gravels, and the lowest one the channel-gravel. Tunnels are
often very skilfully driven through the rim-rock to strike the
channel-gravel and at the same time preserve the proper slope for
drainage and extraction. The buried channels in California have
proved of much scientific interest from the remains of prehistoric
man, skulls, mortars and pestles which they have yielded.
Among the non-metallic minerals sought from placers, phos-
phates for fertilizers hold a position of great importance.
B. Residual. Deposits. As contrasted with the placers whose
materials are derived by transport from a distance, we sometimes
find heavy and resistant minerals, once contained in the rock but
freed by the process of decay and disintegration. The lighter
loose materials are washed away and deposited elsewhere. The
heavy remain behind in a concentrated condition. Iron ores of
this character are known, and chromite is set free in the same way
by the decomposition of serpentine.
In the decay of ferruginous rocks like limestones the iron may be
changed to the insoluble ferric hydrate, brown hematite, and remain
as veinlets and crusts throughout a mantle of clay. The brown
hematite may be freed by artificial washing and used as an iron ore.
IV. CARBONACEOUS DEPOSITS FROM VEGETATION. Farthe most
important of the non-metallic minerals are those composing the
coal series. They yield entire strata analogous to other sedimentary
rocks, but in most cases from vegetation which has grown in situ.
They are found in all stages from nearly carbonized leaves and
woody tissue in peat, through much more altered materials in
lignite and bituminous coal to extremes in anthracite and graphite.
The prime necessity for their preservation from decay is furnished
by water, in or near which they must grow, and beneath which they
must be deposited, so that oxidation may be retarded. In instances
they have been heaped together by rivers, especially when at flood.
The method of origin is fully discussed under COAL and under
MINERALOGY
MINING, but it may be remarked here that once formed they undergo
all the foldings, faultings and disturbances which have affected the
sedimentary rocks of other kinds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following are general works on the deposits
of the useful minerals, in addition to' Posepny's volume already
mentioned: In English J. A. Phillips, revised by Henry Louis,
Treatise on Ore-Deposits (London, 1896) ; J. F. Kemp, Ore-Deposits
of the United States and Canada (New York, 1900) ; Prime's translation
of Von Cotta's Ore-Deposits (New York, 1870) ; H. Ries, Economic
Geology of the United States (New York, 1906) ; W. H. Weed's trans-
lation of Beck's The Nature of Ore-Deposits (New York, 1905);
Genesis of Ore-Deposits (American Institute of Mining Engineers,
1901); G. P. Merrill, The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904).
In German B. von Cotta, Die Lehre von den Erzlagerstdlten (Frei-
berg, 1859); A. von Groddeck, Die Lehre von den Lagerstdtten der
Erze (Leipzig, 1879); R. Beck, Lehre von den Erzlagerstdtten (Berlin,
1904; ; A. W. Stelzner and A. Bergeat, Die Erzlagerstatten (Leipzig,
1905-1906). In French E. Fuchs and L. de Launay, Traite des
gites mineraux et metalliferes (Paris, 1893); G. Moreau, Etude in-
dustrielle des gites metalliferes (Paris, 1894). (J. F. K.)
MINERALOGY, the science which describes and classifies the
different kinds of mineral matter constituting the material of the
earth's crust and of those extra-terrestrial bodies called meteor-
ites. The study of minerals is thus a branch of natural history,
but one in which certain of the exact sciences find an applica-
tion. The determination of the composition and constitution of
minerals is a chemical problem; their optical and other physical
properties are determined according to the principles of physics;
the study of their crystalline form and structure belongs to
crystallography; their modes of occurrence, origins, associations
and changes come within the province of geology and petrology;
while a consideration of the localities at which they are found
requires some acquaintance with geography. Finally, there is
the economic side, dealing with the mining and application of
useful minerals, the extraction of metals from their ores, and
the uses of minerals for building, decoration and jewelry.
In this article we shall treat only of the general characters of
minerals; their special characters will be found in the articles
on the individual minerals.
After a brief historical sketch the subject will be treated under
the following headings:
I. Characters of Minerals.
1. Morphological Characters.
a. Crystalline Form.
b. State of Aggregation : Structure.
2. Physical Characters.
a. Optical Characters (Colour, &c.).
6. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters.
c. Characters depending on Cohesion (Hardness, &c.).
d. Specific Gravity.
. Touch, Taste and Smell.
3. Chemical Characters.
Synthesis of Minerals.
II. Occurrence and Origin of Minerals.
Alteration of Minerals : Pseudomorphs.
III. Nomenclature and Classification of Minerals.
History. Owing to their numerous applications for useful and
decorative purposes, minerals have attracted the attention of
mankind from the earliest times. The stone and bronze imple-
ments of prehistoric man and many of his personal ornaments
and charms were directly or indirectly of mineral origin. The
oldest existing treatise on minerals is that written about 315 B.C.
by Theophrastus (irepi TWV \Wdiv On Stones, English version
by John Hill, 1746), of which only a portion is now in
existence. Minerals were then classed as metals, stones and
earths. The last five books of Pliny's Historia naturalis,
written about A.D. 77, treat of metals, ores, stones and gems.
Some of the Arabian philosophers devoted themselves to the
study of minerals, and about 1262 Albertus Magnus wrote his
De miner alibus. In the i6th century Georgius Agricola published
several large volumes, dealing more especially with the mining
and metallurgy of metalliferous minerals, in which more exact
descriptions were given of the external characters: he mentioned
several minerals by names (e.g. blende, fluor, quartz) which are
now in common use. About the same period there appeared
509
the systematic treatise on minerals of K. Gesner (1565), and that
on precious stones by Anselm Boethius de Boodt (1609). The
remarkable researches of Erasmus Bartholinus on Iceland-spar
were published in 1669, and J. F. Henckel's Pyritologia in 1725.
Later came the Systema naturae of C. Linnaeus (i 735). Although
the importance of chemical properties was recognized by the
Swedish chemists J. G. Wallerius (1747) and A. F. Cronstedt
(!7S8) the external characters of minerals formed the basis of
the mixed systems of classification of A. G. Werner (1774) and of
other authors, and even as late as the Natural History System of
Mineralogy of F. Mohs (1820).
It was not until the end of the iSth and beginning of the ipth
century, when the foundations of crystallography were laid by
Rome de 1'Isle and R. J. Haiiy, and chemistry had assumed
its modern phase, that any real advance was made in scientific
mineralogy. It was then recognized that chemical composition
and crystalline form were characters of the first importance,
and that external (natural history) characters were often more
or less accidental. During this period numerous mineral sub-
stances were analysed by Scheele, Klaproth, Charles Hatchett.
Vauquelin, Kirwan, Berzelius, Rose and other chemists, and
many new mineral-species and chemical elements discovered.
After W. H. Wollaston's invention of the reflecting goniometer
in 1809, exact measurements of the crystalline forms of many
minerals were made. The principles of isomorphism and dimor-
phism enunciated by E. Mitscherlich in 1819 and 1821 respec-
tively cleared up many difficulties encountered in the definition
of mineral-species. About the same time also the discovery by
E. L. Malus of the polarization of light gave an impetus to the
optical examination, by Sir David Brewster and others, of
natural crystals. Later, the investigation of rocks in thin
section under the microscope led to the exact determination,
particularly by A. Des Cloizeaux (1867), of the optical constants
of rock-forming minerals.
For a detailed account of the history of mineralogy (including
crystallography), see F. von Kobell, Geschichte der Mineralogie von
1650-1860 (Miinchen, 1864). The recent history of mineral-species
may be well traced in the six editions of J. D. Dana's System of
Mineralogy (1837-1892).
I. Characters of Minerals.
A distinction is to be made between essential and non-essential
characters. Essential characters are those relating to chemical
composition, crystalline form, crystallo-physical properties and
specific gravity; these are identical, or vary only within certain
defined limits, in all specimens of the same mineral-species.
Non-essential characters such as colour, lustre, hardness, form
and structure of aggregates depend largely on the presence
of impurities, or on the state of aggregation of imperfectly
formed crystalline individuals. In an absolutely pure and
perfectly developed crystal all the characters may be said to
be essential, but such crystals are of exceptional occurrence in
nature, and certain of the characters are subject to modification
under different conditions of growth. For example: a well-
formed crystal of haematite (" specular iron ore "), with its
smooth black faces and brilliant metallic lustre, is strikingly
different in appearance from a piece of massive haematite (" red
iron ore "), which is dull and earthy and bright red in colour;
the former is so hard that it can only with difficulty be scratched
with a knife, while the latter is quite soft and soils the fingers.
Both specimens will, however, be found on analysis to have the
same chemical composition (Fe2O 3 ), the same crystalline
structure (as determined by the optical characters under the
microscope in the case of the massive variety), and very_ nearly
the same specific gravity (especially if this be determined upon
finely powdered material, the effect of cavities being thus
eliminated). The essential characters being identical, the
difference between the two specimens lies in the state of aggre-
gation of the material: with " specular iron ore " we have a
single crystal, while with the " red iron ore " we are dealing
with a confused aggregate of minute crystalline individuals,
which have interfered with each other's growth to such an extent
that no crystal-faces have been developed. Such differences do
MINERALOGY
not therefore depend on the nature of the material, but only on
the conditions which prevailed during its growth. (See e.g.
QUARTZ and CALCITE.)
In the following enumeration of the more salient characters
of minerals it is to be noted that many of the terms used for
non-essential characters are purely descriptive and have no
exact definition; on the other hand, essential characters can be
expressed numerically and are therefore perfectly definite.
i. Morphological Characters.
a. Crystalline Form. This most important character of
minerals can, of course, be determined only when the material
available is in the form of crystals (i.e. crystallized), which is
not always the case. Massive aggregates of crystalline material
are of much more frequent occurrence; when small fragments
or thin sections of such material are transparent, the crystalline
symmetry may be determined, within certain limits, by the help
of the optical characters (see below). External crystalline form
must not, however, be considered alone apart from all other
characters, for crystals of substances quite different chemically,
e.g. silver iodide, zinc oxide and zinc sulphide, are sometimes
almost identical in crystalline form; further, in groups of iso-
morphously related minerals the degree of symmetry will usually
be the same and the angles vary only slightly, and unless the
crystals are perfectly developed and suitable for exact gonio-
metric measurement no crystallographic distinction can be
made between two such species.
All the six systems of crystals and most of the thirty-two
symmetry-classes are represented amongst minerals (see CRYSTAL-
LOGRAPHY). Crystals of the same mineral-species may differ
very widely in general form or habit; e.g. crystals of calcite (q.v.)
may be rhombohedral, prismatic, scalenohedral or tabular in
habit. Other descriptive terms of the habit of crystals are
pyramidal, acicular or needle-shaped (from the Lat. acicula, a
needle), capillary or hair-like (from the Lat. capillus, hair), &c.;
and these peculiarities of habit may sometimes be character-
istic of certain minerals. Sometimes also there are characteristic
kinds of groupings of crystals: thus parallel, divergent or
radiating (e.g. scolecite), rosette-shaped (e.g. haematite
Eisenrosen), reticulated (e.g. rutile), or matted. The faces of
natural crystals may be smooth, rough, striated, curved or
drusy, 1 i.e. studded with small crystal faces and angles.
b. State of Aggregation: Structure. According to the par-
ticular state of aggregation of a number of imperfectly developed
crystals, which have grown together, various kinds of structure
may be presented even by the same mineral species. The
descriptive terms applied to these structures are almost self-
explanatory: thus the structure may be granular (e.g. marble),
fibrous (asbestos), radio-fibrous or stellated (wavellite), columnar
(beryl), laminar or lamellar (talc), bladed (cyanite), &c., ac-
cording to the relative shape and sizes of the individual crystals
composing the aggregate. When the constituent crystals are
invisible to the unaided eye the material is described as compact;
incoherent aggregates are powdery or earthy. Minerals which
are really amorphous, i.e. without any crystalline structure, are
comparatively few in number (e.g. opal)-; many which are
apparently amorphous are really microcrystalline (e.g. turquoise).
The term massive is often used loosely for a crystalline mineral
not showing crystal-faces. Crystal-aggregates often assume
more or less accidental and imitative external forms to which the
following descriptive terms are applied: dendritic or arborescent
(e.g. copper, pyrolusite), mossy (copper), leafy (gold), wiry or
filiform, (silver), capillary (millerite), coralloidal (aragonite),
globular (aragonite, with concentric structure; wavellite, with
radiated structure), mamillary or with breast-like protuberances
(arsenic), nodular (malachite), warty (menilite), botryoidal or
resembling a bunch of grapes (from /36rpus, a bunch of grapes)
(dolomite), reniform or kidney-shaped (menilite), amygdaloidal
or almond-shaped (agate), stalactitic (calcite, chalcedony), &c.
1 This is from a German word, druse, originally meaning " brush,''
and applied by miners to hollow stones, lined with minute pro-
jecting crystals.
2. Physical Characters.
a. Optical Characters. The action of crystallized matter on
transmitted light is a character of the highest importance in
mineralogy. Even when the substance is opaque in large masses,
it may be sufficiently transparent when in small splinters or in
thin sections for the determination of the optical characters.
The refractive indices, strength of the double refraction, optic
axial angle, extinction angles on certain faces, &c., are characters
capable of exact measurement and numerical expression, and are
constant for each mineral-species. (See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.)
In their "diaphaneity," or degree of transparency, minerals
differ very widely even in the same species. Some, such as metals
and most metallic sulphides are always opaque; while others
may vary in different specimens from perfect transparency to
perfect opacity (in the latter case, however, minute fragments
will, as a rule, still be transparent). A good example of this is
afforded by the varieties of quartz: rock-crystal is water-clear,
chalcedony is translucent, and jasper opaque.
The " colour " of minerals is the character which first arrests
attention; but being a character which may vary almost in-
definitely in one and the same kind of mineral, it affords a typical
example of a non-essential character. Thus, fluor-spar and
quartz, when in well-formed and chemically pure crystals, are
quite colourless and transparent; but it would be easy to collect
a series of each of these minerals in which almost every shade of
colour is represented. Crystals of fluor-spar of an emerald-green,
purple, golden-yellow, bright pink or other colour are at first
sight very different in appearance, and yet the difference is due
solely to the presence of traces of colouring matters so small in
amount that their exact nature is difficult or impossible to
determine. The value of diamond, corundum and other gem-
stones depends largely on these accidental differences in colour.
Such substances, which are essentially colourless and owe their
colour to the presence of colouring matter as an impurity, are
said to be " allochromatic ": any colour they may possess is non-
essential. In some other substances, known as " idiochromatic,"
the colour is a definite and essential character; for example, the
yellow colour of gold, the red of cinnabar, &c.; but even here,
owing to differences in the state of aggregation and the presence
of various impurities, they may be wide variations in colour.
Colour is thus a character of little determinative value, especially
in minerals which are allochromatic; but it is sometimes a useful
guide when taken in conjunction with other characters. An
elaborate list of colour-names for descriptive use was drawn up
by A. G. Werner in 1774.
An important character of transparent crystals is that of
unequal absorption in different directions; so that light will, as
a rule, be differently coloured according to the direction in which
it has travelled through the crystal: this is known as dichroism
or pleochroism (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). Certain minerals (e.g.
zircon, almandine and those containing cerium) when examined
with a spectroscope by transmitted light exhibit characteristic
absorption spectra.
The colours of minerals may also be due to the interference
of rays of white light at the surfaces of thin crevices or
minute inclusions, either tabular or fibrous in form, in the
mineral; for example, the play of colours of opal; the
change of colours of labradorite; the bands of rainbow colours
(Newton's rings) seen along cleavage cracks and irregular in-
ternal fractures (e.g. in quartz); the iridescent tarnish due
to a superficial film of a decomposition product (e.g. " peacock
copper ore ") ; or the bluish opalescence of moon-stone and
cat's-eye.
The true colour of a mineral is best revealed by its " streak,"
i.e. the colour of its powder. This is obtained by scratching
the mineral, or by crushing a fragment of it on a sheet of white
paper, or rubbing it upon unglazed porcelain. The streak of
allochromatic minerals is white, while that of idiochromatic
minerals is coloured and is often of determinative value. Ores
of iron may, for example, generally be distinguished by their
streaks: that of magnetite being black; haematite, blood-red;
MINERALOGY
limonite, yellow; and chalybite, white. The streak of a mineral
may be either shining (e.g. argentite) or dull.
Another character depending on light is that of lustre, which
is often very characteristic in certain minerals, though it may
be considerably modified by the state of aggregation. For
example, the usual adamantine lustre of diamond is not exhibited
by the compact aggregate known as carbonado; while earthy
masses of any mineral will be devoid of lustre. Descriptive
terms applied to the kinds of lustre are: metallic (e.g. pyrites),
adamantine (diamond), vitreous (quartz), resinous (pyromor-
phite), greasy (elaeolite), waxy (chalcedony), pearly (talc,
heulandite and other minerals with a perfect cleavage), silky
(satin-spar), &c. The degrees of intensity of lustre are described
as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering and dull, and
depend usually on the smoothness of the crystal-faces.
The phenomena of phosphorescence (?..), fluorescence (q.v.)
and radio-activity (q.v.) are strikingly exhibited by some
minerals. (See FLUOR-SPAR, DIAMOND, &c.)
b. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters. These, as far
as related to crystalline form, are discussed under crystallography
(q.v.). Magnetite (" lode-stone ") is the only mineral which is
strongly magnetic with polarity; a few others, such as pyrrhotite
and native platinum, possess this character to a much less degree.
Many minerals are, however, attracted by the pole of a strong
electro-magnet, while a few (diamagnetic) are repelled.
Most minerals with a metallic lustre are good conductors of
heat and electricity; others are bad conductors. For example,
graphite is a good conductor, while diamond is a bad conductor.
Non-conductors of electricity become electrified by friction, some
positively (e.g. quartz and topaz), others negatively (e.g. sulphur
and amber). The length of time during which different
gem-stones retain their charge of frictional electricity was made
use of by R. J. Haiiy as a determinative character. For the
pyro-electrical and thermo-electrical characters of crystals
see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. Some minerals for example, salt,
sylvite and blende are highly diathermanous, i.e. transparent
for heat-rays.
The specific heat and melting point of minerals are essential
characters capable of exact measurement and numerical expres-
sion, but they are not often made use of. Different minerals
differ widely in their " fusibility ": the following scale of fusi-
bility was proposed by F. von Kobell:
1. Stibnite . (525 C.) 5. Orthoclase . (1175 C.)
2. Natrolite . (965 C.) 6. Bronzite . (1300 C.)
3. Almandine (1265 C.) 7. Quartz . (1430 C.)
4. Actinolite . (1296 C.)
The melting points given above in parentheses were determined
by J. Joly. Stibnite readily fuses to a globule in a candle-flame,
while quartz is infusible even on the thinnest edges before the
ordinary blowpipe.
c. Characters depending on Cohesion. Some minerals (e.g. a
sheet of mica) are highly elastic, springing back to their original
shape after being bent. Others (e.g. talc) may be readily bent,
but do not return to their original form when released; these
are said to be pliable or flexible. Sectile minerals (e.g. chlorar-
gyrite) may be cut with a knife without being fractured: related
characters are malleability (e.g. argentite) and ductility (e.g.
silver). The tenacity, or degree of frangibility of different
minerals varies widely: they may be brittle, tough, soft or
friable. The fractured surface produced when a mineral is
broken is called the " fracture," and the kind of fracture is often
of determinative value; descriptive terms are: conchoidal (e.g.
quartz, which may often be recognized by its glassy conchoidal
fracture), sub-conchoidal, uneven, even, splintery (e.g. jade),
hackl/or with short sharp points (e.g. copper), &c.
In many cases when a crystallized mineral is broken it
separates in certain definite directions along plane surfaces.
This property of " cleavage " (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) is an
important essential character of minerals, and one which is
often of considerable assistance in their recognition. For
example, calcite, with its three directions of perfect cleavage
parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron. may always be readily
distinguished from aragonite or quartz; or again, the perfect
cubical cleavage of galena renders this mineral always easy of
recognition.
" Hardness," or the resistance which a substance offers to
being scratched by a harder body, is an important character of
minerals, and being a test readily applied it is frequently made
use of. It must, however, be remembered that the hardness of
an incoherent or earthy aggregate of small crystals will be very
different from that of a single crystal. A comparative " scale
of hardness " was devised by F. Mohs in 1820 for the purpose
of giving a numerical statement of the hardness of minerals.
Mohs's Scale of Hardness.
I- Talc. 6. Orthoclase.
2. Gypsum. 7. Quartz.
3. Calcite. 8. Topaz.
4. Fluor-spar. 9. Corundum.
5. Apatite. 10. Diamond.
These minerals, arbitrarily selected for standards, are suc-
cessively harder from talc the softest, to diamond the hardest
of all minerals: a piece of talc is readily scratched by gypsum,
and so on throughout the scale. A mineral which is capable of
scratching calcite and itself be as easily scratched by fluor-spar
is said to have a hardness of 35. Some care is required to avoid
error in the determination of hardness: it is best to select a
smooth crystal-face, cleavage-surface or fracture on which to
rub a sharp corner of the scratching mineral; the powder should
be wiped off and the surface examined with a lens to see if a
scratch has really been produced or only powder rubbed off the
corner of the mineral with which the scratching was attempted.
With a little practice a fair idea of the hardness of a mineral may
be obtained with the use of a knife or file, which will scratch all
minerals with a hardness of 6 or less. Thus iron-pyrites (H. = 65)
and copper-pyrites (H. = 3^), apatite (H. = 5) and beryl
(H. = 75), or gem-stones and their paste imitations may be
readily distinguished by this test. Talc and gypsum can be
readily scratched with the finger-nail.
Planes of parting, etching figures, pressure- and percussion-
figures are sometimes characters of importance in describing and
distinguishing minerals. (See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.)
d. Specific Gravity. The density or specific gravity of
minerals is an essential character of considerable determinative
value. In minerals of constant composition it has a definite
value, but in isomorphous groups it varies with the composition:
it also, of course, varies with the purity of the material. It is
a character which has the advantage of numerical expression:
minerals range in specific gravity from i-oi for copalite to 22-84
for iridium. The exact determination of the specific gravity
of minerals is therefore a matter of some importance. Three
methods are in common use, viz. hydrostatic weighing, the
pycnometer, and the use of hea.vy liquids. The first two
methods are only applicable when a weighable amount of pure
material can be selected or picked out; this is, however, generally
a laborious operation, since impurities are often present and
usually several species of minerals are closely associated, and in
selecting material it is often necessary to determine some other
character to make certain that only one kind is being selected.
For exact determinations the pycnometer method is usually to be
recommended, using for material the pure fragments which have
been selected for quantitative chemical analysis. With a single
pure crystal or a faceted gem-stone the method of hydrostatic
weighing is usually applicable, providing the stone is not too
small. The most ready method, however, is that afforded by the
use of a heavy liquid, and the most convenient liquid for this
purpose is methylene iodide. This is a clear, mobile liquid with
a specific gravity of 3-33, and by the addition of benzene, drop
by drop, the specific gravity may be reduced to any desired
amount. With such a liquid the specific gravity of the minutest
fragment, the purity of which has previously been scrutinized
under the microscope, may be rapidly determined. The liquid
is diluted with benzene until the fragment just remains suspended,
neither floating nor sinking; the specific gravity of the fragment
will then be the same as that of the liquid, and the latter may
be determined by hydrostatic weighing or, more conveniently, by
MINERALOGY
means of indicators. Small recognizable crystals of the following
minerals may be kept at hand as a set of indicators: gypsum
(sp. gr. 2-32), colemanite (2-42), orthoclase (2-56), quartz (2-65),
calcite (2-72), aragonite (2-93), rubellite (3-02), apatite (3-20),
dioptase (3-32), &c. With a series of tubes containing mix-
tures of methylene iodide and benzene of different densities
and suitable indicators, specific gravities may be rapidly and ac-
curately determined. Values intermediate between those of the
indicators may be estimated by a diffusion column of the liquid,
or by noting the rate at which the benzene evaporates and the
specific gravity of the liquid increases. For use with minerals
of specific gravity greater than 3-33 various other heavy liquids
have been suggested; the best being thallium silver nitrate
(TlAg(NO 3 ) 2 ), which melts at 75 C. to a clear liquid with a
density of 4-8, and is miscible with water.
e. Touch, Taste and Smell. In their action on the senses of
touch, taste and smell a few minerals possess distinctive char-
acters. Talc is unctuous or soapy to the touch; tripolite and
trachyte are respectively meagre and harsh. Some porous
minerals (e.g. clays and hydrophane) adhere to the tongue.
Gem-stones may often be distinguished from their glass imitation
by the fact that they feel colder, since they are better conductors
of heat. Bitumen and clays, when moistened, have a character-
istic smell; pyrites and some other sulphides when rubbed emit
a sulphurous odour. Minerals which are soluble in water have
taste: e.g. saline (salt), alkaline (natron), bitter (epsomite),
astringent (chalcanthite), &c.
3. Chemical Characters.
Chemical composition is the most important character of
minerals, and on it all modern systems of classification are based.
A mineral-species cannot, however, be defined by chemical
composition alone, since many instances are known in which the
same chemical element or compound is dimorphous or poly-
morphous (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY). Thus both the minerals
diamond and graphite consist of the element carbon; both
calcite and aragonite consist of calcium carbonate; and rutile,
anatase and brookite consist of titanium dioxide. In such
cases a knowledge of some other essential character, preferably
the crystalline form, is necessary, before the mineral can be
determined.
All the known chemical elements have been found in minerals;
and of many of them minerals are the only source. On the
other hand, nitrogen, which is frequently present in organic
substances, is rare in minerals; carbon has a wide distribution
in mineral carbonates. It is estimated that the minerals of the
earth's crust consist of about 47% by weight of oxygen, 27 of
silicon and 8 of aluminium; silicates, and especially alumino-
silicates, therefore predominate, these being the more important
rock-forming minerals.
The chemical composition of minerals is determined by the
ordinary methods of analytical chemistry. Since, however,
minerals of different kinds usually occur intimately associated,
it is often a matter of some difficulty to select a sufficiency of
pure material for analysis. For this reason the exact composi-
tion and the empirical formulae of several minerals, particularly
amongst the silicates, still remain doubtful. There are even
cases on record in which the chemical composition and the
crystalline form have been determined on different materials
in the belief that they were the same. Whenever possible,
therefore, the chemical analysis should be made on small pure
crystals which have been previously determined crystallographi-
cally. For the qualitative chemical examination of minerals,
when only a small amount of material is available, the methods
of blowpipe analysis and microchemical analysis are often con-
venient. (See G. J. Brush, Manual of Determinative Mineralogy,
i6th ed., by S. L. Penfield, New York, 1903 ; H. Behrens,
Manual of Microchemical Analysis, London, 1894.)
The principle of isomorphism (see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY) is of
the highest importance in mineralogy, and on it the classification
of minerals largely depends. In some minerals (e.g. quartz)
isomorphous or vicarious replacement is not known to occur;
but in the majority of minerals one or other of the predominating
elements (generally the base, rarely that of the acid radicle)
may be isomorphously replaced by equivalent amounts of other
chemically-related elements. In some isomorphous groups of
minerals replacement takes place to only a limited extent, and
the element which is partly replaced always predominates; while
in other groups the replacement may be indefinite in extent, and
between the ends of the series the different members may vary
indefinitely in composition, with no sharp demarcation between
species. Thus in the group of rhombohedral carbonates the
different species are usually sharply defined. In well-formed
crystals of calcite the calcium is replaced by only small amounts
of magnesium, iron, lead, &c.; in chalybite, however, iron is
often more largely replaced by calcium, magnesium, manganese,
&c., and the " brown spars " are not always readily distin-
guishable. In the dimorphous group of orthorhombic carbonates
isomorphous replacement is less frequent, and the different
species (aragonite, cerussite, &c.) are quite sharply defined. In
other groups of minerals, particularly amongst the silicates,
isomorphous replacement of the basic elements is so general
that the several members of the series vary almost indefinitely
in chemical composition, and will scarcely be the same for any
two specimens, though it may be reduced to the same type of
formula. For example, the formula of all varieties of garnet may
be expressed generally as R ff 3 R"' 2 (SiO 4 ) 3 , where R" = Ca, Mg, Fe,
Mn, and R""= Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ti. Tourmaline affords another
good example. In the plagioclase felspars (see PLAGIOCLASE)
we have an example of the isomorphous mixing of two end-
members, albite (NaAlSi 3 O 8 ) and anorthite (CaAl 2 (SiO 4 ) 2 ) in all
proportions and with no sharp line between the several sub-
species. In some other similar cases the end-members of the
series are purely hypothetical: e.g. in the scapolite group
(mixtures of CaWeSieOzs and Na 4 Al 3 Si9O24Cl) and in the micas
and chlorites. In such instances, where the formulae of the two
end-members differ in type, " mass effect " may have some
influence on the isomorphism.
In addition to isomorphous series, there are amongst minerals
several instances of double salts, which contain the same con-
stituents as the members of isomorphous series: e.g. dolomite
(q.v.) and barytocalcite (q.v.).
The manner in which water enters into the composition of
minerals is often difficult to determine. In some cases, e.g. in
the zeolites (q.v.), it is readily expelled at a low temperature,
even at the ordinary temperature over sulphuric acid, and may
be reabsorbed from a moist atmosphere or replaced by some
other substances: it is then regarded as " water of crystalliza-
tion." In other cases, when expelled only at a higher tempera-
ture, it is to be regarded as " water of constitution," forming
either a basic salt (e.g. malachite, Cu(OH) 2 CO 3 ) or an acid salt
(e.g. dioptase, H 2 CuSiO 4 , and mica, q.v.). When present as
hydroxyl it is often isomorphously replaced by fluorine (e.g.
topaz, [Al(F,OH)] 2 SiC>4). Sometimes the water is partly water
of crystallization and partly water of constitution.
As to the actual chemical constitution of minerals the little that
is at present known is mainly speculative. Dimorphous minerals,
which have the same empirical formula may be expected to
differ in constitution; and experiments have been made, for
example on pyrites and marcasite, with the object of discovering
a difference, but the conclusions of various investigators are not
in agreement. More promising results have been obtained (by
F. W. Clarke and others) by the action of various reagents on
silicates, particularly on the more readily decomposed zeolites,
and several substitution-derivatives have been prepared.
Synthesis of Minerals. The production of minerals by artificial
means is a branch of chemical mineralogy which has been
pursued with considerable success, especially by French chemists.
Most minerals have been obtained artificially in a crystallized
condition, and many related compounds, not as yet found in
nature, have also been prepared. Crystals of artificially pre-
pared minerals, though usually quite small in size, possess all the
essential characters of natural crystals, differing from these
only in origin. The following are the principles of some of the
MINERALOGY
methods which have been used: simple sublimation (e.g. arseno-
lite); interaction of gases (e.g. haematite, from steam and ferric
chloride; cassiterite, from steam and stannic chloride or fluoride);
action of gases on liquids and solids; slow cooling of fused masses,
either with or without the presence of agents miner alisateurs
(e.g. minerals in furnace slags) ; from aqueous solution sometimes
at a high temperature and under pressure (e.g., quartz); electro-
lysis; or even by subjecting dry amorphous material to enormous
pressure. The chemical reactions by which various minerals
have been obtained are often of considerable help in speculating
as to their mode of origin in nature, though it must be born in
mind that the same mineral may have been formed, both
naturally and -artificially, by more methods than one. In this
direction important results have been obtained experimentally
by J. H. van't Hoff and his pupils on the formation of oceanic
salt deposits, and by J. H. L. Vogt with slags. Many minerals
used as gem-stones have been prepared artificially, e.g. diamond
and ruby (see GEMS: Artificial}.
n. Occurrence and Origin of Minerals.
While some minerals are of rare and sporadic occurrence in
rock-cavities and mineral-veins, others are widely distributed
as important constituents of rocks. The same mineral species
may have several distinct modes of occurrence and origin, and
be associated with different minerals in each case; facts which
are well illustrated by quartz (q.v.).
Minerals of Igneous Rocks. The rock-forming minerals of
primary origin in igneous rocks have crystallized out from the
magma, or fused silicate-mass, which on consolidation gave rise to
the rock-mass. Magmas sometimes contain a considerable
amount of water and are then in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion,
rather than of dry fusion: in such cases very coarsely crystalline
rocks (pegmatites) often result, and under these conditions
minerals of many kinds are formed as well-developed crystals.
Those minerals which are present in large amount in igneous
rocks are distinguished as essential constituents, since it is on
these that the classification of igneous rocks is largely based:
the most important are quartz, felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles,
micas and olivines. Felspars of different composition are
present in almost all kinds of igneous rocks, while quartz and
olivine are characteristic of acid (e.g. granite, rhyolite) and basic
(e.g. basalt, peridotite) rocks respectively. When the magma
contains alkalies in relatively large amount the " felspathoid "
minerals, nepheline and leucite, are formed (e.g. in nepheline-
syenite, leucite-basalt, &c.). Other minerals occurring as pri-
mary constituents, but only in small amounts, are distinguished
as accessory; thus small crystals of magnetite, apatite, zircon,
&c., are of frequent occurrence disseminated in igneous rocks
(see PETROLOGY). Sometimes these accessory constituents are
concentrated by magmatic differentiation, important ore-
deposits sometimes resulting in this manner (e.g. of chromite, or
nickel-bearing pyrrhotite). The alteration of igneous rocks by
weathering and other processes results in the alteration of some
or all of the primary minerals with the production of others,
r hich are spoken of as secondary minerals: thus felspars are
'ten partly or wholly altered to kaolin, olivine to serpentine,
oxene and mica to epidote, chlorite, &c.
Minerals are also formed by the vapours given off by igneous
lagmas. The gases emitted by volcanoes and solfataras may
leposit directly by sublimation, or by their chemical interaction,
such minerals as sulphur, sal-ammoniac, haematite, which occur,
for instance, as incrustations on Vesuvian lava: the boric acid
of the Tuscan lagoons has also originated in this way. The
effects produced by the exhalations of deep-seated magmas are
more complex in character, since the vapours, being more
confined, have more opportunity of acting chemically not only
on the surrounding rocks but als-? on the igneous rock-mass
itself before its final consolidation. A good example of the
" pneumatolytic " action produced by the vapours from a mass
of granitic magma is afforded by veins of tin-ore, in which the
ore (cassiterite) is associated with minerals containing boron
and fluorine, such as topaz, tourmaline, lepidolite, fluor-apatite
xvm. 17
and fluor-spar. The production of such minerals may be
accounted for by assuming the presence of stannic fluoride in
the vapours, which by reacting on water vapour would deposit
cassiterite with the liberation of hydrofluoric acid, and this
would again react on other minerals. The topaz and tourmaline
crystals often found in the cavities of granites and pegmatites
have doubtless been formed in this manner. In a similar way
the exhalations of basic magmas have given rise to chlor-apatite
with associated sphene and ilmenite, as, for example, in the
extensive apatite veins in connexion with gabbro in southern
Norway.
Minerals of Metamorphic Rocks. By the baking action of a
deep-seated igneous mass on the surrounding rocks or on
included rock-fragments, various new minerals are developed.
By this process of thermal or contact-metamorphism well-
crystallized examples of many minerab have often been formed;
e.g. in calcareous rocks (limestones), especially those containing
some magnesia and silica, vesuvianite, garnet, diopside, tremolite,
wollastonite, &c., are developed; in argillaceous rocks (slates),
chiastolite and staurolite are characteristic products; and in
arenaceous rocks (sandstones), cordierite and sillimanite often
result. The effects of pressure (dynamo-metamorphism) on
rocks of various kinds, especially those of igneous origin, also
result in the production of new minerals: e.g. pyroxene is trans-
formed to amphibole, orthociase to muscovite, plagioclase to
zoisite, olivine to tremolite, &c. In gneisses and crystalline
schists, quartz, felspar, mica, talc, amphibole, &c. are important
constituents.
Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks. By the weathering and
disintegration of igneous and metamorphic rocks the various
minerals set free and the products of decomposition of others
supply the material of sedimentary rocks; thus sandstones
consist largely of quartz, shales of kaolin and other clay minerals.
Those minerals (e.g. gem-stones and gold) which resist the action
of weathering processes are found as water-worn pebbles and
grains in detrital deposits. Other sedimentary rocks consist of
minerals deposited from solution either by chemical or organic
agencies, from sea- water, lakes or springs: e.g. the calcite of
limestones, deposits of bog-iron-ore (limonite), gypsum, rock-
salt, &c.
Minerals Segregated In Veins and Rock-cavities. Water per-
colating through rock-masses takes up mineral matter in
solution, and the solutions so formed may further react on the
minerals composing the rocks. Such solutions will deposit some
of their dissolved material in rock-cavities with the production
of various minerals. For instance, the amygdaloidal cavities of
basic volcanic rocks (e.g. basalt, melaphyre), especially when the
rocks are somewhat weathered, are frequently partly or com-
pletely filled with agate or beautifully crystallized zeolites,
calcite, &c. The crevices and joint -planes of limestone become
in this way coated with crystals of calcite, and those of siliceous
rocks with quartz, giving rise to the abundantly occurring quartz-
veins. In sedimentary rocks, pyrites, flint and other minerals
become segregated round a nucleus of organic matter. The
beautiful crystal-lined crevices in the crystalline rocks of the
Alps have much the same origin, and so have the various types
of ore-deposits, including metalliferous veins or lodes. In the
latter cases, however, the solutions are no doubt sometimes of
deep-seated origin and often connected with igneous and meta-
morphic processes. Metalliferous veins are storehouses of
crystallized minerals of almost every kind, some being the ores
themselves and others, such as quartz, calcite, barytes, fluor-
spar, being gangue minerals. By the weathering of the metallic
minerals of mineral-veins numerous other finely crystallized
minerals result: for example, in the upper oxidized portion of
veins of lead-ore (galena), crystals of anglesite, cerussite and
pyromorphite are often met with; in veins of copper-ore the
alteration of chalcopyrite gives rise to malachite, chessylite and
cuprite.
Alteration of Minerals: Pseudomorphs. Crystals which have
been formed under one set of conditions of temperature and
pressure and in the presence of certain solutions, will in many
5
MINERALOGY
cases be unstable under another set of conditions. The crystals
may then be corroded or even completely redissolved, or the
substance may undergo a chemical or physical change and give
rise to the formation of other minerals which are stable under
the new conditions. The results of such changes and alterations
of minerals are very frequently to be observed in nature, and
several instances have already been cited in the preceding
section. A good example of the secondary products which may
result by the decomposition of a mineral is afforded by pyrites
(FeS2), of which two types of alteration may be distinguished.
By oxidation in the presence of pure water it gives rise to ferrous
sulphate (melanterite), free sulphur and sulphuric acid; the
melanterite by further alteration gives various basic ferric
sulphates (copiapite, &c.); and the sulphuric acid by acting
on surrounding rocks (limestone, clay, &c.) gives rise to the
formation of gypsum, aluminite and other sulphates. By
the action of water containing oxygen and calcium carbon-
ate in solution, pyrites suffers another kind of alteration:
the sulphur is carried away in solution as gypsum and the iron is
left behind as a ferric hydroxide (limonite) which preserves
the original form of the crystals. We have then a pseu-
domorph (from i/w&js, false and nop<jn], form) of limonite
after pyrites; i.e. limonite with the external form of a crystal of
pyrites.
Pseudomorphs are frequently met with in nature, and they are
of considerable importance in studying the changes which
minerals undergo. Several kinds of pseudomorphs are to be
distinguished. When the alteration has involved no change
in chemical composition of the material,. but only in the internal
crystalline structure and physical properties, the altered crystal
is called a " paramorph." For example, crystals of aragonite
are often altered to a confused granular aggregate of crystalline
individuals of calcite, the change being accompanied by an
increase in specific gravity but without change in external form :
such a change may be effected artificially by simply heating a
crystal of aragonite. Other examples of paramorphs are rutile
with the form of anatase, and hornblende with the form of
augite. An " epimorph " results from the encrustation of one
mineral by another; the first may be afterwards partly or wholly
dissolved out, leaving the second as a hollow shell (e.g. chalybite
after fluor-spar). As instances of pseudomorphs in which there
has been some chemical change the following may be cited:
by the gain of chemical constituents, e.g. malachite after cuprite;
by the loss of material, e.g. native copper after cuprite; or by
an interchange of constituents, e.g. galena after pyromorphite and
limonite after pyrites. In other cases there may be no evident
chemical relationship between the two minerals, as, for example,
in pseudomorphs of native copper after aragonite or quartz
after calcite. Different minerals may also take the form of
various organic remains.
III. Nomenclature and Classification of Minerals.
A mineral species, or simple mineral, is completely defined by
the statement of its chemical composition and crystalline form.
When we are dealing with a definite chemical compound the
limitation of species is easy enough; thus corundum, cassiterite,
galena, blende, &c. are quite sharply defined mineral species.
But with isomorphous mixtures the division into species, or
into sub-species and varieties, must be to a certain extent arbi-
trary, there being no sharp lines of demarcation in many iso-
morphous groups of minerals. Thus in the mineral tourmaline
the chemical composition varies indefinitely between wide limits,
but no corresponding difference can be traced in the crystalline
form or in the external characters save colour and specific gravity.
Some authors have therefore questioned the advisability of
'separating minerals into species each with distinctive names,
and they have attempted to devise chemical names for the
different kinds of minerals. Owing, however, to the frequency
of polymorphism and isomorphism amongst mineral substances
such a system presents many practical difficulties. Thus the
three modifications of titanium dioxide are more simply and
conveniently referred to as rutile, anatase and brookite, while
to give a purely chemical designation to such a mineral as
tourmaline would be quite impracticable. Further, later investi-
gations often show that such chemical names require revision, and
hence confusion may arise.
The practice of giving distinct names to different kinds of
minerals dates from very early times (e.g. diamond). The
common termination ite (originally itis or ites) was adopted by
the Greeks and Romans for the names of stones, the names
themselves indicating some character, constituent, or use of
the stone, or the locality at which it was found. For example,
haematite, because of the blood-red colour; siderite, containing
iron; alabaster (originally alabastritis), a stone from which a
vessel called an alabastron was cut; magnesite, from the locality
Magnesia. The custom of naming minerals after persons is of
modern origin; e.g. prehnite, biotite, hatiyne, zoisite. Un-
fortunately there is a lack in uniformity in the termination of
mineral names, many long-established names being without the
termination ite, e.g. beryl, blende, felspar, garnet, gypsum,
quartz, zircon, &c. The termination ine is also often used, e.g.
nepheline, olivine, serpentine, tourmaline, &c.; and many
others were introduced by R. ]. Haiiy without much reason,
e.g. anatase, dioptase, epidote, analcime, sphene, &c. (see
A. H. Chester, A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals, New
York, 1896).
The number of known mineral species differs, of course,
according to different authors; roughly there may be said to be
about a thousand. The total number of mineral names (apart
from chemical names), many of them being applied to trivial
varieties or given in error, amount to about 5000.
Minerals may be classified in different ways to suit different
purposes; thus they may be classified according to their uses,
modes of occurrence, system of crystallization, &c. The earlier
systematic classifications, being based solely on the external
characters of minerals, were on natural history principles and
too artificial to be of any value. J. J. Berzelius, in 1815, was
the first to propose a purely chemical system of classification:
his primary divisions depended on the basic (electro-positive)
element and the sub-divisions on the acid (electro-negative)
element. Such a method of classification, though still in use
for metallic ores, must be quite arbitrary or give rise to much
duplication; since, apart from isomorphous replacement, many
minerals contain more than one metal. The systematic classi-
fications in use at the present day are modifications in detail
of the crystallo-chemical system published by G. Rose in 1852.
Here there are four main divisions, viz. elements; sulphides,
arsenides, &c.; halogen compounds; and oxygen compounds:
the last, and largest, division is subdivided into oxides and
according to the acid (carbonates, silicates, sulphates and
chrbmates, phosphates and arsenates, &c.); in each section
isomorphous minerals are grouped together. The classifications
adopted by different authors differ much in detail, especially in
the large section of the silicates, which presents many difficulties
and for which no satisfactory classification has yet been
devised.
As an example of a systematic classification of minerals the
following may be given. Except in a few details it is the
classification of Dana's System of Mineralogy (6th ed., 1892).
Only those minerals which are described under their respective
headings in these volumes are included : the list therefore serves,
at the same time, as an enumeration of the more common and
important species and varieties of minerals, and as a system of
classification it is necessarily incomplete. Species belonging to
the same isomorphous group are bracketed together: varieties
are given in parentheses after the species to which they belong.
The chemical composition of each species is given by the formula;
and the crystal-system by the initial letters C (cubic), T (tetra-
gonal), O (orthorhombic), M (monoclinic), A (anorthic), H (hexa-
gonal) and R (rhombohedral) : when the crystal class is definitely
known to be some other than the holosymmetric this is indi-
cated by a number corresponding to those used in the article
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, e.g. 2 for the tetrahedral class of the cubic
system.
MINERALOGY
5*5
I. NATIVE ELEMENTS.
1. NON-METALS.
Diamond . . . C .
(Bort, Carbonado)
Graphite . . . . C ,
Sulphur . S ,
2. SEMI-METALS.
f Arsenic .... As .
I Antimony . . . Sb .
[Bismuth . . . . Bi
3. METALS.
fGold . . . . Au
I Silver . . . . Ag
1 Copper . . . . Cu
[Platinum . Pt
C2
R
O
R
R
R
C
C
C
C
H. SULPHIDES, ARSENIDES, TELLURIDES, ETC.
1. OF THE SEMI-METALS.
Realgar .... AsS M
I Stibnite .... Sb 2 S 8 O
) Bismuthite . . . Bi 2 S s O
Tetradymite . . . Bi 2 Te 2 S R
Molybdenite . . . MoSj R
2. OF THE METALS.
A. Monosulphides, &c.
i Argentite .... Ag 2 S C
Galena . . . . PbS C
Copper-glance . . Cu 2 S O
Blende .... ZnS Ca
Cinnabar .... HgS R3
Covellite .... CuS H
Greenockite . . . CdS Ra
fMillerite . . . . NiS R
{ Niccolite .... NiAs R
I Pyrrhotite . . . FeuSi 2 R
B. Intermediate Division.
Erubescite . . . Cu 6 FeS 4 C
Chalcopyrite . . . CuFeSj Tl
C. Disulphides, &c.
f Pyrites ... . FeS 2 Cs
4 Smaltite .... CoAsj Cs
[Cobaltite .... CoAsS Cs
I Marcasite .... FeS 2 O
) Mispickel . . . FeAsS O
Sylvanite .... AuAgTe 4 M
HI. SULPHO SALTS.
Freleslebenite . . . (Pb,Ag 2 ) 6 Sb 4 S,i . . . . M
Bournonite . . . PbCuSbS 3 O
( Pyrargyrite . . . Ag 3 SbS 3 R2
( Proustite .... Ag 3 AsS 3 R2
Tetrahedrite . . . Cu 3 SbS, 2
Stephanite . . . Ag 5 SbS 4 O2
Stannite .... Cu 2 FeSnS 4 T2
Argyrodite . . . Ag 8 GeS C
IV. HALOIDS.
1. ANHYDROUS.
Salt . .
Sylvite
Cerargyrite
Fluor-spar
Cryolite
2. OXYCHLORIDES.
Atacamite
. NaCl C
. KC1 C4
. Ag(Cl,Br,D C
. CaF 2 ....:.. C
. Na s AlF M
. Cu 2 Cl(OH) 3 O
V. OXIDES.
1. OXIDES OF SILICON.
Quartz .... SiO 2 .... . R3
(Agate, Amethyst, Avanturine, Bloodstone,
Cairngorm, Carnelian, Cat's-eye, Chalcedony,
Chrysoprase, Heliotrope, Jasper, Mocha-stone,
Onyx, Rock-crystal, Sard, Sardonyx.)
Tridymite . . . SiO 2 0(?
Opal SiO 2 +nH 2 O Amorphous
2. OXIDES OF THE SEMI-METALS.
3. OXIDES OF THE METALS.
A. Anhydrous Oxides.
a. Monoxides.
Cuprite .... Cu 2 O C4
Zincite .... ZnO R2
Melac9nite . . . CuO M
b. Sesquioxides.
("Corundum . . . A1 2 O 3 R
(Asteria, Emery, Ruby, Sapphire.)
1 Haematite . . . Fe 2 O 3 !
I^Ilmenite 1 .... FeTiO 3 R'
1 Often classed with the titanates.
c. Intermediate Oxides?
f Spinel MgAl 2 O 4 C
I Magnetite . . . FeFe 2 O 4 C
1 Franklinite . . . (Fe,Zn,Mn)(Fe,Mn) 2 O 4 . . C
[Chromite .... (Fe,Mg)(Cr,Fe),O 4 . . . C
Chrysoberyl . . . BeAl 2 O 4 O
(Alexandrite, Cymophane)
d. Dioxides.
j Cassiterite . . . SnO T
) Rutile TiOj T
Anatase .... TiO 2 T
Brookite .... TiO 2 O
Pyrolusite .... MnO 2 ?
Pitchblende 8 . . . (U,Th)Oj C
B. Hydrous Oxides.
fDiaspore .... AIO(OH) O
\ Goethite .... FeO(OH) O
[Manganite . . . MnO(OH) O
Limonite .... Fe 2 O 3 .3H 2 O . . Amorphous
Bauxite .... A1 2 O 3 .2H 2 O? . . ,,
Brucite .... Mg(OH) 2 R
Psilomelane . . . *MnO 2 +J'BaO+H 2 O Amorphous
(Wad)
VI. OXYGEN SALTS.
1. CARBONATES.
A. Anhydrous.
fCalcite . .
(Satin-spar)
Dolomite .
Ankerite .
Magnesite
Chalybite .
Rhodochrosite .
.Calamine .
rAragonite .
Alstonite . .
i. Witherite . .
Strontianite
LCerussite .
Barytocalcite
Pansite
Phosgenite
B. B a sic Carbonates.
Malachite . . . Cu 2 (OH) 2 CO, .
Azurite .... Cu 3 (OH) 2 (CO 3 ) 2
2. SILICATES.
A. Anhydrous Silicates.
a. Disilicates, R"Si 2 O 6 ; Polysilicates, R"Si 3 O 8 .
Petalite . . . '*
Orthoclase
(Moon-stone)
Microcline
(Amazon-stone)
,-Albite ....
^ Oligoclase .
(Sun-stone)
o < Andesine .
'So Labradorite
sr Bytownite
^Anorthite . . .
b. Metasilicates, R"SiO
Leucite
Pollux ....
"Enstatite
Bronzite
Hypersthene .
Diopside .
Augite ....
(Diallage)
Acmite
Spodumene
a
1
O
CaCO 3 R
CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 R4
Ca(Ivfg 1 Fe)(C0 3 ) 2 . . . R
MgCO, R
FeCO 3 R
MnCO 3 R
ZnCO 3 R
CaCO 3 O
(Ca,Ba)CO 3 O
BaCO 3 O
SrCO 3 O
PbCO 3 O
CaBa(CO 3 ) 2 M
(CeF) 2 Ca(C0 3 ) 3 . . . . H
(PbCl) 2 CO 3 T
M
M
LiAl(Si 2 O 6 ) 2 . . . . . M
KAlSi 3 O 8 M
KAlSi 3 O 8
NaAlSi 3 O 8 A
Ab 6 Ani to AbsAnj. ... A
Ab 3 An t to AbiAni
AbiAni to AbiAn 3
AbiAns to AbiAn
A
A
A
CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 A
e
o
.c o
to
KAl(SiO 3 ) 2 . . . Pseudo-C
H 2 Cs 4 Al4(SiO 3 ) 9 . . . . C
MgSiO 3 O
(Mg,Fe)SiO 3 O
(Fe.Mg)SiO, O
CaMg(SiO 3 ) 2 M
J Ca(Mg,Fe)(Si0 3 ) 2 . . M
with(Mg,Fe)(Al,Fe) 2 Si0 6 \ *
NaFe'"(SiO 3 ) 2 . . . . M
LiAl(SiO 3 ) 2 M
(Hiddenite, Kunzite)
Jadeite .
Wollastonite
Rhodonite
Tremolite .
[Actinolite]
NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 M
CaSiO 3 M
MnSiO 3
M
M
CaM K3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . . . . M
Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (SiO 3 ) 4 . . . M
(Asbestos, Nephrite)
fCa(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . .
Hornblende 4 with NaAl(SiO 3 ) 2 .
land(M ,Fe)(Al,Fe) 4 (Si0 6 ) 2
Crocidolite . . NaFe(SiO 3 ) 2 .FeSiOj
Beryl Be 3 Al 2 (SiO 3 ) H
(Aquamarine, Emerald)
c. Immediate. Hi(Mg . Fe)4AtfillO< , . . O
8 Often classed as aluminates.
3 Usually classed as a uranate.
5 i6
MINERALOGY
d.
Nepheline ..
("Sodalite . .
{ [Lazurite] ..
(Lapis-lazuli)
[Grossularite]
(Cinnamon-stone)
Pyrope
Almandine
[Andradite]
(Demantoid)
Olivine
K 2 Na6Al 8 Si,O, 4 . . . . H=
Na 4 (AlCl)Al 2 (Si0 4 ), . . C
Na 4 (NaS,.Al)Al s (SiOO . C
Ca,Al 2 (SiO 4 )a . . . . C
Mg,Al 2 (SiOO . . . . C
Fe 3 Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 C
Ca 8 Fe 2 (SiO 4 )a . . . . C
(Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 . . . . O
(Chrysolite, Peridot)
/Phenacite .... Be 2 SiO 4 R4
\Willemite .... Zn 2 SiO 4 4
Dioptase ... H 2 CuSiO 4 R4
j wCa 4 Al f ,Si 6 O 2s 1 T3
Scapohte . . . \ B Na 4 Al a Si 9 0Cl f
Vesuvianite . . . H 2 Ca5(Al,Fe) 3 Si 5 Oi8 . . . T
(" Zircon ZrSiO 4 T
4. PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, &c.
A. Anhydrous Phosphates, &c.
(Ce,La,Di)PO 4 . .
NaBePO 4 . . . .
[Ca(F,Cl)]Ca 4 (P0 4 ),
(PbCi)Pb 4 (PO<) 3 .
(PbCl)Pb 4 (AsO 4 ) 3 .
(PbCl)Pb 4 (V0 4 )a .
Li(AlF)PO 4 . . .
Monazite
Beryllonite
i Apatite . . .
(Phosphorite)
Pyromprphite
Mirr.etite .
Vanadinite
Amblygonite .
B. Basic Phosphates, &c.
j Olivenite .... Cu 2 (OH)AsO 4 . . .
1 Descloizite . . . . (Pb,Zn),(OH)VO 4 . .
Clinoclasite . . . Cu s (OH) 3 AsO 4 . . .
C. Hydrous Phosphates, &c.
f Vivianite .... Fe 3 (PO 4 ) 2 +8H 2 O . .
{ Erythrite .... Co a (AsO 4 ) 2 +8H 2 O . .
'[ Annabergite : . . Ni 3 (AsO 4 ) 2 + 8H 2 O . .
VVavellite .... A1 3 (OH) 3 (PO 4 ) 2 +4|II,O.
Turquoise .
Pharmacosiderite
M
O
H2
Ha
H2
H2
A
O
O
M
M
M
M
O
(Fe,Mn)Al(OH) 2 PO 4 +H 2 O O
Cu 3 AI 4 (OH), 5 (AsO 4 ) s +2oH 2 O M
Cu(UO 2 ) 2 (PO 4 ) 2 + i2H 2 O. . T
Ca(UO 2 ) 2 (PO 4 ) 2 +i2H 2 O. . O
Pseudo-Cz
. . M
. . M
O
} Thorite ....
ThSi0 4 T
Danburite ....
CaB 2 (SiO 4 ) 2 O
Topaz ....
[A1(F,OH)] 2 S:O 4 . . . . O
Andalusite ....
Al 2 SiO 6 O
Sillimanite .
Al 2 SiO 5 . . . . O
Cvanite
Al 2 SiO 6 .... A
f Datolite
HCaBSiOs . . . M
1 Euclase ....
Zoisite ....
HBeAlSiO 6 M
Ca 2 (AlOH)Al 2 (SiO 4 ), . . O
Epidote ....
Ca 2 (AlOH) (Al,Fe) 2 (SiO 4 ) 3 . M
Axinite ....
HCa 3 BAl 2 (SiO 4 ) 4 ... A
Prehnite ....
H 2 Ca 2 Al 2 (SiO 4 )s . . . O2
e. Subsilicates.
Humite ....
Mg 5 [Mg(F,OH)] 2 (SiO 4 ),. . O
Hemimorphite
H 2 Zn.SiO 6 O2
Tourmaline
(H 2 ,Na 2 ,Mg) 3 (Al,Fe) 6 (BOH) 4
(Rubellite)
Si s O 38 . . . . R2
Staurolite .
HFeAl 6 Si 2 13
B. Hydrous Silicates.
Apophyllite . . .
Heulandite
H 7 KCa 4 (SiO 3 ),+4^H 2 O . . T
H 4 CaAl 2 (SiO 3 ) e +3H 2 O . . M
[ Phillipsite ....
\ Harmotome
(K 2 .Ca)Al 2 (SiO 3 ) 4 +4H 2 O . M
H 2 (K 2 ,Ba)Al 2 (Si0 3 ) 5 +5H 2 M
O I Stilbite ....
(CaAl 2 (SiO 3 )c+6H 2 O . . M
; Chabazite ....
(Ca,Na 2 )Al 2 (SiO 4 ) 2 +4H 2 O,&c.R
Analcite ....
NaAl(SiOs)i+HiO . . . C
8 ( Natrolite ....
N |_ \ Scolecite ....
Na 2 Al 2 Si 3 O, +2H 2 O . . . O
CaAl 2 Si 3 Oio+3H 2 O . . . M3
x f Muscovite ....
H 2 KAl 3 (SiO 4 ) 3 . . . . M
S =J Lepidolite ....
KLi[Al(OH,F) 2 ]Al(SiO 3 ) 3 . M
S 81 Biotite
(H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2 Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 ,&c.M
O [ Phlogopite . . . .
Clintonite ....
[H,K,(MgF)] 3 Mg 3 Al(SiO 4 ) 3 M
H 2 (Fe,Mg)Al 2 SiO 7 ,&c. . . M
Chlorite ....
H s (Mg,Fe) s Al 2 Si 3 Oi S ,&c. . M
Serpentine
H 4 Mg 3 Si 2 O 9 M
Talc
H 2 Mg 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . . . . M
Meerschaum .
H 4 Mg 2 Si 3 Oio . . Amorphous
Kaolin ....
H 4 Al 2 Si 2 O 9 M
(Bole, Clay)
Pyrophyllite .
HAl(SiO 3 ) s M?
Allophane
Al 2 SiO s +5H 2 O . Amorphous
Chrysocolla
CuSiO 3 +2H 2 O .
C. Titan o-s ilicate s,
Tilanates.
Sphene ....
CaTiSiO 5 M
Perofskite
CaTiO 8 . . Pseudo-C
3. NIOBATES, TANTALATES.
Columbite
(Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta) 2 O, . . . O
Childrenite
Liroconite
( Torbernite
( Autunite .
5. BORATES.
Boracite .... MgjCkBieOno
Colemanite . . . Ca 2 B 6 On+5H 2 O .
Borax ..... Na 2 B 4 O 7 + ioH 2 O.
6. NITRATES.
Nitre ..... KNO, . . . .
7. SULPHATES AND CHROMATES.
A. Anhydrous Sulphates
( Barytes .... BaSO 4 . . .
\ Celestite .... SrSO 4 . .
[Anglesite .... PbSO 4 . . .
Anhydrite .... CaSO 4 . .
Crocoite .... PbCrO 4 . . .
B. Basic Sulphates.
Brochantite . . . Cu,(OH) 6 SO 4
C. Hydrous Sulphates.
Gypsum .... CaSO 4 +2H 2 O .
Alunite .... KA1 3 (S04) 2 (OH) 8 .
Jarosite '. . . . KFe 3 (SO 4 ) 2 (OH),
&c.
O
O
O
O
M
O
M
R
R
Carbonates, &c.
H
O
[A!(OH) 2 ,Cu(OH),H] 3 PO 4 Amorph.
. Fea(OH)As0 4 +5H 2 . . 2
D. Sulphates with Chlorides,
Connellite .... Cui 5 (Cl,OH) 4 S<
Leadhillite . . . Pb 4 SO 4 (CO 3 ) 2 (OH) 2
8. TUNGSTATES, MOLYBDATES.
Wolframite . . ' . (Fe,Mn)WO 4 M
Scheelite .... CaWO 4 TS
Wulfenite .... PbMoO 4 T4
YD. HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS. 1
1. SIMPLE HYDROCARBONS.
Hatchettine, Ozocerite.
2. OXYGENATED HYDROCARBONS.
Amber, Retinite, Copaline, Bathvillite, Dopplerite.
3. APPENDIX TO HYDROCARBONS.
Petroleum, Asphaltum, Bitumen, Elaterite, Albertite,
Coal, Anthracite, Jet, Lignite.
REFERENCES. Elementary introductions to the study of minerals
are: E. S. Dana, Minerals and how to study them (New York, 1895) ;
A. J. Moses and C. L. Parsons, Elements of Mineralogy, Crystal-
lography and Blowpipe Analysis from a Practical Standpoint (4th ed.,
New York, 190;); L. Fletcher, An Introduction to the Study of
Minerals (British Museum Guide-book). A larger work on popular
lines is: R. Brauns, The Mineral Kingdom, Eng. trans, by L. J.
Spencer (Stuttgart, 1908, &c.). Textbooks for students are:
H. A. Miers, Mineralogy, an Introduction to the Scientific Study
of Minerals (London, 1902) ; E. S. Dana, Textbook of Mineralogy
(3rd ed., New York, 1898): and in German: C. F. Naumann,
Elemente der Mineralogie (isth ed., by F. Zirkel, Leipzig, 1907);
G. Tschermak, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (6th ed., Vienna, 1905).
The standard works of reference for descriptive mineralogy are:
J. D. Dana, System of Mineralogy (6th ed., by E. S. Dana, New
York, 1892); C. Hintze, Handbuch der Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1898,
&c.), the latter gives full details respecting the localities of minerals;
P. Groth, Chemische Krystallpgraphie (Leipzig, 1906, &c.).
For special branches of mineralogy reference may be made to the
following works: R. Brauns, Chemische Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1896);
H. Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und
Gesteine, Band I, Die petrographisch-mchtigen Mineralien, 4th ed.,
by H. Rosenbusch and E. A. Wiilnng (Stuttgart, 1904-1905);
J. P. Iddings, Rock Minerals (New York, 1906); P. Groth, Tabel-
larische Ubersicht der Mineralien (4th ed., Braunschweig, 1898);
G. P. Merrill, The Non-metallic Minerals, their Occurrence and Use.
(New York, 1904) ; G. J. Brush, Manual of Determinative Mineralog:
(i6th ed., by S. L. Penficld, New York, 1903); M. Bauer, Edelslein
kunde (2nd ed., Leipzig, -1909), and Eng. trans. Precious Stones, L
L. J. Spencer (London, 1904).
The more important topographical works are: R. P. Greg an
W. G. Lettsom, Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain an
Ireland (London, 1858); J. H. Collins, Handbook to the Mineralog
of Cornwall and Devon (Truro, 1871); M. F. Heddle, Mineralogy
Scotland (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1901); A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de
France et de ses colonies (3 vols., Paris, 1893, &c.); O. Luedeck
Die Minerale dss Harzes (Berlin, 1896); A. Frenzel, Mineralogische
Lexicon fur das Konigreich Sachsen (Leipzig, 1874); A. Kenngott
Die Minerale der Schweiz (Leipzig, 1866); V. von Zepharovich,
Mineralogisches Lexicon fur das Kaiserthum Osterreich (3 vols.,
Vienna, 1859-1893); N. von Koksharov, Materalien zur Mineralogy
Russlands (11 vols., St Petersburg, 1853-1882); T. Wada, Minera
of Japan (Tokyo, 1904) ; A. Liversidge, The Minerals of New Sou,
Wales, &c. (London, 1888); O. B. Boggild, Mineralogia Groenlandict
(Copenhagen, 1905);^ Catalogue of American [U.S.A. and Canad'
Localities of Minerals is given in Dana's System of Mineralogy.
The following scientific journals are devoted to mineralogy:
Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, &c. (Stuttgart, since 1807);
Tschermaks Mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilung
(Vienna, since 1872); The Mineralogical Magazine and Journa
the Mineralogical Society (London, since 1876); Zeitschrift
MINERAL WATERS
Krystallographie und Mineralogie, ed. by P: Groth (Leipzig, since
1877) ; Bulletin de la societe franfaise de
1878);
1887).
Rivista di mineralogia e
mineralogie (Paris, since
cristatlografia (Padova, since
(L. J. S.)
MINERAL WATERS. No absolute line of demarcation can
be drawn between ordinary and mineral waters. There is
usually in the latter an excess of mineral constituents or of
temperature, but some drinking waters contain more mineral
constituents than others that are called mineral waters, and
many very pure waters, both cold and warm, have been
regarded for ages as mineral springs.
As to the origin of mineral waters, there is much in what the
elder Pliny said, that waters are such as the soil through which
they flow. Thus in limestone and chalk districts an excess of
lime is usually present; and the waters of a particular district
have much resemblance to each other as in the Eifel, in
Auvergne, and in the Pyrenees. But this is only a partial
explanation, for waters are by no means necessarily uniform
throughout a particular geological formation. We do not know
with any certainty the depth from which various mineral waters
proceed, nor the various distances from the surface at which
they take up their different mineral constituents.
The source of the temperature of thermal waters remains a
subject of much uncertainty. Among the assigned causes are
the internal heat of the globe, or the development of heat by
chemical or electrical agencies in the strata through which they
arise.
Their occasional intermittence is doubtless often dependent on
the periodical generation of steam, as in the case of the Geysers.
A few geological facts are certain, which bear on the origin of
mineral waters. Such springs are most abundant in volcanic
districts, where many salts of soda and much carbonic acid are
present. They occur most frequently at meetings of stratified
with unst ratified rocks, in saddles, and at points where there has
been dislocation of strata.
The diffusion of mineral waters is very extended. Pliny was
quite correct in observing that they are to be found on alpine
heights and arising from the bottom of the ocean. They are
found at the snow in the Himalayas and they rise from the sea
at Baiae and Ischia. They are to be found in all quarters of the
globe, but more particularly in volcanic regions, as in the Eifel
and Auvergne, in the Bay of Naples, and parts of Greece, in
Iceland, New Zealand and Japan. But there are few countries
in which they are not to be found, except in very flat ones, and
in deltas of rivers for instance, in the north of France, where
they are very few, and in Holland, from which they are absent.
France, Germany, Italy and Spain, as well as Greece, Asia Minor,
and the Caucasus, are all rich in mineral waters. The British
Isles have a fair though not very large proportion of them.
There are a few in Sweden and Norway. They are abundant
in the United States, less so in Canada. They are found in the
Azores and in the West India Islands. Of their occurrence in
the interior of Africa or of Australia we know little; and the
same is true of South America. But they are met with in
Algiers, in Egypt, and in the Holy Land. The vast Indian
:ninsula has for its size a comparatively small supply.
Mineral waters, when analysed, are found to contain a great
my substances, although some of them occur only in very
linute quantities: soda, magnesia, calcium, potash, alumina,
in, boron, iodine, bromine, arsenic, lithium, caesium, rubidium,
luorine, barium, copper, zinc, manganese, strontium, silica,
tosphorus, besides extractive matters, and various organic
:posits known under the name of glairin or baregin. Of gases,
icre have been found carbonic acid, hydrosulphuric acid,
litrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and ammonia. Of all these by far
most important in a therapeutic point of view are sodium,
lagnesia and iron, carbonic acid, sulphur, and perhaps hydro-
ilphuric acid. These substances, detected separately by
chemists, are in their analyses combined by them into various
salts, if not with absolute certainty, undoubtedly with a close
approximation to it. Those combinations are very numerous,
and some waters contain ten to twenty of them; but there are
always some predominating ones which mark their character,
while many of them, such as caesium, rubidium, or fluorine,
occur in mere traces, and cannot be assumed to be of any real
importance. Mineral waters therefore resolve themselves into
weaker or stronger solutions of salts and gases in water of higher
or lower temperature. For medical purposes they are used
either externally or internally. As the quantity of salts present
commonly bears but a very small proportion to that of the fluid
containing them, water becomes a very influential agent in
mineral-water treatment, about which it is therefore necessary
to say something.
For the action of mineral-water baths see BALNEOTHERA-
PEUTICS. According to the most generally received opinion, the
cutaneous surface does not absorb any portion of the salts in a
mineral-water bath, although it may absorb a little gas (and
alkaline water, for instance, at most acting as a slight detergent
on the skin), and that neither salts nor gases have any action on
the system, except as stimulants of the skin, with partial action
on the respiratory organs.
It seems to be ascertained that drinking considerable amounts
of cold water reduces the temperature of the body, diminishes
the frequency of the pulse, and increases the blood pressure
temporarily. Water when introduced into the stomach, especi-
ally if it be empty, is quickly absorbed; but, although much of
the water passes into the veins, there is no proof that it ever
produces in them, as is sometimes supposed, a state of fluidity or
wateriness. Therapeutically, the imbibition of large quantities
of water leads to a sort of general washing out of the organs.
This produces a temporary increase of certain excretions, aug-
mented diuresis, and a quantitative increase of urea, of chloride
of sodium, and of phosphoric and sulphuric acids in the urine.
Both the sensible and the insensible perspirations are augmented.
A draught of cold water undoubtedly stimulates the peristaltic,
action of the intestines. On the whole water slightly warm is
best borne by the stomach, and is more easily absorbed by it
than cold water; and warm waters are more useful than cold
ones when there is much gastric irritability. In addition to
the therapeutic action of mineral waters, there are certain
very important subsidiary considerations which must not be
overlooked. An individual who goes from home to drink them
finds himself in a different climate, with possibly a considerable
change in altitude. His diet is necessarily altered, and his usual
home drinks are given up. There is change in the hours of going
to bed and of rising. He is relieved from the routine of usual
duties, and thrown into new and probably cheerful society. He
takes more exercise than when at home, and is more in the open
air, and this probably at the best season of the year. So im-
portant has this matter of season and climate been found that it
is an established axiom that waters can be used to the greatest
advantage during the summer months and in fine weather, and
during the periods most convenient for relaxation from business.
Summer is therefore the bath season, but of late years provision
has been made in many places, with the aid of specially con-
structed rooms and passages, for carrying out cures satisfactorily
during the winter season, e.g. at Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden,
Baden Baden, Baden in Switzerland, Dax, Vichy and Bath. The
ordinary bath season extends from the i $th of May to the 2oth
or 30th of September. The season for baths situated at con-
siderable elevations commences a month later and terminates
sortie ten days earlier. Mineral waters may be employed at
home, but patients seldom so use them; and this necessarily
limits the time of their use. It is common to declare that the
treatment should last for such or such a period. But the length
of time for which any remedy is to be used must depend on its
effect, and on the nature of the particular case. It is found,
however, that the continued use of mineral waters leads to
certain disturbances of the system, which have been called crises,
such as sleeplessness, colics and diarrhoea, and to skin eruptions
known as la poussee. This cause, and also certain peculiarities of
the female constitution, have led to the period of three weeks to
a month being considered the usual period for treatment. A
certain after-treatment is often prescribed such as persistence
5 i8
MINERAL WATERS
in a particular diet, visiting springs or climates of a different and
usually of a tonic character, or continuing for a certain time to
drink the waters at home. It may be added that the advantage
of having recourse to mineral waters is often felt more after than
during treatment.
Since improved methods of bottling have been discovered,
and the advantage of an additional supply of carbonic acid has
been appreciated, the export of waters from their sources has
increased enormously, and most of the principal waters can now
be advantageously used at home. It may be added that many
of the artificial imitations of them are excellent.
The history of the use of mineral waters can only just be
a good deal of nitrogen in some of them; the quantity of hydro-
sulphuric acid, even in strong sulphuric waters, is wonderfully
small; but the volume of carbonic acid present is often very
large for instance, in the case of Kissingen, Schwalbach and
Sellers. The immediate effect of the carbonic acid which they
contain is that of pleasant stimulation to the stomach and system.
Extremely little appears to be known of its actual operation on
the system: a part of what is swallowed is returned by eructation,
and a part passes on to the intestines; whether any appreciable
quantity reaches the blood is doubtful. There is no question
that carbonic acid increases diuresis. Practically it is found
to aid digestion, helping the functions of the stomach, and in
TABLE I. Typical Mineral Waters.
Indifferent.
Gastein.
9S-n8.
Earthy.
Leuk.
I23'8.
Salt.
Kissingen.
Sail.
Sea-Water.
Sulphur.
Aix-I.v
Chapelle.
H3-140.
Iron.
Schwalbach.
Alkaline.
Vichy.
1058.
Alkaline.
Saline.
Carlsbad.
Ii9-i38 .
Table
Water.
Seltzers.
Purging
Water.
Hunyadi
Janos.
Solids.
Bicarbonate of soda .
.
0-6449
0-0206
4-883
1-92
1-2
potash .
.
0-352
magnesia
O-OOI7
0-013
O-OI/
o-45
0-0506
O-2I22
0-303
0-18
calcium .
0-0195
O-OI2
I -06
2-38
0-157
0-2213
0-434
0-428
.
Sulphate of soda .
O-O2O8
0-050
0-2831
O-OO79
0-292
2-37
15-9
potash .
0-0135
0-038
0-I527
0-0037
0-16
magnesia
0-308
0-588
2-96
0-46
16-0
calcium .
1-520
0-389
0-25
.
Sulphide of sodium .
0-0136
.
Chloride of sodium .
0-0428
5-52
25-21
2-616
0-534
1-03
2-2
J-3
,, potash
0-286
magnesia
0-303
3'39
Carbonate of iron
O-OOO5
0-023
0-277
0-0837
0-003
O-OI
Silicic acid ....
0-0496
0-036
O'O32O
.
Gases.
Carbonic acid
3'19
5 - 35
2-6
0-76
2-24
0-45
Hydrosulphuric acid
trace
alluded to. They have been employed from the earliest periods,
and traces of Roman work have been found at most of the
European baths which are now in favour at almost all the
thermal ones. Occasionally new springs are discovered in old
countries, but the great majority of them have been long known.
Warm waters, and those containing small quantities of mineral
constituents, appear to have remained more steadily in favour
than any other class within the appropriate sphere of mineral
waters, which is limited to the treatment of chronic disease.
The attempt has been made to range mineral waters according
to their therapeutic action, according to their internal or external
use, but most generally according to their chemical constituents
so far as they have been from time to time understood; and a
judicious classification undoubtedly is a help towards their
rational employment. But their constituents are so varied, and
the gradations between different waters are so finely shaded off,
that it has been found impossible to propose any one definite
scientific classification that is not open to numberless objections.
Thus a great many of the sulphur waters are practically earthy
or saline ones. Yet because they contain very minute amounts
of such a gas as hydrosulphuric acid, an ingredient so palpable
as always to attract attention, it is considered necessary to class
them under the head of sulphur. The general rule is to attempt
to class a water under the head of its predominant element; but
if the amount of that be extremely small, this leads to such
waters as those of Mont Dore being classified as alkaline or
arseniated, because they contain a very little soda and arsenic.
The classification in the following table, which is that usually
adopted in Germany, has the merit of comparative simplicity,
and of freedom from theoretical considerations which in this
matter influence the French much more than the German writers.
The more important constituents only are given. The amount
of solid constituents is the number of parts to one thousand parts
of the water; the temperature of thermal springs is added. The
waters are classified as indifferent, earthy, salt, sulphuretted,
iron, alkaline, alkaline-saline with subvarieties of table waters
and purging waters.
In addition to their solid constituents, gas is present in many
waters in considerable quantity. There is a little oxygen and
a slight degree the peristaltic action of the intestines. The
increased flow of urine may be caused by its favouring the
absorption of water by the stomach. In some baths carbonic
acid is so abundant that precautions have to be taken to prevent
TABLE II. 1 Indifferent Waters.
Locality.
Height
in Ft.
Temp.
Fahr.
For what prescribed.
Evian, Lake of Geneva
IIOO
S Nervous cases, dyspep-
sia, urinary affections.
( For mild rheumatic
Badenweiler, Baden .
1425
J treatment; a health
( resort.
Buxton, England .
980
82
J Gout and rheumatism
) (nitrogen present).
Schlangenbad, Nassau
800
80-87
j Nervous cases, female
( disorders, skin.
Sacedon, Spain
1500
85
], Rheumatism, gout, cu-
i taneous affections.
Wildbad, Wurttem- )
berg ... 5
PfefFers, Switzerland
1320
2115
90-101
99
] Gout and rheumatism,
I neuralgia, thickenings.
Do. do. do.
Ragatz, do.
1570
95
Do. do. do.
( Do. (nitrogen present) ;
Panticosa, S. Pyrenees
5HO
85-95
j special action in
( phthisis.
Tcplitz, Bohemia.
648
IOI-I2O
\ Gout, rheumatism, old
/ injuries, joints or bones.
Gastein, Austria .
3315
95-118
!Do. do. ; soothes nervous
system.
its tendency to accumulate on account of its heavy specific
gravity. Carbonic acid gas, used as a bath, proves stimulating
to the skin and to the general system; but its employment has
not answered the expectations formed of it.
Indifferent Waters scarcely vary in chemical qualities from
ordinary drinking water; but they are usually of higher temperature.
Their therapeutic action, which is mainly exercised through baths,
1 In this and the following tables a selection is given of some of
the best-known mineral waters in various European countries that
possess establishments. Their chief peculiarities of elevation, of
temperature and constituents are briefly noted. The curative
effects, necessarily alluded to very generally, are those usually
attributed to them.
MINERAL WATERS
has been explained on the theory of peculiarities of their electric or
thermal condition, about which we know nothing definite, and on
the presence in some of them of a large quantity of nitrogen. It
has also been ascribed to the various organic substances in some of
them, such as glairin, which when collected is sometimes useful
as a cataplasm. These waters are not often much drunk, but any
efficiency they may have in dyspepsia and perhaps in neuralgic
diarrhoeas must be attributed to the favourable action of hot water
on the digestion. The waters of this class, especially the hotter
ones in the form of baths, are extremely useful in resolving the
effects of inflammation, in thickenings of the joints and in chronic
rheumatism and gout. They also are often effective, especially the
cooler ones, in neuralgia and in some hysterical affections. They
are sometimes prescribed in urinary affections, in which case they
probably assist by dilution. The effects of many of these waters
are aided by the baths often being situated at considerable elevations
and in out-of-the-way spots, whence the Germans called them
Wildbdder. They are very widely diffused, being found in all
quarters of the globe, especially in volcanic districts. There are
many in New Zealand; in America the hottest are in the west and
in California.
Earthy Waters. These differ chiefly from the indifferent waters
in containing an appreciable quantity of salts, among which sul-
phate or carbonate of lime or of magnesia predominates. The great
majority of them are of high temperature. They produce the same
effects as the indifferent waters, but are perhaps less efficacious
in neuralgic affections, while they are more employed in some of
the chronic scaly eruptions. There was formerly a tendency to
consider these waters useful in urinary affections; but at the
present day it is only the colder ones that have come into repute
lot the expulsion of gravel and biliary, calculi and in the treat-
ment of affections of the bladder generally. Some of them have
also of late years been considered to exercise a favourable influence
on scrofula, and to be useful in the early stages of pulmonary
phthisis. This has been attributed to the salts of lime present in
them, although it is known that most of its salts pass through the
ncreases the amount both of fluid and of solid constituents, especi-
ally of the urea. It seems, therefore, to be pretty certain that
considerable quantities of salt taken into the circulation increase
:he excretion of nitrogenous products through the urine, and on
:he whole accelerate the transformation of tissue. Salt is thus
useful in scrofula by stimulating the system, and also in anaemia,
especially when iron is also present. In some German stations, as
at Soden, carbonated salt waters are considered to be useful in
chronic laryngitis or granular pharyngitis.
Baths of salt water, as usually given, rarely contain more than
3 % of chloride of sodium, some of the strongest perhaps from
j to 10%. Their primary action is as a stimulant to the skin, in
which action it is probable that the other chlorides, especially that
5f calcium, and still more the carbonic acid often present, co-operate,
[n this way, and when aided by various processes of what may be
:ermed water poultices and packing, they are often useful in remov-
ing exudations, in chronic metiitis and in some tumours of the
uterus, and generally in scrofula and rachitis, and occasionally in
some chronic skin affections.
The French accord high praise to some of their thermal salt
waters in paralysis, and some German ones are used in a similar
way in spinal affections. The salt waters are sometimes so strong
that they must be diluted for bathing. In other cases concen-
trated solutions of salt are added to make them sufficiently strong.
These waters are widely diffused, but on the whole Germany is
richest in them, especially in such as are highly charged with salt.
The Kissingen springs may be considered as typical of the drinking
wells, and sea-water of bathing waters. The air of salt-works and
pulverization of the water are employed in German baths as remedial
agents.
Salt springs are found in many quarters of the world, but the
chief carbonated groups for drinking purposes occur in Germany,
and at Saratoga in America, where very remarkable wells indeed
are to be found. France and England have no springs of this
class. The stronger wells, used chiefly for bathing, occur where
TABLE IV. Salt Springs.
snjoy the advantages of great elevation, but Bath, otherwise one
Tcrno
of the best of them, lies low.
Locality.
Fahr.
Therapeutic Action.
T* A RT TT T TT P*/Jf/lf It 1/f/nf.PW
l A UL t-> 11 1 . fijUrTiny vv cttcrj.
'Soden, near)
Frankfort . . )
(Dyspepsia, anaemia, scrofula,
j special for throat and
( phthisis.
Locality.
Height
in Ft.
Temp.
Fahr.
Therapeutic Action.
Contrexdville, Vosges
1050
j Specialactionincal-
( culous affections.
g
Homburg, do.
Kissingen, Bavaria
N Dyspepsia, slighter hepatic
( affections, chlorosis, gout.
In all essentials the same.
Lippspringe, N. )
( Supposed to be use-
o-
Pyrmont, North )
5 Better known for its iron ; has
Germany . . . 5
1 ful in phthisis.
Germany . . )
( a good salt drinking spring.
^Special use in urin-
{A salt well without carbonic
6
Wildungen, do.
j ary complaints;
Kreuznach, near 1
acid; used in scrofula and
"
( contains iron.
Bingen . . . )
anaemia ; bathing more
w
Weisscnberg, Swit- (
26OO
( Resorted to for pul-
important.
zerland . . . 5
( monary affections.
(Used in dyspepsia and gout;
( Dyspepsia, diabetes,
Wiesbaden, Nassau
155
j the bathing is most import-
Pougues, France .
600
] hepatic and urin-
( ant.
.
( ary concretions.
Baden-Baden . .
T C A
5 Still milder water; uses simi-
_
(Rheumatism, gout,
ID"
( lar; gout.
Baden, Switzerland .
1180
117-122
j paralysis, scaly
Bourbonne,?
i Rheumatism, neuralgia, effects
( eruptions.
Haute-Marne . 5
114-149
< of malaria.
Leuk, do.
4400
93-123
\Do., some female
( complaints.
Balaruc, South j
France . . . \
116-6
j Do. ; special for treatment ol
1 paralysis.
v.
Bormio, North Italy
4400
86-104
Do. do. ; old sprains.
Salins, Moutiers, j
r\f*
j Scrofula, anaemia, loss oi
0)
^
Lucca, Italy .
108-122
Do. do. do.
e
Savoy (1480 ft.) 5
96
? power, sexual disorders.
^
Bath, England .
108-122
Do. do. do.
rt
^ ^
Brides, Savoy j
(Act on liver and digestive
Dax, south of France
1400
139
Do. do.
>
(1700 ft.) . . |
95
( canal ; used for obesity.
B. de Bigorres, Pyr- >
enees .... 5
1800
64-123
( Do. ; chlorosis, neu-
( ralgia.
Acqui, North Italy
169
\ Rheumatism ; special treat-
l ment with the bath deposit.
Salt Waters are so called from containing a predominant amount
of chloride of sodium. They also generally contain chlorides of
magnesia and of lime, and occasionally small amounts of lithium,
bromine and iodine. They further often contain a little iron,
Abano, do
Caldas de Mom-)
buy, near Bar-
celona . . . )
185
I53-J 58
( Chiefly as baths; mud of bath
| used for poultice.
(Rheumatism, sciatica, old in-
J juries.
which is an important addition. The great majority of the drinking
wells have a large supply of carbonic acid. There are cold and hot
salt springs. Sometimes they are used for drinking, sometimes for
Cestona, Guipuz- )
coa, Spain . . \
^88-94
( Rheumatism, indigestion, bron-
J chitis.
bathing; and the double use of them is often resorted to.
Almost all the above stations have several springs of various
The normal quantity of common salt consumed daily by man is
usually set down at about 300 grains. The maximum quantity
strengths: the cold may be said to vary from 14 to 5-8% of chloride
of sodium ; the warm are generally weaker, perhaps varying from
likely to be taken at any well may be 225 grains, but commonly not
6-8 to 1-6.
more than half of that amount is taken. The increase to the usual
daily amount is therefore probably not much more than one-third.
Still it may be presumed that the action of a solution of salt on an
empty stomach is different from that of the same amount of salt
taken with food. Salt introduced into the stomach excites the
secretion of gastric juice and favours the peristaltic actions, and
when taken in considerable quantity is distinctly aperient. We
thus see how it is useful in dyspepsia, in atony of the stomach and
intestines, and sometimes in chronic intestinal catarrh, bait when
absorbed by the stomach appears again in the urine, of which it
there are salt-bearing strata, as in Germany, Galicia, Italy, Switzer-
land, France and England. Very powerful waters of this class are
those of St Catherines in Canada.
The presence of minute portions of iodine or bromine in salt
waters is by no means infrequent, and they appear in considerable
quantity in some few. It is, however, extremely doubtful whethei
any known spring contains a sufficient quantity of iodine, still more
of bromine, to act specially on the system, even if that action were
not necessarily superseded by the presence of the large quantity o
520
MINERAL WATERS
other salts with which they are associated. Some of the best-
known springs of the kind are: Challes, Wildegg, Castrocaro, Hall,
Adelheid's Quelle, Krankenheil, Kreuznach, Wpodhall Spa.
Iron or Chalybeate Waters. Iron usually exists in waters in the
state of protoxide or its carbonate, less frequently as sulphate or
crenate, and very rarely, if at all, as chloride. The quantity present
is usually extremely small. It may be said to vary from 0-12 to 0-03
in the 1000 parts of water. Some wells considered distinct chaly-
beates contain less than 0-03. Many wells, especially in Germany,
have a rich supply of carbonic acid, which is unfortunately wanting
in French and English ones.
It has long been the prevalent idea that want of iron in the blood
is the main cause of chlorosis and of other anaemic conditions, and
that these conditions are best relieved by a supply of that metal.
Since the detection of it in haemoglobuline this view has been still
more popular. It is pretty certain that the blood contains 37 to
47 grains and the whole system 70 to 74 grains of iron ; and it has
been calculated that in normal conditions of the system somewhat
more than one grain of iron is taken daily in articles of food, and
that the same amount is passed in the faeces; for although the
stomach takes the iron up it is excreted by the alimentary canal
mainly, it being doubtful whether any is excreted in the urine. It
TABLE V. Stronger Salt Waters.
Locality.
2-sSs
11 fS
r^ O O '"O
Therapeutic Application.
Scrofula, effects of infiam-
Rheinfeld.Aargau, Switzor- (
land )
3"
| mation, chronic exuda-
1 tions, some chronic ex-
| anthemas, rheumatism,
uterine infiltrations.
Salzungen, North Germany
256
Do. do.
Ischl, Austria (1440 ft.) .
256
Do. do.
Hall, Tyrol (1700 ft.) . .
2 55
Do. do.
Reichenhall, near Salzburg )
(1800 ft.) . . . . \
224
Do. do.
Bex, Rhone Valley (1400 ft.)
156
Do. do.
Castrocaro, Tuscany .
36
Do. do.
Droitwich, near Worcester .
233-6
Do. do.
Sea Water
30-4
Rehmc, Westphalia (92 F.).
24-85
( Do. ; special use in loco-
( motor ataxia.
Nauheim, Wettcrau (8o- )
103 F.) \
29
Do. .do.
TABLE VI. Iron Waters.
Locality.
Height
in Ft.
Carb.
of Iron.
Therapeutic Use.
Rippoldsau, Black Forest .
1886
0-12
( For anaemic condi-
( tions; laxative.
Homburg, near Frankfort .
O-IO
Do. do.
Elstcr, Saxony . . . .
465
0-08
Do. do.
Liebenstein, North Gcr- /
many \
911
0-08
Schwalbach, Nassau
900
0-08
!Do. ; much of a
ladies' bath.
Bocklet, near Kissingen
600
0-08
Do.
Griesbach, Black Forest .
1614
0-07
( Do. ; laxative ; a
) ladies' bath.
Franzensbad, Bohemia
1293
0-07
Do. do.
Pyrraont, Germany
0-07
Do.
Spa, Belgium ....
IOOO
0-06
Do.
Petersthal, Black Forest
1333
0-04
Do.; laxative.
St Moritz, Engadine, >
Switzerland . ]
5464
0-03
J Do. ; sought for its
) air.
Forges-les-Eaux, France .
O'O6
Do.
La Malou.He'rault, France /
(temp. 88) . . . \
0-08
Do.
Rscoaro, North Italy .
1943
0-04
Do.
Tunbridge Wells, England
0-06
\ Do.; deficient in
( carbonic acid.
Muspratt Spring, Harro- )
gate (chloride) . . )
600
0-15
is possible by drinking several glasses to take in more than a grain
of carbonate of iron in the day, equivalent to half that amount of
metallic iron. It has further been ingeniously reckoned from
practice that 10 to 15 grains of metallic iron suffice to supply the
deficiency in the system in a case of chlorosis. It is thought probable
that a portion of the iron taken up in water is in certain patho-
logical states not excreted, but retained in the system, and goes
towards making up the want of that metal. But. whether this or
any other explanation be satisfactory, there is no question as to the
excellent effects often produced by drinking chalybeate waters
(especially when they are carbonated), and by bathing in those
which are rich in carbonic acid after they have been artificially
heated. As regards the drinking cure we must not, however,
forget that carbonate and chloride of sodium, and also the sulphate,
are often present and must be ascribed a share in the cure. Thus
chloride of sodium is a powerful adjuvant in tiie strong Stanl
Quelle of Homburg and in thd Putnam Well at Saratoga. A whole
category of female complaints is treated successfully with these
waters. Indeed, anaemia from any source, as after fever or through
loss of blood, and enlargements of the spleen, are benefited by them.
The stimulating action of the copious supply of carbonic acid in
steel baths is a very important adjuvant; no one now believes in
direct absorption of iron from the bath. Iron waters are scarcely
ever thermal. They are extremely common in all countries
frequently along with sulphuretted hydrogen in bogs and near
coal-measures. But such springs and non-carbonated wells gener-
ally are weak, and not now held in much esteem.
It may be added that some of the strongest known iron wells are
sulphated or aluminated. They are styptic and astringent, and can
only be used diluted. They are sometimes useful as an application
to ulcers and sores. Such springs have often been brought into
notice, but never retain their popularity. They are known in the
Isle of Wight, in Wales, in Scotland, as well as in Elba, &c. ; and of
late years the Bedford Alum and Oak Orchard Springs, U.S.,
have been brought into notice, the latter containing 10 grains of
free sulphuric acid in the pint. All such springs have been con-
sidered useful in scrofula, anaemia and chronic diarrhoeas.
Sulphur Springs. Waters having the odour of hydrosulphuric
acid, however slightly, are usually called sulphur ones. They owe
their smell sometimes to the presence of the free acid, sometimes
to sulphides of sodium, calcium or magnesia, and sometimes to
both. Sulphuretted hydrogen is absorbed more freely by cold than
by hot water, and is therefore most abundant in cold springs. The
sulphides decompose and give off the gas. Most of these springs
occur near coal or shale measures, or strata containing fossils, or in
moors and in places generally where organic matter is present in
the soil or strata. Many of them contain so little mineral impreg-
nation that they might as well be classed among the indifferent
or earthy waters. One group contains a considerable amount of
chloride of sodium, another of sulphate of lime, while a third has
little mineral impregnation, but contains sulphides.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is a strong poison, and its action on the
system has been pretty well ascertained. It lias been assunied
that the gas in mineral waters acts similarly, though in a modified
degree; but there is next to nothing absolutely known of the action
of the small quantities of the gas that are present in mineral waters,
and which certainly have no toxic effect. It has been assumed
that this gas has some special action on the portal system and so
on the liver. On the connexion of metallic poisoning with the
liver has been founded the idea that sulphur waters are useful in
metallic intoxication. Drinking large quantities of these waters,
especially of such as contain sulphates or chlorides of sodium or
magnesia, combined with hot baths and exercise, may help to
break up albuminates, but there is no proof of the action of the
sulphur.
For similar reasons, and primarily to counteract mercurial poison,
sulphur waters have been considered useful in syphilis. But it
may be well to remember that at most baths mercury is used along
with them. No doubt they are frequently, like other warm waters,
useful in bringing out old eruptions, acting in this way as a test
for syphilitic poison, and in indicating the treatment that may be
TABLE VII. Cold Sulphur Springs.
Locality.
Sulphuretted
Hydrogen
dissolved in
Sulphide
of
Water.
Sodium.
Eilscn, Schaumburg-Lippe ....
42-3
Meinberg, Lippe-Detmold ....
Gurnigel, Switzerland (3600 ft.)
23-1
IS"'
0-008
Leuk, do. (3593 ft.) . .
44-5
Challes, Savoy (900 ft.)
0-478
Enghien, near Paris
0-106
Uriage, Isere, France (1500 ft.) .
7'34
Harrogate, England
0-207
Strathpeffer, Scotland
0-026
Lisdoonvarna, Clare, Ireland
required. Sulphur waters, both hot and cold, are used in gout and
rheumatism, in dyspepsia, in hepatic and cutaneous affections;
and of late years inhalation of them has been popular in phthisis
and in laryngcal affections. They have long been popular remedies
in cutaneous affections. While so much doubt has been cast on
the action of the sulphur of these Waters, it may be admitted that
the sulphides are probably decomposed in the stomach and sulphur-
etted hydrogen generated. That gas is probably a slight stimulant
MINERAL WATERS
to the intestine. What sulphuretted hydrogen reaches the blood i:
eliminated by the lungs. There seems to be no doubt that the ga:
is absorbed in small quantities by the skin.
It is in sulphur waters chiefly that glairin and baregin occur
This peculiar organic substance has been found both in American
and in European springs. Cold sulphur springs are very widely
diffused throughout the world. Thermal ones are not so common
Perhaps the largest though not the strongest group of the latter is
to be found in the Pyrenees. We may remark again how very little
TABLE VIII. Warm Sulphur Springs.
Locality.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Germany
Baden, near Vienna .
Schinznach, Switzerland .
Lavey, Rhone Valley .
Hercules Bad, Banat .
Aix-les-Bains, Savoy .
Luchon, Pyrenees .
Bar6ges, do.
Amclie-les-Bains,Pyrenees
Cauterets, do.
Eaux Bonnes, do.
Archena, Murcia, Spain .
Height
in Ft.
534
1060
1350
500
765
2OOO
4100
810
3254
2400
Temp.
' Fahr.
Hydrosul-
phuric Acid
absorbed in
Water.
131-140
95-"5
80-92
92-113
no
108-5
3
87-147
7i-i34
90-5
126
2-5
37-8
3-5
42-6
27-2
Sulphide
of
Sodium.
o-oi
0-052
0-07
0-04
o-oi
O-O2
0-02
hydrosulphuric acid there is in many of the most favourite sulphur
springs, including the very popular White Sulphur ones of
Virginia. There seems to be something peculiarly unsatisfactory
in the analysis of sulphur waters, and there has been difficulty in
constructing the following imperfect tables.
Some of the most powerful cold wells are those of Challes (with
its very peculiar water), Leuk and Harrogate. Uriage has a very
large amount of chloride of sodium in its springs. Cold sulphur
waters are on the whole more used in liver and indigestion than
warm ones. The general effects of warm sulphur waters differ so
little at the various baths as to make it difficult to mention anything
special to particular localities. Schinznach has a reputation in
skin complaints, Cauterets, Eaux Bonnes and Challes in laryngeal
affections, the two Aix. Luchon and Archena in syphilis.
Alkaline Waters are such as contain carbonate (chiefly bicarbon-
ate) of soda, along with an excess of carbonic acid. Of the action
of those carbonates it is known that when taken into the stomach
they are neutralized by the gastric juice, and converted into chloride
of sodium. On their introduction into the stomach they produce
an increased flow of gastric juice. If given during or immediately
after meals in any quantity, they impede digestion. They slightly
increase peristaltic action, but only feebly, unless assisted by other
salts. They act slightly as diuretics. Of the connexion between
the biliary system and alkalies, which undoubtedly exists, not much
is known with certainty. The alkalization of the blood by them is
assumed by many, but not proved. It is very doubtful whether
they reduce the quantity of fibrine in the blood, and thus induce a
lowered state of the system, or whether they have any direct ten-
dency to combine with fat and carry off a portion of superfluous
adipose tissue. Their excess of carbonic acid, through its action on
the stomach, favours the operation of alkaline waters. They have
been classed as follows: (l) simple alkalines, where carbonate of
soda is the main agent; (2) waters containing in addition some
chloride of sodium; (3) waters containing sulphates of soda or
of magnesia. All these classes may be said to be used in gout,
lithiasis, affections of the liver, catarrh and obstructions of the gall
ducts, in dyspepsia, chronic catarrh of the stomach and diarrhoea,
in obesity and in diabetes. Some of the waters of the second class
are supposed to influence bronchial catarrhs and incipient phthisis,
while the more powerful sulphated waters of the third class are
especially useful in catarrh of the stomach, and in affections of the
biliary organs; of these only one of importance (Carlsbad) is thermal.
The rival cold waters of Tarasp contain twice as much carbonate
of soda. The cold ones are chiefly used internally, the thermal
ones both internally and externally. The latter, besides acting as
warm water, slightly stimulate the skin when the carbonic acid
is abundant, and the carbonate of soda has some slight detergent
effect on the cutaneous surface like soap. These waters are un-
known in England. They are most abundant in countries of
extinct volcanoes.
Classes I. and II. of alkaline waters may be said to have a sub-
variety in acidulated springs or carbonated waters, in which the
quantity of salts is very small, that of carbonic acid large. These
table waters are readily drunk at meals. They have of late years
been so widely exported as to be within the reach almost of every
one. Their practical importance in aiding digestion is in reality
much greater than one could expect from their scanty mineraliza-
tion. They are drunk by the country people, and also largely
exported and imitated. They are very abundant on the Continent. ,
and, although some of the best-known ones enumerated below are
German and French, they are common in Italy and elsewhere-
heppingen, Roisdorf, Landskro, Apollinaris, Sellers, Briickenau
Gieshubel, all German; St Galmier, Pougues, Chateldon, French
Associated with Class HI. is that of the strongly sulphated waters
known in Germany as bitter or purging waters, which have of late
servedly come into use as purgative agents. They are almost
wanting in t ranee and in America, and there are no very good ones
in England. The chief supply is from Bohemia and Hungary
Ihe numerous waters of Ofen are the best known, and some of
TABLE IX. Alkaline Waters.
CLASS 1. Simple Alkaline.
Locality.
Vals, South France .
Bilin, Bohemia
Vichy, France (105 F.) .
Neuenahr, Rhineland(92-
97 F.) .
La Malou. France (97 F )
Vidago, Portugal .
Carb.'
Soda .
4-2
5-1
Therapeutic Uses.
' Catarrh of stomach, gout,
renal and biliary calculi,
, liver complaints, diabetes.
Do. do. do.
Do. do. do.
i Mucous catarrh; diabetes
specially.
i Do.; sedative effect on
' nervous system.
t Dp., gout, urinary affec-
tions "The Portuguese
Vichy."
CLASS II. With Chloride of Sodium varying from 4-3 to i
in amount.
Locality.
Luhatschowitz,
Moravia .
Tonnistein,
Rhine Valley
Ems, Nassau
Ischia, Italy
Royat, Auvergne
Mont Dore, do.
Bourboule, do.
Height
in Ft.
1600
1400
3300
2800
Temp.
Fahr.
85-JI5
up to 1 70
80-95
100-114
107-125
Carb.
Soda.
8-4
2-5
2-0
1-3
Therapeutic Uses.
( Springs rich both
j in carb. soda
( and chl. sodium.
( Light antacid
j tonic to stom-
( ach.
I Special in female
J complaints and
j mucous mem-
' brane.
(Specially
J matism
J female
' plaints.
Do. and
skin affections.
Asthma, chronic
, laryngitis.
( Scrofula, rachitis,
] cutaneous affec-
' tioris.
rheu-
and
corn-
some
CLASS III. With Sulphate of Soda varying from 5-2 to 2 in amount
and Carbonate of Soda varying from 3-55 to 0-51 in amount.
Locality.
Elster, Saxony
Marienbad, Bohemia .
Franzensbad, do.
Tarasp, Lower Engadine
Carlsbad, Bohemia (121 /
-164 F.) . . . . \
Height
in Ft.
1460
IOIZ
1293
4000
1200
Therapeutic Uses.
( Action on abdominal organs,
( female complaints.
Do. ; special use in obesity.
Do. ; specially a ladies' bath.
Powerful action on abdomi-
nal viscera.
Gout, liver affections, biliary
and renal calculi, diabetes.
hem are stronger than the Hunyadi, of which an analysis has been
;iven in Table I. They are easily imitated. Some of the best-
cnown are Ofen, Pullna, Saidschutz, Friedrichshall, Birmerstorff,
^issingen.
Two other classes of waters demand a few words of notice. The
"rench have much faith in the presence of minute quantities of
arsenic in some of their springs, and trace arsenical effects in those
who drink them, and some French authors have established a class
of arsenical waters. Bourboule in Auvergne is the strongest of
hem, and is said to contain ,'jth of a grain of arseniate of soda
n 7 oz. of water. Baden-Baden, according to Bunsen's latest
analysis, has a right to be considered an arsenical water. It is,
lowevcr, extremely doubtful whether the small amounts of arseni-
ate of soda which have been detected, accompanied as they are by
>reponderating amounts of other salts, have any actual operation
>n the system. The following are among the most noted springs:
522
MINERVA
Bourboule, Mont Dore, Royat, Salies (Bigorres), Plombieres,
Baden-Baden.
Of late years lithium has been discovered in the waters of Baden-
Baden; and various other places boast of the amount of that sub-
stance in their springs. Indeed a new bath has been established at
Assmannshausen on the Rhine in consequence of the discovery of
a weak alkaline spring containing some lithium. Not very much
is known of the action of lithium in ordinary medicine, and it un-
doubtedly does not exist in medicinal doses even in the strongest
Designation and Locality.
XI
e
rt
01 >,
It-
d
o .
6.S
o
Lebanon, Columbia co., N.Y.
(73 F.)
Healing, Bath co., Va. (88- F.)
Warm, Bath co., Va. (98* F.)
Hot,. Bath co., Va. (110 F.)
Paso Roblcs, San Luis Obispo )
co., Cal. (122 F.) . . . J
Hot, Garland co.,Ark. (93-150'
F.)
Gettysburg, Adams co., Penn.
Sweet, Monroe co., W. Va.(74F.
Berkeley, Morgan co., W. Va.
(74 F.)
Alleghany, Montgomery co., Va.
Bethesda, Waukesha co., Wis. .
Lower Blue Lick, Nicholas co.,
Ky. .....
Sharon, Schoharie co., N.Y.
White Sulphur, Greenbrier co., )
Va 5
Salt Sulphur, Monroe co., W. Va
Bedford, Bedford co., Penn.
St Catharines, Ontario, Canada
Caledonia, Ontario, Canada .
Hathorne, Saratoga, N. Y. .
Ballston, Saratoga co., N. Y.
Oak-Orchard Acid, Genesee )
co., N.Y 5
Rawley, Rockingham co., Va.
Sweet Chalybeate, Alleghany )
co., Va 5
Rockbridge Alum, Rockbridge )
co., Va 5
Cooper's Well, Hinds co., Miss.
Crab Orchard, Lincoln co., Ky.
Midland, Midland co., Mich.
Bladen, Choctaw co., Ala. (car-
bonated alkaline) .
Congress, Santa Clara co., Cal.
(saline-alkaline)
St Louis, Gratiot co., Mich,
(simple alkaline)
Therapeutic Application.
Scrofulous ulcers and oph-
thalmia, ozoena, chronic
{ diarrhoea and dysen-
tery, secondary and
(_ tertiary syphilis.
("Chronic and subacute
rheumatism, gout, neur-
algia, nephritic and
calculous diseases.
f Chronic rheumatism, gout,
diseases of liver, neur-
algia, contractions of
joints.
{ Dartrous diseases of skin,
functional diseases of
uterus, chronic mer-
curial and lead poison-
ing.
Calculus, gravel, catarrh
of stomach or bladder,
dyspepsia.
Gravel, dyspepsia (diu-
retic, diaphoretic).
Neuralgia (restorative).
Purgative, diuretic.
fDiabetes mellitus, gravel,
inflammation of blad-
I der, dropsy, albumin-
l uria (diuretic).
| Aperient and alterative.
Do. do.
I Dartrous skin diseases,
< diseases of the bladder,
I jaundice, dyspepsia.
Do. ; scrofula and syphilis.
J Anaemia, gravel, calculus
1 (strongly diuretic).
J Rheumatism, gout, scro-
( fula, neuralgia.
Rheumatism, gout.
( Dyspepsia, jaundice, ab-
( dominal plethora.
Do. do. do.
'Ulcers, diseases of the
skin, passive haemor-
rhages, atonic diarrhoea
(has 10 grains of free
sulphuric acid in the
pint).
Chlorosis and anaemia
generally; tonic.
Do. do. do.
Scrofula, chronic diar-
rhoea.
[Anaemia, chlorosis,
chronic diarrhoea,
I dropsy.
[Dyspepsia, neuralgia,
chronic and subacute
I rheumatism.
springs. Among these springs are those of Baden-Baden, Assmanns-
hausen, Elster, Royat, Ballston Spa, and Saratoga (U.S.).
AMERICAN MINERAL WATERS. The number of springs in the
United States and Canada to which public attention has been called
on account of their supposed therapeutic virtues is very large,
amounting in all to more than three hundred. Of this number
comparatively few are in Canada, and of these not more than six
(St Catharines, Caledonia, Piantagenet, Caxton, Charlottesville and
Sandwich) have attained general celebrity. The first three belong
to the saline class, the Caxton is alkaline-saline, and the last two
are sulphur waters. The St Catharines is remarkable for the very
large amounts of sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides which
it contains, its total salts (450 grains in the pint) being more than
three times the quantity contained in the brine-baths of Kreuznach
in Prussia. The Charlottesville and Sandwich springs likewise
surpass the noted sulphur-waters of Europe in their excessive per-
centages of sulphuretted hydrogen, the former containing more
than 3 and the latter 4-72 cub. in. of this gas in the pint.
The mineral springs in the United States are very unequally dis-
tributed, by far the larger number of those which are in high medical
repute occurring along the Appalachian chain of mountains, and
more especially on or near this chain where it passes through the
States of Virginia, West Virginia and New York. The Devonian
and Silurian formations which overlie the Eozoic rocks along the
course of the Appalachian chain have been greatly fissured the
faulting of the strata being in some places of enormous magnitude
by the series of upheavals which gave rise to the many parallel
mountain ridges of the Appalachians. In many places the springs
occur directly along the lines of fault. The various classes of
mineral waters are likewise very unequally represented, the alkaline
springs, and those containing Glauber and Epsom salts, being much
inferior to their European representatives. On the other hand,
the very numerous and abundant springs of Saratoga compare very
favourably with the Sellers and similar saline waters, and among
the many American chalybeate springs the subclass represented
by the Rockbridge Alum is unequalled in regard to the very large
percentages of alumina and sulphuric acid which it contains.
Besides its greater amount of mineral constituents (135 grains per
pint), the Ballston spring surpasses the similar saline waters of
Homburg, Kissingen, Wiesbaden and Setters, in its percentage of
carbonic acid (53 cub. in.). It is also remarkable for the very
large proportion of carbonate of lithia, amounting to 0-701 grains.
Thermal springs are specially numerous in the territories west of
the Mississippi and in California. Those in the east mostly occur
in Virginia along the southern portion of the Appalachian chain;
in the middle and New England States Lebanon is the only important
thermal spring. Subjoined is a list of thirty American springs,
the design being to represent as many of the more noted spas as
possible, while at the same time enumerating the best representa-
tives of the classes and subclasses into which mineral waters are
divided according to the German method of classification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) German: E. Osann, Darstellung der Heil-
quetten Europas (3 vols., Berlin, 1839-1843); J. Seegen, Handbuch
der Heilquellenlehre (Vienna, 1862); B. M. Lersch, Hydrochemif
(1870), and many other works; Helfft, Handbuch d. Balneotherapie
(8th ed., Berlin, 1874); Valentiner, Handbuch d. Balneotherapie
(Berlin, 1876); L. Lehmann, Bader u. Brunnen Lehre (Bonn, 1877);
J. Braun, System. Lehrbuch d. Balneotherapie, 4th ed., by Fromm
(Berlin, 1880); O. Leichtenstern, Balneotherapie (Leipzig, 1880).
(2) French: Dictionnaire des eaux minerales, &c., by MM. Durand-
Fardel, &c. (2 vols., Paris, 1860); J. Lefort, Traite de chemie hydro-
lologique (2nd ed., Paris, 1873) ; C. James, Guide pratique aux eaux
minerales (Paris), many editions; Mac6, Guide aux vittes d'eaux, &c.
(Paris, _i88i); Joanne and Le Pileur, Les Bains d' Europe (Paris).
(3) Swiss: Meyer Ahrens, Heilquellen der Schweitz (Zurich, 1867);
Gsell Fels, Die Bader und Kurorte der Schweitz (Zurich, 1880).
(4) Italian: G. Jervis, Guida alle acque minerali d' Italia (Turin,
1876, &c.); E. F. Harless, Die Heilquellen und Kurbdder Italiens
(Berlin, 1848). (5) Spanish: Rubio, Tratado de las fuentes miner-
ales de Espana (Madrid, 1853); Don J. de Antelo y Sanchez has
recently published a work on Spanish waters. (6) English:
T. Short, History of the Mineral Waters (London, 1734); J. Rutty,
Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters (London, 1757); Granville,
Spas of England (1841) ; E. Lee, Mineral Springs of England (London,
1841); J. Macpherson, Our Baths and Wells (1871) ; id., Baths and Wells
of Europe (1873); and H. Weber's Eng. ed. of Braun (London, 1875).
A great portion of the literature is to be found in monographs on
particular places. (7) American: J. Bell, The Mineral and Thermal
Springs of the United States and Canada (1855); J. J. Moorman,
The Mineral Waters of the United States and Canada (1867);
C. F. Chandler, Lecture on Water (1871); G. E. Walton, The Mineral
Springs of the United States and Canada (1875); I. Burney Yeo, The
Therapeutics of Mineral Springs (1904).
MINERVA, an Italian goddess, subsequently identified
with Athena. She presided over all handicrafts, inventions, arts
and sciences. Her oldest sanctuary at Rome was in the temple
built by Tarquin on the Capitol, where she was worshipped
with Jupiter and Juno. She had also a temple on the Aventine,
MINGHETTI MINIATURE
523
which was the meeting-place for dramatic poets and actors,
whose organization into gilds under her patronage dated from
the time of Livius Andronicus (?..) The dedication day of
the temple was the ipth of March, the great festival of Minerva,
called quinquatrus, because it fell on the fifth day after the ides.
All the schools had holidays at this time, and the pupils on
reassembling brought a fee (minerval) to the teachers. In every
house also the quinquatrus was a holiday, for Minerva (like
Athena Ergane) was patron of the women's weaving and
spinning and the workmen's craft. At a later time the festival
extended over five days, the last four being chiefly occupied
with gladiatorial shows because Minerva was the goddess
of war (Ovid, Fasti, iii. 809-834; Juvenal x. 115, with Mayor's
note). The erection of a temple to her by Pompey out of the
spoils of his eastern conquests shows that she was the bestower
of victory, like Athena Nike, and the dedication of a vestibule
in the senate house by Augustus recalls Athena the goddess
of counsel (/SouXaia). Under Domitian, who claimed her
special protection, the worship of Minerva attained its greatest
vogue in Rome. The emperor Hadrian founded an educational
institution, named after her the Athenaeum. The 23rd of March
had always been the day of the tubilusirium, or purification
of the trumpets used in the sacred rites, so that the ceremony
came to be on the last day of Minerva's festival, but it is very
doubtful whether it was really connected with her. There was
another temple of Minerva on the Caelian Hill, where she was
worshipped under the name of Capta, the " captive," the origin
of which is unknown. Here a festival called the lesser quinqua-
trus was celebrated on the I3th-i4th of June, chiefly by the
flute-players (Livy ix. 30; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 651). As the Romans
learnt the use of the flute from the Etruscans, the fact of Minerva
being the patron goddess of flute-players is in favour of her
Etruscan origin, although it may merely be a reminiscence
of the Greek story which attributed the invention of the flute
to Athena. A carved image of the goddess called the Palladium,
said to have been brought from Troy to Lavinium, and thence
to Rome by the family of the Nautii, was kept in the temple
of Vesta and carefully guarded as necessary to the prosperity
of the city. The older form of the name Minerva is Menerva
( = Menes-va, Gr. /xews); it probably means " thinker."
MINGHETTI, MARCO (1818-1886), Italian economist and
statesman, was born at Bologna on the i8th of November
1818. In 1846 he signed the petition to the Conclave for the
election of a Liberal pope, and was appointed member of the
state council summoned to prepare the constitution for the papal
states. With Antonio Montanari and Rodolfo Audinot he
founded at Bologna a paper, // Felsineo. In the first constitu-
tional cabinet, presided over by Cardinal Antonelli, Minghetti
held the portfolio of public works, but after the allocution by Pius
IX. against the Italian war of independence he resigned, and
joined the Piedmontese army as captain on the general staff.
Returning to Rome in September 1848, he refused to form a
cabinet after the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, and spent
the next eight years in study and travel. Summoned to Paris
by Cavour in 1856 to prepare the memorandum on the Romagna
provinces for the Paris congress, he was in 1859 appointed by
Cavour secretary-general of the Piedmontese Foreign Office.
In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of
the Romagna after the rejection of pontifical rule by those pro-
vinces, and prepared their annexation to Piedmont. Appointed
Piedmontese minister of the interior, he resigned office shortly
after Cavour's death, but was subsequently chosen to be minister
of finance by Farini, whom he succeeded as premier in 1863.
With the help of Visconti-Venosta he concluded (Sept. 15,
1864) the " September Convention " with France, whereby
Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome, and Italy to transfer her
capital from Turin to Florence. The convention excited violent
opposition at Turin, in consequence of which Minghetti was
obliged to resign office. He took little part in public life until
1869, when he accepted the portfolio of agriculture in the
Menabrea Cabinet. Both in and out of office he exercised his
influence against an Italo-French alliance and for an immediate
advance upon Rome, and in 1870 was sent to London and Vienna
by the Lanza-Sella Cabinet to organize a league of neutral
powers on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1873
he overthrew the Lanza-Sella Cabinet and regained the premier-
ship, which, with the portfolio of finance, he held until the fall
of the Right from power on the i8th of March 1876. During
his premiership he inaugurated the rapprochement between
Italy, Austria and Germany, and reformed the naval and military
administration; and before his fall he was able, as finance minister,
to announce the restoration of equilibrium between expenditure
and revenue for the first time since 1860.' After the advent of the
Left, Minghetti remained for some years in Opposition, but
towards 1884 joined Depretis in creating the " Trasformismo,"
which consisted in bringing Conservative support to Liberal
cabinets. Minghetti, however, drew from it no personal advan-
tage, and died at Rome on the loth of December 1886 without
having returned to power.
His writings include: Delia economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze
con la morale e col diritto (Bologna, 1859), and La Chiesa e lo Stato
(Milan, 1878).
MINGRELIA, a former principality of Transcaucasia, which
became subject to Russia in 1804, and since 1867 has belonged
to the government of Kutais. The country corresponds to the
ancient Colchis; and Sukhum Kaleh on the Black Sea coast,
which was the capital under the Dadian dynasty (1323-1694),
is to be identified with the ancient Dioscurias, a colony of Miletus.
The Mingrelians, who are closely akin to the Georgians, numbered
241,000 in 1902, and belong to the Orthodox Greek Church
(see further KUTAIS and CAUCASIA).
MINIATURE. The word " miniature," derived from the
Latin minium, red lead, has been technically employed, in
the first instance, to describe a picture in an ancient or medi-
eval manuscript; the simple decoration of the early codices
having been " miniated " or delineated with that pigment. The
generally small scale of the medieval pictures has led secondly
to a pseudo-etymological confusion of the term with " minute-
ness " and to its application to " paintings in little "; it is now
used mainly in this sense, and is ordinarily applied to a painting
on a very small scale, usually a portrait, and by analogy to
anything on a very small scale.
i. Miniatures in Ancient and Medieval MSS. The part
played by the miniature in the scheme of the ornamentation
of MSS., in the early centuries of the Christian era and in the
middle ages, is dealt with in the article on ILLUMINATED MSS.
In the present article will be discussed the development and
changes which it underwent, in different ages and in different
countries, both in its technical treatment and in its leading
characteristics. The subject divides itself into two distinct
portions, the classical and the medieval, between which there
lies the great separating space of the early middle ages, which
affords but scanty material to connect them. When, however,
we have advanced into the middle ages, we are no longer at a
loss; and we can follow the later development of the miniature
through all its changes in the various schools of western Europe
down to its transition into the modern picture.
The importance of the study of the miniature has perhaps
hardly received in the past the recognition which it merits.
The history of painting cannot be perfectly understood without
a knowledge of the rise and progress of the art of miniature-
painting in MSS; and examples of the art still survive in an
abundance which frescoes and paintings in the large cannot
rival. Modern methods of photography have brought within
the reach of the student material which in earlier generations
was not accessible; and consequently a juster conception can
be formed of the position which the miniature holds in the
history of art than was possible before.
The earliest examples that have descended to us are closely
connected in style and treatment with the pictorial art of the
later Roman classical period. In fact they are separated from
that period by only two or three centuries, and they still follow
its traditions. The oldest specimens of all are the series of
coloured drawings or miniatures cut from an illustrated MS.
524
MINIATURE
of the Iliad and now in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, which
there is good reason for placing as early as the 3rd century.
In these pictures there is a considerable variety in the quality
of the drawing, but there are many notable instances of fine
figure-drawing, quite classical in sentiment, showing that the
earlier art still exercised its influence. Such indications, too,
of landscape as are to be found are of the classical type, not
conventional in the sense of medieval conventionalism, but still
attempting to follow nature, even if in an imperfect fashion;
just as in the Pompeian and other frescoes of the Roman age.
Of even greater value from an artistic point of view are the
miniatures of the Vatican MS. of Virgil, known as the " Schedae
Vaticanae," of the 4th century. They are in a more perfect
condition and on a larger scale than the Ambrosian fragments,
and they therefore offer better opportunity for examining method
and technique. The drawing is quite classical in style, and
the idea is conveyed that the miniatures are direct copies from
an older series. The colours are opaque: indeed, in all the
miniatures of early MSS. the employment of body colour was
universal. The method followed in placing the different scenes
on the page is highly instructive of the practice followed, as
we may presume, by the artists of the earl}' centuries. It seems
that the background of the scene was first painted in full, covering
the whole surface of the page; then, over this background were
painted the larger figures and objects; and over these again
the smaller details in front of them were superimposed. Again,
for the purpose of securing something like perspective, an
arrangement of horizontal zones was adopted, the upper ones
containing figures on a smaller scale than those below.
It was reserved for the Byzantine school to break away more
decidedly from the natural presentment of things and to develop
convention. Yet in the best early examples of this school the
classical sentiment still lingers, as the relics of the miniatures
of the Cottonian Genesis, in the British Museum, and the best
of the miniatures of the- Vienna Dioscorides testify; and in the
miniatures of the later Byzantine MSS., which were copied
from earlier examples, the reproduction of the models is faithful.
But on comparing the miniatures of the Byzantine school
generally with their classical predecessors, one has a sense of
having passed from the open air into the cloister. Under the
restraint of ecclesiastical domination Byzantine art became
more and more stereotyped and conventional. The tendency
grows to paint the flesh-tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and
emaciate the limbs, and to stiffen the gait. Browns, blue-greys
and neutral tints are in favour. Here we first find the technical
treatment of flesh-painting which afterwards became the special
practice of Italian miniaturists, namely the laying on of the
actual flesh-tints over a ground of olive, green or other dark
hue. Landscape, such as it was, soon became quite conventional,
setting the example for that remarkable absence of the true
representation of nature which is such a striking attribute of
the miniatures of the middle ages.
And yet, while the ascetic treatment of the miniatures obtained
so strongly in Byzantine art, at the same time the Oriental
sense of splendour shows itself in the brilliancy of much of the
colouring and in the lavish employment of gold. In the minia-
tures of Byzantine MSS. are first seen those backgrounds of
bright gold which afterwards appear in such profusion in the
productions of every western school of painting.
. The influence of Byzantine art on that of medieval Italy is
obvious. The early mosaics in the churches of Italy, such as
those at Ravenna and Venice, also afford examples of the
dominating Byzantine influence. But the early middle ages
provide but few landmarks to guide the student; and it is only
when he emerges into the i2th century, with its frescoes and
miniatures still bearing the impress of the Byzantine tradition,
that he can be satisfied that the connexion has always existed
during the intervening centuries.
When we turn to the farther-west of Europe, there also we
find under the Carolingian monarchs a school of painting
obviously derived from classical models, chiefly of the Byzantine
type, but whether derived directly from the East, or, what is
more probable, transmitted through Italian channels, must
remain doubtful. The interest of that school for our present
purpose is that it was the parent of the later miniature-painting
in the countries of the West. For in the native schools of those
countries decoration only was the leading motive. In the MSS.
of the Merovingian period, in the school which connected
Frankland and northern Italy, and which is known as Lombardic
or Franco-Lombardic, in the MSS. of Spain, in the productions
of the Celtic school of our own islands, figure-drawing was
scarcely known, and where it was practised it was of a barbarous
character, serving rather as a feature of decoration than as a
representation of the human form. Hence in those native schools
the miniature, in its true sense of a picture, may be regarded as
non-existent.
From these native schools we exclude the Anglo-Saxon school,
developed especially at Canterbury and Winchester, which
probably derived its characteristic free-hand drawing from
classical Roman models, scarcely influenced by the Byzantine
element. The highest qualities of the miniatures of the icth
and nth centuries of this school lie in fine outline drawing,
which had a lasting influence on the English miniature of the
later centuries. But the southern Anglo-Saxon school rather
stands apart from the general line of development of the western
medieval miniature. How far it was affected by Continental
influence will be presently noticed.
Turning to the productions of the Carolingian school, which
owed its origin to the encouragement of Charlemagne, it is seen
that the miniature appears in two forms. First, there is the
truly conventional miniature following the Byzantine model,
the subjects being generally the portraits of the Evangelists,
or portraits of the emperors themselves: the figures stiff and
formal; the pages brilliantly and often coarsely coloured and
gilded, generally set in architectural surroundings of a fixed
type, and devoid of landscape in the real sense of the word.
On the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there is
an attempt at illustration, as, for example, the depicting of
scenes from Bible history. Here there is more freedom; and
we trace the debased classical style which copies Roman, as
distinguished from Byzantine, models. The figure-drawing is
sufficiently clumsy, but the type is Roman, or debased Roman,
and the costumes are clearly derived from the same source.
Here, too, there is a better attempt at landscape, which is not
of the absolutely conventional deadness of the Carolingian-
Byzantine type. But this second style of illustrative miniature
appears only occasionally. The other was the characteristic
miniature of the Carolingian school, and, accompanied as it was
with profuse decoration in border and initial, it set the pattern
for the later Continental schools of the West.
The influence which the Carolingian school exercised on the
miniatures of the southern Anglo-Saxon artists shows itself
in the extended use of body-colour and in the more elaborate
employment of gold in the decoration. Such a MS. as the
Benedictional of Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester, 963 to 984,
with its series of miniatures drawn in the native style but
painted in opaque pigments, exhibits the influence of the foreign
art. But the actual drawing remained essentially national,
marked by its own treatment of the human figure and by the
peculiar disposition of the drapery with fluttering folds. Its
fault was over-refinement, tending to an affected exaggeration
and disproportion of the limbs. With the Norman Conquest
this remarkable native school passed away.
The period immediately succeeding the Carolingian school
in western Europe was one of extreme decadence in the minia-
tures of MSS. In the loth and nth centuries they were mere
lifeless copies of earlier types. But with the awakening of art
in the i2th century the decoration of MSS. received a powerful
impulse. Although the artist of the time excels in the border
and the initial, still in the miniature also there is vigorous
drawing, with bold sweeping lines and careful study of the
draperies. The artist now grows more practised in figure-
drawing, and while there is still the tendency to repeat the same
subjects in the same conventional manner, individual effort
MINIATURE
525
produced in this century many miniatures of a very noble
character. The Norman Conquest had brought England
directly within the fold of Continental art; and now began
that grouping of the French and the English and the Flemish
schools, which, fostered by growing intercourse and moved by
common impulses, resulted in the magnificent productions of
the illuminators of north-western Europe from the latter part
of the 12th century onwards. But of natural landscape there
is nothing, unless rocks and trees of a stereotyped character
can be so regarded. Hence the background of the miniature
of the 1 2th and immediately succeeding centuries became the
field for decoration to throw into stronger relief the figures in
the scene. And thus arose the practice of filling in the entire
space with a sheet of gold, often burnished: a brilliant method
of ornament which we have already seen practised in the Byzan-
tine school. We have also to notice the conventional treatment
of the sacred figures, which continue henceforward, from a
sense of veneration, to be clad in the traditional robes of the
early centuries, while the other figures of the scene wear the
ordinary dress of the period.
It will be convenient, at this point, to follow the development
of the miniature in the northern schools of England and France
and the Low Countries, occasionally glancing at Germany,
during the next three centuries, and to leave aside for the
moment consideration of the Italian school and the schools
allied therewith.
Entering the I3th century, we reach the period when the
miniature may be said to justify the modern false etymology
which has connected the title with minuteness. The broad,
bold style of the 1 2th century gives place to the precise and
minute. Books in general exchanged their form from the large
folio to the octavo and smaller sizes. There was a greater
demand for books; and vellum was limited in quantity and
had to go further. The handwriting grew smaller and lost the
roundness of the I2th century. Contractions and abbreviations
in the texts largely increased in number. Everywhere there
is an effort to save space. And so with the miniature. Figures
were small, with delicate strokes in the features and with neat
slim bodies and limbs. The backgrounds blaze with colour
and burnished gold; and delicate diaper patterns of alternate
gold and colour abound. Frequently, and especially in English
MSS., the drawings are merely tinted or washed with transparent
colours. In this century, too, the miniature invades the initial.
Whereas in the earlier periods bold flowering scrolls are the
fashion, now a little scene is introduced into the blank spaces
of the letter. To compare the work of the three schools, the
drawing of the English miniature, at its best, is perhaps the
most graceful; the French is the neatest and the most accurate;
the Flemish, including that of western Germany, is less refined
and in harder and stronger lines. As to colours, the English
artist affects rather lighter tints than those of the other schools:
a partiality is to be observed for light green, for grey-blue, and for
lake. The French artist loved deeper shades, especially ultra-
marine. The Fleming and the German painted, as a rule, in
less pure colours and inclined to heaviness. A noticeable
feature in French MSS. is the red or copper-hued gold used in
their illuminations, in strong contrast to the paler metal of
England and the Low Countries.
It is remarkable how the art of the miniature throughout
the i3th century maintains its high quality both in drawing
and colour without any very striking change. Throughout the
century the Bible and the Psalter were in favour; and natur-
ally the same subjects and the same scenes ran through the period
and were repeated by artist after artist; and the very character
of those sacred books would tend to restrain innovation. But
towards the close of the period such secular works as the romances
were growing in popularity, and afforded a wider field for the
invention of the illustrating artist. Therefore with the opening
of the I4th century a palpable change of style supervenes.
We pass to more flowing lines; not to the bold sweeping strokes
and curves of the I2th century, but to a graceful, delicate,
yielding style which produced the beautilul swaying figures
of the period. In fact the miniature now begins to free
itself from the role of an integral member of the decorative
scheme of illumination and to develop into the picture, depending
on its own artistic merit for the position it is 'to hold in the future.
This is shown by the more prominent place that the miniature
now assumes, and by its growing independence of the decorative
border and initial. But, at the same time, while the miniature
of the i4th century thus strives to dissociate itself from the rest
of the illuminated details of the MS., within itself it flourishes
in decoration. Besides the greater elasticity of the figure-
drawing, there is a parallel development in the designs of the
backgrounds. The diapers become more elaborate and more
brilliant; the beauty of the burnished gold is enhanced by the
stippled patterns which are frequently worked upon it; the
gothic canopies and other architectural features which it became
the practice to introduce naturally followed the development
of the architecture of the period. In a word, the great expansion
of artistic sentiment in decoration of the best type, which is
so prominent in the higher work of the i4th century, is equally
conspicuous in the illuminated miniature.
In the early part of the century, English drawing is very
graceful, the figures bending with a waving movement which, if
they were not so simple, would be an affectation. Both in the
outline specimens, washed with transparent colour, and in the
fully painted examples, the best English work of this time is
unsurpassed. French art still maintains its neat precision, the
colours more vivid than those of England and the faces delicately
indicated without much modelling. The productions of the
Low Countries, still keeping to the heavier style of drawing,
appear coarse beside the works of the other schools. Nor does
German miniature art of this period hold a high position, being
generally mechanical and of a rustic character. As time advances
the French miniature almost monopolizes the field, excelling
in brilliancy of colouring, but losing much of its purity of drawing
although the general standard still remains high. The English
school gradually retrogrades and, owing no doubt to political
causes and to the wars with France, appears to have produced
no work of much value. It is only towards the end of the century
that there is a revival.
This revival, which is referred to in the article on ILLUMINATED
MSS., has been attributed, with some reason, to a connexion
with the flourishing school of Prague a school which in the
scheme of colouring suggests a southern influence following
on the marriage of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia in 1382.
The new style of English miniature painting is distinguished
by richness of colour, and by the careful modelling of the faces,
which compares favourably with the slighter treatment by the
contemporary French artists. Similar attention to the features
also marks the northern Flemish or Dutch school at this period
and in the early i5th century; and it may therefore be regarded
as an attribute of Germanic art as distinguished from the French
style. The promise of the new development in English miniature
painting, however, was not to be fulfilled. In the first quarter
of the 1 5th century, examples of great merit were produced, but
at a standstill in drawing and fettered by medieval convention.
The native art practically came to a close about the middle of
the century, just when the better appreciation of nature was
breaking down the old conventional representation of landscape
in European art, and was transforming the miniature into the
modern picture. Whatever miniature painting was to be
produced in England after that time was to be the work of
foreign artists or of artists imitating a foreign style. The
condition of the country during the Wars of the Roses suffi-
ciently accounts for the abandonment of art. Thus the history
of the miniature in the isth century must 'be sought in the
manuscripts of the Continental schools.
First we have to consider northern France and the Low
Countries. As it passes out of the i4th and enters the isth
century, the miniature of both schools begins to exhibit greater
freedom in composition; and there is a further tendency to
aim rather at general effect by the colouring than neatness in
drawing. This was encouraged by the wider field opened to
526
MINIATURE
the miniaturist. Books of all kinds were illustrated, and sacred
books, Bibles and Psalters and liturgical books, were no longer
the chief, if not the only, MSS. which were illuminated. And yet
there was one class of MSS. which came into the greatest promi-
nence and which was at the same time liturgical. This was the
florae, or Hours of the Virgin, &c., devotional books for individual
use, which were multiplied in vast numbers and contained
some of the finest work of the miniaturists. The decoration
of these little volumes escaped in great measure from the con-
ventional restraints which their religious character might have
imposed. Futhermore, the demand for illuminated MSS.
had by this time established a regular trade; and their production
was not confined, as formerly, to the cloister with its narrow
and limited views.
Early in the century the old conventional treatment of land-
scape still held its own; nor did the diapered and gilded back-
ground pass out of use. Indeed, in some of the finest French
specimens of the time the diapered patterns are more brilliant
than ever. But natural scenery in the second quarter of the
century asserts itself more decidedly, although with faults in
perspective. It was not until another generation had arisen
that there was a true appreciation of the horizon and of
atmospheric effect.
The miniatures of the French and Flemish schools run fairly
parallel for a time, but after the middle of the century national
characteristics become more marked and divergent. The French
miniature began to deteriorate, though some very fine ex-
amples were produced by the more gifted artists of the school.
The figure-drawing was more careless, and the painting tended
to hardness without depth, which the artist endeavoured to
relieve by an excess of gilt shading. The close of the century
brought with it the end of the French miniature; for the ex-
travagant productions of the i6th century cannot be counted
as worthy of consideration.
The French miniature went down before the Flemish school,
which in the latter part of the isth century attained to its
highest excellence. The Flemish miniature affected extreme
softness and depth of colour; also an ever-increasing carefulness
in the treatment of details, of the draperies, of the expression
of the features: the Flemish type of the Virgin's face, for ex-
ample, with its full, high forehead, can never be mistaken. In
the best Flemish miniatures of the period the artist succeeds in
presenting a wonderful softness and glow of colour; nor did the
high standard cease with the isth century, for many excellent
specimens still remain to attest the favour in which it was held
for a few decades longer.
In the foregoing remarks what has been said in regard to the
careful treatment of details applies still more to the miniatures
executed in grisaille, in which the absence of colour invited
an even stronger accentuation of that treatment. This is
perhaps most observable in the grisaille miniatures of northern
Flanders, which often suggest, particularly in the strong angular
lines of the draperies, a connexion with the art of the wood-
engraver.
The Flemish miniature did not, however, hold the favour
of western Europe without a rival. That rival had arisen in
the south, and had come to perfection concurrently with the
miniature of the Low Countries in the isth century. This was
the Italian miniature; and the history of its development now
claims a brief notice. We return to the i3th century, where
we suspended examination of the work of the school of the
miniature painters of Italy; but we are not in a position, from
lack of material, to follow so closely the development of the
Italian miniature. Yet there is enough to show that it passed
through the same stages as the miniatures of England and
France and the Low Countries. Intercommunication between the
countries of Europe was too well established for the case to be
otherwise. In Italian MSS. of the normal type the influence
of Byzantine art is very manifest during the i3th and I4th
centuries. The old system of painting the flesh tints upon
olive green or some similar pigment, which is left exposed on
the lines of the features, thus obtaining a swarthy complexion,
continued to be practised in a more or less modified form into
the isth century. As a rule, the pigments used are more opaque
than those employed in the northern schools; and the artist
trusted more to colour alone to obtain the desired effect than
to the mixture of colour and gold which gave such brilliant
results in the diapered patterns of France. The vivid scarlet
of the Italian miniaturists is peculiarly their own. The figure-
drawing does not bear comparison with the contemporary art of
English and French MSS., the human form being often stunted
and thick-set. In general, the Italian miniature, before its great
expansion in the i4th century, is far behind the miniatures of
the north. But with the isth century, under the influence of
the Renaissance, it advanced into the front rank. and rivalled
the best work of the Flemish school. The use of thicker pig-
ments enabled the miniaturist to obtain the hard and polished
surface so characteristic of his work, and to maintain sharpness
of outline, without losing the depth and richness of colour which
compare with the same qualities in the Flemish school.
The Italian style was followed in the MSS. of Provence in
the I4th and isth centuries. It had its effect, too, on the school
of northern France, by which it was also influenced in turn.
In the MSS. of southern Germany it is also in evidence. But
the principles which have been reviewed as guiding the develop-
ment of the miniature in the more important schools apply
equally to all. Like the miniature of the Flemish school, the
Italian miniature was still worked to some extent with success,
under special patronage, even in the i6th century; but with
the rapid displacement of the manuscript by the printed book
the miniaturist's occupation was brought to a close.
FOR Authorities see under ILLUMINATED MSS. (. M. T.)
2. Miniatures as separate Small Pictures. In Europe the later
development of the miniature, applied almost exclusively to
portraits, is to a large extent English, and the greater number
of the chief masters in the art have been Englishmen or have
lived in England. Several great portrait painters are said to
have worked occasionally in miniature, and there are paintings,
small in size attributed with good reason to Holbein, Antonio
Moro, John Shute, Cleef, Stretes, Teerlinck, Zucchero, John and
T. Betts, and with less probability even to Van Dyck. There
is a fine signed work by Shute (see Lomazzo's Trattalo dell' arte
della piltura, trans. Heydock, 1598) in the Pierpont Morgan collec-
tion; examples by Betts at Montagu House and Madresfield
Court, and portraits, by Lavina Teerlinck in the collections of
Mr George Salting and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
The first portrait miniaturist about whom anything definite
is known was Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1547-1619), whose work
partakes of the characteristics of illuminated manuscripts.
The colours are opaque; gold is used to heighten the effect;
while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and
have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. It has recently
been proved that Hilliard worked for a while in France, and
he is probably identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as
" Nicholas Belliart." Nicholas Hilliard was succeeded by his son
Lawrence (d. 1640), some works by whom are in the Pierpont
Morgan and Madresfield Court collections. His technique was
similar to that of his father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer
in colour. Isaac and Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac
(c. 1567-1617) is said to have been the pupil of Hilliard and
Zucchero. Peter (1594-1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two
men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces
they painted. They signed their best works in monogram,
and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones
measuring as much as 10 in. by 9 in. They copied for Charles I.
on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters.
Several of these copies are at Windsor and at Montagu House.
At about the same date Gerbier, Poelemberg, Jamesone, Penelope
Cleyn and her brothers, were workers in the art. John Hoskins
(d. 1664) was the master of Samuel Cooper, the greatest English
miniaturist. The work of Cooper can best be studied in the
collection at Ham House. He was followed by a son of the
same name, who was known to have been living in 1700, since a
miniature signed by him and bearing that date is in the Pierpont
MINIATURES
PLATE I.
Collection 0} Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
F.IG. I. MRS PEMBERTON.
By HOLBEIN.
Collection of tke Date of
Portland, K.G.
FIG. 2. A YOUNG MAN
IN DEEP MOURN-
ING (1616). By
NICOLAS MILLIARD.
Collection of the Duke oj Buccleuch
and Queensberry, K.G.
FIG. 4. OLIVER CROMWELL X
(unfinished). By SAMUEL COOPER.
Collection o] Wingfield Digby, Esq.
FIG. 3 LADY LUCY STANLEY.
By ISAAC OLIVER.
Collection oi the Duke of Portland, K.G,
FIG. 6. COL. HENRY SIDNEY
(1665). By SAMUEL COOPER.
Collection oj B.M. the King.
FIG. 5. SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By ISAAC OLIVER.
Collection of the Duke of
Portland, K.G.
FIG. 7. INIGO JONES. By
DAVID DES GRANGES.
Collection o] the Marquis o) Exeter.
FIG. 8 CHARLES II. AS A
BOY. By JOHN HOSKINS.
Collection of the Duke o] Portland, K.G.
FIG. q " MR SYMPSON, MASTER
OF MUSICK." By THOMAS
FLATMAN.
xvm. 526.
PLATE II.
MINIATURES
Collection of the Duke of Portland, K.G.
FIG. i. BERNARD LENS.
By himself, 1718.
FIG. 4. MRS PARSONS.
By RICHARD COSWAY, R.A.
FIG. 3. UNKNOWN
LADY (1781). By
JOHN SMART.
FIG. 2. SIR CHARLES
OAKELEY. By JOHN
SMART.
FIG. 6. MISS MARY BERRY.
By GEORGE ENGLEHEART.
FIG. 5. MISS FREE. By ANDREW PLIMER.
FIG. 8. A BOY.
By J. H. FRAGONARD.
Marshall Ball Collection.
FIG. 9. LADY. By HORACE F G?' I '
HONE.
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 arc all from the Collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan.
E ' COUNTESS D'EGMONT.
By P. A. HALL.
MINIATURE
527
Morgan collection. It represents the duke of Berwick. Samuel
Cooper (1609-1672) was a nephew of Hoskins. He spent much
of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of
his career. His work has a superb breadth and dignity, and
has been well called " life-size work in little." His portraits
of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth
to h'fe and strength of handling. He painted upon card, chicken
skin and vellum, and on two occasions upon thin pieces of
mutton bone. The use of ivory was not introduced until long
after his time. His work is frequently signed with his initials,
generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date.
Flatman (d. 1688); Alexander Cooper (d. 1660), who painted a
series of portraits of the children of the king and queen of
Bohemia, now belonging to the German emperor, and several of
whose best miniatures are in the collections of the queen of
Holland and the king of Sweden; David des Granges (1611-1675)
whose work can be seen at Ham House and Windsor Castle;
R. Gibson (1615-1690) ; Mrs Rosse, his daughter, who so cleverly
imitated the work of Samuel Cooper, and Charles and Mary
Beale, deserve notice at this period. They are followed by
such artists as Lawrence Crosse (d. 1724), Gervase Spencer
(d. 1763), Lens, Nathaniel Hone and Jeremiah Meyer, the
latter two notable in connexion with the foundation of the
Royal Academy. The workers in black lead (plumbago, as
it was called at that time) must not be overlooked, especially
David Loggan, Faithorne, White, Forster and Faber. They
drew with exquisite detail and great effect on paper or vellum.
The 1 8th century produced a great number of miniature painters,
of whom Richard Cosway (1742-1821) is the most famous.
His works are of great beauty, and executed with a dash and
brilliance which no other artist equalled. His best work was
done about 1799. His portraits are generally on ivory, although
occasionally he worked on paper or vellum, and he produced
a great many full-length pencil drawings on paper, in which
he slightly tinted the faces and hands, and these he called
" stayned " drawings. Cosway's finest miniatures are signed
on the back; there is but one genuine signed on the face; very
few bear even his initials on the front. George Engleheart
(1750-1829) painted 4900 miniatures, and his work is stronger
and more impressive than that of Cosway; it is often signed
"E" or " G.E." Andrew Plimer (1763-1837) was a pupil of
Cosway, and both he and his brother Nathaniel produced some
lovely portraits. The brightness of the eyes, wiriness of the
hair, exuberance of colour, combined with forced chiaroscuro
and often very inaccurate drawing, are characteristics of Andrew
Plimer's work. John Smart (1741-181 1) was in some respects the
greatest of the 18th-century miniaturists. His work excelled in
refinement, power and delicacy; its silky texture and elaborate
finish, and the artist's love for a brown background, distinguish
it. Other notable painters were Ozias Humphry (1742-1810),
Nixon (1741-1812), Shelley (c. 1750-1808), whose best pictures
are groups of two or more persons, William Wood, a Suffolk
artist (1768-1808), Edridge (1760-1821), Sullivan, Sheriff,
Crosse, Bogle, Daye. In the igth century J. C. D. Engleheart
(1784-1862), nephew of George: Andrew Robertson (1777-1845)1
Beaumont, Behnes, Harlow, Heaphy and Mrs Mee must be
mentioned. Sir Thomas Lawrence painted a few miniatures,
and Raeburn some in his early days; but the art may be said to
have died out with Sir William Ross, the Chalons and Newton,
although some works by Landseer in this form are in existence,
some small paintings of flowers by George Lance, and one portrait
by Rossetti. Towards the end of the igth century came a revival
of miniature painting, but without producing any masters of the
ame calibre.. Alyn Williams and Lloyd amongst Englishmen,
J. W. von Rehling-Quistgaard, the talented Danish miniature
painter, and Bess Norris, an Australian artist, deserve mention.
From about 1650 onwards many fine miniatures were executed
enamel. Petitot (1607-1691) was the greatest worker in this
naterial, and painted his finest portraits in Paris for Louis XIV.
lis son succeeded him in the same profession. Other artists
enamel were Boit (d. 1727), Zincke (d. 1767), Hurter (1734-
1790), Thouron (1737-1789), Liot, Prieur, Spicer, Dinglinger,
Vouquer, Bain and Thienpondt. Many of these artists were
either Frenchmen or Swiss, but most of them visited England
and worked there for a while. The greatest English enamel
portrait painter was Henry Bone (1755-1839), the finest of
whose productions are now at Kingston Lacy. A great
collection of his small enamel reproductions of celebrated
paintings is in Buckingham Palace.
The earliest French miniature painters were Jean Clouet
(d. c. 1540), his son Francois, Jean Fouquet, Jean Perreal and
others; but of their work in portraiture we have little trace
at the present day, although there are many portraits and a
vast number of drawings attributed to them with more or less
reason. The seven portraits in the manuscript of the Gallic
War (Bibliotheque Nationale) are assigned to the elder Clouet;
and to them may be added a fine work, in the Pierpont Morgan
collection, representing the Mareschal de Brissac. Following
these men we find the two Stresors, St Andre, Cotelle and
Masse; the fine draughtsmen Picart, Vauthier and Cheron; and
then, later on, we know of miniatures by Largilliere, Boucher,
Nattier, Montpetit, Desfosses, Drouais, Charlier, Thouron,
Perrin and Dubourg; but the greatest names are those of Hall
the Swede, Dumont the Frenchman, and Fiiger the Austrian.
The tiny pictures painted by the von Blarenberghe family are
by many persons grouped as miniatures, and some of the later
French artists, as Prud'hon, Constance Meyer and Dubois,
executed miniature portraits, while others whose names might
be mentioned were Werner (1637-1710), Rosalba (1675-1757),
Chatillon, Pasquier, Marsigli, Garriot, Sicardi and Festa. The
most popular artists in France, however, were Augustin (d. 1832)
and Isabey (d. 1855). Their portraits of Napoleon and his
court are exceedingly fine, and perhaps no other Frenchman
painted miniatures so well as did Augustin. The Spanish
painter Goya is known to have executed a few miniatures.
Miniatures are painted in oil, water-colour and enamel,
but chiefly in water-colour. Many Dutch and German minia-
tures were painted in oil, and as a rule these are on copper;
and there are portraits in the same medium, and often on
the same material, attributed to many of the great Italian
artists, notably those of the Bologna school. Samuel Cooper
is said to have executed a few paintings in oil on copper, but we
know little about the artists who prepared the numerous oil
portraits in foreign collections.
The work of the i8th century on ivory is, of course, in water-
colour. The use of ivory came into general adoption in the
early part of the reign of William III., miniatures previous to
that time having been painted on vellum, chicken-skin or card-
board, a few on the backs of playing cards, and many more on
very thin vellum closely mounted on to playing cards.
The most important collections of miniatures in England in 1907
were those in the possession of the king, the duke of Buccleuch,
Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, the duke of Rutland, the earls of Exeter,
Ilchester, Dysart, Dartrey (notable for enamel work, some examples
of which are of the greatest rarity) and Ancaster (especially notable
for works by Cosway), of Earl Beauchamp, the late Baroness
Burdett-Coutts, Sir Gardner Engleheart (remarkable for containing
almost exclusively works by the Engleheart family), Lord Weardale,
and Messrs Drake, Digby, Williams, Whitehead, and Usher of
Lincoln. There is a remarkable collection, principally of works
in enamel, in the University Gallery, Oxford, a few fine miniatures
at South Kensington, and in the same museum in the Jones collec-
tion some splendid works by Petitot, and there_ are also some
famous foreign portrait and picture miniatures in the Wallace
Collection, Hertford House, London. The collection at the Louvre
is of importance, especially as regards the works of Petitot; that
belonging to the queen of Holland of very high merit, and includes
some choice works by Holbein and Alexander Cooper; and there
is also a very fine collection at Amsterdam, including some of the
largest works by Samuel Cooper and the largest known by Hoskins ;
some very fine ones belong to the Crown of Sweden, ^and there is
a superb but very mixed collection in Peter the Great's Gallery in
St Petersburg, unfortunately in great confusion and needing re-
arrangement. Many fine miniatures, including some very scarce
enamel work by Prieur, are at the Rosenborg Palace in Copen-
hagen; the German emperor and the Crown of Prussia both own
some remarkable examples, and there are important collections at
Vienna, Florence and Stockholm, and in private hands in Berlin,
Moscow and Helsingfors.
5 28
MINIM MINING
For fuller information see also J. L. Propert, History of Miniature
Art (London, 1887); G. C. Williamson, HistoryofPortra.it Miniatures
(2 vols , folio, 1904), Portrait Miniatures (London, 1897); Richard.
Cosway (London, 1897); George Engleheart (London, 1902) ; Andrew
Plimer &c. (London, 1902) ; How to Identify Miniatures (London
1004); Richard Cosway (London, 1905), and the privately printed
catalogue of the Pierpont Morgan Collection (1906, 1907, 1908);
Les Knaux de Petilot du Louvre (Paris, 1862-1864) ; catalogues of
the Buccleuch Gallery, Welbeck Gallery, Ward Usher Collection,
Bemrose Collection, Woburn Abbey Collection, all privately
printed, the catalogue of the collection exhibited at South Ken-
sington, and the privately issued catalogue at the Burlington Fine
Arts Club, with illustrations.
MINIM (adapted from Lat. minimus, the smallest; a super-
lative formed from the Indo-Germanic root min-, small), the
smallest possible part of a thing, a particle. In music the name
" minim " (nota minima) was given by medieval musicians to a
note whose value was half a semibreve. It was, as its name
implies, the note of the shortest duration then in use. In modern
music several notes of lesser value, as the " crotchet " and
" quaver," have been added, and the minim is now about half-
way in the scale of " values." According to Thomas Morley
(A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Music, iS97)>
its introduction into manuscript music is ascribed to Phillipus
de Vitriaco, a musician of the i4th century.
In medicine a minim is the smallest fluid measure, being
equal to one drop. Sixty minims make a fluid drachm.
For the religious Order known as " Minims " see FRANCIS OF
PAOLA, ST.
MINING, the general term for the working of deposits of
valuable mineral. The term 1 is not limited to underground
operations, but includes also surface excavations, as in placer
mining and open-air workings of coal and ore deposits by methods
similar to quarrying, and boring operations for oil, natural
gas or brine. Mining may be subdivided into the operations
of prospecting or search for minerals, exploration and develop-
ment, work preparatory to active operations, and working. The
latter includes not only the actual excavation of the mineral,
but also haulage and hoisting by which it is brought to the
surface, timbering and other means of supporting the excava-
tions, and the drainage and ventilation of mines. Finally,
under the heads of administration, mine valuation, mining
education, accidents, hygiene and mining law, will be discussed
matters having important bearing on mining operations.
Special methods of mining are dealt with in the separate articles
on COAL, GOLD, and other minerals and metals. QUARRYING
and ORE-DRESSING, which may be considered as branches of
mining, are also discussed in separate articles.
Prospecting. In the article on MINERAL DEPOSITS (q.v.) the
distribution and mode of occurrence of the useful minerals and
ores are fully discussed. The work of prospecting is usually
left to adventurous men who are willing to undergo privation
and hardship in the hope of large reward though the chances
of success are small. The prospector is guided in his search
by a knowledge of the geological conditions under which useful
minerals occur. When the rocks are concealed by detrital
material he looks for outcroppings on steep hillsides, on the
crests of hills or ridges, in the beds of streams, in landslides,
in the roots of overturned trees, and in wells, quarries, road-
cuttings and other excavations. When the solid rock is not
exposed the soil sometimes furnishes an indication of the
character of the underlying rock. Sometimes the vegetation,
shrubs, trees, &c., as characteristic of certain soils, may furnish
evidence as to rock or minerals below. Search should be made
in the beds of streams and on the hillsides for " float mineral "
or " shoad stones," fragments of rocks and minerals known to
be associated with and characteristic of the deposits. Frag-
ments of coal, or soil stained black with coal, will be found near
the outcrop of coal beds. Grains of gold or particles of ore
may be detected by washing samples of gravel in a prospector's
1 Of doubtful origin. " Mine," both verb and substantive, come
from the Fr., and is usually connected with Lat. minare, to drive
or lead ; but this would normally result in Fr. mener, not miner
Skeat, following Thurneysen, accepts a Celtic origin (cf. Irish mein
ore), but the New Eng. Diet, doubts this.
pan. By tracing such indications up the stream or up the hill-
side the outcrop may sometimes be found, or at least approxi-
mately located. The outcrop of a metalliferous vein frequently
manifests itself as a line of rocks stained with oxide of iron,
often honeycombed and porous, the " gossan " or " eisen-hut,"
the iron oxide of which results from the decomposition of the
pyrites, usually present as a constituent of such veins. Other
netals, such as manganese, 'copper, nickel, may show their
aresence by characteristic colours. Finally, the surface topo-
graphy will often throw much light on the underground structure.
The shape of the hills and ridges is necessarily influenced by
the inclination of the strata, by the relative hardness of different
rock-beds, and by the presence of folds and fissures and other
lines of weakness. A quartz vein or bed of hard rock may show
itself as a sharp ridge or as a well-defined bench; a stratum of
soft rock or the line of a great fissure, or the weakening of the
strata by an anticlinal fold, may produce a ravine or a deep
valley. The bed of fire-clay under a coal seam, being impervious
to water, frequently determines the horizon of numerous springs
issuing from the hillsides. As the coal and the associated rocks
usually contain pyrites, these springs are often chalybeate.
When the location of the deposit has been determined approxi-
mately, further search is made by trenches or pits or borings
through the surface soil.
Exploratory Work. Before opening and working a mine it
is necessary to have .as full and accurate information as possible
as to the following:
1. The probable extent and area of the deposit, its average
thickness, and the probable amount and value of the mineral;
2. The distribution of the workable areas of mineral in the
deposit;
3. Conditions affecting the cost of opening, developing and
working the mine or determining the methods to be adopted.
Work undertaken to secure this information must be dis-
tinguished from prospecting, which is the search for mineral
deposits and from development, work undertaken to prepare
for actual mining operations. Exploratory work is associated
intimately both with prospecting and with development, out
the purpose is quite distinct from either prospecting, develop-
ment or working, and it is of importance that this should be
clearly recognized. It must be remembered that the line between
a workable deposit and one that cannot be profitably worked
is often very narrow and that the majority of mineral deposits
are not workable. The money that is spent in prospecting and
in development is therefore liable to prove a loss. This is a
recognized and legitimate business risk, differing only in degree
from the risks attending all business operations. The risk of
failure in mining enterprises is offset by the chances of more
than ordinary profits. If the property proves valuable the
returns may be very great. While the risk of loss of capital
is not to be avoided, it is of the utmost importance to limit
the amount of money expended while the extent and value of
the deposit are still uncertain and to do the necessary work
by the cheapest methods consistent with thoroughness. As
the information as to the character and extent of the deposit
becomes more definite, and as the prospects of success become
more favourable, money may be spent more freely. The risk
will vary with the character of the deposit. In the case of the
cheaper and more abundant minerals, such as coal and iron ore,
and of large deposits of low-grade ores, the extent and character
of the deposit can gc-nerally be determined by surface examina-
tions at comparatively small expense. On the other hand, in
the case of less regular deposits, including most metalliferous
veins, and especially those of the precious metals, the uncertainty
is often very great, and it is sometimes necessary to work on
a small scale for months before any considerable expenditure
of money is justified.
The quickest and cheapest method is by surface explorations.
The work of the prospector frequently furnishes much of the
information required. By sinking additional pits or by ex-
tending the costeaning trenches and uncovering the outcrop of
the deposit more fully 'it is sometimes possible to obtain all the
MINING
529
Boring.
information required for the most extensive and important
mining operations. Even when the outcrop is oxidized, and
Surface the mineral character and richness of the deposit is
Expiora- altered thereby, it is possible to determine variations
in thickness and the extent and distribution of the
rich and barren areas by outcrop measurements. Information of
this sort obtained by surface exploration is often as conclusive as
similar information obtained from underground workings. If
the deposit shows great variations in thickness in its outcrop
along the surface it is probable that a drift or a slope would
show the same thing in depth. If the workable areas are poor,
and appear only at long intervals along the outcrop, the chances
of discovering richer areas by a shaft are very small.
In many cases underground exploration is necessary. For
example, the deposit does not outcrop as in the case of blind
veins and flat deposits below the general level
of the country; or the outcrop lies beyond the limits
of the property or under water or water-bearing formations,
or is covered by quicksand, or is deeply buried. For such
buried deposits boring is cheaper than sinking. In the case
of coal, salt, iron ore, pyrite and other homogeneous minerals,
boring may give all the information required. With a number
of holes the average thickness and probable extent of the deposit
may be determined, at least approximately. When the deposit
is vertical or steeply inclined, horizontal or inclined bore-holes
will be necessary. This will increase the cost of boring and will
render the holes more likely to swerve from the true direction.
In the case of metalliferous deposits of varying thickness or
irregular distribution the information from bore-holes is less
satisfactory. A large number of holes must be bored to obtain,
even approximately, the average thickness and value of the ore
and the shape and size of the ore bodies. In extreme cases
the results from boring are likely to be untrustworthy and
misleading unless the work is done on such a scale that the cost
becomes prohibitory.
While the information obtained by surface explorations
is always valuable, and sometimes conclusive, as to the value
Under- ^ ' ne deposit, it is usually necessary to supplement
ground Ex- and confirm it by underground work. The outcrop
pioration. o f a metalliferous vein is generally more or less
altered by oxidation, and often a part of the valuable mineral
has been converted into a soluble form and leached out. These
conditions sometimes extend to a considerable depth. Below
the oxidized outcrop the vein is often increased in value by
secondary enrichment, sometimes to a depth of several hundred
feet. In the case of such altered deposits surface exploration
alone is likely to be misleading, and it is important to push
the underground exploration far enough to reach the unaltered
part of the deposit, or at least deep enough to make it certain that
there is a sufficient quantity of altered or enriched ore to form the
basis of profitable mining operations. As the sinking of shafts
or the driving of narrow entries or drifts is expensive, and as the
mineral extracted rarely pays more than a small fraction of
the cost, it is usual to plan this exploratory work so that the
openings made shall serve some useful purpose later. The
mistake is often made of sinking large and expensive shafts, or
driving costly tunnels, before it is fully proved that the deposit
can be worked on a scale to warrant such developments, and,
indeed, too often before it is known that the deposit can be
worked at all; and in too many cases large amounts of money
are thus unnecessarily lost by over-sanguine mine managers.
It is, however, often advisable that the money spent in surface
or underground exploration should at the beginning be spent
for information alone. The information so gained not only
determines the value of the deposit, but also serves to indicate
the best methods of development and of working. The money
so spent, if judiciously used, insures the undertaking against
loss by diminishing the mining risk, and is thus analogous to
premiums paid to insure against fire or other sources of loss.
Development. As soon as it appears reasonably certain
that the property is workable the mine will be opened by one
or more shafts, drifts or tunnels, and the underground passages
for active mining operations will be started. A drift or entry
is a horizontal passageway starting from the outcrop and
following the deposit. The former term is used in metal-mines
and the latter in coal-mining. A tunnel differs from a drift
in that it is driven across the strata to intersect the deposit.
Either may be used for drainage of the mine workings, in which
case it becomes an adit. A mine should always be opened by
drift or entry if practicable, as thereby the expense of hoisting
and pumping is avoided. Drifts, entries and tunnels find their
chief application in mining regions cut by deep valleys. When,
however, the deposit lies below the surface the mine must be
opened by a shaft. If the outcrop of the vein or bed is accessible
the shaft may be inclined and sunk to follow the deposit. This
is in general a cheaper and quicker method of development
for inclined deposits than by a vertical shaft, and it has the
added advantage that much information as to the character
of the deposit is obtained as the shaft is sunk. When the
deposit lying below the surface is horizontal, or nearly so,
or when the outcrop of an inclined deposit is not accessible,
a vertical shaft will be necessary. Vertical shafts are better
adapted to rapid hoisting, and have therefore somewhat greater
capacity, than inclined shafts. They are to be preferred also
for very deep shafts, or for sinking in difficult ground. Drifts
and inclined shafts following the deposit may prove difficult
of maintenance when the workings become large and settle-
ment of the overlying strata begins. Large pillars of mineral
should be left for the protection of the main openings, whether
these be shafts or adits. In the case of very thick beds and
mass deposits the main shaft or tunnel will preferably be located
in the foot-wall.
Figs, i and 2 illustrate the development of a metal-vein
by two adits, two inclined shafts in the lode, and by a deep
vertical shaft connected with Solm) ;, - .
the lode by horizontal cross
cuts. The stippled areas
represent the ore shoots and
the white areas the barren
portions of the lode. The
levels are supposed to be
10 fathoms (60 ft.) apart.
As the mine is opened the
deposit is subdivided into
blocks of convenient size by
parallel passages, which form
later the main haulage roads,
and by transverse openings
for ventilation. In metal-
mines the main passages are
known as levels, and these
are connected at intervals by winzes or small shafts. In coal
mines, entries and headings, bords and walls serve similar
purposes. The size of the blocks or the distance between the
I
WEST.
II
FIG. 2.
main passages is determined mainly by considerations of
convenience and economy in excavating and handling the
530
MINING
mineral, and by the possibility of supporting the roof long
enough to permit the excavation of the mineral without
unnecessary risk or expense. In metal mining, when the
workable portions of the deposit are small and separated by
unworkable areas, the levels serve also the purpose of explora-
tion, and in such cases must not be so far apart as to risk
missing valuable mineral. In coal-mines main entries are often
100 yds. apart, while in metal-mines the distance between
levels rarely exceeds 50 yds. and sometimes is but 50 or 60 ft.
In irregular and uncertain deposits this work of development
should be kept at all times so far in advance of mining opera-
tions as to ensure a regular and uniform output. In some cases,
where the barren areas' are large, it may be necessary to have
two or three years' supply of ore thus blocked out in advance.
A mine, however, may be over-developed, which results in loss
of interest on the capital unnecessarily locked up for years
by excessive development, and involves additional cost for the
maintenance of such openings until they are needed for active
mining operations.
Working. When the development of a mine has advanced
sufficiently the operation of .working or extracting the mineral
begins. The method to be adopted will vary with the thickness
and character of the deposit, with its inclination, and to some
extent with the character of the enclosing rocks, the depth
below the surface, and other conditions. The safety of the
men must be one of the first considerations of the mine operator.
In most civilized countries the safety of mine workers is guarded
by stringent laws and enforced by the careful supervision of
mine inspectors on behalf of the government. The method
of mining adopted must secure the extraction of the mineral
at a minimum cost. The principal item in mining cost is that of
labour, which is expended chiefly in breaking down the mineral,
either by the use of hand tools or with the aid of powder.
Labour is also expended in handling the mineral in the working-
places and in bringing it to the mine-cars in which it is brought
to the surface. Narrow and contracted working-places are
to be avoided, as in such places the cost of breaking ground
is always large. Economy in handling makes it desirable to
bring the mine-cars as near as may be to the point where the
mineral is broken. This can be done in incb'ned deposits, it
can often be done by the aid of mechanical appliances, though
sometimes at an expense not warranted in the saving in the
labour of loading. In steeply inclined beds the working-place
can be so arranged that the mineral will fall or slide from the
place where it is broken down to the main haulage road. The
greatest difficulty is found where the inclination of the deposit
is too great to permit the mine-cars to be brought into the
working-place and yet not great enough to allow the mineral to
fall or slide to a point where it can be loaded.
While it is always desirable to provide large working-places,
the size of the working-place is limited by the thickness and
size of strength of the overlying beds forming the roof
Working- or hanging wall of the mine. With thick and strong
Places. rocks the working-places may sometimes exceed
100 or even 200 ft. in width. Indeed in metal-mines 100 ft.
is the usual distance from one level to the next. With weak
and thin beds forming the roof the working-places are often
not wider than 20 or 30 ft. as in most coal-mines. While the
width of the working-place is thus limited by the strength
of the roof, its length is determined by other considera-
tions namely, the rapidity with which the mining work can be
conducted and the length of time it is practicable to keep the
working-place open, and also by the increased difficulty of
handling the minerals sometimes experienced when the workings
reach undue length. In long-wall and in the work of mining
pillars the roof will be supported on one side only, the over-
hanging beds acting as cantilevers. The working-place in such
case is considerably narrower than in rooms or slopes, and
there is also greater difficulty in supporting the roof because
the projecting beds tend to break close to the point of support
where the strain is greatest. This tendency is overcome by the
use of timber supports so disposed as to ensure the breaking
of the overhanging roof at a safe distance from the. working-
face and prevent the interruption of the work that might
otherwise result.
While it is always desirable to work the deposit so as to
extract the mineral completely, it frequently happens that
this can only be done at greatly increased cost. In Complete
the case of cheap and abundant minerals and low- Extraction
grade ore deposits it is sometimes necessary to otMlaeral -
sacrifice a considerable proportion of the mineral, which is
left for the support of the overlying strata. A similar sacrifice
in the shape of pillars is often necessary to support the surface,
either to avoid injury to valuable structures or to prevent
a flooding of the mine. As already noted large pillars must
always be left to protect shafts, adits and the more important
mine-passages necessary for drainage, ventilation and the
haulage of mineral. In the early history of mining there was
but little attempt at systematic development and working,
and the mines were often irregular and tortuous. Fig. 3 is
FIG. 3.
an old Mexican silver-mine of this type. In such mines the
mineral was carried out on the backs of men, and the water
was laboriously raised by a long line of suction-pumps, operated
by hand, each lifting the water a few feet only. With but
slight modifications permitting the use of pumps and hoisting-
machinery equally simple methods of mining may be seen to-day
when the deposit is of small extent. Fig. 4 is a portion of
a mine which consists of a series of
irregular chambers with the roof sup-
ported on small pillars left at intervals
for the purpose. In the systematic
mining of larger deposits, the simplest
plan consists in mining large areas by
means of numerous working-places under
the protection of pillars of mineral left
for the purpose, and later mining these
pillars systematically, allowing the
overlying rock beds to fall and fill the abandoned workings.
In shallow mines the pillars are small and the saving of
the mineral of minor importance. In deep mines the pillars
may furnish the bulk of the product, and the control of the fall
of the roof, so as to permit the successful extraction of the
mineral, demands a well-schemed plan of operation. In the
robbing of pillars, timber is necessary for the support of
MINING
the roof .in the working-places, and later to control the fall
of the roof while the pillars are mined. More effective
support and control of the roof may be secured by .he use of
rock-filling alone or with timber. By the use of rock-filling
it is even possible to dispense with pillars of mineral; or, if
pillars are left, the use of rock-filling greatly facilitates sub-
sequent robbing operations. Rock-filling will be used whenever
a large proportion of barren material must be mined with the
ore. If rock-filling must be brought from the surface its use
will generally be confined to mines in which it is difficult to
support the roof in any other way. Reek-filling yields and
becomes consolidated under heavy pressure, and therefore
does not furnish a rigid support of the overlying strata, but
rather a cushion to control and equalize the subsidence.
With soft material, pillars must be large, even at moderate
depths below the surface, and it involves less labour to leave
Room- and long rectangular pillars than to form numerous
Pillar- square ones. This leads to the adoption of the
Mining. room and pillar system so common in coal-mining.
Fig. 5 is a mine in a bed of soft iron ore worked by a series
of inclined shafts, from which long horizontal rooms branch
off right and left.
The usual method of working metal-mines is by overhand
and underhand sloping, using rock-filling' or pillars of mineral
to support the roof. Fig. 6 represents a portion
of one of the Lake Superior copper-mines worked
by overhand sloping. A stope is that portion of the working
assigned to a party of miners, and the block of ground is usually
FIG. 6.
divided into three or four slopes at varying heights above the
main level, the lowest being known as Ihe culting-out slope,
the olhers as Ihe firsl and second back slopes in ascending
order. In sleep pilching beds sufficienl excavaled malerial
is allowed lo remain in Ihe slope for Ihe supporl of the machines
and men, the excess being drawn out from time to lime and
loaded inlo cars. The resl of Ihe mineral is allowed lo remain
unlil Ihe slope has so far advanced lhal ils supporl is no longer
needed. This melhod of mining requires but liltle timbering,
only a single line of timber and lagging over the level, called the
slull. When Ihe roof is weak, or when il is undesirable lo leave
so much ore in Ihe slopes, false slulls are somelimes creeled
in Ihe upper parl of Ihe slope. The ore below Ihe false slulls
can Ihen be drawn oul wilhoul wailing for Ihe complelion
of Ihe lop slope. When Ihe mineral does nol sland well in
the pillar il will be necessary lo erect a line of timbers wilh
lagging so as lo shealhe the under-side of the pillar and prevent
FIG. 7
its falling. It is not desirable to leave large areas standing
upon pillars in Ihe mine, and as soon as the work on any level
is completed Ihe pillar below should be mined oul as far as
is safe, and Ihe abandoned portion of Ihe mine allowed lo cave
in and lessen Ihe weight on the pillars elsewhere. The block
or ground belween levels is somelimes mined by underhand
sloping (fig. 7.). In this case Ihe advanced drift is run under-
neath Ihe pillar, and Ihe ground below is mined in descending
steps. This plan has the advanlage of requiring lillle or no
limbering when Ihe mineral is slrong enough lo sland well in
Ihe pillars and when Ihe hanging wall is good. The main haulage
Iracks are laid al Ihe bottom of the stope, which Ihus forms Ihe
level. In Ihis melhod of mining Ihe different slopes musl
be kept close togelher; olherwise there is much added labour
in shovelling Ihe broken ore down to the main level. This
melhod has Ihe advanlage of permitting Ihe ore lo be sent
to the surface as fasl as it is mined instead of being left for
some monlhs in Ihe slopes for the men to sland upon. Il has
Ihe disadvanlage lhal Ihe dislance from one level lo the next
cannol usually be more lhan fifty feet without increasing
greatly Ihe chances of injury lo Ihe men from falling rock.
The melhod is Ihen praclicable and safe only wilh exceptionally
slrong mineral and roof. In melal-mines producing abundant
rock-filling the overhand method of sloping, illuslraled in
fig. 8, is used. In Ihis Ihe sloping conlracls run vertically,
FIG. 8.
and each parly of conlraclors has one or more mills or limbered
chules Ihrough which Ihe rich ore is conveyed lo Ihe level
below and loaded in cars. The ore as mined is hand-picked
and Ihe barren malerial allowed lo remain in the slope where it
532
MINING
falls. In this method of mining no pillars need be left under
the levels, as the rock-filling gives sufficient support to the
roof. This method of mining affords the maximum of safety to
the miners.
In the working of thick deposits the block of ground between
two levels is divided into horizontal sections or floors which
Working are worked either from above downward or from
ot Thick the bottom upward; in the first case the separate
Deposits, floors are worked by one of the caving systems; in
the second, generally with the aid' of filling. Fig. o illustrates
the working of a block of ground by the top-slice caving system.
Above, the ground has been completely worked out from the
surface, and the space formerly occupied by ore is now filled
with the debris of the overlying strata which has caved in above
the block of ore now being worked. There is considerable
thickness of old timber left from the working of the upper levels.
This mat of timber forms a roof under the protection of
which the mining of the ore proceeds downward floor by floor.
The working-floors are connected by winzes with the main
haulage roads below. These winzes serve for ventilation, for
the passage of the workmen, and for chutes through which the
ore is dumped to the level below. The working out of each floor
is conducted much as if it were a bed of corresponding thickness.
Haulage roads are driven in the ore so as to divide the floor
into areas of convenient size. These separate areas are then
mined in small rooms, each room being timbered as in mining
under a weak roof rock. The room is driven in this way from
one haulage road to another or to the boundary of the ore body.
On completion of any room the timbers are withdrawn and the
overlying mass of timber and rock is allowed to fall and a new
room is started immediately alongside of the one just completed.
In this way the whole floor is worked out and the mat of timber
and overlying rock is gradually lowered and rests upon the top
of the ore forming the floor below. Before abandoning a room
it is usual to cover the bottom of the working-place with lagging-
poles, which facilitate the mining of the floor below. In this
manner one floor after another is worked until the floor contain-
ing the main haulage roads of the level below is reached. In
the meantime a new level and a system of haulage roads have
been driven a hundred feet below, and winzes have been driven
upward to connect with the old level which is to be abandoned.
The floor containing these old haulage roads now becomes the top
slice of the one hundred-foot block of ground below and is mined
out as described. Several floors may be mined simultaneously,
the workings in the upper floor being kept in advance of those
below, so as to allow the broken mass above to become con-
solidated before it is again disturbed by the working places
of the next floor. This system permits the complete extraction
of the ore at moderate cost and without danger to the men.
The subdrift caving system, fig. 10, differs from the top-slice
system mainly in the greater thickness given to the working
floors, which may be from 12 to 40 ft. in thickness, whereas
in the top-slice system the height of the floor is limited by the
length of the timbers used in the working-rooms, rarely over
8 or 10 ft. The subdrift system requires a smaller amount
of narrow work in excavating the necessary haulage roads,
and is therefore better adapted to hard ores in which such
narrow wi*rk is expensive. The mining of each floor is carried
on in sections with small working-places which are first driven
of moderate height to their full length and width, leaving a
back of ore above and pillars of ore between to support the upper
portion of the upper layer or floor. These pillars and the
back of ore above are then mined in retreating back towards the
haulage road. The subdrift system is somewhat cheaper than
the top-slice system, the output per man being greater.
The bottom-slice caving system of mining begins at the
bottom of a hundred-foot block of ground, a floor being excavated
under the whole area, leaving pillars of sufficient size to support
the ground, above. These pillars are then filled with blast
holes which are fired simultaneously, permitting the whole
block of ground to the level above to drop. A floor is then
reopened in this fallen ore, leaving pillars for temporary support
which are blasted out as before. This is the cheapest of the
three caving systems, but is applicable only when the deposit
lies between walls of very solid rock, as otherwise wall rock
is liable to cave with and become mixed with ore, which adds
greatly to the expense of handling.
When rock filling is available, as when the ore contains much
barren material to be left behind in mining, the ore body is
divided into blocks of convenient height as above, and these
blocks are divided into floors, the bottom floor of each block
however being attacked. Each floor is opened up by subsidiary
haulage roads and worked out in small rooms which are timbered
and filled with broken rock when completed. An adjoining
room is next excavated and filled, and thus the whole floor
is worked out and replaced with rock-filling. Work is then
started on the floor above, the upper floors being connected
with the main haulage roads by winzes which are maintained
through the filled ground. Several floors can be mined simultan-
eously, the work in the lower floors being kept well in advance.
Instead of mining in horizontal floors the filling method permits
the ore to be mined in vertical chambers or slices which extend
from one level to the next above and from one wall of the deposit
to the other. When a chamber has been excavated and
completely filled the slice adjoining is mined out, or at times
a block of ground may be left untouched between two
filled chambers and then mined out. In the latter case the
top-slice caving method will usually be employed for the working
of such intervening pillars. In order to lessen the cost of
handling the rock-filling, the excavation sometimes takes the
form of inclined working-places, parallel to the slope naturally
taken by the rock when dumped from above into the working
MINING
533
place. This method of mining and filling can be used when
the work is done in horizontal floors or in transverse chambers.
In the United States the Nevada square set system of timbering
is used in connexion with rock filling (fig. n). The use of the
heavy timbers and continuous framing which characterize
this system facilitates greatly the work of mining and maintain-
ing the haulage roads on the different floors, and gives more
rigid support to the unmined portions of the block of ground
above. These advantages compensate for the greater first
cost. Where each floor is timbered by itself with light timbers,
as is the practice on the continent of Europe, the consolidation
of the rock-filling under pressure gives rise to considerable
subsidence of the unmined ore, which has frequently settled
20 ft. or more before the upper part of the block is reached.
This occasions much added expense in the maintenance and
retimbering of the haulage roads on the upper floors. The
shrinkage of the rock-filling and the settlement of the workings
FIG. n.
can be greatly lessened by the use of hard rock with a minimum
of fine stuff; but even so the advantage lies with the American
system of timbering.
The cost of filling has been greatly reduced by the system
of flushing culm, sand, gravel and similar material, through
pipes leading from the surface into mine work-
Fiushiag. i n g s - Material as coarse as i in. in diameter may be
carried long distances underground with the use
of little more than an equal volume of water. This method
originated in the Pennsylvania anthracite mines in 1887, but
has been employed in recent years on a large scale in Silesia,
Westphalia and other European coalfields. In some cases
it has been found advantageous to quarry and crush rock for
the purpose of using it in this way. Examples of other mining
methods will be found under CCAL.
Where mineral deposits lie near the surface underground
mining may be replaced by open excavations, and the reduced
cost of mining makes it possible to remove the
^Workings, overlying soil and rock to considerable depths.
The depth to which open working can be pushed
depends upon the size and value of the mineral deposit and
upon the expense of removing the over-burden. Open excava-
tions several hundred feet in depth are not uncommon. Where
practicable steam shovels are employed, even when it is neces-
sary to break up the material beforehand by blasting. Steam
shovels are not well adapted to deep excavation unless provision
is made for the rapid handling of the cars when filled. For
deep workings the milling method is usually employed, in
which the ore is excavated in funnel-shaped pits, each of which
connects with underground haulage roads by a shaft. The
ore is mined in the ordinary way, by pick and shovel if soft,
or by the aid of powder if necessary, and the funnel-shaped
bottom of the pit is maintained at such an angle that little
or no shovelling is required to bring the excavated material
to the shaft. Before the bottom of these pits reaches the
level of the haulage roads below, a new set of roads will have
been driven at a lower level and connected with the excavations
above by the shafts. The cost of mining by the milling method
does not greatly exceed the cost of steam-shovel work. For
the special methods by which placer deposits are mined see
GOLD.
Underground Haulage. The excavated material is brought
to the hoisting shaft, or sometimes directly to the surface, in
small mine cars, moved by men or by animals, or by locomotives
or wire-rope haulage. The size, shape and design of the cars
depend on the size of the mine passage and of the hoisting
compartments of the shafts; on whether the cars are to be
trammed by hand or hauled in trains; whether they are loaded
by shovel or by gravity from a chute; and whether they are
to be hoisted to the surface or used only for underground trans-
port. The cost of underground haulage is lessened by the
use of cars of large capacity. In the United States cars in
the coal and iron mines hold from 2 to 4 tons. In Europe the
capacity ranges from 1000 to 1500 lb, though the tendency
is to increase the size of the cars used. In mines of copper,
lead and the precious metals, in which the cars are moved
by hand, the usual load is from 1200 to 3000 lb. These
small cars are constructed so that the load may be dumped
by pivoting the car bodies on the trucks. Larger cars are
usually dumped by means of rotating or swinging cradles,
the car bodies being rigidly attached to the axles or trucks.
When loaded by shovel the car is made low to economize labour.
Wooden rails, protected by iron straps, 'are sometimes used on
underground roads for temporary traffic; but steel rails, similar
to, though lighter than, those employed for railways are the
rule. For hand tramming, animal and rope haulage, the rails
weigh from 8 to 24 lb per yard, for locomotive haulage 30 to
40 lb. Grades are made, whenever possible, in favour of
the load, and of such degree that the power required to haul
out the loaded cars shall be approximately equal to that for
hauling back the empties, viz. about 5 of i%. Sharp curves
should be avoided, especially for mechanical haulage. Switches
for turnouts and branches, &c., are similar to but simpler
than those for railways.
In metal mines, where, as a rule, mechanical haulage is
inapplicable, the cars are moved by men (trammers). This is
expensive, but is made necessary by the small Man and
amount of material to be handled at any given Animal
point. The average speed is about 200 ft. per "*"**'
minute, and the distances preferably but a few hundred feet.
Animal haulage is employed chiefly in collieries and large metal
mines; sometimes for main haulage lines, but oftener for dis-
tributing empty cars and making up trains for mechanical
haulage. In mines operated through shafts the animals are
stabled underground, and when well fed and cared for, thrive
notwithstanding their rather abnormal conditions of life. Mine
cars are sometimes run long distances, singly or in trains,
over roads which are given sufficient grade to impart consider-
able speed by gravity, say from i to 25%. The grades must
not be too great for brake control nor for the hauling back
of the empty cars. Cars may thus be run through long adits
or through branch gangways to some central point for making
up into trains. Near the top and bottom of hoisting shafts the
tracks are usually graded to permit the cars to be run to and
from the shaft by gravity.
Locomotive haulage is applicable to large mines, where
trains of cars are hauled long distances on flat or undulating
roads of moderate gradients. Steam locomotives have been
largely superseded by compressed air or electric locomotives.
Compressed air locomotives are provided with cylindrical
534
MINING
steel tanks charged from a special compressor with air at a
pressure of 500 to 700 Ib per sq. in. The capacity of the
tank depends on the power required and the dis-
Locomor/'e tance to be traverse d by a single charge of air.
The air passes through a reducing valve from the
main to an auxiliary tank, in which the pressure is, say, I25lb,
and thence to the driving cylinders. By using compressed air
vitiation of the mine air is avoided, as well as all danger of
fire or explosion of gas. Electric locomotives usually work
on the trolley system, though a few storage battery locomotives
have been successfully employed. Trolley haulage lacks the
flexibility of steam or compressed air haulage, and is limited
to main lines because the wires must be strung throughout
the length of the line. By adopting modern non-sparking
motors there is but little danger of igniting explosive gas.
Electric and compressed air locomotives are durable, easily
operated, and can be built to run under the low roofs of thin
veins. Their power is proportioned to requirements of load
and maximum gradient; the speed is rarely more than 6
or 8 m. per hour. Electric locomotives are in general more
economical then either steam or compressed air.
For heavy gradients rope haulage has no rival, though for
moderate grades it is often advantageously replaced by electric
and compressed air haulage. Gravity or self-acting
pl anes are for lowering loaded cars, one or more
at a time, from a higher to a lower level. The
minimum grade is that which will enable the loaded cars in
travelling down the plane to pull up the empty cars. At the
head of the plane is mounted a drum or sheave, and around
it passes a rope, one end of which is attached to the loaded
cars at the top, the other to the empty cars at the foot. The
speed due to the excess of weight on the loaded side is controlled
by a brake on the drum. The rope is carried on rollers between
the rails. There may be two complete lines of track or three
lines of rails, one being common to both tracks, and the cars
passing on a middle turnout or " parting "; or a single track
with a parting. An engine plane is an inclined road, up which
loaded cars are hauled by a stationary engine and rope, the
empty cars running down by gravity, dragging the rope after
them. This is similar to shaft hoisting, except that the grades
are often quite flat. In the tail-rope system of haulage, best
adapted for single track roads, there are two ropes a main
and a " tail " rope winding on a pair of drums operated by an
engine. The loaded train is coupled to the main rope, and to
the rear end is attached the tail-rope, which reaches to the
end of the line, passing there around a large grooved sheave
and thence back to the engine. By winding in the main rope
the loaded cars are hauled towards the engine, dragging behind
them the tail-rope, which unwinds from its drum. The trip
being completed, the empty train is hauled back by reversing
the engine. The ropes are supported between the rails and
guided on curves by rollers and sheaves. High speeds are
often attained. Branches, operated from the main line, are
readily installed. In the endless rope system the rope runs
from a grip wheel on the driving engine to the end of the line,
round a return sheave, and thence back to the engine. Chains
are occasionally used. The line is double track and the rope
constantly in motion, the cars being attached at intervals
through its length by clips or clutches; the loaded cars move
in one direction, the empties in the other. There are two modes
of installing the system: either the rope passes above the cars
and is carried by them, resting in the clips, or it is carried under
the cars on rollers, the cars being attached by clips or a grip-
carriage. (For details see Hughes, Text-book of Coal Mining,
pp. 236-272; Hildenbrand, Underground Haulage by Wire Rope.)
Rope haulage is widely used in collieries, and sometimes in
other mines having large lateral extent and heavy traffic.
With the tail-rope system, cars are run in long trains at high
speed, curves and branches are easily worked, and gradients
may be steep, though undulating gradients are somewhat
disadvantageous. In the endless-rope systems cars run singly
or in short trains, curves are disadvantageous, unless of long
radius, speed is relatively slow, and branch roads not so easily
operated as with tail-rope. The tail-rope plant is the more
expensive, but for similar conditions the cost of working the
two systems is nearly the same. An advantage of the endless
system is that the cars may be delivered at regular intervals.
Hoisting. When the mine is worked through shafts, hoisting
plant must be installed for raising the ore and handling men
and supplies. On a smaller scale hoisting is also necessary
for sinking shafts and winzes and for various underground
services. As ordinarily constructed, a pair of horizontal cylin-
ders is coupled to a shaft on which are mounted either one or
two drums (fig. 12). The diameter of the cylinders
is such that each alone is capable of starting the
load. As the cranks are set 90 apart, there is no
dead centre, and the engine is able to start under full load
from any point of the stroke. This is important in mine hoisting,
FIG. 12. Plan of direct-acting hoisting engines, compound
Corliss engines and conical drums. Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio, makers.
which is intermittent in character and variable as to power
and speed required. The cylinders are generally single-expan-
sion, though compound engines are occasionally used for heavy
work. The engine is direct-acting, the drums making one
revolution for each double stroke. In geared hoists the drums
are on a separate shaft, driven from the crank-shaft by tooth
or friction gearing, and make one revolution for, say, 4 or 5
double strokes. The hoisting speed is therefore slower, and
as less engine power is required for a given load the cylinders
are smaller, though making more strokes per minute. Large
and powerful geared hoists are not uncommon. The dimensions
of the drum depend on the hoisting speed desired and the
depth of shaft or length of rope to be wound. Drums are
either cylindrical or conical. Conical drums (fig. 12) tend to
equalize the varying load on the engine due to the winding
and unwinding of the rope. On starting to hoist, the rope
winds from the small towards the large end of the drum, the
lever arm, or radius of the coils, increasing as the weight of
MINING
rope decreases. A similar equalizing effect is obtained by the
use of flat rope and reel, the rope winding on itself like a ribbon.
Tapering ropes, tail-ropes suspended from the cages, and other
means of equalization, are also employed. If, for a two-
compartment shaft, a pair of drums (or a single wide drum)
be keyed to the engine shaft, with the ropes
wound in opposite directions, the hoisting
is "in balance," that is, the cages and
cars counterbalance each other, so that the
engine has to raise only the useful load of
mineral, plus the rope. This arrangement
allows no independence of movement:
when the loaded cage is being hoisted the .'"'
empty must be lowered. Independent
drums, on the contrary, are loose upon
their shaft, and are thrown on or off by
tooth or friction clutches. The maximum
load on the engine is thus greater and more
power is required than for fixed drums.
Steam consumption is economized, when-
ever possible, by throwing in the clutches
of both drums and hoisting in balance.
Fixed drums are best for mines in which
the hoisting is done chiefly from one level;
independent drums when there are a number
of different levels. Hoisting engines are
provided with powerful brakes and fre-
quently with reversing gear. In deep
shafts hoisting speeds of 3000 or 3500 ft.
per minute are often attained, occasionally
as much as 5000 ft.
Formerly hemp and also fibre ropes were
commonly used. Except in a few instances
these were long ago su P ersec led by
iron-wire ropes, which in turn have
been replaced by steel because of
its greater strength. For hoisting in deep
shafts, and to reduce the weight of rope,
tempered-steel wire of very high tensile
strength (up to 2 50,000 or 2 7 5 ,000 Ib ultimate
strength per sq. in.) is advantageously em-
ployed. A i-in. ordinary steel rope has a
breaking strength of about 32 tons, which,
with a factor of safety of six gives a safe
working load of 5j tons. A i-in. plow-steel rope has
breaking and working strengths respectively of at least
48 and 8 tons. Standard round rope (fig. 13) has six strands
535
tempered steel ropes ratios of 150 to i or more are desirable-
To prevent corrosion the rope should be treated at intervals
with hot lubricant. With proper care a steel rope should last
from two to three years.
A frame of wood or steel, erected at the shaft mouth, and
of 19 wires each and a
hemp core. Flat rope is in
favour in some districts. It
is composed of several four-
stranded ropes, without hemp
centres, laid side by side, and
sewed together by wire (fig.
14). It is not as durable as
round rope and is heavier for
the same working strength.
As the sewing wires soon
begin to break, a flat rope
must usually be ripped apart
and resewed every six or
FIG. 13. Standard FIG. 14. Flat eight mont hs. Numerous
round Rope. patent ropes> gome haying
wires and strands of special shapes, have been introduced with
the idea of improving the wearing properties. Such, for
example, are the Lang-lay, locked-coil and flattened strand
rope. Hoisting ropes are weakened by deterioration and
breakage of the wires, due to corrosion and repeated bend-
ing, and should be kept under careful inspection. To prevent
excessive bending stresses the diameter of drum and sheave
must bear a proper ratio to that of the rope. A ratio of 48 to i
is the minimum allowable; better 60 to 75 to i, and for highly-
(From The Colliery Engineer, May 1897.)
FIG. 15. Head-gear.
carrying the grooved sheaves over which the hoisting ropes
pass, is known as the head-gear (fig. 15). In Great Britain and
her colonies it is also called the poppet-head or pit-
head frame; in the United States head-frame or Head '* far -
gallows-frame. Though it is small and simple in construction
for light work, for heavy hoisting at high speeds massively
framed towers, often 80 to 100 ft. in height, are built. Steel
frames are more durable than those of wood, and have become
common in nearly all mining countries, especially where timber
is scarce. A German design is shown in fig. 16. The head-gear
is often combined with ore-bins and machinery for breaking
and sizing the lump ore previous to shipment to the reduction
works.
Cages, running in guides in the shaft, are used for raising
the cars of mineral to the surface (fig. 17). They may have
one, two or more decks, usually carrying one or
two cars on each deck. Multiple-deck cages are s /. *'
rarely employed except for deep shafts of small
cross-section or when the mine cars (tubs) arc small, as in many
parts of Europe. In many mines the mineral is raised in skips
(fig. 1 8), filled from cars underground and dumping automatically
on reaching the surface. Skips are sometimes of very large
capacity, holding 5, 7, and even 10 tons of ore; such are used,
for example, in several shafts at Butte, Montana, in the Lake
Superior copper district, and in South Africa. Fig. 18 is a
small skip; the upper illustration showing position for dumping.
The lower cut is of a skip for either ore or water; note valve in
bottom. Hoisting buckets or kibbles are employed for small
MINING
scale work or temporary service, such as, raising the material
blasted in sinking shafts. They hold from a few hundred
pounds up to i ton. In hoisting from great depths the
weight of the rope, which may exceed that of the cage and
FIG. 16. Steel head-gear, modern German type, constructed by
Aug. Klonne, Dortmund.
contents, produces excessive variations in the load on the
engine difficult to deal with. Moreover, the limit of vertical
depth at which rope of even the best quality will support its
own weight only, with a proper margin of safety, is, say, 10,000
to 12,000 ft.; and with the load the safe working limit of
depth would be reached at 7000 to 8000 ft. A number of
FIG. 17. Light steel safety FlG. 18. Ore and water skips
mining cage and car for gold for inclined shaft. Allis-
and silver mines. Wellman- Chalmers Co., Milwaukee,
Seaver-Morgan Co., Cleveland, Wisconsin, makers-
Ohio, makers.
shafts in South Africa, the United States and elsewhere, are
already approximating depths of 5000 ft., a few being even
deeper. Ropes of tapering section may be used for great
depths, but are not satisfactory in practice. 1 Stage hoisting
is applicable to any depth. Instead of raising the load in one
lift from the bottom of the shaft, one or more intermediate
1 A full discussion of this subject is given in Trans. Ins. Min.
and Met., vol. xi.
dumping and loading stations are provided. Each stage has
its own engine, rope and cage. The variations in engine load
are thus reduced, and incidentally hoisting time is saved.
In shallow mines the men use the ladder-way in going to
and from their work. This is sometimes the case
also for considerable depths. It is more economical ^offri^"'
to save the men's strength, , however, by raising Mea.
and lowering them with the hoisting engines.
At mines with vertical shafts this is a simple operation.
Cages of the size generally used in metal mines will hold from
ten to fifteen and occasionally twenty men. The time consumed
in lowering the men is shortened by the use of cages having
two or more decks. These are common in Europe, and are
sometimes employed in the United States and elsewhere in
mines where the output is large and the shafts deep and of
small cross section. While a shift of men is being lowered
the miners of the preceding shift are usually raised to the
surface in the ascending cages, the entire shift being thus changed
in the time required for lowering. Nevertheless, in very deep
and large mines the time consumed in handling the men may
make serious inroads on the time available for hoisting ore.
At a few mines special man-cages are operated in separate
compartments by their own engines for handling part of the
men, and for tools, supplies, &c. For inclined shafts, where
the mineral is hoisted in skips, the operation of raising and
lowering men may not be so simple. Even a large skip will
hold but a few men, the speed is slower, and more time is
required for the men to get into and out of the skip than to
step on and off a cage. Moreover, skips are rarely provided
with safety attachments, so that the danger is greater. When
the shafts are deep and the number of miners large man-cars
are sometimes employed. These are long frames on four wheels,
with a series of seats like a section of a theatre gallery. Ordin-
arily 4 or 5 men occupy each seat, the car accommodating
from 20 to 36 men. Such cars are in use at a number of deep
inclined shafts in the Lake Superior copper district, where the
depths range from 3000 to 5000 ft. or more. At a few mines
(since safety catches cannot be successfully applied to man-cars)
these conveyances are raised and lowered by separate engines and
ropes. To replace the ore-skip expeditiously by the man-car
when the shifts are to be changed a crane is often erected over
the shaft mouth. At the end of a shift the ore-skip is lifted
from the shaft track the hoisting rope being uncoupled and
the man-car put in its place and attached to the rope. This
change may be made in a few minutes.
Formerly, at many deep European mines, and at a few in
the United States, men were raised by means of "man-engines."
A man-engine consists of two heavy wooden rods
(like the rods of a Cornish pumping plant), placed
parallel and close to each other in a special shaft
compartment, and suspended at the surface from a pair of
massive walking beams (or " bobs "). The rods are caused to
oscillate slowly by an engine, one rising while the other is falling.
Thus they move simultaneously in opposite directions through
a fixed length cf stroke, say from 10 to 12 ft. At intervals
on the rods are attached small horizontal platforms, only large
enough to accommodate two men at a time. As the rods make
their measured strokes one of the miners, starting from the
surface, steps on the first platform as it rises to the surface
landing and is then lowered on the down stroke. At the end
of the stroke, when his platform comes opposite to a correspond-
ing platform on the other rod, he steps over on to the latter
during the instant cf rest prior to the reversal of the stroke,
descends with the second rod on this down stroke, steps again
at the proper time to a platform of the first rod and so on to
the bottom. The men follow each other, one by one, so that
in a few minutes all the rod platforms in a deep shaft may be
simultaneously occupied by men stepping in unison but in
opposite directions from platforms of one rod to the other.
Meantime, the men quitting work are ascending in a similar
way, as there is room on each platform for two men at a time
when passing each other. Man-engines were long used,
Matt-
Engines.
MINING
537
but are now practically abandoned in .both Great Britain and
the United States, and few remain in any of the mining regions
of the world. Their first cost is great and they are dangerous
for new men, as they require constant alertness, presence of
mind, and a certain knack in using them. See Trans. Inst.
Min. and Met. xi. 334, 345, 380, &c.; also Eng. and Min.
Jour. (April 4, 1903), pp. 517 and 518.
Surface Handling, Storage and Shipment of Minerals. To mine
ore or coal at minimum cost it is necessary to work the mine
plant at nearly or quite its full capacity and to avoid interrup-
tion and delays. When the mineral is transported by rail
or water to concentration or metallurgical works for treatment,
or to near or distant markets for sale, provision must be made
for the economical loading of railway wagons or vessels, and
for the temporary storage of the mineral product. For short
periods the mineral may remain in the mine cars, or may be
loaded into railway wagons held at the mine for this purpose.
Cars, however, are too valuable to be used in this way for more
than a few hours, and it is usual to erect large storage bins at
the mine, at concentration works and metallurgical establish-
ments, in which the mineral may be stored, permitting cars,
wagons and vessels to be quickly emptied or loaded. In
mining regions where 'water transportation is interrupted
during certain months of the year the mineral must be stored
underground, or in great stock -piles on the surface. In coal
mining the market demand varies in different seasons, and
surface storage is sometimes necessary to permit regular work
at the mines. For coal, iron ore and other cheap minerals,
mechanical handling by many different methods is used in
loading and unloading railway wagons and vessels, and in
forming the stock-piles and reloading the mineral therefrom.
(See CONVEYOR and DOCKS; also G. F. Zimmer, Mechanical
Handling of Materials, and Engineering Magazine, xiv. 275,
xx. 157 and xxi. 657.)
Mine Drainage. A mine which has been opened by an adit
tunnel or drift drains itself, so far as the workings above the
adit level are concerned. In many mining regions long tunnels
have been driven at great expense to secure natural drainage.
Under modern mining conditions drainage tunnels have lost
much of their former importance. Taking into account the
risk attending all mining operations, which make necessary
large interest and amortization charges on the cost of a tunnel,
it will in most cases be advisable to raise the water to the sur-
face by mechanical means. Drainage channels are provided,
usually along the main haulage roads, by which the water
flows to a sump excavated at the pump shaft. In driving mine
passages that are to be used for drainage, care is taken to
maintain sufficient gradient. Siphons are sometimes used to
carry the water over an undulating grade and thereby save
the expense of a deep rock cutting. As the larger part of
the water in a mine comes from the surface, the cost of
drainage may be reduced by intercepting this surface water,
and collecting it at convenient points in the pump shaft from
which it may be raised at less cost than if permitted to go
to the bottom. Water may be raised from mines by buckets,
tanks or pumps. Wooden or steel buckets, holding from
35 to 200 gallons, are employed only for temporary or auxiliary
service or for small quantities of water in shallow shafts. Tanks
operated by the main hoisting engines, "and of capacities up to
1300 gallons or more, are applicable under several conditions:
(i) When the shaft is deep, the quantity of water insufficient
to keep a pump in regular operation, and the hoisting engine
not constantly employed in raising mineral, the tank is worked
at intervals, being attached temporarily to the hoisting rope
in place of the cage. (2) For raising large volumes of water
from deep shafts pairs of tanks are operated in balance in special
shaft compartments by their own hoisting engine. With an
efficient engine the cost per gallon of water is often less than
for pumping. (3) For clearing flooded mines. As the water
level falls the tanks readily follow it while at work, whereas
pumps must be lowered to new positions to keep within suction
distance. Self-acting tanks are occasionally built underneath
the platforms of hoisting cages. Mine pumps are of two classes:
(i) those in which the driving engine is on the surface and
operates the pumps by a long line of rods passing down the
shaft, commonly known as the Cornish system; (2) direct-acting
pumps, in which the engine and pumping cylinders form a
single unit, placed close to the point underground from which
the water is to be raised. Cornish pumps are the oldest of the
machines for draining mines; in fact, one of the earliest applica-
tions of the old Woolf and Newcomen engines in the i8th century
was to pumps for deep mines. The engine works a massive
counter-balanced walking-beam from which is suspended in the
shaft a long wooden (or steel) rod, made in sections and spliced
together. Attached to the rod by offsets are one or more
plunger or bucket pumps, set at intervals in the shaft. All
work simultaneously, each raising the water to a tank or sump
above, whence it is taken by the next pump of the system, and
finally discharged at the surface. The individual pumps are
placed several hundred feet apart, so that a series is required for
a deep shaft. The speed is slow from 4 to 10 strokes per
minute but the larger sizes, up to 24 in. or more in diameter
by 10 or 12 ft. stroke, are capable of raising millions of gallons
per day. Cornish pumps are economical in running expenses,
provided the driving engine is of proper design and the dis-
advantages incurred in conveying steam underground are
avoided. Their first cost, however, is high and the cumbersome
parts occupy much space in the shaft. Direct-acting pumps,
first introduced (1841) by an American, Henry R. Worthington,
are made of many different designs. Typically they are steam
pumps, the steam and water cylinders being set tandem on the
same bed frame, genera 1 ly without fly-wheel or other rotary
parts; they may be single cylinder or duplex, simple, compound
or triple expansion, and having a higher speed of stroke are
smaller in all their parts than Cornish pumps. For high heads
the water cylinders, valves and valve chambers are specially
constructed to withstand heavy pressures, water being sometimes
raised in a single lift to heights of more than 2000 ft. Con-
densers are always required for underground pumps. Sinking
pumps, designed for use in shafts in process of sinking, are
suspended by wire ropes so as to be raised before blasting and
promptly lowered again to resume pumping. Electrically
driven pumps, now widely used, are convenient and economical.
Mine pumps of ordinary forms may be operated by compressed
air, and air-lift pumps have been successfully employed. Hy-
draulic pumping engines, while not differing essentially from
steam pumps, must have specially designed valves in the power
cylinder on account of the incc-mpressibility of water. They
can be used only when a supply of water under sufficient pressure
is available for power. Centrifugal pumps, constructed with
several stages or sets of vanes, and suitable for high lifts, have
been introduced for mine service. When mine water is acid
the working parts of the pump must be lined with or made of
bronze or other non-corrosive material; or the acid may be
neutralized by adding lime in the sump.
Ventilation. The air of a mine is vitiaced .by the presence
of large numbers of men and animals and of numerous lights,
each of which may consume as much air as a number of men.
In mining operations explosives are used on a large scale and
the powder gases contain large quantities of the very poisonous
gas, carbon monoxide, a small percentage of which may cause
death, and even a minute percentage of which in the air
will seriously affect the health. In addition to these sources
of contamination the air of the mine is frequently charged
with gas issuing from the rocks or from the mineral deposit.
For example, carbon dioxide occurs in some mines, and hydrogen
sulphide, which is a poisonous gas, in others. In coal-mines
we have to deal with " fire-damp " or marsh gas, and with
inflammable coal dust, which form explosive mixtures with
air and frequently lead to disastrous explosions resulting in
great loss of life. The gases produced by such fire-damp or
dust explosions contain carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
in large proportion, and the majority of the deaths from such
explosions are due to this " after-damp " rather than to the
538
MINING
explosion itself. The terrible effects of fire-damp have led
to the adoption of elaborate systems of ventilation, as the most
effective safeguard against these explosions is the dilution
and removal of the fire-damp as promptly and completely as
possible. Very large volumes of air are necessary for this
purpose, so that in such mines other sources of vitiation are
adequately provided against and need not be considered. In
metal mines, however, artificial ventilation is rarely attempted,
and natural ventilation often fails to furnish a sufficient quantity
of air. The examination of the air of metal mines has shown
that in most cases it is much worse than the air of crowded
theatres or other badly ventilated buildings. This has a serious
effect on the health and efficiency of the workmen employed,
and in extreme cases may even result in increased cost of mining
operations. The ventilation of a mine must in general be
produced artificially. In any case whether natural or artificial
means be employed, a mine can only be ventilated properly
when it has at least two distinct openings to the surface, one
an intake or " downcast," the other a chimney serving as an
" upcast." Two compartments of a shaft may be utilized
for this purpose, but greater safety is ensured by two separate
openings, as required by law in most mining countries.
The air underground remains throughout the year at nearly
the same temperature, and is warmer in winter and cooler in
summer than the outside air. If the two openings
to the m * ne are at different levels the difference
' in weight of the inside and outside air due to differ-
ence in temperature causes a current, and in the winter months
large volumes of air will be circulated through the mine from
this cause alone. In summer there will be less movement of
air and the current will frequently be reversed. In a mine with
shafts opening at the same level, natural ventilation once
established will be effective during cold weather, as the down-
cast will have the temperature of the outside air, while the
upcast will be filled with the warm air of the mine. In summer
this will occur only on cool days and at night. When the
temperature of outside and inside air becomes equal or nearly
so natural ventilation ceases or becomes insignificant. In a
mine with two shafts a ventilating current may result from
other conditions creating a difference in the temperature of
the air in either shaft for example, the cooling effect of dropping
water or the heating effect of steam pipes. Natural ventilation
is impracticable in flat deposits worked by drifts and without
shafts.
Ventilation may be produced by heating the air of the mine,
as for example, by constructing a ventilating furnace at the
bottom of an air shaft. The efficiency of such
vent il at i n S furnaces is low, and they cannot safely
be used in mines producing fire-damp. They are
sometimes the cause of underground fires, and they are always
a source of danger when by any chance the ventilating current
becomes reversed, in which case the products of combustion,
containing large quantities of carbon dioxide, will be drawn
into the mine to the serious danger of the men. On account
of their dangerous character furnaces are prohibited by law
in many countries.
Positive blowers and exhausting apparatus of a great variety
of forms have been used in mines for producing artificial
ventilation. About 1850, efficient ventilators of the
Ventilators cen trifugal type were first introduced, and are now
'almost universally employed where the circulation
of large volumes of air is necessary, as in collieries. The typical
mine fan consists of a shaft upon which are mounted a number
of vanes enclosed in a casing; the air entering a central side inlet
is caught up by the revolving vanes and thrown out at the
periphery by the centrifugal force thus generated. " Open-
running " fans have no peripheral casing, and discharge freely
throughout their entire circumference; in " closed " fans the
revolving part is completely enveloped by a spiral casing opening
at one point into a discharge chimney. Fans either force air
into or exhaust it from the mine. The inlet opening of the
pressure fan is in free communication with the outside air,
the discharge connecting with the mine air- way; in the more
generally used exhaust fan the inlet is connected with the air-
way, the fan discharging into the atmosphere. Among the
exhaust fans most widely employed is the Guibal. Many others
have been introduced, such as the Capell (fig. 19), Rateau,
i
(From Mines and Minerals, March, 1905.)
FIG. 19. Capell Fan.
Schiele., Pelzer, Hanarte, Ser, Winter, Kley, and Sirocco fans.
The Waddle may be instanced as an example of the open fans.
Slow-speed fans are sometimes of large dimensions, up to 30
and even 45 ft. diameter, discharging hundreds of thousands
of cubic feet of air per minute. Occasionally, at very gassy
and dangerous collieries, two fans and driving engines are
erected at the same air shaft, and in case of accident to the
fan in operation the other can be started within a few minutes.
Opposed to the motive force producing the air current is the
frictional resistance developed in passing through the mine
workings. This resistance is equal to the square of
the velocity of the current in feet per minute, /^ r> a
multiplied by the total rubbing or friction surface
of the air-ways in square feet and by the coefficient of
friction. The latter, determined experimentally, varies with
different kinds of surfaces of mine workings, whether rough or
smooth, timbered or unlined; it ranges from 0-000000001872 to
0-0000000217 ft> per sq. ft., the latter being the value usually
adopted. A certain pressure of air is required to main-
tain circulation against the resistance, and for a given volume
per minute the smaller and more irregular the mine openings
the greater must be the pressure. The pressure is measured by a
" water-gauge " and the velocity of flow by an " anemometer."
The power required to circulate the air through a mine increases
as the cube of the velocity of the air current. To decrease the
velocity, when large volumes of air are required, the air passages
are made larger, and the mine is divided into sections and the
air current subdivided into a corresponding number of indepen-
dent circuits. This splitting of the air not only lessens the cost of
ventilating, but greatly increases its efficiency by permitting the
circulation of much larger volumes, and has the added advantage
that the effect of an explosion or other accident vitiating
the air current is often confined to a single division of the mine,
and affects but a small part of the working force. The adjust-
ment of the air currents in the different splits is affected by
regulators which are placed in the return air-ways, and act as
throttle valves to determine the volume of air in each case.
The circulation of air in any given division of the mine is further
controlled and its course determined by temporary or permanent
partitions (" brattices "), by the erection of stoppings, or by
the insertion of doors in the mine passages and by the use of
special air-ways (see COAL). In devising a system of ventilation
it is customary to subdivide the workings so that the resistance
to the ventilating current in each split shall be nearly equal, or
so that the desired amount of air shall be circulated in each
without undue use of regulating appliances which add to the
friction and increase the cost of removing the air. In addition
to this it is desirable to take advantage of the natural ventilation,
that is, to circulate the air in the direction that it goes naturally,
as otherwise the resistance to the movement of the air may be
MINING
539
greatly increased. So far as possible, vitiated air is led directly
to the shaft instead of passing through other workings; for
example, mine stables when used are placed near the upcast
shaft and ventilated by an independent split of the ventilating
current.
Deep Mining. There has been much speculation as to the
depth to which it will be practicable to push the work of mining.
The special difficulties which attend deep mining, in addition
to the problems of hoisting ore and raising water from great
depths, are the increase of temperature of the rocks and the
pressure of the overlying strata. The deepest mine in the
world is No. 3 shaft of the Tamarack mine in Houghton
county, Michigan, which has reached a vertical depth of about
5200 ft. Three other shafts of the Tamarack Company, and
three of the neighbouring Calumet and Hecla mine, have depths
of between 4000 and 5000 ft. vertical. The Quincy mine, also
in Houghton county, has reached a vertical depth of nearly
4000 ft. In England are several collieries over 3000 ft., and in
Belgium two are nearly 4000 ft. deep. In Austria three shafts
in the silver mines at Prizbram have reached the depth of
over 1000 metres. At Bendigo in Australia are several shafts
between 3000 and 4000, and one, the Victoria Quartz mine,
4300 ft. deep. In the Transvaal gold region (South Africa), a
number of shafts have been sunk to strike the reef at about
4000 ft. In most cases the deposits worked are known to extend
to much greater depths than have been reached. The possibility
of hoisting and pumping from great depths has been discussed,
and it remains now to consider the other conditions which will
tend to limit mining operations in depth namely, increase of
temperature and increase of rock pressure. Observations in
different parts of the world have shown that the increase of
temperature in depth varies: in most localities the rise being
at the rate of one degree for 50 to 100 feet of depth; while
in the deep mines of Michigan and the Rand, an increase
as low as one degree for each 200 ft. or more has been
observed. In the Comstock mines at Virginia City, Nevada, it
is possible to continue mining operations at rock temperatures of
130 F. In these mines a constant supply of pure air, about
1000 cub. ft. per minute, was blown into the hot working
places through light iron pipes. The air issuing from these pipes
was dry and warm, and served to keep the temperature of the
air below 120, at which temperature it was possible for men to
work continuously for half an hour at a time, and for four hours
in the day. In some places work was conducted with rock
temperatures as high as 158 F., with air 135 F. In these very
hot drifts the fatality was large. In the Alpine tunnels, where
the air was moist and probably not as pure as in the Comstock
mines, great difficulty was experienced in prosecuting the work
at temperatures of 90 F. and less. The mortality was large,
and it was believed by the engineers that temperatures over 104
would have proved fatal to most of the workmen. Deep mines,
however, are generally dry, so that in most cases it will be possible
to realize the more favourable conditions of the Comstock
mines. Assuming an initial mean temperature of 50 F., and
increments of one degree for 100 and for 200 ft., a rock tem-
perature of 130 will be reached at 8000 to 16,000 ft. In
many deep mines to-day " explosive rock " has been encoun-
tered. This condition manifests itself, for example, in mine
pillars which are subjected to a weight beyond the limit of elas-
ticity of the mineral of which they are composed. Under such
conditions the pillar begins to yield, and fragments of mineral
fly off with explosive violence, exactly as a specimen of rock will
splinter under pressure in a testing machine. The flying frag-
ments of rock have frequently injured and sometimes killed
miners. A similar condition of strain has been observed in
deep mines in different parts of the world perhaps due to
geological movements. Assuming a weight of 13 cub. ft. to
the ton, then at 6500 ft. the pressure per sq. ft. will be
500 tons, and at 13,000 ft. 1000 tons; and as the mineral is mined
the weight on the pillars left will be proportionately greater
At such pressures all but the strongest rocks will be strained
beyond their limit of elasticity. At depths of 1000 ft.
and less some of the softer rocks show a tendency to flow, as
exhibited by the under-clay in deep coal-mines, which not
infrequently swells up and closes the mine passages. In the
Mont Cenis tunnel a bed of soft granite was encountered that
continued to swell with almost irresistible force for some months.
The pressure developed was sufficient to crush an arched lining
of two-foot granite blocks. Similar swelling ground is not
infrequently met with in metal mines, as, for example, in the
Phoenix copper mine in Houghton county, Michigan, where
the force developed was sufficient to crush the strongest timber
that could be used. In very deep mines this flowing of soft
rock will doubtless add greatly to the difficulty of maintaining
openings. What may happen in some cases is illustrated by the
curious form of accident locally known as a " bump," which
occurs in some of the deep coal-mines of England. In one
instance (described by F. G. Meacham, Trans. Fed. Inst. M.E.
V. 381), the force developed by the swelling under-clay
broke through and lifted with the force and suddenness of an
explosion a lower bench of coal 8 ft. thick in the bottom of a
gangway 12 ft. wide for a length of 200 ft., throwing men and
mine cars violently against the roof and producing an air-wave
which smashed the mine doors in the vicinity. It is apparent
that the combined effect of internal heat and rock pressure will
greatly increase the cost of mining at depths of 8000 or
10,000 ft., and will probably render mining impracticable in
many instances at depths not much greater.
Mine Administration. In organizing a mining company it must
be recognized that mining is of necessity a temporary business.
When the deposit is exhausted the company must be wound up or
its operations transferred to some other locality. Mining is also
subject to the risks of ordinary business enterprises, and to addi-
tional risks and uncertainties peculiar to itself. The vast majority
of mineral deposits are unworkable, and of those that are developed
a large proportion prove unprofitable. In addition mining opera-
tions are subject to interruption and added expense from explosions,
mine fires, flooding, and the caving-in of the workings. To provide
for the repayment from earnings of the capital invested in a mining
property and expended in development, and to provide for the
depreciation in value of the plant and equipment, an amortization
fund must be accumulated during the life of the mine; or, if it be
desired to continue the business of mining elsewhere, a similar fund
must be created for the purchase, development and equipment of
a new property to take the place of the original deposit when that
shall be exhausted. If, for example, we assume the life of a given
mine at ten years and the rate of interest at 5 %, it will be neces-
sary that the property shall earn nearly 13% annually viz., 5%
interest and 8 % for the annual payment to the amortization or the
reserve fund. To cover the special risks of mining, capital should
earn a higher interest than in ordinary business, and if we assume
that the sinking-fund be safely invested, we must compute the
amortization on a lower basis than 5 %. Assuming, for example,
the life of the mine at ten years as before, and taking the interest
to be earned by the amortization fund at 3%, and that on the
investment at 10%, we shall find that the annual income should
amount to 18-7% per year. These simple business principles do
not seem to be generally recognized by the investing public, and
mines, whose earning capacity is accurately known, are frequently
quoted on the stock markets at prices which cannot possibly yield
enough to the purchaser to repay his investment during the probable
life of the mine.
Mine Valuation. The value of any property is measured by its
annual profits. In the case of mining properties these profits are
more or less uncertain, and cannot be accurately determined until
the deposit has been thoroughly explored and fully developed. In
many instances, indeed, profits are more or less uncertain during
the whole life of the mine, and.it is evident that the value of the
mining property must be more or less speculative. In the case of
a developed mine its life may be predicted in many cases with abso-
lute certainty as when the extent of the mineral deposit and the
volume of mineral can be measured. In other cases the life of
the mine, like the value of the mineral, is more or less uncertain.
Further, both time and money are required for the development of
the mining property before any profit can be realized. Mathemati-
cally we have thus in all cases to compute present value on the basis
of a deferred as well as a limited annuity. The valuation of mines
then involves the following steps: (i) The sampling of the deposit
so far as developed, and assaying of the samples taken; (2) The
measurement of the developed ore; (3) estimates of the probable
amount of ore in the undeveloped part of the property ; (4) estimates
of probable profits, life of the mine, and determination of the value
of the property. Where the deposit is a regular one and the mineral
is of fairly uniform richness, the taking of a few samples from widely
separated parts of the mine will often furnish sufficient data to
540
MINING
determine the value of the deposit. On the other hand in the case
of uncertain and irregular deposits, the value of which varies between
very wide limits, as, for example in most metal mines and especially
mines of gold and silver a very large number of samples must be
taken sometimes not more than two or three feet apart in order
that the average value of the ore may be known within reasonable
limits of error. The sampling of a large mine of this character
may cost many hundreds of pounds. This applies with even greater
force to estimates of undeveloped portions of the property. If
the deposit is regular and uniform, the value of undeveloped areas
may sometimes be predicted with confidence. In the majority
of instances, however, the estimates of undeveloped ore contain
a large element of uncertainty. In order to determine the probable
profit and life of the mine a definite scale of operations must be
assumed, the money required for development and plant and for
working capital must be estimated, the methods of mining and
treating the ore determined, and their probable cost estimated.
Where the deposit is uncertain and the element of risk is large, we
must adopt a high rate of interest on investments of capital in our
computations of value in some cases as high as 10, 15 or even 20%.
Where the deposit is regular and the future can be predicted with
some degree of certainty, we may be justified in adopting in some
cases possibly as low as 5 %. The interest on the annual contribu-
tion to the sinking-fund or its equivalent should be reckoned at a
low rate of interest, for such funds are assumed to be invested in
perfectly safe securities. Allowance must be made for the period of
development during which there are no contributions to the sinking-
fund and within which no interest is earned on invested capital.
Mining Education. It is necessary to have the work directed by
men thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of mineral deposits,
and with wide experience in mining. For the purpose of training
such men special schools of mining engineering (ecoles des mines,
Bergakademie) have been established in most mining countries.
A student of mining must receive thorough instruction in geology;
he must study mining as practised in different countries, and
the metallurgical and mechanical treatment of minerals; and he
should have an engineering education, especially on mechanical and
electrical lines. As he is called upon to construct lines of transport,
both underground and on the surface, works for water-supply and
drainage, and buildings for the handling, storage and treatment
of ore, he must be trained to some extent as a civil engineer. As
a foundation his education must be thorough in the natural and
physical sciences and mathematics. In addition there have been
established in many countries schools for the education of workmen,
in order to fit them for minor positions and to enable them to work
intelligently with the engineers. These miners' schools (Bergschule,
ecoles des mineurs) give elementary instruction in chemistry, physics,
mechanics, mineralogy, geology and mathematics and drawing, as
well as in such details of the art of mining as will best supplement
the practical information already acquired in underground work.
The training of a mining engineer merely begins in the schools, and
mining graduates should serve an apprenticeship before they accept
responsibility fcr important mining operations. It is especially
necessary that they should gain experience in management of men,
and in the conduct of the business details, which cannot well be
taught in schools.
Accidents. Mining is an extra-hazardous occupation, and the
catastrophes, which from time to time have occurred, have caused
agencies to enforce their authority. While in some cases these laws
are unnecessarily stringent and tend to restrict the business of mining
yet on the whole they have had the effect of reducing greatly the
loss of life and injuries of miners where they have been well enforced.
This is evident from fig. 20, which shows the number of men killed
in the coal and metal mines of Great Britain for a series of years.
As will be seen from this diagram the most serious source of death
and injury is not found in mine explosions, but in the fall of rocks
and mineral in the working places. This danger can be reached
only in small degree by laws and inspection; but the safety of the
men must depend upon the skill and care of the miners themselves
and the officers in charge of the underground work. Great loss of
life and injury occur through the ignorance, carelessness and reck-
lessness of the men themselves, who fail to take the necessary
precautions for their own safety, even when warned to do so.
Mining laws have proved chiefly serviceable in securing the introduc-
tion of efficient ventilation, the use of safety-lamps, and of proper
explosives, to lessen the danger from fire-damp and coal-dust in the
coal-mines, the inspection of machinery for hoisting and haulage,
and prevention of accidents due to imperfection in design or in
working the machinery.
Fire-damp and dust explosions are caused by the presence of
marsh-gas in sufficient quantity to form an explosive mixture,
or by a mixture of small percentages of marsh-gas E\plosloas
and coal-dust, and in some cases by the presence of
coal-dust alone in the air of the mine. Explosive mixtures of
marsh-gas and air may be fired by an unprotected light. But when
coal-dust is present, and little or no marsh-gas, an initial explosion
such as is produced by a blown-out shot is required. To
guard against explosions from this cause it is necessary to use
explosives in moderate quantities and to see that the blast- holes
are properly placed, so that the danger of blown-out shots may be
lessened. In dry and dusty mines the danger may be greatly
lessened by sprinkling the working places and passages, and the
removal of the accumulated dust and fine coal. Where large
quantities of fire-damp are present, safety-lamps of approved pattern
must be used and carefully inspected daily. The use of matches
and naked lights of any kind must be prohibited. To lessen the
danger from blasting operations the use of special safety explosives
is required in Great Britain and some European countries. The
use of such explosives decreases to some extent the danger from dust
explosions; but experiment shows that no efficient explosive is
absolutely safe, if used in excessive quantity, or in an improper
manner. Absolute security is impossible, as is proved by the many
and serious disasters under the most stringent laws and careful
regulations that can be devised.
Mine fires may originate from ordinary causes, but in addition
they may result from the explosion of fire-damp or from the acci-
dental lighting of jets of fire-damp issuing from the coal. M f ae p/ res
In some mining districts the coal is liable to spontaneous
combustion. A fire underground speedily becomes formidable,
not only in coal but also in metal mines, on account of the large
quantity of timber used to support the excavations. Underground
fires may sometimes be .extinguished by direct attack with water.
The difficulty of extinguishing an underground fire in this way is,
however, very great, as on account of the poisonous products of
combustion it is impossible to attack it except in the rear, and even
there the men are always in great danger from the reversal of the
1888 18891 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898
ALL ACCIDENTS. IN AND ABOUT MINES.
FIG. 20. Death-rate from various classes of accidents in and about all mines in the United Kingdom from 1873 to 1900.
the enactment of laws to protect the lives of the men engaged in
underground work. These laws are enforced by mine inspectors
who are empowered to call upon the courts and other government
air current, or back-draught from the fire. Further, the burning
of the timber produces falls of ground, making necessary the excava-
tion and removal at times of hundreds of tons of heated rock and
MINING
burning coal, in order to reach the fire. When direct attack is no
longer practicable, it is possible to extinguish the fire by sealing the
mine workings, and exhausting the supply of oxygen. It is necessary,
however, to keep the mine sealed until the burning timbers, or coal,
and the red-hot rocks have become cool, or the fire will again break
out. This sometimes requires two or three months. Where an
effective sealing of the mine is impracticable it is sometimes possible
to extinguish the fire from the outside of the mine by constructing
a large reservoir or tank in the upper part of the mine-shaft and
suddenly releasing a large volume of water by opening discharge-
doors. The mass of water falling down the shaft is converted into
spray, which is carried by the force of the fall long distances into
the workings. Where the fire is in or near the shaft this method
has proved very effective. Mine fires may sometimes be reached
by bore-holes sunk for the purpose from the surface, and the burning
workings below filled by flushing with culm and water. As a last
resort the mine may be flooded with water. This is an expensive
operation as it entails the cost of pumping the water out again and
repairing the resulting damage. If the fire is in working places to
the rise the water may not reach the burning portions of the mine,
but will effectually seal them. But sufficient time must be allowed
to elapse before pumping out the water, as otherwise the fire may
break out again.
Mines may become flooded by the inrush of surface waters in
times of great rainfall or sudden floods, or by the undermining of
surface waters. The mine workings may also be flooded
odiagoffoy l ar g e bodies of underground water. The surface
Mines. floods must be provided with channels of sufficient
size to carry them safely past the mine openings, and intercepting
ditches should be excavated for this purpose, and dams and embank-
ments constructed to divert the flood waters. That it is possible
to work with safety beneath rivers, lakes and even the ocean has
been proved in numerous instances; mines in different parts of the
world having been extended long distances under the sea. In such
cases preliminary surveys should be made to determine the thickness
of rock over the proposed workings. Under favourable conditions
mining may be conducted under the protection of a few yards of
solid rock only, as in the submarine work for the removal of reefs
in the harbours of San Francisco and New York. At Silver Islet,
Lake Superior, mining was successfully carried on for years under
the protection of a coffer dam and an arch of rich silver ore less
than 20 ft. thick. At Wheal Cock near St Just in Cornwall the
protecting roof was so thin that holes bored for blasting more than
once penetrated to the bed of the ocean, and wooden plugs were
kept on hand to drive into such holes when this occurred. In
storms the boulders could be heard striking each other overhead.
When large areas are undermined, as in submarine coal mining, it
is best to have several hundred feet of protecting rock. In Great
Britain the law requires that the workings shall be protected by
120 ft. of solid strata. When the presence of underground bodies
of water is known or suspected, advance bore-holes should radiate
from the end of the advancing working place so as to give warning
of the position of the body of water, these holes being of such length
as to ensure a safe thickness of solid rock.
The caving in of mine workings results from the excavation of
large areas supported upon pillars of insufficient size. While the
mine workings are small the overlying rocks support themselves
_. , and the full pressure does not come upon the mine
pillars. As the workings increase in size the pillars
Ie . . support an increasing weight until finally they are strained
klags ' beyond the limit of elasticity. When this occurs, the
pillars begin to crack and splinter with a noise like musketry firing,
and the roof of the mine shows signs of subsidence. This may con-
tinue for weeks before the final crash takes place. At first a fall of the
roof occurs locally, here and there throughout the mine, and these
falls may succeed one another until the settlement of portions of the
roof has so far relieved the strain that the remaining areas are sup-
ported by the stronger pillars, and by the fallen rock masses. While
abundant warning of the caving-in of the workings is thus given
in advance it may happen that men are unexpectedly imprisoned
by the closing of the main passage ways. The caving-in of the
mine, however, is rarely so complete that avenues of escape are not
open. In many cases, however, it has been found necessary to
reopen the mine through the fallen ground, and even to excavate
openings through the solid mineral. The history of mining is full
of dramatic episodes of this character.
Accidents from the misuse and careless handling of explosives
are unfortunately too frequent in mines. The conditions under
Accidents which explosives may be stored, handled and used are
from carefully formulated in the mining laws of most states,
Explosives but it | s almost impossible to secure obedience to these
' regulations on the part of the miners, who are, as a rule,
both careless and reckless in their use of powder. In some states
it has become necessary to provide for fines and even imprisonment
of men disobeying the regulations regarding explosives.
Mine Hygiene. While mining is not necessarily an unhealthy
occupation, miners are subject to certain diseases resulting from
vitiated air, and from unusual or special conditions under which
at times they are forced to work. Recent investigations have shown
an alarming increase in mortality from miners' phthisis in Cornwall,
South Africa and elsewhere. This seems to be due to the dust
abundantly produced in mining operations, and especially by machine
drills when boring " dry " (rising) blast holes. Drill runners, who
are compelled to breathe this dusty air daily, furnish most of the
sufferers from phthisis. The increased mortality seems to be due
to the general tendency toward forced speed in development work,
which is secured by rapid drilling, and by an increase in the number
of machine drills used in a single working-place. The miners, to
save time, often return to their work after blasting before the powder-
smoke and dust have been sufficiently removed. It is probable
that the carbon monoxide seriously affects the general health and
vitality of the men, and renders them more likely to succumb to
phthisis. More effective ventilation will materially lessen the death-
rate. In the metal mines of Cornwall and Devon special rules are
now in force requiring the use of water in drilling, and other pre-
cautions, to lessen this danger from dust. In some mines dust
seems to have but little effect on the health of the miners; indeed
it is even claimed by some that coal dust decreases the mortality
from phthisis. On the other hand, as in mining ores containing
lead, arsenic and mercury, the dust may be poisonous. The climb-
ing of ladders from deep mines not only lessens the efficiency of the
men by reason of fatigue, but often tends to increase the mortality
from diseases of the heart. In cold climates men coming from the
warm atmosphere of a mine, often in wet clothing, are liable to
suffer in health unless proper provision is made for the necessary'
change of clothing. In such cases the establishment of dressing-
rooms, properly heated, and connected with the mine by covered
passages will be necessary. These " change-houses " are provided
with washing and bathing facilities, and arrangements for drying
wet clothing. Ankylostomiasis (q.v.) is a disease which finds a
congenial habitat in the warm damp atmosphere of mines, ar.d has
become a veritable scourge in some mining regions. The disease-
yields readily to treatment, but is difficult to eradicate from a mine
without stringent sanitary regulations to prevent its spread. The
care of the health of the working force should be entrusted to com-
petent mine physicians, thoroughly familiar with the conditions
under which the miners work, and with the special diseases to which
they are subject. The men should be instructed in the laws of
sanitation, and in the proper care of injured men.
Mine Law. Mine law is that branch of the law of real property
relating to mineral and mining rights as distinct from rights pertain-
ing to the surface of the ground. Under the common law the owner
of the surface possesses all mining rights as well, unless these have
bee'n reserved by some previous owner of the property. From very
ancient times deposits of gold and silver have in most countries
been held as the property of the crown. In public or government
land the minerals as well as surface belong to the state, and not
infrequently these rights have been separated by law and granted
or otherwise disposed of to different owners. It is to the public
interest that deposits of mineral should not be permitted to remain
idle and undeveloped. This has been recognized from the earliest
times, and laws have been framed in all countries for the encourage-
ment of mining enterprise. In many cases the state or the ruler
has sought to obtain a share in the profits of mining, or even to work
mines for the individual profit of the ruler or of the state. But in
most cases it has been found better policy for the state to divest
itself of all interest in mining property, and to extend all possible
encouragement to those who undertake the development of the
mineral wealth of the nation. The mining laws of most civilized
states grant the right of free prospecting over the public lands,
protect the rights of the discoverer of the mineral deposit during
the period of exploration, and provide for the acquisition of mineral
property on favourable terms. Striking examples of the far-reaching
effect of such laws is shown in the history of the Rocky Mountain
region and western coast of the United States, the colonization and
development of Australia, and the development of Alaska.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See C. Le Neve Foster's Ore and Stone Mining
(6th ed., London, 1905), or G. Kohler's Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde
(6th ed., Leipzig, 1903). The follo'wing works may also be consulted :
Books Bertolio, Coltivazione delle minere (Milan, 1902); Brown,
The Organization of Gold Mining Business (Glasgow, 1897) ; Brough,
Mine Surveying (i2th ed., London, 1906); Bulman and Redmayne,
Colliery Working and Management (London, 1896); Colomer, Ex-
ploitation des mines (Paris, 1899) ; Curie, The Gold Mines of the World
(2nd ed., London, 1902); Dsmanet, Trails, d' exploitation des mines
de houille (2nd ed., Brussels, vols. i and ii. 1898, vol. iii. 1899);
Denny, Deep Level Mines of the Rand (London, 1902); Galloway,
Lectures on Mining (Cardiff, 1900); Habets, Cours d' exploitation
des mines (2nd ed., Liege, vol. i., 1906, vol. ii. 1904); Hatch and
Chalmers, The Gold Mines of the Rand (London, 1895); Baton de la
Goupilliere, Cours d' exploitation des mines (2nd ed., Paris, vol. i.
1896, vol. ii. 1897); Hoefer, Tasc henbuch filr Bergmdnner (Leoben,
1897); Hughes, Coal Mining (4th ed., London, 1900); M. C. Ihlseng,
A Manual of Mining (4th ed., New York, 1905) ; Kirschner, Grundriss
der Erzaufbereitung (Leipzig and Vienna, vol. i. 1898, vol. ii. 1899);
Lawn, Mine Accounts and Mining Book-keeping (London, 1897) ; Lup-
ton, Mining (yd ed., London, 1899); T. A. Rickard, The Sampling
and Estimation of Ore in a Mine (New York, 1904); Truscott, The
Witwatersrand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice (London,
1 898 G F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South Africa (New York.
542
MINION MINISTRY
1902) ; Periodical Publications Annales des mines de Belgique (Brus-
sels, quarterly); Australian Mining Standard (Melbourne, Sydney
and Brisbane, weekly) ; Engineering and Mining Journal (New York,
weekly); Gluckauf (Essen, weekly); Mines and Quarnes; General
Report and Statistics (London, annually) ; with details from official
reports of colonial and foreign mining departments; Mines and
Minerals (monthly, Scranton, Pennsylvania) ; The Mineral Industry
(New York, annually) ; Transactions of the American Institute of Min-
ing Engineers (New York) ; The Mining and Scientific Press (weekly,
San Francisco) ; Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
(London); Transactions of the Institution of Mining Engineers (New-
castle-on-Tyne). (H. S. M.)
MINION, a favourite, pet or spoiled person. The word is
adapted from the Fr. mignon (Ital. mignone), of which the
origin is doubtful. Connexions with the O.H. Ger. minna,
love, and with a Celtic root min-, meaning small, have
been suggested. " Minion " is chiefly applied in a derogatory
sense to the " creatures " of a royal court, and thus has been
used of the favourites of Edward II. and James I. of England,
and of Henry III. of France. In the sense pretty, delicate,
dainty, the French form mignon or mignonne is often used in
English. During the i;th century "minion" was the name
of a type of cannon with a small bore. In typography, it is
still used for the type which comes between " nonpareil "
and " brevier."
MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant), an official title both civil
and ecclesiastical. The word minister as originally used in
the Latin Church was a translation of the Greek SiaKovos, deacon ;
thus Lactantius speaks of presbyleri et ministri, priests and
deacons (De mart, persecutorum, No. 15), and in this sense it is
still technically used; thus canon vi., Sess. xxiii. of the council
of Trent speaks of the hierarchy as consisting " ex episcopis,
presbyteris et ministris." But the equivocal character of the
word soon led to the blurring of any strictly technical sense it
once possessed. Bishops signed themselves minister in the
spirit of humility, priests were "servants of the altar" (ministri
altaris), while sometimes the phrase ministri ecclesiae was used
to denote the clergy in minor orders (see Lex Bajwar. tit. 8,
quoted in Du Cange). A similar equivocal character attaches
to the word minister as used in the Anglican formularies:
" Oftentimes it is made to express the person officiating in
general, whether priest or deacon; at other times it denoteth the
priest alone, as contradistinguished from the deacon " (Burn's
Eccl. Law, ed. Phillimore, iii. 44). Thus the 33rd canon of 1603
orders that " no bishop shall make any person a deacon and
minister both together upon one day." Generally, however, it
may be said that in the use of the Church of England " minister "
means no more than executor officii, a sense in which it was
used long before the Reformation. As the most colourless of all
official ecclesiastical titles, it is easy to see how the word minister
has come to be applied to the clergy of Protestant denominations.
The phrase " minister of religion " is wide enough to embrace
any evangelical office, and has about it more of the savour of
humility than " pastor."
The civil title of minister originates in thi same exact sense
of servant, i.e. servants of the royal household (ministri aulae
regis). This origin is still clearly traceable in the titles of some
ministers in Grejkt Britain, e.g. chancellor of the exchequer,
first lord of the treasury, and in the official style of " his majesty's
servants " applied to all. Practically, however, the word minister
has in modern states come to be applied to the heads of the great
administrative departments who as such are members of the
government. On the continent there are, besides, " ministers
without portfolio," i.e. ministers who, without being in charge
of any special department, are members of the government.
In general it is distinctive of constitutional states that any
public act of the sovereign must bear the countersignature of
the minister responsible for the department concerned. (See
the articles MINISTRY and CABINET. For the history and
meanings of the word " minister " in diplomacy, see DIPLOMACY.)
(W. A. P.)
MINISTRY, the office of a minister (q.v.), in all its meanings,
political and religious, or the body of persons holding such an
office and performing its duties; more particularly the body of
persons who, in theory the servants at the head of the state, act
as the responsible executive over the whole sphere of government,
as in the United Kingdom. On the continent of Europe, on the
other hand, the word " ministry " is most usually applied to the
responsible head of a particular department together with his
subordinates, including the permanent officials or staff. In
England, ever since the introduction of monarchical institutions
the sovereign has always been surrounded by a select body of
confidential advisers to assist the crown in the government of
the country. At no period could a king of England act, accord-
ing to law, without advice in the public concerns of the king-
dom; the institutions of the crown of England and the institution
of the privy council are coeval. At the "Norman Conquest the
king's council, or as it is now called, the privy council, was
composed of certain members of the aristocracy and great
officers of state, specially summoned by the crown, with whom
the sovereign usually advised in matters of state and government.
In the earlier stages of English constitutional history the king's
councillors, as confidential servants of the monarch, were present
at every meeting of parliament in order to advise upon matters
judicial in the House of Lords; but in the reign of Richard II.
the privy council dissolved its judicial connexion with the peers
and assumed an independent jurisdiction of its own. It was in
the reign of Henry VI. that the king's council first assumed the
name of privy council, and it was also during the minority of
this sovereign that a select council gradually emerged from the
larger body of the privy council, which ultimately became the
modern cabinet. Since the Revolution of 1688, and the develop-
ment of parliamentary government, the privy council has
dwindled into comparative insignificance. The power once
swayed by the privy council is now exercised by that unrecog-
nized select committee of the council known as the cabinet (q.ii.).
The practice of consulting a few confidential advisers instead
of the whole privy council had been resorted to by English
monarchs from a very early period; but the first mention of the
term cabinet council in contradistinction to privy council
occurs in the reign of Charles I., when the burden of state affairs
was entrusted to the committee of state which Clarendon says
was enviously called the " cabinet council." At first government
by cabinet was as unpopular as it was irregular. Until the for-
mation of the first parliamentary ministry by William III. the
ministers of the king occupied no recognized position in the House
of Commons; it was indeed a moot point whether they were
entitled to sit at all in the lower chamber, and they were seldom
of one mind in the administration of matters of importance.
Before the Revolution of 1688 there were ministers, but no
ministry in the modern sense of the word; colleague schemed
against colleague in the council chamber, and it was no uncom-
mon thing to see ministers opposing one another in parliament
upon measures that in modern times would be supported by a
united cabinet. As the change from government by prerogative
to government by parliament, consequent upon the Revolution
of 1688, developed, and the House of Commons became more
and more the centre and force of the state, the advantage of
having ministers in the legislature to explain and defend the
measures and policy of the executive government began to be
appreciated. The public authority of the crown being only
exercised through the medium of ministers, it became absolutely
necessary that the advisers of the sovereign, who were respon-
sible for every public act of the Crown as well as for the general
policy they had been called upon to administer, should have
seats in both Houses of Parliament. Still nearly a century had
to elapse before political unanimity in the cabinet was recognized
as a political maxim. From the first parliamentary ministry of
William III. until the rise of the second Pitt, divisions in the cabi-
net were constantly occurring, and a prime minister had more
to fear from the intrigues of his own colleagues than from the
tactics of the opposition. In 1812 an attempt was made to form
a ministry consisting of men of opposite political principles, who
were invited to accept office, not avowedly as a coalition govern-
ment, but with an offer to the Whig leaders that their friends
should be allowed a majority of one in the cabinet. This offer
MINISTRY
was declined on the plea that to construct a cabinet on " a
system of counteraction was inconsistent with the prosecution
of any uniform and beneficial course of policy." From that
date it has been an established principle that all cabinets are to
be formed on some basis of political union agreed upon by the
members when they accept office together. It is now also dis-
tinctly understood that the members of a cabinet are jointly and
severally responsible for each other's acts, and that any attempt
to distinguish between a particular minister and his colleagues in
such matters is unconstitutional.
During the jgth century the power of ministers was greatly
extended, and their duties became more distinctly marked out.
As now interpreted, the leading principles of the British constitu-
tion are the personal irresponsibility of the sovereign, the respon-
sibility of ministers, and the inquisitorial and controlling power
of parliament. At the head of affairs is the prime minister (q.v.),
whose duties are more general than departmental; and the other
members of the administration, whose work is exemplified by
the titles of their offices (the more important of which are treated
separately), are the lord high chancellor, the lord president of
the council, the lord privy seal, the first lord of the treasury,
the five secretaries of state (home, foreign affairs, colonies, war,
India), the chancellor of the exchequer, the secretary for Scot-
land, the chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the
postmaster-general, the presidents of the beard of trade, the
local government board, the board of agriculture and the
board of education (all of which were originally committees of
the privy council), the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
and the first lord of the admiralty. These are the more impor-
tant members of the administration, and they are generally in
the cabinet. The subordinate members of the administration,
some of whom are occasionally invited to join the cabinet,
while others are never in it, are the parliamentary and financial
secretary to the admiralty, the parliamentary under-secretaries
of the home, foreign, war, colonial and India offices, the board
of trade, local government and board of education, the junior
lords of the treasury (assistant " whips "), the financial secretary
and patronage secretary to the treasury (the senior " whip "),
the first commissioner of works, the paymaster-general, and the
attorney-general and solicitor-general. There are in addition
the lord advocate and the solicitor-general for Scotland, the lord-
lieutenant and lord chancellor of Ireland (who are sometimes
members of the cabinet), and the attorney-general and solicitor-
general for Ireland.
TABLE OF LORD TREASURERS OR FIRST LORDS OF THE
TREASURY
[The title was at first lord treasurer, except when the treasury
was put in commission. Ultimately special rank was given to one
of the commissioners as first lord of the treasury. From the
time of the earl of Essex (1679) the name given is that of the first
lords, with the exception of the three printed in italics. In modern
times the first lord of the treasury has usually, but not invariably,
been the head of the government or prime minister. A list of the
Prime Ministers is given in the article PRIME MINISTER.
1603. Lord Buckhurst, cr. Earl 1649. Interregnum,
of Dorset 1604.
1608. Earl of Salisbury.
1612. Earl of Northampton and
others. (Commissioners.)
1614. Earl of Suffolk.
1618. Archbishop Abbot and
others. (Commissioners.)
1620. Sir H. Montagu, cr. Vis-
count Mandeville 1620.
1621. Lord Cranfield, cr. Earl of
Middlesex 1622.
1624. Sir J. Ley, cr. Lord Ley
1625, and Earl of Marl-
borough 1626.
1628. Lord Weston, cr. Earl of
Portland 1633.
1635. Archbishop Laud and
others. (Commissioners.)
1636. W. Juxon, Bishop of Lon-
don.
1641. Sir E. Littleton and others.
(Commissioners.)
1643. Lord Cottington.
1660. Sir E. Hyde and others.
(Commissioners.)
1660. Earl of Southampton.
1667. Duke of Albemarle and
others. (Commissioners.)
1672. Lord Clifford.
1673. Viscount Dunblane, cr.
Earl of Danby 1674.
1679. Earl of Essex.
1679. Lord Hyde, cr. Earl of
Rochester 1682.
1684. Lord Godolphin.
1687. Lord Bellasyse.
1689. Earl of Monmouth.
1690. Viscount Lonsdale.
1690. Lord Godolphin.
1697. C. Montagu, cr. Earl of
Halifax 1700.
1699. Earl of Tankerville.
1700. Lord Godolphin.
1701. Earl of Carlisle.
1702. Lord Godolphin.
1710. Earl Poulett.
1711. Earl of Oxford.
1714. Duke of Shrewsbury.
1714. Earl of Halifax.
I7I5- Earl of Carlisle.
1715- Sir R. Walpole.
1717. Lord Stanhope.
1718. Earl of Sunderland.
1721. Sir R. Walpole.
1742. Earl of Wilmington.
1743. H. Pelham.
1754. Duke of Newcastle.
1756. Duke of Devonshire.
1757. Duke of Newcastle.
1762. Earl of Bute.
1763. G. Grenville.
1765- Marquess of Rockingham.
1766. Duke of Graf ton.
1770. Lord North.
1782. Marquess of Rockingbam.
1782. Earl of Shelburne.
1783- Duke of Portland.
1783. W. Pitt.
1801. H. Addington.
1804. W. Pitt.
1806. Lord Grenville.
1807. Duke of Portland.
1807. S. Perceval.
1812. Earl of Liverpool.
1827. G. Canning.
1827. Viscount Goderich.
1828. Duke of Wellington.
1830. Earl Grey.
1834. Viscount Melbourne.
1834. Sir R. Peel.
TABLE OF LORD CHANCELLORS
1603. Sir T. Egcrton, L.K., cr.
Lord Ellesmere 1603, and
Viscount Brackley 1616.
1617. Sir F. Bacon, L.K., cr.
Lord Verulam 1618,
and Viscount St Albans
1621.
1621. J. Williams, Bishop of
Lincoln, L.K.
1625. Sir T. Coventry, L.K., cr.
Lord Coventry 1628.
1640. Sir J. Finch, L.K., cr.
Lord Finch 1640.
1641. Sir E. Littleton, L.K.,
cr. Lord Lyttelton 1641.
1645. Sir R. Lane, L.K.
1649. Interregnum.
1660. Sir E. Hyde, C., cr. Lord
Hyde 1660, and Earl of
Clarendon 1661.
1667. Sir O. Bridgeman, L.K.
1672. Earl of Shaftesbury, C.
1673. Sir H. Finch, L.K.,cr. Lord
Finch 1674, C. 1675,
cr. Earl of Nottingham
1681.
1682. Sir F. North, L.K., cr.
Lord Guilford 1683.
1685. Lord Jeffreys, C.
1690. Sir J. Maynard and others.
(Commissioners.)
1690. Sir J. Trevor and others.
(Commissioners.)
1693. Sir J. Somers, L.K., C.,
cr. Lord Somers 1697.
1700. Sir N. Wright, L.K.
1705. W. Cowper, L.K., cr. Lord
Cowper 1706, C. 1707.
1710. Sir T. Trevor and others.
(Commissioners).
1710. Sir S. Harcourt, L.K., cr.
Lord Harcourt 1711, C.
1714. Lord Cowper, C.
1718. Sir R. Tracy and others.
(Commissioners.)
1718. Lord Parker, C.,cr. Earl of
Macclesfield 1721.
1725. Sir J. Jekyll and others.
(Commissioners.)
1725. Lord King, C.
1733. Lord Talbot of Hensol, C.
1737. Lord Hardwicke, C., cr.
Earl of Hardwicke 1754.
543
1835. Viscount Melbourne.
1841. Sir R. Peel.
1846. Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl
Russell 1861.
1852. Earl of Derby.
1852. Earl of Aberdeen.
'855. Viscount Palmerston.
1858. Earl of Derby.
1859. Viscount Palmerston.
1865. Earl Russell.
1866. Earl of Derby.
1868. B. Disraeli.
1868. W. E. Gladstone.
1874. B. Disraeli, cr. Earl of
Beaconsfield 1876.
1880. W. E. Gladstone.
1885. Sir Stafford Northcote, cr.
Earl of Iddesleigh 1885
(prime minister.Marquess
of Salisbury).
1886. W. E. Gladstone.
1886. Marquess of Salisbury.
1887. W. H. Smith (prime minis-
ter, Lord Salisbury).
1891. A. J. Balfour (prime minis-
ter, Lord Salisbury).
1892. W. E. Gladstone. '
1894. Earl of Rosebery.
1895. A J. Balfour (prime minis-
ter, Lord Salisbury till
1902).
1905. Sir H. Campbell-Banner-
man.
1908. H. H. Asquith.
(C.) OR LORD KEEPERS (L.K.)
1756. Sir J. Willes and others.
(Commissioners.)
1757. Sir R. Henley, L.K., cr.
Lord Henley and C. 1760,
Earl of Northington 1764.
1766. Lord Camden, C.
1770. Charles Yorke, C.
1770. Sir S. S. Smythe and
others. (Commissioners )
1771. Lord Apsley, C., succeeded
as Earl Bathurst 1775.
1778. Lord Thurlow, C.
1783. Lord Loughborough and
others. (Commissioners.)
1783. Lord Thurlow, C.
1792. Sir J. Eyre and others.
(Commissioners.)
1793. Lord Loughborough, C.,
cr. Earl of Rosslyn 1801.
1801. Lord Eldon, C.
1806. Lord Erskine, C.
1807. Lord Eldon, C.
1827. Lord Lyndhurst, C.
1830. Lord Brougham, C.
1834. Lord Lyndhurst, C.
1835. Sir C. C. Pepys and others.
(Commissioners.)
1836. Lord Cottenham, C.
1841. Lord Lyndhurst, C.
1846. Lord Cottenham, C.
1850. Lord Langdale and others.
(Commissioners.)
1850. Lord Truro, C.
1852. Lord St Leonards, C.
1852. Lord Cranworth, C.
1858. Lord Chelmsford, C.
1859. Lord Campbell, C.
1861. Lord Westbury, C.
1865. Lord Cranworth, C.
1866. Lord Chelmsford, C.
1868. Lord Cairns, C.
1868. Lord Hatherley, C.
1872. Lord Selborne, C.
1874. Lord Cairns, C., cr. Earl
Cairns 1878.
1880. Lord Selborne, C., cr. Earl
of Selborne 1882.
1885. Lord Halsbury, C.
1886. Lord Herschell, C.
1886. Lord Halsbury, C.
1892. Lord Herschell, C.
1895. Lord Halsbury, C., cr. Earl
of Halsbury 1898.
1905. Lord Loreburn, C.
544
MINISTRY
TABLE OK SECRETARIES OF STATE
[The substitution of two secretaries for one was the consequence of the increase of business. There was no distinction
of departments, each secretary taking whatever work the king saw fit to entrust him with During the reigns of the first two
Stuarts however, there was a tendency to entrust one secretary with the correspondence with Protestant states and their allies,
and the other with the correspondence with Catholic states. Probably in the reign of Charles II., and certainly as early as
1691 two departments, the Northern and the Southern, were instituted. In 1782 the departments were changed to Home and
Foreign A third secretary of state was appointed in 1794, and he was called the Secretary for War and the Colonies from
1801 to' 1854, when the work was divided, and the War and Colonial Secretaryships were instituted. The Secretary of State for
India was appointed in 1858.]
1717. Earl of Sunderland. J. Addison.
1718. Earl Stanhope. . . . J.Craggs.
1721. Viscount Townshend. . Lord Carteret.
1724 Duke of Newcastle.
1730. Lord Harrington.
1742. Lord Carteret, became
Earl Granville 1744.
1744. Earl of Harrington.
1746. Earl Granville.
1746. Earl of Harrington.
1 746. Earl of Chesterfield.
1603. Sir R. Cecil, cr. Lord Cecil
1603, Viscount Cranborne
1604, Earl of Salisbury
1605
1612. Vacant.
1614. Sir R. Winwood.
1615 Sir T. Lake.
1618. Sir R. Naunton.
Sir G. Calvert.
1623. Sir E. Conway, cr. Lord
Conway 1625.
1625
1625
1628. Viscount Dorchester.
1632. Sir F. Windebank.
1640
1641. Sir E. Nicholas.
1642
1643
1643. Interregnum.
1660. Sir E. Nicholas. .
1662. Sir H. Bennet, cr. Earl
of Arlington 1665.
1668
1672
1674. Sir J. Williamson.
1678. Earl oi Sunderland.
1680. . . .
1 68 1. Lord Conway.
1683. Earl of Sunderland.
1684
1684
1688
1689. Earl of Shrewsbury.
1690. Viscount Sidney.
1692. Sir J.Trenchard.
1694
1695. Sir W. Trumbull.
1697. J. Vernon.
1700. SirC. Hedges.
1701
1702.
1704
1 706. Earl of Sunderland.
1708
1710. Lord Dartmouth, cr. Earl
of Dartmouth 1711.
1713. W. Bromley.
1714. J. Stanhope, cr. Earl Stan-
hope 1718
Sir A. Morton.
Sir J. Coke.
Sir H. Vane.
Viscount Falkland.
Lord Digby.
Sir W. Morrice.
Sir J.Trevor.
Henry Coventry
Sir L. Jenkins.
S. Godolphin.
Earl of Middleton.
Viscount Preston.
Earl of Nottingham.
Earl of Shrewsbury.
Earl of Jersey.
Earl of Manchester.
Earl of Nottingham.
R. Harley,cr.EarlofOxfordi7ii
H. Boyle, cr. Baron Carleton
1714.
H. St. John.cr. Viscount Boling-
broke 1712.
Viscount Townshend,
1748. Duke of Bedford.
1751. Earl of Holderness.
1754
1755
1756
1761. Earl of Bute.
1761
1762. G. Grenville.
1763. Earl of Halifax.
1765. Duke of Grafton.
1766. Duke of Richmond.
1766. Earl of Shelburne.
1768
1768. Earl of Hillsborough, Colo-
nies.
1768. Earl of Rochford.
177
1771
1771
1772. Earl of Dartmouth, Colonies.
1775. Viscount Weymouth, cr.
Marquess of Bath 1789.
1776. Lord G. S. Germaine, Colo-
nies.
1779
1779. Earl of Hillsborough, cr.
Marquess of Downshire 1789
1782. W. Ellis, cr. Baron Mendip,
1794, Colonies.
Sir T. Robinson, cr. Baros
Grantham 1761
H. Fox.
W. Pitt.
Earl of Egremont.
Earl of Sandwich.
H. S. Conway.
Viscount Weymouth.
Earl of Sandwich.
Earl of Halifax.
Earl of Suffolk.
Viscount Stormont.
Home Department.
1782. Earl of Shelburne.
1782. Lord Grantham.
1783. Lord North.
1 783. Marquess of Carmarthen.
1783
1789. W. W. Grenville, cr. Baron
Grenville 1790.
1791. H. Dundas.
Foreign Department.
C. J. Fox. [1783
T. Townshend, cr. Baron Sydney
C. J. Fox.
Earl Temple.
Lord Sydney.
Lord Grenville.
flame Department.
Foreign Department.
War and Colonial Department.
!794-
Duke of Portland
Lord Grenville
H. Dundas, cr. Visct.MelvilIel8o2.
1801.
Lord Pelham, aft. Earl of Chichester
Lord Hawkesbury
Lord Hobart, aft. Earl of
1803.
C. P. Yorke
Buckinghamshire.
1804.
Lord Hawkesbury
Lord Harrowby
Earl Camden.
1805.
Lord Mulgrave
Viscount Castlefeagh.
1806.
Earl Spencer
C. J. Fox
W. Windham.
1807.
Lord Hawkesbury, aft. Earl of Liverpool
G. Canning
Viscount Castlereagh.
1809.
R. Ryder
Earl Bathurst
1809.
Marquess Wellcsley
1812.
Viscount Sidmouth (H. Addington)
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. Marquess of
Earl Bathurst.
1822.
R. Peel
G. Canning [Londonderry
1827.
W. S. Bourne
Earl of Dudley
Viscount Goderich.
1827.
Marquess of Lansdowne ....
W. Huskisson.
1828.
R. Peel
Earl of Aberdeen
Sir G. Murray. [Ripon.
1830.
Viscount Melbourne . . , . .
Viscount Palmerston ...
Viscount Goderich, aft. Earl of
1833-
E. G. S. Stanley .aft.Lord Stanley
and Earl of Derby.
1834.
Viscount Duncannon.aft.Earl of Bessborough
T. Spring-Rice, aft. Lord Mont-
1834.
H. Goulbum
Duke of Wellington . . . .
Earl of Aberdeen. [eagle.
1835.
Lord J. Russell
Viscount Palmerston
Lord Glenelg.
1839-
Marquess of Normanby.
1839.
Marquess of Normanby ....
Lord J. Russell.
1841.
Sir J. Graham, Bart.
Earl of Aberdeen
Lord Stanley.
1845.
\V. E. Gladstone.
1846.
1852.
Sir G. Grey
Spencer H. Walpole
Viscount Palmerston ....
Earl of Malmesbury
Earl Grey. [Hampton.
Sir J. S. Pakington, aft. Lord
1852.
Viscount Palmerston ....
Lord J. Russell ...
Duke of Newcastle.
MINK
545
1855-
1855.
Home Department.
Sir G. Grey ....
Foreign Department.
Earl of Clarendon
Colonial Department.
Sidney Herbert .
Lord J. Russell. [Taunton
H. Labouchere, aft. Lord
Lord Stanley
War Department.
Lord Panmure.
Jonathan Peel.
1855.
1858.
S. H. Walpole .
Earl of Malmesbury
1858.
1859-
1859.
1861.
1863.
Home Department.
S. H. Walpole
T. H. S. Sotheron-
Estcourt.
Sir G. Cornewall
Lewis
Sir G. Grey
Foreign Department.
Earl of Malmesbury .
Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl
Russell 1861
Colonial Department.
Sir E. G. E. L. Bulwer
Lytton, cr. Baron
Lytton 1866
Duke of Newcastle
War Department.
Jonathan Peel
S. Herbert, cr. Lord
Herbert of Lea 1861
Sir G. C. Lewis.
Earl de Grey and Ripon,
aft. Marquessof Ripon
Jonathan Peel
Sir J. S. Pakington, aft.
Baron Hampton
E. Cardwell, cr. Vis-
count Cardwell 1874
G. Hardy
F. A. Stanley
H. C. E. Childers
Marquess of Hartington,
aft. D. of Devonshire
W. H. Smith
Viscount Cranbrook.
H. Campbell-Bannerman
W. H. Smith. . .
E. Stanhope.
H. Campbell-Bannerman
India Department.
Lord Stanley.
Sir C.Wood.cr. Viscount
Halifax 1866.
Viscount Cranbome.
Sir S. H. Northcote, cr.
Earlof Iddesleigh 1885
Duke of Argyll.
Marquess of Salisbury.
G. Hardy, cr. Viscount
Cranbrook 1878.
Marquess of Hartington.
Earl of Kimberley.
Lord R. Churchill.
Earl of Kimberley.
Viscount Cross.
Earl of Kimberley.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
S.' H. Walpole '
Earl of Clarendon.
Lord Stanley, aft. Earl
of Derby
Earl of Carnarvon
Duke of Buckingham .
Earl Granville
Earl of Kimberley.
Earl of Carnarvon
Sir M. Hicks Beach, cr.
Viscount St Aldwyn
1906
Earl of Kimberley
Earl of Derby
Sir F. A. Stanley, cr.
Baron Stanley of
Preston 1886, aft.
Earl of Derby
1868.
1870.
1874.
1878.
1880.
1882.
H. A. Bruce, cr.
Baron Aberdare
1873
Sir R. A. Cross
Sir W. Vernon Har-
court
Earl of Clarendon
Earl Granville
Earl of Derby
Marquess of Salisbury
Earl Granville
1885.
1886.
Sir R. A. Cross, cr.
Viscount Cross
1886
Marquess of Salisbury .
1886.
1886.
1887.
1892.
1894.
I895-
1900.
1902.
1903-
1905-
1908.
H. C. E. Childers .
H. Matthews, cr.
Viscount Llandaff
1895
H. H. Asquith
Sir M. White Ridley,
cr. Viscount Rid-
ley 1900
C. T. Ritchie, cr.
Baron Ritchie of
Dundee 1905
A. Akers-Douglas.
Earl of Rosebery.
Earl of Iddesleigh
Marquess of Salisbury .
Earl of Rosebery.
Earl of Kimberley
.Earl Granville
E. Stanhope
SirH.T.Holland.cr. Vis-
count Knutsford 1 895.
Marquess of Ripon
Marquess of Salisbury.
Marquess of Lansdowne
J. Chamberlain
Hon. A. Lyttelton
Earl of Elgin
Earl of Crewe.
Marquess of Lansdowne
Hon. W. St J. Brodrick,
aft. Viscount Midleton
H. O. Arnold-Forster .
R. B. Haldane
count Wolverhamp-
ton 1908.
Lord G. Hamilton.
Hon. W. St J. Brodrick.
J.. Morley, aft. Viscount
Morley of Blackbur^
H. J. Gladstone, cr. .
Viscount Glad-
stone 1910
Sir E. Grey .
1910.
Winston S.Churchill.
MINK, a name for certain large species of the zoological genus
Putorius (Polecat), distinguished by slight structural modifica-
tions and semi-aquatic habits. The two best-known species,
so much alike in size, form, colour and habits that, although
they are widely separated geographically, some zoologists question
their specific distinction, are P. lutreola, the Norz or Sumpfolter
(marsh-otter) of eastern Europe, and P. vison, the mink of North
America. The former inhabits Finland, Poland and the greater
part of Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains.
Formerly it extended westward into central Germany, but it is
now very rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is
found in places which suit its habits throughout the whole of
North America. Another form, P. sibiricus, from eastern Asia,
of which much less is known, appears to connect the true minks
with the polecats.
The name may have originated in the Swedish maenk applied
to the European animal. Captain John Smith, in his History
f Virginia (1626), at p. 27 speaks of " Martins, Powlecats,
Weesels and Minkes," showing that the animal must at that time
have been distinguished by a vernacular appellation from its
xvm. 18
congeners. By later authors, as Lawson (1709) and Pennant
(1784), it is often written " Minx." For the following descrip-
tion, chiefly taken from the American form (though almost
equally applicable to that of Europe) we are mainly indebted to
Dr Elliott Coues's Fur-bearing Animals of North America, 1877.
In size it much resembles the English polecat the length of
the head and body being usually from 15 to 18 in., that of the tail
to the end of the hair about 9 in. The female is considerably
smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the
end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project
beyond the adjacent fur. The pelage consists of a dense, soft,
matted under fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all
parts of the body and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper
parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern
specimens have the finest and most glistening pelage; in those
from southern regions there is less difference between the under
and over fur, and the whole pelage is coarser and harsher. In
colour different specimens present a considerable range of varia-
tion, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich dark brown, scarcely
or not paler below than on the general upper parts; but the back
MINNEAPOLIS
is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly black. The under
jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle of the mouth, is
generally white. In the European mink the upper lip is also
white, but, as this occasionally occurs in American specimens,
it fail's as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the
white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches
on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail
is tipped with white. The fur is important in commerce.
The principal characteristic of the mink in comparison with its
congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what
the other weasels are to the land, or martens to the trees, being as
essentially aquatic in its habits as the otter, beaver, or musk-rat,
and spending perhaps more of its time in the water than it does
on land. It swims with most of the body submerged, and dives
with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface
to breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams,
breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing
five or six young at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish,
fresh-water molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk-
rats, rabbits and small birds. In common with the other animals
of the genus, it has a very peculiar and disagreeable effluvium,
which, according to Dr Coues, is more powerful, penetrating
and lasting than that of any animal of the country except the
skunk. (W.H.F.)
MINNEAPOLIS, the largest city of Minnesota,. U.S. A., and
the county-seat of Hennepin county, situated on both banks of
the Mississippi river at the Falls of St Anthony and imme-
diately above St Paul. Pop. (1870), 13,066; (1880), 46,887;
(1890), 164,738; (1900), 202,718; (1910 census) 301,408. Of
the total population in 1900, those of foreign parentage (both
parents foreign-born) numbered 118,946, and there were 61,021
of foreign birth, including 20,035 Swedes, 11,532 Norwegians,
7335 Germans, 5637 English-Canadians, 3213 Irish, 2289
English, 1929 Russians, 1706 French- Canadians and 1133
Austrians. Minneapolis is served by the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the Chicago, Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock
Island & Pacific, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis &
St Louis, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Sainte Marie,
and the Northern Pacific railways. It has also three
terminal switching ' lines and the belt line of the Minnesota
Transfer Company, serving both Minneapolis and St Paul.
With St Paul, which is served by the same system of railways,
Minneapolis is the chief railway centre of the Northwest and
one of the greatest in the United States, being the principal
gateway to the commerce of the Canadian and Pacific north-
west. There are a Union passenger station, and separate
stations for the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago,
Great Western and the Minneapolis & St Louis railways.
""The city is situated on a high plateau (800-850 ft. above sea-
level) above the river, and covers an area of about 53 sq. m. It
has an extensive system of boulevards, parkways and parks
(aggregating 2465 acres in 1908). Among the parks are Loring,
near the centre of the city, in which is a statue of Ole Bull;
Lyndale, in the south-west part of the city; Interlachen, just
north-west of Lyndale; Glenwood, in the west of the city; Van
Cleve, Logan, Windom and Columbia in the part of the city
east of the Mississippi river; Riverside, on the south-west bank
of the Mississippi ; and Minnehaha Park, in which are the Minne-
haha Falls, a beautiful cascade of the Minnehaha Creek (the out-
let of Lake Minnetonka), near the Mississippi, with a fall of
50 ft., well known from Longfellow's poem " Hiawatha." The
numerous small lakes in the city (there are about 200 lakes in
Hennepin county) have been incorporated in the park system;
among them are Lake Harriet (353 acres; in Lake Harriet Park),
Lake Calhoun (on which are extensive public baths), Lake
Amelia (295 acres), Lake of the Isles (100 acres), Cedar Lake,
Pqwder Horn Lake (in the park of that name) and Sandy Lake
(in Columbia Park). Adjoining Minnehaha Park are the grounds
(51 acres, given to the state by the city) and buildings of the
Minnesota state soldiers' home (1887); and 2 m. beyond the
Falls, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, is
the Fort Snelling Military Reservation (1819). Seven miles
south-west of the limits of the city is Lake Minnetonka, one of
the most famous summer resorts in the Northwest, a beautiful
body of water 15 m. long, with a shore line of 150 m. encircled
by undulating wooded hills. Among the most fashionable
streets are Mount Curve, Clifton and Park avenues, all in the
" West Division " or south-western quarter of the city. The streets
in all parts of the city are of exceptional width and heavily
shaded in the residential districts. There are handsome resi-
dential suburbs. The court-house and city-hall, constructed
of red Minnesota granite and completed in 1902 at a cost of
about $3,500,000, is one of the finest municipal buildings in
America. Other prominent buildings are the Masonic Temple, the
Chamber of Commerce, the Lumber Exchange, the Bank of
Commerce, the Auditorium; the buildings of the Metropolitan
Life (formerly the Guaranty), the Security Bank, the North-
western National Bank, the First National Bank, the Andrus,
the New York Life, and the Young Men's Christian Association;
Hotel Radisson and West Hotel. Minneapolis is the see of a
Protestant Episcopal bishopric. On the east side of the river
are the buildings of the university of Minnesota (<?..). In
Minneapolis are the Minneapolis College of Physicians and Sur-
geons (1883), the medical school of Hamline University; Augs-
burg Seminary (Norwegian Lutheran, 1869), the United Church
Seminary (1890), the Minnesota College (Swedish, 1905), the
Minneapolis Normal School for Kindergartners, the Froebellian
Kindergarten Normal School, Graham Hall and Stanley Hall,
the Minneapolis School of Music, Oratory and Dramatic Art,
and the Northwestern Conservatory of Music. Between
Minneapolis and St Paul are the main buildings of Hamline
University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1854). The
public library (more than 180,000 volumes in 1908) grew out of
a private library, the Athenaeum (1860), was reorganized by
Herbert. Putnam (librarian from 1887 to 1891), and has several
branches, the most notable of which is the Pillsbury Library
(1904) on the east side; in its main building (Hennepin Avenue
and loth Street) are the offices of the Minnesota Academy of
Natural Sciences (1873), which, with the Society of Fine Arts,
assisted in erecting the building in 1884. Among the hospitals
and charitable institutions are the Minneapolis city hospital,
the state hospital for crippled and deformed children, and
Asbury Methodist, the Northwestern, the Deaconess', the Swedish,
the St Mary's, the Maternity and the St Barnabas hospitals,
Bethany Home, the Catholic orphan asylum, the Washburn
orphans' home, the Pillsbury House (1906) where settlement
work is carried on by the Plymouth Congregational Church,
and several free dispensaries. The first newspaper in the city
was the St Anthony Express, which began publication in 1851;
it is no longer in existence. In 1906 the city had, in addition to
numerous weekly and monthly periodicals (English, Norwegian-
Danish, Swedish, German, French), four dailies, the Tribune
(1867), the Journal (1878), and the News (1903), all in English,
and the Tidende (Norwegian-Danish), established as a weekly
in 1851.
The Mississippi river, which here has an average width of
about 1200 ft., is crossed by 17 bridges (9 highway and 8 railway
bridges). The Federal government undertook to deepen the
channel by dredging and by making two dams and two locks
between the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railway
bridge in St Paul and the Washington Avenue bridge in Minne-
apolis a distance of 1 1 -4 m. from 2 or 3 ft. to 6 ft., and to make
the river regularly navigable as far as the Washington Avenue
bridge, Minneapolis; the project, first adopted in 1894 and modi-
fied in 1907, was 70% completed in July 1908, and up to that
time $1,061,397 had been spent on the work. The enormous
water-power of the Falls of St Anthony, yielding about
40,000 h.p., has been the principal factor in making Minnea-
polis a great manufacturing centre. The rapid erosion of the
soft limestone bed at one time threatened the destruction of the
power, but this has been prevented by an enormous apron and
an artificial concrete floor (completed in 1879). Additional water-
power (25,000 h.p.) is derived from Taylor's Falls on the St Croix
MINNESINGERS
547
river. The proximity of the rich wheatfields of the north-
west, and the extensive timber forests, have made Minneapolis
the greatest lumber and flour centre in the world. The impor-
tance of the flour manufacturing industry was originally due to
the excellent water-power available, and dates from the intro-
duction of improved roller-mill methods in the early 'seventies,
although there were successful mills in operation twenty years
earlier. The enormous flour-mills of Minneapolis (22 in 1907)
are perhaps the most interesting sights of the city. Their aggre-
gate daily capacity is over 80,000 barrels, the largest of them
having a capacity of 15,000 to 16,500 daily. In 1905 the value of
the city's flour and grist mill products was $62,754,446, 51-6 %
of the total value of the city's factory product, and 8-8 % of
the value of the flour and grist mill products of the entire
United States. Food preparations were valued in 1905 at
$1,361,492. Minneapolis is also the greatest primary wheat
market in the world, its 40 or more elevators (of which those of
the Washburn-Crosby Company, erected in 1907, are the largest)
having a net capacity of about 35,000,000 bushels, and handling
more than 90,000,000 bushels in 1908. Its commerce in other
grains is also extensive; in the amount of barley received and
shipped Minneapolis surpasses any other city in the United
States, and in receipts and shipments of rye is second only to
Chicago. The Mississippi river above Minneapolis is made to
serve, by means of a series of extensive log-booms, as the princi-
pal source of supply to the great saw-mills, of which there are
here some of the largest in the world, with a combined capacity
of 3,500,000 ft. a day, and with an average annual cut of
575,000,000 ft. The total value of the lumber products in
1905 was $9,960,842 (lumber and timber, $5,816,726; planing-
mill products, including sash, doors and blinds, $4,144,116).
Other important manufactures with the product-value of each
in 1905 were malt liquors ($1,185,525), foundry and machine
shop products ($2,820,697), structural iron-work ($1,991,771),
steam railway car construction and repairing ($2,027,248),
patent medicines ($1,715,889), furniture ($1,238,324), cooperage
($1,415,360), and hosiery and knit goods ($.957,455). The total
value of the factory product was $94,407,774 in 1900, and
$121,593,120 in 1905, an increase of 28-8 %; in 1905 the
value of the factory product was 39-5 % of that of the entire
state.
Minneapolis is governed under a charter adopted in 1872
(when St Anthony and Minneapolis were consolidated) and
frequently amended. It provides for the election of a mayor,
treasurer and comptroller for two-years terms; for elected boards
of control for library, parks and education, and for a unicameral
city council, half of which is chosen every two years for a term of
four years. The mayor, whose veto may be nullified by an
adverse vote of two-thirds of the council, has very limited
appointing powers, the head of the police department being the
most important of his appointees. The city council elects the
city clerk, city attorney, city engineer, chief of the fire depart-
ment and most of the minor officers. Under a provision of the
charter adopted in 1887 saloons are not permitted outside the
"patrol limits of the business district"; so that there are no
saloons in the residential districts of the city. The municipality
owns the waterworks system, the water supply being obtained
from the Mississippi river.
History. The first recorded visit of a European to the site
of Minneapolis was that of Father Louis Hennepin, the French
Jesuit missionary, who discovered and named the Falls of St
Anthony in 1680; but it is almost certain that he was preceded
by some of the adventurous coureurs des bois, few of whom left
records of their extensive wanderings, and Radisson and Grose-
illiers seem to have visited this region two decades before Henne-
pin. The land on which the city lies, being divided by the
Mississippi river, was for many years under different sovereignties,
the east side becoming United States territory at the close of
the War of Independence, while the west side, after being under
Spanish and French rule, did not become a part of the United
States until the purchase of Louisiana in 1803. In 1766 the
site was visited by the American traveller, Jonathan Carver,
and in 1805 by Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike; the military reserve
which Pike bought from the Indians included a greater portion
of the west side of the present city. After the erection of Fort
St Anthony (1819; later called Fort Snelling), a water-power
saw-mill was erected (1822) to saw lumber for the fort on the
east bank of the river at the Falls of St Anthony. Later flour
was also ground in this mill, which thus became the forerunner
of the greatest of the city's industries. Gradually as the Indian
land titles became extinguished the east bank was settled. The
first settlement on the west bank was made by Colonel John H.
Stevens in 1850, but the land was not opened to settlers until
1855. The village of St Anthony, on the east side of the river,
was incorporated in 1855; Minneapolis, on the west bank, was
incorporated in 1856. St Anthony became a city in 1860,
and Minneapolis, which then had only 2564 inhabitants, soon
outstripped its neighbour after the Civil War, and received a
city charter in 1867. In 1870 Minneapolis alone had 13,066
inhabitants (18,079 w ith St Anthony), and in 1872 the two cities
were united under the name of Minneapolis. The Republican
National Convention met in Minneapolis in 1892 and renominated
President Benjamin Harrison.
AUTHORITIES. Isaac Atwater, History of the City of Minneapolis
(2 vols., New York, 1893) ; G. E. Warner and C. M. Foote, History of
Hennepin County and the City of Minneapolis (Minneapolis, 1881);
Hudson's Dictionary of Minneapolis and Vicinity (Minneapolis,
annually) ; A. Morrison, The Industries of Minneapolis (Minneapolis,
1885); S. P. Snyder and H. K. Macfarlane, Historical Sketch of St
Anthony and Minneapolis (Philadelphia, 1856); and C. B. Elliott's
" Minneapolis-St Paul " in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the
Western States (New York, 1901).
MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minnesanger from Minne, love), the
name given to the German lyric poets of the i2th and i3th
centuries. The term Minnesang, strictly applicable to the poems
expressing the homage (Minnedienst) rendered by the knight
to his mistress, is applied to the whole body of lyric poetry of
the period, whether dealing with love, religion or politics. The
idea of amour cnurtois, with its excessive worship of woman, its
minute etiquette and its artificial sentiment, was introduced
into German poetry from Provencal literature; but the German
Minnesang was no slavish imitation of the poetry of the trouba-
dours. Its tone was, on the whole, far healthier and more sin-
cere, reflecting the difference between the simple conditions of
German life and the older and corrupt civilization of Provence.
The minnesinger usually belonged to the lower ranks of the
nobility, and his verses were addressed to a married woman,
often above him in rank; consequently the commonest lyric
themes are the lover's hopeless devotion and complaints of the
lady's cruelty, expressed with a somewhat wearisome iteration.
That real passion was sometimes present may be safely assumed,
but it was not within the rules of the game, which corresponded
fairly closely to the later sonneteering conventions. The poet
was not permitted to give the lady's name, or to betray her
identity; and a direct expression of passion would also have
contravened the rules. The poems were from the first sung in
open court to a melody (Weise) of the poet's own composing,
with the accompaniment of a fiddle or small harp. That
the minnesinger was no improvisatore is evident from the
complicated forms of his verse, which were partly borrowed from
the Provencal, but possibly owed something to the Latin rhymed
verse 1 of the wandering scholars. The older songs consisted
of a single strophe cast in three divisions, two (known as Stollen
or doorposts) identical in form, stating and developing the
argument, the third (Abgesang) of different form, giving the con-
clusion. Later on, two or more strophes were used in a single
poem, but the principle of their structure was retained. In this
form were cast the Tagelied, a dialogue describing the parting of
lovers at dawn; and the crusading song. Side by side with these
existed the Spruch, written in a single undivided stanza, destined
for recitation and often cast in the form of a fable. The lay
(Leich) was written in unequal strophes, each formed of two equal
divisions. It was applied in the first instance to sacred lyrics.
1 See the Carmina Burana, ed. J. A. Schmeller, 4th ed., Breslau,
1904.
548
MINNESOTA
and was first used in love poems by the Alsatian minnesinger
Ulrich von Gutenberg.
The origin of the native lyric, which flourished especially in
Austria and Bavaria, is perhaps to be sought in the songs which
accompanied dancing. These were not necessarily love songs,
but celebrated the coming of spring, the gloom of winter &c.,
the commonplaces of Minnesang throughout the two centuries
of its existence. The older lyrics, which date from the middle
of the 1 2th century, are simple in form and written in the ordi-
nary epic metres. The earliest minnesinger whose name has come
down to us is Der von Kurenberg (ft. c. 1160), a scion of an
Austrian knightly family whose castle lay on the Danube, west
of Linz. These songs, however, contradict the root idea of
Minnedienst, since the lady is the wooer, and the poet, at the
most, an acquiescent lover. They take the form of laments for
an absent lover, complaints of his faithlessness and the like.
Among the other Austrian and south German lyrists who show
small trace of foreign influence was Dietmar von Aist (d. c. 1171),
though some of the songs attributed to him seem to be of later
date. While the love-song remained in the hands of noble
singers, the Spruch was cultivated by humbler poets. The elder
of the two or three poets concealed under the name of Spervogel
was a wandering singer who found patronage at the court of the
burgraves of Regensburg, one of whom himself figures among
the earlier minnesingers.
The characteristic period of German Minnesang begins at
the close of the izth century with the establishment of the
Provencal tradition in western Germany through the poems of
Heinrich von Veldeke and Friedrich von Hausen. National
elements abound in Veldeke's songs, although the amour courtois
dominates the whole; Friedrich von Hausen (d. 1190) followed
Provencal models closely. The long crusading song Sie darf
mich des Zlhen niel, is a good example of his powers. A close
disciple of the troubadours Peire Vidal and Folquet de Marseille
was the Swiss Count Rudolf von Fenis. 1 The greatest name
among the earlier minnesingers is that of Heinrich von Morungen,
a Thuringian poet who lived on in popular story in the ballad of
" The Noble Moringer." He brought great imaginative power
to bear on the common subjects of Minnesang, and his poetry
has a very modern note. The formal art and science of Minnesang
reached full development in the subtle love-songs of Reinmar,
the Alsatian " nightingale of Hagenau." Uhland aptly called
him the " scholastic philosopher of unhappy love." As a
metrist he developed a greater correctness of rhyme, and a better
handling of German metres. He became a member of the
court of Duke Leopold V. (d. 1104) of Austria, and there Walther
von der Vogelweide (<?..) was first his disciple, and then perhaps
his rival. Walther, the greatest of medieval German lyric
poets, had Reinmar's technical art, but in feeling was more
nearly allied to Morungen. He raised the Spruch to the dignity
of a serious political poem, which proved a potent weapon
against the policy of Innocent III. In 1202 at the court of
Hermann, landgrave of Thuringia, he met Wolfram von Eschen-
bach, who is said to have taken part in the tourney of poets
known as the Wartburgskrieg, made world-famous through Wag-
ner's Tannhiiuser. The Tagelieder of Wolfram give him a high
place in Minnesang, although his fame, like that of Heinrich
von Veldeke and Hartmann von Aue, chiefly rests on his epics.
A new style called by Lachmann hofische Dorfpoesie was
marked out by Neidhart von Reuental (d. c. 1240), who be-
longed to the lesser Bavarian nobility. He wrote songs to
accompany the dances of the village beauties, and comic and
realistic descriptions of village life to please the court. He was
acknowledged by the Meistersinger as one of the twelve masters
of song. Nevertheless, with him the decadence may be said to
have begun.
The Styrian poet Ulrich von Lichtenstein (d. c. 1275) uncon-
sciously caricatured chivalry itself by his Frauendienst, in which
he relates the absurd feats which he had undertaken at his
lady's command, while Steinmar (fl. 1276) deliberately parodied
1 Rudolf II., count of Neuenburg (d. 1196), or, according to some,
a nephew of his who died in 1257.
court poetry in his praises of rustic beauty and good living. In
the lays, songs and proverbs of Tannhiiuser something of both
elements, of the court and the village, is to be found. He seems
to have lived as a wandering singer until 1268, and there very
soon grew up round his name the Tannhauser myth which has
so little foundation in his life or poetry. The Austrian poet
Reinmar von Zweter (d. c. 1260) left some hundreds of Spriiche
political or social in their import. Among the princes who
practised Minnesang were the emperor Henry VI., though the
two songs preserved under his name are of doubtful authenticity,
Duke Henry IV. of Breslau (fl. 1270-1290), King Wenceslaus II.
of Bohemia, the margrave Otto IV. of Brandenburg, Wizlaw IV.,
prince of Riigen and the unhappy Conradin, the last of the house
of Hohenstaufen, beheaded by the order of Charles of Anjou
before he reached his seventeenth year.
The didactic motive came more and more to the front in the
I3th century. The wandering Swabian poet Marner (d. c. 1270)
cultivated especially the Spruch, laughed at the Provencal and
courtly tradition, and there is no very great step from his learning
and his feuds to the conditions of Meistersang. Heinrich von
Meissen (1250-1319), known as " Frauenlob"(" ladies' praise"),
was one of the last minnesingers, and his pedantry and virtuosity
entitle him to be called the first meistersinger.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief MSS. containing the work of the 300 or
more minnesingers whose work has been partially preserved, are
the old Heidelberg MS. (i3th century), the Weingarten Stuttgart
MS. (i4th century) and the Great Heidelberg MS. (l4th century),
formerly known as the Manasse MS. This last is the most compre-
hensive of all. The collection on which it is based was made by
Riidiger Manasse (d. 1304) and his son Johannes at Zurich. It is
quaintly illustrated with imaginary portraits of the poets (that of
Hartmann von Aue in full armour with closed vizor!), and pictures
of their coats of arms. It was printed by F. Pfaff (Heidelberg, 1899).
The completest collection of the minnesingers' verses is F. H. von der
Hagen, Deutsche Liederdichter des zwolften, dreizchnten und vierzehnten
Jahrhunderts (4 vols., Leipzig, 1838), vol. iv. of which contains
biographical matter and a discussion of the music ; K. Lachmann and
M. Haupt, Des Minnesangs Fruhling (3rd ed., edited F. Vogt, Leipzig,
1882) is a collection of the minnesingers earlier than Walther von
der Vogelweide ; there is a comprehensive selection of 97 minnesingers
by Karl Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdichter des zwolften bis vierzehnten
Jahrhunderts (ed. W. Gplther, Berlin 1901) with bio-bibliographical
account of individual minnesingers; see also F. Pfaff, Der Minnesang
der 12 bis 14 Jahrhunderts, pt. i. (Stuttgart, 1892). English trans-
lations of early German lyrics are F. C. Nicholson, Old German Love
Songs, translated from the minnesingers of the 1 2th to I4th centuries
(London, 1907). See also WALTHER v. p. VOGELWEIDE.
Of historical and critical work on the minnesingers, see K. Goedeke,
Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, vol. i. (Dresden, 1881); H. Paul,
Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, vol. ii. (Strassburg, and ed.,
1901), where further references will be found; also A. E. Schonbach,
Die Anfange des deutschen Minnesanges (Graz, 1898); F. Grimme,
Geschichte der Minnesdnger, vol. i. (Paderborn, 1892); K. Burdach,
Reinmar der Alte und Walther von der Vogelweide (Leipzig, 1880);
A. Schultz, Das hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesdnger (2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1889); J. Falke, Die ritterliche Gesellschaft im Zeitalter des
Frauencultus (Berlin, no date).
MINNESOTA, a North Central State of the United States of
America. It is bounded on the S. by Iowa, on the W. by South
and North Dakota the Red Rivet (commonly called the Red
River of the North) separating it from the latter state on the
N. by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario, being
separated from the latter by the Lake of the Woods, Rainy
River and Rainy Lake, and certain of their tributaries and outlets,
and on the E. by Lake Superior and by Wisconsin, from which
it is separated for the greater part of the distance by the Missis-
sippi and St Croix rivers. It is the tenth state in size in the
Union, with a total area of 84,682 sq. m., of which 3824 sq. m.
are water surface. 2 From north to south it is about 400 m. in
length, extending from 43 30' to 49 23' 55" N. lat., and from
east to west its width is about 354 m., lying between long. 89 29'
and 97 15' W.
The north-east part of the state is included in the Great Lakes
Province, and the southern and western parts are in the Prairie
Plains Province. The whole area of the state was formerly a
complexly folded mountainous region of strong relief, which was
2 In addition the state contains approximately 2514 sq. m. of
Lake Superior.
MINNESOTA
549
afterwards worn down to a more nearly level surface, except in
the extreme north-east corner, where ridges of harder rock
resisted erosion. Marine deposits were laid down over the south
of the state after a submergence of the region; an uplift afterwards
made of these deposits a coastal plain. The rather level surface
of the " worn down mountains " of the north of the state
and the coastal plain beds of the southern and western parts
are now dissected by rivers, which make most of the state a
rolling or hilly country, without strong relief. The average
elevation is about 1275 ft. above sea-level or 600 ft. above the
surface of Lake Superior. An extensive water-parting in the
north central part of the state, an elevation whose inclination
is almost imperceptible, determines the course of three great
continental river systems. From this central elevation the land
slopes off in all directions, rising again in the extreme north-east
corner, where the rugged granite uplift in Cook county, known
as the Misquah Hills, reaches an altitude of 2230 ft., the highest
point in the state; and in the south-west corner, where an altitude
of 1800 ft. is reached in the Coteau des Prairies. Only in the
valleys of the Red, Minnesota and Mississippi rivers does the
elevation fall below 800 ft. In the southern and central portions
of the state open rolling prairies interspersed with groves and
belts of oak and other deciduous hard-wood timber predominate.
A little north of the centre the state is traversed from north-
west to south-east by the extensive forest known as the " Big
Woods," in which also oak occurs most frequently. In the
northern part of the state the great pine belt stretches from the
head of Lake Superior westward to the confines of the Red
River Valley, while along the north border and in the north-east
the forest growth is almost exclusively tamarack and dwarf
pine. More than three-fourths of the area of the state is arable,
the small percentage of non-arable land lying principally in the
north-eastern regions, which afford compensation in the form of
rich mineral deposits. Of the three great continental river
systems above mentioned, the Red River and its tributaries
drain the western and west central slope northward through
Lake Winnipeg into Hudson Bay; the other two being the St
Lawrence system, to which the St Louis River and its branches
and several smaller streams flowing into Lake Superior con-
tribute their waters by way of the Great Lakes and the Missis-
sippi, which with its tributaries drains about two-thirds of the
state into the Gulf of Mexico. A few rivers in the south drain
into the Mississippi through Iowa, while a smaller area in the
extreme north is drained through the Lake of the Woods and
Rainy Lake into Hudson Bay. These river systems serve the
threefold purpose of drainage, providing water communications
(there being about 3000 m. of navigable waters in the state),
and, by falls and rapids caused by glacial displacement of rivers,
furnishing a magnificent volume of water-power. The Missis-
sippi river, which flows for about 800 m. within or along the
borders of the state, has its principal sources in and near Lake
Itasca. It affords facilities for the transport of logs by means
of booms above Minneapolis, and is navigable below St Paul;
being half a mile broad where it reaches the border of the state
at Hastings. At the Falls of St Anthony, St Cloud, Little Falls
and other places, it provides ample water-power for manufac-
turing purposes. Its two principal tributaries are the St Croix
and the Minnesota. The first, after having for about 135 m.
(about 50 being navigable) formed the boundary between Wis-
consin and Minnesota, enters the Mississippi at Hastings; the
second, rising in Big Stone Lake on the western border, but i m.
from Lake Traverse, the source of the Red River, enters the
Mississippi from the south-west between St Paul and Minne-
apolis after a course of about 450 m., about 240 of which are
navigable at high water. Both furnish valuable water-power,
which is true also of the Cannon and Zumbro rivers flowing
into the Mississippi below Hastings. The Red River, which
forms the western boundary of the state for more than half its
distance, has its source in Lake Traverse. Its most important
branch is the Red Lake River, and both are navigable for vessels
of light draught at high water. In the south the western fork
of the Des Moines River, flowing for 125 m. through the state,
is navigable for 20 m. Glacial action determined the direction
and character of the rivers, made numerous swamps, and, by
scouring out rock basins, damming rivers and leaving morainal
hollows, determined the character and formation of the lakes,
of which Minnesota has upwards of 10,000, a number probably
exceeding that of any other state in the Union. The general
characteristics of the lakes in the north differ from those of the
south, the former being generally deep, with ragged rocky shores
formed by glacial scouring which caused rock basins, the latter
being mostly shallow. The most interesting feature of the glacial
epoch is the extinct Lake Agassiz, which the receding ice of the
later glacial period left in the Red River Valley of Minnesota,
North Dakota and Manitoba. This lake drained southward into
the Gulf of Mexico via the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers,
until the ice sheet which had prevented its natural drainage to
the north had melted sufficiently to allow it to be drained off
into Hudson Bay by way of the Nelson River. The remarkably
level character of the Red River district is due to horizontal
deposits in the bottom of this lake, which have been little dis-
sected by river erosion. The largest of the present lakes, Red
Lake, in Beltrami county, has an area of 342 sq. m. Other large
lakes are Mille Lacs (198 sq. m.) in Mille Lacs and Aitkin counties;
Leech Lake (184 sq. m.) in Cass county; Lake Winnibigashish
(82 sq. m.) in Itasca county; and Vermilion Lake (66 sq. m.) in
St Louis county. On the northern boundary are the Lake of
the Woods (612 sq. m.) and Rainy Lake (148 sq. m.), draining
northwards into Hudson Bay. The beautiful " Park Region,"
centring in Ottertail county, contains several thousand lakes.
Several large lakes such as Pepin, Traverse and Big Stone are
river expansions. The state supports three parks Itasca
state park (22,000 acres, established in 1891), about the sources
of the Mississippi, in Clearwater, Becker and Hubbard counties;
the St Croix (established in 1895), in Chicago county, across the
St Croix from the Wisconsin state park of the same name, and
including the beautiful Dalles of the St Croix; and the Minneopa
state park (established in 1905), containing Minneopa Falls,
near Mankato.
Flora and Fauna. The flora and fauna are similar to those of
the other states of the same latitude. The rapid settling of the state
drove its native fauna, which comprised buffalo, deer, moose, bear,
lynx and wolves, in great numbers into the northern sections, westward
into Dakota, or across the Canadian border. Deer and moose are
still found in the state. The preservation of game is now enforced
by stringent game laws, administered by an efficient state Game and
Fish Commission. The fisheries, which are of great value, are care-
fully supervised and systematically replenished from the State Fish
Hatchery at St Paul, and the Federal Fish Hatchery maintained at
Duluth, in which particular attention is devoted to the fish of Lake
Superior. Minnesota ranked third among the states of the Union
in 1900 in the production of lumber, but in 1905 was fifth, the supply
having diminished and the industry having been developed in the
states of Washington and Louisiana. The danger of loss from forest
fires, such as that of 1 894, emphasized the necessity of forest preser-
vation, and resulted (1895) in the creation of a special state depart-
ment with a forest commissioner and five wardens with power to
enforce upon corporations and individuals a strict observance of.
the forestry laws, the good effects of the law being evidenced by the
fact that the fire losses in forest lands for the first twelve years of
its operation averaged only $31,000 a year. Furthermore, in order
to encourage the growth and preservation of the forests, and to create
systematically forest reserves, the legislature established in 1899 a
State Forestry Board. There are two national forest reserves, with
an aggregate area of 1882 sq. m.
Climate. Minnesota has the characteristic climate of the North
Central group of states, with a low mean annual temperature, a
notably rarefied atmosphere that results in an almost complete
absence of damp foggy weather, and an unusual dryness which
during the rather long winters considerably neutralizes the excessive
cold. The cold increases not only from south to north, but to some
extent from east to west. The mean annual temperature, according
to the reports of the U.S. Weather Bureau, varies from 45
at St Paul and points in the south of the state to 37 F., at
points in the north-east and as far south-west as Moorhead, Clay
county. In the south the season is usually without killing frost
from early in May to late in September, but in the north it is not
uncommon late in May or early in September. The amount of
rain decreases from east to west, the mean annual rainfall being
32-7 in. at Grand Meadow in the south-east and 33-3 in. at Mount
Iron in the north-east, but less than 25 in. at several points of obser-
vation in the western half of the state. In all sections about as
55
MINNESOTA
much, or even more, rain falls in summer as in both autumn and
winter, and the summer rains, together with the long summer days,
are very favourable to a rapid growth and early maturity of crops.
Nearly the whole state is usually covered with snow during the
greater part of winter, and the mean annual fall of snow varies
From about 52 in. at points in the north-east to less than 25 in. in
the south-west. In most localities the prevailing winds are north-
west in winter and southerly in summer, but at Duluth, on the shore
of Lake Superior, they are south-west during November, December
and January and north-east during all other months.
Soil and Minerals. The surface drifts of the greater part of the
state, which are almost wholly of glacial origin, have provided
Minnesota with a remarkably fertile soil. It consists largely of a
dark brown or black sandy loam, finely comminuted, the richness
of which in organic matter and mineral salts induces rapidity of
growth, and the strength and durability of which render it capable
of a long succession of crops. This soil prevails throughout the
southern counties and the Minnesota and Red River valleys, in
which sections cereal crops predominate. Toward the east central
part of the state there is a somewhat less fertile sandy soil,
which is devoted more largely to potatoes and similar crops. The
non-arable north-east portion of the state is covered with a coarse
granite drift. Underneath the surface are beds of sand, gravel and
clays, the last affording material for the manufacture of brick, tiles
and pottery. The rock formations of the state furnish building
stones of great value.
Minnesota ranked first among the states in 1902 in the production
of iron ore. Although the iron ranges in the . north-east had been
explored about 1860 and were known to contain a great wealth of
ore, it was not until 1884 that mining was actually begun on the
Vermilion Range. Since that date the development of iron mining
in Minnesota has been remarkable, and the increase both in volume
and value of the output has been practically uninterrupted. Eight
years later (1892) the much richer Mesabi Range, the most produc-
tive iron range in the world, was opened up; it soon surpassed the
Vermilion in its output, and by 1902 the product was nearly ten
times greater. The ore, which in many places is found in an almost
pure state, is at or near the surface and the process of mining is one
of great simplicity and ease. The quality of ore in the two ranges
differs somewhat, that mined from the Vermilion Range being a
hard specular or red haematite, while that taken from the Mesabi
Range, largely red haematite, is much softer and in many localities
quite finely comminuted.
Agriculture. The principal industry of Minnesota is agriculture.
Large areas of swamp lands in the central and north central parts
of the state once counted non-arable have been drained and re-
claimed. There were in 1900 154,659 farms aggregating 26,248,498
acres, of which 70-3 % was improved land ; the total value of farm
property was $788,684,642, an increase in value of $373,983,016, or
more than 90%, for the decade 1890-1900. The value of domestic
animals on farms and ranges was $86,620,643. The total value
of farm products for the year 1899 (census of 1900) was $161,217,304.
Geographically the wheat-raising area extends across the entire south
of the state^ the Minnesota Valley and the Red River Valley
the rich glacial loam of which renders it one of the most productive
wheat regions in the world. Other important crops in the order of
their value are oats, hay and forage, Indian corn, barley, flax-seed,
potatoes, rye, grass seeds, wild grass, clover, beans, peas, and mis-
cellaneous vegetables and orchard products. Both fruit-raising and
dairying interests are centred principally in the southern half of the
state.
Manufactures and Commerce. The extraordinary numbers of
utilizable water-powers, the unusual transport facilities affording
ample means of reaching the great markets, and finally the proximity
to the raw materials of manufacture, have made Minnesota of great
importance as a manufacturing state. The federal census showed
for the decades 1880-1890 and 1890-1900 an increase in the number
of manufacturing establishments from 3493 in 1880 to 7505 in 1890,
and 11,114 in 19. During the same period the capital invested
increased from $31,004,811 in 1880 to $127,686,618 in 1890 and
$'65,832,246 in 1900, and the value of the manufactured products
increased from $76,065,198 in 1880 to $192,033,478 in 1890 and
$262,655,881 in 1900. The wonderful development of Minnesota
as a flour-producing state began with the introduction of improved
roller processes after 1870. Minneapolis is the chief flour-making
centre of the world, and the cities at the " Head of the Lakes
(Duluth, Minnesota, and Superior, Wisconsin, considered industrially
as one place) constitute the second largest centre. The towns of
the Red River Valley, which are nearer to the great wheat belt,
give promise of developing into great flouring cities. Next to flour,
lumber and timber products rank in importance. Other manufac-
tures of importance are butter, cheese and condensed milk, packed
meats and other slaughter-house products, steam railway cars,
foundry and machine-shop products, linseed oil, malt liquors,
plamng-mill products, sash, doors and blinds, boots and shoes, and
agricultural implements. As compared with other states of the
Union Minnesota ranked third in 1900 and fifth in 1905 in lumber;
sixth in 1900 and fifth in 1905 in cheese, butter and condensed milk;
eighth in 1900 and in 1905 in agricultural implements; and four-
teenth in 1900 and eighth in 1905 in planing-mill products.
For an inland state Minnesota is exceptionally well situated to
play a chief part in the commercial life of the country, and various
causes combine to make it important in respect to its interstate and
foreign trade. It is the natural terminal of three great northern
transcontinental railway lines the Northern Pacific, the Great North-
ern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound (the extension of the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul system) ; and the Chicago, Burlington
& Quincyand the connecting lines of the Canadian Pacific form lines
of communication with the middle Northwest and the Pacific
provinces of Canada. Seven navigable rivers within or on the borders
of the state the Red River of the north, the Red Lake River,
Rainy River, the Minnesota, the Mississippi, the St Croix and the
St Louis' give facilities for transport by water that exert an
important competing influence on freight charges; and at the " Head
of the Lakes " (Duluth-Superior) many lines of steamships on the
Great Lakes, providing direct or indirect connexion with the Eastern
and Southern states, make that port in respect to tonnage the first
in the United States. This combination of natural and artificial
highways of commerce derives an additional importance from the
character of the regions thus provided with transport facilities,
which renders its cities the principal distributing centres both for
the entire Northwest for coal shipped via the Great Lakes, and also
for the eastern and middle Western states for the great staples,
wheat and lumber, derived either from Minnesota itself or by means
of its great transcontinental railways from the neighbouring North-
western states and Canadian provinces. Iron shipments from the
Mesabi and Vermilion ranges, cereals from the Northwest, fruits
and vegetables from the Pacific coast, and Oriental products obtained
via the great northern railways, are also elements of great importance
in the state's commerce. There were on the 3ist of December 1908
8438-73 m. of railway within the state. St Paul and Duluth are
ports of entry.
Population. The population of Minnesota at the first Federal
census (1860) after its admission into the Union was 172,023,
and by the succeeding Federal enumerations it was: (1870),
439,706; (1880), 780,773; (1890), 1,301,826, excluding Indians
(10,096); (1900), 1,751,394; (1910) 2,075,708." Of the total
population in 1900, 932,490, or 53-2 %, were males, and
818,904, or 46-8 %, females; 1,246,076 were native-born;
505,318, or 28-9 %, were foreign-born, and 1,312,019 were
of foreign parentage (i.e. having either one or both parents
foreign-born). Of the 14,358 coloured inhabitants, 4959 were
negroes and 9182 Indians, 8457 of whom lived on reserva-
tions. The urban population (i.e. inhabitants of cities of
8000 or over) was 26-8 % of the total population, as compared
with 28-2 % in 1890. By the state census of 1905 the population
of the principal cities was as follows: Minneapolis, 261,954;
St Paul, 197,023; Duluth, 64,942; Winona, 20,334; Stillwater,
12,435; and Mankato, 10,996; by the same census four other
cities, all in the mining region in the north-east, had passed the
5000 limit, viz. Hibbing, 6566; Cloquet, 6117; Virginia, 5056;
and Eveleth, 5332. The density of population increased from
16-5 per sq. m. in 1890 to 22-1 in 1900. The largest religious
denomination in the state in 1906 was the Roman Catholic, with
378,288 communicants out of a total of 834,442 members of all
religious denominations; there were 267,322 Lutherans, 47,637
Methodists, 27,569 Presbyterians, 24,309 Baptists, 22,264
Congregationalists, and 18,763 Protestant Episcopalians.
Government. The state is governed under the constitution
adopted on the i3th of October 1857 and frequently amended.
By an amendment of 1898 an amendment may be suggested by
a majority of both houses of the legislature and comes into effect
if approved by a majority of all electors voting at the general
election at which the amendment is voted upon ; if two or more
amendments are submitted at the same election voters shall
vote for or against each amendment separately. For the re-
vision of the constitution it is necessary that two-thirds of the
members elected to each house of the legislature vote for the
call of a constitutional convention, that a majority of all electors
voting at the next general election approve the call for the con-
vention, and that the convention consist of as many members as
the house of representatives, who shall be chosen in the same
manner, and shall meet within three months after the general
1 At International Falls on Rainy River and at Duluth on the
St Louis immense water-power is utilized for manufacturing.
2 By the state census of 1905 the total population was 1,979,912
(1,060,412 males and 909,275 females excluding Indians from the
sex classification), of whom 537,041 were foreign-born, 10,929 were
Indians, 5113 were negroes, 171 were Chinese, and 50 were Japanese.
MINNESOTA
election at which it is voted. The executive department consists
of a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer
and attorney-general, elected biennially in November of the
even-numbered years, and an auditor elected at the same time
every four years. The veto power of the governor (since 1876)
extends to separate sections of appropriation bills. The judicial
department comprises a supreme court consisting of a chief
justice and (since 1881) four associate justices elected for terms
of six years, and lower courts consisting of district courts with
original jurisdiction in civil cases in law and equity, and in
criminal cases upon indictments by grand juries; justices' courts,
in which the amount in litigation cannot exceed $100, or the
punishment cannot exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine
of $100; and of municipal and probate courts with the usual
jurisdictions. The legislative department consists of a senate
of sixty-three members elected for four years, and a house of
representatives of one hundred and nineteen members, elected
for two years, the remuneration being mileage and $500 a year.
The reapportionment of congressional, senatorial and representa-
tive districts is made in the first legislative session after the state
census, which has been taken in every tenth year since 1865.
The legislature meets biennially in odd-numbered years, the
session being limited to ninety days by a constitutional amend-
ment of 1888. A majority of all the members elected to each
house is required for the passage of a bill, and a two-thirds
majority is necessary to pass a bill over the governor's veto.
All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of
Representatives, but the senate may propose and concur with
amendments as on other bills. Expenditures from the fund
known as " The Internal Improvement Land Fund," derived
from the sale of state lands, can be made only after the enactment
for that purpose has been approved by the voters of the state;
in 1881 the legislature, and in 1884 the popular vote, pledged
the proceeds of this fund to the payment of Minnesota state
railway adjustment bonds. Taxation must be uniform only
within classes of property prescribed by the legislature. An
Australian ballot law was enacted in 1891; the qualifications for
electors (adopted in 1896) require that the voter be at least
twenty-one years old, that he shall have been a full citizen of the
United States for three months prior to the election, and shall
have lived in the state six months and in the election district
thirty days. Women (since 1898) may vote for school officers
and members of library boards, and are eligible for election to
any office pertaining to the management of schools or libraries.
A constitutional amendment in regard to local government
adopted in 1898 provides that any city or village, by a four-
sevenths vote of its electors, may adopt a charter drawn by a
commission (appointed by the local district judges) and proposed
by such commission within six months of its appointment.
An amendment to the constitution adopted in November
1888 declares that any combination or pool to affect the markets
for food products is a " criminal conspiracy, and shall be
punished in such manner as the legislature may provide."
A homestead which is owned and occupied by a debtor as his
dwelling place is exempt from seizure or sale for debts other than
taxes, those secured by a mortgage on it, or those incurred for its
improvement or repair, or for services performed by labourers or
servants. But a homestead so exempted may not be larger than
one-fourth of an acre if it is in an incorporated place haying a popu-
lation of 5000 or more, than half an acre if it is in an incorporated
place having a population of less than 5000, or than eighty acres if
it is outside an incorporated place. In case the owner is married
the homestead cannot be sold or mortgaged, except for an unpaid
portion of the purchase money, without the joinder of husband and
wife, and if the owner dies leaving a spouse or minor children, the
homestead with its exemptions descends to the surviving member
or members of the family. If the owner is a husband and he deserts
his family, the wife and minor children may retain the homestead.
Under the laws of the state the legal existence and legal personality
of a woman are not affected by marriage, and the property rights
of a husband and wife are nearly equal. A husband may, however,
convey his real estate, other than a homestead, by his separate
deed, whereas a wife's deed for her real estate is void without the
joinder of her husband. If either husband or wife dies intestate
and there are no descendants the whole of the estate passes to the
survivor; if there are descendants the surviving spouse has the use
of the homestead for the remainder of his or her life, an absolute
title to one-third of the other real estate of the deceased, and to
personal property limited to $1000 besides wearing apparel. The
grounds for an absolute divorce in Minnesota are adultery, impotence,
cruel and inhuman treatment, sentence to state prison or state
reformatory subsequent to the marriage, desertion or habitual
drunkenness for one year next preceding the application for a divorce.
Before applying for an absolute divorce the plaintiff must have
resided in the state for the year next preceding, unless the cause of
action is adultery committed while the plaintiff was a resident of
the state. A wife may at any time sue for a limited divorce from her
husband on the ground of cruel and inhuman treatment, of such
conduct as to render life with him unsafe and improper, or of aban-
donment and refusal or neglect to provide for her, if both parties are
inhabitants of the state or their marriage took place in the state.
A law of 1909 provides for a women's and children's department in
the state bureau of labour.
The sale of intoxicating liquors is for the most part regulated by
licences, but the granting of licences may be prohibited within any
town or incorporated village by its legal voters, and the question
must be submitted to popular vote upon the request of ten legal
voters.
_ Penal and Charitable Institutions. The charitable and correctional
institutions of Minnesota have been since 1901 under the supervision
of a State Board of Control consisting of three paid members ap-
pointed by the governor and serving for terms of six years; this board
supplanted an unpaid Board of Corrections and Charities established
in 1883, and the boards of managers of separate institutions (except
the schools for the deaf and the blind at Faribault, and the
state public school at Owatonna) and of groups of institutions
were abolished. The state institutions consist of state hospitals
for the insane at St Peter (1866), at Rochester (1877), established
originally as a state inebriate asylum under a law taxing liquor
dealers for that purpose, which was subsequently held to be uncon-
stitutional, at Fergus Falls (1887), at Anoka (1900) and at Hastings
(1900); the state institute for defectives at Faribault, consisting of
the schools for the deaf (1863), blind (1874) and feeble-minded
( J 879) ; the state public school for dependent and neglected children
at Owatonna (1886); a sanatorium for consumptives at Walker;
a hospital for indigent, crippled or deformed children (1907) at
St Paul; the state training school for boys near Red Wing; a
similar industrial school for girls (established separately in 1907)
at Sauk Center; the state reformatory at St Cloud (1887), inter-
mediate between the training school and the state prison, for first
offenders between the ages of sixteen and thirty years, in which
indeterminate sentences and a parole system are in operation; the
state prison at Still water (1851), in which there is a parole system
and a graded system of diminution of sentence for good conduct,
and in which, up to 1895, prisoners were leased under contract
(especially to the Minnesota Thresher Company), and since 1895 have
been employed in the manufacture of shoes and of binding twine,
and in providing for the needs of the prison population ; and the state
soldiers' home occupying fifty-one acres adjoining Minnehaha Park
in Minneapolis. By an act of 1907 the Board of Control was
empowered to establish a hospital for inebriates.
Education. The state supports a highly efficient public school
system, organized through all the grades from the primary district
and rural schools to the state university. At the head of the system
stands the state superintendent of public instruction, appointed by
the governor; there are also county superintendents; and a state
high school board, consisting of the governor, state superintendent
and the president of the state university, has general supervision
of the schools and apportions the state aid. The schools are sup-
ported by a state tax, and by the proceeds of a permanent school fund
amounting (in 1908) to $19,709,383; in the same year the total value
of all public school property was $28,297,420, with an aggregate
debt of $6,329,794, and $13,463,211 was spent for public educa-
tional purposes. There are state normal schools at Winona
(1860), Mankato(i868), St Cloud (i869),Moorhead (1888) and Duluth
(1902). The university of Minnesota at Minneapolis was projected
by the Territorial Legislature of 1851. Some ground was purchased
for its campus in 1854, but it was actually founded by an act of 1864,
amended in 1866, 1868 and 1872. It is governed by a board of
twelve regents, of whom the president of the university, the governor
of the state and the state superintendent of public instruction are
members ex officio, and the other nine, holding office for six years,
are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the
senate. The university is supported by a state tax of 0-23 mills
per dollar on the taxed property of the state, by special appropria-
tions from the state (for " deficiency," for School of Mines, and for
salaries of teachers in the department of mines and engineering), by
the interest on state bonds and land contracts purchased with the
proceeds of Federal land grants under the Morrill Act of 1862, by
Federal appropriations under the Morrill Act of 1890 and the Hatch
Act, and by students' fees, &c. ; the total of this income was estimated
in 1906-1907 at $628,500. The Act of 1872 provided for five or
more colleges or departments: a college of science, literature and
the arts, which offers (for the degree of Bachelor of Arts) a four-years
course, is entirely elective (except that a certain number of " long
courses " must be selected) after the first year, and in which the
552
MINNESOTA
only restriction is upon the range of subjects from which the student s
choice may be made; a college of agriculture (including military
tactics), which is now a " department," including a college and a
school of agriculture, a short course for farmers, a dairy school, tt
Crookston school of agriculture, a main experiment station at bt
Anthony Park, between Minneapolis and St Paul, and sub-stations
i m north of Crookston and 2 m. east of Grand Rapids; a college
of mechanic arts, now called the college of engineering and the
mechanic arts, which offers four-year courses in civil, mechanical,
electrical and municipal engineering, a four-year course in science
and technology, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science, and
graduate work leading to the degree of Master of Science ; the college
of law, a three-years course, with evening classes and graduate
courses; a college of medicine, which is now the college of medicine
and surgery (1888), and the college of homoeopathic medicine and
surgery (1889), each with four-year courses, and each (since 1903)
with a course of six years partly in the college of science, literature
and the arts, and partly in the medical college and leading to the
degrees of Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Medicine. In addition
to these departments provided for in the organic act, the university
included in 1909 colleges of dentistry (three-year course), pharmacy
(two-year and three-year courses), a school of mines (1891 ; four-year
course, leading to the degree of Engineer of Mines or Metallurgical
Engineer), a school of analytical and applied chemistry (four-year
courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor in Science in Chemistry
or in Chemical Engineering), a college of education (1906; three-year
course, after two years of college work, leading to a Master's degree),
a graduate school (with courses leading to the degrees of Master of
Arts, of Science and of Laws, and of Doctor of Philosophy, of Science
and of Civil Law), and a university summer school. The growth
and development of the university have been almost entirely under
the administration of Cyrus Northrop (b. 1834), who graduated at
Yale College in 1857 and at Yale Law School in 1859, and was
professor of rhetoric and English literature at Yale from 1863 until
1884, when he became president of the university of Minnesota.
The university is one of the largest in fhe country. In 1907 there
were twenty-three buildings valued at more than $1,475,000. The
university library of 110,000 volumes is supplemented by the libra-
ries of Minneapolis and St Paul. In 1908-1909 the faculty numbered
about 325 and the total enrolment of students was 4421. Other
higher educational institutions in Minnesota are Hamline University
(Methodist Episcopal), with a college of liberal arts at St Paul,
and a college of medicine at Minneapolis ; Macalester College (Presby-
terian) at St Paul; Augsburg Seminary (Lutheran) at Minneapolis;
Carleton College (non-sectarian, founded in 1866) and St Olaf
College (Lutheran, founded in 1874) at Northfield; Gustavus
Adolphus College (Lutheran) at St Peter; Parker College (Free
Baptist, 1888) at Winnebago City; St John's University (Roman
Catholic) at Collegeville, Stearns county; and Albert Lea College for
women (Presbyterian, founded 1884) at Albert Lea.
History. The first European visitors to the territory now
embraced in the state of Minnesota found it divided between two
powerful Indian tribes, the Ojibways or Chippewas, who occupied
the heavily wooded northern portion and the region along the
Mississippi river, and the Sioux or Dakotas, who made their
homes on the more open rolling country in the south and west
and in the valley of the Minnesota. The first known white
explorers were Radisson and Groseilliers, who spent the winter
of 1658-1659 among the Sioux in the Mille Lacs region. At
Sault Sainte Marie in 1671, before representatives of fourteen
Indian nations, the Sieur de St Lusson read a proclamation
asserting the French claim to all the territory in the region of the
Great Lakes. Two years afterwards the upper course of the
Mississippi was explored by Joliet and Marquette. In 1679
Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut (Duluth) , as agent for a company
of Canadian merchants which sought to establish trading posts
On the Lakes, explored the country from the head of Lake
Superior to Mille Lacs and planted the arms of Louis XIV. in a
large Sioux village. In the following year the Franciscan friar
Father Louis Hennepin, acting as an agent of the Sieur de la
Salle, discovered and named the Falls of St Anthony; and in
1686 Nicholas Perrot, the commandant of the west, built Fort St
Antoine on the east bank of Lake Pepin, in what is now Pepin
county, Wisconsin, and in 1688 formally took possession of the
region in the name of the French king. A few years later (1694)
Le Sueur, who had as early as 1684 engaged in trade along the
upper Mississippi, established a trading post on Isle Pelee
(Prairie Island) in the Mississippi between Hastings and Red
Wing, and in 1700 he built Fort L'Huillier at the confluence of the
Blue Earth and the Le Sueur rivers. In 1762 the Sieur de la
Perriere, acting as an agent of the French government, estab-
lished on the west bank of Lake Pepin a fortified post (Fort
Beauharnois), which was to be a headquarters for missionaries, a
trading post and a starting-point for expeditions in search of the
" western sea." But none of the French posts was perma-
nent, and in 1763 French rule came to an end, the Treaty of
November (1762) and the Treaty of Versailles (1763) trans-
ferring respectively the western portion of the state to Spain
and that part east of the Mississippi river to Great Britain.
In 1766 the region was visited by the Connecticut traveller
Jonathan Carver (1732-1780). Great Britain surrendered its
title to the eastern portion by the Treaty of Paris ( 1 783) , and after
the surrender of Virginia's colourable title had been accepted by
Congress in 1784, this eastern part was made a part of the
Northwest Territory by the ordinance of 1787, although the
British held possession and did some trading there until 1796.
The western part remained under Spanish control until 1803,
when it, too, after being retransferred to France, became a part
of the United States with the rest of the Louisiana Purchase.
In 1805-1806, at the instance of President Thomas Jefferson,
Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike led an exploring expedition as far
north as Leech Lake and took formal possession of the Minnesota
region for the United States. He obtained from the Sioux for
military reservations one tract 9 m. square at the mouth of the
St Croix River and another containing about 100,000 acres at the
confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. On the latter
tract a military post was established by Lieut. -Colonel Henry
Leavenworth (1783-1834) in 1819, and in the following year the
construction was begun of a fort at first named Fort St Anthony
but renamed Fort Snelling in 1824 (two years after its completion)
in honour of its builder and commander Colonel Josiah Snelling
(1782-1829). In 1819 Michigan Territory was extended west-
ward to the Mississippi river, and in 1820 General Lewis Cass,
its governor, conducted an exploring expedition in search of the
source of the Mississippi, which he was satisfied was in the body
of water named Lake Cass in his honour. Further search for the
true source of the Mississippi was made in 1823 by Giacomo
Constantio Beltrami (1779-1855), an Italian traveller and political
refugee, and in 1832 by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who had
accompanied Cass's expedition and traced the Mississippi from
Lake Cass to Lake Itasca. In 1823 extensive explorations of the
Minnesota and Red River valleys were conducted by Major
Stephen Harriman Long (1784-1864), and subsequently (1834-
1836) knowledge of the region was extended by the investigations
of the artist George Catlin (1796-1872), the topographer George
William Featherstonhaugh (1780-1866), and the geologist Jean
Nicholas Nicollett (1786-1843). Meanwhile, the country was
slowly being settled. In 1823 the first river steamboat reached
St Paul ; the Mississippi was soon afterwards opened to continu-
ous if irregular navigation; and in 1826 a party of refugees from
Lord Selkirk's colony on the Red River settled near Fort Snelling.
On the erection of Wisconsin Territory in 1836 the whole ot
Minnesota, which then extended westward to the Missouri river,
was incorporated with it, but on the erection of Iowa Territory
in 1838 Minnesota was divided and the part west of the Missis-
sippi became a part of Iowa Territory. In 1 83 7 , by two important
treaties, the one (July 29) between the Chippewas and Governor
Henry Dodge of Wisconsin at St Peters, and the other (Sept. 29)
between some Sioux chiefs and Joel R. Poinsett at Washington,
the Indian titles to all lands east of the Mississippi were practi-
cally extinguished. The first county, St Croix, was established in
1839, and in the succeeding years thriving settlements were
established at St Paul and Stillwater. The admission of Wis-
consin as a state in 1848 left that part of the former territory west
of the St Croix and north of the Mississippi rivers, which was not
included in the new state, practically without a government. On
the 26th of August a convention met at Stillwater, where measures
were taken for the formation of a separate territorial government,
and Henry Hastings Sibley (1811-1891) was sent to Congress as
a delegate of " Wisconsin Territory." Upon his admission to a
seat'the curious situation was presented of representatives of the
state and of the territory of Wisconsin sitting in the same body.
This situation did not last long, however, for on the 3rd of March
1849 the bill organizing the territory of Minnesota was passed.
MINNESOTA
553
and on the ipth President Zachary Taylor appointed Alexander
Ramsey of Pennsylvania the first territorial governor. The
territorial boundaries extended to the Missouri river, including a
greater part of the present North and South Dakota. The first
territorial legislature met at St Paul on the 3rd of September
following. By the Federal census of 1850 the territory had a
population of 6077, most of whom lived east of the Mississippi,
or along the Red river in the extreme north-west. Two treaties
negotiated with the Sioux by Luke Lea, commissioner, and
Governor Alexander Ramsey in 1851 opened to settlement the
greater part of the land within the territory west of the Missis-
sippi, and such an unparalleled rush to the new lands took
place that a census taken in 1857 showed a population of
150,037. In July 1857 a convention chosen to form a state
constitution was found on assembling to be so evenly divided
between the Republican and Democratic parties that organization
was impossible, and the members proceeded to their work in two
separate bodies. By means of conference committees, however,
identical constitutions were formed, which in the following
October were adopted by an almost unanimous popular vote.
The state was admitted to the Union with its present boundaries
on the I2th of May 1858, and the federal census of 1860 showed
that the population had increased to 172,023, despite the fact
that the financial panic of 1857 had severely checked the state's
growth. Minnesota furnished more than 25,0x30 troops for the
Federal armies during the Civil War. But even more pressing
than the call of the nation was the need of defending her own
homes against the uprisings of the Indians within her borders.
The settlements bordering on the Indian reservations had ex-
perienced more or less trouble with the Sioux for several years,
the most serious outbreak having occurred in March 1857, when
Ink-pa-du-ta led his band to massacre the settlers at Spirit Lake.
The absence of a large proportion of the able-bodied young
settlers in the northern armies was taken advantage of by the
Indians, and in the summer of 1862 there was delay in paying
them their yearly allowance. Suddenly towards the end of
August, as if by previous understanding (although nothing of the
sort was ever proved), small bands of Sioux scattered along the
frontier for 200 m. and began a systematic massacre of the white
settlers. Beginning with the first outbreak at Acton, Meeker
county (Aug. 17), the attacks continued with increasing fury
(nearly 1000 whites losing their lives) until the 23rd of September,
when hastily-raised volunteer forces under Colonel H. H. Sibley
decisively defeated Little Crow, the principal leader of the Kapo-
sia band, at Wood Lake. Three days later more than 2000 of
the Indians were surrounded and captured, Little Crow with a
few of his companions alone escaping beyond the Missouri. A
military commission tried 425 of the captives for murder and
rape, of whom 321 were found guilty and 303 were qondemned
to death. Of these 38 were hanged at Mankato on the 26th of
December 1862. Little Crow and his followers kept up desultory
raids from the Dakota country, during one of which in July 1863
he lost his life. Expeditions of Sibley in 1863, and General
Alfred Sully (1821-1879) in 1864, eventually drove the hostile
Indians beyond the Missouri and terminated the war, which in
two years had cost upwards of a thousand lives of settlers and
volunteers. The opening of the Chippewa lands in the north-
west and the coming of peace marked the beginning of a new
period of rapid growth, the Federal census of 1870 showing a
population of 439,706, or a gain of 75-8 % in five years. During
the same half-decade railway construction, which had begun
with the opening of the railway between St Paul and Minneapolis
in 1862, reached a total of more than 1000 m. For a period of
five years after the financial panic of 1873 the growth was com-
paratively slow, but in the succeeding two years the recuper-
ation was rapid. During the decade, 1880-1890, more than
2300 m. of railway were completed and put in operation. In
September 1894 disastrous forest fires, starting in the neighbour-
hood of Hinckley in Pine county, destroyed that village and
several neighbouring towns, causing the death of 418 people,
rendering 2200 others homeless, and devastating about 350 sq. m.
of forest land, entailing a loss of more than $1,000,000. The
1849-1853
'853-1857
1857-1858
1858-1860-
1860-1863
1863-1864
1864-1866
1866-1870
1870-1874
1874-1876
1876-1882
1882-1887
1887-1889
1889-1893
1893-1895
1895-1899
1899-1901
1901-1905
state furnished four regiments (a total of 5313 officers and men)
to the volunteer army during the Spanish-American War (1898),
the service of the i3th Regiment for more than a year in the
Philippines being particularly notable. In October 1898 there
was an uprising of the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians at
Leech Lake, which was quelled by the prompt action of Federal
troops. Since the first state election, which was carried by the
Democratic party, the state has been generally strongly Republi-
can in politics; but the Republican candidate for governor was
defeated in 1898 by a " fusion " of Democrats and Populists,
and in 1904, 1906 and 1908 a Democratic governor, John Albert
Johnson, was elected, very largely because of his personal
popularity.
GOVERNORS OF MINNESOTA.
Territorial.
Alexander Ramsey Whig
Willis Arnold Gorman . . . Democrat
Samuel Medary
State.
Henry Hastings Sibley .... Democrat
Alexander Ramsey Republican
Henry A. Swift
Stephen Miller
William Rogerson Marshall .
Horace Austin
Cushman Kellogg Davis
John Sargent PilTsbury ....
Lucius Fairchild Hubbard .
Andrew Ryan McGill ....
William Rush Merriam ....
Knute Nelson
David Marston Clough ....
John Lind Democrat-Populist
Samuel R. Van Sant .... Republican'
John Albert Johnson . . .Democrat (died in office) 1905-1909
Adolph Olson Eberhart . . . Republican 1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is a well-arranged Bibliography of Minne-
sota by John Fletcher Williams in the Collections of the Minnesota
Historical Society, vol. iii. (St Paul, 1880). Consult also Materials
for the Future History of Minnesota, published by the State Historical
Society (St Paul, 1856), and Isaac S. Bradley's bibliography of North-
western institutional history in the Proceedings of the Wisconsin
State Historical Society (Madison, Wis., 1896). Of the many
interesting and valuable narratives and descriptions of Minnesota
in the early days, those especially worthy of mention are Beltrami's
La Decouverte des sources des Mississippi et de la Riviere Sanglante
(New Orleans, 1824) and the same author's A Pilgrimage in Europe
and America, leading to the Discovery of the Sources of the Mississippi
and Bloody Rivers (2 yols., London, 1828) ; William H. Keating,
Narrative of an Expedition to the Sources of the St Peter (Minnesota)
River, Lake Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, &c. . . .in 1823 (2 vols.,
London, 1825), an account of the explorations of Major Long; Henry
R. Schoolcraft, Narrative of an Expedition through the Upper Missis-
sippi to Itasca Lake . . . in 1832 (New York, 1834); G. W. Feather-
stonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor (2 vols., London,
1847); Laurence Oliphant, Minnesota and the Far West (Edinburgh,
1855); and Frederika Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impres-
sions of America (2 vols., New York, 1864). For the territorial
period consult also E. S. Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, the New
England of the West (New York, 1850); J. Wesley Bond, Minnesota
and its Resources (New York, 1853) ; C. A. Andrews, Minnesota and
Dacotah (Washington, 1857) ; and C. E. Flandreau, The History of
Minnesota and Tales of the Frontier (St Paul, 1901). The Collections
of the Minnesota State Historical Society contain much valuable
material on the history of the state, notably E. D. Neill's " French
Voyageurs to Minnesota during the Seventeenth Century " (1872);
E. D. Neill's " Early French Forts" (1889); T. F. Moran's "How
Minnesota became a State " (1898); H. L. Moss's " Last Days of
Wisconsin Territory and Early Days of Minnesota Territory " (1898) ;
C. E. Flandreau's " Reminiscences of Minnesota during the Territorial -
Period " (1901); C. D. Gilfillan's " Early Political History of Minne-
sota " (1901); and James H. Baker's Lives of the Governors of
Minnesota^ (1908). For the Sioux' uprising consult Isaac V. D.
Heard, History of the Sioux War and the Massacres of 1862 and 1863
(New York, 1864) ; Charles S. Bryant and Abel B. Murch, A History
of the Great Massacre by the Sioux Indians in Minnesota (Cincinnati,
1864) ; and S. R. Foot, " The Sioux Indian War," in Iowa Historical
Record, vols. x. and xi. (1894-1895). Consult also Minnesota in the
Civil and Indian Wars, 1861-1865 (2 vols., St Paul, 1890-1893). The
best general account of the state's history is W. W. Folwell's Minne-
sota, the North Star State (Boston, 1908), in the " American Common-
wealth series "; E. D. Neill's Concise History of Minnesota (Minne-
apolis, 1887); and T. H. Kirk's Illustrated History of Minnesota
(St Paul, 1887) may 'also be consulted. For an account of the ad-
ministration consult Frank L. McVey, The Government of Minnesota
554
MINNOW MINOS
(New York, 1001); Sanford Miles, History and Civil Government of
Minnesota (Chicago, 1897); and the Legislative Manual, published
biennially by the state at St Paul.
MINNOW (Leudscus phoxinus), the smallest British fish of the
Cyprinoid family, readily distinguished by its very minute scales.
The ordinary name is derived from the common Indo-European
word for " little " (cf. Lat., minor), and " minnow " is popularly
identified with any tiny fish; in America it is given to small forms
of the Gambusia and Notropis genera, &c. The British minnow
abounds in lakes, rivers and brooks, swimming in schools, and
shifting its ground in search of food, in the shape of every kind
of animal and vegetable substance. It ranges from Scandinavia
to south Europe, and from Ireland to north-east Asia, attaining
an elevation of nearly 8000 ft. in the Alps. Its size varies from
between 2 and 3 in. to as much as 4 or 5 in. The minnow
is commonly used by anglers for bait, and is useful in ponds as
food for trout, perch or pike.
MINO DI GIOVANNI (1431-1484), called DA FIESOLE, Italian
sculptor, was born at Poppi in the Casentino. He had property
at Fiesole. Vasari's account of him is very inaccurate. Mino
was a friend and fellow-worker with Desiderio da Settignano and
Matteo Civitale, all three being about the same age. Mino's
sculpture is remarkable for its finish and delicacy of details, as
well as for its spirituality and strong devotional feeling. Of
Mino's earlier works, the finest are in the duomo of Fiesole, the
altarpiece and tomb of Bishop Salutati, executed before 1466.
In the Badia of Florence are an altarpiece and the tombs of
Bernardo Giugni (1466) and the Margrave Hugo (1481), all
sculptured in white marble, with life-sized recumbent effigies
and attendant angels. The pulpit in Prato Cathedral, in which
he collaborated with Antonio Rossellino, finished in 1473, is very
delicately sculptured with bas-reliefs of great minuteness, but
somewhat weakly designed. Soon after the completion of this
work Mino went to Rome, where he executed the tomb of Pope
Paul II. (now in the crypt of St Peter's), the tomb of Francesco
Tornabuoni in S. Maria sopra Minerva, and a beautiful little
marble tabernacle for the holy oils in S. Maria in Trastevere.
There can be little doubt that he was also the sculptor of several
monuments in S. Maria del Popolo, especially those of Bishop
Gomiel and Archbishop Rocca (1482), and the marble reredos
given by Pope Alexander VI. Some of Mino's portrait busts and
profile bas-reliefs are preserved in the Bargello at Florence; they
are full of life and expression, though without the extreme
realism of Verrocchio and other sculptors of his time.
See Vasari, Milanesi's ed. (1878-1882) ; Perkins's Italian Sculptors,
Winckelmann and D'Agincourt, Storia della scultura (1813); Hans
Semper, Architekten der Renaissance (Dresden, 1880) ; Wilhelm Bode,
Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893).
MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904), American artist,
was born in New York city on the 3oth of April 1839, and re-
ceived his art training in Paris under Diaz, and in Antwerp under
Joseph Van Luppen. His paintings are characteristic of the
Barbizon school, and he was particularly happy in his sunset and
twilight effects; but it was only within a few years of his death
that he began to have a vogue among collectors. In 1897 he
was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, New
York. After 1900 he lived at Waterford, Connecticut, where he
died on the 4th of August 1904.
MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser), a word used both as an
adjective and as a substantive for that which is less than or
inferior to another, and often correlatively opposed to that to
which " major " is applied in the same connotation. Among the
numerous special uses of the word the following may be
mentioned: " Minor Friars," sometimes known as " Minorites,"
i.e. the name (fratres minores, lesser brothers) given by
St Francis to the order he founded (see FRANCISCANS) ; " minor
canons " are clergymen attached to a cathedral or collegiate
church who read and sing the daily service. In some
cathedrals, they are known as " vicars choral "; they are not
members of the chapter. (For the distinction between
holy and minor orders in Christian hierarchy see ORDERS.)
The name " Minor Prophets " is used collectively of the twelve
prophetical books of the Old Testament from Hosea to Malachi
inclusive. (For the distinction in music between major and minor
intervals, and for other applications of the correlative term, see
Music and HARMONY.) In the categorical syllogism (q.v.) in
logic, the minor term is that term which forms the subject of the
conclusion, the minor premiss is that which contains the minor
term. In law, a " minor " ,is a person under legal age (see
INFANT).
In mathematics, the " minor of a determinant " is the deter-
minant formed by erasing an equal number of the rows and
columns of the original determinant. If one column and row be
erased there is formed the first minor; if two rows and columns
the second minor, and so on. The minor axis of a central conic
section is the shorter of the two principal axes; it may also be
regarded as the line joining the two imaginary foci. In astro-
nomy, the term minor planets is given to the members of the
solar system which have their orbits between those of Mars and
Jupiter (see PLANETS, MINOR).
MINORCA(Menorca), the second in size of the group of Spanish
islands in the Mediterranean Sea, known as the Balearic Islands
(q.v.), 27 m. E.N.E. of Majorca. Pop. (1900), 371,512; area,
260 sq. m. The coast is deeply indented, especially on the north,
with numerous creeks and bays that of Port Mahon (17,144)
being one of the finest in the Mediterranean, if not the best of
them all, according to the popular rhyme
" Junio, Julio, Agosto y puerto Mahon
Los mejores puertos del Mediterraneo son "
" June, July, August and Port Mahon are the best harbours of
the Mediterranean " (see PORT MAHON). The ports Addaya,
Fornelle, Ciudadela and Nitja may also be mentioned. The
surface of the island is uneven, flat in the south and rising irregu-
larly towards the centre, where the mountain El Tore probably
so called from the Arabic tor, a height, though the natives have a
legend of a toro or bull has an altitude of 1 207 ft. The climate
is not so equable as that of Majorca, and the island is exposed in
autumn and winter to the violence of the north winds. Its soil
is of very unequal quality; that of the higher districts being light,
fine, and fertile, and producing regular harvests without much
labour, while that of the plains is chalky, scanty, and unfit for
pasture or the plough. Some of the valleys have a good alluvial
soil; and where the hills have been terraced they are cultivated
to the summit. The wheat and barley raised in the island are
sometimes sufficient for home consumption; there is rarely a
surplus. The Hedysarum coronarium, or zulla, as it is called
by the Spaniards, is largely cultivated for fodder. Wine, oil,
potatoes, hemp and flax are produced in moderate quantities;
fruit of all kinds, including melons, pomegranates, figs and
almonds, is abundant. The caper plant is common throughout
the island, growing on ruined walls. Horned cattle, sheep and
goats are reared, and small game abound. Stone of various
kinds is plentiful. In the district of Mercadal and in Mount
Santa Agueda are found fine marbles and porphyries; lime and
slate are also abundant. Lead, copper and iron might be worked
were it not for the scarcity of fuel. There are manufactures of
the wool, hemp and flax of the island; and formerly there was a
good deal of boat-building; but agriculture is the chief industry.
An excellent road, constructed in 1713-1715 by Brigadier-
General Richard Kane, to whose memory a monument was
erected at the first milestone, runs through the island from
south-east to north-west, and connects Port Mahon with
Ciudadela. Ciudadela (8611), which was the capital of the
island till Port Mahon was raised to that position by the
English, still possesses considerable remains of its former
importance.
MINOS, a semi-legendary king of Crete, son of Zeus and
Europa. By his wife, Pasiphae, he was the father of Ariadne,
Deucalion, Phaedra and others. He reigned over Crete and the
islands of the Aegean three generations before the Trojan War.
He lived at Cnossus for periods of nine years, at the end of which
he retired into a sacred cave, where he received instruction from
Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the
author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its naval
MINOT MINSK
555
supremacy (Herodotus iii. 122; Thucydides i. 4). In Attic
tradition and on the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant, the
heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed the
Minotaur (q.v.). It seems possible that tribute children were
actually exacted to take part in the gruesome shows of the
Minoan bull-rings, of which we now have more than one
illustration (see CRETE: Archaeology). To reconcile the contra-
dictory aspects of his character, two kings of the name of
Minos were assumed by later poets and mythologists. Since
Phoenician intercourse was in later times supposed to have
played an important part in the development of Crete, Minos is
sometimes called a Phoenician. There is no doubt that there
is a considerable historical element in the legend; recent dis-
coveries in Crete (q.v.) prove the existence of a civih'zation
such as the legends imply, and render it probable that not
only Athens, but Mycenae itself, was once subject to the kings
of Cnossus, of whom Minos was greatest. In view of the
splendour and wide influence of Minoan Crete, the age generally
known as " Mycenaean " has been given the name of " Minoan "
by Dr Arthur Evans as more properly descriptive (see CRETE).
Minos himself is said to have died at Camicus in Sicily,
whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given
Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the
labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of
Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him in the bath
(Diod. Sic. iv. 79). Subsequently his remains were sent back
to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on which
was inscribed: " The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus." The
earlier legend knows Minos as a beneficent ruler, legislator, and
suppressor of piracy (Thucydides i. 4). His constitution was
said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus (Pausanias
iii. 2, 4). In accordance with this, after his death he became
judge of the shades in the under-world (Odyssey, ix. 568) ; later
he was associated with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus.
The solar explanation of Minos as the sun-god has been
thrown into the background by the recent discoveries. In any
case a divine origin would naturally be claimed for him as a
priest-king, and a divine atmosphere hangs about him. The
name of his wife, Pasiphae (" the all-shining "), is an epithet
of the moon-goddess. The name Minos seems to be philo-
logically the equivalent of Minyas, the royal ancestor of the
Minyans of Orchomenus, and his daughter Ariadne (" the ex-
ceeding holy ") is a double of the native nature-goddess.
(See CRETE: Archaeology.)
On Cretan coins Minos is represented as bearded, wearing a
diadem, curly-haired, haughty and dignified, like the traditional
portraits of his reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarco-
phagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadaman-
thus as judges of the under- world and in connexion with the Minotaur
and Theseus.
MINOT, LAURENCE (fl. 1333-1352), English poet, the author
of eleven battle-songs, first published by Joseph Ritson in 1795
as Poems on Interesting Events in the reign of King Edward III.
They had been discovered by Thomas Tyrwhitt in a MS.
(Cotton Galba, E. IX., British Museum) which bore on the fly-
leaf the misleading inscription: " Chaucer, Exemplar emendate
scriptum." It dates from the beginning of the i5th century.
The authorship of Laurence Minot's eleven songs is fixed by
the opening of the fifth: " Minot with mowth had menid to
make," and in VII. 20, " Now Laurence Minot will begin."
The poems were evidently written contemporaneously with the
events they describe. The first celebrates the English triumph
at Halidon Hill (1333), and the last the capture of Guines (1352).
The writer is animated by an ardent personal admiration for
Edward III. and a savage joy in the triumphs of the English over
their enemies. The technical difficulty of his metres and the
omparatively even quality of the work led to the inference that
linot had written other songs, but none have come to light.
Nothing whatever is known of his life, but the minuteness of his
nformation suggests that he accompanied Edward on some of his
impaigns. Though his name proves him to have been of Norman
birth, he writes vigorous and idiomatic English of the northern
dialect with some admixture of midland forms. His poems are
instinct with a fierce national feeling, which has been accepted
as an index of the union of interests between the Norman and
English elements arising out of common dangers and common
successes.
There are excellent editions of Minot's poems by Wilhelm Scholle
(Quellen und Forsckungen, vol. Hi., Strasburg, 1884), with notes on
etymology and metre, and by Mr J. Hall (Clarendon Press, 2nd ed.,
1897). Mr Hall is inclined to include as his work the " Hymn to
Jesus Christ and the Virgin " (Religious Pieces, Early English Text
Society, No. 26, p. 76), on the grounds of similarity of style and
language. See also T. Wright, Political Poems and Songs (Rolls
series, 1859).
MINOTAUR (Gr. Mivuravpos, from Miwos, and roupos,
bull), in Greek mythology, a fabulous Cretan monster with the
body of a man and the head of a bull. It was supposed to be
the offspring of Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, and a snow-white
bull, sent to Minos by Poseidon for sacrifice. Minos, instead
of sacrificing it, spared its life, and Poseidon, as a punishment,
inspired Pasiphae with an unnatural passion for it. The monster
which was born was shut up in the Labyrinth (q.v.). Now it
happened that Androgeus, son of Minos, had been killed by the
Athenians, who were jealous of the victories he had won at the
Panathenaic festival. To avenge the death of his son, Minos
demanded that seven Athenian youths and seven maidens should
be sent every ninth year to be devoured by the Minotaur.
When the third sacrifice came round Theseus volunteered to go,
and with the help of Ariadne (q.v.) slew the Minotaur (Plutarch,
Theseus, 15-19; Diod. Sic. i. 16, iv. 61; Apollodorus iii. i, 15).
Some modern mythologists regard the Minotaur as a solar
personification and a Greek adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the
Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that
case indicates the abolition of such sacrifice by the advance of
Greek civilization.
According to A. B. Cook, Minos and Minotaur are only different
forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god Zeus of the
Cretans, who represented the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer
both explain Pasiphae's monstrous union as a sacred ceremony
(lepAs 7dfios), at which the queen of Cnossus was wedded to a
bull-formed god, just as the wife of the ipxtav /3a<riXeus in Athens
was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pettier, who does not dispute the^
historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris (q.v.)'
considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull-cult may have
existed by the side of that of the double axe) victims were tortured
by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story
of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and
clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the
island, is probably of similar origin. The contest between Theseus
and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A
Cnossian didrachm exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other
the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably
intended for stars; it is to be noted that one of the monster's name,
was Asterius.
See A. Conze, Theseus und Minotauros (1878); L. Stephani, De>
Kampf zwischen Theseus und Minotauros (1842), with plates and
history of the legend; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie; Helbig
in Reseller's Lexicon der Mythologie; F. Durrbach in Daremberg
and Saglio's Dictionnaire des anliquites; A. B. Cook in Classical
Review, xvii. 410; J. G. Frazer, Early History of the Kingship
(1905) ; E. Pettier in La Revue de Paris (Feb. 1902) ; the story is told
in Kingsley's Heroes.
MINSK, a government of western Russia, bounded by the
governments of Vilna, Vitebsk, Mogilev and Chernigov on the
N. and E. and by Kiev, Volhynia and Grodno on the S. and W.
It has an area of 35,283 sq. m. The surface is undulating and
hilly in the north-west, where a narrow plateau and a range of
hills (800-1000 ft.) of tertiary formation separate the basin of
the Niemen, which flows into the Baltic, from that of the Dnieper,
which sends its waters into the Black Sea. The remainder of the
government is flat, 450 to 650 ft. above sea-level, and covered
with sands and clays of the glacial and post-glacial periods. Two
broad shallow depressions, drained by the Berezina and the
Pripet, cross the government from north to south and from west
to east; and these, as well as the triangular space between them,
are occupied by immense marshes (often as much as 200 to 600
sq. m. each), ponds and small lakes, peat-bogs and moving sands,
intermingled with dense forests. This country, and especially
its south-western part, is usually known under the name of
Polyesie (" The Woods "). Altogether, marshes and moors
556
MINSK MINSTREL
take up 22% and marshy forests no less than 40^% of the entire
area of the province. It is only in the north-west that the forests
consist of full-grown trees; those which grow on the marshy
ground are small, stunted pine, birch and aspen. The climate
of the Polyesie is extremely unhealthy; malarias and an endemic
disease of the hair (plica Polonica) are the plagues of these tracts.
Communication is very difficult. The railway from Poland to
Moscow has taken advantage of the plateau above mentioned;
but still it has to cross the broad marshy depression of the
Berezina. A successful attempt was made to drain the marshes
of the Polyesie by a system of canals, and more than 4,500,000
acres have thus been rendered suitable for pasture and agriculture.
Two tributaries of the Dnieper the Berezina and the Pripet
both navigable, with -numberless subtributaries, many also
navigable, are the natural outlets for the marshes. The Dniecer
flows along its south-eastern border for 160 m. and the Niemen
on the north-western for 130 m. The affluents of the
Baltic, the Dvina and the Vistula, are connected by canals
with tributaries of the Dnieper. The estimated population
in 1906 was 2,581,400. The peasants constitute 65% of the
population, who are mostly White Russians (71%); there are
also Poles (12%), Jews (16%), Little Russians and Great
Russians. About 70,000 are considered to be Lithuanians;
there are also 4500 Tatars and 2000 Germans.
The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agriculture, which
is very unproductive in the lowlands; in the Polyesie the peasants
rarely have pure bread to eat. Only 23-5 % of the area is under
crops. Cattle-breeding is very imperfectly developed. Hunting
and bee-keeping are sources of income in the Polyesie, and fishing
gives occupation to about 20,000 persons. Gardening is carried
on in some parts. The chief source of income for the inhabitants
of the lowlands is the timber trade. Timber is floated down the
rivers, and tar, pitch, various products of bark, potash, charcoal
and timber-ware (wooden dishes, &c.) are manufactured in the
villages to a great extent; and ship-building is carried on along
the Dnieper, Pripet and Niemen. Shipping is also an important
source of income. The industrial arts are almost entirely unde-
veloped, but there are several distilleries, flour-mills, saw-mills and
tanneries, and woollen-stuffs, candles, tobacco, matches and sugar
are manufactured. The great highway from Warsaw to Moscow
crosses the government in the south, and its passage through the
"Berezina is protected by the first-class fortress of Bobruisk. The
government is divided into nine districts, of which the chief towns
and populations in 1897 are: Minsk, capital of the government (q.v .),
Bobruisk (35,177), Igumen (4579), Mozyr (10,762), Novogrudok
(7700), Pinsk (27,938), Ryechitsa (10,681) and Slutsk (14,180).
This region was originally inhabited by Slavs. That portion of
it which was occupied by the Krivichi became part of the Polotsk
principality, and so of White Russia; the other portion, occupied
by the Dregovichi and Drevlyans, became part of Black Russia;
whilst the south-western portion was occupied by Yatvyags or
Lithuanians. During the i2th, i3th and i4th centuries it was
divided among several principalities, which were successively
incorporated with Lithuania, and later annexed to Poland.
Russia took possession of this country in 1793. In 1812 it was
invaded by the army of Napoleon I. Archaeological finds of
great value, dating from the Neolithic and subsequent ages,
have lately been made. (P.A.K.; J.T.BE.)
MINSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, on the Svisloch, a tributary of the Berezina, at the
intersection of the Moscow-Warsaw and Libau-Kharkov rail-
ways, 430 m. by rail W. from Moscow. It had, in 1897, 91,494
inhabitants, of whom one-third were Jews of the poorest class;
the others were White Russians, Poles and Tatars. Amongst
its public buildings is a cathedral, built in 1611. Minsk is the
headquarters of the IVth Army Corps and the see of a bishop of
the Orthodox Greek Church, and from 1798 to 1853 it was a see
of the Roman Catholic Church. The manufactures are few and
insignificant. Since the introduction of railways the com-
mercial importance of the place, which formerly was slight,
has begun to increase.
Minsk is mentioned in Russian annals in the nth century
under the name of Myen'sk, or Menesk. In 1066 and 1096 it was
devastated, first by Izyazlav and afterwards by Vladimir, prince
of Kiev. It changed rulers many times until the i3th century,
when it became a Lithuanian fief. In the isth century it was
part of Poland, but as late as 1505 it was ravaged by Tatars, and
in 1508 by Russians. In the i8th century it was taken several
times by Swedes and Russians. Russia annexed it in 1793.
Napoleon I. took it in 1812.
MINSTER, two towns of Kent, England.
1. MINSTER-IN-THANET, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary
division, lies on the southern slope of the isle, above the
Minster marshes, in the low, flat valley of the river Stour, 4 m.
west of Ramsgate, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901), 2338. Its church, dedicated to St Mary, is
cruciform, with a western tower, the nave a fine example of
Norman work, the transepts and chancel a beautiful Early
English addition. The carved choir-stalls are a notable
feature. The church belonged to a nunnery, founded at the
close of the 7th century. The abbey, a residence close to the
church, incorporates portions of the ancient buildings. Fruit-
growing is largely carried on in the neighbourhood.
2. MINSTER-IN-SHEPPEY, in the north-eastern parliamentary
division, lies in the Isle of Sheppey, near the north coast. Pop.
(1901), 1306. It is served by the Sheppey light railway from
Sheerness, 2 m. west. The village has in modern times become
a seaside resort. It has a fine church, dedicated to St Mary and
St Sexburga, originally attached to a convent of the 7th century,
founded by Sexburga, widow of Erconberht, king of Kent. The
building as it stands is only a portion of the conventual church
founded in the early part of the i2th century by William de
Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury; it retains also traces of
pre-Norman work. It contains some interesting early monu-
ments. The abbey gatehouse remains, and other fragments
may be traced. There are oyster beds in the neighbouring
shallow sea.
MINSTER (from Lat. monasterium; cf. German Miinster), the
church of a monastery, or one to which a monastery has been
attached. In the icth century the name was applied to the
churches of outlying parishes, and is now given to some of the
English cathedrals, such as York, Lincoln, Ripon and Southwell,
and to large churches or abbeys, like those of Sherborne, Wim-
borne or Westminster.
MINSTREL. The word " minstrel," which is a derivative
from the Latin minister, a servant, through the diminutives
ministellus, minislrallus (Fr. menestrel), only acquired its special
sense of household entertainer late in the i3th century. It
was the equivalent of the Low Latin joculator 1 (Prov. joglar,
Fr. jongleur, Mid. Eng. jogclour), and had an equally wide
significance.
The minstrel of medieval England had his forerunners in the
Teutonic scop (O.H.G. scdpf or scof, a shaper or maker), and to a
limited extent in the mimus of the later Roman empire. The
earliest record of the Teutonic scdp is found in the Anglo-Saxon
poem of Widsith, which in an earlier form probably dates back
before the English conquest. Widsith, the far-traveller, belonged
to a tribe which was neighbour to the Angles, and was sent on a
mission to the Ostrogoth Eormanric (Hermanric or Ermanaric,
d- 37S)> from whom he received a collar of beaten gold. He
wandered from place to place singing or telling stories in the mead-
hall, and saw many nations, from the Picts and Scots in the west
to the Medes and Persians in the east. Finally he received a
gift of land in his native country. The Complaint of Dear and
Beowulf give further proof that the Teutonic scop held an honour-
able position, which was shaken by the advent of Christianity.
The scdp and the gleeman (the terms appear to have been practi-
cally synonymous) shared in the general condemnation passed by
the Church on the dancers, jugglers, bear-leaders and tumblers.
Saxo Grammaticus (Historia danica, bk. v.) condemns the Irish
king Hugleik because he spent all his bounty on mimes and
jugglers. That the loftier, tradition of the scopas was preserved
in spite of these influences is shown by the tales of Alfred and
Anlaf disguised as minstrels. With the Normans came the
joculator or jogleur, who wore gaudy-coloured coats and the flat
1 Used by John of Salisbury (Polycraiicus, i. 8) as a generic term
to cover mimi, salii or saliares, balatrones, aemiliani, gladiatores,
palaestritae, gignadii, praestigialores.
MINT
557
shoes of the Latin mimes, and had a shaven face and close-cut
hair. Jogleurs were admitted everywhere, and enjoyed the
freedom of speech accorded to the professional jester. Their
impunity, however, was not always maintained, for Henry I.
is said to have put out the eyes of Luc de la Barre for lampoon-
ing him. A fairly denned class distinction soon arose. Those
minstrels who were attached to royal or noble households had
a status very different from that of the motley entertainers,
who soon came under the restrictions imposed on vagabonds
generally. A joculator regis, Berdic by name, is mentioned in
Domesday Book. The king's minstrels formed part of the royal
household, and were placed under a rex, a fairly common term
of honour in the craft (cf. Adenes li rois). Edward III. had
nineteen minstrels in his pay, including three who bore the title
of waits. The large towns had in their pay bodies of waits,
generally designated in the civic accounts as histriones. A wait
under Edward III. had to " pipe the watch " four times nightly
between Michaelmas and Shere Tuesday, and three times nightly
during the remainder of the year. In spite of the repeated
prohibitions of the Church, the matter was compromised in
practice. Even religious houses had their minstrels, and so
pious a prelate as Robert Grosseteste had his private harper,
whose chamber adjoined the bishop's. St Thomas Aquinas
(Summa theologia) said that there was no sin in the minstrel's
art if it were kept within the bounds of decency. Thomas de
Cabham, bishop of Salisbury (d. 1313), in a Penitential distin-
guished three kinds of minstrels (histriones) buffoons or tum-
blers; the wandering scurrae, by whom he probably meant the
goliardi (see GOLIARD) ; and the singers and players of instruments.
In the third class he discriminated between the singers of lewd
songs and those joculatorcs who took their songs from the deeds
of princes and the lives of saints. The performances of these
joculatores were permissible, and they themselves were not to be
excluded from the consolations of the Church. The Parisian
minstrels were formed into a gild in 1321, and in England a
charter of Edward IV. (1469) formed the royal minstrels into
a gild, which minstrels throughout the country were compelled
to join if they wished to exercise their trade. A new charter
was conferred in 1604, when its jurisdiction was limited to the
city of London and 3 m. round it. This corporation still exists,
under the style of the Corporation of the Master, Wardens and
Commonalty of the Art or Science of the Musicians of London.
During the best time of minstrelsy the loth, nth and i2th
centuries the minstrel, especially when he composed his own
songs, was held in high honour. He was probably of noble or
good bourgeois birth, and was treated by his hosts more or less
as an equal. The distinction between the troubadour and the
jogleur which was established in Provence probably soon
spread to France and England. In any case it is probable
that the poverty which forms the staple topic of the poems of
Rutebeuf (q.v.) was the commonest lot of the minstrel.
Entries of payments to minstrels occur in the accounts of
corporations and religious houses throughout the i6th century;
but the art of minstrelsy, already in its decline, was destroyed
in England by the introduction of printing, and the minstrel of
the entertainments given to Elizabeth at Kenilworth was little
more than a survival.
The best account of the subject is to be found in E. K. Chambers's
Medieval Stage (1903), i. 23-86 and ii. 230-266. See also L.
Gautier in Epopees franchises (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1892) ; A. Schultz,
Das hofische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger (2nd ed., 1889) ; T. Percy,
Reliques of English Poetry (ed. H. B. Wheatley, 1876) ; J. Ritson,
Ancient English Metrical Romances (1802); J. J. Jusserand, English
Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages (4th ed., 1892).
MINT, botanically Mentha, a genus of labiate plants, com-
prising about twenty species of perennial herbs, widely distributed
throughout the temperate and sub-tropical portions of the globe,
but chiefly in the temperate regions of the Old World. The
species have square stems, opposite, aromatic leaves, and a
stoloniferous creeping rootstock. The flowers are arranged in
axillary clusters (cymes), which either form separate whorls or
are crowded together into a terminal spike. The corolla is
usually small and of a pale purple or pinkish colour; it has four
nearly equal lobes, and encloses two long and two short stamens.
Nearly three hundred intermediate forms have been named and
described. Many of these varieties are permanent, in con-
sequence of being propagated by stolons.
In Britain ten species are indigenous or naturalized. Mentha
viridis, or spearmint, grows in marshy meadows, and is the species
commonly used for culinary purposes; it is distinguished by its
smooth, sessile leaves and lax tapering flower-spikes. It is
probably a cultivated race of the next species, Mentha sylvestris,
or horsemint, which chiefly differs from the above in its coarser
habit and hairy leaves, which are silky beneath, and in its denser
flower-spikes. This plant is supposed to be the mint of Scripture,
as it is extensively cultivated in the East; it was one of the bitter
herbs with which the paschal lamb was eaten. M. rolundifolia
resembles the last in size and habit, but is distinguished by its
rounded wrinkled leaves, which are shaggy beneath, and by its
lanceolate bracts. The last two species usually grow on damp
waste ground. M. aquatica grows in ditches, and is easily
recognized by its rounded flower-spikes and stalked hairy leaves.
M. piperita, or peppermint (q.v.), has stalked smooth leaves and
an oblong obtuse terminal spike of flowers; it is cultivated for
its volatile oil. M. pratensis belongs to a group which have the
flowers arranged in axillary whorls and never in terminal spikes;
it otherwise bears some resemblance to M. viridis. M. saliva
grows by damp roadsides, and M . arvensis in cornfields; they are
distinguished from M. pratensis by their hairy stalked leaves,
which in M. arvensis are all equally large, but in M. saliva are
much smaller towards the apex of the stem. M . Pulegium,
commonly known as pennyroyal, more rarely as fleamint, has
small oval obtuse leaves and flowers in axillary whorls, and is
remarkable for its creeping habit and peculiar odour. It differs
from all the mints above described in the throat of the calyx
being closed with hairs. It is met with in damp places on grassy
commons, and was formerly popular for medicinal purposes.
All the genus Mentha abound in a volatile oil, contained in
resinous dots in the leaves and stems. The odour of the oil is
similar in several species, but is not distinctive, the same odour
occurring in varieties of distinct species. Thus the peppermint
flavour is found in M . piperita, in M. incana, and in Chinese and
Japanese varieties of M. arvensis. Other forms of the last-
named species growing in Ceylon and Java have the flavour of the
common garden mint, M. viridis, and the odour is found in M .
sylvestris, M. rotundifolia and M. canadensis. A bergamot scent
is met with in a variety of M. aquatica and in forms of other
species. Most mints blossom in August.
The name mint is also applied to plants of other genera,
Monarda punctata being called horsemint, Pycnanthemum
linifolium mountain mint, and Nepeta cataria catmint.
MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt), a place where coins are
manufactured with the authority of the state. Coins are pieces
of metal, of weight and composition fixed by law, with a design
upon them, also fixed by law, by which they are identified, their
value made known and their genuineness certified. The origin
of the word " mint " is ascribed to the manufacture of silver
coin at Rome in 269 B.C. at the temple of Juno Moneta. 1 This
goddess became the personification of money, and her name was
applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Metals
were used for money at an early stage of civilization, and are
well suited to the purpose, owing to their great intrinsic value
and their durability, indestructibility, divisibility and rarity.
The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper,
tin, nickel, aluminium, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys
of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of
the required qualities.
History of Minting. The earliest metallic money did not consist
of coins, but of unminted metal in the form of rings and other
ornaments or of weapons, which were used for thousands of years
by the Egyptian, Chaldean and Assyrian Empires (see NUMIS-
MATICS). According to Herodotus, the first mint was probably
that established by Gyges in Lydia towards the end of the 8th
century B.C. for the coining of gold, silver and electrum, an
1 Lenormant, La Monnaie dans I'antiquite, i. 82.
MINT
alloy of gold and silver found in a natural state. 1 Silver
was coined in the island of Aegina soon afterwards. The art
of coining was introduced by the Greeks into Italy and other
countries bordering on the Mediterranean and into Persia and
India. Subsequently the Romans laid the foundations of modern
minting. Coining originated independently in China at a later
date than in the western world, and spread from China to Japan
and Korea. Coins may be made by casting in moulds or by
striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger
copper coins, in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not
because they knew nothing of striking, but because it was not
suitable for such large masses of metal. Casting is now used only
by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bullet-
shaped or conical moulds and marked on one side by means of
a die which was struck with a hammer. The " blank " or un-
marked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil (ambos), and
the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower
side of the coin received a rectangular mark made by the sharp
edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the* anvil was marked
in various ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts,
and later still the ambos was replaced by a reverse die. The
spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones.
The blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies.
One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar
to that still used in striking medals in high relief, except that the
blank is now allowed to cool before being struck. With the
substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about
A.D. 300, the practice of striking the blanks while they were hot
was gradually discarded. 2 In the middle ages bars of metal
were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the
flattened sheets were then -cut out with shears, struck between
dies and again trimmed with shears. A similar method had been
used in Egypt under the Ptolemies (c. 300 B.C.) but had been
forgotten. Square pieces of metal were also cut from cast bars,
converted into round disks by hammering and then struck
between dies. In striking, the lower die was fixed into a block
of wood, and the blank piece of metal laid upon it by hand. The
upper die was then placed on the blank, and kept in position by
means of a holder round which was placed a roll of lead to protect
the hand of the operator while heavy blows were struck with a
hammer. An early improvement was the introduction of a tool
resembling a pair of tongs, the two dies being placed one at the
extremity of each leg. This avoided the necessity of readjusting
the dies between blows, and ensured greater accuracy in the
impression. Minting by means of a falling weight (monkey press)
intervened between the hand hammers and the screw press in
many places. In Birmingham in particular this system became
highly developed and was long in use. A. Olivier introduced
screw presses for striking coins, together with rolls for reducing
the cast bars and machines for punching-out round disks from
flattened sheets of metal, in Paris in 1553. After being discarded
in 1585, except for making medals, they were reintroduced by
J. Varin in 1640 and the practice of hammering was forbidden
in 1645.' In England the new machinery was tried in London in
1561, but abandoned soon afterwards; it was finally adopted in
1662, although the old pieces continued in circulation until 1696.
At first the rolls were driven by workmen by means of cranks,
but later they were worked by horses, mules or water-power.
Steam-power was applied to them by Matthew Boulton and Watt
in Birmingham in 1788, and was adopted by the Royal Mint,
London, in 1810. Recently the practice of driving rolls by
electricity has been growing, the advantage being that each pair
of rolls can be driven independently without the intervention of
cumbrous shafting. Boulton and Watt's screw press, invented
in 1788 and used at the Royal Mint until 1881, was worked by
atmospheric pressure applied to a piston. The piston was in
communication with a vacuum vessel from which the air had been
pumped by steam power.
History of British Mints. In Britain there are evidences of
1 Op. cit. i. 136. Herodotus i. 94.
2 E. Dumas, L' Emission des monnaies decimales de bronze, p. 14.
8 Ibid. p. 19.
the existence of mints before the arrival of the Romans. The
Romans at first imported their coins, and no Roman mints were
established until about the end of the 3rd century, when coins
were being struck at London and Colchester. 4 In Anglo-Saxon
times Athelstan appears to have been the first monarch who
enacted regulations for the mints. 6 He promulgated laws about
the year 928, appointing a large number of " moneyers " or
" mynteres," London being assigned eight, Canterbury seven,
other important towns various numbers and all smaller boroughs
one moneyer each. The necessity for so many mints lay in
the imperfect means of communication. At an early period,
probably about A.D. 1000, the dies were made in London and
issued to the other mints. The moneyers, who were elected by
the burgesses, were responsible for the manufacture of the coin,
and according to Madox were liable at the time of Henry II. to
be summoned to Westminster to take part in the trials of the
pyx. 6 If there was any deficiency in the weight of the fineness
of the coin the moneyers were punished as traitors. These
moneyers appear to have been abolished about n8o, 7 when
officers were appointed to supervise the coinage on behalf of the
king, and the name " moneyer " was applied to contractors who
manufactured the coin under superintendence and were not
responsible to the king for its weight and fineness. The moneyers
continued to manufacture the coin of the realm until the year
1850, when the work was entrusted to civil servants. In the
reign of Henry III. the principal officers of the Mint were the
master, who manufactured the coin under a contract, the warden
or paymaster who acted on behalf of the Crown, the assay master
(also a king's officer) who was responsible for the fineness of the
coin, the cuneator or superintendent of the engravers of the dies,
and the moneyer. One of the most important duties of the
warden was the collection from the contractor of the seigniorage
which was claimed by the sovereign by virtue of his prerogative
as a source of revenue to the Crown. In 1718 Sir Isaac Newton
was made master of the Mint, and in that capacity as contractor
for the coinage he amassed a considerable fortune. 8 As the work
of the Mint became more extensive and more complicated other
officers were added and their duties were varied from time to
time. The present administration of the English Mint is based
on arrangements made in 1870, when the establishment was re-
organized. The office of master of the Mint is held by the chan-
cellor of the exchequer for the time being, without salary, but the
actual administrative work of the department is entrusted to
the deputy master and comptroller. The receipt of bullion and
the delivery of coin from the Mint is under the charge of the chief
clerk, the manufacture of coin is in the hands of the superinten-
dent of the operative department, and the valuation of the
bullion by assay, and matters relating to the fineness of the
coin are entrusted to the chemist and assayer. The date of the
establishment of the Mint in the Tower of London is unknown.
There is a reference to it dated 1229 and a clear reference dated
1329.' According to Ruding, there were over fifty mints in the
reign of Edward the Confessor. After the Norman Conquest
the mints increased to about seventy, a greater number
than now exists in the world, but they were gradually reduced
and in the reign of Edward I. there were only twelve.
Ruding enumerates 128 mints operated at various times in the
United Kingdom, including some established by usurpation, as
in the reign of Stephen by certain barons, and also mints estab-
lished by grants to ecclesiastics to be worked for their own profit.
The provincial mints were all closed just before the reign of
Mary, who coined in London only. Charles I. set up small mints
in various towns, and for the great re-coinage in the reign of
William III. mints were established at York, Chester, Exeter,
Bristol and Norwich, but were soon abandoned. Wood's copper
money for Ireland and America was coined at Wolverhampton
(1700-1722), and the tradesmen's tokens were struck at various
towns. Copper coins were struck by Boulton at Soho, Birmingham,
4 H. A. Grueber, Coins of Great Britain and Ireland, p. viii.
6 Rogers Ruding, Annals of the Coinage, 3rd ed. ii. 135.
6 Grueber, op. cit. p. xxv. 8 Ruding, op. cit. i. 35.
7 Ibid. p. xxvi. Ibid. ii. 192, 194.
MINT
559
in 1788, and a colonial bronze coinage was executed at this
establishment as recently as the year 1875. There is another
mint in Birmingham worked by a private company (" The Mint,
Birmingham, Limited "), where coinages for foreign governments
are executed and in addition silver and bronze colonial coins are
occasionally manufactured under the supervision of the London
Mint. The existing London Mint was erected on Tower Hill in
1810. Minting in Scotland began in the reign of David I.
(1124-1153) and ceased in 1709, two years after the Act of Union,
in which it had been expressly stipulated that a mint should
be continued in Scotland. ' Coinage in Dublin began in Anglo-
Saxon times and came to an end in the reign of William III. 2
The other Irish mints were of little importance.
British Dominions. Turning to mints in British Dominions
beyond the Seas, Ruding enumerates twenty-six mints in France
and Flanders used by British monarchs between 1186 and 1513,
and Anglo-Hanoverian coins were struck at Clausthal, Zellerfeld
and Hanover in the period 1714-1837. In India 3 the earliest
English mint was that at Madras which was bought by the East
India Company in 1620, reorganized more than once and finally
closed in 1869. The Calcutta mint was established by the East
India Company in 1757, but other mints in Bengal continued to
be used till about 1835, when the Calcutta mint was rebuilt.
The Bombay mint was set up about the year 1671, but the coins
were made by hammer and anvil until 1800. The Calcutta and
Bombay mints are still in operation. A mint was opened in
Hong-Kong in 1866 but was closed in 1868 and the machinery
sold to Japan. In Australia there are three mints, Sydney,
opened in 1855, Melbourne, opened in 1872, and Perth, opened in
1899. Up to 1909 only sovereigns and half-sovereigns were struck
at these establishments, but in 1910 arrangements were made
for a Commonwealth silver coinage. A mint at Ottawa was
opened in 1908 for the manufacture of all Canadian coins as
well as English sovereigns.
Other Countries. In the United States the Philadelphia mint
was opened in 1792, but only manual or horse power was used
until 1836, when steam was introduced. Other mints are now in
operation at New Orleans, San Francisco and Denver. In most
European countries a single mint situated at the capital is found
to be sufficient, but there are six mints in the German Empire and
two in Austria-Hungary. In China 26 mints were at work in
1906. There are also mints at Osaka, Bangkok and Teheran,
and the Seoul mint was at work in 1904. In Mexico n mints
formerly existed, but one only, in the city of Mexico, remained
open in 1907. In South America there are mints at Lima,
Santiago, Buenos Ayres and Tegucigalpa. No mints are in
operation in Africa. In all there are nearly 70 mints in the
world.
The Supply of Bullion to Mints. In England, in the middle
ages, the king was accustomed to send in to the mint the produce
of his own silver mines, and claimed the exclusive privilege of
purchasing the precious metals. The right of levying seigniorage,
however, was sometimes waived by the king to encourage his
subjects to bring gold and silver to the mint, and several instances
are recorded in which the aid of alchemists was called in to effect
the transmutation of baser metals into gold. Seigniorage was
abolished for both gold and silver in 1666, when it was provided
that no charge should be made at the Mint for coining and assay-
ing. Finally in 1816 the free coinage of silver was brought to an
end. At present all gold bullion brought to the Mint is weighed
and portions are cut off for assay. The amount of gold in
standard ounces (916-6 fine) corresponding to the " imported "
bullion is thus ascertained, and on the application of the im-
porter the gold is coined and delivered to him in the form of
sovereigns and half-sovereigns at the rate of 3, 173. ic-Jd. per
standard ounce troy, no deduction being made for wastage,
seigniorage, the purchase of alloy metal, or the expense of rnanu-
facture. As a considerable time elapses between the receipt of
bullion by the Mint and the delivery of the coin, it is generally
1 Grueber, op. cit. p. liv. * Ruding, op. cit. ii. 245.
8 W. J. Hocking, Catalogue of Coins in the Royal Mint, i. 272, 275
and 279.
more profitable for the holder of gold bullion to sell it to the Bank
of England or dispose of it in some other way. The result is that
the gold presented for coinage is almost always sent from the
Bank of England, which suffers no loss of interest during the
coinage of the bullion, because bank-notes have already been
issued against it. Silver bullion, and the copper, tin and zinc
required to make up bronze, are bought by the Mint and manu-
factured into coin, which is kept in stock and issued as it may be
required. One ounce of standard silver, which contains 925
parts of silver and 75 of copper per 1000, is converted into 53. 6d.
in silver coin, whatever may be the market price of silver bullion.
This seldom exceeded 3od. per ounce in the years 1893-1907.
Coinage bronze consists of copper 95 parts, tin 4 parts and zinc
i part, and a ton yields 448 in pence or 373, 6s. 8d. in halfpence
or farthings. The difference between the nominal value of
silver and bronze coin and its intrinsic value is retained by the
state to cover the expenses of manufacture and as a source of
profit. It corresponds to the seigniorage levied by the king on all
coinages down to the reign of Charles II. In return, the Mint
receives at its nominal value for recoinage the worn gold and
silver coin which is withdrawn from circulation by the Bank of
England and some other banks. In spite of the cost of this
recoinage, however, the profit on the issue of new silver and
bronze usually exceeds in each year the total expenditure of the
Mint. Gold and silver are delivered in a refined state suitable
for immediate conversion into coin. In general, only old coin,
ingots resulting from the melting of coin, and " fine " ingots are
received. Fine gold ingots (the " bar gold " of commerce) are
usually about 400 oz. troy in weight, and contain from 990 to
999-5 parts of gold per 1000, the remainder being chiefly silver.
Fine silver ingots usually weigh from 1000 to 1200 oz. troy
and contain from 995 to 999 parts of silver per 1000. The
ingots are valued by weighing and assaying, and a calculation
is made as to the amount of copper required for melting with
them to produce the standard alloy. The two standard alloys
consist respectively of gold 916-6, copper 83-3 and of silver 925,
copper 75. All gold coins received at the Bank are weighed
on automatic balances (see below) and those below the lowest
legal current weight are separated. The lowest current weight
is 122-5 grains for sovereigns and 61-125 grains for half-sovereigns
corresponding to losses by wear of about 0-6% and 0-8%
respectively. The average age on withdrawal is about 24 years
for sovereigns and 15 years for half-sovereigns. Silver coins are
not weighed but are selected for withdrawal when they present
a worn appearance. The average deficiency in weight of worn
silver coin received at the Mint is from 8 to 10%, and the mean
age somewhat less than 50 years. In European mints generally
little difficulty is experienced in procuring refined gold and silver
for coinage. In Australia, the United States, Japan and some
other countries, the Mints receive unrefined gold from the mines
and refine it before it is coined. A charge for refining is made in
all cases. A refinery was attached to the London Mint from
1816 to 1851, but was then let on lease and left to private enter-
prise. The operations employed in the manufacture of gold and
silver coin are as follow:
(i) Melting the metal and casting it into bars. (2) Rolling the
bars into strips or " fillets." (3) Cutting out disks or blanks from
the fillets. (4) Adjusting the weight of the blanks (this is omitted
in some mints). (5) " Marking " or edge-rolling the blanks to
produce a raised rim or to impress a design on the edge. (6)
Annealing the blanks and (in some mints) cleaning them in acid.
(7) Striking the blanks between dies surrounded by a collar.
(8) Weighing each coin. Among the incidental operations are
(a) the valuation of the bullion by weighing and assaying it;
(6) " rating " the bullion, or calculating the amount of copper to
be added to make up the standard alloy; (c) recovering the values
from ground-up crucibles, ashes and floor sweepings (the Mint
"sweep"); (d) assaying the melted bars; (e) "pyxing" the
finished coin or selecting specimens to be weighed and assayed;
(/) " telling " or counting the coin.
Melting. Formerly bullion was melted in crucibles made of refrac-
tory clay, but they are liable to crack and require careful handling
S 6<
MINT
These were succeeded by iron crucibles, especially for melting
silver, and these have now been generally rep aced by graphite
(plumbago) crucibles made of a mixture of clay and graphite.
Good graphite crucibles can be used many times in succession if
they are heated gradually each time, but they are usually discarded
after about fifteen or twenty meltings. At the Royal Mint gold is
melted in crucibles about 10 in. in height and 8 in. in diameter at
the widest part. The charge is from 1200 to 1300 oz. (37-3 to 40-5
kilograms) of metal. The furnace is 12 in. square and 2 ft. deep
from the fire-bars to the cover. An old crucible is cut off about 2 in.
from the bottom and the bottom piece is inverted and placed on the
fire-bars as a support for the crucible. The muffle, a graphite
cylinder 6 in. in height, is placed on the crucible to allow room for
long bars to be melted in the crucible and to prevent the surrounding
and C is the flue, common to two furnaces and leading to the stack.
The handle D, acting through the gear wheels E, F, G and H, turns
the cogwheel K, which moves the curved rack of the cradle and tips
the crucible M. The molten metal is poured into the moulds N,
which are carried on wheels running on rails Q. The parts of the
range of moulds are brought tightly together and held in position
by the bars O and the screw P, and when one mould is filled the
carrier is moved forward on its rails by wheels worked by a handle
also shown in the figure. In some other mints still larger crucibles
are used, containing various amounts up to about 1000 kilograms
or over 30,000 oz. In foreign mints the molten metal is generally
transferred from the crucible to the moulds by dipping crucibles or
iron ladles covered with clay. Gas is used as fuel for the melting
furnaces at Philadelphia. It is cleaner than coke and is said to
FIG. i. Furnace Apparatus.
coke from falling into it. The flue, of about 5 in. square, communi-
cates with a stack 60 ft. high. In many mints the flues pass into
condensing chambers where volatilized gold and silver are recovered.
The crucible is at a red heat when the gold is charged in, the copper
being added last, and a graphite lid put on the crucible to check loss
by volatilization. The charge is completely melted in about half
an hour, and it is then thoroughly mixed by stirring with a graphite
rod. The crucible is then lifted out by circular tongs suspended
in such a way that two men can take part in the] operation. The
contents are poured by hand into moulds which are contained side
by side in an iron carriage running on wheels, fig. I, OP. The
molten gold, which is of a pale green colour, solidifies at once in the
iron moulds, and the bars can bs taken out immediately. Bars
from which sovereigns are to be coined are 22 in. long, if in. wide
and i in. thick, and about seven such bars are cast from one pot.
The rough edges of the bars are removed by a circular revolving file,
and the hollow ends are cut off. Pieces are cut out for assay, and
the bars are then ready for rolling. The amount of gold melted in
an ordinary day's work is two tons to two and a half tons, of the
value of 250,000 to 300,000. For silver larger crucibles are used,
containingfabout 5000 oz. troy (155 kilograms). They are heated
in circular furnaces 21 in. in diameter and lifted out with circular
tongs suspended from a travelling crane which is worked by elec-
tricity. The crucible is placed in the pouring cradle, which has
been in use since 1816, and is shown in fig. I. Here A is the iron
cover surrounding the furnaces, B is the revolving lid of a furnace,
save time and to reduce the loss of the precious metals. At Denver
and Ottawa the fuel used is " first distillate " oil, which is found
to be cheaper than either naphtha or'gas. The oil is pumped from
buried tanks and warmed to about 90 F. before it reaches the
burners at the furnaces. At the Denver mint the crucibles are used
for from twelve to fifteen meltings with oil fuel, whereas they were
soon destroyed when gas was employed. A charge of 6000 oz. of gold
is melted in about an hour. The melting losses amount to about
0-2 per 1000 of gold and 0-6 per 1000 of silver in the Royal Mint.
The losses are caused by volatilization, by the absorption of metal
by the crucible, stirring rod, &c., and by occasional projection of
particles from the pot into the furnace. The ash-pit is lined with
iron plates to facilitate the recovery of metal accidentally spilt.
All crucibles and other materials which might contain precious
metal are ground up and washed in a pan, and the pannings together
with a selection from the floor sweepings are remelted. The residues
(the Mint " sweep ") are sold to refiners or ore-smelters.
Rolling. The cast bars are reduced to the thickness of the coin
by repeated passages between rolls. These are cylinders of cast
iron or steel from 6 in. to 15 in. in diameter set parallel to one another
with 'a small interval between, and revolved by electric or steam
power. They are divided into breaking-down and finishing rolls,
the latter being of smaller diameter than the former. The power
is usually transmitted through toothed wheels, each roll being
driven independently in some cases, while sometimes power is ap-
plied to the lower roll only, the upper roll being coupled to it. The
MINT
561
power required for breaking down mint bars amounts to from 25
to 35 h.p. The bars are fed to the rolls by hand. Heavy pinches
are applied at first, the space between the rolls being diminished by
a hand-screw after each passage of the bars through them. When
the bars are nearly to gauge, tight pinches are given, the power
required by finishing rolls being about 5 h.p. only. The reduction
in thickness of the bars is accompanied by a slight increase in their
width and a very great increase in their length, so that it is generally
necessary to cut partly rolled bars into two parts to keep them of
convenient dimensions. By repeated passages through the rolls
the bars are hardened, and to facilitate further reduction they are
usually softened by annealing before being passed to the finishing
rolls. In some mints the fillets are annealed frequently, the fillets
for one-mark pieces at the Berlin mint, for example, being annealed
four times in the course of rolling. In this case the bars are reduced
from 5f mm. in thickness to ij mm. by being passed thirteen times
through the rolls. At the Vienna mint the practice has been to
anneal silver bars after each passage through the rolls. On the other
hand, in the United States mints, the use of very carefully refined
metal has made it possible to discontinue the annealing of partly
rolled bars. In the Royal Mint silver bars are annealed once
during rolling by passing through a Bates & Peard gas furnace.
The fillets are placed on an endless chain which moves slowly through
the furnace, returning underneath. At each end of the furnace is a
trough of water which covers the furnace mouth, so that air is pre-
vented from entering the furnace. The chain dips below the water,
then rises into the furnace and passes down into the other trough
on its way out. The resuK is that so long as the fillets are hot they
are kept from contact with the air and blackening of the metal is
prevented. In some mints the drag-bench or draw-bench is used
after the rolls to equalize the thickness of the fillets. The fillet is
drawn between two little steel cylinders which do not revolve and
are held rigidly in position. The principle resembles that used in
wire drawing. It was introduced by Sir John Barton at the Royal
Mint in 1816 and was abandoned there in 1905. The thickness of the
FIG. 2. Gauge Plate.
fillets is measured by the gauge-plate shown in fig. 2. When they
have been reduced to the correct thickness they are examined by the
" tryer," who cuts out one or two blanks from each fillet with a hand
machine and weighs them on a delicate balance. If the weight of
the blank is slightly below the standard weight, a somewhat larger
cutter is used, so that the blanks may be of correct weight. If
the blank is too heavy the fillet may of course be passed through
the rolls again.
Remedy. The degree of accuracy required is indicated by the
" remedy " allowance for weight, which is different for each_coin,
and is the maximum difference from the standard weight which is
allowed by law. In the sovereign it is p-2 grain or about 1-62 per
1000. As the mean thickness of a sovereign is 0-0466 in., the remedy
for weight corresponds to a difference of less than rotam m - i" the
thickness of the fillet. The remedy for English silver coins varies
from 2 grains or 4-58 per 1000 in the case of the crown, to 0-087
grain or 11-97 per 1000 in the case of the silver penny. The reme-
dies for weight on foreign coins are in general greater than those
allowed in the British Empire, averaging 2 per 1000 for gold coins.
Reference may here be made to the similar working margin allowed
in respect of the fineness of gold and silver. In England the remedy
for fineness is 2 per 1000 on gold coins and 4 per 1000 on silver coins
above and below the legal standard. Thus gold coins would be
within the limits if they contained between 914-6 and 918-6 parts
of gold per 1000. Remedies are intended to cover accidental
variations from the exact standard and are now generally used only
in this way. In former times, however, advantage was sometimes
taken of the remedy as a means of profit. In the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, the master of the Mint, finding the allowance under his
contract to be insufficient, availed himself of the remedy on the silver
coinage, which amounted to 6jd. on the pound troy, or about 8-7
per 1000.
Cutting Blanks. The cutting machine used in the Mint is shown
in fig. 3. The revolution of an eccentric A causes two short steel
cylinders or cutters mounted on a block of iron B, suitably guided,
to enter two holes in a plate fixed to the bed of the machine.
When the fillet FF is brought above the holes, the cutters descend
and force disks of metal through the holes. After each descent of
the cutters, the fillet is advanced by small gripping rolls C C
worked by a ratchet wheel E driven from the shaft which bears
the eccentric A. The disks fall down the tube G to a receptacle
on the floor. The cutters are so placed as to remove blanks in
the manner shown in fig. 4, this arrangement leaving less " scissel '
or residual metal than any other. In the case of very large
silver coins only one blank is cut in the width of the fillet,
but bronze fillets are made wider so that three penny blanks are
cut out at each stroke of the machine. The cutting machines at the
Mint work at 1 60 revolutions per minute, so that each of the
eleven machines would be
capable of cutting 19,200
blanks in an hour if it could
be fed continuously. The
scissel, which amounts to
about 30% of the metal
operated on, is returned in
bundles to the melting house.
Marking. The blanks are
then passed to an edge rolling
machine, by which they are
thickened at the edge so as
to form a rim to protect the
finished coin from wear. This
operation is called marking,
because originally the edges
~5
FIG. 4.
were not only thickened but
were also marked with an
inscription. This is still done
in the case of many foreign
coins. The letters are some-
times sunk and sometimes
raised. Like the graining or
" milling " on the edge of
many coins, the inscriptions
were intended to put a stop to
the practice of clipping and
filing coins, which was preva-
lent in the l6th and I7th
centuries. They also render
the manufacture of counterfeit
coin more difficult. At the
FIG. 3. Cutting Machine.
Royal Mint the blanks are passed between the parallel faces of
a revolving steel plate and fixed block. The plate has a circular
groove in its face and the block has a corresponding curved groove.
The blank passes between these grooves. , , , ,
The distance between the block and the
plate is adjusted so as to be slightly
less than the diameter of the blank,
and the result is that the edge of the
blank is thickened and its diameter
reduced before it escapes from the
machine. About 720 blanks are passed FlG. 5.
through this machine per minute. In
marking machines in some foreign mints the groove is in the peri-
phery of the revolving wheel, and the grooved block is curved (fig. 5).
Annealing and Blanching the Blanks. The blanks are next
softened by annealing, and are then thoroughly cleaned before
being passed to the coining presses. In England gold and copper
blanks are protected from oxidation, and after their passage through
the furnace are merely washed in colanders with water and dried
with sawdust in a rotating drum. Silver blanks, however, are
passed through rotary gas furnaces in which no attempt is made to
exclude the air. The blanks are charged into a hopper at one end
of the furnace and conveyed towards the other end by a revolving
Archimedean screw. The blanks fall through an aperture after
having been heated for a few minutes. They are at a dull red heat
and are allowed to cool gradually in the air and become blackened
by the formation on the surface of a film of oxide of copper. This
is removed by solution in hot dilute sulphuric acid and a layer of
pure frosted silver is left on the surface, which appears dead white
in colour, and has lost its metallic lustre. The operation is called
" blanching." A similar method was formerly used for gold coins in
England and is still employed in some mints. The removal of part
of the copper from the blank raises the percentage of silver contained
in them and this is allowed for by adding an equivalent amount ol
copper to the metal when it is melted. The amount of copper
removed from silver blanks containing 900 to 925 parts of silver pei
1000 is from 0-6 to l-o per loop. The process will probably be
abandoned as soon as the tarnishing of the metal during rolling and
annealing can be avoided. . .
Coining Press. The blanks are converted into com by receiving
an impression from engraved dies. Each blank is placed on the
lower of two dies and the upper die is brought down forcibly upon ill
The pressure causes the soft metal to flow like a viscous solid, but
its lateral escape is prevented by a collar which surrounds the blank
while it is being struck. The collar may be plain or crenated
(" milled "), or engraved with some device. In the last case the
collar must be made in two or more pieces, as otherwise the com
could not be removed without injury. The collar for striking English
crown pieces is made in three sections now that raised lettering i
put on the edge of the coin. Sunk letters, such as occur on the edges
562
MINT
of many foreign coins, are put on by the marking machine, and a plain
C ThVco"ntng pre^snow used are all modifications of the lever press
invented by Uhlhorn of Grevenbroich near Cologne m 1839. The
at the Mint strike from 90 to 125 coins per minute, most of them
working at the rate of no coins per minute. There are 19 presses
and it is possible with these to strike between 700,000 and 800,000
pieces in an ordinary" working day.
FIG. 6.
press in use at the Royal Mint since 1882 is shown in figs. 6 and 7.
The lever M worked from the front of the machine causes the fly-
wheel to be connected with the driving-wheel and the machine
starts. The blanks are placed in the slide J[ and the lowest one is
carried forward to the die in two successive movements of the
" layer-on " K, a rod working backwards and forwards on a horizontal
plate and actuating the finger L, fig. 8. The lower die is firmly fixed
FIG. 8.
to the bed of the machine, and the blank is placed exactly upon it.
The collar A' is then raised by the lever G so as to encircle the blank,
and the upper die which is held at A is brought down. This is done
by the little crank B on the axle of the fly-wheel, acting through the
rod C, and the bent lever D, which forms a toggle-joint at E with the
vertical piece of metal below it. The straightening of the toggle-
joint when C is pushed forward forces A down to strike the coin. The
reverse movement of D lifts up the upper die and the collar drops
simultaneously so that its upper surface is level with the face of the
lower die on which the finished coin lies. Another blank moved on
by the finger L pushes off the finished coin which falls down the tube
N. The diagram, fig. 9, shows the relative position of the dies and
levers more clearly. The dies and collar are shaded. The presses
FIG. 7.
Weighing the Coins. Gold and silver coins are examined and tested
by ringing, and each coin is then weighed separately by being passed
over delicate automatic balances. The first
automatic balance for weighing single coins
was introduced at the Bank of England in
1843, and was designed by William Cotton,
the deputy governor of the Bank. In 1851
these balances, improved by Richard Pilcher,
were introduced at the Royal Mint, and
modifications of them are now used at most
foreign mints. For mint use it is necessary
that they shall distinguish between " light,"
" heavy and " good " coins which do not
differ from standard by more than the small
weight known as the '' remedy " (see above).
The balances used in the Royal Mint were
further improved by J. T. Butler in the
year 1889. The balance consists essentially of
a beam with two scale pans, one for the coin
and the other for the counterpoise. The beam is
released and in the course of a second or so FIG. 9.
takes up a certain position dependent on the
relative weights of the coin and counterpoise. Its position is
then fixed by an automatic grip, and the coin falling down a shoot
enters one of three compartments of a box, according to the
position of the beam when it is arrested. The chief working parts
are shown in fig. 10. The beam A is of steel made in one piece,
FIG. 10
about II in. long. Its centre and end knife edges are shown in
fig. II. The scale pan for the coin is shown in fig. 12. B is the pan
on which the coin rests, at a point above the beam. The coins are
placed in a rouleau in the hopper C and the lowest one is pushed on to
the pan B by a slide not shown in the figure. While the coin is
being moved the hanger D is held firmly by the forceps E to prevent
the pan from being pushed sideways. The forceps are then opened
and the beam released, but at this moment the levelling bar F is
allowed to drop momentarily by a bent lever G acting on the pin G ,
until the ends of F press down on a stirrup in each hanger at H, H.
This brings the beam to a horizontal position. The lever G at once
MINTO, EARLS OF
lifts the bar F again by acting on the pin G' so that the bar F does
not touch the stirrups at H and the beam and hangers are free to
move. The coin is balanced by the brass counterpoise J on the left-
hand hanger and by little weights made of wire attached to the
right-hand hanger at K. If the coin is heavier than the lowest
legal weight (that is, the standard weight less the remedy) the right-
hand side of the beam begins to fall and the left-hand one is raised.
This movement proceeds until the stirrup L below the left-hand
hanger is raised far enough to touch the rod M, which is equal in
weight to twice the remedy. The movement is then stopped
provided that the weight of the coin is not greater than the standard
weight plus the remedy. If it is heavier than this, it raises the
563
FIG. 12.
FIG. ii.
weight M, and the movement of the beam and its hangers proceeds
farther in the same direction. After about a second from the time
of the final release of the beam, the forceps E again close and the
hanger D is held firmly in its new position. The rod N is then
lowered and allows the indicating finger O, which is pivoted at P, to
fall until it rests on the stirrup R, which is part of the hanger D.
The extension of O holds down the right-hand end of the rod S which
is also pivoted at P, and enables its end to fit into one of the three
inverted steps on the bottom of the shoot Q. The position of the
shoot is thus determined. It stops over one of three orifices in the
bottom plate of the balance. If the coin is light the rod S fits into
the uppermost step and the shoot stops over the right-hand slot.
If the coin is heavy, S fits into the lowest step and the shoot stops
over the left-hand slot. The middle step and slot are for coins
within the remedy. The movement of the slide now pushes another
coin forward, and the weighed coin is displaced by it and falls down
the shoot, through one of the slots. Each slot leads into a separate
compartment and the coins are consequently sorted into three
classes, light, correct weight and heavy. The balance turns to o-oi
grain. The driving power is applied by shafting through a number
of cams. In the Royal Mint both light and heavy coins are returned
to the melting pot. The proportion of rejected gold coin varies
with the quality of the bullion, and frequently exceeds 10%. The
percentage of rejected silver is often no more than I %. In most
foreign mints the blanks are weighed by the automatic balances
before being struck, and those which are too heavy are reduced by
filing or planing. A workman sitting at a balance files the edges of
the piece and weighs it until it is within the remedy. The blank is
then again passed through the automatic balance and is sent forward
to the coining press if the correctness of the weight is confirmed.
Since 1870 no adjusting of the weight of coins has been attempted at
the Royal Mint. Heavy blanks have also been reduced chemically
by making them part of the anode in a cyanide bath through which a
current of electricity is passed. Some metal from the surface of
each blank then passes into solution, and the blanks are reduced in
weight with remarkable uniformity. This system was introduced
into the Indian mints in 1873.
Telling. The coin is counted and packed into bags for despatch
from the Mint. The counting or telling is now carried out in the case
of bronze and silver coins by ingenious machines introduced in 1891.
The coins are spread on an inclined table by hand. They slide down
the table and enter a narrow passage where only one can pass at a
time, jamming being prevented by the joggling action of an eccentric
rotating disk at the entrance to the passage. The coins are then
gripped by a pair of india-rubber driving wheels, which force them
past the rim of a thin disk with notches in its edge to fit the coins. As
the disk is thus made to revolve, the coins are pushed forward, and
falling down a shoot are received in a bag. The machine can be
set to deliver a certain number of coins, after which the counting
wheel stops automatically.
Trial of the Pyx. Periodical examinations of the coins issued by
e Mint have been made from very early times in England by per-
sons appointed by the Crown. Specimens are selected from the
finished com and are put into a box or " pyx." At intervals these
coins are weighed and assayed by a jury of skilled persons and the
results reported to the Crown. A trial of the pyx ts mentioned in
the L-ansdowne MbS. as having taken place in the reign of Henry II ,
but the practice had probably originated much earlier. The trial
is now held annually by a jury consisting of freemen of the Company
ot Goldsmiths. Coins from the London and Australian mints are
examined. The Company has been entrusted with the duty since
the time of James I. Coins of foreign mints are generally submitted
to examination by a committee of eminent chemists and metal-
lurgists whose report is published in the official journals.
A full account of the work of the Mint, with valuable tables giving
the amount of the coinage of gold and silver and bronze in the United
Kingdom and the colonies in detail, and a resume of the coinages of
foreign countries, will be found in the Annual Reports of the Deputy
Master and Comptroller of the Mint, which have been published since
I8 7- (T. K. R.)
MINTO, EARLS OF. The Scottish border family of Elliot
which has held the earldom of Minto since 1813 has had many
distinguished members. Sir Gilbert Elliot, bart. (1651-1718),
and his son and successor, another Sir Gilbert Elliot (1693-1766),
were both celebrated Scottish judges and both took the official
title of Lord Minto. The elder Sir Gilbert was sentenced to
death for his share in the rising of the earl of Argyll in 1685, but
was afterwards pardoned; the younger Sir Gilbert was a scholar
and an agriculturist. Among the children of the latter were John
Elliot (d. 1808), a naval officer, who served as governor of New-
foundland and was made an admiral; Andrew Elliot, the last
English governor of New York; and the poetess Jean, or Jane,
Elliot (c. 1727-1805), who wrote the popular ballad " Flowers of
the Forest." The eldest son, Sir Gilbert Elliot (1722-1777), who
became the third baronet in April 1766, was a member of parlia-
ment from 1753 to 1777, and a friend and follower of the earl of
Bute. He filled several public offices, and Horace Walpole said
he was " one of the ablest members of the House of Commons."
His second son was the diplomatist, Hugh Elliot (1752-1830),
who represented his country at Munich, at Berlin, at Copenhagen
and at Naples. He was governor of Madras from 1814 to 1820,
and he died on the loth of December 1830.
See flhe Memoirs of the Right Hon. Hugh Elliot, by the countess
of Minto (Edinburgh, 1868).
The third baronet's eldest son was GILBERT ELLIOT, ist earl of
Minto (1751-1814). About 1 763 Gilbert and his brother Hugh were
sent to Paris, where their studies were supervised by David Hume
and where they became intimate with Mirabeau. Having passed
the winters of 1766 and 1767 at Edinburgh University, Gilbert
entered Christ Church, Oxford, and on quitting the university
he was called to the bar. In 1776 he entered parliament as an
independent Whig. He became very friendly with Burke, whom
he helped in the attack on Warren Hastings and Sir Elijah Impey,
and on two occasions was an unsuccessful candidate for the office
of speaker. In 1794 Elliot was appointed to govern Corsica,
and in 1797 he assumed the additional names of Murray-Kynyn-
mond and was created Baron Minto. From 1799 to 1801 he was
envoy-extraordinary to Vienna, and having been for a few months
president of the board of control he was appointed governor-
general of India at the end of 1806. He governed with great
success until 1813. He was then created Viscount Melgund
and earl of Minto. He died at Stevenage on the 2ist of
June 1814 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
The earl's second son was Admiral Sir George Elliot (1784-
1863), who as a youth was present at the battles of Cape St Vincent
and the Nile, and who was secretary to the admiralty from 1830
to 1834. A nephew of the earl was Sir Charles Elliot (1801-1875)
also an admiral, who took a prominent part in the war with China
in 1840. Afterwards he was governor of Bermuda, of Trinidad
and of St Helena.
GILBERT ELLIOT-MURRAY-KYNYNMOND, 2nd earl of Minto
(1782-1859), eldest son of the ist earl, was ambassador to Berlin
from 1832 to 1834, first lord of the admiralty from 1835 to 1841
and lord privy seal from 1846 to 1852. His influence in the
Whig party was partly due to the fact that his daughter, Frances,
was the wife of Lord John Russell.
MINTO, W. MINUSINSK
His son William Hugh, the 3rd earl (1814-1891), was the
father of the 4th earl, GILBERT JOHN ELLIOT-MURRAY-KYNYN-
MOND (1845- ), who joined the Scots Guards in 1867. In
1874, in the capacity of a newspaper correspondent, he witnessed
the operations of the Carlists in Spain; he took service with the
Turkish army in the war with Russia in 1877 and served under
Lord Roberts in the second Afghan War (1878-79), having
narrowly escaped accompanying Sir Louis Cavagnari Kabul.
He acted as private secretary to Lord Roberts during his mission
to the Cape in 1881; as military secretary to Lord Lansdowne
during his governor-generalship of Canada from 1883 to 1885;
and as chief of the staff to General Middleton in the Riel Rebellion
in Canada (1885). Having succeeded to the earldom in 1891 he
was appointed governor-general of Canada in 1898. His term
of office (1898-1904) was distinguished by a visit of the prince
and princess of Wales to the colonies. In 1905, on the resig-
nation of Lord Curzon, Lord Minto was appointed viceroy and
governor-general of India, retiring in 1910.
The 4th earl's brother, the Hon. Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot
(b. 1846) , editor of the Edinburgh Review, was a member of parlia-
ment from 1880 to 1892 and again from 1898 to 1906, and from
1903 to 1906 he was financial secretary to the treasury. Sir
Francis Edmund Hugh Elliot (b. 1831), a grandson of the 2nd
earl, became British minister at Athens in 1903.
See Hon. G. F. S. Elliot, The Border Elliots and the Family of
Minto (Edinburgh, 1897); the article INDIA; History; also the
Life and Letters of the first Earl of Minto, 1751-1806 (1874) and Lord
Minto in India, 1807-1814 (1880), both edited by the countess of
Minto; and Sir J. F. Stephen, The Story of Nuncomar and the
Impeachment of Sir E. Impey (1885).
MINTO, WILLIAM (1845-1893), Scottish man of letters,
was born at Auchintoul, Aberdeenshire, on the zoth of October
1845. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and spent
a year at Merton College, Oxford. He was assistant professor
under Alexander Bain at Aberdeen for some years; from 1874
to 1878 he edited the Examiner, and in 1880 he was made full
professor of logic and English at Aberdeen. Ini872he published
a Manual of English Prose Literature, which was distinguished
by sound judgment and sympathetic appreciation; and his
Characteristics of English Poets from Chanter to Shirley (1874)
showed the same high qualities. His other works include:
The Literature of the Georgian Era (1894) edited with a bio-
graphical introduction by W. Knight a monograph on Defoe
in the English Men of Letters series (1879); three novels of small
importance, and numerous articles on literary subjects in the
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He died on the
istof March 1893.
MINTURNAE, an ancient city of the Aurunci, in Italy,
situated on the N.W. bank of the Liris with a suburb on the
opposite bank 15 m. from its mouth, at the point where the
Via Appia crossed it by the Pons Tiretius. It was one of the
three towns of the Aurunci which made war against Rome
in 314 B.C., the other two being Ausona (see SESSA AURUNCA)
and Vescia; and the Via Appia was made two years later.
It became a colony in 295 B.C. In 88 B.C. Marius in his
flight from Sulla hid himself in the marshes of Minturnae.
The ruins consist of an amphitheatre (now. almost entirely
demolished, but better preserved in the i8th century), a theatre,
and a very fine aqueduct in opus reiicidatum, the quoins of which
are of various colours arranged in patterns to produce a decorative
effect. Close to the mouth of the river was the sacred grove of
the Italic goddess Marica. It is still mentioned in the 6th
century, but was probably destroyed by the Saracens, and its
low site, which had become unhealthy, was abandoned in favour
of that of the modern town of Minturno (known as Traetto
until the igth century), 459 ft. above sea-level. A tower at
the mouth of the river, erected between 961 and 981, commemo-
rates a victory gained by Pope John X. and his allies over the
Saracens in 91 5. It is built of Roman materials from Minturnae,
including several inscriptions and sculptures.
See T. Ashby in Melanges de I'Ecolefranfaise deRome (1903), 413;
R. Laurent- Vibert and A. Piganol, ibid. (1907), p. 495; G. Q. Giglioli,
Notizie degli Scavi (1908) p. 396. (T. 'As.)
MINUCIUS, FELIX MARCUS, one of the earliest if not 'the
earliest, of the Latin apologists for Christianity. Of his personal
history nothing is known, and even the date at which he wrote
can be only approximately ascertained. Jerome (De mr. ill
58) speaks of him as " Romae insignis causidicus," but in this
he is probably only improving on the expression of Lactantius
(Inst. div. v. i) who speaks of him as " non ignobilis inter
causidicos loci." He is now exclusively known by his Octavius,
a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis l
and the Christian Octavius Januarius, a provincial lawyer,
the friend and fellow-student of the author. The scene is
pleasantly and graphically laid on the beach at Ostia on a holiday
afternoon, and the discussion is represented as arising out of
the homage paid by Caecilius, in passing, to the image of Serapis.
His arguments for paganism (possibly modelled on those of
Celsus) are taken up seriatim by Octavius, with the result that
the assailant is convinced. Minucius himself plays the part
of umpire. The form of the dialogue is modelled on the De
natura deorum and De dimnatione of Cicero and its style is
both vigorous and elegant if at times not exempt from something
of the affectation of the age. Its latinity is not of the specifically
Christian type. If the doctrines of the Divine unity, the resur-
rection, and future rewards and punishments be left out of
account, the work has less the character of an exposition of
Christianity than of a philosophical and ethical polemic against
the absurdities of polytheism. While it thus has much in common
with the Greek Apologies it is full of the strong common sense
that marks the Latin mind. Its ultimate appeal is to the fruits
of faith.
The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian's Quod idola dii
non sint, which borrows from it ; how much earlier can be determined
only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian's
Apologeticum. Since A. Ebert's exhaustive argument in 1868,
repeated in 1889, the priority of Minucius has been generally ad-
mitted; the objections are stated in the Diet. Chr. Biog. article
by G. Salmon. Editions: F. Sabaeus-Brixianus, as Bk. viii. of
Arnobius (Rome, 1543); F. Balduinus, first separate edition (Heidel-
berg, 1560); Migne, Patrol. Lat. iii. 239; Halm in Corp. Scr. Eccl.
Lat. (Vienna, 1867); H. A. Holden. Translations: R. E. Wallis,
in Ante-Nic. Fathers, vol. iv. ; A. A. Brodribb's Pagan and Puritan.
Literature: In addition to that already cited see H. Boenig's art!
in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. vol. 13. and the various histories of
early Christian Literature by A. Harnack, G. Krtiger, A. Ehrhard
and O. Bardenhewer.
MINUET (adapted, under the influence of the Italian minuetto,
from Fr. menuet, small, pretty, delicate, a diminutive of menu,
from Lat. minulus; the word refers probably to the short steps,
pas menus, taken in the dance), a dance for two persons, in J
time. At the period when it was most fashionable it was slow,
ceremonious, and graceful (see DANCE). The name is also
given to a musical composition written in the same time and
rhythm, but when not accompanying an actual dance the pace
was quicker. An example of the true form of the minuet is
to be found in Don Giovanni. The minuet is frequently found
as one of the movements in the Suites of Handel and Bach.
Haydn introduced it into the symphony, with little trace of
the slow grace and ceremony of the dance. In the hands of
Beethoven it becomes the scherzo.
MINUSINSK, a town of Russia, in East Siberia, and the
government of Yeniseisk, 180 m. S.S.W. of Krasnoyarsk railway
station, and 5 m. from the right bank of the Yenisei, in a fertile
prairie region. Pop. (1897), 10,255. It is a centre for trade
with the native populations of the Sayan Mountains and north-
western Mongolia. It has an excellent natural history, ethno-
graphical and archaeological museum (1877), with a library
and a meteorological station. Coal and iron abound in the
vicinity.
'This name occurs in six inscriptions of the years 211-217
found at Constantine (Cirta), North Africa (C.I.L. vol. viii.). Like the
other North African fathers Tertullian, Cyprian, Arnobius and
Lactantius, he was a lawyer. Some use may have been made of
hetorical expressions of M. Cornelius Fronto of Cirta (d. r. A.D. 170).
MINUTE MIOT DE MELITO
565
MINUTE (Lat. minutus, small; minuere, to make less), an
adjective meaning of very small size, petty or trifling; also
extremely precise. In this sense the word is pronounced mi-nute.
As a substantive and pronounced minnit the word (usually in
the plural) is applied to a written summary of the transactions
of a meeting of a public or other body, or to a memorandum
of instructions, &c. A Treasury minute in the United Kingdom
is an official memorandum authorizing certain procedure.
" To minute " is to draw up such a summary or memorandum.
More particularly, " minute " is used of the sixtieth part of
any unit); in time, of an hour; and in astronomy, geometry,
geography, &c., of a degree in the measurement of a circle.
The sexagesimal system of division was originally used by the
ancient Babylonian astronomers, was adopted by Ptolemy;
and the sixtieth part of a degree, and its further subdivision
into sixty parts, was called in Latin pars minutae primae, and
pars minutae secundae respectively, hence the English " minute "
and " second."
MINUTE MEN: in the American War of Independence, militia-
men who had undertaken to turn out for service at a minute's
notice. In Massachusetts the minute men were enrolled by
an act of the provincial congress of the 23rd of November 1774,
and in Boston alone they numbered 16,000 prior to the outbreak
of the war. The Americans who fought in the opening action
of Lexington were " minute men."
MIOCENE, in geology, the system of strata which occurs
between the Oligocene and the Pliocene. The term, derived
from the Greek jueloc, less, and KO.IVOS, recent, was introduced
by Sir Charles Lyell, as indicating palaeontologically a less
percentage of recent species than is found in the Pliocene.
Variable lacustrine, estuarine and marine deposits, especially
characterized by soft calcareous sandstones and conglomerates
(" molasse ") and sandy shell-beds (" faluns "), make up the
Miocene system of the Neogene or newer Tertiary in Europe and
western Asia, where it attains its fullest development.
A. de Lapparent's classification is here adopted :
V. Pontian or Pannonian. Brackish- and fresh-water marls,
limestones and gravels: occurring at Vienna, in the Caspian and
eastern Mediterranean basins, and in southern France; mammalian
deposits of Pikermi and the Siwalik Hills, with Hipparion gracile.
Mastodon longirostris. Rhinoceros schleiermachi, numerous ruminants,
Congeria subglobosa. Marine beds of Belgium (Black Crag) and
north Germany.
IV. Sarmatian. More or less salt-water sands and marls of the
same basins with Mastodon angustidens, Anchitherium aurelianense,
Cerithium pictum, C. rubiginosum, Ostrea gingensis, Mactra podolica,
Tapes gregarius. Stages IV. and V. represented in north-western
France by marine sands (Cardita striat issima) , and in Algeria and
Morocco by marine marls and limestones.
III. Vindobonian. Sub-stages:
(b) Tortonian: Marine marls with Ancittana glandiformis, Conus
antiquus, Ranella marginata, Trochus patulus, Valuta rarispina.
Laminated fresh-water limestones of Oeningen with fish, countless
insects, and plants showing seasonal changes of the year m
their successive layers (Acer trilobatum, Populus mutabihs, Juglans
acuminata, Camphora, Podogonium) ; and the lacustrine deposits of
central Spain.
(a) Helvetian: Marine shelly sandstones and conglomerates
(" molasse " of Switzerland) with Ostrea gingensis, Cardita jouanneti
Panopaea menardi, Conus ventricosus \ the "faluns" of Tourame and
Aquitaine; and the marine beds of Black Sea basin. At the base
of the marine Helvetian in the Vienna basin clays ( Schlier )
with rock-salt and gypsum, and the lacustrine beds of Gascony
(Calcaire de Simon e with Mastodon tapiroides, M. simorrensis
Dinotherium giganteum) occur.
II. Burdigalian or Langhian. Marine 'faluns of Bordeaux
(Oliva basteroti, Turritella terebralis) ; marls of Langhe in Liguna
(Pecten burdigalensis); marine deposits of Vienna basin, Caspian
region, Tunis and Algeria; fresh-water sands and marls of Orleans
with Mastodon angustidens, M. tapiroides, Dinotherium cumen
Anthracotherium onoideum; Littorinella clays of Mainz basin with
Acerotherium incisivum Littorinella acuta, Dreyssema brardi; fresh
water grey " molasse " of Switzerland, with acacias, laurels, palm:
and sequoias.
I. Aquitanian. Limestones, sands and marls of lakes and lagoons
with Anthracotherium, Anchitherium, Acerotherium in^vum
Palaeochoerus typus. Helix ramondi, Limnaea pachygaster, Planorbi
cornu, Potamides lamarcki; Quercus, Acacia, Ficus, Camphora
Cinnamomum, Taxodium, Glyptostrobus, Sequoia, Sabal, Phoenix
occur in central France (Calcaire de la Beauce); the plant-beds o
Manosque; Mainz basin; lower "molasse" of Switzerland will
ignite, gypsum, red marls and conglomerates; " brown-coal series "
M north Germany with lignite. Intercalated marine sandstones
xxur in Aquitaine and near Marseilles; other marine developments
Dccur in the " faluns " of Gascony (Lepidocyclina mantelh, Mio-
ypsina burdigalensis), the upper Aquitaman of Bavaria and Austria-
lungary (Ostrea crassiassima, Pectunculus pilosus), and in southern
Spain, Italy and Malta (Lepidocyclina and Lithothamnium). Basic
uffs and lavas occur in Auvergne.
SoVne authors assign Stage I. to the Oligocene, Stage V. to the
Miocene; Stages I. and II. correspond to the first, and III. to the
econd Mediterranean Stage of E. Suess.
In Europe a general emergence of land in late Oligocene time
esulted at the beginning of the Miocene (Aquitanian) in wide-
spread lacustrine conditions throughout the western part of that
:ontinent, upon which the sea encroached at few points, though it
lad gained access to the Vienna basin and extended westward into
Javaria. Otherwise, marine Aquitanian deposits are confined to
:he Mediterranean basin and the south-west corner of France.
Most of northern Europe, including the British Isles, remained dry
and throughout Miocene time. During the Burdigalian period,
with increasing elevation of the mountain regions and depression
of the Mediterranean and Caspian basins, a marine invasion began,
which passed its maximum in the Vindobonian. The Mediterranean
reached eastward to Persia, and, still open to the Atlantic, sub-
nerged north Africa, most of Italy and the neighbouring islands.
It ascended the Rhone valley, penetrated to the Mainz basin,
and skirting the north flank of the Alpine region passed into the
Vienna basin and thence around the Carpathian tract into the
Pontic and Caspian depression. The waters of the Atlantic
'urther invaded the regions of the Garonne and the Loire, isolated
Brittany and encroached upon north Europe between Belgium and
Denmark.
The elevation of the Alps, and probably of the whole Alpine
system of mountain folds from Morocco to Indo-China, though
initiated by earlier Miocene and late Oligocene movements, took
place mainly during the latter part of the Vindobonian period,
and was completed in the Sarmatian. The waters of the ocean
were then excluded from the Caspian and eastern Mediterranean
basins, and replaced by vast fresh-water lakes; while brackish-
water lagoons occupied much of the western Mediterranean. This
jreat retreat of the sea culminated in the Pontian stage, and
fand-connexion was established between North and South America.
Outside the Eurasian region, Aquitanian deposits occur in
Formosa, Java, Borneo and Madagascar; while Burdigalian deposits
are found in Mongolia. The Vindobonian ranges from Greenland,
Iceland and Spitzbergen, where it contains lignite and plants
denoting a temperate climate, by Japan, Java and India, to Victoria.
It recurs in the Azores and the Antilles, and at intervals along the
American continent from Patagonia to Alaska, where all three
lower stages are represented, as also in the West Indies. Along
the Atlantic slope of the United States and around the Gulf of
Mexico the complete Miocene series is present, the Sarmatian and
Pontian also occur in California.
The Miocene was a period of change, of mountain-building,
climatic differentiation hitherto unprecedented, and of moderation
in organic life, especially on land. The rich European flora indicates
an equable and moist sub-tropical climate, slowly cooling, as wit-
nessed by the gradual increase of trees with deciduous foliage
amongst those characteristic of more tropical conditions. Oaks,
maples, poplars, planes, willows, Cinnamomum, Camphora, Myrica,
Sequoia, Taxodium, Glyptostrobus and palms, flourished together.
The marine calcareous alga Lithothamnium became an important
reef-building organism. Nummulites gave place to Lepidocyclina;
lamellibranchs and particularly gasteropods abounded in the shallow
seas, of which the shark Carcharodon and the marine mammals
Squalodon and Halitherium were amongst the largest denizens.
The mammalian land-fauna of Europe made striking advances,
and assumed a decidedly African aspect. Marsupials had disap-
peared from it before the Burdigalian period,. during which primitive
genera like Palaeochoerus, Hyopotamus, and the hornless ruminants
Anthracotherium and Brachyopus, became extinct, while probos-
cideans (Mastodon, Dinotherium), rhinoceros and apes (Oreoptthecus,
Pliopithecus) came in, followed by antelopes, beavers and probably
Machaerodus in the Vindobonian. The spread of turf-forming
grasses was succeeded in the Pontian by an enormous increase of
herbivorous mammals, including Hipparion and horned ruminants
(Helladotherium, Antilope, Cervus, Camelopardahs, Palaeotragus),
whose migrations were facilitated by the desiccation of the Medi-
terranean basin. (*- " * '
MIOT DE MfiLITO, ANDR6 FRANCOIS, COMTE (1762-1841),
French statesman and scholar, was born at Versailles (Seine-
et-Oise) on the pth of February 1762. He was a high official
in the war office before the Revolution, and under the Republic
he eventually became secretary-general for foreign affairs.
That he was not denounced under the Terror was due to the
fact that he was indispensable in his department. In 1795 he
was sent as French envoy to Florence; then to Rome, and on
566
MIQUEL MIRABEAU
his return to Florence received orders to proceed to Corsica,
which, after its evacuation by the British, was in a state of
anarchy. In Corsica he allied himself with Joseph Bonaparte,
and after pacifying the island returned to Italy. Recalled by
their Dectory in 1798 because of his refusal to foment insurrection
in Italy, he spent some time in retirement, but he was in the
diplomatic service in Holland at the revolution of 18. Brumaire
(Nov. 9, 1799). Under the consulate he was secretary-general
at the ministry of war, and a member of the council of state, and
was sent on a second mission (1801-1802) for the pacification
of Corsica. In 1806 he joined Joseph Bonaparte in Naples
as minister of the interior, afterwards following him to Spain
as comptroller of the household, but he returned to France in
the retreat of 1813. Next year he was created comte de Melito,
and during the Hundred Days he served as commissary extra-
ordinary with the XII. Army division. He took no part in
politics after Waterloo, where his son-in-law, .General J. B.
Jamin, was killed, and his own son mortally wounded. He
visited Joseph Bonaparte in America in 1825, and then spent
some years in Germany with his daughter, whose second husband,
General von Fleischmann, represented the king of Wiirttem-
burg in Paris in 1831. He was admitted in 1835 to the French
Academy on the merits of his translations of Herodotus (Paris,
1822) and Diodorus (Paris, 1835-1838). He died in Paris on
the 5th of January 1841.
Miot de M51ito had kept a diary which, arranged for publication
by his son-in-law, General von Fleischmann, covers the years from
1788 to 1815, and is of interest for the history of the Bonaparte
family and of Joseph's dominion in Spain. Published in France
in 1858, it was translated into English by Mrs C. Hoey and J. Lillie
(2 vols., 1881); and also into German (Stuttgart, 1866-1867). See
Albert Gaudin, Les Arretes Miot (Ajaccio, 1896).
MIQUEL, JOHANN VON (1829-1901), German statesman,
was born at Neuenhaus, Hanover, on the igth of February
1829, being descended from a French family which had emigrated
during the Revolution. He learnt law at the universities of
Heidelberg and Gottingen. Studying the writings of Karl
Marx he became a convert to an extreme revolutionary,
socialistic and atheistic creed; but though he entered into corre-
spondence with Marx, with the object of starting a revolutionary
movement, he does not appear to have taken any overt part in the
events of 1848-1849. Further study of political economy soon
enabled him to pass out of this phase, and in 1850 he settled
down to practise as an advocate at Gottingen. He acquired
repute as an able lawyer and a rising politician, and especially
for his knowledge of financial questions. He was one of the
founders of the German Nationaltierein, and in 1864 he was
elected a member of the Hanoverian parliament as a Liberal
and an opponent of the government. He accepted the annexa-
tion of Hanover by Prussia without regret, and was one of the
Hanoverians whose parliamentary abilities at once won a com-
manding position in the Prussian parliament, which he entered
in 1867. For some reason perhaps because Bismarck did not
entirely trust him he did not at this time attain quite so influen-
tial a position as might have been anticipated; nevertheless he
was chairman of the parliamentary committee which in 1876
drafted the new rules of legal procedure, and he found scope for
his great administrative abilities in the post of burgomaster of
Osnabriick. He held this position from 1865 to 1870, and again
from 1876 to 1879, being in the meantime (1870-1873) a director
of the Discontogesellschaft. In 1879 he was elected burgomaster
of Frankfort-on-Main, where he gained a great reputation for the
energy with which he dealt with social questions, especially that of
the housing of the poor. Probably owing to his early study of
socialism, he was very ready to support the new state socialism
of Bismarck. He was the chief agent in the reorganization
of the National Liberal party in 1887, in which year he entered
the imperial Reichstag. After Bismarck's fall in 1890 he was
chosen Prussian minister of finance, and held this post for ten
years. He distinguished himself by his reform of the Prussian
system of taxation, the one really successful measure of the new
reign in internal affairs. An attempt, however, to reform the
system of imperial finance in 1893-1894 failed, and much injured
his reputation. Miquel had entirely given up his Liberalism,
and aimed at practical measures for improving the condition
of the people irrespective of the party programmes; yet some
of his measures such as that for taxing " Waarenhauser "
(stores) were of a very injudicious nature. He professed to aim
at a union of parties on the basis of the satisfaction of material
interests, a policy to which the name of Sammlung was given;
but his enemies accused him of constantly intriguing against
the three chancellors under whom he served, and of himself
attempting to secure the first place in the state. The sympathy
which he expressed for the Agrarians increased his unpopularity
among Liberals and industrials; but he pointed out that the state,
which for half a century had done everything to help manufac-
tures, might now attempt to support the failing industry of
agriculture. In June 1901 the rejection of the canal bill led
to a crisis, and he was obliged to send in his resignation. His
health was already failing, and he died on the 8th of September
of the same year at his house in Frankfort.
MIQUELETS (MIQUELETES or MIGUELETES) were irregular
local troops in Catalonia who derived their name, it is said, from
Miguel or Miquelot de Prats, a Catalan mercenary captain in the
service of Cesare Borgia. They enjoyed a certain prominence in
the minor wars of Spain during the I7th and i8th centuries,
and in peace seem to have plundered travellers. In the War
of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) the Miquelets continued the
struggle against the French claimant until long after the peace.
During the Peninsular War they were exceedingly successful in
harassing the French invaders 'in the mountains of Catalonia.
Sometimes they even attempted operations in large bodies,
as in the operations round Gerona in 1808 and 1809. They
were maintained by the several parishes, not by the central
or the provincial governments, and as they had to turn out for
duty on sound of the village alarm-bell (somalen) they are
frequently called somatenes.
MIRABEAU, ANDR6 BONIFACE LOUIS RIQUETI, VICOMTE
DE (1754-1792), brother of the orator Mirabeau, was one of the
reactionary leaders at the opening of the French Revolution.
Sent to the army in Malta in 1776 he spent part of his two years
there in prison for insulting a religious procession. During the
War of American Independence he was in several sea-fights
with the English, and was at the taking of Yorktown in 1781.
In the following year he had two narrow escapes from drowning.
In 1789, with his debts paid up by his father, he was elected
by the noblesse of Limoges a deputy to the States General.
He was a violent Conservative and opposed everything that
threatened the old regime. His drunkenness produced a
corpulency which brought him the nickname Mirabeau Tonneau
(" Barrel Mirabeau "); but he was not lacking in some of that
insight which marked his brother. He shared fully in the
eccentric family pride; and boasted of his brother's genius
even when bitterly opposing him. He emigrated about 1790,
and raised a legion which was to bear his name; but his insolence
alienated the German princes, and his command was taken
from him. He died in August 1792 of apoplexy or from a
duel in Freiburg im Breisgau. He wrote some verse as well
as various pamphlets.
See Joseph Sarrazin, Mirabeau Tonneau, ein Condotliere aus der
Reyolutionszeit (Leipzig, 1893); and La Revolution fran^aise, vols.
xxi. and xxiv. ; Eugfene Berger, Le Vicomte de Mirabeau(Mirabeau
Tonnfau), 1754-1792 (1904) ; and for a list of contemporary
pamphlets, &c., M. Tourneux, Bibliographic de la ville de Paris . . .,
vol. iv. (1906).
MIRABEAU, HONORfi GABRIEL RIQUETI, COMTE DE (1740-
1791), French statesman, was born at Bignon, near Nemours,
on the gth of March 1749. The family of Riquet, or Riqueti,
originally of the little town of Digne, won wealth as merchants
at Marseilles, and in 1570 Jean Riqueti bought the chateau
and seigniory of Mirabeau, which had belonged to the great
Provencal family of Barras. In 1685 Honore Riqueti obtained
the title of marquis de Mirabeau. His son Jean Antoine served
with distinction through all the later campaigns of the reign
of Louis XIV., and especially distinguished himself in 1705 at
the battle of Cassano, where he was so severely wounded in
MIRABEAU
the neck that he had ever after to wear a silver stock; yet he
never rose above the rank of colonel, owing to an eccentric habit
of speaking unpleasant truths to his superiors. On retiring from
the service he married Francoise de Castellane, and left at his
death, in 1737, three sons Victor marquis de Mirabeau, Jean
Antoine, bailli de Mirabeau, and Comte Louis Alexandre de
Mirabeau. The great Mirabeau was the eldest surviving son of
the marquess. When but three years old he had a virulent attack
of small-pox which left his face disfigured, and contributed to
his father's dislike of him. Being destined for the army, he was
entered at a pension militaire at Paris. Of this school, which had
Lagrange for its professor of mathematics, we have an amusing
account in the life of Gilbert Elliot, ist earl of Minto, who with
his brother Hugh, afterwards British minister at Berlin, there
made the acquaintance of Mirabeau. On leaving this school in
1767 he received a commission in a cavalry regiment which his
grandfather had commanded years before. He at once began
love-making, and in spite of his ugliness succeeded in winning
the heart of the lady to whom his colonel was attached; this led
to such scandal that his father obtained a leltre de cachet, and
the young scapegrace was imprisoned in the isle of Re. The
love affairs of Mirabeau form a well-known history, owing to the
celebrity of the letters to Sophie. Yet it may be asserted that
until the more durable and more reputable connexion with Mme
de Nehra these love episodes were the most disgraceful blemishes
in a life otherwise of a far higher moral character than has been
commonly supposed. As to the marquess, his use of lettres de
cachet is perfectly defensible on the theory of lettres de cachet,
and Mirabeau, if any son, surely deserved such correction.
Further, they had the effect of sobering the culprit, and the
more creditable part of his life did not begin till he left Vincennes.
Mirabeau did not develop his great qualities of mind and character
until his youthful excesses were over, and it was not till 1781
that these began to appear. On being released, the young count
obtained leave to accompany as a volunteer the French expedi-
tion to Corsica. After his return, he tried to keep on good terms
with his father, and in 1772 he married a rich heiress, Marie
Emilie, daughter of the marquess de Marignane, an alliance
procured for him by his father. His wild extravagance, however,
forced his father to forestall his creditors by securing his deten-
tion in semi-exile in the country, where he wrote his earliest
extant work, the Essai sur le despotisme. His violent disposition
now led him to quarrel with a country gentleman who had
insulted his sister, and his semi-exile was changed by leltre de
cachet into imprisonment in the Chateau dTf. In 1775 he was
removed to the castle of Joux, to which, however, he was not
very closely confined, having full leave to visit in the town of
Pontarlier. Here he met Marie Therese de Monnier, his Sophie
as he called her. Of his behaviour nothing too strong can be
said: he was introduced into the house as a friend, and betrayed
his trust by inducing Mme de Monnier to fall in love with him.
The affair ended by his escaping to Switzerland, where Sophie
joined him; they then went to Holland, where he lived by hack-
work for the booksellers; meanwhile Mirabeau had been con-
demned to death at Pontarlier for rapt et vol, and in May 1777
he was seized by the French police, and imprisoned by a lettre
de cachet in the castle of Vincennes.
During his imprisonment he seems to have learnt to control
his passions from their very exhaustion, for the early part of
his confinement is marked by the indecent letters to Sophie
(first published in 1793), and the obscene Erotica biblion and
Ma conversion, while to the later months belongs his political
work of any value, the Lettres de cachet, published after his
liberation (1782). It exhibits an accurate knowledge of French
constitutional history skilfully applied in an attempt to show
that an existing actual grievance was not only philosophically
unjust but constitutionally illegal. It shows, though in rather
a diffuse and declamatory form, that application of wide historical
knowledge, keen philosophical perception, and genuine eloquence
to a practical purpose which was the great characteristic of
Mirabeau, both as a political thinker and as a statesman.
With his release from Vincennes (August 1782) begins the
second period of Mirabeau's life. He found that his Sophie
was an idealized version of a rather common and ill-educated
woman, and she consoled herself with the affection of a young
officer, after whose death she committed suicide. Mirabeau
first set to work to get the sentence of death still hanging over
him reversed, and by his eloquence not only succeeded in this
but got M. de Monnier condemned in the costs of the whole law
proceedings. From Pontarlier he went to Aix, where he claimed
the court's order that his wife should return to him. She naturally
objected, but his eloquence would have won his case, even
against Jean Etienne Marie Portalis, the leader of the Aix Bar,
had he not in his excitement accused his wife of infidelity, on
which the court pronounced a decree of separation. He then
intervened in the suit pending between his father and mother
before the parlement of Paris, and attacked the ruling powers
so violently that he had to leave France and again go to Holland,
and try to live by literary work. About this time began his
connexion with Mme de Nehra, the daughter of Zwier van
Haren, a Dutch statesman and political writer, and a woman
of a far higher type than Sophie, more educated, more refined,
and more capable of appreciating Mirabeau's good points.
His life was strengthened by the love of his petite horde, Mme
de Nehra, his adopted son, Lucas de Montigny, and his little
dog Chico. After a period of work in Holland he betook himself
to England, where his treatise on lettres de cachet had been
much admired, being translated into English in 1787, and where
he was soon admitted into the best Whig literary and political
society of London, through his old schoolfellow Gilbert Elliot,
who had now inherited his father's baronetcy and estates, and
become a leading Whig member of parliament. Of all his English
friends none seem to have been so intimate with him as the ist
marquess of Lansdowne, better known as Lord Shelburne, and
Mr, afterwards Sir Samuel, Romilly. The latter became particu-
larly attached to him, and really understood his character;
and it is strange that his remarks upon Mirabeau in the fragment
of autobiography which he left, and Mirabeau's letters to him,
should have been neglected by French writers. Romilly was
introduced to Mirabeau by Sir Francis DTvernois (1757-1842),
and readily undertook to translate into English the Considera-
tions sur I'ordre de Cincinnatus, which Mirabeau had written
in 1785. Romilly writes thus of him in his autobiography:
"The count was difficult enough to please; he was sufficiently
impressed with the beauties of the original. He went over every
part of the translation with me, observed on every passage in which
justice was not done to the thought or the force of the expression
lost, and made many useful criticisms. During this occupation
we had occasion to see one another often, and became very inti-
mate; and, as he had read much, had seen a great deal of the world,
was acquainted with all the most distinguished persons who at that
time adorned either the royal court or the republic of letters in
France; had a great knowledge of French and Italian literature, and
possessed very good taste, his conversation was extremely interest-
ing and not a little instructive. I had such frequent opportunities
of seeing him at this time, and afterwards at a much more important
period of his life, that I think his character was well known to me.
I doubt whether it has been so well known to the world, and I am
convinced that great injustice has been done him. This, indeed,
is not surprising, when one considers that, from the first moment
of his entering upon the career of an author, he had been altogether
indifferent how numerous or how powerful might be the enemies
he should provoke. His vanity was certainly excessive; but I
have no doubt that, in his public conduct as well as in his writings,
he was desirous of doing good, that his ambition was of the noblest
kind, and that he proposed to himself the noblest ends. He was,
however, like many of his countrymen, who were active in the
calamitous Revolution which afterwards took place, not sufficiently
scrupulous about the means by which those ends were to be accom-
plished. He indeed to some degree professed this; and more than
once I have heard him say that there were occasions upon which
' la petite morale 6tait ennamie de la grande.' It is not surprising
that with such maxims as these in his mouth, unguarded in his
expressions and careless of his reputation, he should have afforded
room for the circulation of many stories to his disadvantage."
This luminous judgment, it must be noted, was written by
a man of acknowledged purity of life, who admired Mirabeau
in early life not when he was a statesman, but when he was
only a struggling literary man. The Considerations sur I'ordre
568
MIRABEAU
de Cincinnatus which Romilly translated was the only important
work Mirabeau wrote in the year 1785, and it is a good specimen
of his method. He had read a pamphlet published in America
attacking the proposed order, which was to form a bond of asso-
ciation between the officers who had fought in the American War
of Independence against England; the arguments struck him as
true and valuable, so he re-arranged them in his own fashion,
and rewrote them in his own oratorical style. He soon found
such work not sufficiently remunerative to keep his petite
horde in comfort, and then turned his thoughts to employment
from the French foreign office, either in writing or in diplomacy.
He first sent Mme de Nehra to Paris to make peace with the
authorities, and then returned himself, hoping to get employment
through an old literary collaborates of his, Durival, who was
at this time director of the finances of the department of foreign
affairs. One of the functions of this official was to subsidize
political pamphleteers, and Mirabeau had hoped to be so
employed, but he ruined his chances by a series of writings on
financial questions. On his return to Paris he had become
acquainted with Etienne Claviere, the Genevese exile, and a
banker named Panchaud. From them he heard plenty of abuse
of stock-jobbing, and seizing their ideas he began to regard
stock-jobbing, or agiotage, as the source of all evil, and to attack
in his usual vehement style the Banque de St Charles and the
Compagnie des Eaux. This last pamphlet brought him into
a controversy with Caron de Beaumarchais, who certainly did
not get the best of it, but it lost him any chance of literary
employment from the government. However, his ability was
too great to be neglected by a great minister such as Charles
Gravier, Comte de Vergennes undoubtedly was, and after a
preliminary tour to Berlin at the beginning of 1786 he was des-
patched in July 1786 on a secret mission to the court of Prussia,
from which he returned in January 1787, and of which he gave
a full account in his Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin (1789).
The months he spent at Berlin were important in the history
of Prussia, for while he was there Frederick the Great died.
The letters just mentioned show clearly what Mirabeau did and
what he saw, and equally clearly how unfit he was to be a diplo-
matist. He certainly failed to conciliate the new king Frederick
William; and thus ended Mirabeau's one attempt at diplo-
macy. During his journey he had made the acquaintance of
Jakob Mauvillon (1743-1794), whom he found possessed of a
great number of facts and statistics with regard to Prussia;
these he made use of in a great work on Prussia published in
1788. But, though his De la monarchic prussienne sous Frederic
le Grand (London, 1788) gave him a general reputation for
historical learning, he had in the same year lost a chance of
political employment. He had offered himself as a candidate
for the office of secretary to the Assembly of Notables which
the king had just convened, and to bring his name before the
public published another financial work, the Denonciation de
['agiotage, which abounded in such violent diatribes that he
not only lost his election, but was obliged to retire to Tongres;
and he further injured his prospects by publishing the reports
he had sent in during his secret mission at Berlin. But 1789 was
at hand; the states-general was summoned; Mirabeau's period
of probation was over.
On hearing of the king's determination to summon the states-
general, Mirabeau started for Provence, and offered to assist
at the preliminary conference of the noblesse of his district.
They rejected him; he appealed to the tiers etat, and was returned
both for Aix and for Marseilles. He elected to sit for the former
city, and was present at the opening of the states-general on the
4th of May 1789. From this time the record of Mirabeau's life
forms the best history of the first two years of the Constituent
Assembly, for at every important crisis his voice is to be heard,
though his advice was not always followed. He possessed at
the same time great logical acuteness and the most passionate
enthusiasm. From the beginning he recognized that government
exists in order that the bulk of the population may pursue their
daily work in peace and quiet, and that for a government to be
successful it must be strong. At the same time he thoroughly
comprehended that for a government to be strong it must be
in harmony with the wishes of the majority of the people. He
had carefully studied the English constitution in England, and
he hoped to establish in France a system similar in principle
but without any slavish imitation of the details of the English
constitution. In the first stage of the history of the states-
general Mirabeau's part was very great He was soon recognized
as a leader, to the chagrin 6f Jean Joseph Mounier, because
he always knew his own mind, and was prompt in emergencies.
To him is to be attributed the successful consolidation of the
National Assembly. When the taking of the Bastille had
assured the success of the Revolution, he warned the Assembly
of the futility of passing fine-sounding decrees and urged the
necessity for acting. He declared that the famous night
of the 4th of August was but an orgy, giving the people an im-
mense theoretical liberty while not assisting them to practical
freedom, and overthrowing the old regime before a new one
could be constituted. His failure to control the theorizers
showed Mirabeau, after the removal of the king and the Assembly
to Paris, that his eloquence would not enable him to guide the
Assembly by himself, and that he must therefore try to get
some support. He wished to establish a strong ministry,
which should be responsible like an English ministry, but to
an assembly chosen to represent the people of France better
than the English House of Commons at that time represented
England. He first thought of becoming a minister at a
very early date, if we may believe a story contained in the
Memoires of the duchesse d'Abrantes, to the effect that in May
1789 the queen tried to bribe him, but that he refused this and
expressed his wish to be a minister. The indignation with
which the queen repelled the idea may have made him think of
the duke of Orleans as a possible constitutional king, because
his title would of necessity be parliamentary. But the weakness'
of Orleans was too palpable, and in a famous remark Mirabeau'
expressed his utter contempt for him. He also attempted to
form an alliance with Lafayette, but the general was as vain
and as obstinate as Mirabeau himself, and had his own theories
about a new French constitution. Mirabeau tried for a time,
too, to act with Necker, and obtained the sanction of the Assem-
bly to Necker's financial scheme, not because it was good, but
because, as he said, " no other plan was before them, and some-
thing must be done."
Hitherto weight has been laid on the practical side of Mirabeau's
political genius; his ideas with regard to the Revolution after
the 5th and 6th of October must now be examined, and this
can be done at length, thanks to the publication of Mirabeau's
correspondence with the Comte de la Marck, a study of which
is indispensable for any correct knowledge of the history of the
Revolution between 1789 and 1791. Auguste Marie Raymond,
prince d'Arenberg, known as the Comte de la Marck, was a
Flemish nobleman who had been proprietary colonel of a German
regiment in the service of France; he was a close friend of the
queen, and had been elected a member of the states-general.
His acquaintance with Mirabeau, begun in 1788, ripened during
the following year into a friendship, which La Marck hoped
to turn to the advantage of the court. After the events of the 5th
and 6th of October he consulted Mirabeau as to what measures
the king ought to take, and Mirabeau, delighted at the opportu-
nity, drew up an admirable state paper, which was presented
to the king by Monsieur, afterwards Louis XVIII. The whole
of this Memoir e should be read to get an adequate idea of
Mirabeau's genius for politics; here it must be summarized.
The main position is that the king is not free in Paris; he must
therefore leave Paris and appeal to France. " Paris n'en veut que
'argent; les provinces demandent des lois." But where must the
<mg go? " be retirer Metz ou sur toute autre frontiere serait
declarer la guerre a la nation et abdiquer le tr6ne. Un roi qui est la
seule sauvegarde de son peuple ne fuit point devant son peuple;
1 le prend pour juge de sa conduite et de ses principes." He must
:hen go towards the interior of France to a provincial capital, best
of all to Rouen, and there he must appeal to the people and summon
a great convention. It would be ruin to appeal to the noblesse, as
the queen advised: " un corps de noblesse n'est point une armee,
qui puisse combattre." When this great convention met the
MIRABEAU
king must show himself ready to recognize that great changes have
569
taken place, that feudalism and absolutism have for ever disappeared,
and that a new relation between king and people has arisen, which
must be loyally observed on both sides for the future. " II est
certain, d'ailleurs, qu'il faut une grande revolution pour sauver le
royaimie, que la nation a des droits, qu'elle est en chemin de les
recouvrer tous, et qu'il faut non seulement les retablir, mais les
consolider. To establish this new constitutional position between
king and people would not be difficult, because " 1'indivisibilite du
monarque et du peuple est dans le coeur de tous les
faut qu'elle existe dans 1'action et le pouvoir."
Such was Mirabeau's programme, from which he never
diverged, but which was far too statesmanlike to be understood
by the poor king, and far too positive regarding the altered
condition of the monarchy to be palatable to the queen. Mira-
beau followed up his Memoire by a scheme of a great ministry
to contain all men of mark Necker as prime minister, " to
render him as powerless as he is incapable, and yet preserve
his popularity for the king," the due de Liancourt, the due de
la Rochefoucauld, La Marck, Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, at
the finances, Mirabeau without portfolio, G. J. B. Target, mayor
of Paris, Lafayette generalissimo to reform the army, Louis
Philippe, comte de Segur (foreign affairs), Mounier and I. R. G.
le Chapelier. This scheme got noised abroad, and was ruined
by a decree of the Assembly of the 7th of November 1789, that
no member of the Assembly could become a minister; this
decree destroyed any chance of that necessary harmony between
the ministry and the majority of the representatives of the
nation which existed in England, and so at once overthrew
Mirabeau's hopes. The queen utterly refused to take Mirabeau's
counsel, and La Marck left Paris. However, in April 1790 he
was suddenly recalled by the comte de Mercy^Argenteau, the
Austrian ambassador at Paris, and the queen's most trusted
political adviser, and from this time to Mirabeau's death he
became the medium of almost daily communications between
the latter and the queen. Mirabeau at first attempted again to
make an alliance with Lafayette, but it was useless, for Lafayette
was not a strong man himself and did not appreciate " la force "
in others. From the month of May 1790 to his death in April
1791 Mirabeau remained in close and suspected, but not actually
proved, connexion with the court, and drew up many admirable
state papers for it. In return the court paid his debts; but it
ought never to be said that he was bribed, for the gold of the
court never made him swerve from his political principles
never, for instance, made him a royalist. He regarded himself
as a minister, though an unavowed one, and believed himself
worthy of his hire.
Before Mirabeau's influence on foreign policy is discussed,
his behaviour on several important points must be noticed.
On the great question of the veto he took a practical view, and
seeing that the royal power was already sufficiently weakened,
declared for the king's absolute veto and against the compro-
mise of the suspensive veto. He knew from his English
experiences that such a veto would be hardly ever used unless
the king felt the people were on his side, and that if it were
used unjustifiably the power of the purse possessed by the
representatives of the people would, as in England in 1688,
bring about a bloodless revolution. He saw also that much
of the inefficiency of the Assembly arose from the in-
experience of the members and their incurable verbosity;
so, to establish some system of rules, he got his friend
Romilly to draw up a detailed account of the rules and
customs of the English House of Commons, which he trans-
lated into French, but which the Assembly, puffed up by a
belief in its own merits, refused to use. On the great subject
of peace and war he supported the king's authority, and with
some success. Again Mirabeau almost alone of the Assembly
held that the soldier ceased to be a citizen when he became a
soldier; he must submit to be deprived of his liberty to think
and act, and must recognize that a soldier's first duty, is obedi-
ence. With such sentiments, it is no wonder that he approved
of the vigorous conduct of Francois Claude Amour, marquis de
Bouille, at Nancy, which was the more to his credit as Bouille
was the one hope of the court influences opposed to him. Lastly,
in matters of finance he showed his wisdom: he attacked
Necker's " caisse d'escompte," which was to have the whole
control of the taxes, as absorbing the Assembly's power of the
purse; and he heartily approved of the system of assignats,
but with the reservation that they should not be issued to the
extent of more than one-half the value of the lands to be sold.
Of Mirabeau's attitude with regard to foreign affairs it is
necessary to speak in more detail. He held it to be just that
the French people should conduct their Revolution as they
would, and that no foreign nation had any right to interfere with
them while they kept themselves strictly to their own affairs.
But he knew also that neighbouring nations looked with unquiet
eyes on the progress of affairs in France, that they feared the
influence of the Revolution on their own peoples, and that
foreign monarchs were being prayed by the French emigres to
interfere on behalf of the French monarchy. To prevent this
interference, or rather to give no pretext for it, was his guiding
thought as to foreign policy. He had been elected a member of
the comite diplomatique of the Assembly in July 1790, and became
its reporter at once, and in this capacity, he was able to prevent
the Assembly from doing much harm in regard to foreign
affairs. He had long known Armand Marc, comte de Mont-
morin, the foreign secretary, and, as matters became more
strained from the complications with the princes and counts
of the empire, he entered into daily communication with the
minister, advised him on every point, and, while dictating
his policy, defended it in the Assembly. Mirabeau's exertions
in this respect are not his smallest title to the name of statesman;
and how great a work he did is best proved by the confusion
which ensued in this department after his death. For indeed
in the beginning of 1791 his death was very near; and he knew
it to be so. The wild excesses of his youth and their terrible
punishment had weakened his strong constitution, and his
parliamentary labours completed the work. So surely did
he feel its approach that some time before the end he sent all
his papers over to Sir Gilbert Elliot, who kept them under seal
until claimed by Mirabeau's executors. In March his illness
was evidently gaining on him, to his great grief, because he
knew that he alone could yet save France from the distrust
of her monarch and the present reforms, and from the foreign
interference, which would assuredly bring about catastrophes
unparalleled in the history of the world. Every care that science
could afford was given by his friend and physician, Cabanis, to
whose brochure on his last illness and death the reader may
refer. The people kept the street in which he lay quiet; but
medical care, the loving solicitude of friends, and the respect
of all the people could not save his life. When he could speak
no more he wrote with a feeble hand the one word " dormir,"
and on the 2nd of April 1791 he died.
No man ever so thoroughly used other men's work, and yet
made it all seem his own. " Je prends mon bien ou je le trouve "
is as true of him as of Moliere. His first literary work, except
the bombastic but eloquent Essai sur le despotisme (Neufchatel,
1 775)i was a translation of Robert Watson's Philip II., done in
Holland with the help of Durival; his Considerations sur I'ordre de
Cincinnatus (London, 1788) was based on a pamphlet by Aedanus
Burke (1743-1802), of South Carolina, who opposed the aristocratic
tendencies of the Society of the Cincinnati, and the notes to it
were by Target; his financial writings were suggested by the
Genevese exile, Claviere. During the Revolution he received
yet more help; men were proud to labour for him, and
did not murmur because he absorbed all the credit and
Fame. Etienne Dumont, Claviere, Antoine Adrien Lamourette
and Etienne Salomon Reybaz were but a few of the most distin-
guished of his collaborators. Dumont was a Genevese exile, and
in old friend of Romilly's, who willingly prepared for him those
Famous addresses which Mirabeau used to make the Assembly pass
by sudden bursts'of eloquent declamation; Claviere helped him in
Finance, and not only worked out his figures, but even wrote his
financial discourses; Lamourette wrote the speeches on the civil
constitution of the clergy; Reybaz not only wrote for him his famous
speeches on the assignats, the organization of the national guard,
and others, which Mirabeau read word for word at the tribune, but
even the posthumous speech on succession to the estates of intestates,
which Talleyrand read in the Assembly as the last work of his
dead friend. Yet neither the gold of the court nor another man's
conviction would make Mirabeau say what he did not himself
believe, or do what he did not himself think right. He took
MIRABEAU MIRACLE
other men's labour as his due, and impressed their words, of
which he had suggested the underlying ideas, with the stamp of
his own individuality; his collaborators themselves did not com-
plainthey were but too glad to be of help in the great work
of controlling and forwarding the French Revolution through
its greatest thinker and orator. As an orator his eloquence has
been likened to that of both Bossuet and Vergmaud, but it had
neither the polish of the old i;th century bishop nor the flashes of
genius of the young Girondin. It was rather parliamentary oratory
in which he excelled, and his true compeers are rather Burke and
Fox than any French speakers. Personally he had that which is
the truest mark of nobility of mind, a power of attracting love
and winning faithful friends. (H. M. S.)
AUTHORITIES. The best edition of Mirabeau s works is that
published by Blanchard in 1819-1822, in ten volumes, of which
the first two contain his (Euvres oratoires; from this collection,
however, many of his less important works and the De la monarchic
prussienne are omitted. For details of his life consult Peuchet,
Mirabeau: Memoires sur sa vie litteraire et privee (1824); and_ the
Memoires biographiques, litteraires et politiques de Mirabeau, ecrils
par lui-meme, par son pere, son oncle et son fils adoptif, which was
issued by his adopted son, Lucas de Montigny (8 vols., Paris,
1834-1835). See also Etienne Dumont, Souvenirs sur Mirabeau
(1832), a work which has been translated into English by Lady
E. R. Seymour as The Great Frenchman and the Little Genevese
(1904); Louise Colet, La Jeunesse de Mirabeau (1841); and Alfred
Begis, Mirabeau, son interdiction judiciaire (1895). The publica-
tion of the Correspondance entre Mirabeau et le comte de la Marck,
by A. de Bacourt (2 vols., 1851) marks an epoch in our exact
knowledge of Mirabeau and his career; some additional letters
appeared in the German edition (3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1852).
Other published correspondence is Lettres de Mirabeau a Chamfort
(1796); Lettres du comte de Mirabeau a Jacques Maumllon (Bruns-
wick, 1792); Lettres originates de Mirabeau, ecrites du donjon de
Vincennes, 1777-1780, published by L. P. Manuel (4 vols., 1792);
and, on the same subject, Paul Cottin, Sophie de Monmer et Mirabeau
d'apres leur correspondance incdite (1903) ; Lettres a Julie, edited by
D. Meunier and G. Selois (Paris, 1903) ; Lettres inedites (1806), edited
by J. F. Vitry. The Histoire secrete forms the basis of H. Welschin-
ger's La Mission secrete de Mirabeau a Berlin (Paris, 1900). ^The
most useful modern books are Louis and Charles de Lomenie,
Les Mirabeau (5 vols., 1878 and 1889); Alfred Stern, Das Leben
Mirabeaus (1889). See also E. Rousse, Mirabeau (1891) in the
Grands Ecrivains Frangais series ; P. Plan, Un Collaborateur de Mira-
beau (Paris, 1874), treating of Reybaz and throwing infinite light on
Mirabeau's mode of work; and H. Reynald, Mirabeau et la constitu-
ante (1873). On his eloquence and the share his collaborators had
in his speeches see F. A. Aulard, Orateurs de I'assemblee constituante
(1882). For his death see the curious brochure of his physician,
Cabanis, Journal de la maladie et de la mort_ de Mirabeau (Paris,
1791, ed. H. Duchenne, Paris, 1890). There is a good sketch sum-
marizing modern opinion by E. Charavay in La Grande Encyclopedic.
English works include P. F. Willert, Mirabeau (1898) in the " Foreign
Statesman" series; C. F. ; Warwick, Mirabeau and the French
Revolution (1905); W. R. H. Trowbridge, Mirabeau, the demi-god
(1907); H. E. von Hoist, The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau's
Career (Chicago, 1894); and F. Fling, Mirabeau and the French
Revolution (London and New York, 1908). Other works are Victor
Hugo, Etude sur Mirabeau (1834); Jules Barni, Mirabeau (1882);
Albert Sprel, " Mirabeau " in Essais d'histoire et de critique (1883);
G. Leloir, Mirabeau a Pontarlier (1886); Ferdinand Schwartz,
Mirabeau und Marie Antoinette (Basel, 1891); and Alfred Mezieres,
Vie de Mirabeau (1892).
MIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETI, MARQUIS DE (1715-1789),
French author and political economist, father of the great
Mirabeau, was born at Pertuis, near the old chateau de Mirabeau,
on the 4th of October 1715. He was brought up very sternly
by his father, and in 1728 joined the army. He took keenly
to campaigning, but never rose above the rank of captain,
owing to his being unable to get leave at court to buy a regiment.
In 1737 he came into the family property on his father's death,
and spent some pleasant years till 1743 in literary companionship
with due Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues and the poet Lefranc
de Pompignan, which might have continued had he not deter-
mined to marry not for money, but for landed estates. The
lady whose property he fancied was Marie Genevieve, daughter of
a M. de Vassan, a brigadier in the army, and widow of the marquis
de Saulveboef, whom he married without previously seeing
her on the aist of April 1743. While in garrison at Bordeaux
Mirabeau had made the acquaintance of Montesquieu, and after
retiring from the army he wrote his first work, his Testament
Politique (1747), which demanded for the prosperity of France
a return of the French noblesse to their old position in the middle
ages. This work was followed in 1750 by a book on the Utilite
des itats provenciaux, which was attributed to Montesquieu
himself. In 1756 Mirabeau made his first appearance as a
political economist by the publication of his Ami des hommes
cu traile de la population. This work has been often attributed
to the influence, and in part even to the pen, of Quesnay, the
founder of the economical school of the physiocrats, but was
really written before the majquis had made the acquaintance
of the physician of Madame de Pompadour. In 1 760 he published
his Theorie de I'impot, in which he attacked with all the
vehemence of his son the farmers-general of the taxes, who got
him imprisoned for eight days at Vincennes, and then exiled to
his country estate at Bignon. At Bignon the school of the
physiocrats was really established, and the marquis in 1765
bought the Journal de I' agriculture, du commerce, et des finances,
which became the organ of the school. He was recognized
as a leader of political thinkers by Prince Leopold of Tuscany,
afterwards emperor, and by Gustavus III. of Sweden, who
in 1772 sent him the grand cross of the order of Vasa. But
his marriage had not been happy; he had separated from his
wife in 1762, and had, he believed, secured her safely in the
provinces by a lettre de cachet, when in 1772 she suddenly
appeared in Paris, and commenced proceedings for a separation.
One of his own daughters had encouraged his wife to take this
step. He was determined to keep the case quiet, if possible, for
the sake of Mme de Pailly, a Swiss lady whom he had loved
since 1756. But his wife would not let him rest; her plea was
rejected in 1777, but she renewed her suit, and, though the great
Mirabeau had pleaded his father's case, was successful in 1781.
This trial quite broke the health of the marquis, as well as his
fortune; he sold his estate at Bignon, and hired a house at
Argenteuil, where he lived quietly till his death on the nth
of July 1789.
The marquis's younger brother, JEAN ANTOINE RIQUETI,
" the bailli " (d. 1794), served with distinction in the navy,
but his brusque manners made success at court impossible.
In 1763 he became general of the galleys of Malta. In 1767
he returned to France and took charge of the chateau de
Mirabeau, helping the marquis in his disastrous lawsuits.
See Louis de Lomenie's Les Mirabeau (2 vols., 1879). Also
Henri Ripert, Le Marquis de Mirabeau, ses theories politiques et
economiques, [these pour le doctoral] Paris (1901); Oncken, Der
dltere Mirabeau und die oekonomische Gesellschaft in Bern (Berne,
1886) ; De Lavergne, Les Economistes frangais du i8 me siecle.
MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder), anything
wonderful, beyond human power, and deviating from the
common action of the laws of nature, a supernatural event.
The term is particularly associated with the supernatural factors
in Christianity. To the Lat. miraculum correspond Gr. ripas
in the New Testament, and Heb. N^> (Exod. xv. 1 1 ;
Dan. xii. 6) in the Old Testament. Other terms used in the
New Testament are Svvanis " with reference to the power
residing in the miracle worker " (cf. m<ps Deut. iii. 24 and
nK'-a Num. xvi. 30), and OTjjueToc " with reference to the
character or claims of which it was the witness and guar-
antee " (cf. m'N Exod. iv. 8) ; that the power is assumed to
be from God is shown by the phrases Tireujtari 6tov (Matt. xii.
28; cf. Luke iv. .18) and 5a.KTv\<>} 6tov (Luke xi. 20).
While Augustine describes miracles as " contra naturam quae
nobis est nota," Aquinas without qualification defines them as
" praeter naturam," " supra et contra naturam." Loscher affirms
in regard to miracles that " solus Deus potest turn supra naturae
vires turn contra naturae leges agere " ; and Buddaeus argues that
in them a " suspensio legum naturae " is followed by a restitutio.
Against the common view that miracles can attest the truth of
a divine revelation Gerhard maintained that " per miracula non
possunt probari oracula " ; and Hopfner returns to the qualified
position of Augustine when he describes them as " praeter et supra
naturae ordinem." The two conceptions, once common in the Chris-
tian church, that on the one hand miracles involved an interference
with the forces and a suspension of the laws of nature, and that,
on the other hand, as this could be effected only by divine power,
they served as credentials of a divine revelation, are now generally
abandoned. As regards the first point, it is now generally held
that miracles are exceptions to the order of nature as known in
our common experience; and as regards the second, that miracles are
constituent elements in the divine revelation, deeds which display
MIRACLE
the divine character and purpose; but they are signs and not merely
seals of truth. Some of the theories regarding miracles which
have been formulated may be mentioned. Bonnet, Euler, Haller,
Schmid and others " suppose miracles to be already implanted in
nature. The miraculous germs always exist alongside other germs
in a sort of sheath, like hidden springs in a machine, and emerge
into the light when their time comes." Similar is the view of
Paracelsus and Jerome Cardan, who " suppose a twofold world,
existing one in the other; beside or behind the visible is an inner,
ideal world, which breaks through in particular spots " (Dorner's
System of Christian Doctrine, [ii. 155, 156). The 8th duke of
Argyll (Reign of Law) maintains that " miracles may be wrought
by the selection and use of laws of which man knows and can
know nothing, and which, if he did know, he could not employ."
These theories endeavour to discover the means by which the
exceptional occurrence is brought about; but the explanation is
merely hypothetical, and we are not helped in conceiving the mode
of the divine activity in the working of miracles. The important
consideration from the religious standpoint is that God's activity
should be fully recognized.
An attempt has been made to discover a natural law which will
explain some at least of the miracles of Jesus. " In one respect
alone," says Matthew Arnold, " have the miracles recorded by the
evangelists a more real ground than the mass of miracles of which
we have the relation. Medical science has never gauged, perhaps
never enough set itself to gauge the intimate connexion between
moral fault and disease. To what extent or in how many cases
what is called illness is due to moral springs having been used amiss,
whether by being over-used, or by not being used sufficiently, we
hardly at all know, and we too little inquire. Certainly it is due
to this very much more than we commonly think, and the more it
is due to this the more do moral therapeutics rise in possibility
and importance " (Literature and Dogma, pp. 143-144). The moral
therapeutics consists in the influence of a powerful will over others.
Harnack accepts this view. " We see that a firm will and a con-
vinced faith act even on the bodily life and cause appearances
which appeal to us as miracles. Who has hitherto here with cer-
tainty measured the realm of the possible and the real? Nobody.
Who can say how far the influences of one soul on another soul
and of the soul on the body reach? Nobody. Who can still
affirm that all which in this realm appears as striking rests only on
deception and error? Certainly no miracles occur, but there is
enough of the wonderful and the inexplicable " (Das Wesen des
Christentums, p. 18). As regards the theory, it may be pointed out:
(i) that the nature or cosmical miracles feeding of the five thou-
sand, stilling of the storm, withering of the fig-tree are as well-
attested as the miracles of healing; (2) that many of the diseases,
the cure of which is reported, are of a kind with which moral thera-
peutics could not effect anything; l (3) that Christ's own insight
regarding the power by which He wrought His works is directly
challenged by this explanation, for He never failed to ascribe His
power to the Father dwelling in Him.
The divine agency is recognized as combining and controlling,
but not as producing, in the teleological notion of miracles. "In
miracle no new powers, instituted or stimulated by God's creative
action, are at work, but merely the general order of nature "; but
" the manifold physical and spiritual powers in actual existence so
blend together as to produce a startling result " (Dorner's System
of Christian Doctrine, ii. 157). While we cannot deny, we have
no ground for affirming the truth of this theory. Whether God s
action is creative, or only [selective and directive in miracles,
is beyond our knowledge; we at least do not know the powers
exercised, whether new or old.
An attempt is made to get rid of the distinctive nature of miracle
when the exceptionalness of the events so regarded is reduced to
a new subjective mode of regarding natural phenomena. H. E. G.
Paulus dismisses the miracles as " exaggerations or misappre-
hensions of quite ordinary events." A. Ritschl has been unjustly
charged with this treatment of miracles. But what he emphasizes
is on the one hand the close connexion between the conception of
miracles and the belief in divine providence, and on the other the
compatibility between miracles and the order of nature. He de-
clines to regard miracles as divine action contrary to the laws of
nature. So for Schleiermacher "miracle is neither explicable from
nature alone, nor entirely alien to it." What both Ritschl and
Schleiermacher insist on is that the belief in miracles is inseparable
from the belief in God, and in God as immanent in nature, not only
directing and controlling its existent forces, but also as initiating
new stages consistent with the old in its progressive development,
We may accept Dorner's definition as adequate and satisfactory.
" Miracles are sensuously cognizable events, not comprehensible on
the ground of the causality of nature as such, but essentially on
the ground of God's free action alone. Such facts find their possi-
bility in the constitution of nature and God's living relation to it,
their necessity in the aim of revelation, which they subserve
(p. 161). By the first clause, inward moral and religious changes
due to the operation of the Spirit of God in man are excluded, and
'See also R. J. Ryle, " The Neurotic Theory of the Miracles of
Healing," Hibbert Journal, v. 586.
rightly so (sec INSPIRATION). The negative aspect is presented in
the second clause. This is prominent in J. S. Mill's definition of
miracles: " to constitute a miracle, a phenomenon must take place
without having been preceded by any antecedent phenomenal
conditions sufficient again to reproduce it. ... The test of a
miracle is, were there present in the case such external conditions,
such second causes we may call them, that wherever these conditions
or causes reappear the event will be reproduced. If there were, it
is not a miracle; if there were not, it is" (Essays, p. 224). The
positive aspect is presented in the third clause. When the existence
of God is denied (atheism), or His nature is declared unknowable
(agnosticism), or He is identified with nature itself (pantheism),
or He is so distinguished from the world that His free action is
excluded from the course of nature (deism), miracle is necessarily
denied. Thus Spinoza, identifying God and nature, declares
" nothing happens in nature which is in contradiction with its
universal laws. ' The deists, compelled by their view of the relation
of God to nature to regard miracles as interventions, disposed of
the miracles of the Bible either as " mistaken allegory " or even
as conscious fraud on the part of the narrators. It is only the
theistic view of God as personal power that is as free-wil! ever
present and ever active in the world, which leaves room for miracles.
The possibility of miracles is often confidently denied. " We
are of the unalterable conviction," says Harnack, " that what
happens in time and space is subject to the universal laws of move-
ment ; that accordingly there cannot be any miracles in this sense,
i.e. as interruptions of the continuity of nature " (Das Wesen des
Christentums, p. 17). Huxley expresses himself much more cau-
tiously, as he recognizes that we do not know the continuity of nature
so thoroughly as to be able to declare that this or that event is
necessarily an interruption of it. " If a dead man did come to
life, the fact would be evidence, not that any law of nature had been
violated, but that these laws, even when they express the results
of a very long and uniform experience, are necessarily based on
incomplete knowledge, and are to be held only on grounds of more
or less justifiable expectation " (Hume, p. 135).
Lotze has shown how the possibility of miracle can be conceived.
" The whole course of nature becomes intelligible only by sup-
posing the co-working of God, who alone carries forward the reci-
procal action of the different parts of the world. But that view
which admits a life of God that is not benumbed in an unchangeable
sameness will be able to understand his eternal co-working as a
variable quantity, the transforming influence of which comes forth
at particular moments and attests that the course of nature is not
shut up within itself. And this being the case, the complete con-
ditioning causes of the miracle will be found in God and nature
together, and in that eternal action and reaction between them
which perhaps, although not ordered simply according to general
laws, is not void of regulative principles. This vital, as opposed
to a mechanical, constitution of nature, together with the con-
ceptions of nature as not complete in itself as if it were dissevered
from the divine energy shows how a miracle may take place
without any disturbance elsewhere of the constancy of nature, all
whose forces are affected sympathetically, with the consequence
that its orderly movement goes on unhindered " (Mikrokosmos,
The mode of the divine working in nature is in another passage
more clearly defined.
" The closed and hard circle of mechanical necessity is not
immediately accessible to the miracle-working fiat, nor does it need
to be; but the inner nature of that which obeys its laws is not
determined by it but by the meaning of the world. This is the
open place on which a power that commands in the name of t
meaning can exert its influence; and if under this command the
inner condition of the elements, the magnitudes of their relation
and their opposition to each other, become altered, the necessity
of the mechanical cause of the world must unfold this new state
into a miraculous appearance, not through suspension but through
strict maintenance of its general laws " (op. cit. ii. 54).
If we conceive God as personal, and His will as related to the
course of nature analogously to the relation of the human will to
the human body, then the laws of nature may be regarded as
habits of the divine activity, and miracles as unusual acts which,
while consistent with the divine character, mark a new stage in tl
fulfilment of the purpose of God.
The doctrine of Evolution, instead of increasing the difficulty o
conceiving the possibility of miracle, decreases it; for it presents
to us the universe as an uncompleted process, and one in wni.
there is no absolute continuity on the phenomenal side; for life and
mind are inexplicable by their physical antecedents, and there i
not only room for, but need of, the divine initiative, a creative as
well as conservative co-operation ot God with nature, buch an
absolute continuity is sometimes assumed without warrant;
Descartes already recognized, that the world was no contin
process " Tria mirabilia fecit Dommus; res ex nihilo hberum
arbitrium et hominem Deum." That life cannot be explained
force is recognized by Sir Oliver Lodge. Life may be something
not only ultra-terrestrial, but even immaterial, something outside oui
present categories of matter and energy; as real as they are, but
572
MIRA DE AMESCUA, A.
different, and utilizing them for its own purpose (Life and Matter,
p. 198). The theory of psychophysical parallelism recognizes that
while there is a correspondence between mental and material
phenomena, changes in the mind and changes in the brain, the
Former cannot be explained by the latter, as the transition from the
one to the other is unthinkable. William James distinguishes the
transmissive function of the brain from the productive in relation
to thought, and admits only the former, and not the latter (Human
Immortality, p. 32). Thus as life is transcendent and yet immanent
in body, and mind in brain, and both utilize their organs, so God,
transcendent and immanent, uses the course of nature for His own
ends; and the emergence both of life and mind in that course of
nature evidences such a divine initiative as is assumed in the
recognition of the possibility of miracles. For such an initiative
there must be adequate reason ; it must be prepared for in the previous
process, and it must be necessary to further progress.
The proof of the possibility of miracle leads us inevitably to the
inquiry regarding the necessity of miracle. The necessity of miracles
is displayed in their connexion with the divine revelation; but this
connexion may be conceived in two ways. The miracles may^be
regarded as the credentials of the agents of divine revelation. " It
is an acknowledged historical tact," says Butler, " that Christianity
offered itself to the world, and demanded to be received, upon the
allegation i.e. as unbelievers would speak upon the pretence of
miracles, publicly wrought to attest the truth of it,' in such an age ;
and that it was actually received by great numbers in that very_
age, and upon the professed belief of the reality of miracles
(Analogy, part ii. ch. vii.). This view is now generally abandoned;
for it is recognized that acts of superhuman power, even if established
by adequate historical evidence, do not necessarily certify their
divine origin. Their moral quality must correspond with the
character of God; and they must be connected with teaching
which to reason and conscience approves itself divine. " Miracula
sine doctrina nihil valent " is the principle now generally recog-
nized. The miracle and the doctrine mutually illuminate one
another. " Les miracles discernent la doctrine, et la doctrine
discerne les miracles " (Pascal's Pensees des miracles). Accordingly,
the credentials must also be constituents of the revelation. Of the
miracles of Jesus, Bushnell says, " The character of Jesus is ever
shining with and through them, in clear self-evidence leaving them
never to stand as raw wonders only of might, but covering them
with glory as tokens of a heavenly love, and acts that only suit
the proportions of His personal greatness and majesty " (Nature
and the Supernatural, p. 364). If it be asked why the character
may not be displayed in ordinary acts instead of miracles, the
answer may be given, "Miracle is the certificate of identity between
the Lord of Nature and the Lord of Conscience the proof that
He is really a moral being who subordinates physical to moral
interests" (Lidden's Elements of Religion, p. 73). As God is the
Saviour, and the chief end of the revelation is redemption, it is
fitting that the miracles should be acts of divine deliverance from
physical evil. This congruity of the miracle with divine truth and
grace is the answer to Matthew Arnold's taunt about turning a
pen into a pen-wiper or Huxley's about a centaur trotting down
Regent Street. The miracles of- Jesus the relief of need, the
removal of suffering, the recovery of health and strength reveal in
outward events the essential features of His divine mission. The
divine wisdom and goodness are revealed in the course of nature,
but also obscured by it. The existence of physical evil, and still
more of moral evil, forbids the assumption without qualification
that the real is the rational. God in nature as well as history is
fulfilling a redemptive as well as perfective purpose, of which these
miracles are appropriate signs. It is an unwarranted idealism and
optimism which finds the course of nature so wise and so good that
any change in it must be regarded as incredible. On the problem
of evil and sin it is impossible here to enter; but this must be
insisted on, that the miracles of Jesus at least express divine
benevolence just under those conditions in which the course of
nature obscures it, and are therefore, proper elements in a revelation
of grace, of which nature cannot give any evidence.
Having discussed the possibility and necessity of miracles for
the divine revelation, we must now consider whether there is
sufficient historical evidence for their occurrence. Hume maintains
that no evidence, such as is available, can make a miracle credible.
Mill states the position with due care. " The question can be
stated fairly .is depending on a balance of evidence, a certain
amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles, and a negative
presumption from the general course of human experience against
them " (Essays on Religion, p. 221). The existence of " a certain
amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles " forbids the
sweeping statement that miracles are " contrary to experience."
The phrase itself is, as Paley has pointed out, ambiguous. If it
means all experience it assumes the point to be proved; if it means
only common experience then it simply asserts that the miracle is
unusual a truism. The probability of miracles depends on the
conception we have of the free relation of God to nature, and of
nature as the adequate organ for the fulfilment of God's purposes.
If we believe in a divine revelation and redemption, transcending
the course of nature, the miracles as signs of that divine purpose
will not seem improbable.
For the Christian Church the miracles of Jesus are of primary
importance; and the evidences-external and internal in their
favour may be said to be sufficient to justify belief. The Gospels
assumed their present form between A.D. 60 and 90. Their repre-
sentation of the moral character, the religious consciousness, the
teaching of Jesus, inspires confidence. The narratives of miracles
are woven into the very texture of this representation. In these
acts Jesus reveals Himself as Saviour. " The Jesus Christ pre-
sented to us in the New Testament would become a very different
person if the miracles were removed " (Temple's Relations between
Religion and Science). In His sinless perfection and filial relation
to God He is unique, and His works are congruous with His Person.
Of the supreme miracle of His resurrection there is earlier evidence
than of any of the others (i Cor. xv. 3-7, before A.D. 58). His con-
quest of death is most frequently appealed to in the apostolic
teaching. The Christian Church would never have come into
existence without faith in the Risen Lord. The proof of the
supernaturalness of His Person sets the seal to the credibility of His
supernatural works. In Christ, however, was the fulfilment of
law and prophecy. This close connexion invests the antecedent
revelation in some degree with the supernaturalness of His Person:
at least, we are prepared to entertain without prejudice any evidence
that may be presented in the Old Testament. That this evidence
is not as good as that for the miracles of Jesus must be conceded,
as much of it is of mtoch later date than the events recorded. The
miracles connected with the beginnings of the national history the
period of the Exodus appear on closer inspection to have been
ordinarily natural phenomena, to which a supernatural character
was given by their connexion with the prophetic word of Moses.
The miracles recorded of Elijah and Elisha lie somewhat apart
from the main currents of the history, the narratives themselves
are distinct from the historical works in which they have been in-
corporated, and the character of some of the actions raises serious
doubts and difficulties. In some cases suspense of judgment
seems necessary even from the standpoint of Christian faith. The
supernatural element that is prominent in the Old Testament is
God's providential guidance and guardianship of His people, and
His teaching and training of them by His prophets. The Apostolic
miracles, to which the New Testament bears evidence, were wrought
in the power of Christ, and were evidences to His church and to
the world of His continued presence. When the Church had estab-
lished itself in the world, and possessed in its moral and religious
fruits evidence of its claims, these outward signs appear gradually
to have ceased, although attempts were made to perpetuate them.
It is true that in Roman Catholicism, in medieval as in modern
times, the working of miracles has been ascribed to its saints; but
the character of most of these miracles is such as to lack the a
priori probability which has been claimed for the Scripture miracles
on account of their connexion and congruity with the divine revela-
tion. The a posteriori evidence as regards both its moral and
religious quality and its date is altogether inferior to the evidence
of the Gospels. Further, these records are imitative. As Christ
and the apostles worked miracles, it is assumed that those who in
the Church were distinguished for their sanctity would also work
miracles; and there can be little doubt that the wish was often
father to the thought. There may be cases which cannot be ex-
plained in this way; but " whatever may be thought about them,
it is plain that even if these and their like are really to be traced
to the intervention of the divine mercy which loves to reward a
simple faith (and it does not seem to us that the evidence is sufficient
to establish such a conclusion), yet they do not serve as vehicles of
revelation as the miracles of the Gospel did " (H. J. Bernard in
Hastings's Bible Dictionary, iii. 395). (A. E. G.*)
MIRA DE AMESCUA, ANTONIO (1578 ?-i6 3 6 ?), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Guadix (Granada) about 1578. He
is said, but doubtfully, to have been the illegitimate son of one
Juana Perez; he took orders, obtained a canonry at Guadix, and
settled at Madrid early in the I7th century. He is mentioned
as a prominent dramatist in Rojas Villandrando's Loa (1603),
which was written several years before it was published. In
1610, being then arch-dean of Guadix, he accompanied the count
de Lemos to Naples, and on his return to Spain was appointed
(1619) chaplain to the cardinal Infante Ferdinand of Austria;
he is referred to as still alive in Montalban's Para todos (1632),
and he collaborated with Montalban and Calderon in Polifemo
y Circe, printed in 1634. The date of his death is not known.
Mira de Amescua's plays are dispersed in various printed
collections, and the absence of a satisfactory edition has pre-
vented his due recognition. He has an evenness of execution
which indicates an artistic conscience uncommon in Spanish
playwrights; he resisted the temptation to write, too much,
and he unites a virile dignity of expression to impressive
conception of character.
Two of his plays La Advcrsa fortuna de Don Bernado de Cabrera
MIRAGE MIRANDA
and El ejemplo mayor de la desdicha are respectively the sources
of Rotrou's Don Bernardo de la Cabrbre and Belisaire; Moreto's
Caer para levantar is simply a recast of Mira's El Esclavo del demonio,
a celebrated drama which clearly influenced Calderon when com-
posing La Devotion de la cruz ; and there is manifestly a close
relation between Mira's La Rueda de la fortuna on the one hand
and Corneille's Heradius and Calderon's En esta vida todo es verdad
y todo es mentira. A few of Mira de Amescua's plays are reprinted
in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles, vol. xlv.
MIRAGE (a French word, from mirer, to look at, se mirer,
to be reflected), an optical illusion due to variations in the
refractive index of the atmosphere. It embraces the phenomena
of the visionary appearance of lakes in arid deserts, the images
of ships and icebergs, frequently seen as if inverted and suspended
in the atmosphere in the Polar Regions, the Fata Morgana,
and " looming " as witnessed in mists or fogs.
In the article REFRACTION it is shown that a ray of light
traversing a homogeneous medium is deviated from its rectilinear
path when it enters a medium of different refractive index;
it is therefore readily seen that the path of a ray through con-
tinuously varying media is necessarily cifrvilinear, being com-
pounded of an infinite number of infinitesimally small rectilinear
deviations. Our atmosphere is a medium of continuously vary-
ing refractive index. Meteorological optical phenomena, due to
variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere, may be
divided into groups: (i) those due to the permanent or normal
variation experienced as one ascends in the atmosphere, and
(2) those due to sporadic variations occasioned by irregular
heating. The first variation must be taken into account in
correcting geodetic observations of heights and astronomical
observations of the heavenly bodies; it also has a considerable
bearing on the phenomena of the twilight and the afterglow
(see REFRACTION: Astronomical; and TWILIGHT). The second
(or temperature) variation gives rise to phenomena which we
proceed to discuss.
A common type of mirage is the appearance of an isolated
lake frequently seen in hot sandy deserts, as in the Sahara,
Turkestan, &c. The explanation is as follows: The sand,
being abnormally heated by the solar rays, causes the neighbour-
ing air to expand, consequently its density, and therefore its
refractive index, is diminished, and attains a minimum value
in the lowest layers. It increases as we ascend and reaches
a maximum at a certain height, and then decreases according
to the normal variation. Any object viewed across such an
area is seen by two sets of rays: one set passing near the earth
and assuming a curved path convex to the horizon, the second
set more remote from the earth and concave to the horizon.
The object thus appears double, an image being seen mirrored in
the sand. The sky appears as a shining lake; mountains or
palms may be similarly reflected, but it is to be noted that the
images are inverted (see fig.).
Similar atmospheric conditions
sometimes prevail in the air
over large bodies of water on
cold autumn mornings. These
phenomena have been experimentally realized by R. W. Wood
(Phil. Mag., 1899, vol. xlvii.), who viewed objects over a series
of heated slate slabs.
Another type of mirage, frequently observed at sea in the
northern latitudes, is presented in the appearance of ships
and icebergs as if inverted and suspended in the clouds. This
is due to a stratum of hot air at some distance above the sea
level, the rays of light near the horizon being practically hori-
zontal, while those at greater elevations are fairly concave.
It may happen that the change in density is so great that only
the upper rays reach the eye; we are then met with the curious
illusion of seeing inverted ships in the clouds, although nothing
is visible on the ocean.
The Fata Morgana, frequently seen in the Straits of Messina,
consists of an apparent vertical elongation of an object situated
on the opposite shore. The distribution of density is similar to
that attending a desert mirage, but the transition is not so
abrupt. The object is really viewed through a horizontally
573
stratified medium consisting of a central sheet of maximum
refractive index, over- and under-laid by sheets of decreasing
refractive power. The system consequently acts as a continuous
lens, magnifying the object in a vertical direction.
If, in addition to this horizontal stratification, the atmosphere
varies similarly in vertical planes, then the object would be
magnified both horizontally and vertically. These conditions
sometimes prevail in misty or foggy weather, more particularly
at sea, and thus give rise to the phenomena known as " looming."
A famous example is the Brockengespenst or "spectre of the
Brocken." The chromatic halos which frequently encircle
these images are due to diffraction. (See CORONA.)
It is interesting to note that lenses formed on non-homogeneous
material, having the maximum refractive index along the central
axis, have been prepared, and reproduce the effects caused by
abnormal distribution of the density of the atmosphere.
The mathematical investigation of this subject was worked out
by Gaspard Monge. For this aspect and further details, both
descriptive and experimental, see J. Pernter, Meteorologische Optik
(1906); E. Mascart, Traite d'optique (1899-1903); R. W. Wood
Physical Optics (1905) ; R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics.
MIRAJ, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
Bombay, forming part of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Since
1820 it has been subdivided between a senior and a junior branch.
The territory of both is widely scattered among other native
states and British districts. Area of the senior branch, 339
sq. m.; pop. (ipoi), 81,467; revenue 23,000; tribute 800.
Area of the junior branch, 211 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 35,806;
revenue 27,000, tribute 400. The chiefs are Brahmans
of the Patwardhan family. The town of MIRAJ, at which
the chief of the senior branch resides, is situated near the
river Kistna; it is a junction of the Southern Mahratta rail-
way for the branch to Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 18,425. The
chief of the junior branch has his residence at Bhudgaon (pop.
35Qi)-
MIRAMON, MIGUEL (1832-1867), Mexican soldier of French
extraction, was born in the city of Mexico, on the 29th of Septem-
ber 1832, and shot with the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro
on the ipth of June 1867. While still a student he helped to
defend the military academy at Chapultepec against the forces
of the United States; and, entering the army in 1852, he rapidly
came to the front during the civil wars. It was largely due to
Miramon's support of the ecclesiastical party against Alvarez
and Comonfort that Zuloaga was raised to the presidency; and
in 1859 he was called to succeed him in that office. Decisively
beaten by the Liberals in 1860, he spent some time in Europe
advocating foreign intervention in Mexican affairs; and returned
as a partisan of Maximilian. His ability as a soldier was shown
by his double defence of Puebla in 1856.
MIRANDA, FRANCESCO (c. 1754-1816), Spanish-American
soldier and adventurer, was born at Caracas, Venezuela, about
1754. He entered the army, and served with the French in the
American War of Independence. The success of that war
inspired him with a belief that the independence of Spanish
America would increase its prosperity. He began to scheme a
revolution, but was discovered and had only just time to escape
to the United States. Thence he went to England, where he was
introduced to Pitt, but chiefly lived with the leading members
of the opposition Fox, Sheridan and Romilly. Finding no
help, he travelled through Austria and Turkey to Russia, where
he was warmly received, but was dismissed with rich presents,
at the demand of the Spanish ambassador, backed up by France.
The news of the dispute between England and Spain about
Nootka Sound in 1790 recalled him to England, where he saw
a good deal of Pitt, but the peaceful arrangement of the dispute
again destroyed his hopes. In April 1792 he went to Paris,
with introductions to Petion and the leading Girondists, hoping
for aid in South America. France had too much to do to help
others; but Miranda's friends sent him to the front as general
of brigade. He distinguished himself under Dumouriez, was
entrusted in February 1793 with the siege of Maestricht, and
commanded the left wing of the French army at the disastrous
574
MIRANDE MIRKHOND
battle of Neerwinden. Although he had given notice of Dumou-
riez's treachery, he was put on his trial on the i2th of May,
unanimously acquitted, but again imprisoned, and not released
till after the pth Thermidor. He was sentenced to be deported
after the struggle of Vendemiaire, yet he continued in Paris till
the coup d'etat of Fructidor caused him to take refuge in England.
He now found Pitt and Dundas ready to listen, but, as neither
of them would or could give him substantial help, he went to the
United States, where President Adams only gave him fair words.
Addington might have done something for him but for the peace
of Amiens in 1802. Though in no way amnestied, he returned to
Paris, but was expelled by the First Consul, who was eager to
be on good terms with Spain. Disappointed in England and the
United States, he decided to make an attempt at his own expense.
Aided by two American citizens, Colonel W. S. Smith and Mr
S. G. Ogden, he equipped the " Leander," in 1806, and with the
help of the English admiral Sir A. Cochrane made a landing near
Caracas, and proclaimed the Colombian republic. He had some
success, but a false report of peace between France and England
caused the English admiral to withdraw his support. At last,
in 1810, the events in Spain which brought about the Peninsular
War had divided the authorities in Spanish America, some of
whom declared for Joseph Bonaparte, others for Ferdinand VII.,
others for Charles IV., and Miranda again landed, and got a
large party together who declared a republic both in Venezuela
and New Granada or Colombia. But Miranda's desire that all
the South American colonies should form a federal republic
awoke the selfishness of provincial administrations, and the
cause was believed to be hateful to heaven owing to a great
earthquake on the 26th of March 1812. The count of Monte
Verde, the Bourbon governor, had little difficulty in defeating
Miranda, and on the 26th of July the general capitulated on
condition that he should be deported to the United States.
The condition was not observed; Miranda was moved from
dungeon to dungeon, and died on the i4th of July 1816 at Cadiz.
There are allusions to Miranda's early life in nearly all memoirs
of the time, but they are not generally very accurate. For his
trial see Buchez et Roux, Histoire parlementaire, xxvii. 26-70.
For his later life see J. Biggs, History of Miranda's Attempt in South
America (London, 1809) ; and Veggasi, Revolution de la Colombia.
Prof, William S. Robertson has recently devoted considerable
research in the Spanish archives and elsewhere to Miranda, his
monograph on F. de M. and the revolutionizing of Spanish America
being awarded a prize of the American Historical Association in
1908. See also^Marques de Rojas, , El General Miranda (Paris, 1884),
and his Miranda dans la revolution franc.aise (Caracas, 1889); and
R. Becerra, Ensayo historico documentado de la vida de Don
F. de M. (Caracas. 1896).
MIRANDE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Gers, on the left bank of
the Grande Baise, 17 m. S.S.W. of Auch by the Southern railway.
Pop. (1906), 2368. Mirande is laid out on the uniform plan
typical of the bastide. Its church, built at the beginning of the
1 5th century, is chiefly remarkable for its porch which bestrides
the Rue de PEveche and is surmounted by two flying buttresses
supporting a belfry of Flemish appearance. The remains of
ramparts are still to be seen and the principal street is bordered
by ancient arcades. The town has a sub-prefecture and a
tribunal of first instance. The trade is in live-stock and
agricultural products. Tanning and wood-turning are carried on.
Mirande was founded in 1286 by the monks of Berdones and
the seneschal of Toulouse acting on behalf of Philip IV. During
the 1 4th century it was the capital of the counts of Astarac.
MIRANDOLA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
Modena, 195 m. N. by E. of it by rail, 59 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 15,162 The Palazzo del Commune is a 15th-
century edifice of Gothic style. The castle of the Pico family,
who held the town from the i4th century to 1710, when the last
member was deprived of his dominions by Joseph I. of Austria,
is almost entirely destroyed. The height of the fortunes of this
family was from about 1450 to 1550, Giovanni (b. 1463, d. 1494)
being its ablest and most learned member (see Pico). The
cathedral, dating from the end of the i6th century, has been
restored S. Francesco is a fine Gothic church.
MIRANZAI VALLEY, or HANGU, a mountain valley on the
Kohat border of the North- West Frontier Province of 'India.
Miranzai comprises two valleys draining S.W. into the Kunam
and N.E. into the Kohat Toi. It is thus divided into upper and
lower Miranzai, and extends from Thai to Raisan, and from the
Zaimukht and Orakzai hills to those of the Khattaks. Its length
is about 40 m., and its breadth varies from 3 to 7 m. Area,
546 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 43,961. The portion of Miranzai east
of Hangu village consists of numerous small and well-cultivated
valleys, in which orchard trees flourish abundantly. To the
west of Hangu, including the whole of Upper Miranzai, the coun-
try is a broad, open, breezy valley. The plain is bare of trees,
but the hills are generally covered with scrub. The country is
full of ravines towards Thai. The wealth of the inhabitants
consists principally in cattle, goats and sheep; of these the cows
are of a lean and dwarf breed, and give but little milk. Miranzai
forms the meeting place of many different tribes; but its chief
inhabitants are the Bangash and Orakzais. Disturbances have
necessitated British expeditions in 1851, 1855, and twice in 1891.
MIRBEAU, OCTAVE HENRI MARIE (1850- ), French
dramatist and journalist, was born at Trevieres (Calvados) on
the i6th of February 1850. He was educated in a Jesuit school
at Vannes, and studied law in Paris. He began his journalistic
career as dramatic critic of the Bonapartist paper, L'Ordre.
For a short time before 1877 he was sous-prefet and then
prefet of Saint-Girons, but from that time he devoted
himself to literature. He was one of the earliest defenders
of the Impressionist painters. His witty articles in the anti-
republican papers, and his attacks on established reputations,
involved him in more than one duel. He gradually developed
extreme individualist views. In 1890 he began to write for
the Revoke, but his anarchist sympathies were definitely
checked by the murder of President Carnot in 1894. He
was one of the early and consistent defenders of Captain Alfred
Dreyfus. He married in 1887 the actress Alice Regnault. His
first novel, Jean Marcellin (1885), attracted little attention, but
he made his mark as a conteur with a series of tales of the Norman
peasantry, Lettres de ma chaumiere (1886). Le Cahaire (1887),
a chapter of which on the defeat of 1870 aroused much discussion,
was followed by L'Abbe Jules (1888), the story of a mad priest;
by Sebastien Roch (1890), a bitter picture of the Jesuit school
in which his own early years were spent ; Le Jardin des supplices
(1899), a Chinese story; Les Memoir es d'une femme de chambre
(1901); and Les Vingt-et-un jours d'un neurasthenique (1902).
In 1897 his five-act piece, Les Mauvais Bergers, was played at
the Renaissance by Sarah Bernhardt, and he followed this up
with Les Affaires sont les affaires (Theatre Francais, 1903),
which was adapted by Sydney Grundy for Sir H. Beerbohm
Tree in 1905. Some of his short pieces are collected as Farces
et moralites (1904).
MIRFIELD, an urban district in the Morley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. S.W.
of Dewsbury, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London &
North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 11,341. The church
of St Mary was completed in 1874, from designs of Sir Gilbert
Scott. The tower of the ancient church remains. The large
industrial population is employed in woollen, cotton, carpet and
blanket manufactures, and in the numerous collieries in the
vicinity.
MIRKHOND (1433-1498). Mohammed bin Khawandshah
bin Mahmud, commonly called Mlrkhwand or Mirkhawand,
more familiar to Europeans under the name of Mirkhond, was
born in 1433, the son of a very pious and learned man who,
although belonging to an old Bokhara family of Sayyids, or
direct descendants of the Prophet, lived and died in Balkh.
From his early youth he applied himself to historical studies
and literature in general. In Herat, where he spent the greater
part of his life, he gained the favour of that famous patron of
letters, Mir 'Alishir (1440-1501), who served his old schoolfellow,
the reigning sultan Husain (who as the last of the Tlmurides in
Persia ascended the throne of Herat in 1468), first as keeper of
the seal, afterwards as governor of Jurjan. At the request of
MIRROR
Mir 'Allshlr, himself a distinguished statesman and writer,
Mirkhond began about 1474, in the quiet convent of Khilaslyah,
which his patron had founded in Herat as a house of retreat for
literary men of merit, his great work on universal history,
Rauzat-ussafa fi slrat-ulanbia walmuluk walkhulafa or Garden
of Purity on the Biography of Prophets, Kings and Caliphs. He
made no attempt at a critical examination of historical traditions,
and wrote in a flowery and often bombastic style, but in spite
of this drawback, Mirkhond's Rauzat remains one of the most
marvellous achievements in literature. It comprises seven
large volumes and a geographical appendix; but the seventh
volume, the history of the sultan Husain (1438-1505), together
with a short account of some later events down to 1523, cannot
have been written by Mirkhond himself, who died in 1498. He
may have compiled the preface, but the main portion of this
volume is probably the work of his grandson, the historian
Khwandamlr (i47S-iS34), to whom also a part of the appendix
must be ascribed.
For accounts of Mirkhond's life see De Sacy's " Notice sur
Mirkhond " in his Memoires sur diver ses antiquites de la Perse
(Paris, 1793); Jourdain's "Notice de 1'histoire universelle de
Mirkhond " in the Notices et extraits, vol. ix. (Paris, 1812); Elliot,
History of India, iv. 127 seq. ; Morley, Descriptive Catalogue (London,
1854). P- 30 seq- ; Rieu, Cat. of Persian MSS. of the Brit. Mus. (vol. i.
London, 1879), p. 87 seq. Besides the lithographed editions of
the whole work in folio (Bombay, 1853, and Teheran, 1852-
1856) and a Turkish version (Constantinople, 1842), the following
portions of Mirkhond's history have been published by European
Orientalists: Early Kings of Persia, by D. Shea (London, 1832)
(Oriental Translation Fund); L'Histoire de la dynastic des
Sassanides, by S. de Sacy (in the above-mentioned Memoires);
Histoire des Sassanides (texte Persan), by Jaubert (Paris, 1843) ;
Historia priorum regum Persarum, Persian and Latin, by Jemsh
(Vienna, 1782); Mirchpndi historia Taheridarum, Persian and Latin,
by Mitscherlik (Gottingen, 1814, 2nd ed., Berlin, 1819); Historia
Samanidarum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Gottingen, 1808);
Histoire des Samanides, translated by Defremery (Paris, 1845);
Historia Ghaznevidarum, Persian and Latin, by Wilken (Berlin, 1832) ;
Geschichte der Sultane aus dem GescUechte Buieh, Persian and German,
by Wilken (Berlin, 1835); followed by Erdmann's Erlduterung und
Ergdnzung (Kazan, 1836); Historia Seldschuckidarum, ed. Vullers
(Giessen, 1837); and a German trans, by the same; Histoire des
Sultans du Kharezm, in Persian, by Defremery (Paris, 1842) ; History
of the Atabeks of Syria and Persia, in Persian, by W. Morley (London,
1848); Historia Ghuridarum, Persian and Latin, by Mitscherlik
(Frankfort, 1818); Histoire des Sultans Ghurides, trans, into French
by Defremery (Paris, 1844); Vie de Djenghiz-Khan, in Persian, by
Jaubert (Paris, 1841) (see also extracts from the same 5th vol. in
French trans, by Langles in vol. vL of Notices et extraits, Paris,
'799. P- 192 seq.), and by Hammer in Sur les origines russes, St
Petersburg, 1825, p. 52 seq.); " Timur's Expedition against Tulrta-
mish Khan," Persian and French, by Charmoy, in Memoires de
I'acad. imper. de St Petersbourg (1836), pp. 270-321 and 441-471.
(H. E.)
MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-
posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire), an optical
instrument which produces images of objects by reflection. In
its usual forms it is simply a highly polished sheet of metal or of
glass (which may or may not be covered, either behind or before,
with a metallic film); a metallic mirror is usually termed a
speculum. The laws relating to the optical properties of mirrors
are treated in the article REFLECTION OF LIGHT.
Ancient Mirrors. The mirror (KO.TOTTTPOV, eaowTpov,tvoTTTpov,
speculum) of the Etruscans, Greeks and Romans consisted of a
thin disk of metal (usually bronze) slightly convex and polished
on one side, the other being left plain or having a design incised
upon it. A manufactory of mirrors of glass at Sidon is mentioned
by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 66, 193), but they appear to have
been little used (one has been found at San Remo). Glass
mirrors were coated, but with tin; some silver mirrors have also
been found. They are said to have been in use as early as the
time of Pompey, and were common under the empire. Homer
knows nothing of mirrors, but they are frequently mentioned
in the tragedians and onwards. The usual size was that of an
ordinary hand-mirror, but in imperial times some appear to
have been large enough to take in the whole figure (Seneca, Nat.
quaest., i. 17, 8), being either fixed to the wall or working up
and down like a window sash. The first specimen of a Greek
mirror was not discovered till 1867, at Corinth, and the number
575
extant is comparatively small. They are usually provided with
a handle, which sometimes took the form of a statuette (especially
of Aphrodite) supported on a pedestal, or consist of two metallic
circular disks (the " box " mirrors) fitting in to each other, and
sometimes fastened together by a hinge. The upper disk or
cover was ornamented on the outside with a design in low relief;
inside it was polished to reflect the face. The lower disk was
decorated inside with engraved figures. The best specimens of
both kinds of mirrors date from a little before 400 B.C. and last
for some time after that. Of the reliefs, one of the best examples
is " Ganymede carried away by the eagle "; amongst the
incised mirrors may be mentioned one representing Leucas and
Corinthus, inscribed with their names (both the above in
Collignon, L' Archeologie grecque, 1907, figs. 212, 213); the Genius
of the Cock-fights (Revue archeologique, new ser. xvii., 1868,
PI. 13). A bronze mirror-case, found at Corinth, has attached on
the outside a relief representing an Eros with two girls; on the
inside is incised a design of a nymph seated on a bench and play-
ing with Pan at a game resembling the Italian mora (Classical
Review, Feb. 1889, p. 86). On the back of another mirror in the
British Museum (Gazette archeologique, ii. PI. 27) is a figure of
Eros which has been silvered over. With this was found the
bronze case used to contain it, on the back of which is a group
of Aphrodite and Eros in repousse. It was found in Crete; but
most of the Greek mirrors and mirror-cases having designs are
from Corinth.
The principal feature of the Etruscan mirrors, the extant
examples of which far outnumber the Greek, is the design incised
on the back. Belonging chiefly to the 4th and 3rd centuries,
they mostly resemble the Greek disk-mirrors in form, box-mirrors
being rare. As a rule the subjects incised are taken from Greek
mythology and legend (Trojan War, birth of Athena, Aphrodite
and Adonis), the names of the persons represented being
frequently added in Etruscan letters and orthography (Apul =
Apollo, Achle = Achilles, Achmemrum = Agamemnon). Scenes
from daily life, the toilet, the bath, the palaestra, also
occur. In most cases the style of drawing, the types of the
figures, and the manner of composing the groups are true to the
characteristics of Greek art. Some may have been imported
from Greece, but the greater number appears to have been more
or less faithfully imitated from such designs as occurred on the
Greek vases which the Etruscans obtained from Greece. Even
where distinctly Etruscan figures are introduced, such as the
heroes Aelius and Caelius Vibenna on a mirror in the British
Museum, Greek models are followed. Although the work is
frequently rough and careless, certain very fine and beautiful
specimens have been found: the famous Semele-mirror, and the
healing of Telephus, in which Achilles is shown scraping the
healing rust from the lance with a crescent-shaped knife
(Baumeister, Denkmaler, figs. 557, 1774). Roman mirrors are
usually disk-mirrors, the back of the disk, if engraved, being
generally ornamented with decorative patterns, not with any
subject design.
Plain mirrors are found wherever Greek and Roman civiliza-
tion spread, and a specimen found in Cornwall (now in the British
Museum) shows that the Celtic population of England had
adopted the form and substance of the mirror from their con-
querors. This specimen is enriched with a Celtic pattern incised.
The shape of the handle exhibits native originality. Mirrors
were sometimes used in Greece for purposes of divination
(Pausanias vii. 21, 5). The mirror was let down into a well by
means of a string until it grazed the surface of the water with
the rim; after a little while it was pulled up, and when looked
into showed the face of the sick person, alive or dead, on whose
behalf the ceremony had been performed. This took place at
Patrae.
See J. J. de Witte, " Les miroirs chez les anciens," in Extrail des
annales de Vacademie, xxviii. (Antwerp, 1872) ; Mylonas, 'EXXTji-ucA
Karoirrpa (Athens, 1876); M. Collignon, L' Archeologie grecque (new
ed., 1907; Eng. tr. by J. H. Wright, 1886); E. Gerhard, Etruskische
Spiegel (1840-1867), continued by K. Klugmann and G. Korte
(1884-1897); article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891). (J. H. F.)
576
MIRROR
Medieval and Modern Mirrors. Small metallic mirrors with
a highly polished surface were largely used during the middle
ages: pocket mirrors or small hand mirrors carried at the girdle
being indispensable adjuncts to ladies' toilets. The pocket
mirrors consisted of small circular plaques of polished metal,
usually steel or silver, fixed in a shallow circular box covered
with a lid. Mirror-cases were chiefly made of ivory, carved with
relief representations of love or domestic scenes, hunting and
games, and sometimes illustrations of popular poetry or ro-
mance. Gold and silver, enamels, ebony and other costly
materials were likewise used for mirror cases, on which were
lavished the highest decorative efforts of art workmanship and
costly jewelling. The mirrors worn at the girdle had no cover,
but were furnished with a short handle. In 625 Pope Boniface
IV. sent Queen Ethelberga of Northumbria a present of a silver
mirror; and in early Anglo-Saxon times mirrors were well known
in England. It is a remarkable fact that on many of the sculp-
tured stones of Scotland, belonging probably to the 7th, 8th or
9th century, representations of mirrors, mirror-cases and combs
occur.
The method of backing glass with thin sheets of metal for
mirrors was well known in the middle ages, at a time when steel
and silver mirrors were almost exclusively employed. Vincent
of Beauvais, writing about 1 250, says that the mirror of glass and
lead is the best of all, " quia vitrum propter transparentiam
melius recipit radios "; and a verre a mirer is mentioned in the
inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, dating from the isth
century. A gild of glass-mirror makers existed at Nuremberg
in !373i an d small convex mirrors were commonly made in
southern Germany before the beginning of the i6th century;
and these continued to be in demand, under the name of bull's-
eyes (Ochsen-Augen), till comparatively modern times. They
were made by blowing small globes of glass into which while still
hot was passed through the pipe a mixture of tin, antimony and
resin or tar. When the globe was entirely coated with the
metallic compound and cooled it was cut into convex lenses,
which formed small but well-defined images. As early as 1317
a " Magister de Alemania," who knew how to work glass for
mirrors, broke an agreement he had made to instruct three
Venetians, leaving in their hands a large quantity of mixed alum
and soot for which they could find no use. It was, however,
in Venice that the making of glass mirrors on a commercial
scale was first developed; and the republic enjoyed a much-
prized monopoly of the manufacture for about a century and a
half. In 1507 two inhabitants of Murano, representing that
they possessed the secret of making perfect mirrors of glass, a
knowledge hitherto confined to one German glass-house, obtained
an exclusive privilege of manufacturing mirrors for a period of
twenty years. In 1564 the mirror-makers of Venice, who
enjoyed peculiar privileges, formed themselves into a corporation.
The products of the Murano glass-houses quickly supplanted
the mirrors of polished metal, and a large and lucrative trade
in Venetian glass mirrors sprang up. They were made from
blown cylinders of glass, which were slit, flattened on a stone,
carefully polished, the edges frequently bevelled, and the backs
" silvered " by an amalgam. The glass was remarkably pure
and uniform, the " silvering " bright, and the sheets sometimes
of considerable dimensions. In the inventory of his effects,
made on the death of the French minister Colbert, a Venetian
mirror, 46 by 26 in., in a silver frame, is valued at 8016 livres,
while a picture by Raphael is put down at 3000 livres.
The manufacture of glass mirrors, with the aid of Italian
workmen, was practised in England by Sir Robert Mansel early
in the i7th century, and about 1670 the duke of Buckingham
was concerned in glass-works at Lambeth where flint glass was
made for looking-glasses. These old English mirrors, with
bevelled edges in the Venetian fashion, are still well known. The
Venetians guarded with the utmost jealousy the secrets of their
manufactures, and gave exceptional privileges to those engaged
in such industries. By their statutes any glass-maker carrying
his art into a foreign state was ordered to return on the pain of
imprisonment of his nearest relatives, and should he disobey
the command emissaries were delegated to slay him. In face of
such a statute Colbert attempted in 1664 to get Venetian artists
transported to France to develop the two great industries of
mirror-making and point-lace working. The ambassador, the
bishop of Beziers, pointed out that this was to court the risk of
being thrown into the Adriatic, and, further, that Venice was
selling to France mirrors to the value of 100,000 crowns and lace
to three or four times that value. Nevertheless, twenty Venetian
glass-mirror makers were sent to France in 1665, and the manu-
facture was begun in the Faubourg St Antoine, Paris. But
previous to this the art of blowing glass for mirrors had been
practised at Tour-la- Ville, near Cherbourg, by Richard Lucas,
Sieur de Nehou, in 1653; and by the subsequent combination
of skill of both establishments French mirrors soon excelled in
quality those of Venice. The art received a new impulse in
France on the introduction of the making of plate glass in 1691.
The St Gobain Glass Company attribute the discovery to Louis
Lucas of Nehou, and over the door of the chapel of St Gobain
they have placed an inscription in memory of " Louis Lucas qui
inventa en 1691 le methode de couler les glaces et installa la
manufacture en 1695 dans le chateau de Saint Gobain."
Manufacture. The term " silvering," as applied to the formation of
a metallic coating on glass for giving it the properties of a mirror, was
till quite recently a misnomer, seeing that till about 1840 no silver, but
a tin amalgam, was used in the process. Now, however, a. large propor-
tion of mirrors are made by depositing on the glass a coating of pure
silver, and the old amalgamation process is comparatively little used.
The process of amalgamation consists in applying a thin amalgam
of tin and mercury to the surface of glass. A sheet of thin tin-foil,
somewhat larger than the glass to be operated on, is spread out on a
flat table, and after all folds and creases have been completely
removed a small quantity of mercury is rubbed lightly and quickly
over the whole surface, and the scum of dust, impure tin and mercury
is taken off. Mercury is then poured upon the " quickened " foil
until there is a body of it sufficient to float the glass to be silvered
(about J in. deep), and the glass (scrupulously cleaned simultaneously
with the above operations) is slid over the surface of the mercury.
Weights are placed over the surface until the greater part of the
amalgamated mercury is pressed out, and the table is then tilted
so that all superfluous mercury finds its way to the gutter. The glass
is left twenty-four hours under weights; it is then turned over,
silvered side up and removed to a drainer, where it dries and hardens.
This process, when elaborated, yields excellent results, producing a
brilliant silver-white metallic lustre, which is only subject to altera-
tion by exposure to high temperatures or by contact with damp
surfaces; but the mercurial vapours to which the workmen are
exposed give rise to the most distressing and fatal affections.
The " silver on glass " mirror may be regarded as a discovery of
J. von Liebig, who in 1835 observed that by heating aldehyde with
an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate in a glass vessel a brilliant
deposit of metallic silver was formed on the surface of the glass. In
practice the process was introduced about 1840; and it is now carried
on, with several modifications, in two distinct ways, called the hot
and the cold process respectively. In the former method there
is employed a horizontal double-bottomed metallic table, which is
heated with steam to from 35 to 40 C., and the reduction of the
ammoniacal silver solution is effected with tartaric acid.
In silvering by the cold process advantage is taken of the power
of sugar to reduce the silver nitrate. This method has been gener-
ally adopted for the silvering of mirrors for astronomical telescopes.
G. W. Ritchey (" The Modern Reflecting Telescope," Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge, xxxiy. 40) used the process devised by
Brashear in 1884. The glass disk is mounted on a rocking-table,
and most carefully cleaned with nitric acid, potash, and finally with
distilled water. The reducing solution (which improves on keeping)
is made up from 200 parts of water, 20 of loaf sugar, 20 of alcohol and
I of nitric acid (commercial pure). The silver solution is prepared
as follows: 2 parts of silver nitrate are dissolved in 20 parts of
water, and strong ammonia added until the brown solution becomes
clear. A solution of i J parts of potash (pure by alcohol) in 20 of water
is now added, and then ammonia until the solution is again clear. A
solution of J part of silver nitrate in 16 of water is added until the
liquid is straw-coloured; it is then filtered. Quantities of the solu-
tions, such that the sugar equals one half the nitrate, are taken, then
diluted, mixed, and poured on to the plate, which is gently rocked.
The liquid goes muddy-brown, and in 3 to 4 minutes it begins to
clear, a thick deposit being formed in about 5 minutes. The solution
is poured off, and water run on, the streaks of precipitate being
removed by lightly held cotton wool. The washing is repeated, and
then water is allowed to remain on the film for one hour. The water
is then run off, and the plate is washed several times with alcohol,
and then dried by an air fan. The film is now burnished with a
chamois leather pad, and finally with the finest jewellers' rouge,
the silver surface being the reflecting surface of the mirror.
MIRZAPUR MISDEMEANOUR
577
The deposit of silver on glass is not so adherent and unalterable
under the influence of sunfight and sulphurous fumes as the tin-
mercury amalgam, and, moreover, real silvered glass has in many
cases a slightly yellowish tinge. These defects have been overcome
by a process introduced by Lenoir, which consists of brushing over
the silvered surface with a dilute solution of cyanide of mercury,
which, instantaneously forming a kind of amalgam, renders the
deposit at once much whiter and more firmly adherent than before.
To protect the thin metallic film from mechanical injury and the
chemical action of gases and vapours it is coated with shellac or
copal varnish, over which, when dry, are applied two coatings of
red-lead paint or an electrolytically-deposited film of copper. This
precaution only applies when the silver forms the back of the
mirror.
Platinum Mirrors. A cheap process of preparing mirror glass was
to some extent prosecuted in France, whereby a thin but very
adherent deposit of platinum is formed on the glass. A solution of
chloride of platinum with a proportion of litharge and borate of
lead dissolved in essential oil of spike is applied with a brush to well-
cleaned glass, which is then placed on edge in a muffle furnace, and
the platinum is thus burned in, forming an exceedingly thin but
brilliant metallic backing having a somewhat grey lustre. It was
used only for the lids of cheap boxes, toys, ornamental letters, &c.
Magic Mirrors. Hand mirrors of metal are still in common use
in Oriental countries, and in Japan bronze mirrors possess a religious
significance. They have been known and used from the most remote
period, mention of them being found in Chinese literature of the
9th century. The (reputed) first made Japanese mirror, preserved
at Is6, is an object of the highest veneration in Japan, and an ancient
mirror, connected with which is a tradition to the effect that it was
given by the sun-goddess at the foundation of the empire, is a princi-
pal article of the Japanese regalia. The mirrors of Japan in general
consist of thin disks, from 3 to 12 in. in diameter, of speculum
metal with handles, cast in one piece. The polished face of the
mirror is slightly convex in form, so that a reflected image is seen
proportionately reduced in size; the back of the disk is occupied
with ornamentation and inscriptions in bold relief, and its rim is
also raised to the back. Much attention has been attracted to these
mirrors by a singular physical peculiarity which in a few cases they
are found to possess. These are known as magic mirrors from the
fact that when a strong beam of light is reflected from their smooth
and polished surface; and thrown on a white screen, an image of the
raised ornaments and characters on the back of the mirror is formed
with more or less distinctness in the disk of light on the screen.
This peculiarity has at no time been specially observed by the Japan-
ese, but in China it attracted attention as early as the nth century,
and mirrors possessed of this property sell among the Chinese- at
ten or even twenty times the price sought for the ordinary non-
sensitive examples. The true explanation of the magic mirror was
first suggested by the French physicist Charles Cleophas Person in
1847, who observed that the reflecting surface of the mirrors was not
uniformly convex, the portions opposite relief surfaces being plane.
Therefore, as he says, the rays reflected from the convex portion
diverge and give but a feebly illuminated image, while, on the con-
trary, the rays reflected from the plane portions of the mirror
preserve their parallelism, and appear on the screen as an image
by reason of their contrast with the feebler illumination of the rest
of the disk." Such differences of plane in the mirror surface are
accidental, being due to the manner in which it is prepared, a process
explained by W. E. Ayrton and I. Perry (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1878, vol.
xxviii.), by whom ample details of the history, process of manufacture
and composition of Oriental mirrors have been published. A
preliminary operation in polishing the surface consists of scoring the
cast disk in every direction with a sharp tool. The thicker portions
with relief ornament offer more resistance to the pressure of the tool
than the thin flat portions, which tend to yield and form at first a
concave surface, but this by the reaction of its elasticity rises after-
wards and forms a slightly convex surface, while the more rigid
thick portions are comparatively little affected. This irregularity
of surface is inconspicuous in ordinary light, and does not visibly
distort images ; but when the mirror reflects a bright light on a screen
the unequal radiation renders the minute differences of surface
obvious.
MIRZAPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares
division of the United Provinces. The city is on the right bank
of the Ganges; a station on the East Indian railway, about half-
way between Allahabad and Benares, 509 m. N.W. from Calcutta.
Pop. (1901), 79,862. The river front, lined with stone ghats or
flights of stairs, mosques, Hindu temples and dwelling-houses of
the wealthier merchants, is handsome; but the interior of the
town is mainly composed of mud huts. Formerly it was the
emporium 1 of trade between central India and Bengal, which
has now been diverted to the railways. It has European and
native lace factories, and manufactures brass vessels and woollen
carpets. The London Mission manages a high school and an
orphanage. The municipal limits include the town of Bind-
xvm. 19
hachal, an important centre of pilgrimage, with the shrine of
Vindhyeshwari.
The DISTRICT OF MIRZAPUR extends into the Sone valley.
Area, 5238 sq. m. It is crossed from east to west by the
Vindhya and Kaimur ranges. A central jungly plateau connects
these and separates the valley of the Ganges from that of the
Sone. The part north of the Vindhyas is highly cultivated and
thickly peopled, but the rest of the district consists largely of
ravines and forests with a sparse population. The population
in 1901 was 1,082,430, showing a decrease of 6-8% in the decade.
The district comprises a large part of the hereditary domains of
the raja of Benares, which are revenue-free. It is traversed,
near the Ganges, by the main line of the East Indian railway.
The Great Southern road used to start from the city.
MISCARRIAGE, in its widest sense a going astray, a failure.
In law, the word is used in several phrases; thus, a miscarriage
of justice is a failure of the law to attain its ends. In the Statute
of Frauds (29 Car. II., c. 3) in the expression " debt, default or
miscarriage of another," the word has sometimes been inter-
preted as equivalent in meaning to default, but it is more usually
considered to mean a species of wrongful act for the consequence
of which the law makes a party civilly responsible. The term is
also used (see ABORTION) for the premature expulsion of the
contents of the womb before the period of gestation is complete.
MISCEGENATION (from Lat. miscere, to mix, and genus, race),
a mixture or blending of two races, particularly of a white with
a black or negro race.
MISCELLANY, a term applied to a single book containing arti-
cles, treatises or other writings dealing with a variety of different
subjects. It is a common title in the literature of the i7th and
i8th centuries. The word is an adaptation of Lat. miscellanea
(from miscellaneus, mixed, miscere, to mix), used in this sense by
Tertullian, Miscellanea Ptolemaei (Tert. adv. Val. 12); the ordi-
nary use of the word in Latin was for a dish of broken meats,
applied by Juvenal (xi. 20) to the coarse food of gladiators.
The Lat. miscellaneus has affected the form of a word which is now
usually spelled " maslin," applied to a mixture of various kinds of
grain, especially rye and wheat. This, however, is really from the
O. Fr. mesteillon; Late Lat. mistilio, formed from mistus, past
participle of miscere, to mix, mingle.
MISCHIEF, a term meaning originally calamity, trouble;
now used particularly of annoying injuries or damage done in
play or through petty spite. The word is derived through
O. Fr. meschef, mod. michef, from meschever, to do wrong, mes-,
amiss, and chever, bring to a head (chef, Lat. caput).
MISDEMEANOUR (from O. Fr. mes- and demener, to conduct
oneself ill), the generic term used in English law to include all
those offences against the criminal law which are not by common
law or statute made treason or felony. In Russell on Crimes it is
denned as a crime for which the law has not provided a particular
name (6th ed., i. 193). The term misprision, at one time
applied to the more heinous offences of this class, is now almost
obsolete. The term misdemeanour includes not only all indict-
able offences below the degree of felony, some of them grave
crimes, such as sedition, riot and perjury, but also the petty
misdemeanours, which may be dealt with summarily by justices
of the peace, and the most trifling breaches of local by-laws.
As a matter of legal history, many misdemeanours now repre-
sent what were originally described as trespasses against the
peace, a phrase which is equivalent to a " tort " or delict, accom-
panied by circumstances calling for prosecution in the interest
of the Crown and the public as well as for civil proceedings by
the injured parties. Such acts as riot, public nuisance, sedition
and the different forms of libel naturally came to be regarded
as wrongs against the king's peace. Many of the early statutes
anent justices are particularly concerned with the punishment
of rioters; and some offences now treated as misdemeanours
belonged to the spiritual and not to the temporal courts, e.g.
perjury.
While it is true that almost all crimes which in the middle ages
were considered heinous fall into the categories of treason or
felony, many statutory misdemeanours differ so little, if at all,
578
MISE MISHAWAKA
from felony in character or in the mode of punishment that, in
the absence of a code, no logical line of division can now be drawn,
inasmuch as few felonies are now capital and none involve the
forfeitures of land or goods, which at one time afforded an
appreciable distinction between the two categories of crime.
The result is that it is impossible to distinguish without enumera-
ting the specific crimes falling under each head.
Among the chief misdemeanours are: (i) Assault on the
sovereign; (2) unlawful assembly; (3) riot and sedition; (4) for-
cible entries; (s) perjury, which until 1563 was mainly, if not
solely, cognizable by the spiritual courts; (6) blasphemy; (7) ex-
tortion; (8) bribery; (9) obtaining property by false pretences
(which is nearly cognate to the felony of larceny); (10) assault;
(n) public nuisance; (12) libel; (13) conspiracy to defraud, &c.;
(14) attempts to commit other crimes.
Numerous acts or omissions are punishable as " misdemean-
ours by interpretation." In other words, disobedience to the
command or prohibition of a statute as to a matter of public
concern is indictable as a misdemeanour, even if the statute does
not so describe it, unless the terms of the statute indicate that
some other remedy alone is to be pursued. For some misde-
meanours penal servitude may be imposed by statute. But as
a rule the appropriate punishment is by fine or imprisonment
without hard labour or both, at the discretion of the court unless
limited by a particular statute. The offender may also be put
under recognizance to keep the peace and be of good behaviour.
Theoretically, whipping may be imposed; but this is not now
done except under specific statutory authority: and the like
authority is necessary to authorize the addition of hard labour to
a sentence of imprisonment.
At the present time the practical difference in English law
between misdemeanour and felony lies in matters of procedure,
in which a trial for misdemeanour closely resembles an ordinary
civil trial.
1. An arrest for misdemeanour may not be made without judicial
authority except under specific statutory authority.
2. A person charged with misdemeanour is entitled to bail (see
ARREST), i.e. to release on the obtaining of sureties, or even on his
own recognizance without sureties to appear and take his trial.
Bail is obligatory in all misdemeanours, with the exception of mis-
demeanours where the costs of the prosecution are payable out of the
county or borough rate or fund.
3. A misdemeanour may be tried on an information filed by the
attorney-general or by leave of the high court without the indictment
essential in cases of treason and felony.
4. The same indictment or information may include a number of
charges of misdemeanour committed at different times and even
against different persons. See INDICTMENT.
5. A trial for misdemeanour may proceed in the absence of the
defendant, who is not " given in charge " to the jury, as in the case of
felony.
6. On a charge of misdemeanour a trial by special jury may be
ordered.
7. There is no right to challenge peremptorily any of the jurors
summoned to try the case; any challenge made must be for cause.
The jury is sworn collectively (four men to a book), and not poll by
poll as in felony, and their oath is to try the issues joined between the
king and the defendant. They may separate during adjournments
of the trial, like a jury in a civil case.
8. The costs of prosecuting certain misdemeanours are recoverable
out of public funds under specific statutory provisions; but in very
few cases can the court make the misdemeanant himself pay them.
9. There are no accessories after the fact to misdemeanour. (See
ACCESSORY.)
Under French law and systems based thereon or having a
common origin a distinction is drawn between crime (verbrechen) ,
delit (vergeheri) and contravention. The English term misde-
meanour roughly corresponds to the two classes of delit and
contravention but includes some offences which would be quali-
fied as " crime." In the criminal code of Queensland the term
" misdemeanour " is retained, while that of " felony " is abol-
ished; and offences are classified as crimes, misdemeanours and
simple offences, the two former punishable on indictment, the
latter on summary conviction only; the more serious offences
described in English law as misdemeanours are in that code
described as crimes (e.g. perjury). In the United States the
English common law as to misdemeanour is generally followed,
but in New York and other states a statutory distinction has
been made between misdemeanour and felony by defining the
latter as a crime punishable by death or by imprisonment in a
state prison. (W. F. C.)
MISE, an Anglo-French term (from Fr. mettre, to place) signi-
fying a settlement of accounts, disputes, &c., by agreement or
arbitration. As an English legal term it was applied to the issue
in a writ of right; and in history to the payment, in return for
certain privileges, made by the county palatine of Chester to
each new earl, and by the Welsh to each new lord of the Marches,
or to a prince or king on his entry into the country. In its
more general sense of agreement the term is familiar in English
history in the " Mise of Amiens," in January, and that of Lewes,
in May of 1 264, made between Henry III. and the barons.
MISENUM, an ancient harbour town of Campania, Italy,
about 3 m. S. of Baiae (<?..) at the western extremity of the
Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli). Until the end of the Republic it was
dependent on Cumae, and was a favourite villa resort. Agrippa
made the fine natural harbour into the main naval station of the
Mediterranean fleet, and founded a colony there probably in
31 B.C. The emperor Tiberius died in his villa here. Its
importance lasted until the decline of the fleet in the 4th
century A.D. It was at first an independent episcopal see:
Gregory the Great united it with that of Cumae. In 890 it
was destroyed by the Saracens. The name was derived from
one of the companions of Ulysses, or from Aeneas' trumpeter,
an account of whose burial is given in Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 232.
The harbour consisted of the outer basin, or Porto di Miseno,
protected by moles, of which remains still exist, and the present
Mare Morto, separated from it by a comparatively modern
embankment. The town lay on the south side of the outer
harbour, near the village of Miseno, where remains of a theatre
and baths and the inscriptions relating to the town have been
found. Remains of villas can also be traced, and to the largest
of these, which occupied the summit of the promontory, and
belonged first to Marius, then to Lucullus, and then to the
imperial house, probably belongs the subterranean Grotta
Dragonara. Roads ran north to Baiae and north-west past the
modern Torre Gaveta to Cumae: along the line of both are
numerous columbaria.
See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 190 sqq. (T. As.)
MISER, a term originally meaning (as in Latin) miserable
or wretched, but now used for an avaricious person who
hoards up money and who spends the smallest possible sum
on necessities.
MISERERE (the imperative of Lat. misereri, to have mercy or
pity), the name of one of the penitential psalms (/.), from its
opening words, Miserere mei, Deus. The word is frequently
used in English as equivalent to "Misericord" (Lat. misericordia,
pity, compassion) for various forms in which the rules of a
monastic order or general discipline of the clergy might be
relaxed; thus it is applied to a special chamber in a monastery
for those members who were allowed special food, drink, &c.,
and to a small bracket on the under side of the seat in a sta
of a church made to turn up and afford support to a person
in a position between sitting and standing. " Misericord ;
and " miserere " are also used of a small dagger, the " dagge
of mercy," capable of passing between the joints of armour,
with which the coup de gr&ce might be given to a wounded
man.
MISHAWAKA, a city of St Joseph county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the St Joseph river of Michigan, about 80 m. E. by S. of
Chicago. Pop. (1900), 5560 (821 foreign-born); (1910) n,8i
It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Lake Shore & Michig
Southern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It ha
an extensive trade in grain and other agricultural products
Two miles up the river is the Hen Island dam, which, with the
Mishawaka hydraulic dam nearer the city, is the source of much
of the power used by the city's manufactories. St Joseph Irot
Works was laid out on the south side of the river, in 1833, and in
1835 was organized as a village and two additions were platted.
In 1836 Indiana City was laid out on the north side of the river;
MISHMI MISPRISION
579
and in 1839 St Joseph Iron Works, with its two additions, and
Indiana City were incorporated as one town named Mishawaka
the name of an Indian village formerly occupying a part
of the present site. Mishawaka was chartered as a city in
1899-
MISHMI, a hill-tribe on the frontier of Eastern Bengal and
Assam. The Mishmis occupy the hills from the Dihong to the
Brahmakund, in the north-eastern corner of the Brahmaputra
valley. In 1854 M. Krick and M. Bourry, two French mission-
aries, were murdered in the Mishmr country, but their death was
avenged by a small expedition which took the murderer prisoner.
In 1899 another British expedition was sent against the Mishmis,
owing to the murder of some British subjects.
MISIONES, a territory of northern Argentina, bounded N. by
Paraguay and Brazil, E. and S. by Brazil and W. by Paraguay
and the Argentine province of Corrientes. Its boundary lines
are formed by the upper Parana and Iguassu rivers on the N.,
the San Antonio and Pequiry-guassu streams on the E. and the
Uruguay River on the S. Area, 11,282 sq. m.; pop. (1904, esti-
mate), 38,755, chiefly Indians, and mestizos. The territory is a
region of roughly-broken surfaces, divided longitudinally by
low mountains, called the Sierra Iman and Sierra Grande de
Misiones, which form the water-parting for many small streams
flowing northward to the Parana and southward to the Uruguay.
The greater part of the country is covered with forest and tropical
jungle. The cHmate is sub-tropical, the temperature ranging
from 40 to 95 F. The soil is described as highly fertile, but
its products are chiefly confined to yerba mate or Paraguay tea
(Ilex paraguayensis) , tobacco and oranges and other Iruits.
Communication with the capital is maintained by two lines of
steamboats running to Corrientes and Buenos Aires, but a rail-
way across Paraguay from Asuncion is planned to Encarnaci6n,
opposite Posadas. Some of the Jesuit missions of the i7th and
i8th centuries were established in this territory, and are to-day
represented by the lifeless villages of Candelaria, Santa Ana, San
Ignacio and Corpus along the Parana River, and Apostoles,
Concepci6n, and San Javier along the Uruguay. Posadas
(estimated pop. in 1905, 8000), the capital, on the Parana,
officially dates from 1865. It was also a Jesuit settlement
called Itapua, though the large mission of that name was on
the Paraguayan side of the river. It is at the extreme west of
the territory, and is the terminal port for the steamers from
Corrientes.
MISKOLCZ, capital of the county of Borsod, Hungary, 113 m.
N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 40,833. It is situated
in a valley watered by the Szinva in the east of the Biikk moun-
tains, and opens towards the south to the plain of the Saj6, an
affluent of the Hernad. Miskolcz is a thriving town, and among
its buildings are a Roman Catholic church of the i3th century in
Late Gothic style, a Minorite convent, and Greek Catholic,
Lutheran and Calvinist churches. It manufactures snuff, por-
celain, boots and shoes, and prepared leather, and has both steam
and water mills. It trades in grain, flour, wine, fruit, cattle,
hides, honey, wax and agricultural products, while four well-
attended fairs are held annually. About 5 m. west of the town
in the Szinva valley is Diosgyor (pop. 11,520), which possesses
important iron-works, and the ruined castle of Diosgyor, for-
merly a shooting residence of the kings of Hungary. About 4 m.
to the south-west of Miskolcz are the baths of Tapolcza, contain-
ing warm springs. To the south-west of the town lies Onod
(pop. 2087), to the south of which, on the banks of the Saj6, is
the heath of Mohi or Muhi, famous as the scene of the great
defeat of the Hungarians by the Mongols in 1241. About
85,000 Hungarians fell, and the whole country was devastated
for the next two years by the Mongolian hordes. During the
i6th and I7th centuries Miskolcz suffered much from the
Ottomans, and from the troops of George Rakoczy and Emeric
Tokolyi. In 1781, 1843 and 1847 it was devastated by fire, and
on the 3oth of August 1878,4 great portion of the town was
ruined by a terrific storm.
MISPICKEL, a mineral consisting of iron sulpharsenide,
FeAsS; it contains 40% of arsenic, and is of importance as an
ore of this element. It is known also as arsenopyrite or arsenical
pyrites (Ger. Arsenikkies) : mispickel is an old name of German
origin, and in the form Mistpuckel was
used by G. Agricola in 1546. The
crystals are orthorhombic, with angles
similar to those of marcasite; they are
often prismatic in habit, and the prism
M is usually terminated by the deeply
striated faces of an obtuse dome r.
Twinning is not uncommon, the twin-
planes M (no) and g (101) being the same as in marcasite.
The colour of the mineral is silver-white or steel-grey, with a
metallic lustre, but it is often tarnished yellow; the streak is
greyish-black. The hardness is si-6, and the specific gravity
5-9-6-2.
Mispickel occurs in metalliferous veins with ores of tin,
copper, silver, &c. It is occasionally found as embedded crys-
tals, for example, in serpentine at Reichenstein, Silesia. In
Cornwall and Devon it is associated with cassiterite hi the tin-
lodes, but is also found in the copper-lodes: well crystallized
specimens have been obtained from the neighbourhood of Tavis-
tock, Redruth and St Agnes. Mispickel is the principal source
of arsenious oxide or the " white arsenic " of commerce (see
ARSENIC) . The chief supplies are from Cornwall and Devon, and
Freiberg in Saxony, and from Canada and the United States.
Danaite is a cobaltiferous variety of mispickel, containing
up to 9% of cobalt replacing iron; it was first noticed by J. F.
Dana in 1824 at Franconia in New Hampshire. This variety
forms a passage to the species glaucodote, (Co,Fe)AsS, which is
found as well-developed orthorhombic crystals hi copper ore at
Hakansboda in Ramberg parish, Vestmanland, Sweden. Other
species belonging to this isomorphous group of orthorhombic
minerals are marcasite (FeS 2 ), lollingite (FeAsz), safflorite (CoAsj)
and rammelsbergite (NLAsz). (L. J. S.)
MISPRISION (from O. Fr. mesprendre, mod. meprendre, to
misunderstand), a term hi English law, almost obsolete, used to
describe certain kinds of offence. Writers on criminal law
usually divide misprision into two kinds (a) negative, (6) positive.
(a) Negative misprision is the concealment of treason or
felony. By the common law of England it was the duty of
every liege subject to inform the king's justices and other
officers of the law of all treasons and felonies of which the in-
formant had knowledge, and to bring the offender to justice by
arrest (see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 8). The duty fell and still falls
primarily on the grand jurors of each county borough or fran-
chise, and is performed by indictment or presentment, but it
also falls in theory on all other inhabitants (see Pollock and
Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, ii. 505). Failure by the latter to dis-
charge this public duty constitutes what is known as misprision
of treason or felony (see 3 Co. Inst., 139).
Misprision of Treason, in the words of Blackstone, " consists in
the bare knowledge and concealment of treason, without any degree
of assent thereto, for any assent makes the party a principal traitor."
According to Bracton, de Corond, seq. 118, failure to reveal the trea-
son of another was in itself high treason, but statutes of 155 I-I 55 2
and 1554-1555 made concealment of treason misprision only. Most
of the statutes regulating procedure on trials for treason also apply
to misprisian of treason. The punishment is loss of the profit of the
lands of the offender during life, forfeiture of all his goods and
imprisonment for life. These punishments are not affected by the
Forfeiture Act 1870.
Misprision of Felony is the concealment of a felony committed
by another person, but without such previous concert with, or subse-
quent assistance of the offender, as would make the concealer an
accessory before or after the fact. The offence is a misdemeanour
punishable on indictment by fine and imprisonment.
(6) Positive misprision is the doing of something which ought
not to be done; or the commission of a serious offence falling
short of treason or felony, in other words of a misdemeanour of a
public character (e.g. maladministration of high officials, con-
tempt of the sovereign or magistrates, &c.). To endeavour to
dissuade a witness from giving evidence, to disclose an examina-
tion before the privy council, or to advise a prisoner to stand
mute, used to be described as misprisions (Hawk. P. C. bk. I. c. 20) .
5 8
MISRULE MISSAL
The old writers say that a misprision is contained in every
felony and that the Crown may elect to prosecute for the
misprision instead of the felony. This proposition merely
affirms the right of the Crown to choose a more merciful remedy
in certain cases, and has no present value in the law. Positive
misprisions are now only of antiquarian interest, being treated as
misdemeanours.
In the United States, misprision of treason is denned to be
the crime committed by a person owing allegiance to the United
States, and having knowledge of the commission of any crime
against them, who conceals and does not, as soon as may be,
disclose and make known the same to the president or to some
judge of the United States, or to the governor, or to some judge
or justice of a particular state. The punishment is imprisonment
for not more than seven years and a fine of not more than one
thousand dollars.
MISRULE, LORD OF, in medieval times the master of the
Christmas revels. Probably J. G. Frazer (Golden Bough III.)
is right in suggesting that the lord or abbot of misrule is the
successor of the king of the ancient Roman Saturnalia, who
personated Saturn and suffered martyrdom at the end of the
revels. Compare, too, the burlesque figure at the carnival, which
is finally destroyed. Stow (Survey) writes: " In the feast of
Christmas there was in the King's House, wheresoever he lodged,
a Lord of Misrule or Master of merry disports, and the Eke had
ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship,
were he spiritual or temporal." The mayor and sheriffs of London
also had Lords of Misrule. These mock-monarchs began their
reign on Allhallows Eve, and misruled till Candlemas. In Scot-
land they were known as "Abbots of Unreason," and in 1555 a
special act suppressing them was passed. In Tudor times their
reign was marked by much display and expense. In Henry
VIII. 's reign an order for a fool's coat is signed by six of the
Privy Council. By an Act of Common Council (1555) the city
expenses of the Lords of Misrule were severely curtailed.
Machyn speaks of a Lord of Misrule who in 1561 rode through
London followed by a hundred gentlemen on horseback hung
with gold chains (see also REVELS, MASTER OF).
MISSAL, the book containing the liturgy, or office of the mass
(missa), of the Roman Catholic Church. This name (e.g.
Missale gothicum, francorum, gallicanum vetus) began to
supersede the older word Sacramentary (sacramentarium, liber
sacramentorum) from about the middle of the 8th century. 1
At that period the book so designated contained merely the fixed
canon of the mass or consecration prayer (actionem, precem
canonicam, canonem actionis), and the variable collects, secretae
or orationes super oblata, prefaces, and post-communions for
each fast, vigil, festival or feria of the ecclesiastical year; for a
due celebration of the Eucharist they required accordingly to
be supplemented by other books, such as the Antiphonarium,
afterwards called the Graduate, containing the proper antiphons
(introits), responsories (graduals), tracts, sequences, offertories,
communions and other portions of the communion service
designed to be sung by the schola or choir, and the Lectionarium
(or epistolarium and evangelistarium) with the proper lessons. 2
1 It first occurs in Ecgbert of York's De remediis peccatorum,
where it refers to the sacramentary of Gregory the Great.
2 One of the most celebrated of early missals is the Stowe missal
of the 6th century in the British Museum. It contains the litany
of the saints, the gloria with the collects, the part of the Epistle to
the Corinthians relating to the Eucharist, the credo and the conse-
cratio and memento corresponding exactly to the Roman canon.
After the daily mass follow the missa apostolorum, missa sanctorum,
missa pro poenitentibus vivis and the missa pro mortuis. To the 7th
century belong the Missale francorum and the Missale gothicum,
originally in the abbey of Fleury. In the 8th century we find in
Ecgbert of York's De remediis peccatorum, i., that those who devote
their lives to sacred orders are supposed to furnish themselves with
a psalter, lectionary, antiphonary, missal, baptismal office and mar-
tyrology. The adoption of the Roman liturgy by Charlemagne
explains the great quantity of missals within this period; e.g. the
missal of Worms in the library of the Arsenal at Paris. From the
loth century we have the missal of St Vougay, although badly
mutilated, and several others. From the I2th century missals
became common, and more so with the invention of printing.
Afterwards missals contained more or less fully the antiphons
and lessons as well as the prayers proper to the various days,
and these were called missalia plenaria. All modern missals
are of this last description. The Missale romanum ex decrelo
ss. concUii tridentini restitutum, now in almost exclusive use
throughout the Latin obedience, owes its present form to the
council of Trent, which undertook the preparation of a correct
and uniform liturgy, and entrusted the work to a committee of
its members. This committee had not completed its labours
when the council rose, but the pope was instructed to receive
its report when ready and to act upon it. The " reformed
missal " was promulgated by Pius V. on the i4th of July 1570,
and its universal use enjoined, the only exceptions being churches
having local liturgies which had been in unbroken use for at
least two centuries. 3 It has subsequently undergone slight
revisions under Clement VIII. (1604), Urban VIII. (1634) and
Leo XIII. (1884), and various new masses, both obligatory and
permissive, universal and local, have been added. Although
the Roman is very much larger than any other liturgy, the
communion office is not in itself inordinately long. The greater
part of it is contained in the " ordinary " and " canon " of the
mass, usually placed about the middle of the missal, and occupies,
though in large type, only a few pages. The work owes its bulk
and complexity to two circumstances. On the one hand, in the
celebration of the sacrifice of the mass practically nothing is
left to the discretion of the officiating priest; everything what
he is to say, the tone and gestures with which he is to say it,
the cut and colour of the robe he is to wear is carefully pre-
scribed in the rubrics. 4 On the other hand, the Roman, like all
the Western liturgies, is distinguished from those of the Eastern
Church by its flexibility. A distinctive character has been given
to the office for each ecclesiastical season, for each fast or festival
of the year, almost for each day of the week; and provision has
also been made of a suitable communion service for many of the
special occasions both of public and of private life.
The different parts of the Roman communion office are not all
of the same antiquity. Its essential features are most easily
caught, and best understoodj by reference to the earliest Sacra-
menlaries (particularly the Gregorian, which was avowedly
the basis of the labours of the Tridentine committee), to the
Gregorian Antiphonary, and to the oldest redaction of the Ordo
romanus. 6 The account of the mass (qualiter Missa Romana
celebratur) as given by the sacramentarium gregorianum is to
the effect that there is in the first place " the Introit according
to the time, whether for a festival or for a common day; there-
after Kyrie eleison. (In addition to this Gloria in excelsis Deo
is said if a bishop be [the celebrant], though only on Sundays
and festivals; but a priest is by no means to say it, except only
at Eastertide. When there is a litany (quando letania agitur)
neither Gloria in excelsis nor Alleluia is sung.) Afterwards the
Oratio is said, whereupon follows the Apostolus, also the Gradual
and Alleluia. Afterwards the Gospel is read. Then comes the
Offertorium,* and the Oratio super oblata is said." Then follow
the Sursum corda, the Preface, Canon, Lord's Prayer and
" embolism "(eju/SoXiffjta or insertion, Libera nos, Domine), given
at full length precisely as they still occur in the Roman missal.
3 The English missal consequently continued to be used by English
Roman Catholics until towards the end of the I7th century, when it
was superseded by the Roman through Jesuit influence. The
Galilean liturgy held its ground until much more recently, but has
succumbed under the Ultramontanism of the bishops.
4 In all the older liturgies the comparative absence of rubrics is
conspicuous and sometimes perplexing. It is very noticeable in the
Roman Sacramentaries, but the want is to some extent supplied by
the very detailed directions for a high pontifical mass in the various
texts of the Ordo Romanus mentioned below. That there was no
absolutely fixed set of rubrics in use in France during theiSth century
is shown by the fact that each priest was required to write out an
account of his own practice (" libellum ordinis ") and present it for
approbation to the bishop in Lent (see Baluze, Cap. Reg. Franc, i.
824, quoted in Smith's Diet, of Chr^Antiq. ii. 1521).
6 For the genealogical relationffps of the Roman with other
liturgies, see LITURGY. For the doctrines involved in the " sacrifice
of the mass," see EUCHARIST.
* Some editions do not mention the Offertory here.
MISSAL
581
In every liturgy of all the five groups a passage similar to this
occurs, beginning with Sursum corda, followed by a Preface and
the recitation of the Sanctus or Angelic Hymn. The " canon "
or consecration prayer, which in all of them comes immediately
after, invariably contains our Lord's words of institution, and
(except in the Nestorian liturgy) concludes with the Lord's
Prayer and " embolism." But there are certain differences of
arrangement, by which the groups of liturgies can be classified.
Thus it is distinctive of the liturgy of Jerusalem that the " great
intercession " for the quick and the dead follows the words of
institution and an Epiklesis (siri/cXTjcrts TOV irvevfiaros aylov) or
petition for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the gifts; in
the Alexandrian the " great intercession " has its place in the
Preface; in the East Syrian it comes between the words of
restitution and the Epiklesis; in the Ephesine it comes before
the Preface; while in the Roman it is divided into two, the
commemoration of the living being before, and that of the
dead after, the words of institution. Other distinctive
features of the Roman liturgy are (i) the position of the
" Pax " after the consecration, and not as in all the other
liturgies at a very early stage of the service, before the
Preface even; and (2) the absence of the Epiklesis common to
all the others. 1 The words of its " canonical prayer " are of
unknown antiquity; they are found in the extant manuscripts
of the Sacramentarium gelasianum, and were already old and of
forgotten authorship in the time of Gregory the Great, who, in
a letter to John, bishop of Syracuse (Registr. Epist. vii. 64),
speaks of it as " the prayer composed by a ' scholastic ' '
(precem quam scholasticus composuerat). The same letter is
interesting as containing Gregory's defence, on the ground of
ancient use, of certain parts of the Roman ritual to which the
bishop of Syracuse had taken exception as merely borrowed from
Constantinople. Thus we learn that, while at Constantinople
the Kyrie eleison was said by all simultaneously, it was the
Roman custom for the clergy to repeat the words first and for
the people to respond, Chrisle eleison being also repeated an
equal number of times. Again, the Lord's Prayer was said
immediately after the consecration ajoud by all the people
among the Greeks, but at Rome by the priest alone.
The meagre liturgical details furnished by the Sacramentarium
gregorianum are supplemented by the texts of the Ordo romanus,
the first of which dates from about the year 730. The ritual
they enjoin is that for a pontifical high mass in Rome itself; but
the differences to be observed by a priest " quando in statione
facit missas " are comparatively slight. Subjoined is a precis of
Ordo Romanus I.
It is first of all explained that Rome has seven ecclesiastical
regions, each with its proper deacons, subdeacons and acolytes.
Each region has its own day of the week for high ecclesiastical
functions, which are celebrated by each in rotation. [This accounts
for the Static ad S. Mariam Majorem, ad S. Crucem in Jerusalem, ad
S. Petrum, &c., prefixed to most of the masses in the Gregorian
Sacramentary, and still retained in the " Proprium de Tempore " of
the Roman missal.] The regulations for the assembling and
marshalling of the procession by which the pontiff is met and then
escorted to the appointed station are minutely given, as well as for
the adjustment of his vestments " ut bene sedeant," when the
sacristy has been reached. He does not leave the sacristy until
the Introit has been begun by the choir in the church. Before the
Gloria he takes his stand at the altar, and after the Kyrie Eleison
has been sung (the number of times is left to his discretion) he
begins the Gloria in excelsis, which is taken up by the choir. During
the singing he faces eastward; at its close he turns round for a
moment to say " Pax vobis," and forthwith proceeds to the Gratia?
This finished, all seat themselves in order while the subdeacon
ascends the ambo and reads [the epistle]. After he has done, the
cantor with his book (cantatorio) ascends and gives out the response
(Responsum) with the Alleluia and Tractus in addition if the season
calls for either. The deacon then silently kisses the feet of the
pontiff and receives his blessing in the words " Dpminus sit in corde
tuo et in labiis tuis." Preceded by acolytes with lighted candles
and subdeacons burning incense, he ascends the ambo, where he
reads the Gospel. At the close, with the words " Pax tibi and
1 This was one of the points discussed at the council of Florence,
and Cardinal Bessarion for a time succeeded in persuading the Greeks
to give up the Epiklesis.
1 Quam collectam dicunt, Ord. Rom. II.
" Dominus vobiscum," the pontiff, 3 after another Oratio, descends
to the " senatorium " accompanied by certain of the inferior clergy,
and receives in order the oblations of the rulers (oblationes princi-
pum), the archdeacon who follows taking their " amulas " of wine
and pouring them into a larger vessel ; similar offerings are received
from the other ranks and classes present, including the women.
This concluded, the pontiff and archdeacon wash their hands, the
offerings being meanwhile arranged by the subdeacons on the altar,
and water, supplied by the leader of the choir (archiparaphonista),
being mingled with the wine. During this ceremony the .schola
have been engaged in singing the Offertorium; when all is ready
the pontiff signs to them to stop, and enters upon the Preface, the
subdeacons giving the responses. At the Angelic Hymn (Sanctus) all
kneel and continue kneeling, except the pontiff, who rises alone and
begins the Canon. At the words " per quern haec omnia " the
archdeacon lifts the cup with the oblates, and at " Pax Domini sit
semper vobiscum " he gives the peace to the clergy in their order,
and to the laity. The pontiff then breaks off a particle from the
consecrated bread and lays it upon the altar; the rest he places on
the paten held by the deacon. It is then distributed while Agnus
Dei is sung. The pontiff in communicating puts the particle into
the cup, saying, " Fiat cpmmixtio et consecratio corporis et sanguinis
Domini nostri Jesu Christi accipientibus nobis in vitam aeternam."
Those present communicate in their order under this species also.
As the pontiff descends into the senatorium to give the communion,
the schola begins the communion Antiphon, and continues singing
the Psalm until, all the people having communicated, they receive
the sign to begin the Gloria, after which, the verse having been again
repeated, they stop. The celebrant, then, facing eastward, offers
the Oratio ad complendum, which being finished the archdeacon says
to the people, " Ite, missa est," they responding with " Deo gratias."
To complete our idea of the Roman communion office as it was
prior to the end of the 8th century we must now turn to the
Gregorian Antiphonarius sive gradualis liber ordinatus per
circulum anni, which as its name implies contains those variable
portions of the mass which were intended to be sung by the
schola or choir. It gives for each day for which a proper mass is
provided: (i) the Antiphona (Antiphona ad Introitum) and
Psalmus; (2) the Responsorium and Versus, with its Alleluia
and Versus; (3) the Offertorium and Versus; (4) the Communio
and Psalmus. Some explanation of each of these terms is
necessary, (i) The word Antiphon (ivT'KJxavov, O.Eng. Antefn,
Eng. Anthem) in its ecclesiastical use has reference to the very
ancient practice of relieving the voices of the singers by dividing
the work between alternate choirs. In one of its most usual
meanings it has the special signification of a sentence (usually
scriptural) constantly sung by one choir between the verses of
a psalm or hymn sung by another. According to the Roman
liturgiologists it was Pope Celestine who enjoined that the
Psalms of David should be sung (in rotation, one presumes)
antiphonally before mass; in process of time the antiphon came
to be sung at the beginning and end only, and the psalm itself
was reduced to a single verse. In the days of Gregory the Great
the introit appears to have been sung precisely as at present
that is to say, after the antiphon proper, the Psalmus with its
Gloria, then the antiphon again. (2) The Responsorium, intro-
duced between the epistle and gospel, was probably at first an
entire psalm or canticle, originally given out by the cantor from
the steps from which the epistle had been read (hence the later
name Graduale), the response being taken up by the whole
choir. (3) The Ojjertorium and Communio correspond to the
" hymn from the book of Psalms " mentioned by early authorities
(see, for example, Augustine, Retr. ii. n; Ap. Const, viii. 13)
as sung before the oblation and also while that which had been
offered was being distributed to the people. A very intimate
connexion between these four parts of the choral service can
generally be observed; thus, taking the first Sunday in the ecclesi-
astical year, we find both in the Antiphonary and in the modern
Missal that the antiphon is Ps. xxv. 1-3, the psalmus Ps. xxv. 4,
the responsorium (graduate) and versus Ps. xxv. 3 and xxv. 4,
the offertorium and versus Ps. xxv. 1-3 and xxv. 5- The
communio is Ps. Ixxxv. 12, one of the verses of the responsorium
being Ps. Ixxxv. 7. In the selection of the introits there are
also traces of a certain rotation of the psalms in the Psalter
having been observed.
The first pages of the modern Roman missal are occupied
with the Calendar and a variety of explanations relating to the
3 After singing " Credo in unum Deum," Ord. Rom. II.
5 8 2
MISSAL
year and its parts, and the manner of determining the movable
feasts. The general rubrics (Rubricae generates missalis)
follow, explaining what are the various kinds of mass which may
be celebrated, prescribing the hours of celebration, the kind and
colour of vestments to be used, and the ritual to be followed
(ritus celebrandi missam), and giving directions as to what is to
be done in case of various defects or imperfections which may
arise. The Praeparatio ad missam, which comes next, is a short
manual of devotion containing psalms, hymns and prayers to be
used as opportunity may occur before and after celebration.
Next comes the proper of the season (Proprium missarum de
tempore), occupying more than half of the entire volume. It
contains the proper introit, collect (one or more), epistle, gradual
(tract or sequence), gospel, offertory, secreta (one or more),
communion and post-communion for every Sunday of the year,
and also for the festivals and ferias connected with the ecclesias-
tical seasons, as well as the offices peculiar to the ember days,
Holy Week, Easter and Whitsuntide. Between the office for
Holy Saturday and that for Easter Sunday the ordinary of the
mass (Ordo missae), with the solemn and proper prefaces for the
year, and the canon of the mass are inserted. The proper of
the season is followed by the proper of the saints (Proprium
sanctorum), containing what is special to each saint's day in the
order of the calendar, and by the Commune sanctorum, containing
such offices as the common of one martyr and bishop, the common
of one martyr not a bishop, the common of many martyrs in
paschal time, the common of many martyrs out of paschal time,
and the like. A variety of masses to be used at the feast of the
dedication of a church, of masses for the dead, and of votive
masses (as for the sick, for persons journeying, for bridegroom
and bride) follow, and also certain benedictions. Most missals
have an appendix also containing certain local masses of saints
to be celebrated " ex indulto apostolico."
Masses fall into two great subdivisions: (i) ordinary or
regular (secundum ordinem officii), celebrated according to the
regular rotation of fast and feast, vigil and feria, in the calendar;
(2) extraordinary or occasional (extra ordinem officii), being
either " votive " of " for the dead," and from the nature of the
case having no definite time prescribed for them. Festival masses
are either double, half-double or simple, an ordinary Sunday
mass being a half-double. The difference depends on the number
of collects and secretae; on a double only one of each is offered,
on a half-double there are two or three, and on a simple there
may be as many as five, or even seven, of each. Any mass may
be either high (missa solennis) or low (missa privata). The dis-
tinction depends upon the number of officiating clergy, certain
differences of practice as to what is pronounced aloud and what
inaudibly, the use or absence of incense, certain gestures and the
like. Solitary masses are forbidden; there must be at least an
acolyte to give the responses. The vestments prescribed for the
priest are he amice, alb, cingulum or girdle, maniple, stole and
chasuble (planeta). There are certain distinctions of course for
a bishop or abbot. The colour of the vestments and of the
drapery of the altar varies according to the day, being either
white, red, green, violet or black. This last custom does not
go much further back than Innocent III., who explains the
symbolism intended (see VESTMENTS).
Subjoined is an account of the manner of celebrating high mass
according to the rite at present in force.
I. The priest who is to celebrate, ha vine previously confessed (if
necessary) and having finished matins and lauds, is to seek leisure
for private prayer (fasting) and to use as he has opportunity the
" prayers before mass " already referred to. How the robing in the
sacristy is next to be gone about is minutely prescribed, and prayers
are given to be used as each article is put on. The sacramental
elements having previously been placed on the altar or on a credence
table, the celebrant enters the church and takes his stand before
the lowest step of the altar, having the deacon on his right and the
subdeacon on his left. After invoking the Trinity (In nomine
Patris.^&c.) he repeats alternately with those who are with him the
psalm " Judica me, Deus," which is preceded in the usual way by an
antiphon (Introibo ad altare Dei), and followed also by the Gloria
and Antiphon. 1 The versicle " Adjutorium nostrum," with its
1 This antiphon is not to be confounded with the Antiphona ad
response " Qui fecit," is followed by the " Confiteor," 2 said alter-
nately by the priest and by the attendants, who in turn respond with
the prayer for divine forgiveness, " Misereatur." The priest then
gives the absolution (" Indulgentiam "), and after the versicles and
responses beginning " Deus, tu conyersus " he audibly says, " Ore-
mus," and ascending to the altar silently offers two short prayers,
one asking for forgiveness and liberty of access through Christ,
and another indulgence for himself, _' through the merits of the
saints whose relics are here." 1 Receiving the thurible from the
deacon he censes the altar, and is thereafter himself censed by
the deacon. He then reads the Introit, which is also sung by the
choir; the Kyrie eleison is then said, after which the words Gloria
in excelsis 3 are sung by the celebrant and the rest of the hymn
completed by the choir.
2. Kissing the altar, and turning to the people with the formula
" Dominus vobiscum," the celebrant proceeds with the collect or
collects proper to the season or day, which are read secretly. The
epistle for the day is then read by the subdeacon, and is followed
by the gradual, tract, alleluia or sequence, according to the time. 4
This finished, the deacon places the book of the gospels on the altar,
and the celebrant blesses the incense. The deacon kneels before
the altar and offers the prayer " Munda cor meum," afterwards
takes the book from the altar, and kneeling before the celebrant
asks his blessing, which he receives with the words " Dominus sit in
corde tuo." Having kissed the hand of the priest, he goes accompa-
nied by acolytes with incense and lighted candles to the pulpit, and
with a " Dominus vobiscum " and minutely prescribed crossings
and censings gives out and reads the gospel for the day, at the close
of which " Laus tibi, Christe " is said, and the book is brought to the
celebrant and kissed with the words " Per eyangelica dicta deleantur
nostra delicta." The celebrant then standing at the middle of the
altar sings the words " Credo in unum Deum," and the rest of the
Nicene creed is sung by the choir. 6
3. With " Dominus vobiscum " and " Oremus " the celebrant
proceeds to read the offertory, which is also sung by the choir.
This finished he receives the paten with the host from the deacon,
and after offering the host with the prayer beginning " Suscipe,
Sancte Pater " places it upon the corporal. The deacon then
ministers wine and the subdeacon water, and before the celebrant
mixes the water with the wine he blesses it in the prayer " Deus
qui humanae.' 1 He then takes the chalice, and having offered it
(" Offerimus tibi, Dpmine ") places it upon the corporal and covers
it with the pall. Slightly bowing over the altar, he then offers the
prayer " In spiritu humilitatis," and, lifting up his eyes and stretch-
ing put his hands, proceeds with " Veni sanctincator." After
blessing the incense (" Per intercessionem beati Michaelis archan-
gel! ") he takes the thurible from the deacon and censes the
bread and wine and altar, and is afterwards himself censed as
well as the others in their order. Next going to the epistle side of the
altar he washes his fingers as he recites the verses of the 26th Psalm
beginning " Lavabo." Returning and bowing before the middle of
the altar, with joined hands he says, " Suscipe, sancta Trinitas," then
turning himself towards the people he raises his voice a little and
says, Orate, fratres " (" that my sacrifice and yours may be
acceptable to God the Father Almighty "), the response to which
is " Suscipiat Dominus sacrificium de manibus tuis," &c. He
then recites the secret prayer or prayers, and at the end says, with
an audible voice, " Per omnia saecula saeculorum " (R. " Amen ").
4. Again saluting with a " Dominus vobiscum," he lifts up his
hands and goes on to the Sursum corda and the rest of the Preface.
A different intonation is given for each of the prefaces. 6 At
the Sanctus the handbell is rung. If there is a choir the Sanctus
is sung while the celebrant goes on with the canon. 7 After the
words of consecration of the wafer, which are said " secretly, dis-
tinctly and attentively," the celebrant kneels and adores the
host, rising elevates it, and replacing it on the corporal again adores
Introitum further on. This use of the 43rd Psalm goes as far back at
least as the end of the nth century, being mentioned by Micrologus
(1080). It is omitted in masses for the dead and during Holy
Week.
2 A form very similar to the present is given by Micrologus, and it
is foreshadowed even in liturgical literature of the 8th century.
3 During Lent and Advent, and in masses for the dead, this is
omitted. In low masses it is of course said, not sung (if it is to be
said). It may be added that this early position of the Gloria in
excelsis is one of the features distinguishing Roman from Ephesine
use.
* The tract is peculiar to certain occasions, especially of a mournful
nature, and is sung by a single voice. By a sequence is understood
a more or less metrical composition, not in the words of Scripture,
having a special bearing on the festival of the day. See, for example,
the sequence, " Lauda Sion Salvatorem," on Corpus Christi day.
6 On certain days the Credo is omitted.
6 Now eleven ; they were at one time much more numerous.
7 The approved usage appears to be in that case that it is sung as
far as " Hosanna in excelsis " before the elevation, and " Benedictus
qui venit " is reserved till afterwards. In France it was a very com-
mon custom, made general for a time at the request of Louis All., to
sing " O salutaris hostia " at the elevation.
MISSI DOMINICI MISSIONS
it (the bell meanwhile being rung). 1 The same rite is observe
when the chalice is consecrated. Immediately before the Lord'
Prayer, at the words " per ipsum et cum ipso et in ipso," the sign o
the cross is made three times over the chalice with the host, an<
towards the close of the " embolism " the fraction of the host take
place. After the words " Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum " th
emission of the particle into the cup takes place with the word
Haec commixtio et consecratio," &c. The celebrant then say
the Agnus Dei three times.
5. While the choir sings the Agnus Dei and the Communion, th
celebrant proceeds, still " secrete," with the remainder of the office
which though printed as part of the canon is more convenient!)
called the communion and post-communion. After the prayer fo
the peace and unity of the Church (" Domine Jesu Christe, qu
dixisti ) he salutes the deacon with the kiss of peace, saying, " Pa
tecum "; the subdeacon is saluted in like manner, and then convey
the pax to the rest of the clergy who may be assisting. Th(
celebrant then communicates under both species with suitabl
prayers and actions, and afterwards administers the sacrament to the
other communicants if there be any. Then while the wine is poured
into the cup for the first ablution he says, " Quod ore sumpsimus "
having taken it he says, " Corpus tuum, Domine." After the seconc
ablution he goes to the book and reads the Communion. Then turn
ing to the people with " Dominus Vobiscum " he reads the post
communion (one or more) ; turning once more to the congregation he
uses the old dismissal formula " Dominus vobiscum " (R. " Et cum
spintu tuo "), and " Ite, missa est " or " Benedicamus Domino,'
in those masses ^rom which Gloria in excelsis has been omitted
(R. DeoGratias '). Bowing down before the altar he offers the prayer
Placeat tibi, sancta Trinitas," then turning round he makes the
sign of the cross over the congregation with the words of the bene-
diction ( Benedicat "). 2 He then reads the passage from the gospel
of John beginning with " In principio erat Verbum," or else the
proper gospel of the day. 3 (j. 5. BL.)
MISSI DOMINICI, the name given to the officials commissioned
by the Prankish kings and emperors to supervise the administra-
tion of their dominions. Their institution dates from Charles
Martel and Pippin the Short, who sent out officials to see their
orders executed. When Pippin became king in 754 he sent
out missi in a desultory fashion; but Charlemagne made them
a regular part of his administration, and a capitulary issued
about 802 gives a detailed account of their duties. They were
to execute justice, to enforce respect for the royal rights, to
control the administration of the counts, to rqceive the oath
of allegiance, and to supervise the conduct and work of the
clergy. They were to call together the officials of the 'district
and explain to them their duties, and to remind the people
of their civil and religious obligations. In short they were
the direct representatives of the king or emperor. The inhabi-
tants of the district they administered had to provide for their
subsistence, and at times they led the host to battle. In
addition special instructions were given to various missi, and
many of these have been preserved. The districts placed
under the missi, which it was their duty to visit four times a
year, were called missatici or legationes. They were not perma-
nent officials, but were generally selected from among persons
at the court, and during the reign of Charlemagne personages
of high standing undertook this work. They were sent out in
twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and were generally complete
strangers to the district which they administered. In addition
there were extraordinary missi who represented the emperor
on special occasions, and at times beyond the limits of his
dominions. Even under the strong rule of Charlemagne it
was difficult to find men to discharge these duties impartially,
and after his death in 814 it became almost impossible. Under
the emperor Louis I. the nobles interfered in the appointment
of the missi, who, selected from the district in which their
duties lay, were soon found watching their own interests rather
than those of the central power. Their duties became merged
in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts, and under
the emperor Charles the Bald they took control of associations
1 The history of the practice of elevating the host seems to have
arisen out of the custom of holding up the oblations, as mentioned
in the Ordo Romanus (see above). The elevation of the host, as at
present practised, was first enjoined by Pope Honorius III. The
use of the handbell at the elevation is still later, and was first made
general by Gregory XI.
The benediction is omitted in masses for the dead.
3 The reading of the passage from John on days which had not a
proper gospel was first enjoined by Pius V.
583
for the preservation of the peace. About the end of the gth
century they disappeared from France and Germany, and
during the loth century from Italy. It is possible that the
itinerant justices of the English kings Henry I. and Henry II.,
the itinerant baillis of Philip Augustus king of France, or the
royal enqueteurs of St Louis originated from this source.
See G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte (Kiel, 1844); E.
Bourgeois, Le CapUulaire de Kiersy-sur-Oise (Paris, 1885) ; V. Krause,
Geschichtedes Institutes der missi dominici in the Miltheilungen dcs
^(^^"^^^Geschichtsforschung, Band XI. (Innlbruck,
iL m^^' Ube ' d ? s Wesen und den Geschdflskreis der missi
dominici ; (Heidelberg, 1861); N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire
des institutions pohliques de Vancienne France (Paris, 1889-1890)
ranu e ** l ' or ^ nization J"* en France, epoqui
MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending) the term used specially
for the propagandist operations of the Christian Church among
the heathen, the executants of this work being missionaries.
Both " mission " and " missionary " have hence come to be used
of similar works in other spheres. The history of Christian
missions may, for practical purposes, be divided into three chief
periods: (i) the primitive, (2) the medieval and (3) the modern.
THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD
There can be little doubt that the Christian Church derived
its missionary impulse from the .teaching of its founder. Even
though we may feel some hesitancy, in the light of modern
criticism, about accepting as authentic the specific injunctions
ascribed to Jesus by Matthew (ch. xxviii. 19) and Luke (ch. xxiv.
47; Acts i. 8), it must be admitted that the teaching of Jesus,
in the emphasis which it laid on the Fatherhood of God and the
brotherhood of man, was bound sooner or later to break away
from the trammels of Judaism, and assert itself in the form of
Christian missions. The triumph of this " universalistic "
element in the teaching of Christ is vividly portrayed in the Acts
of the apostles. At the beginning of the Acts the Christian
Church is a little Jewish sect; long before the end is reached it
has become a world-conquering spiritual force. The transfor-
mation was due in its initial stages to broad-minded men like
Stephen, Philip and Barnabas who were the first pioneers of
missionary work. Their efforts, however, were soon completely
eclipsed by the magnificent achievements of the apostle Paul,
who evangelized a large part of Asia Minor and the most impor-
tant cities of Greece. The success which attended the work of
the great apostle to the Gentiles stamped Christianity as a
missionary religion for ever. From this point onwards Chris-
.ianity pushed its way into all the great centres of population.
We know very little about the missionaries of the first three
centuries. We suddenly find province after province chris-
ianized though there is nothing to show how and by whom the
svork was done. The case of Bithynia is an excellent illustration
if this. When Pliny wrote his famous letter to Trajan (A.D. 112),
Christianity had taken such a firm hold of the province that its
nfluence had penetrated into remote country districts, pagan
estivals were almost entirely neglected, and animals for sacrifice
-ould scarcely find purchasers. Yet the history of the conver-
ion of Bithynia is absolutely buried in oblivion. By the time
)f Constantine, Christianity had practically covered the whole
mpire. Harnack has tabulated the results which our scanty
lata allow us to reach in his Expansion of Christianity. He
livides the countries which had been evangelized by the close
of the 3rd century into four groups: (i) Those countries in
which Christianity numbered nearly one-half of the population
nd represented the standard religion of the people, viz. most
f what we now call Asia Minor, that portion of Thrace which
ay over against Bithynia, Armenia, the city of Edessa. (a)
^hose districts in which Christianity formed a very material
jortion of the population, influencing the leading classes and
jeing able to hold its own with other religions, viz. Antioch and
oele-Syria, Cyprus, Alexandria together with Egypt and the
Tiebais, Rome and the lower parts of Italy, together with certain
arts of middle Italy, Proconsular Africa and Numidia, Spain,
he maritime parts of Greece, the southern coasts of Gaul.
5 8 4
MISSIONS
[MEDIEVAL
(3) Those districts in which Christianity was sparsely scattered,
viz. Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, certain parts of Mesopotamia,
the interior districts of Greece, the provinces on the north of
Greece, the northern districts of middle Italy, the provinces of
"Mauretania and Tripolis. (4) Those districts in which Christi-
anity was extremely weak or where it was hardly found at all :
the districts to the north and north-west of the Black Sea, the
western section of upper Italy, middle and upper Gaul, Belgica,
Germany, Rhaetia, the towns of ancient Philistia. It is not
possible to obtain even an approximate estimate of the numbers
of the Christians at the time of Constantine. Friedlander, for
instance, does not think that they exceeded by much Gibbon's
estimate for the reign of Decius, viz. one-twentieth of the
population. La Bastie and Burckhardt put the ratio at
one-twelfth, Matter at a fifth and Staudlin even at a half (see
Harnack ii. 453).
After the end of the 3rd century missionary enterprise was
mainly concentrated on the outlying borders of the empire. In
the 4th and sth centuries may be mentioned Gregory the
Illuminator, the " apostle of Armenia " (about 300), Ulfilas,
the "apostle of the Goths," about 325; Frumentius, 1 a bishop
of Abyssinia, about 327; Nino, the Armenian girl who was the
means of converting the kingdom of Iberia (now Georgia), about
330; 2 Chrysostom, who founded at Constantinople in A.D. 404
an institution in which Goths, might be trained to preach the
Gospel to their own people; 3 Martin of Tours, who evangelized
the central districts of Gaul; Valentinus, the " apostle of
Noricum," about 440; Honoratus, who from his monastic home
in the islet of Lerins, about 410, sent missionaries among the
masses of heathendom in the neighbourhood of Aries, Lyons,
Troyes, Metz and Nice; and St Patrick, who converted
Ireland into " the isle of saints " (died either in 463 or 495).
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
With the sth century the Church was confronted with n^imber-
less hordes, which were now precipitated over the entire face of
Europe. Having for some time learnt to be aggressive, she
girded herself for the difficult work of teaching the nations a
higher faith than a savage form of nature-worship, and of fitting
them to become members of an enlightened Christendom.
(a) The Celtic Missionaries. The first pioneers who went forth
to engage in this difficult enterprise came from the secluded
Celtic Churches of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Of
many who deserve mention in connexion with this period, the
most prominent were: Columba, the founder of the famous
monastery of lona in 563 and the evangelizer of the Albanian
Scots and northern Picts; Aidan, the apostle of Northumbria;
Columbanus, the apostle of the Burgundians of the Vosges (590);
Callich or Callus (d. 646), the evangelizer of north-eastern
Switzerland and Alemannia; Kilian, the apostle of Thuringia;
and Trudpert, the martyr of the Black Forest. The zeal of
these men seemed to take the world by storm. Travelling
generally in companies, and carrying a simple outfit, these
Celtic pioneers flung themselves on the continent of Europe, and,
not content with reproducing at Annegray or Luxeuil the willow
or brushwood huts, the chapel and the round tower, which they
had left behind in Derry or in the island of Hy (lona) , they braved
the dangers of the northern seas, and penetrated as far as the
Faroes and even far distant Iceland. 4 " Their zeal and success," to
quote the words of Kurtz, " are witnessed to by the fact that at
the beginning of the Sth century, throughout all the district of
the Rhine, as well as Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Alemannia,
we, find a network of flourishing churches bearing the impress of
Celtic institutions."
(b) The English Missionaries. Thus they laid the foundations,
aweing the heathen tribes by their indomitable spirit of self-
sacrifice and the sternness of their rule of life. But, marvellous
as it was, their work lacked the element of permanence; and it
1 Socrates, H.E. i. 15; Sozomen ii. 24; Theodoret i. 22.
1 Socrates, H.E. i. 20; Sozomen ii. 7; Theodoret i. 24.
* Theodoret, H.E., v. 30.
4 See A. W. Haddan, " Scots on the Continent," Remains, p. 256.
became clear that a more practical system must be devised and
carried out. The men for this work were now ready, and the
sons of the newly evangelized English Churches were ready to go
forth. The energy which warriors were accustomed to put forth
in their efforts to conquer was now " exhibited in the enterprise
of conversion and teaching " 6 by Wilfrid on the coast of Fries-
land, 6 by Willibrord (658-713) in the neighbourhood of Utrecht, 7
by the martyr-brothers Ewald or Hewald amongst the " old "
or continental Saxons, 8 by Swidbert the apostle of the tribes
between the Ems and the Yssel, by Adelbert, a prince of the
royal house of Northumbria, in the regions north of Holland,
by Wursing, a native of Friesland, and one of the disciples of
Willibrord, in the same region, and last, not least, by the famous
Winfrid or Boniface, the " apostle of Germany " (680-755), wfl o
went forth first to assist Willibrord at Utrecht, then to labour
in Thuringia and Upper Hessia, then with the aid of his kinsmen
Wunibald and Willibald, their sister Walpurga, and her thirty
companions, to consolidate the work of earlier missionaries, and
finally to die a martyr on the shore of the Zuider Zee.
(c) Scandinavian Missions. Devoted, however, as were the
labours of Boniface and his disciples, all that he and they and
the emperor Charlemagne after them achieved for the fierce
untutored world of the Sth century seemed to have been done in
vain when, in the 9th " on the north and north-west the pagan
Scandinavians were hanging about every coast, and pouring in
at every inlet; when on the east the pagan Hungarians were
swarming like locusts and devastating Europe from the Baltic
to the Alps; when on the south and south-east the Saracens were
pressing on and on with their victorious hosts. It seemed then
as if every pore of life were choked, and Christendom must be
stifled and smothered in the fatal embrace." 9 But the devoted
Anskar (801-865) went forth and sought out the Scandinavian
viking, and handed on the torch of self-denying zeal to others,
who saw, after the lapse of many years, the close of the mono-
tonous tale of burning churches and pillaged monasteries,
and taught the fierce Northman to learn respect for civilized
institutions. 10 The gospel was first introduced into Norway in
the loth century by an Englishman named Hacon, though the
real conversion of the country was due to Olaf Tryggvason.
About the same time, and largely owing to the exertions of Olaf.
Iceland, Greenland and the Orkney and Shetland islands were
also evangelized.
(d) Slavonic Missions. Thus the " gospel of the kingdom"
was successively proclaimed to the Roman, the Celtic, the
Teutonic and the Scandinavian world. A contest still more
stubborn remained with the Slavonic tribes, with their triple and
many-headed divinities, their powers of good and powers of
evil, who could be propitiated only with human sacrifices.
Mission work commenced in Bulgaria during the latter part of
the gth century; thence it extended to Moravia, where in 863
two Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius provided for
the people a Slavonic Bible and a Slavonic Liturgy; thence to
Bohemia and Poland, and so onwards to the Russian kingdom
of Ruric the Northman, where about the close of the loth century
the Eastern Church " silently and almost unconsciously bor
into the world her mightiest offspring." " But, though the
baptism of Vladimir (c. 956-1015) was a heavy blow to Slavonic
idolatry, mission work was carried on with but partial success;
and it taxed all the energies of Adalbert, bishop of Bremen,
Vicilin, bishop of Oldenburg, of Bishop Otto of Bamberg the
apostle of the Pomeranians, of Adalbert the martyr-apostle
of Prussia, to spread the word in that country, in Lithuania,
and in the territory of the Wends. It was not till 1168 that the
gigantic four-headed image of Swantevit was destroyed at Arcona,
the capital of the island of Riigen, and this Mona of Slavonic
superstition was included in the advancing circle of Christia
6 Church, Gifts of Civilization,
7 " Annal. Xantenses," Pertz,
8 Bede, H.E. v. 10.
9 See Lightfoot, Ancient and Modern Missions.
10 See Hardwick, Middle Ages, pp. 109-114.
11 Stanley, Eastern Church, p. 294.
. 330. Bede, H.E. v. 19.
on. Germ. ii. 220.
MODERN]
MISSIONS
585
civilization. As late as 1230 human sacrifices were still being
offered up in Prussia and Lithuania, and, in spite of all the efforts
of the Teutonic Knights, idolatrous practices still lingered
amongst the people, while amongst the Lapps, though successful
missions had been inaugurated as early as 1335, Christianity
cannot be said to have become the dominant religion till at least
two centuries later.
(e) Moslem Missions. The mention of the order of the Teu-
tonic Knights reminds us how the crusading spirit had affected
Christendom. Still even then Raimon Lull protested against
propagandised by the sword, urged the necessity of missions
amongst the Moslems, and sealed his testimony with his blood
outside the gates of Bugiah in northern Africa (June 30, 1315).
Out of the crusades, however, arose other efforts to develop the
work which Nestorian missionaries from Bagdad, Edessa and
NisibJs had already inaugurated along the Malabar coast, in the
island of Ceylon, and in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea.
In 1245 the Roman pontiff sent two embassies one, a party of
four Dominicans, sought the commander-in-chief of the Mongol
forces in Persia; the second, consisting of Franciscans, made
their way into Tartary, and sought to convert the successor of
Oktai-Khan. Their exertions were seconded in 1253 by the
labours of another Franciscan whom Louis IX. of France sent
forth from Cyprus, 1 while in 1274 the celebrated traveller Marco
Polo, accompanied by two learned Dominicans, visited the court
of Kublai-Khan, and at the commencement of the i4th century
two Franciscans penetrated as far as Peking, even translating
the New Testament and the Psalter into the Tatar language, and
training youths for a native ministry. 2
(/) Missions to India and the New World. These tentative
missions were now to be supplemented by others on a larger
scale. In 1488 the Cape of Good Hope was rounded by Diaz,
and in 1 508 the foundations of the Portuguese Indian empire were
laid by Albuquerque. Columbus also in 1492 had landed on
San Salvador, and the voyages of the Venetian Cabot along the
coast of North America opened up a new world to missionary
enterprise. Thus a grand opportunity was given to the churches
of Portugal and Spain. But the zeal of the Portuguese took too
often a one-sided direction, repressing the Syrian Christians on
the Malabar coast, and interfering with the Abyssinian Church, 3
while the fanatic temper of the Spaniard consigned, in Mexico
and Peru, multitudes who would not renounce their heathen
errors to indiscriminate massacre or abject slavery. 4 Las Casas
has drawn a terrible picture of the oppression he strove in vain
to prevent. 6 Some steps indeed were taken for disseminating
Christian principles, and the pope had induced a band of mission-
aries, chiefly of the mendicant orders, to go forth to this new mis-
sion field. 6 But only five bishoprics had been established by
1520, and the number of genuine converts was small. However,
every vestige of the Aztec worship was banished from the Spanish
settlements. 7
(g) The Jesuit Missions. It was during this period that the
Jesuits came into existence. One of the first of Loyola's asso-
ciates, Francis Xavier, encouraged by the joint co-operation of
the pope and of John III. of Portugal, disembarked at Goa on
the 6th of May 1542, and before his death on the Isle of St John
(Hiang-Shang) , on the 2nd of December 1552, roused the European
Christians of Goa to a new life, laboured with singular success
amongst the Paravars, a fisher caste near Cape Comorin, gathered
many converts in the kingdom of Travancore, visited Malacca,
and founded a mission in Japan.
The successor of Xavier, Antonio Criminalis, was regarded by
the Jesuits as the first martyr of their society (1562). Matteo
Ricci, an Italian by birth, was also an indefatigable missionary
in China for twenty-seven years, while the unholy compromise
1 Neander vii. 69; Hakluyt 171 ; Hue i. 207.
2 Neander vii. 79; Gieseler iv. 259, 260; Hardwick, Middle Ages,
''Geddes, History of the Church of Malabar, p. 4; Neale, Eastern
Church, ii. 343.
4 Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, i. 318, iii. 218.
6 Relation de la destruction de las Indias.
6 Prescott, Mexico, iii. 218 n. ' Prescott iii. 219.
with Brahminism in India followed by Robert de' Nobili was
fatal to the vitality of his own and other missions. Others of
the same order evangelized Paraguay in 1582, while the Hugue-
nots sent forth under a French knight of Malta a body of devoted
men to attempt the formation of a Christian colony at Rio
Janeiro. By the close of the i6th century a committee of
cardinals was appointed under the name of the " Congregatio
de propaganda fide," to give unity and solidity to the work of
missions. The scheme originated with Gregory XIII. , but was
not fully organized till forty years afterwards, when Gregory XV.
gave it plenary authority by a bull dated the 2nd of June 1622.
Gregory's successor, Urban VIII., supplemented the establish-
ment of the congregation by founding a great missionary
college, where Europeans might be trained for foreign labours,
and natives might be educated to undertake mission work. At
this college is the missionary printing-press of the Roman
Church, and its library contains an unrivalled collection of
literary treasures bearing on the work.
MODERN MISSIONS
Missionary Societies. Modern missionary activity is dis-
tinguished in a special degree by the exertions of societies for
the development of mission work.
As contrasted with the colossal display of power on the part
of the Church of Rome, it must be allowed that the churches
which in the i6th century broke off from their allegiance to the
Latin centre at first showed no great anxiety for the extension
of the gospel and the salvation of the heathen. The causes of
this are not far to seek. The isolation of the Teutonic churches
from the vast system with which they had been bound up, the
conflicts and troubles among themselves, the necessity of fixing
their own principles and defining their own rights, concentrated
their attention upon themselves and their own home work, to
the neglect of work abroad. 8
Still the development of the maritime power of England,
which the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies noted with
fear and jealousy, was distinguished by a singular anxiety for
the spread of the Christian faith. Edward VI. in his instructions
to the navigators in Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, Sebastian
Cabot in those for the direction of the intended voyage to Cathay,
and Richard Hakluyt, who promoted many voyages of discovery
in addition to writing their history, agree with Sir Humphrey
Gilbert's chronicler that " the sowing of Christianity must be
the chief intent of such as shall make any attempt at foreign
discovery, or else whatever is builded upon other foundation
shall never obtain happy success or continuance." When on
the last day of the year 1600 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter
to George, earl of Cumberland, and other "adventurers," to be
a body-corporate by the name of " The Governor and Company
of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies," the
expressed recognition of higher duties than those of commerce
may by some be deemed a mere matter of form, and, to use the
words of Bacon, " what was first in God's providence was but
second in man's appetite and intention." Yet a keen sense
of missionary duty marks many of the chronicles of English
mariners. Notably was this the case with the establishment of
the first English colony in America, that of Virginia, by Sir
Walter Raleigh. The philosopher Thomas Harriot (1560-1621),
one of his colleagues, laboured for the conversion of the natives,
amongst whom the first baptism is recorded to have taken place
on the i3th of August 1587.' Raleigh himself presented as a part-
ing gift to the Virginian Company the sum of ioo"for the pro-
pagation of the Christian religion " in that settlement. 10 When
James I. granted letters patent for the occupation of Virginia
it was directed that the " word and service of God be preached,
8 We must not, however, overlook the remarkable appeal made by
Erasmus in the first book of his treatise on the art of preaching
(Ecclesiastes sive_ concionator evangelicus). The salient passages are
quoted in G. Smith, Short History of Christian Missions, pp. 1 16-1 18 ;
Gustavus Vasa in 1559 made an effort to educate and evangelize the
Lapps.
9 Hakluyt, Voyages, iii. 345.
10 Oldy, Life of Raleigh, p. 118.
5 86
MISSIONS
[MODERN
planted and used as well in the said colonies as also as much as
might be among the savages bordering am&ng them"; and the
honoured names of Nicolas Ferrar, John Ferrar, John Donne
and Sir John Sandys, a pupil of Hooker, are all found on the
council by which the home management of the colony was
conducted.
In the year 1618 was published The True Honour of
Navigation and Navigators, by John Wood, D.D., dedicated
to Sir Thomas Smith, governor to the East India Company, and
about the same time appeared the well-known treatise of Hugo
Grotius, De veritate religionis christianae, written for the ex-
press use of settlers in distant lands. Grotius also persuaded
seven law students of Ltibeck to go to the East as missionaries;
the best known of them was Peter Heiling, who worked for 20
years in Abyssinia. A good deal of work was done by Dutch
evangelists in Java, the Moluccas, Formosa and Ceylon, but it
was .not permanent.
The wants, moreover, of the North American colonies did not
escape the attention of Archbishop Laud during his official
connexion with them as bishop of London, and he was developing
a plan for promoting a local episcopate there when his troubles
began and his scheme was interrupted. During the Protectorate,
in 1649, an ordinance was passed for " the promoting and propa-
gating of the gospel of Jesus Christ in New England " by the
erection of a corporation, to be called by the name of the Presi-
dent and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New
England, to receive and dispose of moneys for the purpose, and
a general collection was ordered to be made in all the parishes of
England and Wales; and Cromwell himself devised a scheme
for setting up a council for the Protestant religion, which should
rival the Roman Propaganda, and consist of seven councillors
and four secretaries for different provinces. 1 On the restoration
of the monarchy, through the influence of Richard Baxter with
Lord Chancellor Hyde, the charter already granted by Cromwell
was renewed, and its powers were enlarged. For now the cor-
poration was styled " The Propagation of the Gospel in New
England and the parts adjacent in America," and its object was
defined to be " not only to seek the outward welfare and pros-
perity of those colonies, but more especially to endeavour the
good and salvation of their immortal souls, and the publishing
the most glorious gospel of Christ among them." On the list
of the corporation the first name is the earl of Clarendon, while
the Hon. Robert Boyle was appointed president. Amongst
the most eminent of its missionaries was the celebrated John
Eliot, the Puritan minister of Roxbury, Massachusetts, who,
encouraged and financially assisted by Boyle, brought out the
Bible in the Indian language in 1661-1664. Boyle displayed in
other ways his zeal for the cause of missions. He contributed
to the expense of printing and publishing at Oxford the four
Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in the Malay language, and
at his death left 5400 for the propagation of the gospel in
heathen lands.
The needs of the colonial church soon excited the attention of
others. George Fox, the Quaker, wrote to "All Friends every-
where that have Indians or blacks, to preach the Gospel to them
and their servants." Great efforts were made by William
Beveridge (1637-1708), bishop of St Asaph, William Wake
(1657-1737), archbishop of Canterbury, John Sharp (1645-1714),
archbishop of York, Edmund Gibson (1669-1748), bishop of
London, and afterwards by the philosophic Bishop Berkeley, and
Bishop Butler, the famous author of the Analogy, to develop
the colonial church and provide for the wants of the Indian
tribes. In 1696 Dr Thomas Bray, at the request of the governor
and assembly of Maryland, was selected by the bishop of London
as ecclesiastical commissary; and, having sold his effects, and
raised money on credit, he sailed for Maryland in 1699, where he
promoted, in various ways, the interests of the Church. Return-
ing to England in 1700-1701, and supported by all the weight of
Archbishop Tenison and Henry Compton, bishop of London,
he was graciously received by William III., and received letters
1 Neale, History of New England, i. 260; Burnet, History of his own
Times, i. 132 (" Everyman's Library " ed., p. 27).
patent under the great seal of England for creating a corporation
by the name of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts " on the i6th of June 1701.
Meanwhile, in 1664, Von Welz, an Austrian baron, issued a
stirring appeal to the Church at large for a special association
devoted to extending the evangelical religion and converting
the heathen. He was told that each Christian country should
be responsible for its non-Christian neighbours, e.g. the Greeks
for the Turks, and that as for the heathen it was no good casting
pearls before swine. Finding no better response, he went him-
self as a missionary to Dutch Guiana. The opening of the i8th
century saw other movements set on foot. Thus in 1705
Frederick IV. of Denmark founded a mission on the Coromandel
coast, and inaugurated the labours of Bartholomew Ziegenbalg,
Henry Plutschau and C. F. Schwartz, whose devotion and
success told with such remarkable reflex influence on the Church
at home. Again in 1731 the Moravians (q.v.) illustrated in a
signal degree the growing consciousness of obligation towards
the heathen. Driven by persecution from Moravia, hunted into
mountain-caves and forests, they had scarcely secured a place
of refuge in Saxony before, " though a mere handful in numbers,
yet with the spirit of men banded for daring and righteous deeds,
they formed the heroic design, and vowed the execution of it
before God, of bearing the gospel to the savage and perishing
tribes of Greenland and the West Indies, of whose condition
report had brought a mournful rumour to their ears. " And so,
literally with " neither bread nor scrip," they went forth on
their pilgrimage, and, incredible as it sounds, within ten years
they had established missions in the islands of the West Indies,
in South America, Surinam, Greenland, among the North Ameri-
can tribes, in Lapland, Tartary, Algiers, Guinea, the Cape of
Good Hope and Ceylon. 2 Up till this time all missionary enter-
prises had been more or less connected with the state. The era
of modern missions, based on associate organizations, begins
with William Carey (q.v.), and is closely connected with the great
evangelical revival of the latter part of the i8th century. That
revival had intensified the idea of the worth of the individual
soul, whether Christian or heathen, and " to snatch even one
brand from the burning " became a dominant impulse. In 1792,
Carey, a Baptist, who was not only a cobbler, but a linguist of
the highest order, a botanist and zoologist, published his Enquiry
into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Conversion
of the Heathens, and the book marks a distinct point of departure
in the history of Christianity. Under its influence twelve minis-
ters at Kettering in October 1792 organized the Baptist Society
for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, and subscribed
13, 2S. 6d. In June 1793 Carey was on his way to India.
Letters from him quickened interest outside his own communion,
and in the autumn of 1794 a meeting of Evangelical ministers
of all denominations resolved to appeal to their churches, especi-
ally with a view to work being started in the South Sea Islands.
The chief movers in the enterprise were the Congregationalist,
David Bogue of Gosport, and the Episcopalian, Thomas Haweis,
rector of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. With them were
associated Wesleyan and Presbyterian divines, and in September
1795 the London Missionary Society, emphasizing no one form
of church government, was formed. 10,000 was subscribed
by June 1796, and in August 29 missionaries sailed for Tahiti.
Societies formed in Glasgow and Edinburgh in the spring of the
same year gave their attention to the continent of Africa.
The need of this continent was also the means of creating
the distinctively Anglican organization known as the Church
Missionary Society. The evangelical movement had produced
philanthropists like Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the
Eclectic Society, a group of clergy and laymen who fell to dis-
cussing the new missionary movements. In April 1 7 99 , under the
guidance of John Venn and Thomas Scott, was established the
Church Missionary Society, originally known as the " Society for
Missions to Africa and the East." Its promoters declared their
intention of maintaining cordial relations with Nonconformist
1 J. B. Holmes, Hist. Sketches of the Missions of the United Brethren
P- 3i A. Grant, Bampton Lectures (1843), P- 1 9-
MODERN]
MISSIONS
587
missionary societies, and this has largely been done, the
older Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, manned by
" High " Churchmen, standing more aloof. In 1814 the Wes-
leyan Missionary Society was formed, Methodist effort of this
kind having previously been left to the individual enterprise
of Dr Thomas Coke. Thus shorn of two chief bodies of sup-
porters, and Presbyterians in England being then comparatively
few, the London Missionary Society became in effect a Congre-
gationalist organization, though it has never departed from the
broad spirit of its founders. In Scotland Robert Haldane sold
his estate and devoted 25,000 to the cause; with others he would
have gone to India himself but for the prohibition of the East
India Company, one of whose directors said he would rather see
a band of devils in India than a band of missionaries. What
Carey did for England was largely done for Scotland by Alex-
ander Duff, who settled in Calcutta in 1830, and was a pioneer of
higher education in India. On the Continent the Basel Mission
(1815) grew out of a society founded in 1780 to discuss the general
condition of Christianity; " Father " Janicke, a Bohemian
preacher in Berlin, founded a training school which supplied
many men to the Church Missionary Society and the London
Missionary Society; and Van der Kemp, who pioneered the
London Missionary Society work in South Africa, organized
in 1797 the Netherland Missionary Society, which turned its
attention chiefly to Dutch Colonial possessions.
In America as in England the sense of individual responsibility
had been developed. In 1796 and 1797 respectively the New
York and the Northern societies were formed for work among
Indians by Presbyterians, Baptists and Reformed Dutch,
acting in concert. News of the London Society stimulated
interest in New England, and in 1806 Andover Seminary was
founded as a missionary training college. In the same year
Samuel J. Mills, Gordon Hall and James Richards, three students
at Williams College, Massachusetts, formed themselves into a
mission band which ultimately became the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions (June 1810), an organization
which, like the London Mission, originally undenominational
and still catholic, has become practically Congregational. The
first offshoot from it was the American Baptist Missionary
Union in 1814.
The following chronological lists illustrate the growth of missionary
societies in Britain and the United States:
Great Britain and Ireland.
1691. Christian Faith Society for the West Indies.
1698 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
1701 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
1732. Moravian Missions.
1792. Baptist Missionary Society.
1795. London Missionary Society.
1796. Scottish Missionary Society.
1799. Church Missionary Society.
1799. Religious Tract Society.
1804. British and Foreign Bible S>ociety.
1808. London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews.
1813. Wesleyan Missionary Society.
1817. General Baptist Missionary Society.
1823. Colonial and Continental Church Society.
1825. Church of Scotland Mission Boards.
National Bible Society of Scotland.
1831. Trinitarian Bible Society.
1832. Wesleyan Ladies' Auxiliary for Female Education in Foreign
Countries.
1835. United Secession (afterwards United Presbyterian) Foreign
Missions.
1836. Colonial Missionary Society.
1840. Irish Presbyterian Missionary Society.
1840. Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Missionary Society.
1841. Colonial Bishoprics Fund.
1841. Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society.
1843. British Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the
Jews.
1843. Free Church of Scotland Missions.
1843. Primitive Methodist African and Colonial Missions.
Methodist New Connexion in England Foreign Missions.
1844. South American Missionary Society.
1847. Presbyterian Church in England Foreign Missions.
1858. Christian Vernacular Education Society for India.
1860. Central African Mission of the English Universities.
1862. China Inland Mission.
1865. Friends' Foreign Mission Association.
1866. Delhi Female Medical Mission.
1867. Friends' Mission in Syria and Palestine.
1876. Cambridge Mission to Delhi.
1880. Church of England Zenana Missionary Society.
1884. Presbyterian Mission to Korea.
1892. Student Volunteer Missionary Union.
United States of America.
1733- Corporation for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England.
1787. Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Indians at
Boston.
1795' Friends' Missionary Society.
1800. New York Missionary Society.
Connecticut Missionary Society for Indians.
1803. United States Mission to the Cherokees.
1806. Western Missionary Society for Indians.
1810. Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.
1814. Baptist Missionary Union.
1819. Methodist Episcopal Church Missionary Society.
1833. Free-will Baptist Foreign Missionary Society in India.
1835. Foreign Missions of the Protestant Episcopal Church.
1837. Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (North).
1837. Evangelical Lutheran Foreign Missionary Society.
1842. Seventh Day Baptist Missionary Society.
Strict Baptist Missionary Society.
1843. Baptist Free Missionary Society.
1845. Methodist Episcopal Church (South).
1845. Southern Baptist Convention.
1846. American Missionary Association.
1857. Board of -Foreign Missions of (Dutch) Reformed Church.
1859. Board of Foreign Missions of United Presbyterian Church.
1862. Boardof Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (South).
1878. Evangelical Association Missionary Society.
1886. Student Volunteer Missionary Union.
It is not possible to follow in detail the history of the hundred or
more organized societies of some size that have thus come into being
since the end of the i8th century, still less that of the three or four
hundred smaller agencies. 1 It may be noted, however, that the enter-
prise has followed certain more or less clearly defined lines. These
are described as follows by Dr E. M. Bliss, editor of the Encyclopaedia
of Missions.
1. The Denominational. The course of denominational work may
be seen in the way in which the London Society and the American
Board were gradually left to the Congregationalists, it being recog-
nized that while fraternity was maintained, the widest results could
only be obtained as appeal was made directly to the members of
each separate denomination. To some extent a similar development
is traceable in other lands. In Germany the Rhenish Society (1825)
became independent of the Basel Mission, but like it and the Berlin
Society founded by Neander and Tholuck has preserved a broad
basis and includes both Lutheran and Reformed constituents. The
North German or Bremen Society split into a strict Lutheran or
Leipzig agency and the Hermannsburg Mission, which aimed at a
more primitive and apostolic method. In Denmark, the Danish
Missionary Society, founded by Pastor Bone Falck Ronne in 1821,
worked through the Moravian and Basel societies until 1862, when it
began independent work and concentrated on the Tamil population
of South India. In Norway and Sweden missionary activity kept
pace with the development of the national life; in the former country
the Free Church, in the latter the State Church has been the most
successful agency.
In Holland a religious revival in 1846 led to the foundation of
several organizations which supplemented the work of the original
Netherland Missionary Society. In France protestant missionary
effort began after the overthrow of the empire, and in 1822 several
isolated committees united to form the Soci6t6 des Missions Evang<i-
liques, better known as the Paris Evangelical Society. In Tahiti,
Madagascar and other fields this society has largely taken over
work begun by the London Society, whose operations were viewed
with suspicion by the French government.
2. Collateral Aid. Side by side with the founding of the great
missionary societies, Bible and Tract societies sprang up. The dates
are significant: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (1698),
Religious Tract and Book Society of Scotland (1793). Religious
Tract Society in London (1799), British and Foreign Bible Society
(1804), American Bible Society (1816), American Tract Society
(1823). (See further BIBLE SOCIETIES.) Medical Missions have not
been so much collateral organizations as departments of the work of
the general societies, and the same is generally true of women's
missions. Both of these will be discussed in more detail.
3. Independent and Special Agencies. The individual element that
was so marked a feature in Carey's generation has never vanished,
in spite of the tendency to central control. J. Hudson Taylor in
1853 went to China as the agent of a number of folk in England who
feared that missionary work was becoming too mechanical. His aim
was to push inland 'and to work through native evangelists. Out
of his endeavours sprang a new organization, the China Inland
1 For complete directory see Statistical Atlas of Foreign Missions
(1910).
588
MISSIONS
[MODERN
Mission ; and similar undenominational societies, e.g. the Regions
Beyond Missionary Union in England, and the Christian and
Missionary Alliance in America, have since been founded. Other
individual enterprises have been launched by persons or single
churches, but such have not usually flourished for any length
of time, their workers gradually attaching themselves to the larger
associations.
Protestant Missions. It is generally agreed that the period
since 1885 has witnessed a very marked increase of missionary
zeal and interest in Great Britain, both in the Church
/. British. ^ England and among the Nonconformists. The
improvement, indeed, dates back somewhat earlier. So far as
the Church of England is concerned it may fairly be said to
have started afresh in the year following the first observance of
the Day of Intercession for Missions, on the 2oth of December
1872. Both the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and
the Church Missionary Society were at that time suffering from
a general coldness which, in the case of the latter society, had
led in that very year to the committee reporting " a failing
treasury and a scanty supply of men." The observance of
that first Day of Intercession was followed by an immediate
change, and unquestionably there has been progress ever since.
Then, less than five months afterwards, David Livingstone died
at Ilala; and no event of the whole century did so much to wake
up Protestant Christendom. Most of the missions in Central
Africa owe their origin to the spirit it aroused. But the year
1884 was also an epoch to be marked. In that year Bishop
Hannington went to Africa; and his murder in 1885 (first reported
in England on New Year's Day, 1886) deeply touched the
Christian conscience. The speedy publication of E. C. Dawson's
biography of him worked a revolution in the circulation of mis-
sionary literature. Another event of 1884-1885 was the going
forth to China of " The Cambridge Seven," in connexion with
the China Inland Mission. All were men of good family; some
of them went at their own charges; and among them were the
stroke-oar of the University Eight (Mr Stanley Smith) and the
captain of the University Eleven (Mr C. T. Studd). Probably
no event of recent years has exercised a wider influence in the
cause of missions. In particular, university graduates have
since then gone out as missionaries in much larger numbers than
before. There are now five missions definitely linked with the
universities. The Central African Mission (1858), indeed, is not
for the most part manned by graduates, though it is led by them ;
but the Cambridge Mission at Delhi (1878), the Oxford Mission
at Calcutta (1880), and the Dublin Missions in Chota Nagpur
(Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1891) and the Fuh-Kien
Province of China (Church Missionary Society, 1887) consist
of university men. Moreover, the older and larger societies have
much increased the proportion of graduates on their staffs.
The cause of missions in the universities has been fostered
greatly by the Student Volunteer Missionary Movement, initiated
in America in 1886, and organized in England in 1892. The
Union has over 3000 members (of whom 1400 have gone to the
field), and has adopted as its watchword, " The Evangelization
of the World in this Generation"; and this motto has been
approved by several bishops and other Christian leaders. An-
other influence upon university men and others who have taken
holy orders is that of the Younger Clergy Union of the Church
Missionary Society (1885) and the Junior Clergy Association
of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1891). At the
same time there has been a great accession of men to the mission-
ary ranks from among other classes of society. The Anglican
societies and the regular and older Nonconformist societies
(Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian and the London Missionary
Society, which is virtually Congregationalist) have shared in
these humbler recruits; but a large proportion of them have
joined several younger " non-denominational " or " inter-
denominational " missions. Of these the China Inland Mission
is the largest and most influential; and while it has sent forth
many of this class, it has also enrolled not a few men and women
of considerable wealth, education and social status. The South
Africa General Mission, the North Africa Mission, and the Congo
Balolo Mission come next in importance; but there are several
smaller bodies working in different countries. The Salvation
Army also has missions in India, Ceylon and Japan; but these
cannot be called " non-denominational," because the Army has
gradually become a very strict denomination itself. There is
one Anglican society working, like some of those just men-
tioned, in one particular field, viz. the South American
Missionary Society, founded in 1844. Many foreign dioceses
also have associations in England for their help and support.
Medical men have come forward in increasing numbers for mis-
sionary service, and medical missions are now regarded as a very
important branch of the work of evangelization. They are
especially valuable in Mahommedan countries, where open
preaching is difficult and sometimes impossible, and also in works
of mercy among barbarous tribes; while in China, which comes
under neither of these two categories, they have been largely
developed. There are 980 doctors (most of them fully qualified)
labouring in British and American missions; and in 1910 it was
calculated that the in-patients in mission hospitals exceeded
160,000, while the visits of out-patients in a year were about
5,000,000. In several of the great London hospitals there are
missionary associations, the members of which are medical
students; but a chief source of supply in the past has been
the Edinburgh Medical Mission, founded in 1841, which, while
working among the poor in that city, has trained many young
doctors for missionary service.
The most remarkable development of missionary enterprise
has been the employment of women. From an early date many
of the wives of missionaries have done good service; but the going
forth of single women in any appreciable number has only been
encouraged by the societies in the last quarter of the igth
century. The Society for Promoting Female Education in the
East (now absorbed by others, chiefly by the Church Missionary
Society) was founded in 1834; the Scottish Ladies' Association
for the Advancement of Female Education in India (which
subsequently became two associations, for more general work,
in connexion with the Established and Free Churches of Scotland
respectively) in 1837; the Indian Female Normal School Society
(now the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission) in 1861 (taking over
an association dating from 1852) ; the Wesleyan Ladies' Auxiliary
in 1859; the Women's Association of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, and the Baptist Zenana Mission,
in 1867; The London Society's Female Branch, in 1875;
the Church of England Zenana Society (an offshoot from the
Indian Female Society) in 1880. But the earlier of these organi-
zations only contemplated employing women for educational
work on a very small scale. Out of it grew the visitation of
Indian zenanas. The employment of women in general evan-
gelistic work, such as village itineration, house-to-house visiting
in towns, classes for female inquirers, training of native female
workers, &c., although recent, has rapidly extended. The
Church Missionary Society, besides relying on the above-named
Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and Church of England
Zenana Missionary Society for women's work at several of its
stations in India and China, sent out 500 single women in the
fifteen years ending 1900; and the non-denominational missions
above referred to have (including wives) more women than men
engaged in their work especially the China Inland Mission,
which has sent out several hundreds to China. Women's work
and medical work are combined in the persons of nearly 300
fully-qualified lady doctors in various missions. Although
nearly half the male missionaries (Protestant) are unmarried,
these are exceeded in number by the unmarried women; and
consequently, the husbands and wives being equal, the aggregate
of women in the Missions is greater than the aggregate of men.
The home organization of missions is a subject that has been
.much considered. The bulk of the work has been done by volun-
tary societies, membership in which depends upon a pecuniary
subscription, and the administration of which is entrusted to
elected committees. These committees comprise not only real
experts, such as retired veteran missionaries, and retired civil
and military officers who have been active friends of missions
while on foreign service, but also leading clergymen and laymen
MODERN]
MISSIONS
589
who, though not personally acquainted with the mission fields,
become almost equal experts by continuous attendance and care-
ful study. In the case of the two leading Church of England
societies, the bishops (being members) are ex officio on all execu-
tive committees; but their labours in other directions prevent
their ordinarily attending. The numerous non-denominational
missions previously referred to are differently worked. There
is no membership by subscription, nor any elected committee.
The " mission " consists of the missionaries themselves, and
they are governed by a " director," with possibly small advisory
councils in the field and at home, the latter undertaking the duty
of engaging missionaries and raising funds.
On the other hand, there is a growing sense that missions
should be the work of the Church in its corporate capacity, and
not of voluntary associations. This is the system of the Presby-
terian Churches, the missions of which are entirely controlled
by the General Assemblies in Edinburgh, Belfast and London
respectively. The Wesleyan Society also is under the authority
of the Conference. In the Church of England the question was
broached in Convocation, shortly after the revival of that body,
in 1859; and during the next few years many suggestions were
put forth for the establishment of a Board of Missions which
should absorb the societies, or at least direct their work. It soon
appeared, however, that neither the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel nor the Church Missionary Society was willing to
be absorbed; and it was urged by some that in a great compre-
hensive national Church, comprising persons of widely different
views, more zeal was likely to be thrown into voluntary than
into official enterprises. Eventually, in 1887, the Canterbury
Convocation and Archbishop Benson formed a Board of Missions;
and York followed shortly afterwards. These boards, however,
were not to supersede the societies, but to supplement their
work, by collecting information, fostering interest, registering
results and acting as referees when required. They have already
done some useful work, and will probably do more. Their most
active members are men who are also leaders in their respective
societies, and have thus gained experience in missionary adminis-
tration. But the Church of England has not yet put missions
in the prominent place they occupy hi the Nonconformist
denominations.
The closing years of the igth century were remarkable for
the centenary commemorations of the older missionary societies.
The Baptist Society celebrated its centenary in 1892; the London
Missionary Society (Congregational) did the same in 1895;
the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge kept its bi-
centenary in 1898; the Church Missionary Society its centenary
in 1899; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel its
bicentenary in 1900-1901; and the British and Foreign Bible
Society its centenary in 1904. Considerable special funds
have been raised in connexion with these commemorations. A
good deal of interest has also been awakened and maintained
by missionary exhibitions, and by a more intelligent type of
missionary literature.
Colonial missions next claim attention. By " colonial " is
meant, not missions to the British colonial population, but
missions from the colonial population to the heathen.
The former have been very largely the work of the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and, in a smaller
degree, of the Colonial Church Society (Church of England) and
the Colonial Missionary Society (Congregational) . Those missions,
however, are more properly an outlying branch of home missions,
being to the professing Christian settlers or their descendants.
But these Christian settlers have their own missions to the
heathen both to the heathen at their doors and to the great
heathen lands beyond.
In Canada and Australia, the Anglican, Presbyterian, Metho-
dist, Baptist and other communities have regular organizations
for foreign missions. The non-episcopal missions thus formed
and supported are worked quite independently of the home
societies of the denominations respectively. The Australian
Presbyterians have important agencies in the South Seas and
in Korea, the Australian Baptists in Bengal, the Canadians of
2. Colonial.
3. Conti-
nental.
various denominations in the Far North- West of the Dominion,
and in India and China. The Anglican Church in Canada has
its Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society, working in the
North- West and in Japan; and in Australia it has a Board of
Missions, working amongst the Australian aborigines and in New
Guinea. The Melanesian Mission, associated with the names of
Selwyn and Patteson, is officially connected with the Church of
New Zealand, but is also largely supported in Australia. In
New South Wales, Victoria, New Zealand and Canada there are
also Church missionary associations which supply missionaries,
and support them, for the mission fields of the Church Missionary
Society.
The German societies are numerous and important, and have
increased in number and in vigorous work. The Moravian
Church, whose missions are the oldest (1732), is itself
a missionary organization hi a sense in which no
other Christian community rivals it. Its total
membership is under 100,000, and it has some 350 mission-
aries, labouring hi the most unpromising fields Greenland,
Labrador, Alaska, Central America, Tibet, and among the Hot-
tentots. The Basel Society, with its famous seminary at Basel,
which formerly supplied many able German missionaries to the
Church Missionary Society, has extensive work in India, West
Africa and South China. The Berlin Society and the Rhenish
Society labour hi South Africa and China, the Hermannsburg
Mission (Hanover) in South Africa and India; Gossner's Mission
(Berlin) and the Leipzig Lutherans hi India. At least two of
these societies, and other new associations formed for the pur-
pose, and the Moravians, have taken up work in German East
Africa. The principal organizations in Holland are the Nether-
lands Missionary Society and the Utrecht Missionary Society,
working mainly in the Dutch colonies. A Danish society has a
mission in South India. The old Swedish and Norwegian
missionary societies work hi South Africa, Madagascar and India;
but large numbers of Scandinavians have been stirred up in
missionary zeal, and have gone out to China in connexion with
the China Inland Mission; several were massacred in the Boxer
outbreaks. The French Protestants support the Socitte des
Missions fxangeliqu.es, founded in 1822. Its chief mission
has been in Basutoland, since extended to the Zambesi; but it
has also followed French colonial extension, establishing missions
in Senegambia, the French Congo, Madagascar and Tahiti.
The newer American organizations are, as in England, non-
denominational and " free-lance," especially the Christian and
Missionary Alliance (1897), developed from the ^ American
International Missionary Alliance (1887), which has
sent many missionaries to India and China. The older
societies attribute to these new agencies more zeal than
discretion, while the newer credit the older with a discretion
that cripples zeal. The Student Volunteer Movement, already
referred to, has had large influence in the United States, where it
arose; and its leaders have proved themselves men of rare
intellectual and practical capacity. In a journey round the
world in 1895-1897, J. R. Mott succeeded in forming students'
associations in universities and colleges in several European
countries, as well as in Turkey in Asia, Syria, India, Ceylon,
China, Japan and Australia; and all these associations, over 150
in number, are now linked together in a great International
Student Federation. The older American societies, especially
the American Board (Congregational), the Presbyterian
Boards, the Methodist Episcopal Church Society, the Baptist
Missionary Union, and the Missionary Society of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, have much extended their work. The
" Ecumenical Missionary Conference," held at New York in
April 1900, was an astonishing revelation to the American public
of the greatness of missions generally and of the missions of
their own churches in particular. The Laymen's Missionary
movement is a significant outcome of the interest then awakened.
Missions to the Jews are worked by distinct organizations.
There are several societies in England, Scotland, Germany and
America. No special development has to be reported, except
the great extension of John Wilkinson's Mildmay Mission to
59
MISSIONS
[MODERN
the Jews, and its energy in the free distribution of Hebrew New
Testaments. Converted Jews are commonly supposed to be
very few, and in numbers they do not compare with
1'othej'ews. converted heathen; but they are more numerous than
is usually imagined, especially if the second and
third generations of Christians of Hebrew race are included. A
number of them find in Unitarianism a form of Christianity
that appeals to them. It is estimated that 250 Anglican clergy-
men are converted Jews or the sons of converted Jews. The
London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews
includes among its missionaries about 80 who are converts
Professor Delitzsch estimated that 100,000 Jews had embraced
Christianity in the first three quarters of the ipth century; and
Dr Dalman of Leipzig says that " if all those who have entered
the Church and their descendants had remained together,
instead of losing themselves among the other peoples, there
would now be a believing Israel to be counted by millions,
and no one would have ventured to speak of the uselessness of
preaching the Gospel to the Jews."
Interesting as is the story of Protestant mission work in Austria,
Spain, Italy and Russia, it does not fall within the scope of this
article. Nor do the proselytizing enterprises of Seventh Day Ad-
ventists, Christian Scientists, Mormons and other American bodies
rightly find a place here.
Roman Catholic Missions. At the beginning of the ipth
century the Roman Communion seems to have shared to some
extent in the torpor and stagnation as regards missions that
characterized the Protestant churches. There was little of the
zeal whih had carried the Franciscans all over Asia in the i3th
century, and the Jesuits to South America, India and Japan in
the i6th. But the ipth century witnessed a great change, and
Roman Catholic missions have been extended part passu with
Protestant. The revival was not a little due to the foundation
in 1822, byafew earnest but (as they called themselves) " humble
and obscure " Catholics at Lyons, of a new voluntary society,
called the Institution for the Propagation of the Faith. It
collected in its first year about 2000 from the shopkeepers and
artisans of Lyons. Thirty years later its income was 200,000 a
year; and now it is 300,000. It has sent out no missionaries
of its own. It merely makes grants to the various missionary
parties sent forth, and it has done much in this direction. Roman
missions are carried on both by missionary societies and by
religious orders, all under the supreme direction of the pope,
and also more or less under the general supervision of the Sacra
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide at Rome since its foundation
by Gregory XV. in 1622. This important congregation has
been described as corresponding pretty much in the Catholic
Church to the colonial office in the British empire, and its head,
the " Prefect of Propaganda," to the secretary of state for the
colonies. It holds supreme control over all the foreign missions
in heathen countries, and also over large and important parts
of the church in Christian countries whose governments are not
Catholic including the British empire, the United States,
Holland, the Norse kingdoms, Greece, and some parts of Germany
and Switzerland. A special section (erected by Pius IX.) has
charge of the affairs of all the Oriental rites in union with the
Roman see. Confining our attention at present to the missions
strictly understood under " foreign," i.e. to heathen or non-
Christian countries, we shall find the whole of these parts of the
globe carefully mapped and parcelled out by propaganda to a
variety of missionary agencies or religious orders. The govern-
ment of the various mission fields is generally carried on by
" Vicars-Apostolic " (i.e. titular bishops acting as vicars or dele-
gates of the Apostolic see) or " Prefects-Apostolic " (i.e. priests
with similar powers, but without episcopal rank). In some few
cases (notably India and Japan) a regular territorial hierarchy has
been established, just as in the United Kingdom and the Nether-
lands. Of the religious societies engaged in the evangelization
of these many fields of labour, some have been established exclu-
sively for foreign missionary work among the heathen notably
the famous Societ6 des Missions Etrangeres of Paris, the oldest
and greatest of all (dating from 1658, and consisting of 34 bishops,
1 200 European missionaries and 700 native priests) ; the German
" Society of the Divine Word," whose headquarters are at Steyl
in Holland; the Belgian Society of Scheat; the celebrated French
Society of the " White Fathers," founded by the late Cardinal
Lavigerie for African missions; the English Society of St Joseph,
founded at Mill Hill by Cardinal Vaughan; and some others.
The other missions are entrusted to the care of various religious
orders and congregations, which take up foreign missionary
work in addition to their labours in Christian countries. Such
are the Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, Lazarists, Augustin-
ians, Marists, &c. Besides the above orders of priests, an
immense number of religious societies of women are engaged in
works of education and charity throughout the whole of the
foreign mission field. These have been reckoned at about
42,000 European and 10,000 native sisters. Again, there are
some 20 congregations of " Brothers " (not priests) engaged in
teaching, and numbering some 4500 members.
By far the greater part of the Roman missionary work is
done by France. The majority of the missionaries are French
(over 7000); the bulk of the money so far as it is voluntary
contribution (but the propaganda at Rome has large endow-
ments) is raised in France. The French government, anti-
clerical as it is at home, is the watchful and strenuous protector
of the missions abroad; and it is evident that nota little political
influence in foreign countries is gained thereby. L'Annee de
l'glise, in reporting on the missions in all parts of the world,
dwells continually on this with satisfaction. Protestant mission-
aries are opposed, not merely because they are heretical, but
because they are English or (if American) English-speaking;
and the Greek Church missionaries in Persia and Japan, not only
because they are schismatic, but because they are Russian the
Franco-Russian alliance notwithstanding. This is a feature
in French Catholic missions which cannot be overlooked in the
briefest account of them.
The following list shows the principal foreign Roman Catholic
missionary societies and their fields of work :
I. Societi des Missions Etrangeres (Paris, 1658). Missions:
Manchuria, Korea, Tibet, Japan, China (Sze-Chuen,
Kui-Chow, Kwang-tong, Yunnan), Indo-China (W., S.
and Upper Tongking, E., W. and' N. Cochin-China ;
Cambodia, Siam), Malay Peninsula, Burma (S. and N.),
S. India (dioceses of Pondicherry, Kombakonam, Mysore,
Coimbatore).
II. Society of " White Fathers " (founded by Cardinal Lavigerie,
1868). Missions: Algeria, Sahara, Nyasa, Victoria
Nyanza, Tanganyika, Unyanyembe, Upper Congo.
III. Lyons Seminary for Foreign Missions (1856). Missions:
. Nile Delta, Benin, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Dahomey,
Upper Niger.
IV. Congregation of the Holy Ghost (1703 and 1848). Missions:
Senegambia, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Lower Niger, Gaboon,
French Congo, Lower Congo, Mayotte, Nossibe 1 and
Comoro Islands.
V. Milan Seminary for Foreign Missions (1850). Missions:
China (Hong Kong, N. and S. Ho-nan), East Burma,
India (dioceses of Kishnagar and Haidarabad).
VI. Steyl Society of Foreign Missions (German, 1875). Missions:
S. Shan-tung, China; Togo, W. Africa.
VII. Scheat Society of Foreign Missions (Belgian, 1863).
Missions: Mongolia, Kang-Su (China), Belgian Congo.
VIII. Picputian Society 1 (Paris, 1817). Missions: Hawaii,
Tahiti, Marquesas Islands.
IX. Mill Hill Society (English, 1866). Missions: N. Borneo
and Labuan; N. Punjab, Kashmir and Ladak; Telugu
missions of Madras; Maori missions of N. New Zealand;
N. Uganda.
X. Congregation of the Sacred Heart (Issoudun, France, 1855).
Missions: New Guinea, New Pomerania, Gilbert Islands.
XI. Society of the Divine Saviour (Rome, 1881). Mission : Assam.
XII. Verona Society for African Missions. Mission: The Sudan,
Upper Egypt.
The following societies are engaged in home as well as foreign
missions:
XIII. Marists (French, 1816). Missions: Fiji, Navigator's Island,
New Caledonia, Central Oceania, Solomon Islands, parts
of New Zealand (dioceses of Wellington and Christ-
church).
1 Father Damien belonged to this society, which takes its popular
name from the Rue de Picpus, Paris.
MISSION FIELDS]
MISSIONS
59 1
XIV. Lazarists (founded by St Vincent de Paul, i;th century).
Missions: Abyssinia, Persia, China (Peking or N. Chih-li,
S.-W. Chih-li, Kiang-si, Che-Kiang), S. Madagascar.
XV. Oblates of Mary Immaculate (1840). Missions: Ceylon
(nearly all), S. Africa (Basutoland, Natal, Transvaal,
Orange River Colony), the " Great North-West " of
Canada (Athabasca-Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, St Boni-
face, New Westminster).
XVI. Salesians (founded by Don Bosco). Missions: Patagonia
and Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Indians of S.
America (Ecuador, Brazil, Argentine); some missions in
Palestine.
XVII. Pattottines. Missions: Cameroon, W. Africa; Australia
(Beagle Bay, native settlement).
XVIII. Jesuits. Missions: India (dioceses of Bombay, Poona,
Calcutta, Madura, Mangalore, Trichinopoly), Ceylon
(dioceses of Galle and Trincomalee), China (Kiang-nan,
S.-E. Chih-li), Madagascar, Koango (W. Africa), Zam-
bezia, Jamaica, British Guiana, British Honduras, Alaska.
XIX. Dominicans, Missions: Asiatic Turkey (Mosul), Tongking
(N., E. and Central), China (Amoy, Fokien), Curacao,
Trinidad.
XX. Franciscans. Missions: Egypt, Tripoli, Morocco, China
(N. and S. Shan-si, N. and E. Shan-tung, N. Shen-si,
E., N.-W. and S.-W. Hu-pe). Capuchins: Aden and
Arabia, India (dioceses of Agra, Allahabad, Lahore),
Seychelles, Eritrea (Red Sea), Gallas, Cephalonia, Trebi-
zond, Mardin, Crete, Caroline Islands, Araucania, Brazil,
Bulgaria. Conventuals: Jassy (Rumania).
XXI. Benedictines. Missions: Ceylon (diocese of Kandy), New
Zealand (diocese of Auckland), N. American Indians
(Indian Territory and Oklahoma), Australian natives
(New Nursia).
XXII. Trappists. Missions: Settlements in Natal (Marianhill),
West Africa (Congo), China, Japan.
XXIII. Augustinians. Missions: Philippines, China (N. Hu-nan),
Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor (" Assumptionists ").
XXIV. Carmelites. Missions: Bagdad, India (dioceses of Verapoly
and Quilon).
XXV. Redemptorists. Missions: Dutch Guiana.
XXVI. Passionists. Missions: Bulgaria (diocese of Nicopolis).
tion
(est. 1843 as auxiliary
Society of the Schools of the East (est. 1855).
On figures given in H. A. Krose's Katholische Missions-
stalislik (1908), the following totals of Roman Catholic Missions
amongst non-Christians have been compiled: European priests
7933; native priests, 5837; lay brothers, 5270; sisters, 21,320;
catechists, 24,524; native membership, 7,441,215; catechumens,
1,517,909. The annual baptisms of adult heathen are 190,000
those of heathen children at the point of death, 450,000. Over
840,000 children are in lower schools, 66,000 in middle schools
and 90,000 in orphanages. The total number of schools is
24,000, of churches and chapels 28,000, and of mission stations
43,000.
Note. Where figures for 1910 are quoted in this article they are
really those of two or three years earlier, collected for the World
Conference of 1910.
Orthodox Eastern Church? When the tsar Ivan the Terrible
(t 533-1 584) began the great advance of Russia into Northern
Asia, a large number of missionaries accompanied the troops
and during the I7th century many thousands of Tatars were
baptized, though from lack of fostering influences they lapsed
into heathenism. Very little was done until 1824, when John
Veniaminov (d. 1879), a priest of Irkutsk, afterwards Archbishop
Innocent, began a career of evangelistic activity which has few
parallels. He founded missions in Alaska and the Aleutian
Islands, Kamtchatka and throughout Eastern Siberia, and
established the Orthodox Missionary Society at Moscow. In
Altai (Central Siberia) the Archimandrite Macarius, and among
the Tatars in south-east Russia with headquarters at Kazan
the great linguist Ilminski, did similar work. In addition tc
the nine distinct missions (300 workers) in Siberia and the si
(with 50 workers) in European Russia, the Orthodox Churc
(Russian) has three foreign missions: (i) in China, founded a
Pekin 1714, in the face of Jesuit opposition; (2) in Japan
established about 1863 by Bishop Nicolai, a chaplain at Naga
saki; (3) in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the bishop residin
'See E. Smirnoff, Russian Orthodox Missions; an article in Th
East and the West (April, 1904) ; and the Statistical Atlas (1910), p. 99
t San Francisco and having jurisdiction also over members of
be church settled in the United States of America Altogether
be Russian Church spends over 30,000 annually on these
missions, and works with the British and Foreign Bible Society
n translating and distributing the Scriptures. In Japan the mis-
ion has become a practically independent branch of the Church.
HISTORY OF MISSION FIELDS
The continuity of missionary enthusiasm maintained through
he primitive, the medieval, and the modern periods of the
hurch's history, operating at every critical epoch, and surviving
after periods of stagnation and depression, is a very significant
act. It is true that other religions have been called missionary
eligions, and that one of them long held first place in the .
eligious census of mankind. The missionary activity of Budd-
lism is a thing of the past, and no characteristic rite distinguish-
ng it has found its way into a second continent. Mahomme-
danism indeed is active, and is the chief opponent of Christianity
.o-day, but the character of its teaching is too exact a reflection
of the race, time, place and climate in which it arose to admit
of its becoming universal. It is difficult to trace the slightest
probability of its harmonizing with the intellectual, social and
moral progress of the modern world. With all its deficiencies,
the Christian church has gained the " nations of the future,"
and whereas in the 3rd century the proportion of Christians to
.he whole human race was only that of one in a hundred and
Ifty, this has now been exchanged for one in three, and it is
ndisputable that the progress of the human race at this moment
s identified with the spread of the influence of the nations of
Christendom.
Side by side with this continuity of missionary zeal, a notice-
able feature is the immense influence of individual energy and
the subduing force of personal character. Around individuals
penetrated with Christian zeal and self-denial has centred not
merely the life, but the very existence of primitive, medieval
and modern missions. What Ulfilas was to the Gothic tribes,
what Columba and his disciples were to the early Celtic missions,
what Augustine or Aidan was to the British Isles, what Boniface
was to the churches of Germany and Anskar to those of Denmark
and Sweden, that, on the discovery of a new world of missionary
enterprise, was Xavier to India, Hans Egede to Greenland,
Eliot to the Red Indians, Martyn to the church of Cawnpore,
Marsden to the Maoris, Carey, Heber, Wilson, Duff and Edwin
Lewis to India, Morrison, Gilmour, Legge, Hill, Griffith John to
China, Gray, Livingstone, Mackenzie, Moffat, Hannington,
Mackay to Africa, Broughton to Australia, Patteson to Melan-
esia, Crowther to the Niger Territory, Chalmers to New Guinea,
Brown to Fiji. 2 At the most critical epochs such men have
ever been raised up, and the reflex influence of their lives and
self-denial has told upon the Church at home, while apart from
their influence the entire history of important portions of the
world's surface would have been altered.
If from the agents themselves we turn to the work that has
been accomplished, it will not be disputed that the success of
missions has been marked amongst rude and aboriginal tribes.
What was true in the early missions has been found true in these
latter times. The rude and barbarous northern peoples seemed
to fall like " full ripe fruit before the first breath of the gospel."
The Goths and the Vandals who poured down upon the Roman
Empire were evangelized so silently and rapidly that only a fact
here and there relating to their conversion has been preserved.
This is exactly analogous to modern experience in the South
Seas, Asia and Africa, to a survey of which we now turn.
The South Seas. Missionary work in the Pacific began with
Magellan (1521), when in a fortnight he converted all the in-
habitants of Cebu and the adjacent Philippine Islands! The
Jesuits, Recollets and Augustinians also worked in Mariana,
Pelews and Caroline Islands, though the two latter were soon
abandoned. The beginning of modern effort was made by the
London Missionary Society in 1797.
' E. Stock's Short Handbook of Missions has a chapter on " Some
Notable Missionaries " and another on " Some Prominent Native
Christians."
592
MISSIONS
[MISSION FIELDS
Australia and New Zealand. The earliest attempt to evange-
lize the aborigines of Australia by a separate mission was that of
the Church Missionary Society in 1825. This work centred at
Wellington Valley and Moreton Bay, but was given up in 1842.
A new beginning was made in 1850 by the Anglican Board of
Missions for Australia and Tasmania, and now each diocese is
responsible for its own area. At Bellenden Ker, near Cairns, in
North Queensland (diocese of Carpentaria), many natives have
settled upon a reserve granted by government to the Anglican
Church, and at another reserve, Fraser Island, the diocese of
Brisbane has also undertaken successful work. Nomadic
aborigines have hardly been touched. Apart from Queensland
most of the black population is in West Australia; here the
i Roman Catholic Church is the main evangelizing agency. In
! the north and central districts the German missions have been
active. Both in Australia (especially in Sydney and Melbourne)
and at Thursday Island there is work among the Chinese.
In Tasmania the aborigines are extinct, the last pure-blooded
native dying in 1876. The half-castes settled in the Bass Straits
are ministered to by the bishop of Tasmania. The Maoris of
New Zealand first came under Christian influence through the
efforts of Samuel Marsden, a colonial chaplain in New South
Wales about 1808. In 1822 Wesleyan missionaries reached the
island. The first baptism was in 1825 but during the next five
years there was a great mass movement. In 1840 the country
became a British colony, and soon afterwards George Selwyn
was consecrated bishop. He was so impressed with the work of
native evangelists that he founded a college in Auckland where
such teachers could be trained. In this he was helped by J. C.
Patteson, and out of it grew the Melanesian Mission. The
Maori rebellion, fomented by French Catholics, was an outbreak
against everything foreign, and the strange religion Hau-hauism,
a blend of Old Testament history, Roman Catholic dogmas,
pagan rites and ventriloquism, found many adherents. Yet
the normal missionary organization suffered very little. Later
came Mormon missionaries, and these have to some extent
further depleted the Christian ranks.
New Guinea. In this large island some Gossner missionaries
(1854) were the pioneers. They could not do much, but their
successors, the Utrecht Missionary Union, who began work when
the Dutch took possession of the north-west of the island, are
making themselves felt through their six stations. In German
New Guinea the Neuendethelsau (1886) and Rhenish (1887)
Societies have fourteen stations. In British New Guinea, the
south-east portion of the island, the London Mission (1871), the
Australian Wesleyans (1892) and the Anglican Church of Aus-
tralia (1892), have arranged a friendly division of the field and
met with gratifying success. Work was begun in 1871-1872 when
under the oversight of S. Macfarlane and A. W. Murray a number
of native teachers from the Loyalty Islands Rarotonga and
Mare settled on the island. The first converts were baptized in
1882 and the establishment of a British Protectorate (1884-1888)
gave the work a new impetus. The name of W. G. Lawes and
James Chalmers (who with O. Tompkins was killed by cannibals,
1901) of the London Missionary Society, and that of Maclaren,
the pioneer of the Church Missionary Society's work, are immor-
tally associated with Papua. The history of mission work here
is one of exploration and peril amongst savage peoples, multi-
tudinous languages and an adverse climate, but it has been
marked by wise methods as well as enthusiastic devotion,
industrial work being one of the basal principles. Besides the
Protestant agencies already named, the Roman Catholic Order
of the Sacred Heart has been working in the island since 1886;
its centre is at Yule Island, and it works up the St Joseph's river.
Other Islands. The London Mission ship "Duff" in 1797
landed eighteen missionaries (mainly artisans) at Tahiti, ten
more in the Tonga or Friendly Islands, and one on the Marquesas.
Those in Tahiti had a varying experience, and their numbers
were much reduced, but in July 1812 King Pomare II. gave up
his idols and sought baptism. By 1813 idolatry was abolished
in the larger islands of the group and there ensued the task of
building up a Christian community. Foremost in this work
were William Ellis (q.v.) and John Williams (q.v.), who formed a
native agency to carry the gospel to their fellow islanders, and so
inaugurated what has since been a characteristic feature of South
Sea Missions. In 1818 two Tahiti teachers settled in the Tonga
islands, which the " Duff " pioneers had abandoned after half of
them had been killed for a cannibal feast. When the Wesleyans
came in 1821 the way had been prepared, and soon after, led by
their king, George, the people turned to the new faith. About
the same time Rurutu in the Austral Islands and Aitutaki in the
Cook Islands were evangelized, also by natives, and Christianity
spread from island to island. John Williams himself removed
in 1827 to Rarotonga and from there influenced Samoa, the
Society Islands and Fiji. To Fiji in 1834 came James Calvert
and other Wesleyan missionaries beginning a work which under
them and their successors had extraordinary success. Williams
met his death at Erromanga in 1839, but he had established a
training school on Rarotonga, and bought a ship, the " Camden,"
which was of the greatest service for the work. In 1 841 work was
begun in New Caledonia, in 1842 in the Loyalty Isles and in the
New Hebrides, associated from 1857 with the memorable name
of John G. Paton. In 1846 a teacher was placed on Niue,
Savage Island, and in ten years it was evangelized. Meanwhile
the original work in Tahiti had been taken over by missionaries
of the Paris Society, though the last London Missionary Society
agent did not leave that group till 1890. In 1861 Patteson was
consecrated bishop of Melanesia, and the Auckland training
school was removed to Norfolk Island. By arrangement with
the Presbyterians the area of the mission includes the Northern
New Hebrides, Banks, Torres, Santa Cruz and Solomon Islands.
Patteson was murdered in 1871, a victim of the mistrust engen-
dered in the natives by kidnapping traders. In 1877 John
Selwyn was consecrated bishop. Wesleyan native evangelists
from Fiji and Tonga carried Christianity in 1875 to the Bismarck
Archipelago.
The solitary worker (W. P. Crook) on the Marquesas did not
remain long, and after he went nothing was done till 1833-1834,
when first some American and then some English missionaries
arrived, but met with scant success and gave it up in 1841. Since
1854 teachers from the Hawaiian Islands have worked in the
Marquesas, but results here have been less fruitful than anywhere
else in the South Seas. In Hawaii itself much was accomplished
by American missionaries, the first of whom were H. Bingham
and A. Thurston (1820), and the most successful, Titus Coan,
under whose leadership over 20,000 people were received into the
churches between 1836 and 1839. Under the reign of Kalakaua
(1874-1891) there was a strong reaction towards heathenism,
but since the annexation of the islands by the United States of
America the various churches of that land have taken up the
task of evangelization and consolidation.
In the Micronesian Islands, while animism and tabu were
strong, there was not the cannibalism of the southern islands.
Work was begun in the Caroline Isles in 1852 and in time spread
to the Gilbert and Marshall groups. In the Carolines and Mar-
shalls it has now largely passed to German missionaries, the
Americans having enough to do in the Philippines, where there
are already over 27,000 Protestants.
The outstanding features of missionary work in the South
Seas are (i) its remarkable success: cannibalism, human sacrifice
and infanticide have been suppressed, civilization and trade have
marvellously advanced; (2) the evangelical devotion of the
natives themselves; (3) the need of continued European super-
vision, the natives being still in many ways little better than
grown-up children.
Africa. 1 In Africa, as in the South Seas, mission work has
gone hand in hand with geographical discovery. It is in every
sense a modern field, or rather a collection of fields, varying in
physical, racial, social and linguistic character. The unaccus-
tomed conditions of life and the fatal influence of the climate
have claimed as many victims here as did savagery in the Pacific
1 SeeF. P. Noble, The Redemption of Africa; J. Stewart, Dawn in
the Dark Continent; Sir Harry Johnston, " The Negro and Religion "
in Nineteenth Century, June igio.
MISSION FIELDS]
MISSIONS
593
Islands. The partition of the continent among the various
European nations has been on the whole favourable to mission
work. The nature of the task and of the results may be best
approached by considering the different divisions North,
South, East, West and Central Africa.
North Africa, along the Mediterranean from Morocco to
Egypt, is distinctly Mahommedan. To these regions came St
Louis and Raimon Lull, and one may in passing remember the
strength of Christianity in Proconsular Africa in the days of
Tertullian and Cyprian, and in Egypt under Clement of Alex-
andria, Origen and Athanasius. To-day Islam is supreme,
though the North Africa Mission, working largely on medical
lines, has penetrated into many cities. In Egypt the United
Presbyterians of America have met with considerable success
among the Copts, and their fine educational work has proved a
valuable asset both to themselves and the country. The Church
Missionary Society is doing steady work in Cairo and in Upper
Egypt. In the Eastern Sudan a promising beginning has been
made, but the regions south of Kordofan have hardly been
touched. In Nigeria the Hausa tribes are coming to be better
known, and to respond to the Christian teaching. In the Sahara
and at Suakin there are Roman Catholic missions. There is a
Roman mission to the Gallas in Abyssinia. That country has
its own crude form of Christianity, and is much the same today as
when Peter Heiling in the i7th century endeavoured to pro-
pagate a purer faith. A mission undertaken by the Church
Missionary Society in 1830 was closed by French Jesuit intrigue
in 1838.
South Africa. The Moravians, represented by George
Schmidt, who arrived at Cape Town in July 1737, were the first
to undertake mission work in South Africa. Schmidt won the
confidence of the Hottentots, but the Dutch authorities stopped
his work. In 1798 John T. Vanderkemp, an agent of the London
Missionary Society, founded a mission to the Kaffirs east of
Cape Town, and Robert Moffat (1818) went to the Bechuanas.
David Livingstone was as determined to open the interior as
the Boers were to keep it shut, and he succeeded, pushing north,
discovering Lake NgarrJ, and consecrating a remarkable life to
the evangelization of Central Africa. The London Mission has
also largely evangelized the Matabele. In 1814 the Wesleyans
began work among the Namaquas and Hottentots, and after-
,wards went into Kaffraria, Bechuanaland and Natal. They
were followed by the Glasgow Missionary Society (1821), the
Paris Evangelical Society (1829), the Moravian, Rhenish and
Berlin Societies, and the American Board. The Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel came in 1819, mainly for colonists,
the Church Missionary Society in 1837. The province of South
Africa has ten dioceses, the bishop of Cape Town being metro-
politan. The Glasgow Society's work was ultimately taken
over by the Free Church of Scotland, whose great achievement is
the Lovedale Institute, combining industrial and mission work.
The Germans and Scandinavians have also been ardent workers
in South Africa, and the Dutch Reformed Church has not
entirely neglected the natives. One Dutch society gives its
attention to the northern part of the Transvaal. The chief
difficulties in the way of evangelization have been (i) the hostility
of natives races aroused by European annexations, (2) the intro-
duction of European vices, (3) the movement known as Ethio-
pianism. The British Wesleyans refused to confer full rights on
negro pastors, who then appealed to the African Methodist
Episcopal Church, a product of American evangelization. One
of them, J. M. Dwane, was made Vicar-Bishop, and a large and
powerful independent negro church organized. Dwane afterwards
approached the Anglicans, and in 1900 that church formed the
" Ethiopian Order," ordaining Dwane a deacon and making
him Provincial of the Order. Each bishop now deals with the
Ethiopians in his own diocese. The South African governments
foresaw dangerous developments in the Ethiopian movement,
and steps were taken to restrain its growth. Ethiopianism, if
ecclesiastical in its origin, gained strength from racial base.
The task of averting the racial bitterness so dominant in the
United States of America is a most formidable one. There
are in South Africa several vicariates and prefectures of the
Roman Church, the principal missions being French, those of the
Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Oblates of Mary.
West Africa was first visited by the Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel in 1752. Its agent, T. Thompson, trained
Philip Quaque, said to be " the first convert who ever received
ordination since the Reformation in the Reformed Church."
The Church Missionary Society came in 1804 and has worked
heroically and successfully, though the largest mission now is
that of the Wesleyans, who came in 1811, settling first at Sierra
Leone. The American Baptists in Liberia (1821) and the Basel
Mission in the Gold Coast (1827), the Congregationalists of the
United States of America and Canada in Angola, and the English
and American Baptists on the Congo (since 1875) have also
extensive and prospering agencies. West Africa has taken
heavy toll not only in money but in life, but the lesson has now
been learned, and a system of frequent furloughs combined with
a better understanding of the climatic requirements have
appreciably lessened the peril. This region is linked with the
name of the Anglican negro Bishop, Samuel Crowther, and with
one phase of the ceaseless strength of Islam, which has so far
failed to reach the west coast, finding itself confronted by the
Christian influences which are at work among the great Hausa
tribes and other peoples within the area of the Niger mission.
The Portuguese in Angola and the agents of King Leopold in
the Congo State have not been conspicuous friends of missionary
enterprise, and the light-hearted childishness of the native
character, so well portrayed in Miss Kingsley's writings, shows
how difficult it is to build up a strong and stable Christian
church. Bishop Taylor's effort at creating a self-supporting
mission proved fruitless. The American Lutherans are attempt-
ing the same task on rather different lines, and with more
promise. The Roman Catholic missions are chiefly French,
and organized by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the
Lyons African Mission.
Central Africa. The upper Congo region opened up by Living-
stone and Stanley has been a favourite sphere for what are
known as " faith societies," e.g. the Plymouth Brethren, the
Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Regions Beyond Mission-
ary Union. The American Baptists continue the work started
by the Livingstone Inland Mission in 1878, and the Southern
Presbyterian Board (American) have done notable work. The
Paris Society, represented especially by Francois Coillard, has
been successful along the Zambezi, and Scottish, German,
Moravian and Jesuit agencies are also well represented. North-
ward, Central and East African organizations, following the
Cape to Cairo route, are in touch with North African agencies
working up the Nile.
East Africa. When the Abyssinia mission was closed in 1838
one of the missionaries, Krapf, went among the Gallas and then
on to Mombasa, working in company with Rebmann. Since
H. M. Stanley's appeal (1875) most satisfactory work, extensive
and intensive, has been accomplished in Uganda, by the Church
Missionary Society. The names of Mackay, Hannington and
Pilkington, who lived and died here, are amongst the greatest
in the roll of missionary heroes. The Roman Mission too
has been very successful; for some years a French agency,
the White Fathers of Algeria, carried it on, but they were
afterwards joined by English helpers from St Joseph's Society
at Mill Hill. The White Fathers also work in the Great
Lakes region, and on the Zanzibar coast are the French Congre-
gation of the Holy Ghost and German Benedictines. Zanzibar
is also one of the centres of the Universities Mission, another
being Likoma on Lake Nyasa. Near this lake the Scottish
churches are also doing noble work. Besides Uganda the Church
Missionary Society is responsible for Mombasa. The London
Mission is meeting with success at the south end of Lake
Tanganyika in North-east Rhodesia. The English United
Methodists and some Swedish societies have begun work among
the Gallas. German Missionary agencies have also come in with
German colonization. In East Africa, as in the West, Christian
missionaries fear most the aggressive Moslem propaganda.
594
MISSIONS
[MISSION FIELDS
Madagascar 1 is one of the most interesting mission fields.
Work was begun by the London Mission in 1819, and the work of
civilization and evangelization went steadily forward till 1835,
when a period of repression and severe persecution set in, which
lasted till 1861. When the work was recommenced it was found
that the native Christians had multiplied and developed during
the harsh treatment of the 25 years. In 1869 the idols were
publicly destroyed and the island declared Christian by royal
proclamation. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
(1864), the Norwegian Missionary Society (1866), and the Friends'
Foreign Missionary Association joined in the work, the prosperity
of which received a severe check by the French annexation in
1896. The French authorities were hostile to the English
missionaries, and even the handing over of part of the field to
the Paris Evangelical Society did not do much to ease the situa-
tion. Laws were first enacted against private schools, then
against elementary schools, and in 1906-1907 measures were
passed which practically closed all mission schools. Family
prayers were forbidden if any outside the immediate family
were present, and religious services at the graveside were pro-
hibited. Missionary work in the island has thus passed
through a peculiarly trying experience, but happier conditions
are now likely to prevail. In Mauritius and the Seychelles the
Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel are at work, especially among the coolies on the
sugar plantations.
The outstanding problem of African missions at least north of the
Equator (south there is the Ethiopian question) is not the degradation
of the black races, nor the demoralizing influences of heathen
Christians, nor even the slave dealer, though all these obstacles
are present and powerful. The all-decisive conflict is that between
Christianity and Islam, and the Christian agencies must show much
more co-operation if they are to be successful. The lines of mission-
ary work have been, generally speaking, simple gospel preaching
followed by education and industrial work. So rare were the ordi-
nary comforts, and even necessities of life, that the latter had to take
a prominent place from the beginning: the missionary had to be
farmer, carpenter, brickmaker, tailor, printer, house and church
builder, not only for himself but for his converts. The work of
Bible translation has been particularly long and difficult; for the
innumerable peoples who did not speak some form of Arabic the
languages had first to be reduced to writing, and many Christian
terms had to be coined.
India. 2 The earliest missionaries to India, with the possible
exception of Pantaenus of Alexandria (c. A.D. 180), were the
Nestorians from Persia. The record of their work is told else-
where (see NESTORIUS and NESTORIANS). The Jesuits came in
the 1 6th century, but were more successful quantitatively than
qualitatively; in the. i8th century the Danish coast mission on
the coast of Tranquebar made the first Protestant advance,
Bartholomaus, Ziegenbalg (1683-1719), Plutschau and Christian
Friedrich Schwartz (1726-1798) being its great names. Up to
this time the chief results were that (i) Christianity had gained a
footing, (2) it had continued the monotheistic modification of
Indian thought begun by Mahommedanism, and (3) the futility
of sporadic and fanatical proselytism had been shown. A new
era began with the arrival of William Carey and the founding of
the Serampur Mission (15 m. north of Calcutta), though the
hostility of the East India Company made the early years of the
igth century very unproductive. When Carey died in 1834 he
and his colleagues Marshman and Ward had translated the
Bible into seven languages, and the New Testament into 23
more, besides rendering services of the highest kind to literature,
science and general progress. They founded agricultural
societies and savings' banks, and helped to abolish suttee, infan-
ticide and other cruelties. At Travancore in the south, Ringel-
taube, an agent of the London Missionary Society, had begun a
work, especially among the Shanars or toddy drawers, which by
1840 had 15,000 Christians; and the Church Missionary Society,
led by Rhenius, had equal success in Tinnevelly. The Baptists,
drawn by the fame of the temple of Jagannath at Puri on the
1 See T. T. Matthews, Thirty Years in Madagascar.
1 See E. P. Rice in A Primer of Modern Missions, ed. R. Lovett
(London, 1896); J. Richter, A History of Missions in India (1908);
rhe Church Missionary Review (July 1908); Contemporary Review
(May 1908 and June 1910).
east coast, established a mission in Orissa in 1821 which soon bore
fruit ; the Wesleyans were in Ceylon, Mysore and the Kaveri valley,
the London Missionary Society at the great military centres
Madras, Bangalore and Bellary, agents of the American Board
at Ahmednagar and other parts of the Mahratta country around
Bombay. The headquarters of Hinduism, the Ganges valley,
was occupied by the Baptists, the Church Missionary Society and
the London Missionary Society, 'these entering Benares in 1816,
1818 and 1820 respectively. Alexander Duff, a Scottish Presby-
terian, had begun his great educational work in Calcutta, and
Bible tract and book societies were springing up everywhere.
Chaplains and bishops of the Anglican Church like James Hough
in Tinnevelly, Henry Martyn in the north, Daniel Corrie in
Agra, T. F. Middleton in Calcutta, and Reginald Heber all over
India, were eagerly using their opportunities. In 1830 ten
societies with 106 stations and 147 agents were at work; 1834
saw the founding of the Basel Mission on the west coast, the
American Mission in Madura, the American Presbyterian Mission
in Ludhiana. It would be impossible to trace in detail the work
done by the different societies since Carey's time. The task as
it presented itself may be analysed as follows: (i) to replace the
caste system and especially the oppressive supremacy of the
Brahmins by a spirit of universal brotherhood and the estab-
lishment of social and religious liberty; (2) to correct and raise
the standard of conduct; (3) to attack polytheistic idolatry with
its attendant immoralities; (4) to replace the pantheistic by a
theistic standpoint; (5) to elevate woman and the pariah.
Besides these matters which concerned Hinduism there was the
problem of converting sixty million Mahommedans. The chief
methods adopted have been the following: (i) vernacular
preaching in the large towns and on itineraries through the
rural districts, a work in which native evangelists guided by
Europeans and Americans played a large part. (2) Medical
missions, which have done much to break down barriers of
prejudice, especially in Kashmir under Dr Elmslie of the Church
Missionary Society, and in Rajputana at Jaipur under Dr
Valentine of the United Presbyterians. (3) Orphanages, in
which the Roman Catholics led the way and have maintained
their lead. (4) Vernacular schools, a good example of which is
seen in the American Board's Madura Mission. (5) English
education, in which the missionary societies have amply supple-
mented the efforts of the government, outstanding examples
being the Madras Christian College (Free Church of Scotland),
so long connected with the name of Dr William Miller, the
General Assembly of Scotland's Institution at Calcutta, founded
by Duff, Wilson College, Bombay (Free Church of Scotland), and
St Joseph's College (Roman Catholic) at Trichinopoly. Work
of this kind is followed up in some centres by lectures and con-
versations with educated Hindus. The Haskell Lectureship,
which grew out of the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, belongs
here. (6) Female education and zenana work. (7) Uplifting
work among the Panchamas or low-castes, which has been
strikingly successful among the Malas (American Baptists) and
the Madigas (London Missionary Society) of the Telugu-speaking
country, who come in mass movements to the Christian faith.
(8) Missions among aboriginal tribes, e.g. the Kols and Santals
of Chota Nagpur (Berlin Gossner Mission and the Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel), and the tribes of the Khassia
Mountains east of Bengal (Welsh Calvinistic Methodists).
(9) Christian literature, in which connexion the name of Dr John
Murdoch will always be honourably remembered. (10) Pastoral
work and the care of the churches.
The great changes that have been wrought in India,
politically, commercially, intellectually and religiously, by the
combined action of the British government and the Christian
missions, are evidenced amcmg other tokens by the growth of
such societies as the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj. Ortho-
dox Hindus, especially those whose social status and very liveli-
hood are imperilled by the revolution, have shown their alarm
either by open opposition, subjecting converts to every sort of
caste coercion, or by methods of defence, e.g. Hindu tract
societies and young men's associations, which are modelled on
MISSION FIELDS]
MISSIONS
595
Christian organizations. A counter reformation can also be
traced which attempts to revive Hinduism by purging it of its
grossness and allegorizing its fables and legends. A new Islam
is also a factor of the situation. Comparatively few converts
have been made from Mahommedanism to Christianity, and these
have been chiefly among the learned. But there is a wide
prevalence of free-thinking, especially among the younger and
educated classes of the community.
The special difficulties of mission work in India may be thus
summarized. (l) Racial antipathy. (2) The speculative rather
than experimental and practical nature of the Hindu consciousness
historical proofs make no appeal to him. (3) The lack of initiative:
in a land where the joint family system is everywhere and all power-
ful, individualism and will-power are at a discount. (4) The ignor-
ance and conservatism of the women. (5) An inadequate sense of
sin. (6) The introduction of European forms of materialism and
anti-Christian philosophy. Perhaps, too, the methods adopted by
missionaries have not always been the wisest, and they have some-
times failed to remember the method of their Master, who came " not
to destroy, but to fulfil." In spite, however, of all the difficulties,
permanent and increasing results have been achieved along all the
lines indicated above. The establishment of a strong native church
is far from being the only fruit of the enterprise, but it is a fruit that
can be gauged by statistics, and these are sufficiently striking. In a
necessarily inadequate sketch it is impossible to give more than the
barest mention to one or two other features of modern missionary
achievement in India, e.g. the development of industrial schools,
the establishment of a South India United Church, in which the
Congregationalist agencies (London Missionary Society and American
Board) and the Presbyterians have joined forces, and the endeavour
to train an efficient and educated native ministry, which is being
promoted especially at Serampur, where an old Danish degree-
granting charter has been revived in what should become a Christian
university, and at Bangalore, where Presbyterians, Congregational-
ists and Wesleyans collaborate to staff and maintain a united theo-
logical college. The government census for India and Burma (1901)
gives a Christian population of 2,923,241 (native Christians 2,664,313)
out of a total population of 294,361,056, or about 3%. The inclu-
sion of Portuguese and French possessions would add about 350,000
to the Christian total. Though the number does not seem relatively
high, it is significant when compared with that of former censuses
in 1872, 1,517,997; in 1881, 1,862,525 (increase 22-7%); in 1891,
2,284,380 (increase 22-6%); in 1901, 2,923,241 (increase of 28%).
The increase of 28 % between 1891 and 1901 has often been compared
with the fact that the total population of India only registered an
increase of 2% in that decade. In the words of The Pioneer,
" this is a hard fact which cannot be explained away " and " the
most remarkable feature of the returns." The increase was shared
by every province and state in India. In 1910 there were 4614
missionaries (including wives), representing 122 societies, 1272 Indian
ministers, and 34,095 other native workers, including teachers and
Bible-women.
The growth of the Protestant Native Christian community
between 1851 and 1910 is shown in the following table:
Native Christian
Community.
Communicants.
Native Agents.
Number.
Rate of
Increase.
Number.
Rate of
Increase.
Proportion
of the
Community.
Ordained.
Unordained
Preachers.
1851
1861
1871
1881
1890
1900
1910
91,092
138,731
224,258
417,372
559,661
854,867
1,472,448
%
52-3
61-6
86-1
34-o
52-8
72-2
14,661
24,976
52,816
"3,325
182,722
301,699
522,743
o/
/o
70-3
111-4
"4-5
61-2
65-1
73-3
o/
/o
16-0
18-0
23-5
27-1
32-6
35-3
21
97
225
461
797
1,272
493
1266
1985
2488
3491
The Protestant community in India in 1910 was over a million
strong, well distributed among the chief provinces, a fine spiritual
force, easily first in female education, and rapidly growing in wealth,
position and influence. A recent report of the Director of Public
Instruction for the Madras Presidency says: " I have frequently
called attention to the educational progress of the native Christian
community. There can be no question, if the community pursues
with steadiness the present policy of its teachers, that in the course of
a generation it will have secured a preponderating position in all the
great professions."
What India wants (as Nobili 300 years ago saw, and attempted,
though by fatal methods of deceit, to supply) _is a Christianity not
foreign but native, not dissociated from the religious life of the land
but its fulfilment. Though there are many Christians in India
to-day, the Hindu still looks askance at Christianity, not because it is
a religion but because it is foreign. " India is waiting for her own
divinely appointed apostle, who, whether Brahmin or non-Brahmin,
shall connect Christianity with India's religious past, and present
it as the true Vedanta or completion of the Veda and thus make it
capable of appealing to the Hindu religious nature."
It only remains to be said that the work of the missionaries
individually and collectively has over and over again received the
warmest recognition and praise from the highest officials of the
Indian government.
China.- 1 The earliest Christian missionaries to China, as to
India, were the Nestorians (q.v.). Their work and that of the
Roman Church, begun as the result of Marco Polo's travels about
1 290, faded away under the persecution of the Ming dynasty
which came to power about 1350. The next attempt was that
of the French Jesuits, following on the visit and death of Xavier.
They established themselves at Canton in 1582, and on the
accession of the Manchu dynasty (1644) advanced rapidly. In
1685 there were three dioceses, Peking, Nanking and Macao, with
a hundred churches. The Orthodox Eastern Church gained a
footing in Peking in the same year, and established a college of
Greek priests. Friction between Jesuits and Dominicans led
to the proscription of Christianity by the emperor in 1724,
missionaries and converts being banished. The story of modern
missions in China begins with Robert Morrison (q.v.) of the
London Missionary Society, who reached Canton in 1807, and not
being allowed to reside in China entered the service of the East
India Company. In 1813 he was joined by a colleague, William
Milne, and in 1814 baptized his first convert. In 1829 came
representatives of the American Board, in 1836 Peter Parker
began his medical mission, and on the opening of the Treaty Ports
the old edicts were withdrawn, and other societies crowded in to
a field more than ample. After the war of 1856 a measure of
official toleration was obtained, and the task of evangelizing the
country was fairly begun. Though the missionaries were chiefly
concentrated in the treaty ports they gradually pushed inland,
and here the names of W. C. Burns, a Scottish evangelist,
J. Hudson Taylor, the founder of the China Inland Mission, and
James Gilmour, the apostle of Mongolia, are pre-eminent. But
for more than half a century China seemed the most hopeless of
mission fields. The upper classes were especially anti-foreign,
and the whole nation vaunted its superiority to the rest of man-
kind. In 1857 there were only about 400 baptized Protestant
Christians in the whole of China. Even after the removal of
the edicts the old prejudices remained, and the missionaries
were regarded as political emissaries, the forerunners of military
aggression. Native Christians were stigmatized as traitors,
" followers of the foreign devils." In 1870 there was a great out-
break concentrating in the massacres at Hankow and Tientsin; in
1891 at Hunan and in 1895 at Ku Cheng there
were other attacks which were only pre-
liminary to the Boxer uprising of 1890-1900,
when 135 missionaries, besides 52 children
and perhaps 16,000 native Christians, whose
heroism will always be memorable, perished,
often after horrible tortures. There is little
doubt that this savage outburst was
directed not against religious teaching
as such, but against the introduction of
customs and ideas which tended to weaken
the old power of the mandarins over the,
people. These leaders skilfully seized upon
every breach of tradition to inflame popular passion, attacking
especially the medical work as a pretext for mutilation, the
schools as hotbeds of vice, and the orphanages as furnishing
material for witchcraft. Out of the agony, however, a new
China was born. The growing power of Japan, seen in her wars
with China and Russia, and the impotence of the Boxers against
the European allies, made all classes in China realize their com-
parative impotence, and the central government began a series
of reforms, reorganizing the military, educational, fiscal and poli-
tical systems on Western lines. Educational reforms became
especially insistent, and modern methods and studies supplanted
'See A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics; Village Life in China;
and J. C. Gibson, Mission Problems and Mission Methods in South
China.
59 6
MISSIONS
[MISSION FIELDS
the immemorial Confucian type. Students went in great
numbers to Japan, Europe and America, and the old contempt
and hostility toward things Western gave place to respect and
friendliness. Early in the ipth century the missionaries had
not been able to do much by way of education, but the new
openings were seized with such power as was possible, and while
in 1876 there were 289 mission schools with 4909 pupils, in 1910
there were 3129 schools with 79,823 scholars. More significant
still is the way in which the foremost Chinese officials have
turned to missionaries like Timothy Richard and Griffith John
for assistance in guiding the new impulse. The universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, under the inspiration of Lord William
Cecil, were interesting themselves in 1910 in a scheme for
establishing a Christian university in China.
One of Morrison's contemporaries hoped that after a century
of mission work there might possibly be 2000 Christians in
China. That number was reached in 1865, and in 1910 there was
a Protestant community of 2 14,546 church members and baptized
Christians. These numbers are more than double what they were
in 1900. In addition there are more than as many adherents. 1
The excellence of the converts, upon the whole, is testified to by
travellers who really know the case; particularly by Mrs Bishop,
who speaks of the " raw material " out of which they are made
as "the best stuff in Asia." The total number of Protestant
missionaries (including wives) in China in 1910 was 4175, one to
about i too sq. m., or to more than 100,000 Chinese. There are
over 12,000 Chinese evangelists, Bible-women, teachers, &c. The
Roman Catholic returns give 902,478 members and 390,617 cate-
chumens. The work is carried on by eleven societies or religious
orders with over 40 bishops and 1000 European priests, mostly
French. A large feature of the work is the baptism of children.
An important concession was obtained in 1899 by the French
minister at Peking, with a view to the more effective protection
of the Roman missions. The bishops were declared " equal in
rank to the viceroys and governors," and the priests " to the
prefects of the first and second class "; and their influence and
authority were to correspond. The Anglican bishops agreed to
decline these secular powers, as also did the heads of other
Protestant missions. It is alleged by some that the exercise of
the powers gained by the Roman hierarchy was one cause of
the Boxer outbreaks. Certainly their native adherents had their
full share of persecution and massacre.
The Anglican Church is not so strong in China as in some other
fields; the American Episcopalians were first in the field in 1835,
followed by the Church Missionary Society (in 1844), which has had
stirring success in Fu-Kien, and the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel in 1874. There are five dioceses, and in 1897 an episcopal
conference was held in Shanghai. Since the Japanese War the
Scottish and Irish Presbyterians have made wonderful progress in
Manchuria ; native evangelists do an increasing share of the work, and
there is hardly any town or village without Christians. The London
Mission has always been conspicuous for the contribution made by its
agents to linguistic and literary knowledge, the name of James
Legge being an outstanding example; it is now, in co-operation with
other societies, earnestly taking up the new educational and medical
openings. One of the most interesting features of missionary work
in China is the comity that prevails among the workers of different
societies and agencies. Thus in 1907 at the Centenary Conference
in Shanghai, when many topics were discussed centring in the
question of the native Chinese Church, a general declaration of faith
and purpose was adopted, which, after setting out the things held
in common, proceeded, " We frankly recognize that we differ as to
methods of administration and of church goyernment; that some
among us differ from others as to the administration of baptism;
and that there are some differences as to the statement of the doc-
trine of predestination, or the election of grace. But we unite in
holding that these exceptions do not invalidate the assertion of
our real unity in our common witness to the Gospel of the Grace of
God." The conference reported, " We have quite as much reason
to be encouraged by the net result of the progress of Christianity
in China during the igth century as the early Christians had with
the progress of the Gospel in the Roman Empire during the first
century."
Japan and Korea. The Christian faith was brought to Japan
by Portuguese traders in 1542, followed by Xavier in 1549.
See Contemporary Review (Feb. 1908), "Report on Christian
Missions in China," by Mr F. W. Fox, Professor Macalister and Sir
Alex. Simpson.
This great missionary was well received by the daimios (feudal
lords), and though he remained only 2% years, with the help of
a Japanese whom he had converted at Malacca he organized
many congregations. In 1581 there were 200 churches and
150,000 Christians; ten years later the converts numbered
600,000, in 1594 a million and a half. Then came a time of
repression and persecution under lyeyasu, whose second edict
in 1614 condemned every foreigner to death, forbade the entry
of foreigners and the return of Japanese who had left the islands,
and extinguished Christianity by fire and sword. The reopening
of the country came in 1859, largely through American pressure,
and in May of that year two agents of the Protestant Episcopal
Church began work at Nagasaki. They were followed by others
from the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, and by their
great intellectual ability, patience and tact these pioneers
(S. R. Brown, J. C. Hepburn and G. F. Verbeck), as the Marquis
Ito said, contributed very largely to the progress and develop-
ment of Japan in the days when she was first studying the
outer world. They did an immense amount of preparatory
work along evangelistic, medical and educational lines, and
skilfully gathered the youths of the country around them. The
accession of a new mikado in 1868 finally ended the old seclusion;
financiers, engineers, artisans poured in from Western Europe,
and from America came bands of teachers, largely under mission-
ary influence. In 1869 the American Board (Congregational)
sent its first band; in 1870 Verbeck was called on to organize
a scheme for national education. In 1872 the first Japanese
church was formed; in 1875 Joseph Neesima, who had been
converted by a Russian missionary and then educated in America,
founded a Christian Japanese College, the Doshisha, in the sacred
city of Kyoto. Meanwhile the Christian calendar had been
adopted and the old anti-Christian edicts removed. By 1889
there were 30,000 Protestant communicants. It was at this
time that the nation, conscious of its new life, began to be
restive under the supercilious attitude of foreign nations, and the
feeling of irritation was shared by the native Christian communi-
ties. It showed itself in a desire to throw off the governance of
the missionaries, in a criticism of Protestant creeds as not
adapted to Japanese needs, and in a slackened growth numeri-
cally and intensively. After a period of stress and uncertainty,
due very largely to the variety of denominational creed and
polity, matters assumed an easier condition, the missionaries
recognizing the national characteristics and aiming at guidance
rather than control. The war with China in 1894 marked a new
chapter and initiated a time of intense national activity; educa-
tion and work for women went forward rapidly. Missionaries
went through the island as never before, and their evangelistic
work was built upon by Japanese ministers. In the war with
Russia Japanese Christianity found a new opportunity; on the
battlefield, in the camp, at home, Christian men were pre-eminent.
In 1902 there were 50,000 church members; in 1910, 67,043;
the total Protestant community in 1910 was about 100,000, and
had an influence out of all proportion to its numbers; the Roman
Church was estimated at 79,000, and the Orthodox Eastern
Church (Russian) at 30,000.
No sketch, however brief, can omit a reference to the Anglican
bishop of South Tokyo, Edward Bickersteth (1850-1897), who
from his appointment in 1886 guided the joint movement of
English and American Episcopalians which issued in the Nippon
Sei Kokwai or Holy Catholic Church of Japan, a national church
with its own laws and its own missions in Formosa. In April
1907 the Conference of the World's Student Christian Federation
(700 students from 25 different countries) met in Tokyo, and
received a notable welcome from the national leaders in adminis-
tration, education and religion.
In Korea, the " Hermit Nation," or as the Koreans prefer to
say, " The Land of the Morning Calm," Christianity was intro-
duced at the end of the i8th century by some members of the
Korean legation at Pekin who had met Roman Catholic mission-
aries. It took root and spread in spite of opposition until 1864,
when an anti-foreign outbreak exterminated it. The door was
re-opened by the treaties of 1882-1886, and even before that
MISSION FIELDS]
MISSIONS
597
copies of the gospels had been circulated from the Manchuria
side. The Methodist Episcopal Church and the Presbyterian
Board, both of America, entered the country in 1885, and were
soon joined by similar agencies from Canada and Australia.
The Anglican Church began work in 1890, the work was
thoroughly planned, the characteristics of the people were care-
fully considered, and the successes and failures of other mission-
fields were studied as a guide to method. The medical work won
the favour of the government, and so wisely did the missionaries
act, that during all the turbulent changes since 1884 they escaped
entanglement in the political disturbances and yet held the
confidence of the people. The persistence and growth of Christi-
anity among the Koreans is largely due to the fact that Chris-
tianity had not been superimposed on them as a foreign organiza-
tion. They had built their own churches and schools, adopted
their own forms of worship and phrased their own beliefs.
Korea vies with Uganda as a triumph of modern missionary
enterprise. In 1866 there were not more than 100 Christians;
official returns in 1910 show 178,686 Protestants, including
72,000 church members and probationers; and 72,290 Roman
Catholics. Theological colleges, normal training colleges and
higher and lower grade schools bear witness to an activity and
a success which are truly remarkable.
South-East Asia and the East Indies. The work of Christian
missions in this area has had the double advantage of freedom
from political and social unrest, and of comparatively little
overlapping, each country as a rule being taken over by a single
society. In Burma the American Baptists, whose work began
with Adoniram Judson in 1813, are conspicuous, and have had
marked success among the Karens or peasant class, where the
pioneer was George Dana Boardman (1827). The Karen
Christian communities are strong numerically and have a good
name for self-support. The Baptists have also stations in
Arakan and Assam where they link up with the Welsh Calvinistic
Methodists (1845). The Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel and the Methodist Episcopal Church work in and around
Rangoon. In Siam again the Americans, especially the Pres-
byterians, have been most prominent. Medical work made an
impression on the people and won the favour of the government,
which has always been cordial and has employed missionaries
as court-tutors. Buddhism is at its best at Siam, and this and
the enervating climate are responsible for the comparatively
small direct success of Christian propaganda in Siam proper.
In the Laos country to the north, however, much more has been
done, and a healthy type of Christian community established.
Native workers have done something to carry the Gospel into
the French colonies of Tongking and Annam. Here the Roman
missions are very extensive, and have over a million adherents,
despite violent persecution before the French occupation.
The peninsula and archipelago known as Malaysia presents a
remarkable mingling of races, languages and beliefs. Tatar,
Mahommedan and Hindu invasions all preceded the Portuguese
who brought Roman Catholicism, and the Dutch who brought
Protestantism. This last resulted in a great number of nominal
conversions, as baptism was the passport to government favour,
and church membership was based on the learning of the
Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, and on the saying of grace at
mealtimes. In the Straits Settlement the foundations of modern
missionary effort were laid by the London Missionary Society
pioneers who were waiting to get into China; they were succeeded
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1856), English
Presbyterians (1875), Methodist Episcopalians (1884), who have
a fine Anglo-Chinese College at Singapore, and the Church of
England Zenana Society (1900).
In the Archipelago most of the work has naturally been in
the hands of the Netherlands Missionary Society (1812) and
other Dutch agencies, who at first were not encouraged by the
colonial government, but have since done well, especially in the
Minahassa district of Celebes (150,000 members) and among the
Bataks of Sumatra (Rhenish Mission). In Celebes and the
Moluccas the work is now under the Colonial State Church.
In Java the government has favoured Mahommedans (there is
active intercourse between the island and Mecca), but there are
some 25,000 Christians and a training school and seminary at
Depok near Batavia. In Dutch Borneo the Rhenish Society
is slowly making headway among the Dyaks; in British Borneo
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1848) and the
Methodist Episcopalians occupy the field. The total number of
Christians in British Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies is
about 600,000 (including 57,000 Roman Catholics).
Western Asia and the Turkish Empire. 1 The American
Presbyterians and Congregationalists have the largest Protestant
missions in these lands, working, however, mainly for the enlight-
enment and education of the Oriental Christians. With the
same object, though on different lines, the archbishop of Canter-
bury's Assyrian Mission seeks to influence the Nestorians.
The Roman Catholics have extensive missions in these countries,
directed at winning adherents to the unity of the Holy See from
the Oriental Churches, which are regarded as schismatic and
heretical. In this enterprise there has been great advance in
Egypt among the Copts, and in 1899 the Pope signalized " the
resurrection of the Church of Alexandria " by appointing a
Patriarch for Egypt, Libya and Nubia. Farther east, on the
borders of Turkey and Persia, the Roman and Russo-Greek
Churches compete for the adhesion of the Nestorians, Chaldeans
and Armenians. The Franciscans, Dominicans, Lazarists
and Jesuits are engaged in all these works. Direct work among
Mahommedans is done, though with small result, by the North
Africa Mission (non-denominational) and the Church Missionary
Society. The Egypt, Palestine and Persia missions of the latter
society have been largely reinforced and extended since 1884,
medical work and women's work being especially prominent.
Four cities in southern Persia are now occupied. Three missions
just touch the border of Arabia, viz. the United Free Church of
Scotland at Aden, founded by Ion Keith-Falconer (1856-1887)
son of the 9th earl of Kin tore and Arabic professor at Cambridge;
an American Presbyterian Mission on the Persian Gulf; and the
Church Missionary Society's Mission at Bagdad. The American
Robert College at Constantinople and the work of the Friends'
Missionary Association in Syria are honourable and successful
enterprises. The chief difficulties have been (i) the antagonism
of the officials of the Oriental churches, (2) the suspicion and
hostility of Islam, (3) the jealousies, religious and political,
connected with the Eastern Question.
Missions in Christian Lands, Australia has been referred to
already (see South Seas, above). In the Western Hemisphere we
may distinguish the following: (l) Early Roman Missions began with
the discovery of the continent and practically ceased in the middle
of the l8th century. Conspicuous among their achievements was
the conversion of Mexico, 200,000 converts being enrolled within
six years after the capture of the capital (1521), and a million
baptized by the Franciscans alone within thirty years. In South
America the passive character of the population made them submis-
sive alike to the Spanish government and the Roman faith. Their
natural devotion and their susceptibility to pomp and ritual was a
factor skilfully used by the priests, but hardly anything was done
to strengthen their moral power. The influx of base European
strata helped to reduce the whole continent south of Mexico in about
a century to a level as low as that preceding the first mission. About
1600 the Franciscans and French Jesuits began their work in North
America and among the Indians did a successful work marked by
much heroism. They also enabled the Roman Church to keep its
hold on the French colonists of Quebec and Montreal, and were
pioneers in California. (2) Modern Missions in North America.
Missions among the Red Indian tribes in the North-West Territories
of both the United States and Canada have long been carried on by
several societies. The first workers were Thomas Mayhew, junior
and John Eliot at Martha's Vineyard (1643) and Roxbury (1646).
Bishop Whipple of Minnesota was justly called the Apostle of the
Indians, so far as the work of the American Episcopal Church was
concerned. In the Canadian North-West the Church Missionary
Society's Missions have reached many tribes up to the shores of the
Polar sea, and made some thousands of converts. Even the wan-
dering Eskimos, thanks to the Moravians, are mainly Christians.
The Anglican Church has nine dioceses in the province of Rupert s
Land. The Roman Catholic missionaries also are scattered over
these immense territories, and have a large number of Indian
adherents. Besides the Oblates many are Jesuits from French
Canada. The Russo-Greek Church has a mission in Alaska, dating
1 See J. Richter, A History of Protestant Missions in the Near East
(1910).
MISSIONS
[RESULTS
from the time when it was Russian territory, and various American
s are also represented. The total number of Indians in
North America is
e
of whom about 27,000 are still
,
and Roman Catholic Missions. (3) Central and South
Protestant missions to Indians here have been very limited. Von
Wdtz did something in Dutch Guiana (c. 1670), and the Moravians
amon E the Arrawaklndians of Surinam (1738-1808). Since l8 47 they
hale worked on the Mosquito coast o Central America American
Missions are at work in Mexico and adjacent countries "%
India Islands the negro population has been reached by most of the
larger British societfes. The South American Missionary Society
ounded by the ill-fated Captain Allen Gardiner, has much extended
ts work among the Indians of the interior of what, has been wel
called " the Neglected Continent "; it has been specially successful
among the Araucaniaus of Chile and the Paraguayan Chaco Their
work among the Fuegians drew a warm tribute from Charles Darwin.
Several American missions are also at work. The Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel has an important mission in British
Guiana But there are numerous heathen tribes never yet reached.
The Roman Church, which is dominant throughout the continent,
has been engaged in serious struggles with the anti-rehgipus tenden-
cies of the Republican governments, and L Annee de I bghse makes no
mention of missions among the Indians. In fact the Pope in 1897
was obliged to send a severe rebuke to the clergy for their lack of con-
sistency and zeal. Protestant societies have done much to bring the
Bible to the knowledge of the nominally Roman Catholic population.
RESULTS OF MISSIONS
The Christian Church bases its missionary enterprise upon
the spirit, the example, and the commandment of its Founder,
and regards the duty as just the same whether the results be
results. If, however, we are to take statistical returns for what
they are worth, it is estimated that the Christians in heathen
lands gathered by Protestant missions probably amount to
five millions, and a similar total may be ascribed to Roman
Catholic missions, making ten millions in all. This, however,
includes adherents still under instruction for baptism, and their
children. The inner circle of communicant members is hardly
more than one-third of the total.
Missions are however a far greater thing after all than simple
proselytism. It would require many a volume to tell of what
they have done for civilization, freedom, the exploration of
unknown regions, the bringing to light of ancient literatures,
the founding of the science of comparative religion, the broad-
ening of the horizon of Christian thought in the homelands,
and the bringing of distant peoples into the brotherhood of
nations. These are results that cannot be put into figures.
While it is true that very diverse opinions are held concerning
missions, it is indisputable that the most favourable testimonies
come from those who have really taken the most pains to
examine and understand their work. The one discouraging
feature, from the Christian point of view, is the backward-
ness of Christendom in its great enterprise. If the Churches
did their foreign work with the same energy which they throw
into their home work, the results would be very different.
The figures given below are taken from a table compiled by
Dr D. L. Leonard, and refer only to Protestant missions to non-
I. STATISTICS OF THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD.
(From The Blue Book of Missions, 1907).
Christians.
Confucian-
Animists,
Roman
Eastern
medans.
Taoists
&c.
Protestants.
Catholics.
Churches.
Africa . .
America, N. . .
America, S. .
2,665,000
64,488,000
362,000
1,542,000
2,493,00
36,693,000
36,125,000
5,385,000
3,799,000
1,000,000
17,144,000
381,000
1,069,000
22,000
482,000
50,810,000
15,000
10,000
141,456,000
I 1,000
5,000
137,900,000
277,000
94,000
108,000
209,152,000
31,000
85,00
4,000
291,030,000
24,900,000
97,179,500
20,000
1,262,000
41,436,000
125,500
8,002,000
63,000
5,693,000
157,722,000
111,651,000
37,956,000
876,120,000
Australasia . -
Europe .
Malaysia . .
Oceania .
3,424,000
93,922,000
416,500
247,000
964,000
183,754,000
7,095.500
129,000
1,000
98,213,000
17,000
9,247,000
3ooo
1,000
3,000
3,576,000
20,760,000
4,000
15,000
1,000
27,000
31,000
570,000
65,000
-
40,000
16,445,000
507,000
70,000
1,319,000
62,000
18,000
4,555,ooo
389,031,000
45,379,ooo
982,000
Aggregate
166,066,500
272,638,500
120,157,000
11,222,000
216,630,000
137,935,000
209,659,000
291,816,000
24,900,000
157,069,500
15,352,500
1,623,446,000
558,862,000
large or small. It appeals to common sense, saying in effect,
" If it be a fact that a Divine Person came into the world to
bless mankind, all men ought to know it, and have a right to
know it. However much or (if you will) little a Buddhist or a
II. SUMMARY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONARY WORK.
Christian and non-Protestant peoples. The figures are for 1907,
and should be compared with those in the Statistical Atlas.
This list gives a total of 69 Foreign Missionary Societies, of which
34 are American, 19 British, 10 German, and 6 other societies.
The statistics for these 69 societies may be grouped as follows:
AMERICAN.
BRITISH.
GERMAN.
OTHER SOCIETIES, viz.
Paris Society,
Swiss Romande,
Netherlands Societies,
Scandinavian Societies,
&c.
Totals for
Christendom.
Totals for 1895
(showing growth
between 1895 and
1907).
Ordained Missionaries
1,911
535
1,980
1,738
932
1 68
912
16 1
5.735
2,802
4,028
1,477
Unmarried women ....
1,527
2,312
2,332
2,141
ISO
197
378
623
4.387
5. 27'?
2,578
4..2QS
Communicants (full members) .
Numbers added in 1906 .
Adherents
Schools
Scholars
545,i8o
63,916
1,286,259
8,855
344,213
565,179
38,614
1,398,306
11,789
619,399
240,883
25,983
540,073
2,878
139,891
466,208
12,336
1,136,500
5-346
199,402
I,8l7,450
140,849
4.361,138
28,868
1,302,905
995.793
63,081
2,770,801
19,384
786,002
Moslem may need to know of Christ, he certainly has a claim to
be told of Him. The responsibility, if there be any, of believing,
rests with the individual told; the responsibility of telling him
rests with the Christian Church." On this view of the matter,
results, however desirable, are no certain test of a mission doing
its work. A mission in Persia, with its handful of converts, has,
on this view, as much right to support and appreciation as a
mission in southern India with its tens of thousands. Again,
on the hypothesis that Christianity is true, the statistics at a
particular period are no test of success at all. For in them
the dead are not counted; and the converts who are already dead
are at least in respect of individual salvation the surest of
III. PROTESTANT MISSIONARY INCOME.
1895 . . . 2,724,194 1906 . . . 4,256,029
. 3.095.915 1907 4,473.933'
1900
1905
1,932,377
A world missionary conference was held at Edinburgh in June
1910, which aimed at making, on a scale far more comprehensive
than had been previously attempted, a thorough and scientific study
of the problems involved in the relation of Christianity to the non-
Christian world. For two years preceding the conference eight
representative commissions investigated the following questions:
'The Statistical Atlas (1910) puts it at 5,071,225, of which
British and American societies each find about 2,000,000, and
German societies 427,455.
MISSISSIPPI
(i) Carrying the Gospel to all the non-Christian world; (2) the
Church in the mission field; (3) education in relation to the Chris-
tiamzation of national life; (4) the missionary message in relation
t non-Christian religions; (5) the preparation of missionaries;
(6) the home base of missions; (7) missions and governments;
(8) co-operation and the promotion of unity. The reports on these
subjects in eight volumes, together with a ninth volume giving the
proceedings of the conference itself, and a statistical atlas, will for
some time be the vade mecum of information on Christian missions,
and precludes the need of any attempt at a bibliography here, an
attempt which would indeed be doomed to failure. It may not,
however, be out of place to call attention, in addition to literature
already cited, to a few recent books, chiefly manuals, in several of
which full lists of missionary books are given.
E. M. Bliss, The Missionary Enterprise (1908); E. Stock, A Short
Handbook of Missions (1904); H. H. Montgomery, Foreign Missions
(1904); T. Moscrop, The Kingdom Without Frontiers (1910); W. T.
Whitley, Missionary Achievement (1908) ; S. L. Gulick, The Growth of
the Kingdom of God (1897) ; B. Lucas, The Empire of Christ, a study
of the missionary enterprise in the light of modern religious thought
(1907); R. H. Maiden, Foreign Missions, a study of some principles
and methods (1910); G. Smith, Short History of Christian Missions
(1897); G. Warneck, Outline of a History of Protestant Missions
(1901 ; new German ed., 1910). See also J. S. Dennis, Centennial Sur-
vey of Foreign Missions (1902), Christian Missions and Social Progress
(3 vols., 1897) ; G. Warneck, Modern Missions and Culture (1882) ;
E. Stock, History of the Church Missionary Society (3 vols., 1899);
J. B. Myers, Centenary Volume of the Baptist Missionary Society
(1892) ; R. Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society (2 vols.,
1899); J, Lowe, Medical Missions, Their Place and Power. A
somewhat overlooked side of missions, viz. the " attempt to estimate
the contribution of great races to the fulness of the Church of God,"
is presented in Mankind and the Church, edited by Bishop H. H.
Montgomery (1907). The Encyclopaedia of Missions (2nd ed., 1904)
edited by Bliss, Dwight and Tupper; The Blue Book of Missions by
H. O. Dwight (1907); and the already mentioned Statistical Atlas
of Missions (1910) by H. P. Beach, are all of the highest value.
For Roman Catholic Missions see Missiones Catholicae cura S. Congre-
gationis de Propaganda Fide descriptae (Romae, ex Typographia
polyglotta S. C.de Prop. Fid. [official biennial publication]); Louvet,
Les Missions Catholiques[au]xix'. Siecle (Lyon, Bureau des Missions
Catholiques, 14 Rue de la Charite, 1900); Piolet, Les Missions
Catholiyues Francaises [au]xixf. Siecle (6 vols., Paris, A. Colin, 5 Rue
des Mezieres); H. A. Krose, Katholische Missionsstatistik (1908);
K. Streit, Katholischen Missionsatlas (1908).
(E. ST; H. T. A.; A. J. G.)
MISSISSIPPI, a South Central state of the United States,
situated between 35 N. lat. and 31 N. lat., with its S.E. part
extending to the Gulf of Mexico, the extreme southern point
being in 30 13' N. lat. near the mouth of the Pearl River.
On the E. the line is mostly regular, its extreme E. point being
at 88 7' W. long, in the N.E. corner of the state; the W.
boundary has its extreme W. point at 01 41' W. long, in the
S.W. corner of the state. Mississippi is bounded N. by
Tennessee, E. by Alabama, S. by the Gulf of Mexico and
Louisiana, W. by Louisiana, from which it is separated by the
Pearl River and by the Mississippi, and by Arkansas, from
which also it is separated by the Mississippi. The total area
1546,865 sq. m., of which 503. sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. Mississippi lies for the most part in the Missis-
sippi embayment of the Gulf Coastal Plain. A feature of its surface
is a strip of bottom land between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers,
known as the Yazoo Delta; it extends from north to south about
175 m., and has an average width of more than 60 m., and covers
an area of about 7000 sq. m. With the exception of a few flat ridges
running from north to south, it is so low that it requires, to protect
it from overflows, an unbroken line of levees averaging 15 ft. in
height; these were built and are maintained by the state in part
from a special tax on the land and in part from the sale of swamp
lands of the United States (under an act of 1850). Along the eastern
border of this delta, and southward of it, along the Mississippi itself,
extends a belt of hills or bluffs (sometimes called "cane- hills"),
which is cut by deep ravines and, though very narrow in the north,
has in the south an average width of about 10 m. East of the belt
are level or gently rolling prairies, and along the Gulf Coast is a low,
marshy tract. The highest elevations, from 800 to looo ft. above
the sea, are on the Pontotoc ridge in Tippah and Union counties;
and from this ridge there is an almost imperceptible slope south and
west from the Appalachian Mountain system. Along the margins
of valleys there are hills rising from 30 to 120 ft., but farther back
from the water courses the differences of elevation are much less.
The coast-line, about 85 m. long, is bordered by a beach of white
sand, and broken by several small and shallow indentations, among
which are St Louis, Biloxi. Pascagoula and Point aux Chenes bays;
separated from it by the shallow and practically unnayigable
Mississippi Sound is a chain of low, long and narrow sand islands,
599
the argest of which are Petit Bois, Horn, Ship and Cat. The prin-
:ipal rivers are: the Mississippi on the western border, and its
tributaries, the Yazoo and the Big Black; the Pearl and Pascagoula,
which dram much of the southern portion of the state and flow into
the Gulf ; and the Tombigbee, which drains most of the north-eastern
portion, ihe Pontotoc ridge separates the drainage system of the
Mississippi from that of the Tombigbee; extending from the north-
eastern part of the state southward, this ridge divides in Choctaw
county, the eastern branch separating the drainage basin in the
Pascagoula from that of the Pearl, and the western branch separa-
mg the drainage basin of the Pearl from that of the Big Black and
the Mississippi. The Delta is drained chiefly by the Yazoo A
small area in the north-eastern corner of the state is drained north-
ward by the Tennessee and the Hatchie. Each of the larger rivers
is fed by smaller streams; their fall is usually gentle and quite
uniform. The valleys vary in width from a few hundred yards
to several miles. In the east of the state much of the valley of each
ol the larger streams is several feet above the stream's present Well-
water mark and forms the " hommock " or " second bottom " lands.
Most of the rivers flowing into the Gulf are obstructed by sand-bars
and navigable only during high-water from January to April. Oxbow
lakes and bayous are common only in the Delta.
Geology. The older formations are nearly all overlaid by deposits
of the Quaternary period, which will be described last. In the
extreme north-east are found the oldest rocks in the state lower
Devonian (the New Scotland beds of New York) and, not so old
an extension of the Lower Carboniferous which underlies the Warrior
coalfields of Alabama, and which consists of cherts, limestones,
sandstones and shales, with a depth of 800 to 900 ft. The strata
here show some traces of the upheaval which formed the Appalachian
Mountain chain. When this chain formed the Atlantic mountain-
border of the continent excepting this north-eastern corner, Missis-
sippi had not emerged from the waters of the ancient Gulf of Mexico.
As the shore line of the Gulf slowly receded southward and west-
ward, the sediment at its bottom gradually came to the surface, and
constituted the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. Wherever
stratification is observed in these formations in Mississippi, it shows
a dip west and south of 20 or 30 ft. to the mile.
The Cretaceous region includes, with the exception of the Lower
Carboniferous, all that part of the state eastward of a line cutting
the Tennessee boundary in 88 50' W. long., and drawn southward
and eastward near Ripley, Pontotoc, and Starkville, crossing into
Alabama in latitude 32 45'. There are four formations of Creta-
ceous strata in Mississippi, denned by lines having the same general
direction as the one just described. The oldest, bordering the Lower
Carboniferous, is the Tuscaloosa formation of clays and sands
arranged as follows: dark clays, thin lignite seams, lignitic clays,
sands and chert, and light clays; this formation is 5-15 m. wide and
reaches from about 33* 30' on the Alabama boundary north to the
Tennessee boundary. It is about 270 ft. thick. Tuscaloosa clays
are used in the manufacture of pottery. Overlying the Tuscaloosa
are the Eutaw sands, characterized by sandy laminated clays, and
yellow, orange, red and blue sands, containing lignite and fossil
resin. The Eutaw formation is a strip about 5 to 12 m. wide with a
maximum depth of 300 ft. Westward to Houston and southward
to about 32 48' on the Alabama boundary and occupying a much
larger area than the other Cretaceous formations, is the Selma chalk,
called " Rotten Limestone " by Hilgard; it is made up of a material
of great uniformity, a soft chalky rock, white or pale blue, composed
chiefly of tenacious clay, and white carbonate of lime in minute
crystals. Borings show that the thickness of this group varies from
350 ft. in the north to about 1000 ft. at Starkville. Fossils are
abundant, and forty species are recorded. The latest Cretaceous
is the Ripley formation, which lies west of the northern part of the
last-named, and, about Scooba, in a small strip, the most southerly
of the Cretaceous it is composed of coarse sandstones, hard crystal-
line white limestones, clays, sands, phosphatic greensands, and dark-
coloured, micaceous, glauconitic marls; its greatest thickness is about
280 ft. Its marine fossils are admirably preserved, and one hundred
and eight species have been described.
Deposits of the Tertiary period form the basis of more than half
the state, extending from the border of the Cretaceous westward
nearly to the Yazoo Delta and the Mississippi Bottom, and south-
ward to within a few miles of the Gulf coast. Seven formations
(or groups) of the Tertiary strata have been distinguished in Missis-
sippi. The oldest is the Midway limestone and clays in a narrow
strip whose western limit is nearly parallel to the western boundary
of the Selma chalk; it includes: the Clayton formation, characterized
by the hard blue Turritella limestone (so named from the frequent
fossil ( Turritella mortoni) ; and Porters Creek (previously called Flat-
woods) clay, which is grey, weathering white, and is occasionally over-
lain by grey fossiliferous sandstone. The Wilcox formation (called
Lignitic by Hilgard, and named by Safford the Lagrange group) lies
to the west of the last, and its western limit is from about 32 12' on
the Alabama boundary about due north-west; in its north-western-
most part it is on the western edge of the Tertiary in this state.
Its minimum depth is 850 ft. It is marked by grey clays and sands,
lignitic fossiliferous clays, beds of lignite or brown coal, sometimes
8 ft. in thickness, and brownish clays. The siliceous Claiborne
6oo
MISSISSIPPI
(or Tallahatta Buhrstone) formation lies south-westward from the
last-named in a strip 10-30 m. wide, whose south-eastern extrem-
ity is the intersection of the 32nd meridian with the Alabama
boundary, is characterized by beds of aluminous grey and white
sandstone, aluminous and siliceous clay-stone, cjuartzitic sandstone,
and green sand and marls. The calcareous Claiborne or Claiborne-
Lisbon formation-group lies south of the last, in a wedge-like strip
with the apex on the Alabama boundary ; it is a series of clays and
sands, richly fossiliferous. The Jackson formation couth-west of
the Lisbon beds, is made up chiefly of grey calcareous clay marls,
bluish lignitic clays, green-sand and grey siliceous sands. Basilo-
saurus (or Zeuglodon) bones are found only in the Jackson marls,
and other marine fossils are abundant. The minimum thickness of
the formation is 240 ft. The Vicksburg formation lies next in order
south-west, in a narrow strip of fairly regular width which alone
of the Tertiary formations runs as far west as the Mississippi River;
it is probably nowhere more than no ft. deep. It is characterized
by semi-crystalline limestones and blue and white sandy marls.
Marine fossils are very abundant in the_ marl. The Grand Gulf
group, of formations of different ages, consisting of sands, sandstones
and clays, and showing a few fossil plants, but no marine fossils,
extends southward from the last to within a few miles of the coast,
and is 750-800 ft. deep.
The older formation of the Quaternary period is the Lafayette
(also called " Orange-sand " or " stratified drift "), which imme-
diately overlies all the Cretaceous groups except the prairies of the
Selma chalk, and all the Tertiary except the Porters Creek and
Vicksburg formations and parts of the Jackson. Its depth varies
from a few feet to over 200 ft. (in the southern part of the state),
and it forms the body of most of the hills in the state. Its materials
are pebbles, clays and sands of various colours from white to deep
red, tinged with peroxide of iron, which sometimes cements the
pebbles and sands into compact rocks. The shapes of these ferrugin-
ous sandstones are very fantastic tubes, hollow spheres, plates, &c.,
being common. The name stratified drift has been used to indicate
its connexion with the northern drift. The fossils are few, and in
some cases probably derived from the underlying formations.
Well-worn pebbles of amorphous quartz (agate, chalcedony, jasper,
&c.) are found in the stratified drift along the western side of the
Tertiary region of the state, and from Columbus northward. _The
second Quaternary formation is the Port Hudson, occurring within
20 m. of the Gulf coast, and, with alluvium, in the Yazoo Delta.
Heavy clays, gravel and sands, containing cypress stumps, drift-
wood and mastodon bones, are characteristic. The loess or bluff
formation lies along the bluffs bordering the Bottom, nearly con-
tinuously through the state. Its fine-grained, unstratified silt
contains the remains of many terrestrial animals, including fifteen
mammals.
Fauna. Among the more common species of game are squirrels,
opossums, musk-rats, rabbits, racoons, wild turkeys, ", partridges "
(quail, or Bob White), geese, and ducks; deer, black bears, grey (or
timber) wolves, black wolves and " wild cats " (lynx), once common,
have become rare. Alligators inhabit the southern river-bottoms,
and there are some rattlesnakes on the uplands. Among a great
variety of song-birds the mocking-bird is prominent; the parakeet
is found in the southern part of the state. Buffalo-fish, paddle-fish,
cat-fish, drum, crappie, black bass, rock bass, German carp, sturgeon,
pike, perch, eels, suckers and shrimp inhabit the waters of the
Mississippi and its tributaries, and oysters, shrimp, trout, Spanish
mackerel, channel bass, black bass, sheepshead, mullet, croakers,
pqmpano, pin-fish, blue-fish, flounders, crabs and terrapin are ob-
tained from the Mississippi Sound and the rivers flowing into it.
Flora. Originally Mississippi was almost entirely covered with
a growth of forest trees of large size, mostly deciduous; and in 1900
about seven-tenths of its area was still classed as timber-land.
The north central part of the state, known as the " flat woods," is
level and heavily forested. There are more than 120 species of
trees in the state, 15 of oak alone. The most valuable species for
lumber are the long-leaf pine which is predominant in the low
southern third of the state, sometimes called the " cow-country ";
the short-leaf pine, found farther north ; the white oak, quite widely
distributed; cotton-wood and red gum, found chiefly on the rich
alluvial lands; and the cypress, found chiefly in the marshes of
the Delta. The beautiful live oaks and magnolias grow only
in the south of the state; the holly in the lowlands; and the finest
species of pecan, in the Delta. The sassafras, persimmon, wild
cherry and Chickasaw plum are found in all parts of the state.
The grape, Ogeechee lime (Nyssa capitata) and pawpaw are also
native fruits. Among indigenous shrubs and vines are the black-
berry, dewberry, strawberry, yellow jasmine, mistletoe and poison-
oak; and among medicinal herbs are horehound, ginger and pepper-
mint. Here, too, grows Spanish moss, used by upholsterers.
Climate. The southern latitude, the low elevation and the prox-
imity to the Gulf of Mexico produce in southern Mississippi a rather
mild and equable climate, but to the northward the extremes increase.
The normal annual temperature for the state is 64 F. ; on the coast
it is 67 F., and on the northern border it is 61 F. During a period
of twenty years, from January 1887 to December 1906, extremes of
temperature at Biloxi, on the coast, ranged from i F. to 100 F. ;
during nearly the same period at Pontotoc, in the north-eastern part
of the state, they ranged from-li* F. to 105 F. The greatest
extremes recorded were -15 F. at Aberdeen, Monroe county, on
the I3th of February 1899, and 107 F. at several places in July
and August of different years. January is the coldest month, and
July is the warmest. During the winter -the normal temperature
decreases quite steadily from south to north ; thus the mean tempera-
ture in January at Biloxi is 51 F., at Meridian, in the east central
part, it is 46 F., and at Pontotoc it is 43 F. But during the
summer, temperatures are affected as much by altitude as by lati-
tude, and the coast is cooled at night by breezes from the Gulf. The
July mean is 82 F. at several places in the southern part of the state,
and at Yazoo city, in the west central part, it is 83 F. The normal
annual precipitation for Mississippi is about 51 in.; for the southern
half, 54 in., and for the northern half, 49 in. An average of 4 in.
of snow falls in the northern half, but south of Natchez snow is
seldom seen. Nearly one-third of the rain falls in January, February
and March ; July, also, is one of the wet months. The driest season
is in September and October The prevailing winds are from the
south-east; but the rain-bearing winds are chiefly from the south-
west, and the high winds from the west and north-west.
Soils. The most fertile soil is the alluvium of the " Delta,
deposited during the overflows of the Mississippi. Others that are
exceedingly productive are the black calcareous loam of the prairies,
the calcareous silt of the bluff belt along the eastern border of the
Delta, and the brown loam of the tableland in the central part of
the state. Of inferior quality are the yellow loam of the hills in
the north-east and the sandy loam in the pine belt of the south.
Throughout the southern portion sand is a large ingredient, and to
the northward there is more or less lime.
Agriculture. Mississippi is devoted largely to the cultivation of
cotton. Of the total land area of the state, 18,240,736 acres *(6i -3 %)
were, in 1900, included in farms, and the improved farm land in-
creased from 4,209,146 acres in 1870 to 7,594,428 acres (41-6 % of
all farm land) in 1900. After the abolition of slavery, farms greatly
decreaseo^in size and increased in number; the number grew from
68,023 in 1870 to 220,803 | n 1900; the average size fell from 369-7
acres in 1860 to 82-6 acres in 1900. Of the total number of farms in
1900, 81,412 were worked by owners or part owners (60,585 by
whites and 20,827 by negroes) ; 70,699 were worked by cash tenants
(!3.55 by whites and 57,194 by negroes); and 67,153 were worked
by share tenants (16,748 by whites and 50,405 by negroes).
The acreage of cotton increased from 2,106,215 acres in 1879 to
3,220,000 in 1907; the yield increased from 936,111 bales in 1879 to
1,468,177 bales in 1907. Cotton is grown in every county of the
state, but the large yields are in the Delta (Bolivar, Coaohma, Wash-
ington, Yazoo and Leflore counties), the greatest cotton-producing
region of the world, and in Monroe. Lowndes and Noxubee counties
on the Alabama border. The acreage of Indian corn in 1907 was
2,500,000 acres and the crop 42,500,000 bushels. The production of
other cereals decreased during the latter half of the igth century:
oats, from 1,959,620 bushels in 1879 to 1, 611,000 bushels in 1907;
wheat, from 587,925 bushels in 1859 to 22,000 in 1907; rye, from
39,474 bushels in 1859 to 963 bushels in 1899, after which year the
crop has been negligible; and rice, from 2,719,856 ft in 1849 to about
1, 080,000 ft in 1907. The largest Indian-corn producing districts
are nearly the same as those which produce the most cotton; oats
and wheat are grown chiefly in the north-eastern quarter of the
state, and rice in the south-western quarter.
Between 1850 and 1907 dairy cows increased from 214,231 to
330,000; other neat cattle from 519,739 to 589,000; sheep decreased
from 304,929 to 181,000; swine decreased from 1,582,734 to 1,316,000;
horses increased from 115,460 to 260,000, and mules from 54,547 to
279,000.
Sugar-cane is grown principally in the southern part of the state,
but sorghum-cane is grown to some extent in nearly every county.
Sweet potatoes, white potatoes and onions also are important
crops. The greatest relative advance between 1889 and 1899 in
any branch of agriculture was made in the growth of market-garden
produce and small fruits; for old pine lands, formerly considered
useless, had been found valuable for the purpose. The number of
orchard trees increased nearly 100 % within the same decade. At
Crystal Springs tomatoes were first successfully grown for the market
(1874-1876). Orchard trees and grape-vines are widely distributed
throughout the state, but with the exception of peaches their yield
is greater in the northern portion.
Lumber. Mississippi ranks high among the southern states in the
production of lumber. Its timber-land in 1900 was estimated at
32,300 sq. m. From the extreme south most of the merchantable
timber had been cut, but immediately north of this there were still
vast quantities of valuable long-leaf pine; in the marshes of the
Delta was much cypress, the cotton-wood was nearly exhausted,
and the gum was being used as a substitute for it ; and on the rich
upland soil' were oak and red gum, also cotton-wood, hickory and
maple. The lumber and timber product increased in value from
$1,920,335 in 1880 to $24,035,539 in 1905. Pine stumps and waste
limbs are utilized, notably at Hattiesburg, for the manufacture of
charcoal, tar, creosote, turpentine, &c.
Fisheries,^ Fishing is a minor industry, confined for the most part
to the Mississippi Sound and neighbouring waters and to the Missis-
sippi and Yazoo rivers. The most valuable branch is the oyster
MISSISSI
County Seats
County Boundaries, '
Railways
ipp '/'- So a^'*%$f*.^ Zss=pf, pn
A Longitude West qo( Greenwich
MISSISSIPPI
60 1
fishery on the reefs in the Sound, much developed since 1880. The
shrimp fishery, too, grew during the same period. About 40% of the
total catch of the state is made by the inhabitants of Harrison
county on the Gulf of Mexico.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of the state is limited. Clays and
mineral waters are, however, widely distributed. Large quantities
of mineral water, sulphur, chalybeate and lithia, bottled at Meridian,
Raymond and elsewhere, are sold annually. The state contains
deposits of iron, gypsum, marl, phosphate, lignite, ochre, glass-sand,
tripoli, fuller's earth, limestones and sandstones; and there are small
gas flows in the Yazoo Delta.
Manufactures. The lack of mineral resources, especially of coal
and iron, of a good harbour (until the improvement of Gulfport),
and of an adequate supply of labour has discouraged most kinds
of manufacturing. The value of the total factory product was
$57i45 I i445 m I 95- when a little more than three-fourths was
represented by lumber and timber products, cotton-seed oil and
cake, and cotton goods. The leading manufacturing centres are
Meridian, Vicksburg, Jackson, Natchez and Biloxi.
Transport. Along the entire western border of the state the
Mississippi River is navigable for river steamboats. On the south-
ern border, the Mississippi Sound affords safe navigation for small
coasting vessels, and from Gulfport (13 m. W.S.W. of Biloxi) to Ship
Island, which has one of the best harbours on the entire Gulf Coast,
the Gulf & Ship Island Railroad Company, with the co-operation
of the United States Government, in 1901 began to dredge a channel
300 ft. wide and 19 ft. at mean low water, and to construct an anchor-
age basin (completed in 1906) at Gulfport, J m. long and J m. wide,
and 19 ft. deep. In June 1908 the maximum low-water draft of
the channel and the basin was 19 ft. The Gulfport project reduced
freight rates between Gulfport and the Atlantic seaboard cities and
promoted the trade of Gulfport, which is the port of entry for the
Pearl River customs district. Its imports for 1909 were valued
at $82,028 and its exports at $8,581,471. The Yazoo, Tallahatchie,
Yalobusha, Sunflower, Big Black, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers are
also navigable to a limited extent. The first railway in Mississippi
was completed from Vicksburg to Clinton in 1840, but the state
had suffered severely from the panic of 1837, and in 1850 it had only
75 m. of railway. This was increased to 862 m. by 1860. The
Civil War then interfered, and in 1880 the mileage was only 1127 m.
During the next decade it was a little more than doubled, and at
the cjose of 1908 it was 3916-85 m. The principal lines are the
Illinois Central, the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, the Southern, the
Mobile & Ohio, the New Orleans & North-eastern, the Kansas City,
Memphis & Birmingham, the Mobile, Jackson & Kansas City, the
Alabama & Vicksburg, and the Gulf & Ship Island.
Population. The population increased from 1,131,597 in
1880 l to 1,289,600 in 1890, of 14% within the decade, and by
1900 it had grown to 1,551,270 (99-48% native-born), and by
1910 to 1,797,114. The density of population in 1900 was
33.5 per sq. m.; 641,200, or 41-3%; were whites; 907,630,
or 58-5%, were negroes; 2203 were Indians, and 237 were
Chinese; in eight counties of the Delta the ratio of negroes
to whites was almost 7 to i. The Indians are 'descendants
of the Choctaw tribe; they are all subject to taxation, and most
of them live in the east central part of the state. The principal
religious denominations are the Baptist (371,518 in 1906) and
the Methodist (212,105 in 1906). The cities and towns having a
population in 1900 of 4000 or more were: Vicksburg, Meridian,
Natchez, Jackson, Greenville, Columbus, Biloxi, Yazoo City,
McComb and Hattiesburg.
Government. The chief special object of the present constitu-
tion, adopted on the ist of November 1890, was to preserve
in a legal manner the supremacy of the whites over the ignorant
negro majority. In addition to the ordinary suffrage qualifi-
cations of age, sex, and residence, the voter must have paid
all taxes due from him for the two years immediately preceding
the election, and he must be able to read any section of the
constitution or " be able to understand the same when read
to him, or give a reasonable interpretation thereof." The
former provision, strengthened by a poll-tax for school purposes
assessed on adult males, affects both white and blacks; the latter,
owing to the discretion vested in the election officers, affects
(in practice) mainly the blacks. The chief executive officials are
the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer,
auditor, attorney-general, and superintendent of education.
All are chosen for terms of four years, and the governor,
treasurer, and auditor are ineligible for immediate re-election.
'The population at each of the preceding censuses was: 8850 in
1800; 40,352 in 1810; 75,448 in 1820; 136,621 in 1830; 375,651 in
1840; 606,526 in 1850; 791,305 in 1860; and 827,922 in 1870.
The method of election is peculiar, being based in part upon
the national presidential model. Each county or legislative
district casts as many electoral votes as it has members in the
state house of representatives, and a majority of both the
electoral and the popular vote is required. If no one has
such a majority, the house of representatives chooses one of
the two who have received the highest number of popular votes;
but this is really a provision never executed, as the Democratic
nominees are always elected without any serious opposition.
The governor is empowered to call extraordinary sessions of the
legislature, to grant pardons and reprieves, and to exercise a
power of veto which extends to items in appropriation bills; a
two-thirds majority of the legislature is necessary to pass a bifl
over his veto. His appointing power is not very extensive, as
nearly all officials, except judges, are elected by popular vote.
The legislature consists of a senate and a house of represen-
tatives, chosen every four years. It meets in regular session
quadrennially, in special sessions in the middle of the interval to
pass the appropriation and revenue bills, and in extraordinary
session whenever the governor sees fit to call it. Revenue mea-
sures may originate in either house, but a three-fifths vote in
each is necessary to their enactment. The constitution goes into
minute detail in prohibiting local, private and special legislation.
The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three judges,
thirteen (1908) circuit courts, seven (1908) chancery courts,
county courts and justice of the peace courts. Under the con-
stitution of 1890 the governor, with the consent of the senate,
appoints supreme court judges for a term of nine years, and
circuit and chancery judges for four years. The local judicial
authorities are the county board of supervisors of five members
and the justices of the peace.
The other county officials are the sheriff, coroner, treasurer,
assessor, surveyor and superintendent of education. The
superintendent is chosen by the state board of education except
in those counties (now all or nearly all) in which the legislature
has made the office elective. The courts have interpreted this
to mean that the manner of selection need not be uniform (Wynn
v. State, 67 Miss. 312), a rule which would possibly apply to
other local offices. The intention seemed to be to permit the
appointment of officials in counties and districts where there was
any likelihood of negro supremacy.
Mississippi has taken a leading part in the movement to bring
about the removal of the common law disabilities of married women,
the first statute for that purpose having beeii passed in 1839. Under
the present constitution they are " fully emancipated from all dis-
ability on account of coverture," and are placed on an equality with
their husbands in acquiring and disposing of property and in making
contracts relative thereto. A divorce may be granted only to one
who has lived for at least one year in the state; among the recognized
causes for divorce are desertion for two years, cruelty, insanity or
physical incapacity at time of marriage, habitual drunkenness or
excessive use of opium or other drugs, and the conviction of either
party of felony. The homestead of a householder (with a family)
who occupies it may be held exempt from sale for the collection of
debts other than those for purchase-money, taxes, or improvements,
or for the satisfaction of a judgment upon a forfeited recognizance
or bail-bond, but a homestead so exempted is limited to $3000 in
value and to 160 acres of land. A considerable amount of personal
property, including furniture, a small library, provisions, tools, agri-
cultural implements, livestock and the proceeds of a life insurance
policy, is also exempt from seizure for the satisfaction of debts. Since
1909 the sale of intoxicating liquors has been prohibited by statute.
Penal and Charitable Institutions. The penitentiary at Jackson
was established under an Act of 1836, was erected in 1838-1839,
was opened in 1840, was burned by the Federals in 1863. and was
rebuilt in 1866-1867. The board of control is composed of the
governor, attorney-general and the three railroad commissioners.
The convict lease system was abolished by the constitution of 1890
(the provision to take effect on the list of December 1894), and state
farms were purchased in Rankin, Hinds and Holmes counties. As
these were insufficient to give employment to all the prisoners, some
were put to work on Yazoo Delta plantations on partnership con-
tracts. Under an act of 1900, however, 13,889 acres of land were
purchased in Sunflower county; and there and at Tchula, Holmes
county, and at Oakley, Hinds county, the negro convicts the white
convicts are on the Rankin county farm are kept on several large
plantations, with saw-mills, cotton gins, &c. Under a law of 1906
these farm penitentiaries are controlled by a board of three trustees,
elected by the people; they are managed by a superintendent,
602
MISSISSIPPI
appointed once every four years by the governor. The charitable
institutions of the state are supervised by separate boards of trustees
appointed by the governor. The state insane hospital, opened at
Jackson in 1856 (act of 1848), in time became overcrowded and
the East Mississippi insane hospital was opened, 2 m. west of
Meridian in 1885 (act of 1882). The state institution for the
education of the deaf and dumb (1854) and the state institution
for the blind (1848) are at Jackson. State aid is given to the
hospitals at Vicksburg and Natchez.
Education. Educational interests were almost entirely neglected
during the colonial and territorial periods. The first school estab-
lished in the state was Jefferson College, now Jefferson Military
College, near Natchez, Adams county, incorporated in 1802.
Charters were granted to schools in Claiborne, Wilkinson and Amite
counties in 1809-1815, and to Port Gibson Academy and Mississippi
College, at Clinton, in 1826. The public school system, established
in 1846, never was universal, because of special legislation for various
counties; public education was retarded during the Civil War and
the Reconstruction period (when immense sums appropriated for
schools were grossjy mismanaged), but conditions gradually improved
after 1875, especially through the concentration of schools. The
sessions are still too short, teachers are poorly paid and attendance
is voluntary. The long lack of normal training for white teachers
(from 1870 to 1904 there was a normal school for negroes at Holly
Springs) lasted until 1890, when a teacher's training course was
introduced into the curriculum of the state university. There
are separate schools for whites and blacks, and the equipment and
service are approximately equal, although the whites pay about
nine-tenths of the school taxes. The schools are subject to the
supervision of a state superintendent of public education and of a
board of education, composed of the superintendent, the secretary
of state, and the attorney-general, and within each county to a
county superintendent. The schools are supported by a poll-tax,
by general appropriations, by local levies, and by the Chickasaw
school fund. An act of Congress of the 3rd of March 1803 reserved
from sale section sixteen of the public lands in each township for
educational purposes. When the Chickasaws ceded their lands to
the national government, in 1830 and in i832,thestatemadeaclaim
to the sixteenth sections, and finally in 1856 received 174,550 acres
one thirty-sixth of the total cession of 6,283,804 acres. The
revenue derived from the sales and leases of this land constitutes
an endowment fund upon which the state as trustee pays 6%
interest. It is used for the support of the schools in the old
Chickasaw territory in the northern part of the state.
Among the institutions for higher education are the university
of Mississippi (chartered 1844; opened 1848), at Oxford, which was
opened to women in 1882; the Agricultural and Mechanical College
(opened 1880), at Agricultural College, near Starkville, Oktibbeha
county; the Industrial Institute and College for Girls (opened 1885),
at Columbus; and the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College
for negroes (1871; reorganized in 1878), at Westside. In 1819
Congress granted thirty-six sections of public land for the establish-
ment x>f a university. This land was sold in 1833 for $277,332.52,
but the entire sum was lost in the failure of the Planters' Bank in
1840. In 1880 the stace assumed liability for the full amount plus
interest, and this balance, $544,061.23, now constitutes an endow-
ment fund, upon which the state pays 6% interest. Congress
granted another township (thirty-six sections) for the university
in 1892, and its income is supplemented by legislative appropria-
tions for current expenses and special needs. The two agricultural
and mechanical colleges were founded by the sale of public lands
given by Congress under the Morrill Act of 1862. An agricultural
experiment station established in 1887 under the Hatch Act, is at
Agricultural College; and there are branch experiment stations at
McNeill, Pearl River county (1906), near Holly Springs, and at
Stoneville, near Greenville.
Finance. The chief sources of revenue are taxes on realty,
personalty and corporations, a poll-tax, and licences. The more
important expenditures are for public schools, state departments,
educational and charitable institutions and pensions for Con-
federate veterans. The early financial history of the state is not very
creditable. The Bank of Mississippi, at Natchez, incorporated by the
Territorial legislature in 1809, was rechartered by the state in 1818,
and was guaranteed a monopoly of the banking business until 1840.
In violation of this pledge, and in the hope that a new bank would
be-more tractable than the Bank of Mississippi, the Planters' Bank
was established at Natchez, in 1830, with a capital of $3,000,000,
two-thirds of which was subscribed by the state. During the wild
era of speculation which followed (especially in 1832 upon the open-
ing of the Chickasaw Cession to settlement) a large number of banks
and railroad corporations with banking privileges were chartered.
The climax was reached in 1838 with the incorporation of the Union
Bank. This, the most pretentious of all the state banks of the period,
was capitalized at $15,500,000. The state subscribed $5,000,000,
which was raised on bonds sold to Nicholas Biddle, president of the
United States Bank of Pennsylvania. As the Union Bank was
founded in the midst of a financial panic and was mismanaged, its
failure was a foregone conclusion. Agitation for repudiation was
begun by Governor A. G. McNutt (1801-1848), and that question
became the chief issue in the gubernatorial campaign
Tilghman M. Tucker (1802-1859), the Democratic candidate, repre-
senting the repudiators and David O. Shattuck, Whig, representing
the anti-repudiators. The Democrats were successful, and the bonds
were formally repudiated in 1842. In 1853 the High Court of
Appeals and Errors of the state in the case of Mississippi v. Hezion
Johnson (35 Miss. Reports, 625) decided unanimously that nothing
could absolve the state from its obligation. The decision was disre-
garded, however, and in the same year the Planters' Bank bonds were
also repudiated by popular vote. These acts of repudiation were
sanctioned by the constitution of 1890. The $7,000,000 saved in
this manner has doubtless been more than offset by the additional
interest charges on subsequent loans, due to the loss of public con-
fidence. Mississippi suffered less than most of the other Southern
states during the Reconstruction period; but expenditures rose
from $463,219.71 in 1869 to $1,729,046.34 in 1871. At the close
of the Republican regime in 1876 its total indebtedness was
$2,631,704.24, of which $814,743 belonged to the Chickasaw fund
(see above) and $718,946.22 to the general school fund. As
the principal of these funds is never to be paid, the real debt was
slightly over $1,000,000. On the 1st of October 1907 the payable
debt was $1,253,029.07, the non-payable $2,336,197.58,' a total
of $3,589,226.65. Since the Civil War the banking laws have
become more stringent and the national banks have exercised a
wholesome influence. There were, in 1906, 24 national banks and
269 state banks, but no trust companies, private banks or savings
banks.
History. At the beginning of the i6th century the territory
included in the present state of Mississippi was inhabited by
three powerful native tribes: the Natchez in the south-west, the
Choctaws in the south-east and centre, and the Chickasaws in
the north. In addition, there were the Yazoos in the Yazoo
valley, the Pascagoulas, the Biloxis, and a few weaker tribes
on the borders of the Mississippi Sound. The history of
Mississippi may be divided into the period of exploration (1540-
1699), the period of French rule (1699-1763), the period of
English rule (1763-1781), the period of Spanish rule (1.781-
1798), the territorial period (1798-1817), and the period of
statehood (1817 seq.).
Hernando de Soto (q.v.) and a body of Spanish adventurers
crossed the Tombigbee river , in December 1 540, near the present
city of Columbus, marched through the north part of the state,
and reached the Mississippi river near Memphis in 1541. In 1673
a French expedition organized in Canada under Jacques Mar-
quette and Louis Joliet sailed down the Mississippi to the mouth
of the Arkansas, and nine years later (1682) Rene Robert Cave-
lier, sieur de la Salle, reached the mouth of the river, took
formal possession of the country which it drains, and named it
Lquisiana in honour of Louis XIV. The first European settle-
ment in Mississippi was founded in 1699 by Pierre Lemoyne,
better known as Iberville, at Fort Maurepas (Old Biloxi) on the
north side of Biloxi Bay, in what is now Harrison county. The
site proving unfavourable, the colony was transferred to Twenty-
seven Mile Bluff, on the Mobile River, in 1 702, and later to Mobile
(1710). The oldest permanent settlements in the state are
(New ) Biloxi (c. 1712), situated across the bay from Old Biloxi
and nearer to the Gulf, and Natchez or Fort Rosalie (1716).
During the next few years Fort St Peter and a small adjoining
colony were established on the Yazoo River in Warren county,
and some attempts at settlement were made on Bay St Louis
and Pascagoula Bay. The efforts (1712-1721) to foster coloni-
zation and commerce through trading corporations established
by Antoine Crozat and John Law failed, and the colony soon
came again under the direct control of the king. It grew very
slowly, partly because of the hostility of the Indians and partly
because of the incapacity of the French as colonizers. In
1729-1730 the Natchez tribe destroyed Fort St Peter, and some
of the small outposts, and almost destroyed the Fort Rosalie
(Natchez) settlement.
At the close of the Seven Years' War (1763) France ceded to
Great Britain ah 1 her territory east of the Mississippi except
New Orleans, and Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. By
a royal proclamation (Oct. 7, 1763) these new possessions were
divided into East Florida and West Florida, the latter lying S.
of the 3ist parallel and W. of the Chattahoochee and Apalachicola
rivers. Crown orders of 1764 and 1767 extended the limits N. to
1 The increase is due mainly to the assumption of the university
obligations in 1880.
MISSISSIPPI
603
a line due E. from the mouth of the Yazoo at about 32 28' N. lat.
Under English rule there was an extensive immigration into this
region from England, Ireland, Georgia and South Carolina.
A settlement was made on the Big Black, 17 m. from its mouth,
in 1774 by Phineas Lyman (1716-1774) of Connecticut and
other " military adventurers," veterans of the Havana cam-
paign of 1762; this settlement was loyal during the War of
Independence. Spain took military possession in 1781, and
in the Treaty of Paris (1783) both of the Floridas were ceded
back to her. But Great Britain recognized the claims of the
United States to the territory as far south as the 3ist parallel,
the line of 1763. Spain adhered to the line of 1764-1767, and
retained possession of the territory in dispute. Finally, in the
treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (ratified 1796) she accepted the
1763 (31) boundary, and withdrew her troops in 1798. Missis-
sippi Territory was then organized, with Winthrop Sargent as
governor. The territorial limits were extended on the north
to the state of Tennessee in 1804 by the acquisition of the west
cessions of South Carolina and Georgia, and on the south to the
Gulf of Mexico by the seizure of West Florida in 1810-1813,' but
were restricted on the east by the formation of the Territory of
Alabama in 1817. Just after the uprising of 1720-1730 the
French, with the help of the Choctaws, had destroyed the
Natchez nation, and the shattered remnants were absorbed by
the neighbouring tribes. The Chickasaws ceded their lands to
the United States in 1816 and the Choctaws theirs in 1830-1832;
and they removed to the Indian Territory. The smaller tribes
have been exterminated, absorbed or driven farther west.
An Enabling Act was passed on the ist of March 1817, and the
state was formally admitted into the Union on the loth of
December. The first state constitution (1817) provided a high
property qualification for governor, senator and representative,
and empowered the legislature to elect the judges and the more
important state officials. In 1822 the capital was removed to
Jackson from Columbia, Marion county. 2 The constitution of
1832 abolished the property qualification for holding office and
provided for the popular election of judges and state officials.
. Mississippi thus became one of the first states in the Union to
establish an elective judiciary. 3 The same constitution pro-
hibited the importation of negro slaves from other states; but
this prohibition was never observed, and the United States
Supreme Court held that it was ineffective without an act of the
legislature. On the death of John C. Calhoun in 1850 the state,
under the leadership of Jefferson Davis, began to rival South
Carolina as leader of the extreme pro-slavery States' Rights
faction. There was a brief reaction: Henry Stuart Foote
(1800-1880), Unionist, was elected governor in 1851 over Davis,
the States' Rights candidate, and in the same year a Constitu-
tional Convention had declared almost unanimously that " the
asserted right of secession" . . . " is utterly unsanctioned by
the Federal Constitution." But the particularistic sentiment
continued to grow. An ordinance of secession was passed on
the 9th of January 1861, and the constitution was soon amended
to conform to the new constitution of the Confederate States.
During the Civil War battles were fought at Corinth (1862),
Port Gibson (1863), Jackson (1863) and Vicksburg (1863).
In 1865 President Johnson appointed as provisional governor
William Lewis Sharkey (1797-1873), who had been chief justice
of the state in 1832-1850, and a convention which assembled
on the I4th of August recognized the " destruction " of slavery
and declared the ordinance of secession null and void. The
first reconstruction legislature met on the i6th of October 1865,
and at once proceeded to enact stringent vagrancy laws and
other measures against the freedmen; these laws the North
1 South Carolina ceded its western lands to the United States in
1787 and Georgia in 1802. The government added them to Missis-
sippi in 1804. The seizure of West Florida was supplemented by the
treaty of 1819-1821 in which Spain surrendered all of her claims.
1 The seats of government have been Natchez (1798-1802), Wash-
ington (1802-1817), Natchez (1817-1821), Columbia (1821-1822)
Jackson (1822 seq.).
3 This system proved unsatisfactory, and in 1869 was aban-
doned.
interpreted as an effort to restore slavery. Under the Recon-
truction Act of the 2nd of March 1867 Mississippi with Arkansas
:ormed the fourth military district, commanded successively
by Generals E. O. C. Ord (1867), Alvan C. Gillem (1868) and
Irvin McDowell (June-July 1868), and by Gillem (1868-1869)
and Adelbert Ames (1869-1870). The notorious " Black and
Tan Convention " of 1868 adopted a constitution which con-
ferred suffrage upon the negroes and by the imposition of test
oaths disfranchised the leading whites. It was at first rejected
at the polls, but was finally ratified in November 1869 without
the disfranchising clauses. The fourteenth and fifteenth amend-
ments to the Federal Constitution were ratified in 1870, and the
state was formally readmitted into the Union on the 23rd of
February of that year.
From 1870 to 1875 the government was under the control of
carpet-baggers," negroes and the most disreputable element
among the native whites. Taxes were increased expenditure
increased nearly threefold between 1869 and 1871 and there was
some official corruption; but the state escaped the heavy burden
of debt imposed upon its neighbours, partly because of the higher
character of its reconstruction governors, and partly because
its credit was already impaired by the repudiation of obligations
contracted before the war. The Democrats carried the legis-
lature in 1875, and preferred impeachment charges against
Governor Adelbert Ames (b. 1835), a native of Maine, a graduate
of the United States Military Academy (1861), a soldier in the
Union army, and military governor of Mississippi in 1868-1870.
The lieutenant-governor, A. K. Davis, a negro, was impeached
and was removed from office; T. W. Cardoza, another negro,
superintendent of education under Ames, was impeached on
twelve charges of malfeasance, but was permitted to resign.
Governor Ames, when the impeachment charges against him
were dismissed on the 29th of March 1876, immediately resigned.
The whites maintained their supremacy by very dubious methods
until the adoption of the constitution of 1890 made it no longer
necessary. The state has always been Democratic in national
politics, except in the presidential elections of 1840 (Whig) and
1872 (Republican). The electoral vote was not counted in 1864
and 1868.
GOVERNORS
Territorial Period (1798-1817).
Winthrop Sargent 1798-1801
William C. C. Claiborne 1801-1805
Robert Williams 1805-1809
David Holmes 1809-1817
Statehood Period (1817 seq.).
David Holmes Democrat
George Poindexter ,,
Walter Leake .... Democrat (died in office)
Gerard C. Brandon (ad int.) . . Democrat
David Holmes .... Democrat (resigned)
Gerard C. Brandon (ad int. 1826-1828) ....
Abram M. Scott . . . Democrat (died in office)
Charles Lynch 4 (ad int.) . . . Democrat
Hiram G. Runnels ,,
John Anthony Quitman (ad int.) . Whig
Charles Lynch Democrat
Alexander Gallatin McNutt
Tilghman M. Tucker
Albert Gallatin Brown .
oseph W. Matthews
ohn Anthony Quitman 6
ohn Isaac Guion 6 (ad int.)
ames Whitfield (ad int.)
ienry Stuart Foote
John Jones Pettus 7 (ad int.)
John J. McRae .
William McWillie
John Jones Pettus
Unionist
Democrat
1817-1820
1820-1822
1822-1825
1825-1826
1826
1826-1832
1832-1833
1833
1833-1835
1835-1836
1836-1838
1838-1842
1842-1844
1844-1848
1848-1850
1850-1851
1851
1851-1852
1852-1854
1854
1854-1857
1857-1859
1859-1863
4 Under the constitution of 1832 the president of the senate suc-
ceeded the governor in case of a vacancy.
6 Governor Quitman resigned because of charges against him of
aiding Lopez's expedition against Cuba.
6 On the 4th of November the term for which Guion had been
elected as a senator expired and he was succeeded in the governor-
ship by Whitfield, elected by the senate to be its president.
7 Served from the 5th of January (when Foote resigned) to the
roth, when McRae was inaugurated.
604
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
Charles Clark 1 Democrat
William Lewis Sharkey Provisional
Benjamin Grubb Humphreys 2 . . . Republican
Adelbert Ames . . Republican (Military Governor)
James Lusk Alcorn* ..... Republican
Ridgley Ceylon Powers (ad int.) . .
Adelbert Ames 4
John Marshall Stone (ad int
Robert Lowry
J. M. Stone ....
Anselm Joseph McLaurin
Andrew Houston Longino
James Kimble Vardaman
Edmund Favor Noel
1876-78) Democrat
1863-186
1865
1865-186?
1868-1871
1870-187
1871-1874
1876-1882
1882-1890
1890-1896
1896-1900
1900-190.
1904-1908
1908
See T. A. Owen, " A Biography of Mississippi," in the Annua
Report of the American Historical Association, l8f>Q, i. 633-82!
(Washington, 1900); " Report of the Mississippi Historical Commis-
sion " in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, v. 52-
310 (Oxford, Miss., 1902). J. F. H. Claiborne's Mississippi as a Pro-
vince, Territory and State (Jackson, 1880), gives the best account ol
the period before the Civil War. R. Lowry and W. H. McCardle
History of Mississippi (New York, 1893), js useful for local history.
Of most value for the history are the writings of P. J. Hamilton,
J. W. Garner and F. L. Riley. Hamilton's Colonial Mobile (Boston
and New York, 1898), and the Colonization of the South (Philadelphia,
1904) are standard authorities for the French and English periods
(1699-1781). Garner's Reconstruction in Mississippi (New York,
1902) is judicial, scholarly and readable. Most of Riley's work is
in the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society (Oxford
1898 seq.), which he edited ; see his Spanish Policy in Mississippi'after
the Treaty of San Lorenzo, i. 50-66; Location of the Boundaries of
Mississippi, iii, 167-184; and Transition from Spanish to American
Rule in Mississippi, iii. 261-311. There is much material in the
Encyclopaedia of Mississippi History (2 vols., Madison, Wisconsin,
1907), edited by Dunbar Rowland. There is a state Department of
Archives and History
MISSISSIPPI 6 RIVER, the central artery of the river system
which drains the greater part of the United States of America
lying between the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the
Rocky Mountains on the west. It rises in the basin of Itasca
Lake, in northern Minnesota, and flows mostly in a southerly
direction to the Gulf of Mexico. In the region of its headwaters
are numerous lakes which were formed by glacial action, but
the river itself was old before the glacial period, as is shown by
the crumbling rocks on the edges of the broad and driftless
valley through which it flows along the S.E. border of Minnesota
and the S.W. border of Wisconsin, in contrast with the precipi-
tous bluffs of hard rock on the edges of a valley that is narrow
and steep-sided farther down where the river was turned from
its ancient course by the glacier. So long as the outlet of the
Great Lakes through the St Lawrence Valley was blocked by the
icy mass, they were much larger than now and discharged
through the Wabash, Illinois and other rivers into the Mississippi.
Below the glaciated region, that is from southern Illinois to the
Gulf, the river had carved before the close of the glacial period
a flood-plain varying in width from 5 to 80 m., but this has been
filled to a depth of 100 ft. or more with alluvium, and in the post-
glacial period an inner valley has been formed within the outer
one. The total length of the river proper from the source near
Lake Itasca to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico is 2553 m.;
but the true source of the river is at the fountain-head of the
Missouri, in the Rocky Mountains, on the S.W. border of Mon-
tana, 8000 ft. above the sea, and from this source there is a con-
tinuous stream to the Gulf which is 4221 m. long the longest
in the world. The Mississippi and its tributaries have more
than 15,000 m. of navigable waterways and drain an area of
approximately 1,250,000 sq. m. The system extends through
the heart of the continent and affords a direct line of communica-
tion between temperate and tropical regions. Certain physical
and hydrographic features, however, make the regulation and
'Removed from office by Federal troops, 22nd of May 1865;
. L. Sharkey was appointed provisional governor by President
'hnson. +
1 Removed from office by U.S. troops 15th of June 1868.
3 Resigned 3oth of November 1871.
4 Resigned 2gth of March 1876; succeeded by the presii
the senate.
by the president of
6 The name is from the Algonkin missi-sepe, literally " father of
waters."
control of the Mississippi below the influx of the Missouri an
exceedingly difficult problem.
The Upper Mississippi, that is the Mississippi from its source to
the mouth of the Missouri, drains 173,000 sq. m., over which the
annual rainfall averages 34-7 in., and its discharge per second into
the Lower Mississippi varies from 25,000 cub. ft. to 550,000 cub. ft.
The Missouri drains 528,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall
averages 19-6 in., and its discharge per second into the Mississippi
varies from 25,000 cub. ft. to 600,000 cub. ft. The Ohio drains
214,000 sq. m., over which the annual rainfall averages 43 in., and
its discharge per second varies from 35,000 cub. ft. to 1,200,000 cub.
ft. The Arkansas drains 161,000 sq. m., over which the annual
rainfall averages 28-3 in., and its discharge per second varies from
4000 cub. ft. to 250,000 cub. ft. The Red drains 97,000 sq. m.,
over which the annual rainfall averages 38-3 in., and its discharge
per second varies from 3500 cub. ft. to 180,000 cub. ft. These and
a few smaller tributaries produce a river which winds its way from
Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the passes through a flood plain averag-
ing about 40 m. in width and having a general southern slope of 8 in.
to the mile. The general lateral slope towards the foothills is about
6 in. in 5000 ft., but the normal fall in the first mile is about 7 ft.
Thus the river sweeps onward with great velocity, eroding its banks
in the bends and rebuilding them on the points, now forming islands
by its deposits, and now removing them. Chief among the changes
is the formation of cut-offs. Two eroding bends gradually approach
each other until the water forces a passage across the narrow neck.
As the channel distance between these bends may be many miles,
a cascade perhaps 5 or 6 ft. in height is formed, and the torrent rushes
through with a roar audible for miles. The checking of the current
at the upper and lower mouths of the abandoned channel soon
obstructs them by deposit, and forms in a few years one of the cres-
cent lakes which are so marked a feature on the maps. At the mouth
of the Red river 316 m. above the passes, the water surface at the
lowest stage is only 5| ft. above the level of the Gulf, where the
mean tidal oscillation is about ij ft. The river channel in this
section is therefore a fresh-water lake. At the flood stage the surface
rises 50 ft. at the mouth of Red river, but of course retains its level
at the Gulf, thus giving the head necessary to force forward the
increased volume of discharge. Above the mouth of the Red river
the case is essentially different. The width increases and the depth
decreases. Hence the general slope in long distances is here nearly
the same at all stages. The effect of these different physical condi-
tions appears in the comparative volumes which pass through the
channel. At New Orleans the maximum discharge hardly reaches
1,200,000 cub. ft. per second, and a rising river at high stages carries
only about 100,000 cub. ft. per second more than when falling
at the same absolute level; but just below the mouth of the Ohio
the maximum flood volume reaches 1,400,000 cub. ft. per second,
and at some stages a rising river may carry one-third more water
:han when falling at the same absolute level. The river is usually
owest in October. It rises rapidly until checked by the freezing
of the northern tributaries. It begins to rise again in February,
is a consequence of the storms from the Gulf which traverse the
)asin of the Ohio, and attains its highest point about the 1st of April,
t then falls a few feet, but the rains in the Upper Mississippi basin
cause it to rise again and high water is maintained until some time
n June by the late spring and early summer rains ir\ the Missouri
jasin. As a rule the river is above mid-stage from January to
August inclusive, and below that level for the remainder of the year.
Engineering Works. Below Cape Girardeau there are at
east 29,790 sq. m. of rich bottom lands which require protection
Yom floods, and this has been accomplished to a great extent by
he erection of levees. The first levee was begun in 1717, when
he engineer, Le Blond de La Tour (d. about 1725) erected one a
mile long to protect the infant city of New Orleans from over-
low. Progress at first was slow. In 1770 the settlements
jxtended only 30 m. above and 20 m. below New Orleans; but
n 1828 the levees, although quite insufficient in dimensions,
lad become continuous nearly to the mouth of the Red river,
n 1850 a great impulse was given to systematic embankment
>y the United States government, which turned over to the
everal states all unsold swamps and overflowed lands within their
imits, to provide a fund for reclaiming the districts liable to
nundation. The action resulting from this caused alarm in
ouisiana. The aid of the government was invoked, and
Tongress immediately ordered the necessary investigations and
urveys. This work was placed in charge of Captain (later
eneral) Andrew A. Humphreys (1810-1883), and an elaborate
eport covering the results of ten years of investigation was
mblished, just after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. In
his report it was demonstrated that the great bottom lands
bove the Red river, before the construction of their levees did
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
605
not, as had been supposed, in Louisiana, serve as reservoirs to
diminish the maximum wave in great flood seasons. Further-
more, the report argued that no diversion of tributaries was
possible; that no reservoirs artificially constructed could keep
back the spring freshets which caused the floods; that the making
of cut-offs, which had sometimes been advocated as a measure
of relief, was in the highest degree injurious; that outlets
were impracticable from the lack of suitable sites; and, finally,
that levees properly constructed and judiciously placed would
afford protection to the entire alluvial region.
During the Civil War (1861-65) the artificial embankments
were neglected; but after its close large sums were expended
by the states directly interested in repairing them. The work
was done without concert upon defective plans, and a great
flood early in 1874 inundated the country, causing terrible
suffering and loss. Congress, then in session, passed an act
creating a commission of five engineers to determine and report
on the best system for the permanent reclamation of the entire
alluvial region. Their report, rendered in 1875, endorsed the
conclusions of that of 1861, and advocated a general levee,
system on each bank. This system comprised: (i) a main
embankment raised to specified heights sufficient to restrain the
floods; and (2) where reasonable security against caving required
considerable areas near the river to be thrown out, exterior
levees of such a height as to exclude ordinary high waters, but
to allow free passage to great floods, which as a rule occur only
at intervals of five or six years. An engineering organization
was proposed for constructing and maintaining these levees,
and a detailed topographical survey was recommended to deter-
mine their precise location. Congress promptly approved and
ordered the survey; but strong opposition on constitutional
grounds was raised to the construction of the levees by the
government.
In the meantime complaints began to be heard respecting the
low-water navigation of the river below the mouth of the Ohio.
A board of five army engineers, appointed in 1878 to consider
a plan of relief, reported that a depth of 10 ft. could probably be
secured by narrowing the wide places to about 3500 ft. with
hurdle work, brush ropes or brush dykes designed to cause a
deposit of sediment, and by protecting caving banks by light
and cheap mattresses. Experiments in these methods were
soon begun and they proved to be effective.
The bars at the efflux of the passes at the mouth of the
Mississippi were also serious impediments to commerce. The
river naturally discharges through three principal branches, the
south-west pass, the south pass and the north-east pass, the
latter through two channels, the more northern of which is
called Pass a 1'Outre. In the natural condition the greatest
depth did not exceed 12 or 13 ft. After appropriations by
Congress in 1837, 1852 and 1856, a depth of 18 ft. was finally
secured by dredging and scraping. The report of 1861 discussed
the subject of bar formation at length, and the stirring up of the
bottom by scrapers during the flood stages of the river (six
months annually) was recommended by it. After the war this
recommendation was carried into effect for several years, but
experience showed that not much more than 18 ft. could be
steadily maintained. This depth soon became insufficient, and
in 1873 the subject was discussed by a board of army engineers,
the majority approving a ship canal. In 1874 Congress consti-
tuted a special board which, after visiting Europe and examining
similar works of improvement there, reported in favour of con-
structing jetties at the south pass, substantially upon the plan
used by Pieter Caland (b. 1826) at the mouth of the Meuse; and
in 1875 Captain James B. Eads (1820-1887) and his associates
were authorized by Congress to open by contract a deep channel
through the south pass upon the general plan proposed by this
board. As modified in 1878 and 1879 the contract called for
the maintenance for twenty years of a channel through the pass
and over the bar not less than 26 ft. in depth throughout, a
width of not less than 200 ft. and with a middle depth of -30 ft.
The work was begun on the 2nd of June 1875. The required
depth was obtained in 1879, and with few interruptions has been
maintained. In 1902 Congress authorized preparations for the
construction of a deeper (35 ft.) and a wider channel through
the south-west pass; the work was begun in 1903 and virtually
completed in 1909.
In the year in which Captain Eads opened the south pass of deep-
water navigation Congress created a commission of seven members
to mature plans for correcting and deepening the channel of the river,
for protecting its banks and for preventing floods, and since then large
expenditures for improvement between the head of the passes and
the mouth of the Ohio have been under the control of this commis-
sion. In protecting the banks, mattresses of brush or small trees,
woven like basket-work, were sunk on the portion of the bank at
the time under water, by throwing rubble stone upon them, an excess
of stone being used. A common size of mattress was 800 ft. long,
counted along the bank, by 250 ft. wide. Sometimes a width of
300 ft. was used, and lengths have reached 2000 ft. The depth of
water was often from 60 to 100 ft. At first these mats were light
structures, but the loss of large quantities of bank protection by the
caving of the bank behind them, or by scour at their channel edges,
forced the commission steadily to increase the thickness and strength
of the mattress, so that the cost of the linear foot of bank protection,
measured along the bank, rose from $8 or $10 to $30 in the later
work. The contraction works adopted were systems of spurs or
pile dykes, running out from the shore nearly to the line of the pro-
posed channel. Each dyke consisted of from one to four parallel
rows of piles, the interval between rows being about 20 ft. and be-
tween piles in a row 8 or 10 ft. The piles and rows were strongly
braced and tied together, and in many cases brush was woven into
the upper row, forming a hurdle, in order further to diminish the
velocity of the water below the spur. By 1893 it was evident that
the cost, which had been estimated at $33,000,000 in 1881, would
really be several times that amount, and that the works would re-
quire heavy expense for their maintenance and many years for their
execution. Navigation interests demanded more speedy relief.
The commission then began experimenting with hydraulic dredges,
and in 1896 it adopted a project for maintaining a channel from the
mouth of the Ohio to the passes that should be at least 9 ft. deep
and 250 ft. wide throughout the year. Centrifugal pumps are used,
the suction pipes being at the bow and the discharge at the stern
through a line of pipes about 1000 ft. long, supported on pontoons.
Water jets or cutters stir up the material to be dredged before it
enters the suction pipes. The later dredges have a capacity of about
1000 cub. yds. of sand per hour, the velocity in the 32- to 34-in. dis-
charge pipes being from 10 to 15 ft. per second. They cost from
$86,000 to $120,000, and their working during a low- water season
costs about $20,000. These dredges begin work on a bar where
trouble is feared before the river reaches its lowest stage, and make
a cut through it. A common cut is 2000 ft. long by 250 ft. wide,
and 3 or 4 ft. deep. Since 1903 a channel of the proposed depth
or more has been maintained.
In 1882 occurred one of the greatest floods known on the Missis-
sippi, and extensive measurements of it were made. A maximum
flood of 1,900,000 cub. ft. per second crossed the latitude of Cairo.
Much of it escaped into the bottom lands, which are below the level
of the great floods, and flowed through them to rejoin the river
below. The flow in the river proper at Lake Providence, 542 m.
below Cairo, was thus reduced to about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second,
while if the river had been confined by levees the flow between them
would have been double, or about 2,000,000 cub. ft. per second.
The volume of the levees in 1882 was about 33,000,000 cub. yds.,
and by the joth of June 1908 had been increased to 219,621,594
cub. yds., of which the United States had built about one-half,
and has expended on them $22,562,544. The length of the levees
is about 1486 m., and they are continuous save where interrupted
by tributaries or by high lands, from New Madrid, or 8p m. below
Cairo, to Fort Jackson, 1039 m. below Cairo. The width of the
interval between levees on the opposite banks of the river varies
greatly; in many places the levees are built much nearer the normal
margin of the river than is consistent with keeping the flood heights
as low as possible. This has arisen from two causes : firstly, to give
Erotection to lands already cultivated, which lie usually near the
ank of the river; secondly, to avoid the lower ground, which,
owing to the peculiar formation, is found as one goes back from the
river. Another bad result of this nearness of the levees to the bank
of the river is the loss of levees by caving, which was nearly 5,000,000
cub. yds. in 1904-1905, and can only be prevented by bank protection,
costing $150,000 per mile, to protect a levee perhaps 1 6 ft. high cost-
ing about $30,000 per mile. The levees have top widths of 8 It., side
slopes of one-third, and banquettes when their heights exceed about
10 ft. The grades of the levees are usually 3 ft. above the highest
water, and have to be raised from year to year as greater confinement
of water gives greater flood heights. When this system is completed
there will probably be hundreds of miles of levee with heights
exceeding 14 ft. In 1899, after about $28,000,000 had been spent
on levees by the United States and by the local authorities, the
commission submitted an estimate for additional work on levees,
amounting to 124,000,000 cub. yds. and costing $22,000,000. The
effect of the levees has been to increase flood heights. Though the
6o6
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
Mississippi River Commission was forbidden by Congress to build
levees to protect lands from overflow, a majority of its members
believed them useful for the purpose of navigation improvement.
They have, however, effected no sensible improvement in the naviga-
tion of the river at low stages, and at other stages no improvement
was needed for the purposes of navigation. Neither did they prevent
a destructive flood in 1897 and again in 1903. By the 3Oth of June
1908, $57,510,216.81 had been appropriated for the commission s
work below the mouth of the Ohio.
From the mouth of the Ohio to the mouth of the Missouri, a
distance of about 210 m., the river is affected by back water from
the Ohio which increases the deposit of sediment, and although the
banks increase in height above Cape Girardeau the channel was in its.
natural state frequently a mile or more in width, divided by islands,
and obstructed by bars on which the low-water depth was only si
to 4 ft. The improvement was begun in 1872, and m 1881 a project
was adopted for narrowing the channel to approximately 2500 ft.
In 1896 dredging was begun and in 1905 the further execution of the
original project of 1881 was discontinued, because of a new plan
for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf.
The Upper Mississippi carries only a small amount of sediment
and was navigable in its natural state to St Paul, although at low
water the larger river boats could ascend no farther than La Crosse,
Wisconsin. In 1879 Congress adopted a project for obtaining a
channel with a minimum depth at low water of 4! ft., chiefly by means
of contraction works. In 1907 Congress authorized further contrac-
tion, dredging, the construction of a lateral cana! at Rock Island
Rapids, and the enlargement of that at Des Moines Rapids with a
view to obtaining a channel nowhere less than 6 ft. in depth at low
water. By means of two locks and dams, which were begun in 1894
and were about three-fourths complete in 1908, a navigable channel
of the same depth will be extended from St Paul to Minneapolis.
The United States government has constructed dams at the outlets
of lakes Winnibigashish, Cass, Leech, Pine, Sandy and Pokegama,
and thereby created reservoirs haying a total storage capacity of
about 95,000,000,000 cub. ft. This reservoir system, which may
be much enlarged, is also beneficial in that it mitigates floods and
regulates the flow for manufacturing purposes and for logging.
Although the United States government has expended more than
$70,000,000 on the Mississippi river between the mouth of the
Missouri and the head of the passes, the improvement of navigation
thereon has not been great enough to make it possible for river
freighters to force down railway rates by competition. But it is
no longer merely a question of competition. The productivity of
this region has become so enormous that railways alone cannot
meet the requirements of its commerce, and a persistent demand has
arisen for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf.
The first great impetus to this demand was given in 1900, when a
canal 24 ft. in depth, and known as the Chicago Drainage Canal,
was opened from the Chicago river to Lockport, Illinois, on the Des
Plaines river, 34 m. from Lake Michigan. Two years later Congress
appropriated $200,000 for the Mississippi River Commission to make
a survey and prepare plans, with estimates of cost, for a navigable
waterway 14 ft. in depth from Lockport to St Louis. The commis-
sion reported favourably in 1905, and in 1907 Congress provided for
another commission, which in June 1909 reported against the 14 ft.
channel, estimating that it would cost $128,000,000 for construction
and $6,000,000 annually for maintenance, and considered a 9-ft.
channel (8 ft. between Ohio and St Louis) sufficient for commercial
purposes.
The Ohio is commercially the most important tributary, and in
flood time most of the commerce on the Lower Mississippi consists
of coal and other heavy freight received from the mouth of this river.
Its navigation at low water has also been improved by dredging,
rock excavation and contraction works. In its upper reaches a
channel 9 ft. in depth had been obtained before 1909 by the con-
struction of a number of locks with collapsible dams which are thrown
down by a flood. It is the plan of the government to extend this
system to the mouth of the river, and it has been estimated that a
channel 12 to 14 ft. in depth may ultimately be obtained by a system
of mountain reservoirs. Furthermore, the government has given to
a corporation a franchise for the connexion of the Ohio at Pittsburg
with Lake Erie near Ashtabula, Ohio, by means of a canal 12 ft.
in depth. The Missouri is navigable from its mouth to Fort Benton,
a distance of 2285 m., and it had become a very important highway
of commerce when the first railway, the Hannibal & St Joseph,
reached it in 1859. Its commerce then rapidly disappeared, but
regular navigation between Kansas City and St Louis was re-estab-
lished in 1907 and a demand has arisen for a 12-ft. channel from the
mouth of the river to Sioux City, Iowa. The Red, Arkansas, White,
Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers, which are parts of the Mississippi
system, have each a navigable mileage exceeding 600 m.
History. Although the Mississippi river was discovered in its
lower course by Hernando de So to in 1541, and possibly by
Alonso Alvarez de Pineda in 1519, Europeans were not yet
prepared to use the discovery, and two Frenchmen, Louis
Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette, first made it generally
known to the civilized world by a voyage down the river from
the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Arkansas in
I673. 1 In 1680 Louis Hennepin, sent by La Salle, who planned
to acquire for France the entire basin drained by the great river
and its tributaries, explored the river from the mouth of the
Illinois to the Falls of St Anthony, where the city of Minneapolis
now stands, and two years later La Salle himself descended
from the mouth of the Illinois, to the Gulf, named the basin
" Louisiana," and took formal possession of it in the name of
his king, Louis XIV. By the war which terminated (1763) in
the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain wrested from France all that
part of the basin lying east of the middle of the river (except the
island of New Orleans at its mouth), together with equal rights
of navigation; and the remainder of the basin France had
secretly ceded to Spain in 1762. During the War of Indepen-
dence the right to navigate the river became a troublesome
question. In 1779 the Continental Congress sent John Jay to
Spain to negotiate a treaty of commerce, and to insist on the
free navigation of the Mississippi, but the Spanish government
refused to entertain such a proposition, and new instructions
that he might forego that right south of 31 N. latitude reached
him too late. While the commissioners from Great Britain
and the United States were negotiating a treaty of peace at
Paris, Spain, apparently supported by France, sought to prevent
the extension of. the western boundary of the United States to
the Mississippi, but was unsuccessful, and the United States
acquired title in 1783 to all that portion of the basin east of the
middle of the river and north of 31 N. lat. In 1785 Congress
appointed John Jay to negotiate a commercial treaty with Don
Diego de Gardoqui, the Spanish minister to the United States,
but the negotiations resulted in nothing. For the next ten years
the Spaniards imposed heavy burdens on the American commerce
down the Mississippi, but in 1794 James Monroe, the United
States minister to France, procured the aid of the French govern-
ment in further negotiations, for which Thomas Pinckney had
been appointed envoy extraordinary, and in 1795 Pinckney
negotiated a treaty which granted to the United States the free
navigation of the river from its source to the Gulf and the privi-
lege of depositing American merchandise at the port of New
Orleans or at some other convenient place on the banks. Spain
retroceded Louisiana to France in 1800, but the Louisiana
Purchase in 1803 left very little of the Mississippi basin outside
of the United States.
As the headwaters of the river were not definitely known, the
United States government sent Zebulon M. Pike in 1805 to
explore the region, and on reaching Leech Lake, in February
1806, he pronounced that the main source. In 1820 Lewis Cass,
governor of Michigan territory, which then had the Mississippi
for its western boundary, conducted an expedition into the same
region as far as Cass Lake, where the Indians told him that the
true source was about 50 m. to the W.N.W., but as the water
was too low to proceed by canoe he returned, and it remained
for Henry Schoolcraft, twelve years later, to discover Lake
Itasca, which occupies a low depression near the centre of the
basin in which the river takes its rise. Jean N. Nicollet, while
in the service .of the United States government, visited Lake
Itasca in 1836, and traced its principal affluent, since known as
Nicollet's Infant Mississippi river, a few' miles S.S.W. from
the lake's western arm. Jacob Vradenberg Brower (1844-1905),
who was commissioned by the Minnesota Historical Society
in 1889 to make'a more detailed survey, traced the source
from Nicollet's Infant Mississippi to the greater ultimate reser-
voir, which contains several lakelets, and lies beyond Lake
Itasca, 2553 m. by water from the Gulf of Mexico, and 1558 ft.
above the sea. Soon after this survey the state of Minnesota
created Itasca State Park, which contains both Itasca Lake and
its affluents from the south.
1 It seems probable that Joliet and Marquette were preceded by
two other Frenchmen, Pierre Esprit Radisson and Menard Chouart
des Groseilliers, who apparently reached the Upper Mississippi in
or about 1665; but their claim to priority has been the subject of
considerable controversy, and, at all events, there was no general
knowledge of the river until after the voyage of Joliet and
Marquette.
MISSOLONGHI MISSOURI
From the close of the I7th century until the building of the
first railways in the Mississippi basin, in the middle of the
1 9th century, the waterways of the Mississippi system afforded
practically the only means of communication in this region.
During the early years of the French occupancy trade with the
Indians was the only important industry, and this was carried
on almost wholly with birch canoes and a few pirogues; but by
1720 immigrants were coming in considerable numbers both by
way of the Great Lakes and the mouth of the Mississippi, and to
meet the demands of a rapidly expanding commerce barges and
keelboats were introduced. The development of the Mississippi
Valley must have been slow until the railways came had it not
been for the timely application of the power of steam to overcome
the strong current of the Lower Mississippi. Even without the
steamboat, however, the Mississippi was indispensable to the
early settlers, and the delay of the United States in securing for
them its free navigation resulted in threats of separation from
the Union. The most formidable movement of this kind was
that of 1787-1788, in which James Wilkinson, who had been an
officer in the War of Independence, plotted for a union with
Spain. Steamboat navigation on this river system was begun in
181 1, when the " New Orleans," which had been built by Nicholas
Roosevelt (1767-1854), made the trip from Pittsburg to New
Orleans, but it was six years later before the steamboat was
sufficiently improved to ascend to St Louis. In 1817 the com-
merce from New Orleans to the Falls of the Ohio, at Louisville,
was carried in barges and keel-boats having a capacity of 60 to
80 tons each, and 3 to 4 months were required to make a trip.
In 1820 steamboats were making the same trip in 15 to 20 days,
by 1838 in 6 days or less; and in 1834 there were 230 steamboats,
having an aggregate tonnage of 39,000 tons, engaged in trade on
the Mississippi. Large numbers of flat boats, especially from
the Ohio and its tributaries, continued to carry produce down
stream ; an extensive canal system in the state of Ohio, completed
in 1842, connected the Mississippi with the Great Lakes; these
were connected with the Hudson river and the Atlantic Ocean
by the Erie Canal, which had been open since 1825. Before the
steamboat was successfully employed on the Mississippi the
population of the valley did not reach 2,000,000, but the
population increased from approximately 2,500,000 in 1820 to
more than 6,000,000 in 1840, and to 14,000,000 or more in 1860.
The well-equipped passenger boats of the period immediately
preceding the Civil War were also a notable feature on the Ohio
and the Lower Mississippi.
In the Civil War the Lower Mississippi, the Ohio, and its two
largest tributaries the Cumberland and the Tennessee being
still the most important lines of communication west of the
Appalachian Mountains, determined largely the movements of
armies. The adherence of Kentucky to the Union excluded the
Confederacy from the Ohio, but especially disastrous was the
fall of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, whereby the Confederacy
was cut in two and the entire Mississippi became a Federal high-
way. Under Federal control it was closed to commerce, and
when the war was over the prosperity of the South was tem-
porarily gone and hundreds of steamboats had been destroyed.
Moreover, much of the commerce of the West had been turned
from New Orleans, via the Mississippi, to the Atlantic seaboard,
via the Great Lakes and by new lines of railways, the number of
which rapidly increased. There was, of course, some revival of
the Mississippi commerce immediately after the war, but this
was checked by the bar at the mouth of the south-west pass.
Relief was obtained through the Eads jetties at the mouth of the
south pass in 1879, but the facilities for the transfer of freight
were far inferior to those employed by the railways, and the
steamboat companies did not prosper. But at the Beginning of
the 2oth century the prospects of communication with the western
coast of North America and South America, and with the
Orient by way of an isthmian canal, the inadequate means of
transportation afforded by the railways, the efficiency of
competing waterways in regulating freight rates, and the
consideration of the magnificent system of inland waterways
which the Mississippi and its tributaries would afford when
607
fully developed,
improvement.
have created the strong demand for river
-A. P. C. Griffin, The Discovery of the Mississippi:
graphical Account (New York, 1883); I. G. Shea, The bis-
covery of the Mississippi, in Report and Collections of the State
?? et y of Wisconsin, vol. vii. (Madison, 1876) ; J.V. Brower
Ihe Mississippi River and its Sources: a Narrative and Critical
History of the Discovery of the River and its Headwaters (Minneapolis
1893); K A. Ogg The Opening of the Mississippi: a Struggle for
Supremacy in the American Interior (New York, 1904) ; E. W. Gould
Fifty Years on the Mississippi; or, Gould's History of River Navigation
(St Louis, 1889); J. W. Monette, The Progress of Navigation a
Commerce on the Waters of the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes, in
the Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, vol. vii. (Oxford
Miss., 1903) ; R. B. Haughton, The Influence of the Mississippi River
upon the Eary Settlement of Its Valley, in the Publications of the
,
M'l s ! s ?{PPi Hlsto " ca ' Society, vol. iv. ; Mark Twain, Life on the Missis-
sippi (Boston, 1883); A. A. Humphreys and H. L. Abbot, Report
on the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River (Philadelphia
1 86 1 ) -Annual Reports of the Mississippi River Commission ( Washing-
?"; I . l8 ??- Sq - q - ) . ; E .- L - Corthell, A History of the Jetties at the Mouth
of the Mississippi River (New York, 1881); J. A. Ockerson, The
Mississippi River: Some of its Physical Characteristics and Measures
employed for the Regulation and Control of the Stream (Paris, 1900)-
J. L. Mathews, Remaking the Mississippi (Boston, 1909); R. M.
, . .
/T n> T, The M'ssissippi River from Cape Girardeau to the Head
of the Passes, m Bulletins of the American Geographical Society,
vols. xxxiv. and xxxv. (New York, 1902 and 1903); J. L. Greenleal,
Ihe Hydrology of the Mississippi," in the American Journal of
Science vol. n. (New Haven, 1896); L. M. Haupt, " The Mississippi
Kiver Problem, m Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
vol. xlm. (Philadelphia, 1904).
MISSOLONGHI, or MESOLONGHI (Me<7oXary(ov),the chief town
of the monarchy of Acarnania and Aetolia, Greece. It is on the
N. side of the Gulf of Patras, about 7 m. from the coast;
pop., about 8300. The place is notable for the siege which
Mavrocordato and Botzaris sustained in 1822 and 1823 against
a Turkish army 11,000 strong, and for the more famous defence
of 1825-26. Byron died here in 1824, and is commemorated
by a cenotaph and a statue.
MISSOULA, a city and the county-seat of Missoula county,
Montana, U.S.A., on the Clark Fork of the Columbia (here called
the Missoula river), about 125 m. W.N.W. of Helena. Pop.
(1900), 4366 (1020 foreign-born) ; (1910), 12,869. It is served by
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound railway, and by the
Northern Pacific railway, which has shops here and of which
Missoula is a division headquarters. There is an electric railway
from Missoula to Hamilton, about 48 m. south. The Northern
Pacific railway maintains a large hospital here, and St Patrick's
hospital is maintained by sisters of charity. Missoula is about
3200 ft. above sea-level, with Mount Jumbo immediately north,
and University Mountain immediately south of the Clark Fork,
and the Bitter Root range to the west. The city is situated on
the bed of a prehistoric lake. Missoula is the seat of the Sacred
Heart academy (for girls), of a Christian Brothers' school (for
boys), of the Garden City commercial college, and of the state
university (founded in 1893, and opened in 1895), which occupies
a campus of 40 acres. On the Bitter Root river, 4 m. distant, is
the United States army post; Fort Missoula. Missoula has con-
siderable trade with the surrounding country in farming, fruit-
growing, lumbering and mining. The Clark Fork furnishes
water power, and at Bonner, 6 m. east, is the Clark dam (28 ft.),
which furnishes electric power. Missoula was founded in 1864,
and chartered as a city in 1887.
MISSOURI, a north-central state of the United States of
America, and one of the greatest and richest, and economically
one of the most nearly independent, in the Union, lying almost
midway between the two oceans, the Gulf of Mexico and Canada.
[t is bounded N. by Iowa; E. by Illinois, Kentucky and
Tennessee; S. by Arkansas; and W. by Oklahoma, Kansas and
Nebraska. Its N. and S. limits are mainly coincident with
the parallels of 40 35' and 36 30' N. lat. the southernmost
Doundary, in the S.E. corner, is the meridian of 36 N. lat.
and much of the western border is the meridian of 94 43' W.
ong. respectively; but natural boundaries are afforded on the
extreme N.E. by the Des Moines river, on the E. by the Missis-
sippi, on the S.E. by the St Francis and on the N.W. by the
6o8
MISSOURI
Missouri. Altogether, about 850 m., or considerably more than
half of the entire boundary, is water-front: about 560 m. along
the Mississippi, about 208 m. along the Missouri, and about
100 m. along the St Francis and Des Moines. The length of the
state from north to south, disregarding the St Francis projection
southward, is 282 m., 1 the width from west to east varies from
208 to 308 m., and the total area is 69,420 sq. m., of which
693 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features. Missouri has three distinct physiographic
divisions: a north-western upland plain, or prairie region; a
lowland, in the extreme south-east; and, between these, the
Missouri portion of the Ozark uplift. The boundary between
the prairie and Ozark regions follows the Missouri river from
its mouth to Glasgow, running thence south-westward, with
irregular limits, but with a direct trend, to Jasper county at the
south-east corner of Kansas; and the boundary between the
Ozark and embayment regions runs due south-west from Cape
Girardeau.
1. The prairie region embraces, accordingly, somewhat more
than " northern " Missouri i.e. the portion of the state north of
the Missouri river and somewhat more than a third of the state.
It is a beautiful, rolling country, with a great abundance of streams;
more hilly and broken in its western than in its eastern half. The
elevation in the extreme north-west is about 1200 ft. and in the
extreme north-east about 500 ft., while the rim of the region to
the south-east, along the border of the Ozark region, has an elevation
of about 900 ft. The larger streams have valleys 250 to 300 ft.
deep and sometimes 8 to 10 m. broad, the country bordering them
being the most broken of the region. The smaller streams have
so eroded the whole face of the country that little of the original
surface plain is to be seen. The Mississippi river is skirted through-
out the length of the state by contours of 400 to 600 ft. elevation.
2. The Ozark region is substantially a low dome, with local
faulting and minor undulations, dominated by a ridge or, more
exactly, a relatively even belt of highland that runs from near
the Mississippi about Ste Genevieve county to Barry county on
the Arkansas border; the contour levels falling with decided
regularity in all directions below this crest. High rocky bluffs that
rise precipitously on the Mississippi, sometimes to a height of 150 ft.
or so above the water, from the mouth of the Meramec to Ste
Genevieve, mark where that river cuts the Ozark ridge, which,
across the river, is continued by the Shawnee Hills in Illinois.
The elevations of the crest in Missouri (the highest portion of the
uplift is in Arkansas) vary from noo to 1600 ft. This second
physiographic region comprehends somewhat less than two-thirds
of the area of the state. The Burlington escarpment, which in
places is as much as 250 to 300 ft. in height, runs along the western
edge of the Cambro-Ordovician formations and divides the region
into an eastern and a western area, known respectively to physio-
graphers as the Salem Upland and the Springfield Upland. 2 Super-
ficially, each is a simple rolling plateau, much broken by erosion
(though considerable undissected areas drained by underground
channels remain), especially in the east, and dotted with hills;
some of these are residual outliers of the eroded Mississippian lime-
stones to the west, and others are the summits of an archaean topo-
graphy above which sedimentary formations that now constitute the
valley-floor about them were deposited and then eroded. There
is no arrangement in chains, but only scattered rounded peaks and
short ridges, with winding valleys about them. The highest points
in the state are Tom Sauk Mountain (more than 1800 ft.), in Iron
county and Cedar Gap Plateau (1683 ft.), in Wright county. Few
localities have an elevation exceeding 1400 ft. Rather broad,
smooth valleys, well degraded hills with rounded summits, and
despite the escarpments generally smooth contours and sky-lines,
characterize the whole of this Ozark region.
3. The third region, the lowlands of the south-east, has an area
of some 3000 sq. m. It is an undulating country, for the most
part well drained, but swampy in its lowest portions. The Mississippi
is skirted with lagoons, lakes and morasses from Ste Genevieve
to the Arkansas border, and in places is confined by levees.
The drainage of the state is wholly into the Mississippi, directly
or indirectly, and almost wholly into either that river or the Mis-
souri within the borders of the state. The latter stream, crossing
the state and cutting the eastern and western borders at or near
St Louis and Kansas City respectively, has a length between these
of 430 m. The areas drained into the Mississippi outside the state
through the St Francis, White and other minor streams are rejatively
small. The larger streams of the Ozark dome are of decided interest
to the physiographer. Those of the White system have open-
trough valleys bordered by hills in their upper courses and canyons
in their lower courses; others, notably the Gasconade, exhibit re-
1 Counting the St Francis projection the length is 328 m.
2 Both the Ozark region and the prairie region are divided by
minor escarpments into ten or twelve sub-regions.
markable differences in the drainage areas of their two sides., with
interesting illustrations of shifting water-partings; and the White,
Gasconade, Osage and other rivers are remarkable for upland
meanders, lying, not on flood-plains, but around the spurs of a
highland country. 3
Caves, chiefly of limestone formation, occur in great numbers in
and near the Ozark Mountain region in the south-western part of
Missouri. More than a hundred have been discovered in Stone
county alone, and there are many in Christian, Greene and McDonald
counties. The most remarkable is Marble Cave, a short distance
south-east of the centre of Stone county. The entrance is through
a large sink-hole at the top of Roark Mountain, from which there
is a passage-way to an open chamber. This extraordinary hall-like
room is about 350 ft. long and about 125 ft. wide, has bluish-grey
limestone walls, and an almost perfectly vaulted roof, rising from too
to 195 ft. Its acoustic properties are said to be almost perfect, and
it has been named " the Auditorium." At one end is a remarkable
stalagmitic formation of white and gold onyx, about 65 ft. in height
and about 200 ft. in girth, called the White Throne." Jacob's
Cavern (?..), near Pineville, McDonald county, disclosed on
exploration skeletons of men and animals, rude implements, &c.
Crystal Cave, near Joplin, Jasper county, has its entire surface
lined with calcite crystals and scalenohedron formations, from
I ft. to 2 ft. in length. Knox Cave, in Greene county, and several
caverns near Ozark, in Christian county, are also of interest. Other
caves include Fried's Cave, about 6 m. north-east of Rolla, Phelps
county, Hannibal Cave (in Rails county, about I m. south of
Hannibal), which has a deep pool containing many eyeless fish;
and various caverns in Miller, Ozark, Greene and Parry counties.
Geology. The geological history of the state covers the period
from Algonkian to late Carboniferous time, after which there is a
gap in the record until Tertiary time, except that there was ap-
parently a temporary depression of the north-western and south-
western corners in the Cretaceous age. Northern Missouri is
covered with a mantle of glacial deposits, generally thick, although
in the stream valleys of the north-east the bed-rocks are widely
exposed. The southern limit of these glacial deposits is practically
the bluffs bordering the Missouri river, except for a narrow strip
along the Mississippi below St Louis. These Pleistocene deposits
include bouldery drift, loess, terrace deposits and alluvium. The
till is generally less than 5 ft. and rarely more than 40 ft. deep, but
in some localities it reaches a thickness of 200 ft., or even more.
Modified drift and erratics were also widely deposited. The loess,
however reddish-brown, buff or grey in colour, according to the
varying proportions of iron oxide is almost everywhere spread
above the drift. It is exposed in very deep cuts along the bluffs
of the Missouri. Southern Missouri is covered, generally speaking,
with residuary rocks. The embayment region is of Tertiary origin,
containing deposits of both neocene and eocene periods. Regarding
now the outcrops of bed-rock, there are exposures of Algonkian
(doubtful, and at most a mere patch on Pilot Knob), Archean,
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, sub-Carboniferous and
Carboniferous. The St Francois Mountains and the neighbouring
portion of the Ozark region are capped with Archean rocks. All
the rest of the Ozark region except the extreme south-western
corner of the state is Cambro-Ordovician. Along the margin of
this great deposit, on the Mississippi river below St Louis and along
the northern shore of the Missouri near its mouth, is an outcrop of
Silurian. Parallel to this in the latter locality, and lying also along
the Mississippi near by to the north, as well as in the intervening
country between the two rivers, are strips of Devonian. Both
this and the Silurian are mere fringes on the great area of Cambro-
Ordovician. Next, covering the north-eastern and south-western
corners of the state, and connecting them with a narrow belt, are
the lower Carboniferous measures (which also appear in a very
narrow band along the Mississippi for some distance below St Louis).
The western edge of these follows an irregular line from Schuyler
county, on the northern border, to Barton county, on the western
border, of the state, but with a great eastward projection north
of the Missouri river, to Montgomery county. This line defines
the eastern limit of the Coal Measures proper, which cover a belt
20 to 80 m. in width. Finally, to the west of these, and covering
the north-western corner of the state, are the upper coal measures.
Thus the state is to be conceived, in geological history, as gradually
built up around an Archean island in successive seas, the whole
of the state becoming dry land after the post-Carboniferous uplift.
Until the post-Mesozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountain region the
north-western portion of 'the state drained westward.
Fauna. Excepting the embayment region, Missouri lies wholly
within the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral life-zone; the
3 There has been some controversy as to whether this condition
is due to the elevation and corrosion of original flood-plain meanders
after their development in a past base-level condition-^-which
theory is probably correct-^-or to the natural, simultaneous lateral
and vertical cut of an originally slightly sinuous stream, under
such special conditions of stream declivity and horizontal bed-
strata (conditions supposed by some to be peculiarly fulfilled in
this region) as would be favourable to the requisite balance of
bank cutting and channel incision.
Environs of
KANSAS CITY
Scale. 1:625,
MISSOURI
tnvirons ot
ST. LOUIS
Scale. 1:312,500
, English Miles
9 4 ! ? 3
Emery Walkdtc.
MISSOURI
embayment lies in the Austro-riparian area of the same zone. Among
wild animals, deer and bear are not uncommon. Opossums,
raccoons, woodchucks, foxes, grey squirrels and fox-squirrels are
common. The game birds include quail ( "Bob White ") and
partridges. Prairie chickens (pinnated grouse), pheasants and wild
turkeys, all very common as late as 1880, are no longer to be found
save in remote and thinly-settled districts. A state fish commission
has laboured to increase the common varieties of river fish. So far
as these are an article of general commerce, they come, like frogs,
terrapin and turtles, mainly from the counties of the embayment
region. Mussel fisheries, an industry confined to the Mississippi
river counties from Lincoln to Lewis, are economically important,
as the shells are used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. There
are state fish-hatcheries at St Louis and St Joseph.
Flora. The most valuable forests are in the southern half of the
state, which, except where cleared for farms, is almost continuously
wooded. An almost entire absence of underbrush is characteristic
of Missouri forests. The finest woods are on the eastern upland
and on the Mississippi lowlands. The entire woodland area of the
state was estimated at 41,000 sq. m. by the national census of 1900.
Ash, oaks, black and sweet gums, chestnuts, hickories, hard maple,
beech, walnut and short-leaf pine are noteworthy among the trees
of the Carolinian area; the tupelo and bald cypress of the embay-
ment region, and long-leaf and loblolly pines, pecans and live oaks
of the uplands, among those characteristic of the Austro-riparian.
But the habitats overlap, and persimmons and magnolias of different
species are common and notable in both areas. The heavy timber
in the south-eastern counties (cypress, &c.), and even scattered
stands of such valuable woods as walnut, white oak and red-gum,
have already been considerably exploited.
Climate. Missouri has a continental climate, with wide range
of moisture and temperature. The Ozark uplift tempers very
agreeably the summers in the south, but does not affect the climate
of the state as a whole. The normal mean annual temperature for
the entire state is about 54* F. ; the normal monthly means through
the year are approximately 29-6, 30-3, 42, 55-4, 64-6, 73-2, 77-1,
75-7, 68-2, 57, 42-8 and 33-1" F. The south-eastern corner is
crossed by an annual isotherm of 60, the north-western by one of
50; and although in the former region sometimes not a day in the
year may show an average temperature below freezing-point, at
Jefferson City there are occasionally two months of freezing weather,
and at Rockport three. Nevertheless, the yearly means of the
five districts into which the state is divided by the national weather
service exhibit very slight differences: approximately 52-1, 52-7,
54-4, 56-1 and 55-7 F. respectively for the north-west, north-east,
central, south-east and south-west. On the other hand, the range
in any month of local absolute temperatures over the state is habitu-
ally greafc (normally about 50 in the hottest and 100 or more in
the coldest months), and likewise the annual range for individual
localities (90 to 140). Temperatures as high as 1 00 to 105 and
as low as -20 or -30 are recorded locally almost every year, and
the maximum range of extremes shown by the records is from
116 at Marble Hill, Bollinger county, in July 1901, to -40 at
Warsaw, Benton county, in February 1905. The average fall of
snow, which is mostly within the months from November to March
inclusive, ranges from about 8 in. in the. south-east counties to 30 in.
in the north-west counties. The Missouri river is often closed by
ice, and the Mississippi at St Louis, partly because it is obstructed
by bridges, sometimes freezes over so that for weeks together
horses and wagons can cross on the ice.
The average yearly rainfall for the state as a whole is about 39 in.,
ranging from 53-7 in. in 1898 to 25-3 in. in 1901. The prevail-
ing winds are southerly, although west winds are common in
winter. Winds from the north and west are generally dry, cool,
clear and invigorating; winds from the south and east warm,
moist and depressing. Rainfall comes from the Gulf of Mexico.
The south-east winds blow from the arid lands and carry rising
temperatures across the state; and the winter anti-cyclones from
the north-west carry low temperatures even to the southern border.
Missouri lies very frequently in the dangerous quadrant of the great
cyclonic storms passing over the Mississippi valley indeed, north-
ern Missouri lies in the area of maximum frequency of tornadoes.
Agriculture. Few states have so great a variety of soils. This
variety is due to the presence of different forms of glacial drift,
and to the variety of surface rocks. The northern half of the state
is well watered and extremely fertile. The south-eastern embay-
ment is rich to an exceptional degree. Speaking generally, the
Ozark region is characterized by reddish clays, mixed with gravels
and stones, and cultivable in inverse proportion to the amount of
these elements; northern Missouri by a generally black clay loam
over a clay subsoil, with practically no admixture of stones; the
southern prairies, above referred to, share the characteristics of
those north of the Missouri. The Mississippi embayment is in
parts predominantly sandy, in others clayey; it is mainly under
timber. The state as a whole is devoted predominantly to agri-
culture. Within its borders or close about them are the centres of
total and of improved farm acreage, of total farm values, of gross
farm income, of the growth of Indian corn, of wheat, and of oats. In
1900 agriculture absorbed the labour of 41-3% of the total working
population of the state. Of the area of the state 77-3% was
XVIII. 20
609
included in that year in farm land
acres) ; and of this,
"- j~w ... ** u*iu \*>plW/ "/ J WWP/j dllU Ul II11S,
67'4 A> was improved. The average size of a farm was 119-3 ac res;
39'9 /o of all farm iamilies owned a home clear of all incumbrance;
and the percentages of farms operated by owners, cash tenants
share tenants were respectively 69-5, n-o and 19-5. Negroes
The
total value of farm-
aggregate values of farm
worked 1-7% of the total acreage.
property was $1,033,121,897. The _..,_ ._ .......
products in 1899 was $219,296,970, and this total consisted of
$117,012,895 in crops (area in crops, 14,827,620 acres), $97,841,944
in animal products, and $4,442,131 of forest by-products of farm
operations. Indian corn is the most prominent single crop; in 1899
it was valued at $61,246,305. Of other cereals none except wheat
is produced in any quantity as compared with other states. Tobacco
is grown over half the area of the state, but especially in the
central and north-central counties, and cotton along the Arkansas
border counties, but especially in the embayment lowlands. Orchard
fruits, small fruits and grapes are produced in large quantities,
and a fruit experiment station, the only institution of its kind
m the country in 1900, is maintained by the state at Mountain
Grove, in Wright county. To a slight extent it is possible to grow
fruit of distinctively southern habitat, but even pears (a prominent
and valuable crop) are uncertain in returns. Apples are grown to
best advantage in the north-west quarter; peaches on the Arkansas
border; pears along the Mississippi; melons in the sandy regions of
the embayment ; small fruits in the south-west. Grapes are mainly
grown in the Ozark region, and wine is produced in Gasconade
and other central and north-central counties in amounts sufficient
to place Missouri, California aside, in the front rank of wine states
in the Union. Indian corn and abundant grasses give to Missouri,
as to the other central prairie states, a sound basis for her live-
stock interests. In 1900 the value of her live stock was $160,540,004.
Two of the four remount purchasing stations of the United States
Army are at St Louis and Kansas City. As a mule market Missouri
has no rival. Sheep are herded in the southern Ozarks.
Minerals. Coal, lead, zinc, clays, building stones and iron are
the most important minerals. Cobalt and nickel are associated
with lead in the St Francois field; but though the American ouput
is almost exclusively derived from Missouri the production is small
in comparison with the amount derived from abroad. Practically
the whole comes from Mine La Motte, in Madison county. Mis-
souri is also the largest producer in the Union of tripoli and
of barytes. Copper occurs in various localities, but is of economic
importance only in the Ozark uplift; it was first mined in small
quantities in 1837. The value of the copper mined in 1906 (based
on smelter returns) was $54,347. Mineral waters muriatic,
alkaline chalybeate and sulphuric occur widely. Various mineral
paint bases (apart from lead, zinc, baryta and kaolin) are produced
in small quantities. Iron, once an extremely important product,
has ceased since about 1880 to be significant in the general produc-
tion of the country. But it is of great importance to the state,
nevertheless, and its production has possibilities much beyond
present realization. The ore occurs in two forms, haematites and
limonites; the specular hematites often being grouped, for practical
purposes, into two classes those occurring in porphyry and those
occurring in sandstone. The haematites are found not only in the
archean porphyries but in Cambrian limestone and sandstone,
and in the sub-Carboniferous formations; while the limonites are
confined almost exclusively to the Cambrian. The bedded haema-
tites and limonites have been little exploited. Mining was begun
in Iron and Crawford counties in the second decade of the igth
century; at Iron Mountain in 1846, and at Pilot Knob in the next
year. Since 1880 the output of the state has been falling, and the
total production up to 1902 did not exceed 9,000,000 tons of ore;
in 1906 the output was 80,910 tons. Iron pyrites, which occurs
widely and abundantly, has become of value as material for the
preparation of sulphuric acid.
The limits of the coal belt have already been defined. The area
of the Coal Measures is about 23,000 sq. m., and that of those classed
by the National Geological Survey as probably productive is about
14,000 sq. m., or nearly the entire area of the lower measures.
The coal is almost wholly bituminous, with very little cannelite.
The seams are generally from one to five feet in thickness. Macon,
Lafayette and Adair are the leading counties in output; Lexington
and Bevier are the leading mining centres. The total output
from 1840 to 1902 was about 78,500,000 short tons; the annual
output first passed 1 ,000,000 tons in 1 876, and 2,000,000 tons in 1 882 ;
and from 1901 to 1905 the yearly output, steadily increasing, aver-
aged 4,196,688 tons, of a value at the mines of $6,266,154; the
output in 1908 was 3,317,315 tons, with a spot value of $5,444,907.
Superficial evidences of natural gas and petroleum are abundant
in western and north-western Missouri, but these have not been
found in commercially profitable quantities. The total value of
natural gas from wells in Missouri in 1908 was $22,592. A few small
oil wells are open near the Kansas line. Both crude oil and natural
gas are drawn from Kansas for the supply of Kansas City and other
parts of western Missouri.
Lead occurs in three areas in southern Missouri. In the first,
of which St Frangois county is the centre, it occurs generally alone
disseminated in Cambrian limestone; in the second, of which the
counties immediately south-west of Jefferson City are the centre,
6io
MISSOURI
it occurs with zinc in reticulated deposits and fissure veins in clays
and clastic limestones; and in the third, of which Jasper county
is much the most important county, the two metals occur in pockets
and joints in the Burlington-Keokuk beds of the sub-Carboniferous.
The first is the great lead area, the third the great zinc area; the
second is no longer of relative importance. _ The lead ores are
galena and carbonate; the zinc ores, calamine, smithsonite and
blende. The mines in the St Francois field were worked by the
French from early in the i8th century. The oldest, Mine La Motte
(Madison county), discovered in 1715 by De la Motte Cadillac,
is still a heavy producer. St Francois county alone produces
about nine-tenths the yield of the field; Madison, Washington,
Jefferson and Franklin counties furnish most of the remainder.
Large quantities of lead are also obtained from the zinc field of the
south-west. Both the St Francois and Jasper ores yield from 70
to 75% of metal in final product, and assay even higher. It has
been estimated that down to 1893 1,100,000 tons of ore, yielding
metal worth $74,000,000, had been taken from the state, fully
half of this having been mined in the preceding twenty years.
The total output for the state in 1908 was 114,459 tons . valued at
$12,134,556; of this 116,531 tons came from the central and south-
east field, and of the remainder 15,240 tons from the Webb City
Prosperity camp. Zinc was originally a hindering by-product of
lead mining in the south-west, and was thrown away; but it long
ago became the chief product in value in this field. The so-called
" Joplin district " of south-western Missouri and south-eastern
Kansas three-fourths of it being in Missouri produces nine-
tenths of all the zinc mined in the United States. Mining in south-
western Missouri began about 1851, but zinc was of no importance
in the output until 1872. In the next thirty-one years the aggre-
gate product was about 3,000,000 tons of ore, worth some
$100,000,000. The output from 1894 to 1905 averaged 219,874
tons of ore yearly; in 1908 it was 107,404 tons. The history of the
St Francois, Granby and Joplin districts has been sensational.
The fortunes of the last have largely revolutionized the conditions
and prospects of the south-western counties. Silver is found in
connexion with lead and zinc mining; in 1908 the total output was
49,131 oz., valued at $26,039. Clays occur in amounts and varieties
surpassed by the deposits in very few if any states of the Union.
They are in every form from the rare to the common glass pot
clay, ball clays, kaolins, flint fireclays, plastic fireclays, stone-ware
clays, paving-brick shales, building-brick and gumbo clays. Plastic
fireclays, paving and brick clays are available in seemingly limitless
quantities. The loess, the re-sorted residual clays, and the glacial
clays are all used for the production of brick. Clays occur, in short,
all over the state; and their use is almost as general. In 1905 and
1907 the rank of Missouri was sixth in the Union in the value of
clay products namely, $6,203,411 in 1905 and $6,898,871 in 1907.
There has been no more than the slightest beginning made in the
utilization of these resources. Stone resources are also large.
Limestones are by far the most important; red and gray granites,
sandstones and marble (Ste Genevieve county) being of little more
than local importance. In 1908 the total value of stone quarried
was $2,306,058. Tripoli is quarried particularly in Newton county,
where it has been produced since 1872, and though not produced in
great quantities has value from its general scarcity. This Missouri
tripoli is a finely decomposed light rock, about 98 % silica, and is
used for filter stones and as an abrasive. " Chat " finely crushed
flint and limestone yielded as tailings in the lead and zinc mines
finds many uses. Limestone is quarried all over the state (except in
the embayment region). There are unlimited supplies of clay, shale
and limestone, the three essential constituents of Portland cement,
and the manufacture of this, begun in 1902, at once assumed im-
portant proportions. Quicklime manufacture is also an important
industry. In 1908 the product of quicklime was 167,060 tons.
Manufactures. Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits absorbed
in 1900 the labours of 19-5% of all persons engaged in gainful
occupations, less than half as many as were engaged in agriculture.
Though an agricultural state, Missouri had in 1900 three cities with
populations of above 100,000, whose wealth is based on manu-
factures and trade. Missouri is the leading manufacturing state
west of the Mississippi. Between 1880 and 1900 the value of the
product increased from $165,386,205 to $385,492,784, of which
$3 l6 ,304,095 was the value of products of the " factory system ";
in 1905 the factory product was valued at $439,548,957. Of the
total output in 1900, three-fourths were made up by the output
of St Louis ($233,629,733; of which $193,732,788 was from estab-
lishments under the " factory system "), Kansas City ($36,527,392;
$23,588,653 being " factory product "), St Joseph ($31,690,736,
including the product of some establishments outside the city
limits; $11,361,939 being "factory product" within the city
limits), and Springfield ($4,126,871; $3,433,800 being "factory
product ) ; for the same four cities in 1905 the proportion of the
state's total product ($439,548,957) manufactured under the
factory system " is smaller, and less than three-fourths was made
up by the following seven cities: St Louis ($267,307,038), Kansas
City ($35,573,049), St Joseph ($11,573,720), Springfield ($5,293,315),
Hannibal ($4,442,099), Jefferson City ($3,926,632), and Jopfin
(3,006,203). In 1905 the eleven municipalities with a population
of at least 8000 each (including the seven above, and Carthage,
Moberly, Sedalia and Webb City) produced, under the " factory
system," goods valued at $335,431,978. Eighteen industries in
1905 employed nearly three-fifths of the wage-earners in factories
and were represented by nearly two-thirds ($293,882,705) of the
total product. The most prominent items in this were slaughtering
and meat-packing products (value $60,031,133 in 1905); tobacco
(in 1905, $30,884,182), flour and grist-mill products (in 1905,
$38,O26,i42), 1 malt liquors (in 1905, $24,154,264), boots and shoes
(in 1905, $23,493,552), lumber and timber products (in 1905,
$10,903,783), men's factory-made clothing (in 1905, $8,872,831),
and cars and general shop construction and repairs by steam rail-
ways (1905, $8,720,433). The increase in the slaughtering industry
between 1890 and 1900 (134-9%) was chiefly due to remarkable
growth in St Joseph or, to be more precise, just outside the city
limits of St Joseph; between 1900 and 1905 the increase was
39-5%. Although Missouri is not a great tobacco state, St Louis
is one of the greatest centres of the country in the output of tobacco
products. It is also, for the state, the great centre of all the leading
interests with the exception of slaughtering. The boot and shoe
industry is new west of the Mississippi, but Missouri holds in it a
high and rising rank. In the Joplin mining region a considerable
amount of ores is smelted, but the bulk of the ores is sent into
Kansas for smelting. The finer clays, also, are mainly shipped
from the state in natural form, but in the manufacture of sewer-pipe
and fire-brick, Missouri is a very prominent state. St Louis and
Kansas City are the centres of the clay industries.
Communications. In 1900 rather under a fifth of the working
population were engaged in trade and transportation. In
commerce as well as in manufactures St Louis is first among the
cities of the state, but Kansas City also is one of the greatest railway
centres of the country, and the trade with the south-west, which
St Louis once held almost undisputed, has been greatly cut into by
Kansas City, as well as by Galveston and other ports on the Gulf.
There is still considerable commerce on the Mississippi from St
Louis to New Orleans, and a few passenger steamers are still in
service. In 1906-1907 there was a notable agitation for improve-
ment, following trial voyages that proved the navigability of the
Missouri up to Kansas City. For this part of the river the maxi-
mum draft at mean low water was 4 ft. in 1908. In 1907 the
amount of freight carried from the mouth of the Missouri to Sioux
City, Iowa, was 843,863 tons, and river rates were about 60% of
railway rates. In 1907 estimates were made for 6 ft. and 12 ft.
channels from Sioux City to Kansas City, and from Kansas City
to the mouth of the river. The improvement of the Missouri
which is far more difficult to navigate than the Mississippi was
begun by Congress in 1832, and (in addition to large joint appro-
priations for the Missouri, Mississippi, Arkansas and Ohio rivers
from 1832 to 1882) cost $11,130,560 between 1876 and 1900. Also
$65,000 was expended from 1852 to 1876. In nothing except the
freighting of bulky and imperishable products, like cotton, coal
and cereals, was the river ever able to contest the monopoly of the
railways. The mileage of these within the state rose from 3960
in 1880 to 6142 in 1890, and to 8023-94 in 1908; the Missouri
Pacific being far the greatest system of the state. St Louis, Kansas
City and St Joseph are ports of entry for foreign commerce.
Population. The total population of Missouri in 1900 was
3,106,665 and in 1910, 3,293,335. The population in 1810 was
20,845; in 1820, 66,586; in 1830, 140,455; in 1840, 383,702; in
1850, 682,044; in 1860, 1,182,012; in 1870, 1,721,295; in
1880, 2,168,380; and in 1890, 2,679,184. Thus, even in the
years of the Civil War, there was no apparent set-back.
Of the aggregate of 1900, 63-7 % lived in " rural districts "
(i.e. those outside all places of a population of 2500 or
upwards), and 27-1 % in the three great cities of the
state, St Louis (pop. 575,238), Kansas City (163,752) and
St Joseph (102,979); 5-2 % were negroes their increase
from 1890 to 1900 being less than half as rapid as that of the
whites; and 7-0 % only were foreign-born. Slightly more than
half of all foreigners are Germans; Irish, English and Scotch,
French and English Canadians, Swiss and Scandinavians follow-
ing. The German element is, and has been since about 1850,
of great importance an importance not indicated at all by its
apparently small strength in the population to-day. The Ger-
man immigration began about 1845, and long ago passed its
maximum, so that in 1900 more than half of all the foreign-born
(not only the Germans, but also the later-coming nationalities)
had lived within Missouri for more than twenty years, and more
than three-fourths of all had been residents of the state for ten
1 Omitting here printing and publishing, and foundry and machine-
shop products, which (like carpentering, bakery products, &c., in
cities) have little distinctive in them to set Missouri off from other
states. But it is to be noted that St Louis is one of the leading
producers of street-railway cars.
MISSOURI
6n
years or more. Thus the foreign element is an old one, and other
statistics show that it is being effectively absorbed into the
native mass by intermarriage. 1 The German influence has been
felt in education and in the anti-slavery cause. The early
settlers of the state were practically all from Kentucky, Tennes-
see, Virginia and the old slave-states of the south-east, and their
influence was easily dominant in the state until well after the
Civil War (about 1875), when northerners first began to enter
the state in large numbers. The south-western Ozarks were
settled originally by mountaineers from Kentucky and Tennes-
see, and retained a character of social primitiveness and indus-
trial backwardness until after the Civil War. This region has
been industrially regenerated by the mine development. In
addition to St Louis, 2 Kansas City and St Joseph, the leading
cities in 1900 were Joplin, Springfield, Sedalia, Hannibal,
Jefferson City, Carthage, Webb City and Moberly.
As Missouri was originally a French colony the Roman Catholic
is its oldest church; and it is still the strongest with 382,642
communicants in 1906 out of a total of 1,199,239 for all denomi-
nations. In the same year there were 218,353 Baptists, 214,004
Methodists, 166,137 Disciples of Christ, 71,599 Presbyterians,
45,018 Lutherans, and 32,71 5 members of the German Evangelical
Synod of North America.
Administration. Three constitutions, framed by conventions
in 1820, 1865 and 1875, have been adopted by the people of the
state, and a fourth (1845) was rejected, principally because it
provided for popular election of the state judiciary, which was
then appointed. In addition to these four constitutional con-
ventions, mention should be made of the special body chosen in
1861 to decide the question of secession, which retained supreme
though irregular control of the state during the Civil War, and
some of whose acts had all the force of promulgated constitu-
tional amendments. Universal manhood suffrage was estab-
lished by the first constitution. The constitution of 1865 was a
partisan and intolerant document, a part of the evil aftermath of
war; it was adopted by an insignificant majority and never had
any strength in public sentiment. 3 The present constitution
(that of 1875) was a notable piece of work when framed. The
term of the governor and other chief executive officers, which
had been four years until the adoption of the constitution of
1865, under which it was two years, was restored to the long
term (unusual in American practice). The legislature (or, as it
is called in Missouri, General Assembly) had been permitted to
hold adjourned sessions under the constitution of 1865. This
expensive practice was abolished; various checks were placed
upon legislative extravagance, and upon financial, special and
local legislation generally; and among reform provisions, common
enough to-day, but uncommon in 1875, were those forbidding the
General Assembly to make irrevocable grants of special privileges
and immunities; requiring finance officials of the state to clear
their accounts precedent to further eligibility to public office;
preventing private gain to state officials through the deposit of
public moneys in banks, or otherwise; and permitting the
governor to veto specific items in general appropriation bills.
The grand jury was reduced to twelve members, and nine con-
curring may indict. The township system may be adopted by
county option, but has not been widely established, though
purely administrative (not corporate) " townships " are an
essential part of state administration. St Louis and Kansas
City have adopted their own charters under constitutional
provision. Up to 1909 37 constitutional amendments were
submitted to the people for adoption or rejection, and 22 were
adopted. Three of these (1900) restrict the calling of the grand
jury, permit two-thirds of a petit jury to render verdicts in
courts not of record, and three-fourths to give verdict in civil
1 In 1900 only one person in six had both parents of foreign
birth.
2 St Louis was the capital in 1812-1820, St Charles in 1820-1826,
and Jefferson City since 1826.
3 After the prescriptive features of this constitution were abolished
by amendments in 1870, however, there was no great discontent,
and the vote for holding a constitutional convention in 1875 was
very close: 111,299 to 111,016.
cases in courts of record. Cities have been allowed (1892), upon
authorization by the General Assembly, to organize pension
systems for disabled firemen, but not allowed (1904) to organize
the same for police forces. An amendment which was adopted
( 1 77>6i5 for; 147,290 against) in November 1908, and came in
fleet on the 4th of December 1908, provides for initiative and
referendum applying to statutory law and to constitutional
amendments, but emergency measures, and appropriations for
the state government, for state institutions, and for public
schools are exempt from referendum. Initiative petitions,
signed by at least 8% of the legal voters in each of two-thirds (at
least) of the congressional districts of the state, must be filed not
later than four months before the election at which the measure
is to be voted upon. The referendum may be ordered by the
legislature or by a petition signed by at least 5% of the legal
voters in each of two-thirds (at least) of the congressional
districts of the state; such petition must be filed not more than
90 days after the final adjournment of the legislature; referred
measures become law upon receiving a favourable majority of
the popular vote. Among defeated amendments that are indi-
cative of socio-political tendencies was one (1896) to authorize
cities of a population of 30,000 or more to purchase, erect or
maintain waterworks or lighting plants.
There is nothing extraordinary in the general judicial system.
The civil law seems to have had only a tacit, and as soon as American
immigration began a limited, application. The common law was
introduced with the American settler, and after 1804 was the
explicitly declared basis of judicature. Practically no trace of
French and Spanish administration was left except in the land
registers. The metropolitan primacy of St Louis and Kansas City
is reflected in the general organization of the courts. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics maintains free employment-bureaus in St Louis,
Kansas City and St Joseph. There is also a State Board of Media-
tion and Arbitration to settle labour disputes. A Board of Rail-
road and Warehouse Commissioners, elected by the people, was
established in 1875, under a provision of the constitution requiring
the General Assembly to establish maximum rates and provide
against discriminations. 4
The homestead of a housekeeper or head of a family, together
with the rents and products of the same, is exempt from levy and
attachment except to satisfy its liabilities at the time he acquired
it. A homestead so exempted is, however, limited to 18 sq. rods
of ground and to $3000 in value if it is in a city having a population
of 40,000 or more, to 30 sq. rods and $1500 in value if it is in a
city having a population of 10,000 and less than 40,000, to 5 acres
and $1500 in value if it is in an incorporated place having a popula-
tion of less than 10,000, and to 160 acres and $1500 in value if it
is in the country. A husband owning a homestead is debarred from
selling or mortgaging it without the joinder of his wife, and if the
husband dies leaving a widow or minor children the homestead
passes to either or to both jointly, and may be so held until the
youngest child is twenty-one years of age or until the marriage or
death of the widow. The principal grounds for divorce are im-
potence, bigamy, adultery, conviction of felony or other infamous
crime subsequent to the marriage or before the marriage if un-
known to the other party, desertion or habitual drunkenness for
one year, such cruel or barbarous treatment as to endanger the
life of the other, such conduct as to render the condition of the
other intolerable, and vagrancy of the husband; but before apply-
ing for a divorce the plaintiff must reside in the state for one year
immediately preceding, unless the cause of action was given within
the state or while the plaintiff was a resident of the state. A
married woman may hold and manage property as if she were
single. She is entitled to the wages for her separate labour and
that of her children, and is not liable for her husband's debts.
A widow has a dower right to one-third of her husband's real
estate and to the share of a child in his personal estate. If a hus-
band dies without leaving children or other descendants, the widow
is entitled to all the real and personal estate which came to him by
marriage, to what remains of the personal property which came
into his possession by the written consent of his wife, and to one-
half his other real and personal property at the time of his death.
If a husband dies leaving descendants only by a former marriage,
the widow may take in lieu of dower the personal property that
came to him by means of marriage, or if there be children by both
marriages she may take in lieu of her dower right to his real estate
an absolute right therein equivalent to the share of a child. Her
dower is not lost by a divorce resulting from the fault or mis-
conduct of the husband. A widower is entitled to a share in his
wife's personal estate equal to the share of a child, and if there are
4 In 1907, in Missouri, as in various other states, passenger rates
were reduced by law to 2 cents per mile ; but this law was declared
unconstitutional in 1909.
6l2
MISSOURI
no descendants he has an absolute right to one-half of her property,
both real and personal.
Finance. Revenue is drawn mainly from a general property
tax. In 1904 the gross valuation of all taxable wealth was put at
1,155,402,647, and taxation for state purposes aggregated $0.17
per $iooo. 1 In the years 1851-1857 a debt of #23,701,000 was
incurred in aiding railways, and all the roads made default during
the Civil War. The state could not meet its guarantee obligations
(hence the strict bonding provisions of the constitution of 1875), and
in 1865 had a bonded debt of above $36,000,000. This was reduced
to $21,675,000 by 1869, and in 1903 was wholly extinguished,
every obligation having been fully discharged. A small debt 2 (at
the close of 1906, $4,398,839) is carried in the form of non-negoti-
able state certificates of indebtedness issued in exchange for money
taken from the educational funds of the state, and is intended as
a permanent obligation to those funds. An amendment to the
constitution adopted in 1908 permitted counties to make an extra
levy of 25 cents on each 100 dollars valuation for the construction
and repair of roads and bridges.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. The charitable and penal
institutions of the state include the penitentiary at Jefferson City,
opened in 1836, which is self-supporting; a training school for boys
at Boonville (opened 1889), an industrial home for girls at Chilli-
cothe (established 1887), hospitals for the insane at Fulton (1847),
St Joseph (opened 1874), Nevada (1887), and Farmington (1899);
a school for the blind at St Louis (opened 1851); a school for the
deaf at Fulton (opened 1851); a colony for the feeble-minded
and epileptic at Marshall (established 1899); a state sanitorium,
for consumptives, at Mount Vernon (established 1905, opened
1907); a Federal soldiers' home at St James, and a Confederate
soldiers' home at Higginsville (both established 1897}.
Education. The expenditure upon public schools is much greater
in Missouri than in any other of the old slave states. Most of the
total expenditure (in 1908, $12,769,690) is made possible by local
taxation. The percentage of the enumerated school-population
(children 6 to 20 years of age) attending school in 1908 was 48,
and the percentage of the total enumeration enrolled was about 71 ;
the general showing being excellent, and that for negroes remark-
ably so. Blacks and whites are segregated in all schools. Various
high-schools scattered over the state are given over to the negroes ;
and in 1904 the number of pupils attending these was exceeded
only by the corresponding numbers in Texas and Mississippi
states with five- and sixfold the negro population of Missouri.
Illiterate persons above 10 years of age constituted in 1900 6-4%
of the total population 28-1 % of the negroes, 7-1 % of the natives,
6-9% of the foreign-born. The idea of providing a university and
free local schools as parts of a public school system occurs in the
constitution of 1820 (and in the Acts of Congress that prepared
the way for statehood), and the occurrence is noteworthy; but the
real beginnings of the system scarcely go back further than 1850.
Nor was very much progress made until a law was passed in 1853
requiring a quarter of the general yearly revenue of the state to be
distributed among the counties for schools. This appropriation
was made regularly after 1855 (save in 1861-1867), and since 1875
has rested on a constitutional provision. The maintenance of a
free public school system was placed on a firm and broad foundation
by the constitution adopted in that year. In the years after 1887
one-third of the total revenue was appropriated to the public
common schools; and in 1908 the total appropriation for public
schools, normal schools and the state university was about three-
fifths of the entire state revenue. Local taxation is another source
of the school funds. In 1908 the total school fund, including state,
county, township and special district funds, was about $14,000,000,
of which the state fund was nearly one-third. The schools of
St Louis have a very high reputation.
Among institutions of higher learning the university of Missouri
at Columbia is the chief one maintained by the state. It was opened
to students in 1841, received aid for the first time from the state
in 1867; women were first admitted to the mormal department in
1869, to the academic department in 1870, and soon afterwards to
all departments. In addition to the academic department or
college proper, the university embraces special schools of pedagogics
(1868), agriculture and mechanic arts (1870), mines and metallurgy
(1870, at Rolla), law (1872), medicine (1873), fine arts (1878), engin-
eering (1877), military science, commerce, a graduate school of
arts and sciences (1896), and a department of journalism (1908).
An experiment station supported by the national government was
established in 1888, and is part of the school of agriculture. The
state Board of Agriculture organizes educational farmers' institutes;
and agriculture is taught, moreover, in the normal schools of the
1 The constitutional provision requiring assessments at cash
valuations is not at all observed; according to the State Revenue
Commission of 1902 the average tax valuation was 40 to 50% of
the real value. The national censuses of 1880 and 1890 (no estimate
being made in 1900) put the total value of all property at
$1,562,000,000 and $2,397,902,945 respectively.
2 In 1902 the bonded debts of counties and townships aggregated
$8,066,878; that of towns and cities (mostly that of St Louis)
state. Of these five are maintained as follows: at Kirksville (1870),
at Warrensburg (established 1870), at Cape Girardeau (established
1873), at Springfield (established 1905), at Maryville (established
1905), and there is a normal department in connexion with the
Lincoln Institute, for negroes, at Jefferson City. Lincoln Institute
(opened in 1866) is for negro men and women. The basis of its
endowment was a fund of $6379 contributed in 1866 by the 62nd and
6sth regiments U.S. Colored Infantry upon their discharge from
the service; it has agricultural,' industrial, sub-normal, normal and
collegiate departments. Among privately endowed schools the
greatest is Washington University in St Louis; it is non-sectarian
and was opened in 1857. Noteworthy, too, is the St Louis Uni-
versity, opened in 1829, the oldest institution for higher learning
west of the Mississippi ; it is a Jesuit college and the parent school
of six other Jesuit institutions in the states of the middle west.
There are many minor colleges and schools, most of them co-
educational, and: special colleges or academies for women are main-
tained by different religious sects. Finally, there are various
professional schools, most of them in St Louis and Kansas City.
History. The early French explorers of the Mississippi
valley left the first trace of European connexion in the history of
Missouri. Ste Genevieve was settled in 1735; Fort Orleans,
two-thirds of the way across the state up the Missouri river, had
been temporarily established in 1720; the famous Mine La Motte,
in Madison county, was opened about the same time; and before
the settlement of St Louis, the Missouri river was known to
trappers and hunters for hundreds of miles above its mouth.
It was in 1764 that St Louis (q.v.) was founded. Two years
before, the portion of Louisiana west of the Mississippi had
secretly passed to Spain, and in 1763 the portion east passed to
England. When the English took possession a large part of the
people in the old French settlements removed west of the river.
Not until 1770, after O'Reilly had established Spanish rule by
force at New Orleans, did a Spanish officer at St Louis take
actual possession of the upper country; another on the ground,
in 1768-1769, had forborne to assert his powers in the face of the
unfriendly attitude of the inhabitants. Spanish administration
began in 1771. French remained the official language, and
administration was so little altered that the people quickly grew
reconciled to their changed allegiance. Settlement was confined
to a fringe of villages along the Mississippi. French-Canadian
hunters and trappers, and soon the river boatmen, added an
element of adventure and colour in the primitive life of the
colony. Lead and salt and peltries were sent to Montreal,
New Orleans, and up the Ohio river to the Atlantic cities.
The Americans were hospitably received; the immigrants,
even Protestant clergymen, enjoyed by official goodwill complete
religious toleration; and after about 1796 lavish land grants
to Americans were made by the authorities, who wished to
strengthen the colony against anticipated attacks by the British,
from Canada. Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia furnished most
of the new-comers. The French had lived in villages and main-
tained considerable communal life; the Americans scattered on
homesteads. With them came land speculation, litigiousness,
the development of mines and mining-camp law, and the passion
of politics, of which duels were one feature of early days. In
1804 there were some 10,000 inhabitants in Upper Louisiana
(mainly in Missouri), and of these three-fifths were Americans
and their negroes. Racial antipathies were unimportant, and
all parties were at least passively acquiescent when Louisiana
became a part of the United States. On the pth of March 1804
at St Louis, Upper Louisiana was formally transferred. In 1818
after passing meanwhile through four stages of limited self
government, 3 that portion of the Purchase now included in the
state of Missouri made application for admission to the Union a
a state. 4 In 1812-1813 a remarkable earthquake devastated the
region about New Madrid. A large region was sunken, enormous
fissures were opened in the earth, the surface soil was displacee
3 In 1804, the District of Louisiana, in the administrative system
of the Territory of Indiana; in 1805, an independent government
renamed the Territory of Louisiana; in 1812, the Territory of Mis
souri; in 1816, another grade of territorial government.
4 Until 1836 the state boundary in the north-west was the
meridian of the mouth of the Kansas river drawn due north to the
Iowa line. The addition of the triangle west of that line the
so-called Platte Purchase violated the Missouri Compromise.
MISSOURI
613
and altered, and great lakes were formed along the Mississippi.
One of these, Reelfoot Lake, east of the river, is 20 m. long and
7 wide, and so deep that boats sail over the submerged tops of
tall trees. Indian troubles again disturbed the peace during
the second war with Great Britain. By 1808 the Indian title
was extinguished to two-thirds of the state, though actual settle-
ment did not extend more than a few miles westward from the
Mississippi; in 1825, by a treaty with the Shawnee made at
St Louis on the 7th of November, the title to the rest of the
state was cleared, and a general removal of the Indians followed.
Meanwhile, after the peace of 1815 a great immigration had set
in, many settlers coming from the free states north of the Ohio.
The application for statehood precipitated one of the most
famous and significant episodes of national history the Missouri
Compromise (q.v.). In August 1821, after three years of bitter
controversy, Missouri was formally admitted to statehood.
In the four decades before the Civil War, two matters stand
out as most distinctive in the history of the state: the trouble
with the Mormons, and the growth of river and prairie trade.
In 1831-1832 Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader, selected a tract
at the mouth of the Kansas river as the site of the New Jerusa-
lem, to which his followers came from Ohio in 1832. They were
not welcome. Their " revelations " in their papers predicted
dire things for the Gentiles; they were thrifty and well-to-do,
and were rapidly widening their lands: they were accused of
disregard for Gentile property titles, and they obstructed the
processes of Gentile law within their lands. In 1833 the Missou-
rians, in mass meeting, resolved to drive them from the country.
The five years thereafter were marked by plunder and abuse of
the sect. The militia and the courts gave them no protection.
They were driven out, and went to Illinois, but continued to hold
part of their abandoned lands. First St Louis, and then other
towns on the Missouri river in succession westward, as they were
settled and became available as dep&ts, served as the outfit
points for the Indian trade up the Missouri and the trade with
Mexico through Santa Fe. The trail followed by the latter had
its beginning about 1812, and (beginning in 1825) was surveyed
by the national government. In early days Mexican and Ameri-
can military detachments escorted the caravans on either side
of the international line. Independence, Missouri (after about
1831) and Kansas City (after 1844) were the great centres of
this trade, which by 1860 was of national importance. 1 After
the Civil War the railways gradually destroyed it, the Atchison
Topeka & Santa Fe railroad running along the old wagon trail.
No steamer traversed the Mississippi above the Ohio until 1817,
nor was a voyage made between New Orleans and St Louis, nor
the lower Missouri entered, until 1819. In 1832 a steamer ran
to the mouth of the Yellowstone, and in 1890 the last commercial
trip was made to old Fort Benton (Great Falls), Montana. The
interval of years witnessed the growth of a river trade and its
gradual decline as point after point on the river Kansas City,
St Joseph, Council Bluffs (Iowa), Sioux Falls (South Dakota)
and Helena (Montana) was reached and commanded by the
railways. In 1906-1907 an active campaign was begun at
Kansas City for improving the channel of the Missouri and
stimulating river freighting below that point.
Among events leading up to the Civil War, first the annexation
of Texas and then the war with Mexico left special impress on
Missouri history. Since 1828, when national political parties
were first thoroughly organized in the state, the Democrats had
;en supreme, and carried Missouri on the pro-slavery side of
ery issue of free and slave territory. But there was always
strong body of anti-slavery sentiment, 2 nevertheless; and this
1 In 1855 its value was estimated at $5.000,000. In 1860 it
.s much greater. In the latter year the trade employed 3000
igons, 62,000 oxen and mules, and 7000 men.
2 Under the constitution of 1820 the General Assembly had
wer to emancipate the slaves with the consent of their masters.
1828 Senator T. H. Benton and others prepared a plan lor
educating the slaves and gradually emancipating them under
state law; and undoubtedly a considerable party would have
Ipported such a project, for the Whigs and Democrats were not
en divided along party lines on the slavery issue; but nothing
took organized form in 1849, when Senator Benton repudiated
certain ultra pro-slavery instructions, breathing a secession
spirit, passed by the General Assembly for the guidance of the
representatives of the state in Congress. From that time until
his death he organized and led the anti-disunion party of the
state, Francis Preston Blair, jun., succeeding him as leader.
The struggle over Kansas (q.v.) aroused tremendous passion in
Missouri. Her border counties furnished the bogus citizens who
invaded Kansas to carry the first territorial elections, and soon
guerrilla forays back and forth gave over the border to a carnival
of crime and plunder. Political conditions were chaotic. In
the presidential election of 1860, Douglas received the electoral
vote of the state, the only one he carried in the Union. The
Republicans had little strength outside St Louis, where the
German element was strong. A party led by Claiborne F.
Jackson, the governor-elect, was resolved to carry the state
out of the Union. Such secession, it was supposed, would carry
the other border states out also. With equal blindness the
Secessionists favoured, and the Republicans opposed, the calling
of a special state convention to decide the issue of secession.
The election showed that popular sentiment was overwhelm-
ingly hostile to secession; and the convention, by a vote of
80 to i, resolved (March 4, 1861) that Missouri had " no adequate
cause " therefor. Governor Jackson thereupon sought to attain
his ends by intrigue, and the national arsenal at St Louis became
the objective of both parties. It was won by the unconditional-
union men, but a smaller arsenal at Liberty was seized by the
Secessionists. Governor Jackson refused point-blank to con-
tribute the quota of troops from Missouri called for by President
Lincoln. Aggressive conflict really opened at St Louis on the
toth of May, and armed hostilities began in June. On the loth
of August 1861 at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, General
Nathaniel Lyon was defeated by a superior Confederate force
in one of the bloodiest battles of the war. After this the
Confederates held much of southern Missouri until the next
spring, when they were driven into Arkansas, never afterward
regaining foothold in the state. In the autumn of 1864 Sterling
Price led a brilliant but rather bootless Confederate raid across
the state, along the Missouri River, and was only forced to retreat
southward by defeat at Westport (Kansas City). The western
border was rendered desolate and deserted by guerrilla forays
throughout the war. Probably 25,000 or 30,000 soldiers served
in the Confederate armies, and 109,111 were furnished to the
Union arms. 3 This was a remarkable showing. There was more
or less internecine conflict throughout the war, and local dis-
affection under Union rule; and Confederate recruiting was
carried on even north of the Missouri.
Altogether, the state offered a difficult civil and military
problem throughout the Civil War. An emancipation pro-
clamation issued by General J. C. Fremont at St Louis in
August 1 86 1, though promptly disavowed by President Lincoln,
precipitated the issue. The state convention, after voting
against secession, had adjourned, and after various sessions
was dissolved in October 1863. Assuming revolutionary powers,
it deposed Governor Jackson and other state officers, appointed
their successors, declared vacant the seats of members of the
Assembly, and abrogated the disloyal acts of that body. In
October 1861 a rump of the deposed Assembly passed an act
of secession, which the Confederate States saw fit to regard as
legitimate, and under which they admitted Missouri to their
union by declaration of the 28th of November. In 1862 the
convention rejected the President's suggestion of gradual eman-
cipation, disfranchised Secessionists, and prepared a strong
oath of allegiance. In the summer of 1863 the convention
decreed emancipation with compensation to owners. This did
not satisfy the Radical Republicans, and on the issue of
came of the plan, and the manner of its defeat proves that it could
not possibly have been pushed to success The trouble over
Lovejoy's printing office at St Louis (1833-1836) put an effectual
end to the movement for emancipation.
3 Compare the vote of 1861. The Union death-roll of Massachu-
setts (troops furnished, 159,165) was 13,942, that of Missouri 13,887.
614
MISSOURI COMPROMISE
immediate and unconditional emancipation they swept the state
in November 1864. By the constitution of 1865 slavery was
abolished outright. 1 The convention of 1861, by maintaining
continuous government, had saved the state from anarchy and
from reconstruction tjy the national power; but an ironclad
test oath (it required denial of forty-five distinct offences)
was provided, to be taken by all voters, state, county and
municipal officers, lawyers, jurors, teachers and clergymen. Its
attempted enforcement was a grave error of judgment, and was
attended by great abuses, and it was finally held unconstitu-
tional by the United States Supreme Court. The legislature,
however, maintained its ends by registration laws that reduced
to impotence the Democratic electorate. The Radical Republi-
cans held control until 1870, when they were defeated by a com-
bination of Liberal Republicans and Democrats, 2 and the test-
oath and the rest of the intolerant legislation of the war period
were swept away. In 1872 the Democrats gained substantial
control, and after 1876 their power was established beyond
challenge. The constitution of 1875 closed the war period with
blanket amnesties. Though in politics habitually Democratic,
Missouri has generally had a strong opposition party Whig
in antebellum days, and since the war, Republican which in
recent years has made political conditions increasingly unstable.
This instability is shown in congressional and local rather than
in general state elections. In 1908 a Republican governor was
elected, the first for more than thirty years.
The Governors of Missouri since 1804 have been as follow:
Territorial Period.
Party Affiliation.
Appointed
Appointed
James Wilkinson ....
Joseph Brown (acting governor)
Frederick Bates ,,
Meriwether Lewis ....
Frederick Bates (acting governor)
Benjamin Howard Appointed
Frederick Bates (acting governor) ....
William Clark Appointed
State Period.
Alexander McNair Democrat
Frederick Bates (died in office) . .
Abraham J. Williams (acting governor)
John Miller (special election to fill out
term) Democrat
John Miller
Daniel Dunklin (resigned office) .
Lilburn W. Boggs (acting governor)
Lilburn W. Boggs
Thomas Reynolds (died in office) .
M. M. Marmaduke (acting governor)
John C. Edwards ....
Austin A. King
Sterling Price
Trusten Polk (elected to United
States Senate)
Hancock Jackson (acting governor)
Robert M. Stewart (elected to serve
out term)
Claiborne F. Jackson (deposed
by state convention) ....
Democrat
Democrat
Democrat
Service.
1805-1806
1806-1807
1807
1807-1809
1809-1810
1810-1812
1812-1813
1813-1820
1820-1824'
1824-1825
1825
1825-1828
1828-1832
1832-1836
1836
1836-1840
1840-1844
1844
1844-1848
1848-1853
1853-1857
185?
. 1857
1857-1861
1861
1 Thus liberating about 114,000 blacks, of a tax valuation of
$40,000,000.
1 The Liberals were those who thought unjust the proscriptionary
legislation passed against the Secessionists and Democrats; and to
this issue of local politics were added the issues of national reform
which the course of President Grant's administration had forced
upon his party. A convention of Liberals that met at Jefferson
City in January 1872 issued to all Republicans favourable to reform
within the party an invitation to meet at Cincinnati in May;
and this was the convention of revolters against General Grant
that nominated Horace Greeley of New York and B. Gratz Brown
of Missouri as Liberal Republican candidates for the presidency
and vice-presidency respectively. The first definite organization
of the Liberal Republican party may therefore be said to have
been made in Missouri in 1870.
3 From 1820-1844 the elections were in August and inaugurations
in November; Governor King served from the 27th of December
1848 till January 1853; thereafter the inauguration was in January,
and beginning with 1864 the election was in November. The term
was four years except under the constitution of 1865.
Hamilton R. Gamble (appointed
by state convention; died in
office), provisional governor
Willard P. Hall (Lieut.-
governor by same power,
acting provisional governor)
Thomas C. Fletcher ....
Joseph W. McClurg . . . '.
B. Gratz Brown
Silas Woodson
Charles H. Hardin ....
John S. Phelps
Thomas T. Crittenden . . .
John S. Marmaduke (died in
office)
Albert P. Morehouse (acting
governor)
David R. Francis ....
William J. Stone
Lon V. Stephens ....
Alexander M. Dockerey . . .
Joseph W. Folk
Herbert S. Hadley ....
Party Affiliation. Service.
Republican
Liberal Republican
(and Democrat)
ii
Democrat
Democrat
Republican
1861-1864
1864-1865
1865-1869
1869-1871
1871-1873
1873-1875
1875-1877
1877-1881
1881-1885
1885-1887
1887-1889
1889-1893
1893-1897
1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1909
1909
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For Physiography: See Surface Features of
Missouri (in Missouri Geological Survey Reports, vol. x., Jefferson
City, 1896) ; publications of the State Bureau of Geology and Mines,
including bulletins and reports of the Missouri Geological Survey
(1853 sea.; new series, 15 vols., 1891-1904); publications of United
States Geological Survey, particularly Bulletins 132, 213, 267,
the 22nd Annual Report, part ii. pp. 23-227, &c. ; and reports of
state departments. On administration : the annual Official Manual
of the State of Missouri (really private, Jefferson City); also F. N.
Judson, Law and Practice of Taxation in Missouri (Columbia,
1900); M. S. Snow, Higher Education in Missouri (U.S. Bureau of
Education, Washington, 1898). On History: Lucian Carr, Missouri
("American Commonwealths" Series, Boston, 1892); L. Houck,
Spanish Regime in Missouri (3 vols., Chicago, 1910); T. L. Snead,
The Fight for Missouri (New York, 1886); Wiley Britton, The Civil
War on the Border (2 vols., New York, 1891-1899; 3rd ed. of vol. I,
revised, 1899); H. M. Chittenden, History of Early Steamboat
Navigation on the Missouri River (2 vols., New York, 1903) ; W. B.
Davis and D. S. Durrie, An Illustrated History of Missouri (St Louis,
1876) ; Encyclopedia of the History of Missouri . . . ed. by H. L.
Conrad (6 vols., New York, St Louis, 1901).
MISSOURI COMPROMISE, an agreement (1820) between the
pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States,
involving primarily the regulation of slavery in the public
territories. A bill to enable the people of Missouri to form a
state government preliminary to admission into the Union
came before the House of Representatives in Committee of the
Whole, on the i3th of February 1819. An amendment offered
by James Tallmadge (1778-1853) of New York, which provided
that the further introduction of slaves into Missouri should
be forbidden, and that all children of slave parents born in the
state after its admission should be free at the age of twenty-five,
was adopted by the committee and incorporated in the Bill as
finally passed (Feb. 17) by the house. The Senate refused to
concur in the amendment and the whole measure was 4ost.
During the following session (1819-1820), the house passed a
similar bill with an amendment introduced on the 26th of
January 1820 by John W. Taylor (1784-1854) of New York
making the admission of the state conditional upon its adop-
tion of a constitution prohibiting slavery. In the meantime the
question had been complicated by the admission in December
of Alabama, a slave state (the number of slave and free states
now becoming equal), and by the passage through the house
(Jan. 3, 1820) of a bill to admit Maine, a free state. The Senate
decided to connect the two measures, and passed a bill for the
admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the people
of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bill was
returned to the house a second amendment was adopted on the
motion of J. B. Thomas (1777-1850) of Illinois, excluding slavery
from the " Louisiana Purchase " north of 36 30' (the southern
boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of the proposed
state of Missouri. The House of Representatives refused to
accept .this and a conference committee was appointed.
There was now a controversy between the two houses not only
MISSOURI RIVER
615
on the slavery issue, but also on the parliamentary question of
the inclusion of Maine and Missouri within the same bill. The
committee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for
the admission of Maine, the other an enabling act for Missouri
without any restrictions on slavery but including the Thomas
amendment. This was agreed to by both houses, and the
measures were passed, and were signed by President Monroe
respectively on the 3rd and on the 6th of March 1820. When
the question of the final admission of Missouri came up during
the session of 1820-1821 the struggle was revived over a clause
in the new constitution (1820) requiring the exclusion of free
negroes and mulattoes from the state. Through the influence
of Henry Clay an act of admission was finally passed, to come
into operation as soon as the state legislature would pledge
itself not to pass any legislation to enforce this clause. This is
sometimes known as the second Missouri Compromise!
These disputes, involving as. they did the question of the
relative powers of Congress and the states, tended to turn the
Democratic-Republicans, who were becoming nationalized, back
again toward their old state sovereignty principles to prepare
the way for the Jacksonian-Democratic Party. On the other
hand, the old Federalist nationalistic element was soon to
emerge first as National Republicans, then as Whigs, and finally
as Republicans. On the constitutional side the Compromise of
1820 was important as the first precedent for the congressional
exclusion of slavery from public territory acquired since the
adoption of the Constitution, and also as a clear recognition
that Congress has no right to impose upon a state asking for
admission into the Union conditions which do not apply to those
states already in the Union. The compromise was specifically
repealed by th.e Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854.
See J. A. Woodburn, " The Historical Significance of the Missouri
Compromise " in the Annual Report of the American Historical
Association for 1893 (Washington, D.C.); Dixon, History of the
Missouri Compromise (Cincinnati, 1899) ; Schouler's and McMaster's
Histories of the United States. (W. R. S*.)
MISSOURI RIVER, the principal western tributary of the
Mississippi river, U.S.A. It is formed at Gallatin City, in the
Rocky Mountain region of south-western Montana, by the
confluence of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin forks; thence
it flows N. into the plains, which it traverses in a course at
first N.E., then E. Entering North Dakota, the river turns
gradually to the S.E., then S., and again S.E., traversing both
North and South Dakota. It forms the eastern boundary
of Nebraska and in part of Kansas, and crosses Missouri in
an easterly course to its junction with the Mississippi 20 m.
above St Louis, and 2547 m. below the confluence of the three
forks. The stream which is known as the Jefferson Fork in
its lower course, Beaver Head River in its middle course, and
Red Rock Creek in its upper course, is really the upper section
of the Missouri; it rises on the border between Montana and
Idaho, 20 m. west of the western boundary of the Yellowstone
National Park, near the crest of the Rocky Mountains, 8000 ft.
above the sea, and 398 m. beyond Gallatin City; and with this
and the Lower Mississippi the Missouri forms a river channel
4221 m. in length, the longest in the world. The Madison and
iallatin forks rise within the Yellowstone Park, where the former
is fed by geysers and hot springs and the latter by both hot
springs and melting snow. The Yellowstone river, which is the
principal tributary of the Missouri, traverses the park. The
lissouri drains a basin having an area of about 580,000 sq.m.;
this includes the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains from the
northern border of the United States to the middle of Colorado,
and its larger tributaries take their rise in those mountains.
Besides the Yellowstone and the three forks there are the Platte,
which rises in two large branches in Colorado, and the Milk,
which rises in north-western Montana. The Kansas in Kansas,
the James and Big Sioux in the Dakotas, and the Niobrara in
Nebraska, are the principal tributaries wholly of the plains. In
the mountain region the Missouri flows through deep canyons
and over several cascades. Below Great Falls the slower current
is unable to carry all the silt brought down from the mountains
and plains, and consequently a winding and unstable channel
has been formed on deposits of silt 50 to 100 ft. or more in depth.
Bends in the river continue to develop by erosion until the
neck between two of them is cut off, and in the process numerous
islands, sand-bars, and crescent-shaped lakes are formed.
Cottonwood, willow, cedar and walnut trees grow upon the
banks that are for a time left undisturbed, but years later the
eroding current returns to undermine these banks, the trees
fall in and are carried down stream as snags (or " sawyers "),
which are especially dangerous to navigation. The variation
of level is great and it varies greatly in different parts of the
river's course: it is about 19 ft. at Kansas City, about 25 ft. at
St Charles, Missouri, and about 8 ft. at Fort Benton, Montana.
It is estimated that the Missouri's average discharge per second
amounts to about 94,000 cub. ft., and that each year it carries
into the Mississippi 550,000 tons of silt. The waters of the
Missouri begin to rise in March, and a high-water stage is reached
in April as a result of the spring rains and the melting snow on
the plains; a second high stage is produced in June by the
melting of snow on the mountains, and the river is navigable
from early spring to midsummer as far as Fort Benton, within
40 m. of the Great Falls and 2285 m. above the mouth. Above
Great Falls the river is navigable to Three Forks.
The mouth of the Missouri was discovered in 1673 by Mar-
quette and Joliet, while they were coming down the Mississippi.
Early in the i8th century French fur-traders began to ascend
the river, and in 1764 St Louis was established as a depot; but
the first exploration of the river from its mouth to its head-
waters was made in 1804-1805 by Meri wether Lewis and William
Clark. Until many years later the commerce on the river was
restricted to the fur trade and was carried on with such primitive
craft as the canoe (made from the log of a cottonwood tree);
the pirogue (usually two canoes side by side and with a floor
over them on which to place the cargo) ; the bullboat (made by
covering a framework of willow poles with the hides of bison
bulls); the mackinaw boat (made of boards and having a flat
bottom); and the keelboat (a vessel of some pretensions, with
a keel from bow to stern, 60 to 70 ft. in length, with a
breadth of beam from 15 to 18 ft., and drawing 20 to
30 in. of water). A canoe, pirogue, bullboat, or mackinaw
boat was propelled by two or more men with paddles, poles,
or oars; but to propel a keelboat up the river required
20 to 40 men who walked along the shore and pulled a
coroelle, a line about 1000 ft. long and fastened to the mast.
An average of about 15 m. a day was made with a keelboat
going up the river. The first attempt to navigate the Mis-
souri with steamboats was made in the spring of 1819, when
the " Independence " made a trip from St Louis to the mouth
of the Chariton river and back. The American Fur Company
began to use steamers in 1830, and from then until the advent
of railways the steamboat on the Missouri was one of the
most important factors in the development of the Northwest.
The traffic was at its height in 1858, when no fewer than
60 regular packets were engaged in it, but its decline began in
the following year with the completion of the Hannibal &
St Joseph railway to St Joseph, Missouri, and 20 years later
it had nearly disappeared. In an attempt to regulate railway
rates, however, four boats were run between Kansas City and
St Louis between 1890 and 1894 by the Kansas City & Missouri
Transportation Company, and in 1906 the Missouri River Valley
Improvement Association was formed at Kansas City. Congress
began to make appropriation for the removal of snags about 1838,
and forty years later appropriations were begun for a general
improvement which in 1884 was placed under the charge of
the Missouri River Commission. In 1890 its work was restricted
to that part of the river below Sioux City and in 1902 the
Commission was abolished. Up to the 3oth of June 1008 the
Federal government had expended $11,398,881 for the improve-
ment of the river.
See H. M. Chittenden, History of Early Navigation on the Missouri
River (New York, 1903) ; P. E. Chappel, A History of the Missouri
River (Kansas City, 1905) ; J. V. Brower, The Missouri River and
6i6
MISTAKE MISTRAL, F.
its Utmost Source (St Paul, 1896) ; J. M. Hanson, The Conquest of
the Missouri (New York, 1909); L. M. Jones, "The Improvement
of the Missouri River and its Usefulness as a Traffic Route," in
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
(Jan. 1908), and the Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army.
MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss), a misconception or error in
thought or action. In law, the word is often used in the sense
of ignorance or error, as when it is said that mistake of law
affords no excuse for crime. In the law of contract, mistake is
of special importance, and may occur either in a matter of law
or in a matter of fact. In general, a mistake of law cannot be
alleged in avoidance of the consequences of contracts or acts,
although there are exceptions in which relief may be given.
Mistake of fact, however, may be ground for avoidance, pro-
vided the mistake was not due to negligence. (See further
CONTRACT.)
MISTLETOE 1 (Viscum album), a species of Viscum, of the
botanical family Loranthaceae. The whole genus is parasitical,
and contains about twenty species, widely distributed in the
warmer parts of the old world; but only the mistletoe proper is
a native of Europe. It forms an evergreen bush, about 4 ft. in
length, thickly crowded with forking branches and opposite
leaves, which are about 2 in. long, obovate-lanceolate in shape
and yellowish-green; the dioecious flowers, which are small and
nearly of the same colour but yellower, appear in February and
March; the white berry when ripe is filled with a viscous semi-
transparent pulp (whence bird-lime is derived). The mistletoe
is parasitic both on deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs.
In England it is most abundant on the apple-tree, but rarely
found on the oak. Poplars, willows, lime, mountain-ash, maples,
are favourite habitats, and it is also found on many other trees,
including cedar of Lebanon and larch. The fruit is eaten by most
frugivorous birds, and through their agency, particularly that
of the species which is accordingly known as missel-thrush or
mistle-thrush, the plant is propagated. The Latin proverb has
it that " Turdus malum sibi cacat "; but the sowing is really
effected by the bird wiping its beak, to which the seeds adhere,
against the bark of the tree on which it has alighted. The
viscid pulp soon hardens, affording a protection to the seed; in
germination the sucker-root penetrates the bark, and a connexion
is established with the vascular tissue of the first plant. The
growth of the plant is slow, and its durability proportionately
great, its death being determined generally by that of the tree
on which it has established itself. The mistletoe so extensively
used in England at Christmas is largely derived from the apple
orchards of Normandy; a quantity is also sent from the apple
orchards of Herefordshire.
Pliny (H. N., xvi. 92-95; xxiv. 6) has a good deal to tell about
the mscum, a deadly parasite, though slower in its action than ivy.
He distinguishes three " genera." " On the fir and larch grows
what is called stelis in Euboea and hyphear in Arcadia." Viscum,
called dryos hyphear, is most plentiful on the esculent oak, but
occurs also on the robur, Prunus sylvestris and terebinth. Hyphear
is useful for fattening cattle if they are hardy enough to withstand
the purgative effect it produces at first; viscum is medicinally of
value as an emollient, and in cases of tumour, ulcers and the like.
Puny is also our authority for the reverence in which the mistletoe
when found growing on the robur was held by the Druids. Prepared
as a draught, it was used as a cure for sterility and a remedy for
poisons. The mistletoe figures also in Scandinavian legend as
having furnished the material of the arrow with which Balder
(the sun-god) was slain by the blind god Hoder. Most probably
this story had its origin in a particular theory as to the meaning of
the word mistletoe.
MISTRAL, FREDERIC (1830- ), Provencal poet, was born
at Maillane (Bouches-du-Rh6ne) on the 8th of September 1830.
In the autobiographical sketch prefixed to the Isclo d'or (1876)
he tells us, with great simplicity and charm, all that is worth
knowing of his early life. His father was a prosperous farmer,
* Gr. #a or JfAs, hence Lat. viscum, Ital. vischio or visco, and
hr. gut. The English word is the O.E. misteltan, Icelandic mislel-
temn, in which tan or tetnn means a twig, and mistel may be associ-
ated either with mist in the sense of fog, gloom, because of the
prominence of mistletoe in the dark season of the year, or with the
same root in the sense of dung (from the character of the berries
or the supposed mode of propagation).
and his mother a simple and religious woman of the people, who
first taught him to love all the songs and legends of the country.
In these early days on the farm he received those first impressions
which were destined to constitute one of the chief beauties of
Mireio. In his ninth year Mistral was sent to a small school at
Avignon, where he was very wretched at first, regretting the
free outdoor life of the country. Gradually, however, his studies
attracted him, above all the poetry of Homer and Virgil; and he
translated the latter's first eclogue, showing his efforts to a young
schoolfellow, A. Mathieu, who was destined to play a part in the
foundation of the Felibrige. When Roumanille (see PROVENC. AL
LITERATURE) became an usher at Mistral's school, the two, fired
by the same love of poetry and of their native Provence, soon
became close friends. " Voila 1'aube que mon ame attendait
pour s'eveiller a la lumiere," he exclaimed, on reading Rouman-
ille's first dialect poems; and he goes on to say: " Embrases tous
les deux du desir de relever le parler de nos meres, nous etudiames
ensemble les vieux livres Provencaux, et nous nous proposames de
restaurer la langue selon ses traditions et caracteres nationaux."
On leaving school (1847) he returned to Maillane, where he
sketched a pastoral poem in four cantos (Li Meissoun). With
all his love for the country, he soon realized that life on a farm
did not satisfy his ambition. So he went to study law at Aix,
where he contributed his first published poems to Roumanille's
Li Promenqalo (1852). He had become licencie en droti the
year before, but now decided on a literary career. The Felibrige
was founded in 1854, and five years later appeared Mireio, the
masterpiece not only of Mistral, but so far of the entire school.
The tale itself was nothing the old story of a rich girl and her
poor lover, kept apart by the girl's parents. Mireille, in despair,
wanders along a wide tract of country to the church of the Trois-
Maries, in the hope that these may aid her. But the effort was
too great: she sinks exhausted, and dies in the presence of her
stricken parents and her frenzied lover. Into this simple web
Mistral has woven descriptions of Provencal life, scenery,
character, customs and legends that raise the poem to the
dignity of a rustic epic, unique in literature. Nothing is forced:
every detail is filled into the framework of the whole with a
cunning which the poet was never again to attain. There is
no deep psychology in the characters, but then the people
depicted are simple rustic folk, who wear their hearts on their
sleeve. Calendau (1867), the story of a princess hejd in bondage
by a ruthless brigand, and eventually rescued by a youthful
hero, is a comparative failure. The description of scenery is
again masterly; but the old lore, which had charmed all readers
in Mireio, here becomes forced, not inevitable. The characters
are mere symbols indeed the whole poem is obviously an
allegory, the princess standing for Provence, the brigand for
France, and the young lover for the Felibrige. Mistral
lavished enormous labour on this work, which probably accounts
for its lack of spontaneity, as also for the love he bears it. In
1876 (the same year in which he married Mile Marie Riviere, of
Dijon) was published the volume Lis Isclo d'Or a collection of
the shorter poems Mistral had composed from the year 1848
onwards. Here he is again at his very best. Old legends,
sirventes (mostly, as in medieval times, poems with a tendency),
and lyrics all are admirable. Even the pieces d 'occasion may
be reckoned with the best of their kind. Two pieces, the Coupe
and the Princesse, aroused violent controversy on their first
appearance. They reproduce, in effect, the theme of Calendau,
and Mistral was accused of trying to sow discord between the
north and south of France. Needless to say he was altogether
innocent of such a design. Nerto (1884) is a charming tale of
Avignon in the olden days, in which a girl's purity triumphs
over her lover's base designs and leads him to nobler thoughts.
There is little individuality in the characters, which should
rather be regarded as types; and we feel no terror or pity at 'the
:ragic close. But we are carried along by Mistral's art and by
;he brilliancy of his espisodes; and he achieved the object he had
n view: a pretty tale imbued with the proper touch of local
colour and with the true spirit of romance. The play La Reino
Jano (1890) is a complete failure, if judged from the dramatic
MISTRAL MITCHELL, M.
617
standpoint: it is rather a brilliant panorama, a series of stage
pictures, and the characters neither live nor arouse our sympathy.
In the great epic on the Rhone (Lou Pouemo ddu Rouse, 1897)
the poet depicts the former barge-life of that river, and inter-
twines his narrative with the legends clustering round its banks,
and with a graceful love episode. For the first time he employs
blank verse, and uses it with great mastery, but again the ancient
lore is overdone. A splendid piece of work is Lou Tresor ddu
Felibrige (1886). In these two volumes Mistral has deposited
with loving care every word and phrase, every proverb, every
scrap of legend, that he had gathered during his many years'
journeyings in the south of France. In 1904 he was awarded
one of the Nobel prizes for literature.
An excellent literary appreciation of the poet is that by Gaston
Paris, " Frederic Mistral " (originally in the Revue de Paris (Oct. and
Nov. 1894) ; then in Penseurs et Poetes (Paris, 1896). More elaborate
accounts are Welter, Frederic Mistral (Marburg, 1899) ; and Downer,
Frederic Mistral (New York, 1901), with a full bibliography.
(H. O.)
MISTRAL, a local wind similar to the bora (q.v.), met with on
the French Mediterranean coast. The warm Gulf of the Lion
(Golfe du Lion) has to the north the cold central plateau of
France, which during winter is commonly a centre of high
barometric pressure, and the resulting pressure gradient causes
persistent currents of cold dry air from the north-west in the
intermediate zone. The mistral occurs along the coast from the
mouth of the Ebro to the Gulf of Genoa, but attains greatest
strength and frequency in Provence and Languedoc, i.e. the
district of the Rhone delta, where it blows on an average one
day out of two; the record at Marseilles is 175 days in the year.
It is usually associated with cloudless skies and brilliant sun-
shine, intense dryness and piercing cold. With the passage of a
cyclone over the gulf, or a rapid rise of pressure following a fall
of snow on the central plateau, the mistral develops into a
stormy wind of great violence.
MISTRESS (adapted from O. Fr. maistresse, mod. mattresse,
the feminine of maistre, matlre, master), a woman who has
authority, particularly over a household. As a form of address
or term of courtesy the word is used in the same sense as
" madam." It was formerly used indifferently of married or
unmarried women, but now, written in the abbreviated form
" Mrs " (pronounced " missis "), it is practically confined to
married women and prefixed to the surname; it is frequently
retained, however, in the case of spinster cooks or housekeepers,
as a title of dignity; as the female equivalent of " master "
the word is used in other senses by analogy, e.g. of Rome as " the
mistress of the world," Venice " the mistress of the Adriatic,"
&c. From the common use of " master " as a teacher, " mis-
tress " is similarly used. The old usage of the word for a lady-
love or sweetheart has degenerated into that of paramour.
" Miss " a shortened form of " mistress," is the term of address
for a girl or unmarried woman; it is prefixed to the surname
in the case of the eldest or only daughter of a family, and to the
Christian names in the case of the younger daughters.
MITAU (Russian, Milava; Lettish, Yelgava), a town of Russia,
capital of the government of Courland, 29 m. by rail S.W. of
Riga, on the right bank of the river Aa, in a fertile plain which
rises only 12 ft. above sea level, and has probably given its name
to the town (Mitte in der Aue). Pop. (1897), .3S,on inhabitants,
mainly Germans, but including also Jews (6500), Letts (5000)
and Russians. At high water the plain and sometimes also the
town are inundated. Mitau is surrounded by a canal occupying
the place of former fortifications. It has regular, broad streets,
bordered with the mansions of the German nobility, who reside
at the capital of Courland. Mitau is well provided with educa-
tional institutions, and is also the seat of the Lettish Literary
Society. The old castle (1266) of the dukes of Courland,
situated on an island in the river, was destroyed by Duke Biren,
who erected in its place (1738-1772) a spacious palace, now
occupied by the governor and the courts. Manufactures are
few, those of wax-cloth, linen, soap, ink and beer being the
most important.
Mitau is supposed to have been founded in 1266 by Conrad
Mandern, grand-master of the order of the Brethren of the
Sword. In 1345, when it was plundered by the Lithuanians, it
was already an important town. In 1 561 it became the residence
of the dukes of Courland. During the I7th century it was
thrice taken by the Swedes. Russia annexed it with Courland
in 1795. It was the residence (1798-1801 and 1804-1807) of
the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.). In 1812 it was
taken by Napoleon I.
MITCHAM, a suburb of London, in the Wimbledon parlia-
mentary division of Surrey, England, 10 m. S. of London
Bridge by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop.
(1901), 14,903. Mitcham Common covers an 4 area of 480 acres,
and affords one of the best golf courses near London. The
neighbourhood abounds in market gardens and plantations of
aromatic herbs for the manufacture of scents and essences.
MITCHEL, ORMSBY MACKNIGHT (1800-1862), American
astronomer, was born at Morganfield, Kentucky, on the 28th of
July, 1809. He began life as a clerk, but, obtaining an appoint-
ment to a cadetship at West Point in 1825, he graduated there in
1829, and acted as assistant professor of mathematics 1829-1832.
He was then called to the bar, but in 1836 became professor of
mathematics and natural philosophy at Cincinnati College. In
1845 he was made director of an observatory established there
through his initiative, and also in 1859 superintendent of the
Dudley observatory at Albany. In 1861 he took part in the
war as brigadier-general of volunteers, and for his skill in seizing
certain important strategic points was on the nth of April 1862
made major-general. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South
Carolina, on the 3oth of October 1862. He founded the Sidereal
Messenger in 1846, was one of the first to adopt (in 1848) the
electrical method of recording observations, and published
besides other works, TheOrbs of Heaven (1848, &c.), and Popular
Astronomy (1860), both reissued at London in 1892.
See Ormsby MacKnight Mitchel; a Biographical Narrative, by his
son, F. A. Mitchel (1887); P. C. Headley, The Patriot Boy (1865);
Amer. Journal of Science, xxiv. 451 (1862); Month. Notices Roy.
Astr. Society, xxiii. 133, xxxvii. 121 (C. Abbe); Astr. Nach.,
No. 1401 (G. W. Hough).
MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822-1908) American author,
was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the i2th of April 1822. He
graduated at Yale College in 1841 ; studied law, but soon took
up literature. Throughout his life he showed a particular interest
in agriculture and landscape-gardening, which he followed at
first in pursuit of health. He produced books of travel; volumes
of essays on rural themes, of which My Farm of Edgewood (1863)
is the best; sketchy studies of English monarchs and of English
and American literature; and a character-novel entitled Doctor
Johns (1866), &c.; but is best known as the author (under the
pseudonym of " Ik Marvel "), of the sentimental essays contained
in the volumes Reveries of a Bachelor, or a Book of the Heart
(1850), and Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons (1851).
MITCHELL, MARIA (1818-1889), American astronomer, was
born of Quaker ancestry on the island of Nantucket on the ist
of August 1818. Her father, William Mitchell (1791-1869), was
a school teacher and self-taught astronomer, who rated chrono-
meters for Nantucket whalers, was an overseer of Harvard
University (1857-1865), and for a time was employed by the
United States Coast Survey. As early as 1831 (during the
annular eclipse of the sun) she had been her father's assistant in
his observations. On the ist of October 1847 she discovered a
telescopic comet (seen by De Vico Oct. 3, by W. R. Dawes
Oct. 7, by Madame Rumker Oct. n), and for this discovery
she received a gold medal from the King of Denmark, and was
elected (1848) to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and (1850) to the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. In 1861 she removed from Nantucket to Lynn,
where she used a large equatorial telescope presented to her by
the women of America; and there she lived until 1865, when
she became professor of astronomy and director of the observa- .
tory at Vassar College; in 1888 she became professor emeritus.
In 1874 she began making photographs of the sun, and for years
she made a special study of Jupiter and Saturn. She died at
MITCHELL, S. W. MITE
618
Lynn on the 2 8th of June 1889. In 1908 an observatory was
established in her honour at Nantucket.
See Phebe Mitchell Kendall, Maria Mitchell: Life, Letters and
Journals (Boston, 1896); In Memormm (Poughkeepsie, 1889), by
her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W .Whitney; and a sketch
by her brother, Henry Mitchell (1830-1902), himself a well-known
hvdrographer, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, vol. xxv. (1889-1890), pp. 331-343-
MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830), American physician
and author, son of a Philadelphia doctor, John Kearsley
Mitchell (1798-1858), was born in Philadelphia on the isth of
February 1830. He studied at the university of Pennsylvania
in that city, and received the degree of M.D. at Jefferson Medical
College in 1850. During the Civil War he had charge of nervous
injuries and maladies at Turner's Lane Hospital, Philadelphia,
and at the close of the war became a specialist in nervous
diseases. In this field Weir Mitchell's name became prominently
associated with his introduction of the " rest cure," subsequently
taken up by the medical world, for nervous diseases, particularly
hysteria; the treatment consisting primarily in isolation, con-
finement to bed, dieting and massage. In 1863 he wrote a
clever short story, combining physiological and psychological
problems, entitled " The Case of George Dedlow," in the Atlantic
Monthly. Thenceforward Dr Weir Mitchell, as a writer, divided
his attention between professional and literary pursuits. In
the former field he produced monographs on rattlesnake poison,
on intellectual hygiene, on injuries to the nerves, on neurasthenia,
on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds
upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse,
physician, and patient; while in the latter he wrote juvenile
stories, several volumes of respectable verse, and prose fiction of
varying merit, which, however, gave him a leading place among
the American authors of the close of the igth century. His
historical novels, Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The
Adventures of Francois (1898) and The Red City (1909), take
high rank in this branch of fiction.
MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (1792-1855), Aus-
tralian explorer, was born at Craigend, Stirlingshire, Scotland, on
the i6th of June 1792. From 1808 to the end of the Peninsular
War he served in Wellington's army, and was raised to the rank
of major. He was appointed to survey the battlefields of the
Peninsula, and his map of the Lower Pyrenees is still admired.
In 1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor-general, and after-
wards surveyor-general of New South Wales. He made four
exploring expeditions between 1831 and 1846, and discovered
the Peel, the Namoi, the Gwyder and other rivers, traced the
course of the Darling and Glenelg, and was the first to penetrate
into that portion of the country which he named Australia Felix.
His last expedition was mainly devoted to the discovery of a route
between Sydney and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and during the
journey he explored the Fitzroy Downs, and discovered the
Balonne, Victoria, Warrego and other streams. In 1838, while
in England, Mitchell published his Three Expeditions into the
Interior of East Australia. In 1839 he was knighted and made
a D.C.L. of Oxford. During this visit he took with him some
of the first specimens of gold and the first diamond found in
Australia. In 1848 the narrative of his second expedition was
published in London, Journal of an Expedition into the Interior
of Tropical Australia. In 1851 he was sent to report on the
Bathurst goldfields, and in 1853 he again visited England and
patented his boomerang propeller for steamers. He died at
Darling Point, Sydney, on the sth of October 1855.
Besides the above works, Mitchell wrote a book on Geographical
and Military Surveying (1827), an Australian Geography, and a trans-
lation of the Lusiad of Camoens. During his tenure of office as
surveyor-general he published an admirable map (still in use) of the
settled districts of New South Wales.
MITCHELL, a city and the county-seat of Davison county
South Dakota, U.S.A., about 70 m. W.N.W. of Sioux Falls
Pop. (1905), 5719; (1910), 6515. Mitchell is served by the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago, St Paul, Minne
apolis & Omaha railways. Among its buildings and institutions
are the city hall, the Federal building, a Carnegie library, a
hospital, and a sanitorium. Mitchell is the seat of the Dakota
Wesleyan University (1885; Methodist Episcopal). At Mitchell
s a " corn palace," which is decorated each autumn with split
ears of Indian corn, and is the centre of an annual festival, held
n September and October. The city is an important shipping
joint for grain and livestock, and has a large wholesale trade.
There are railway repair shops of the Chicago, Milwaukee
k St Paul railway, machine shops, and manufactories of bricks
and dressed lumber. Mitchell was settled in 1879 and chartered
as a city in 1883.
MITCHELSTOWN, a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland,
situated between the Kilworth and Galty Mountains, on a
aranch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 2146. Here is the Protestant Kingston College, a home
Eor poor gentlefolk, founded by James, Lord Kingston, in 1760.
The seat of the earls of Kingston, was built in 1823. It is a
massive castellated structure, among the finest of its kind in
Ireland. The Mitchelstown limestone caves, exhibiting beautiful
stalactite formations, are 6 m. distant in Co. Tipperary (?..).
On the 9th of September 1887 Mitchelstown was the scene of a
riot in connexion with the Irish Nationalist " plan of campaign."
The police were compelled to fire on the rioters, and two men were
killed, after which the coroner's jury brought in a verdict of
wilful murder against the police. This verdict was ignored by the
government, and subsequently quashed by the Queen's Bench in
Dublin, but additional feeling was roused in respect of the
incident owing to a message later sent by Mr Gladstone ending
with the words " Remember Mitchelstown."
MITE, a name apph'ed to an order of small Arachnida, with
which this article deals, and to a coin of very slight value. The
origin of both would appear to be ultimately the same, viz. a
root mei-, implying something exceedingly small. It has been
suggested that the name for the animal comes from a secondary
root of the root mei-, to cut, whence come such words as Goth.
maitan, to cut, and Ger. messer, knife. In this case mite would
mean " the biter " or " cutter." The coin was originally a
Flemish copper coin (Dutch mijt) worth one-third or, according
to some authorities, a smaller fraction of the Flemish penning,
penny. It has become a common expression in English for a
coin of the smallest value, from its use to translate Gr. XCTTOC,
two of which make a KoSpamrjs, translated " farthing "
(Mark xii. 43).
. In zoology, " mite " is the common name for minute members
of the class Arachnida (?..), which, with the ticks, constitute
the order Acari. The word " mite," however, is merely a popular
and convenient term for certain groups of Acari, and does not
connote a natural assemblage as contrasted with the ticks (q.v.).
Mites are either free-living or parasitic throughout their lives
or parasitic at certain periods and free-living at others. They
are almost universally distributed, and are found wherever
terrestrial vegetation, even of the lowliest kind, occurs. They
are spread from the arctic to the antarctic hemisphere, and
inhabit alike the land, fresh-water streams and ponds, brackish
marshes and the sea. The largest species, which occur in the
tropics', reach barely half an inch in length; while the smallest,
the most diminutive of the Arthropoda, are invisible to the
naked eye.
Mites are divided into a considerable number of families. The
Bdellidae (Bdella) are free-living forms with long antenniform
palpi. The large tropical forms above mentioned belong to the
genus Trombidium of the family Trombidiidae. The members
of this genus are covered with velvety plush-like hairs, often
of an exquisite crimson colour. The legs are adapted for
crawling or running, and the palpi are raptorial. They are
non-parasitic in the adult stage; but immature individuals of a
British species (T. holosericeum) are parasitic upon various
animals (see HARVEST BUG). The Tetranychidae are nearly
related to the last. A well-known example, Tetranychus
telarius, spins webs on the backs of leaves, and is sometimes
called the money spider. The fresh-water mites or Hydrach-
nidae are generally beautifully coloured red or green, and are
commonly globular in shape. Their legs are furnished with
MITFORD, M. R.
619
long hairs for swimming. The marine mites of the family
Halacaridae, on the contrary, are not active swimmers but
merely creep on the stems of seaweeds and zoophytes. The
Gamasidae are mostly free-living forms with a thick exoskeleton,
and are allied to the Ixodidae or ticks (q.v.) . A common
species is Gamasus coleoptratorum, the females and young of
which may be found upon the common dung-beetle. The
Oribatidae or beetle-mites, so called from their resemblance to
minute beetles, are non-parasitic, and often go through remark-
able metamorphoses during development. The Sarcoptidae, as
stated below, are mostly parasitic forms. Some members of
this family, however, live in decaying animal substances, the
best known perhaps being the cheese-mite (Tyroglyphus siro)
which infests cheese, especially Stilton, in thousands. An allied
species (T. entomophagus) often causes great damage to collec-
tions of insects by destroying the dried specimens. They may
be easily exterminated by application of benzine, which does not
harm the contents of the cabinet.
From the economic standpoint the most important mites are
those which are parasitic upon mammals and birds. They
belong to the four families, Gamasidae, Trombidiidae, Sarcoptidae
and Demodicidae. Most of the Gamasidae are free-living mites.
The family, however, contains an aberrant genus, Dermanyssus, of
which several species have been described, although they are all
perhaps merely varieties of one and the same species commonly
known as D. gallinae or D. avium. This species is found in fowl-
houses, dovecotes and bird-cages. During the day they lurk
in cracks in the floor, walls or perches, and emerge at night to
attack the roosting birds. They are a great pest, and frequently
do much damage to birds both by sucking their blood and by
depriving them of rest at night. They are sometimes transferred
from birds to mammals. The Trombidiidae also are mostly
free-living predaceous mites. A few, however, are parasitic
upon mammals and birds, the best-known being Trombidium
holosericeum, the larva of which attacks human beings, as well
as chickens and other birds, sometimes producing considerable
mortality amongst them (see HARVEST BUG). Another genus,
Cheyletiella, affects rabbits as well as birds. Birds are also
attacked by many species of Sarcoptidae, which according to
the organs infected are termed plumicolae (Analgesinae), epi-
dermicolae(Epidermoptinae),andcysticolae (Cytoditinae). The
Analgesinae (Pterolichus, Analges) live almost wholly upon and
between the barbules of the feathers. They are found in nearly
every species of bird without apparently affecting the health in
any way. The Epidermoptinae (Epidermoptes) occur on diseased
fowls and live, as their name indicates, upon the skin at the
base of the feathers, where their presence gives rise to an accu-
mulation of yellowish scales. The Cytoditinae (Cytodites), on
the other hand, live in the subcutaneous or intermuscular con-
nective tissue round the respiratory organs, or in the air sacs,
especially of gallinaceous species. They also penetrate to certain
internal organs, and may become encysted and give rise to
tubercle-like nodules. Sometimes they exist in such quantities
in the air passages as to cause coughing and asphyxia.
The cutaneous mites, mentioned above, and others akin to
them, produce no very marked disturbance in the skin of the
species they infest. They merely suck the blood or feed upon
the feathers, scurf and desquamating epidermis. Hence they
are termed " non-psoric " mites. A certain number of species,
however, called in contradistinction " psoric " mites, give rise
by their bites, by the rapidity of their multiplication, and by the
excavation of galleries in the skin, to a highly contagious
disease known as scabies or mange, which if not treated in
time produces the gravest results. These mites belong exclu-
sively to the Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. A variety of
species are responsible for Sarcoptic mange, Sarcoptes mutans
producing it in the feet of gallinaceous and passerine birds by
burrowing beneath the scales and giving rise to a crusted exuda-
tion which pushes up beneath and between the scales. Feather
scabies or depluming scabies of poultry is caused by another
species, S. laevis. Three genera of Sarcoptidae, namely Sarcoptes
Chorioptes and Psoroptes cause mange or scabies in mammals,
the -mange produced by Sarcoptes being the most serious form
of the disease, because the females of the species which produces
it, Sarcoptes scabiei, burrow beneath "the skin and are more
difficult to reach with acaricides. A considerable number of
varieties of this species have been named after the hosts upon
which they most commonly and typically occur, such as 5.
scabiei hominis, equi, boms, caprae, ovis, cameli, lupi, vulpis,
&c.; but they are not restricted to the mammals from which their
names have been derived and structural differences between them
are often difficult to define and sometimes non-existant. Under
favourable conditions the multiplication of this species is very
rapid. It has been computed indeed that a single pair may give
rise to one million and a half individuals in about three months.
Psoroptes lives in the epidermic incrustations to which it gives
rise, without, however, excavating subcutaneous burrows. One
species, P. communis, is known to affect various domestic animals.
Of the genus Chorioptes two species have been described on
domestic animals, viz. Ch. symbiotes, which has the same mode of
life as Psoroptes communis and Ch. cynotis, which has been
detected only in the ears of certain carnivora such as dogs, cats
and ferrets. Mange, if taken in time, can be cured by applications
of sulphur ointment or of sulphur mixed with an animal or
vegetable oil. Mites of the family Demodicidae give rise to a
skin disease called " Demodecic or follicular mange," which is
often serious and always difficult to cure on account of the
deep situation taken up by the parasites. These infest the
hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and are therefore termed
Demodex folliculorum. These mites differ greatly from those
previously noticed in the reduction of their legs to short three-
jointed tubercles, and in the great elongation of the abdomen to
form an annulated flexible postanal area to the body. They
live not uncommonly in small numbers in the skin of the human
face and their presence may never be detected. They also
occur on dogs, pigs and other domesticated animals, as well as
on mice and bats, and numerous varieties named after their
hosts, hominis, bains, canis, cati, &c., have been described, but
they apparently differ from each other, principally in size.
The mites of the family Eriophyidae or Phytoptidae produce
in various plants pathological results analogous to those produced
in animals by parasitical Sarcoptidae and by Demodicidae. As
in the Demodicidae the abdomen is elongate and annulate, but
the Eriophyidae differ from all other mites in having per-
manently lost the last two pairs of legs. The excrescences and
patches they produce on leaves are called " galls," the best known
of which are perhaps the nail-galls of the lime caused by Eriophyes
tiliae. A very large number of species have been described and
named after the plants upon which they live. They often inflict
very considerable loss upon fruit-growers by destroying the
growing buds of the trees. (R. I. P.)
MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL (1787-1855), English novelist and
dramatist, only daughter of Dr George Mitford, or Midford, was
born at Alresford, Hampshire, on the ifith of December 1 787. She
retains an honourable place in English literature as the authoress
of Our Village, a series of sketches of village scenes and characters
unsurpassed in their kind, and as fresh as if they had been written
yesterday. Her father was a curious character. He first spent
his wife's fortune in a few years; then he spent the greater part
of 20,000, which in 1797 his daughter, then at the age of ten,
drew as a prize in a lottery; then he lived on a small remnant of
his fortune and the proceeds of his daughter's literary industry.
The father kept fresh in his daughter the keen delight in incon-
gruities, the lively sympathy with self-willed vigorous indi-
viduality, and the womanly tolerance of its excess, which inspire
so many of her sketches of character. Miss Mitford lived in
close attendance on him, refused all holiday invitations because
he could not live without her, and worked incessantly for him
except when she broke off her work to read him the sporting
newspapers. Her writing has all the charm of perfectly
unaffected spontaneous humour, combined with quick wit and
exquisite literary skill. Miss Mitford met Elizabeth Barrett
(Mrs Browning) in 1836, and the acquaintance ripened into
a warm friendship. The strain of poverty began to tell on her
620
MITFORD, W. MITHRADATES
work, for although her books sold at high prices, her income
did not keep pace with her father's extravagances. In 1837,
however, she received a civil list pension, and five years later
her father died. A subscription was raised to pay his debts,
and the surplus increased the daughter's income. Miss Mitford
eventually removed to a cottage at Swallowfield, near Reading,
where she died on the loth of January 1855.
Miss Mitford's youthful ambition had been to be " the greatest
English poetess," and her first publications were poems in the
manner of Coleridge and Scott (Miscellaneous Verses, 1810,
reviewed by Scott in the Quarterly; Christine, a metrical tale,
1811; Blanche, 1813). Her play Julian was produced at
Covent Garden, with Macready in the title-r61e, in 1823; The
Foscari was performed at Covent Garden, with Charles Kemble
as the hero, in 1826; Rienzi, 1828, the best of her plays, had
a run of thirty-four nights, and Miss Mitford's friend, Talfourd,
imagined that its vogue militated against the success of his own
play Ion. Charles the First was refused a licence by the Lord
Chamberlain, but was played at the Surrey Theatre in 1834.
But the prose, to which she was driven by domestic necessities,
has rarer qualities than her verse. The first series of Our Village
sketches appeared in 1824, a second in 1826, a third in 1828, a
fourth in 1830, a fifth in 1832. Our Village was several times
reprinted; Belford Regis, a novel in which the neighbourhood and
society of Reading were idealized, was published in 1835.
Her Recollections of a Literary Life (1852) is a series of causeries
about her favourite books. Her talk was said by her friends, Mrs
Browning and Hengist Home, to have been even more amusing than
her books, and five volumes of her Life and Letters, published in
1870 and 1872, show her to have been a delightful letter-writer.
MITFORD, WILLIAM (1744-1827), English historian, was the
elder of the two sons of John Mitford, a barrister, who lived
near Beaulieu, at the edge of the New Forest. Here, at Exbury
House, his father's property, Mitford was born on the loth of
February 1744. He was educated at Cheam School, under the
picturesque writer William Gilpin, but at the age of fifteen a
severe illness led to his being removed, and after two years of
idleness Mitford was sent, in July 1 76 1 , as a gentleman commoner
to Queen's College, Oxfqrd. In this year his father died, and left
him the Exbury property and a considerable fortune. Mitford,
therefore, being " very much his own master, was easily led to
prefer amusement to study." He left Oxford (where the only
sign of assiduity he had shown was to attend the lectures of
Blackstone) without a degree, in 1763, and proceeded to the
Middle Temple. But when he married Miss Fanny Molloy in
1766, and retired to Exbury for the rest of his life, he made the
study of the Greek language and literature his hobby and occupa-
tion. After ten years his wife died, and in October 1776 Mitford
went abroad. He was encouraged by French scholars whom he
met in Paris, Avignon and Nice to give himself systematically
to the study of Greek history. But it was Gibbon, with whom
he was closely associated when they both were officers in the South
Hampshire Militia, who suggested to Mitford the form which
his work should take. In 1784 the first of the volumes of his
History of Greece appeared, and the fifth and last of these quartos
was published in 1810, after which the state of Mitford's eyesight
and other physical infirmities, including a loss of memory,
forbade his continuation of the enterprise, although he painfully
revised successive new editions. While his book was progressing,
Mitford was a member of the House of Commons, with intervals,
from 1785 to 1818, and he was for many years verderer of the
New Forest and a county magistrate; but it does not appear
that he ever visited Greece. After a long illness, he died at
Exbury on the loth of February 1827. In addition to his
History of Greece, he published a few smaller works, the most
important of which was an Essay on the Harmony of Language,
1774. The style of Mitford is natural and lucid, but without
the rich colour of Gibbon. He affected some oddities both of
language and of orthography, for which he was censured and
which he endeavoured to revise. But his political opinions were
still more severely treated, since Mitford was an impassioned
anti- Jacobin, and his partiality for a monarchy led him to be
unjust to the Athenians. Hence his History of Greece, after
having had no peer in European literature for half a century, faded
in interest on the appearance of the work of Grote. Clinton, too,
in his Fasti hellenici, charged Mitford with " a general negligence
of dates," though admitting that in his philosophical range " he
is far superior to any former writer " on Greek history. Byron,
who dilated on Mitford's shortcomings, nevertheless declared that
he was " perhaps the best of all modern historians altogether."
This Mitford certainly is not, but his pre-eminence in the little
school of English historians who succeeded Hume and Gibbon
it would be easier to maintain.
William Mitford's cousin, the Rev. John Mitford (1781-1859),
was editor of the Gentleman's Magazine and of various editions of the
English poets. For the Freeman-Mitfords, who were also relatives,
see REDESDALE, EARL OF.
MITHILA, an ancient kingdom of India, corresponding to that
portion of Behar lying N. of the Ganges, with an extension
into Nepal, where was the capital of Janakpur. Its early
history is obscure, but it has always been noted for its peculiar
conservatism and the learning of its Brahmans. They form to
this day one of the five classes of northern Brahmans, and their
head is the Maharaja of Darbhanga. The language, known as
Maithili, is a dialect of Bihari, with an archaic system of grammar
and a literature of its own.
MITHRADATES, less correctly MITHRIDATES, a Persian
name derived from Mithras (?..), the sun-god, and the Indo-
European root da, " to give," i.e. " given by Mithras." The
name occurs also in the forms Mitradates (Herod, i. no) and
Meherdates (Tac. Ann. xii. 10). It was borne by a large
number of Oriental kings, soldiers and statesmen. The earliest
are Mithradates, the eunuch who helped Artabanus to assassinate
Xerxes I. (Died. xi. 69), and the Mithradates who fought first
with Cyrus the Younger and after his death with Artaxerxes
against the Greeks (Xen. Anab. ii. 5, 35; iii. 3, i-io; iii. 4, 1-5),
and is the ancestor of the kings of Pontus. The most important
are three kings of Parthia of the Arsacid dynasty, and six (or
four) kings of Pontus. There were also two kings of Commagene,
two of the Bosporus and one of Armenia (A.D. 35-51).
MITHRADATES I. (Arsaces VI.), successor of his brother,
Phraates I., came to the Parthian throne about 175 B.C. The
first event of his reign was a war with Eucratides
of Bactria, who tried to create a great Greek empire
in the East. At last, when Eucratides had been
murdered by his son about 150, Mithradates was able to occupy
some districts on the border of Bactria and to conquer Arachosia
(Kandahar) ; he is even said to have crossed the Indus (Justin
41, 6; Strabo xi. 515, 517; cf. Orosius v. 4, 16; Diod. 33, 18).
Meanwhile the Seleucid kingdom was torn by internal dissen-
sions, fostered by Roman intrigues. Phraates I. had already
conquered eastern Media, about Rhagae (Rai), and subjected
the Mardi on the border of the Caspian (Justin 41, 5; Isidor.
Charac. 7). Mithradates I. conquered the rest of Media and
advanced towards the Zagros chains and the Babylonian plain..
In a war against the Elymaeans (in Susiana) he took the Greek
town Seleucia on the Hedyphon, and forced their king to become
a vassal of the Parthians (Justin 41, 6; Strabo xv. 744). About
141 he must have become master of Babylonia. By Diodorus
33, 18 he is praised as a mild ruler; and the fact that from 140
he takes on his coins the epithet Philhellen ( W. Wroth, Catalogue of
the Coins of Parthia, p. 14 seq. ; till then he only calls himself " the
great king Arsakes ") shows that he tried to conciliate his Greek
subjects. The Greeks, however, induced Demetrius II. Nicator
to come to their deliverance, although he was much pressec
in Syria by the pretender Diodotus Tryphon. At first he was
victorious, but in 138 he was defeated. Mithradates settled him
with a royal household in Hyrcania and gave him his daughter
Rhodogune in marriage (Justin 36, i, 38, 9; Jos. Ant. 13
5, n; Euseb. Chron. I. 257; Appian Syr. 67). Shortly
afterwards Mithradates I. died, and was succeeded by his son
Phraates II. He was the real founder of the Arsacid Empire.
MITHRADATES II. the Great, king of Parthia (c. 120-88
B.C.), saved the kingdom from the Mongolian Sacae (Tochari)
MITHRADATES
621
who had occupied Bactria and eastern Iran, and is said to have
extended the limits of the empire (Justin 42, 2, where he is
afterwards confused with Mithradates III.). He defeated King
Artavasdes of Armenia and conquered seventy valleys; and
the prince Tigranes came as hostage to the Parthians (Justin
42, 2; Strabo, xi. 532). In an inscription from Delos (Ditten-
berger, Or. gr. inscr. 430) he is called " the great King of Kings
Arsakes." He also interfered in the wars of the dynasts of Syria
(Jos. Ant. xiii. 14, 3). He was the first Parthian king who entered
into negotiations with Rome, then represented by Sulla, praetor
of Cilicia (92 B.C.).
MITHRADATES III. murdered his father Phraates III. about
57 B.C., with the assistance of his brother Orodes. He was
made king of Media, and waged war against his brother, but
was soon deposed on account of his cruelty. He took refuge
with Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria. He advanced
into Mesopotamia, but was beaten at Seleucia by Surenas, fled
into Babylon, and after a long siege was taken prisoner and
killed in 54 by .Orodes I. (Dio Cass. 39, 56; Justin 42, 4;
Jos. Bell. i. 8, 7, Ant. 14, 6, 4).
A Parthian king Mithradates, who must have occupied the throne
for a short time during the reign of Phraates IV., is mentioned by
Jos. Ant. xvi. 8, 4, in 10 B.C.; another pretender Meherdates was
brought from Rome in A.D. 49 by the opponents of Gotarzes,
but defeated (Tac. Ann. xi. 10, xii. 10 sqq.). The name of another
pretender Mithradates (often called Mithradates IV.) occurs on a
coin of the first half of the 2nd century, written in Aramaic, accom-
panied by the Arsacid titles in Greek (Wroth, Catal. of the Coins of
Parthia, p. 2 19) ; he appears to be identical with Meherdotes, one of the
rival kings of Parthia who fought against Trajan in 116; he died in
an attack on Commagene and appointed his son Sanatruces successor,
who fell in a battle against the Romans (Arrian ap. Malalas, Chron.
pp. 270. 274). (ED. M.)
The kings of Pontus were descended from one of the seven
Persian conspirators who put the false Smerdis to death (see
DARIUS I.). According to Diodorus Siculus, three
members of his family Mithradates, Ariobarzanes,
Mithradates were successively rulers of Cius on
the Propontis and Carine in Mysia. The last of these was put
to death in 302 B.C. by Antigonus, who suspected him of having
joined the coalition against him. He was succeeded by his son
Mithradates I. or III. (if the two dynasts of Cius be included 1 )
the founder (KTIOTTJS) of the Pontic kingdom, although this
distinction is by some attributed to the father. Warned
by his friend Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, that he was
threatened with the same fate as his father, he fled to Paphlagonia,
where he seized Cimiata, a fort at the foot of the Olgassys range.
Being joined by the Macedonian garrison and the neighbouring
populations, he conquered the Cappadocian and Paphlagonian
territories on both sides of the Halys and assumed the title of
king. Before his death he further enlarged Pontic Cappadocia.
He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, who left the throne to
MITHRADATES II. (c. 256-190, according to Meyer, Mithradates
II. and III.), a mere child. Early in his reign the Gauls of
Galatia invaded his territory. Mithradates was at the battle
of Ancyra (c. 241), in which he assisted Antiochus Hierax against
his brother Seleucus Callinicus, in spite of the fact that he had
married the daughter of the latter with Greater Phrygia as her
dowry. His two daughters, both named Laodice, were married,
one to Antiochus the Great, the other to his cousin Achaeus,
a dynast of Asia Minor. He unsuccessfully attacked Sinope,
which was taken by his successor Pharnaces, the brother (not
the son) of MITHRADATES III. (169-121), surnamed Philopalor,
Philadelphia, and Euergetes. According to Meyer, however, there
were two kings (Mithradates IV. Philopator and V. Euergetes).
He was the first king of Pontus to recognize the suzerainty of the
Romans, of whom he was a loyal ally. He assisted Attalus II.
of Pergamum to resist Prusias II. of Bithynia; furnished a
contingent during the Third Punic War; and aided the Romans
in obtaining possession of Pergamum, bequeathed to them by
Attalus III., but claimed by Aristonicus, a natural son of
'There is much difference of opinion in regard to the kings of
Pontus called Mithradates to the accession of Mithradates Eupator.
Ed. Meyer reckons five, T. Reinach three.
Eumenes II. Both Mithradates and Nicomedes of Bithynia
demanded Greater Phrygia in return for their services. It
was awarded to Mithradates, but the senate refused to ratify
the bargain on the ground of bribery. For several years the
kings of Pontus and Bithynia bid against each other, till in
116 Phrygia was declared independent, although in reality it
was treated as part of the province of Asia. Mithradates
appears to have taken it without waiting for the decision of
the senate. He invaded Cappadocia, and married his daughter
to the young king, Ariarathes Epiphanes; bought the succession
from the last king of Paphlagonia, and obtained a kind of pro-
tectorate over Galatia. He was a great admirer of the Greeks,
who called him Euergetes; he removed his capital from Amasia
to Sinope, and bestowed liberal gifts upon the temples of Delos
and Athens. At the height of his power he was assassinated
by his courtiers during a banquet in his palace at Sinope.
MITHRADATES VI. Eupator, called the Great, a boy of eleven,
now succeeded his father. Alarmed at the attempts made
upon his life by his mother, he fled to the mountains and was
for many years a hunter. In in he returned to Sinope, threw
his mother into prison, and put his younger brother to death.
Having thus established himself on the throne, he turned his
attention to conquest. In return for his assistance against
the Scythians, the Greeks of the Cimmerian Bosporus and the
Tauric Chersonese recognized his suzerainty. He occupied
Colchis, Paphlagonia and part of Galatia; set his son Ariarathes
on the throne of Cappadocia and drove out Nicomedes III.,
the young king of Bithynia. The Romans restored the legiti-
mate kings, and, while apparently acquiescing, Mithradates
made preparations for war. He had long hated the Romans,
who had taken Phrygia during his minority, and he aimed at
driving them from Asia Minor. The cause of rupture was the
attack on Pontic territory by Nicomedes at the instigation
of the Romans. Mithradates, unable to obtain satisfaction,
declared war (88 B.C.). He rapidly overran Galatia, Phrygia
and Asia, defeated the Roman armies, and ordered a general
massacre of the Romans in Asia. He sent large armies into
European Greece, and his generals occupied Athens. But
Sulla in Greece and Fimbria in Asia defeated his armies in several
battles; the Greek cities were disgusted by his severity, and in
84 he concluded peace, abandoning all his conquests, surren-
dering his fleet and paying a fine of 2000 talents. During
what is called the Second Mithradatic War, Murena invaded
Pontus without any good reason in 83, but was defeated in 82.
Hostilities were suspended, but disputes constantly occurred,
and in 74 a general war broke out. Mithradates defeated Cotta,
the Roman consul, at Chalcedon; but Lucullus worsted him,
and drove him in 72 to take refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law
Tigranes. After two great victories at Tigranocerta (69) and
Artaxata (68), Lucullus was disconcerted by mutiny and the
defeat of his lieutenant Fabius (see LUCULLUS). In 66 he was
superseded by Pompey, who completely defeated both Mithra-
dates and Tigranes. The former established himself in 64 at
Panticapaeum, and was planning new campaigns against the
Romans when his own troops revolted, and, after vainly trying
to poison himself, he ordered a Gallic mercenary to kill him.
So perished the greatest enemy that the Romans had to en-
counter in Asia Minor. His body was sent to Pompey, who
buried it in the royal sepulchre at Sinope.
Ancient authorities have invested Mithradates with a halo
of romance. His courage, his bodily strength and size, his
skill in the use of weapons, in riding, and in the chase, his speed
of foot, his capacity for eating and drinking, his penetrating
intellect and his mastery of 22 languages are celebrated to
a degree which is almost incredible. With a surface gloss
of Greek education, he united the subtlety, the superstition,
and the obstinate endurance of an Oriental. He ^collected
curiosities and works of art; he assembled Greek men'of letters
round him; he gave prizes to the greatest poets and the best
eaters. He spent much of his time in practising magic, and
it was believed that he had so saturated his body with poisons
that none could injure him. He trusted no one; he murdered
622
MITHRAS
his mother, his sons, the sister whom he had married; to prevent
his harem from falling to his enemies he murdered all his con-
cubines, and his most faithful followers were never safe. For
eighteen years he showed himself no unworthy adversary of
Sulla, Lucullus and Pompey.
See T. Reinach, Milhridate Eupator (1890; Ger. trans, by
A. Goetz, 1895, with the author's corrections and additions); also
E. Meyer, Geschichte des Konigreichs Pantos (1879).
MITHRAS, a Persian god of light, whose worship, the latest
one of importance to be brought from the Orient to Rome,
spread throughout the empire and became the greatest anta-
gonist of Christianity.
I. History and Distribution. The cult goes back to a period
before the separation of the Persians from the Hindus, as is
shown by references in the literatures of both stocks, the Avesta
and the Vedas. Though but faintly pictured in the Vedic
hymns, he is there invoked with Ormazd, or Ahuramazda,
the god of the sky, and is clearly a divinity of light, the protector
of truth and the enemy of error and falsehood. In the Avesta,
after the separation of the Iranian stock from the Hindu and
the rise of Zoroastrianism, which elevated Ormazd to the summit
of the Persian theological system, his role was more distinct,
though less important; between Ormazd, who reigned in eternal
brightness, and Ahriman, whose realm was eternal darkness,
he occupied an intermediate position as the greatest of the
yazalas, beings created by Ormazd to aid in the destruction
of evil and the administration of the world. He was thus a
deity of the realms of air and light, and, by transfer to the
moral realm, the god of truth and loyalty. Because light
is accompanied by heat, he was the god of vegetation and
increase; he sent prosperity to the good, and annihilated the
bad; he was the god of armies and the champion of heroes;
as the enemy of darkness and of all evil spirits, he protected
souls, accompanying them on the way to paradise, and was
thus a redeemer. Animals and birds were sacrificed and liba-
tions poured to him, and prayers were addressed to him
by devotees who had purified themselves by ablution and
repeated flagellation. As a god who gave victory, he was pro-
minent in the official cult of Persia, the seventh month and
the sixteenth day of other months being sacred to him. His
worship spread with the empire of the Persians throughout
Asia Minor, and Babylon was an important centre. Its popu-
larity remained unimpaired after the fall of Persia, and it was
during the ferment following the conquests of Alexander that
the characteristics which mark it during the Roman period
were firmly fixed. Mithraism was at full maturity on its arrival
at Rome, the only modifications it ever suffered having been
experienced during its younger days in Asia.
Modified though never essentially changed, (i) by contact
with the star-worship of the Chaldaeans, who identified Mithras
with Shamash, god of the sun, (2) by the indigenous Armenian
religion and other local Asiatic faiths and (3) by the Greeks
of Asia Minor, who identified Mithras with Helios, and contri-
buted to the success of his cult by equipping it for the first time
with artistic representations (the famous Mithras relief originated
in the Pergamene school towards the 2nd century B.C.) , Mithraism
was first transmitted to the Roman world during the ist century
B.C. by the Cilkian pirates captured by Pompey. It attained no
importance, however, for nearly two centuries. The lateness of its
arrival in the West was due to the fact that its centres of influence
were not in immediate contact with Greek and Roman civiliza-
tion. It never became popular in Greek lands, and was regarded
by Hellenized nations as a barbarous worship. It was at rivalry
with the Egyptian religion. As late as the time of Augustus
it was but little known in Roman territory, and gained a firm
foothold in Italy only gradually, as a result of the intercourse
between Rome and Asia consequent upon the erection of the
Eastern provinces and the submission and colonization of
Mesopotamia. It seems at first to have had relations with
the cult of the Great Mother of the Gods at Rome, whose influ-
ence served to protect it and facilitate its growth. The cult
of Mithras began to attract attention at Rome about the end
of the ist century A.D. Statius (c. A.D. 80) mentions the typical
Mithraic relief in his Thebaid (i. 719,720); from Plutarch's (A.D.
46-125) Vita Pompei (24) it is apparent that the worship was
well known; and the first Roman reliefs show the characteristics
of about the same time.
Towards the close of the 2nd century the cult had begun
to spread rapidly through the army, the mercantile class, slaves
and actual propagandists, all of which classes were largely
composed of Asiatics. It throve especially among military
posts, and in the track of trade, where its monuments have
been discovered in greatest abundance. The German frontiers
afford most evidence of its prosperity. Rome itself was a
favourite seat of the religion. From the end of the 2nd century
the emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the support
which it afforded to the divine right of monarchs. The Persian
belief that the legitimate sovereign reigned by the grace of
Ormazd, whose favour was made manifest by the sending of
the Hvareno, a kind of celestial aureole of fire, resulted in the
doctrine that the sun was the giver of the Hvareno. Mithras,
identified with Sol Invictus at Rome, thus became the giver
of authority and victory to the imperial house. From the time
of Commodus, who participated in its mysteries, its supporters
were to be found in all classes. Its importance at Rome may
be judged from the abundance of monumental remains more
than 75 pieces of sculpture, too inscriptions, and ruins of temples
and chapels in all parts of the city and suburbs.
Finally, philosophy as well as politics contributed to the
success of Mithraism, for the outcome of the attempt to recognize
in the Graeco-Roman gods only forces of nature was to make
the Sun the most important of deities; and it was the Sun with
whom Mithras was identified.
The beginning of the downfall of Mithraism dates from A.D.
275, when Dacia was lost to the empire, and the invasions
of the northern peoples resulted in the destruction of temples
along a great stretch of frontier, the natural stronghold of the
cult. The aggression of Christianity also was now more effec-
tive. The emperors, however, favoured the cult, which was
the army's favourite until Constantine destroyed its hopes.
The reign of Julian and the usurpation of Eugenius renewed
the hopes of its devotees, but the victory of Theodosius (394)
may be considered the end of its existence. It still survived
in certain cantons of the Alps in the sth century, and clung to
life with more tenacity in its Eastern home. Its legitimate
successor was Manichaeism, which afforded a refuge to those
mystics who had been shaken in faith, but not converted, by
the polemics of the Church against their religion.
II. Sources, Remains, Ritual. The sources of present know-
ledge regarding Mithraism consist of the Vedas, the Avesta,
the Pahlevi writings, Greek and Latin literature and inscriptions,
and the cult monuments. The monuments comprise the
remains of nearly a score of temples and about 400 statues
and bas reliefs. The Mithraic temples of Roman times were
artificial grottoes (spelaea) wholly or partially underground,
in imitation of the original selcuded mountain caverns of Asia.
The Mithraeum hewn in the tufa quarries of the Capitoline Hill
at Rome, still in existence during the Renaissance, is an example.
The main room of the ordinary temple was rectangular, with
an elevated apsidal arrangement, like a choir, containing the
sacred relief on its wall, at the end opposite the entrance, and
with continuous benches (podia) of masonry, about 5 ft. wide
and inclining slightly towards the floor, built against the wall on
its long sides. The ceiling was made to symbolize the firmament.
There were arrangements for the brilliant illumination of the
choir and its relief, which was sometimes sculptured on both sides
and reversible, while the podia were intentionally more obscure.
The choir and the long space between the podia were for minis-
trants, the podia themselves for kneeling worshippers. Two
altars, to the Sun and the Moon, stood before the former, and
cult statues along the latter. The approach to the grotto lay
through a portico on the level with and fronting the street,
and a pronaos, in communication with which was a kind of
sacristy. Steps led to the lower level of the sanctuary. The
MITHRAS
623
simplicity and smallness of the Mithraic temples are to be
accounted for by structural and financial reasons; an under-
ground temple was difficult to construct on a large scale, and
the worshippers of Mithras were usually from the humbler
classes. The average grotto held from fifty to a hundred
persons. The size of the sanctuaries, however, was compensated
for by their number; in Ostia alone there were five.
The typical bas relief, which is found in great abundance
in the museums of Europe, invariably represents Mithras,
under the form of a youth with conical cap and flying drapery,
slaying the sacred bull, the scorpion attacking the genitals of
the animal, the serpent drinking its blood, the dog springing
towards the wound in its side, and frequently, in addition, the
Sun-god, his messenger the raven, a fig-tree, a lion, a ewer,
and torch-bearers. The relief is in some instances enclosed
in a frame of figures and scenes in relief. The best example
is the monument of Osterburken (Cumont, Textes et monuments
figures, No. 246). With this monument as a basis, Franz Cumont
has arranged the small Mithraic reliefs into two groups, one
illustrating the legend of the origin of the gods, and the other
the legend of Mithras. In the first group are found Infinite Time,
or Cronus; Tellus and Atlas supporting the globe, representing
the union of Earth and Heaven; Oceanus; the Fates; Infinite
Time giving into the hand of his successor Ormazd the thunder-
bolt, the symbol of authority; Ormazd struggling with a giant
of evil the Mithraic gigantomachy. The second group repre-
sents, first, the birth of Mithras; then the god nude, cutting
fruit and leaves from a fig-tree in which is the bust of a deity,
and before which one of the winds is blowing upon Mithras;
the god discharging an arrow against a rock from which springs
a fountain whose water a figure is kneeling to receive in his
palms; the bull in a small boat, near which again occurs the
figure of the animal under a roof about to be set on fire by two
figures; the bull in flight, with Mithras in pursuit; Mithras
bearing the bull on his shoulders; Helios kneeling before Mithras;
Helios and Mithras clasping hands over an altar; Mithras with
drawn bow on a running horse; Mithras and Helios banqueting;
Mithras and Helios mounting the chariot of the latter and
rising in full course over the ocean. Few of the Mithraic reliefs
are of even mediocre art. Among the best is the relief from
the Capitoline grotto, now in the Louvre.
Cumont's interpretation of the main relief and its smaller
companions involves the reconstruction of a Mithraic theology,
a Mithraic legend, and a Mithraic symbolism. Paucity of
evidence makes the first difficult. The head of the divine
hierarchy of Mithras was Infinite Time Cronus, Saturn; Heaven
and Earth were his offspring, and begat Ocean, who formed
with them a trinity corresponding to Jupiter, Juno, and Neptune.
From Heaven and Earth sprang the remaining members of a
circle analogous to the Olympic gods. Ahriman, also the son of
Time, was the Persian Pluto. Owing to Semitic influence every
Persian god had in Roman times come to possess a twofold
significance astrological and natural, Semitic and Iranian
the earlier and deeper Iranian significance being imparted by
the clergy to the few intelligent elect, the more attractive and
superficial Chaldaean symbolism being presented to the multi-
tude. Mithras was the most important member of the circle. He
was regarded as the mediator between suffering humanity and
the unknowable and inaccessible god of all being, who reigned
in the ether.
The Mithras legend has been lost, and can be reconstructed
only from the scenes on the above described relief. Mithras
was born of a rock, the marvel being seen only by certain shep-
herds, who brought gifts and adored him. Chilled by the wind,
the new-born god went to a fig-tree, partook of its fruit, and
clothed himself in its leaves. He then undertook to vanquish
the beings already in the world, and rendered subject to him
first the Sun, with whom he concluded a treaty of friendship.
The most wonderful of his adventures, however, was that with
the sacred bull which had been created by Ormazd. The hero
seized it by the horns and was borne headlong in the flight of
the animal, which he finally subdued and dragged into a cavern.
The bull escaped, but was overtaken, and by order of the Sun,
who sent his messenger the raven, was reluctantly sacrificed
by Mithras. From the dying animal sprang the life of the
earth, although Ahriman sent his emissaries to prevent it.
The soul of the bull rose to the celestial spheres and became
the guardian of herds and flocks under the name of Silvanus.
Mithras was through his deed the creator of life. Meanwhile
Ahriman sent a terrible drought upon the land. Mithras
defeated his purpose by discharging an arrow against a rock
and miraculously drawing the water from it. Next Ahriman
sent a deluge, from which one man escaped in a boat with his
cattle. Finally a fire desolated the earth, and only the creatures
of Ormazd escaped. Mithras, his work accomplished, banqueted
with the Sun for the last time, and was taken by him in his
chariot to the habitation of the immortals, whence he continued
to protect the faithful.
The symbolism employed by Mithraism finds its best illustra-
tion in the large central relief, which represents Mithras in the
act of slaying the bull as a sacrifice to bring about terrestrial life,
and thus portrays the concluding scenes in the legend of the sacred
animal. The scorpion, attacking the genitals of the bull, is
sent by Ahriman from the lower world to defeat the purpose
of the sacrifice; the dog, springing towards the wound in the
bull's side, was venerated by the Persians as the companion
of Mithras; the serpent is the symbol of the earth being made
fertile by drinking the blood of the sacrificial bull; the raven,
towards which Mithras turns his face as if for direction, is the
herald of the Sun-god, whose bust is near by, and who has ordered
the sacrifice; various plants near the bull, and heads of wheat
springing from his tail, symbolize the result of the sacrifice;
the cypress is perhaps the tree of immortality. There was also
an astrological symbolism, but it was superficial, and of secon-
dary importance. The torch-bearers sometimes seen on the
relief represent one being in three aspects the morning, noon
and evening sun, or the vernal, summer and autumn sun.
Owing to the almost absolute disappearance of documentary
evidence, it is impossible to know otherwise than very imperfectly
the inner life of Mithraism. Jerome (Epist. cvii.) and inscrip-
tions preserve the knowledge that the mystic, sacratus, passed
through seven degrees, which probably corresponded to the
seven planetary spheres traversed by the soul in its progress
to wisdom, perfect purity, and the abode of the blest: Corax,
Raven, so named because the raven in Mithraic mythology was
the servant of the Sun; Cryphius, Occult, a degree in the taking
of which the mystic was perhaps hidden from others in the
sanctuary by a veil, the removal of which was a solemn cere-
monial; Miles, Soldier, signifying the holy warfare against
evil in the service of the god; Leo, Lion, symbolic of the element
of fire; Perses, Persian, clad in Asiatic costume, a reminiscence
of the ancient origin of the religion; Heliodromus, Courier of
the Sun, with whom Mithras was identified; Pater, Father,
a degree bringing the mystic among those who had the general
direction of the cult for the rest of their lives. One relief
(Cumont, vol. i. p. 175, fig- 10) shows figures masked and costumed
to represent Corax, Perses, Miles and Leo, indicating the practice
on occasion of rites involving the use of sacred disguise, a
custom probably reminiscent of the primitive time when men
represented their deities under the form of animals, and believed
themselves in closer communion with them when disguised
to impersonate them. Of the seven degrees, those mystics
not yet beyond the third, Miles, were not in full communion,
and were called vjnjperowTes (servants); while the fourth
degree, Leo, admitted them into the class of the fully initiate,
the \nuk\ovTK (participants). No women were in any way
connected with the cult, though the male sex could be
admitted even in childhood. The time requisite for the
several degrees is unknown, and may have been determined
by the Patres, who conferred them hi a solemn ceremony called
Sacr amentum, in which the initial step was an oath never to
divulge what should be revealed, and for which the mystic had
been specially prepared by lustral purification, prolonged absti-
nence, and severe deprivations. Special ceremonies accompanied
624
MITHRAS
the diverse degrees: Tertullian speaks of " marking the
forehead of a Miles," which may have been the branding of
a Mithraic sign; honey was applied to the tongue and hands
of the Leo and the Perses. A sacred communion of bread,
water and possibly wine, compared by the Christian apologists
to the Eucharist, was administered to the mystic who was
entering upon one of the advanced degrees, perhaps Leo. The
ceremony was probably commemorative of the banquet of
Mithras and Helios before the former's ascension, and its effect
strength of body, wisdom, prosperity, power to resist evil, and
participation in the immortality enjoyed by the god himself.
Other features reminiscent of the original barbarous rites in
the primitive caverns of the East, no doubt also occupied a
place in the cult; bandaging of eyes, binding of hands with the
intestines of a fowl, leaping over a ditch filled with water, witness-
ing a simulated murder, are mentioned by the Pseudo- Augustine;
and the manipulation of lights in the crypt, the administration
of oaths, and the repetition of the sacred formulae, all contributed
toward inducing a state of ecstatic exaltation. What in the
opinion of Albrecht Dieterich (Eine Mithrasliturgie, Leipzig,
1903) is a Mithras liturgy is preserved in a Greek MS. of Egyptian
origin of about A.D. 300. It is the ritual of a magician, imbedded
in which, and alternating with magic formulae and other occult
matter, are a number of invocations and prayers which
Dieterich reconstructs as a liturgy in use by the clergy of
Mithras between A.D. 100 and 300, and adapted to this new use
about the latter date.
The Mithraic priest, sacerdos or antistes, was sometimes also
of the degree of pater. Tertullian (De praescr. haeret. 40) calls
the chief priest summus pontifex, probably the pater patrum
who had general supervision of all the initiates in one city, and
states that he could marry but once. According to the same
author, there were Mithraic, as well as Christian, virgines et
continentes. Besides the administration of sacraments and
the celebration of offices on special occasions, the priest kept
alight the eternal fire on the altar, addressed prayers to the Sun
at dawn, midday and twilight, turning towards east, south
and west respectively. Clad in Eastern paraphernalia, he
officiated at the numerous sacrifices indicated by the remains
of iron and bronze knives, hatchets, chains, ashes and bones of
oxen, sheep, goats, swine, fowl, &c. There was pouring of
libations, chanting and music, and bells and candles were
employed in the service. Each day of the week was marked
by the adoration of a special planet, the sun being the most
sacred of all, and certain dates, perhaps the sixteenth of each
month and the equinoxes, in conformity with the character
of Mithras as mediator, were set aside for special festivals.
The Mithraic community of worshippers, besides being a
spiritual fraternity, was a legal corporation enjoying the right
of holding property, with temporal officials at its head, like any
other sodalitas: there were the decuriones and decent primi,
governing councils resembling assembly and senate in cities;
magistri, annually elected presidents; curator es, financial agents;
defensores, advocates; and patroni, protectors among the influ-
ential. It may be that a single temple was the resort of several
small associations of worshippers which were subdivisions of
the whole community. The cult was supported mainly by
voluntary contribution. An abundance of epigraphic evidence
testifies to the devotion of rich and poor alike.
III. Moral Influence. The rapid advance of Mithraism was due
to its human qualities. Its communities were bound together
by a sense of close fraternal relation. Its democracy obliterated
the distinctions between rich and poor; slave and senator became
subject to the same rule, eligible for the same honours, par-
took of the same communion, and were interred in the same
type of sepulchre, to await the same resurrection. The reward
of title and degree and the consequent rise in the esteem of
his fellows and himself was also a strong incentive; but the
Mithraic faith itself was the greatest factor. The impressive-
ness and the stimulating power of the mystic ceremonies,
the consciousness of being the privileged possessor of the secret
wisdom of the ancients, the sense of purification from sin,
and the expectation of a better life where there was to be. com-
pensation for the sufferings of this world were all strong appeals
to human nature. The necessity of moral rectitude was itself
an incentive. Courage, watchfulness, striving for purity, were
all necessary in the incessant combat with the forces of evil.
Resistance to sensuality was one aspect of the struggle, and
asceticism was not unknown. .Mithras was ever on the side of
the faithful, who were certain to triumph both in this world
and the next. The worthy soul ascended to its former home
in the skies by seven gates or degrees, while the unworthy soul
descended to the realms of Ahriman. The doctrine of the
immortality of the soul was accompanied by that of the resur-
rection of the flesh; the struggle between good and evil was
one day to cease, and the divine bull was to appear on earth,
Mithras was to descend to call all men from their tombs and to
separate the good from the bad. The bull was to be sacrificed
to Mithras, who was to mingle its fat with consecrated wine
and give to drink of it to the just, rendering them immortal,
while the unjust, together with Ahriman and his spirits, were
to be destroyed by a fire sent from Heaven by Ormazd. The
universe, renewed, was to enjoy eternal happiness.
IV. Relation to Christianity. The most interesting aspect
of Mithraism is its antagonism to Christianity. Both religions
were of Oriental origin; they were propagated about the same
time, and spread with equal rapidity on account of the same
causes, viz. the unity of the political world and the debasement
of its moral life. At the end of the 2nd century each had
advanced to the farthest limits of the empire, though the one
possessed greatest strength on the frontiers of the Teutonic
countries, along the Danube and the Rhine, while the other
throve especially in Asia and Africa. The points of collision
were especially at Rome, in Africa, and in the Rhone Valley,
and the struggle was the more obstinate because of the resem-
blances between the two religions, which were so numerous
and so close as to be the subject of remark as early as the 2nd
century, and the cause of mutual recrimination. The fraternal
and democratic spirit of the first communities, and their humble
origin; the identification of the object of adoration with light
and the Sun; the legends of the shepherds with their gifts and
adoration, the flood, and the ark; the representation in art of
the fiery chariot, the drawing of water from the rock; the use
of bell and candle, holy water and the communion; the sancti-
fication of Sunday and of the 25th of December; the insistence
on moral conduct, the emphasis placed upon abstinence and
self-control; the doctrine of heaven and hell, of primitive
revelation, of the mediation of the Logos emanating from
the divine, the atoning sacrifice, the constant warfare between
good and evil and the final triumph of the former, the immor-
tality of the soul, the last judgment, the resurrection of the
flesh and the fiery destruction of the universe are some of
the resemblances which, whether real or only apparent, enabled
Mithraism to prolong its resistance to Christianity. At their
root lay a common Eastern origin rather than any borrowing.
On the other hand, there were important contrasts between
the two. Mithraism courted the favour of Roman paganism
and combined monotheism with polytheism, while Christianity
was uncompromising. The former as a consequence won large
numbers of supporters who were drawn by the possibility it
afforded of adopting an attractive faith which did not involve
a rupture with the religion of Roman society, and con-
sequently with the state. In the middle of the 3rd century
Mithraism seemed on the verge of becoming the universal
religion. Its eminence, however, was so largely based upon
dalliance with Roman society, its weakness so great in having
only a mythical character, instead of a personality, as an object
of adoration, and in excluding women from its privileges, that
it fell rapidly before the assaults of Christianity. Manichaeism,
which combined the adoration of Zoroaster and Christ, became
the refuge of those supporters of Mithraism who were inclined
to compromise, while many found the transition to orthodox
Christianity easy because of its very resemblance to their old
faith.
MITRA MITRE
625
See Franz Cumont, Textes et monuments figures relatifs aux
mysteres de Mithra (Brussels, 1896, 1899), which has superseded
all publications on the subject ; Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithras-
Hturgie (Leipzig, 1903). See also the translation of Cumont s
Conclusions (the second part of vol. i. of the above work, published
separately 1902, under the title Les Mys&res de Mithra), by T. J.
McCormack (Chicago and London, 1903). Extended bibliography
in Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie. (G. SN.)
MITRA, RAJENDRA LALA (1824-1891), Indian Orientalist,
was born in a suburb of Calcutta on the isth of February 1824,
of a respectable family of the Kayasth or writer caste of Bengal.
To a large extent he was self-educated, studying Sanskrit and
Persian in the library of his father. In 1846 he was appointed
librarian of the Asiatic Society, and to that society the remainder
of his life was devoted as philological secretary, as vice-
president, and as the first native president in 1885. Apart from
very numerous contributions to the society's journal, and to
the series of Sanskrit texts entitled " Bibliotheca indica," he
published three separate works: (i) The Antiquities of Orissa
(2 vols., 1875 and 1880), illustrated with photographic plates,
in which he traced back the image of Jagannath (Juggernaut)
and also the car-festival to a Buddhistic origin; (2) a similarly
illustrated work on Bodk Gaya (1878), the hermitage of Sakya
Muni, and (3) Indo-Aryans (2 vols., 1881), a collection of
essays dealing with the manners and customs of the people
of India from Vedic times. He received the honorary degree
of LL.D. from the university of Calcutta in 1875, the com-
panionship of the Indian Empire when that order was founded
in 1878, and the title of raja in 1888. He died at Calcutta
on the 26th of July 1891.
MITRE (Lat. mitra, from Gr. fdrpa, a band, head-band,
head-dress), a liturgical head-dress of the Catholic Church,
generally proper to bishops.
i. Latin Rite. In the Western Church its actual form is that
of a sort of folding cap consisting of two halves which, when
not worn, lie flat upon each other. These sides are stiffened,
and when the mitre is worn, they rise in front and behind like
two horns pointed at the tips (cornua mitrae). From the lower
rim of the mitre at the back hang two bands (infulae), termi-
nating in fringes. In the Roman Catholic Church mitres are
divided into three classes: (i) Mitra pretiosa, decorated with
jewels, gold plates, &c.; (2) Mitra auriphrygiata, of white silk,
sometimes embroidered with gold and silver thread or small
pearls, or of cloth of gold plain; (3) Mitra simplex, of white
silk damask, silk or linen, with the two falling bands behind
terminating in red fringes. Mitres are the distinctive head-
dress of bishops; but the right to wear them, as in the case of
the other episcopal insignia, is granted by the popes to other
dignitaries such as abbots or the heads and sometimes all the
members of the chapters of cathedral or collegiate churches.
In the case of these latter, however, the mitre is worn only
in the church to which the privilege is attached and on
certain high festivals. Bishops alone, including of course the
pope and his cardinals, are entitled to wear the pretiosa and
auriphrygiata; the others wear the mitra simplex.
The proper symbol of episcopacy is not so much the mitre
as the ring and pastoral staff. It is only after the service of
consecration and the mass are finished that the consecrating
prelate asperses and blesses the mitre and places on the head
of the newly consecrated bishop, according to the prayer which
accompanies the act, " the helmet of protection and salvation,"
the two horns of which represent " the horns of the Old and
New Testaments," a terror to " the enemies of truth," and
also the horns of " divine brightness and truth " which God set
on the brow of Moses on Mount Sinai. There is no suggestion
of the popular idea that the mitre symbolizes the " tongues
of fire" that descended on the heads of the apostles at
Pentecost.
According to the Roman Caeremoniale the bishop wears the
mitra pretiosa on high festivals, and always during the singing ot the
Te Deum and the Gloria at mass. He is allowed, however, on
account of its weight," to substitute for the pretiosa the aun
phrygiata during part of the services, i.e. at Vespers from the hrs
psalm to the Magnificat, at mass from the end of the Kyrie to thi
canon. The auriphrygiata is worn during Advent, and from Septua-
gesima to Maundy Thursday, except on the third Sunday in Advent
Gaudete), the fourth in Lent (Laetare) and on such greater festivals
is fall within this time. It is worn, too, on the vigils of fasts, Ember
Days and days of intercession, on the Feast of Holy Innocents (if
on a week-day), at litanies, penitential processions, and at other than
solemn benedictions and consecrations. At mass and vespers the
mitra simplex may be substituted for it in the same way as the auri-
phrygiata for the pretiosa. The simplex is worn on Good Friday,
and at masses for the dead; also at the blessing of the candles at
Candlemas, the singing of the absolution at the coffin, and the solemn
nvestiture with the pallium. At provincial synods archbishops
wear the pretiosa, bishops the auriphrygiata, and mitred abbots
the simplex. At general councils bishops wear white linen mitres,
:ardinals mitres of white silk damask; this is also the case when
>ishops and cardinals in pontificalibus assist at a solemn pontifical
r unction presided over by the pope.
Lastly, the mitre, though a liturgical vestment, differs from the
others in that it is never worn when the bishop addresses the
Almighty in prayer e.g. during mass he takes it oft when he turns
to the altar, placing it on his head again when he turns to address
the people (see i Cor. xi. 4).
The origin and antiquity of the episcopal mitre have been
the subject of much debate. Some have claimed for it apos-
;olical sanction and found its origin in the liturgical
lead-gear of the Jewish priesthood. Such proofs
as have been adduced for this view are, however,
jased on the fallacy of reading into words (mitra, infula, &c.)
used by early writers a special meaning which they only
acquired later. Mitra, even as late as the isth century,
retained its simple meaning of cap (see Du Cange, Glossarium,
s.v.) ; to Isidore of Seville it is specifically a woman's cap. Infula,
which in late ecclesiastical usage was to be confined to mitre
(and its dependent bands) and chasuble, meant originally a
piece of cloth, or the sacred fillets used in pagan worship, and
;ater on came to be used of any ecclesiastical vestment, and
there is no evidence for its specific application to the liturgical
head-dress earlier than the I2th century. With the episcopal
mitre the Jewish miznephet, translated " mitre " in the Autho-
rized Version (Exod. xxviii. 4, 36), has nothing to do, and there
is no evidence for the use of the former before the middle of the
icth century even in Rome, and elsewhere than in Rome it
does not make its appearance until the nth. 1
The first trustworthy notice of the use of the mitre is
under Pope Leo IX. (1049-1054). This pope invested
Archbishop Eberhard of Trier, who had accompanied him
to Rome, with the Roman mitra, telling him that he and
his successors should wear it in ecclesiastico officio (i.e. as a
liturgical ornament) according to Roman custom, in order to
remind him that he is a disciple of the Roman see (Jaffe,
Regesta pont. rom., ed. Leipzig, 1888, No. 4158). This proves
that the use of the mitre had been for some time established
at Rome; that it was specifically a Roman ornament; and that
the right to wear it was only granted to ecclesiastics elsewhere
as an exceptional honour. 2 On the other hand, the Roman
ordines of the 8th and 9th centuries make no mention of the
mitre; the evidence goes to prove that this liturgical head-dress
was first adopted by the popes some time in the loth century;
and Father Braun shows convincingly that it was in its origin
nothing else than the papal regnum or phrygium which, originally
worn only at outdoor processions and the like, was introduced
into the church, and thus developed into the liturgical mitre,
while outside it preserved its original significance as the papal
1 Father Braun, S. J., has dealt exhaustively with the supposed
evidence for its earlier use e.g. he proves conclusively that the
mitra mentioned by Theodulph of Orleans (Paraenes. ad episc.)
is the Jewish miznephet, and the well-known miniature of Gregory
the Great (not St Dunstan, as commonly assumed) wearing a mitre
(Cotton MSS. Claudius A. iii.) in the British Museum, often ascribed
to the loth or early nth century, he judges from the form of the
pallium and dalmatic to have been produced at the end of the lith
century " at earliest." The papal bulls granting the use of mitres
before the nth century are all forgeries (Liturgtsche Gewandung,
43 ' "Dial it had been already so granted is proved by a miniature
containing the earliest extant representations of a mitre, in tl
Extdtete rotula and baptismal rotula at Ban (reproduced in Berteaux,
L'Art dans I'ltalie meridionale, I., Paris, 1904).
626
MITRE
Non-
bishops,
tiara (q.v.). From Leo IX. 's time papal grants of the mitre
to eminent prelates became increasingly frequent, and by the
1 2th century it had been assumed by all bishops in the West,
with or without papal sanction, as their proper liturgical
head-dress. From the i2th century, too, dates the custom of
investing the bishop with the mitre at his consecration.
It was not till the izth century
that the mitre came to be regarded
as specifically episcopal, and
meanwhile the custom had
grown up of granting it
honoris causa to other dignitaries
besides bishops. The first known
instance of a mitred abbot is
Egelsinus of St Augustine's, Canter-
bury, who received the honour from
Pope Alexander II. in 1063. From
this time onward papal bulls bestow-
ing mitres, together with other
episcopal insignia, on abbots become
increasingly frequent. The original
motive of the recipients of these
favours was doubtless the taste of the
of the head instead of the sides (the mitre said to have belonged
to St Thomas Becket, now at Westminster Cathedral, is of this
type), 1 and with this the essential character of the mitre, as
it persisted through the middle ages, was established. The
exaggeration of the height of the mitre, which began at the time
of the Renaissance, reached its climax in the i7th century.
time for outward display; St Bernard, Draw n
zealous for the monastic ideal, de-
nounced abbots for wearing mitres and the like more pontificum,
and Peter the Cantor roundly called the abbatial mitre " inane,
superfluous and puerile " ( Verb, abbrev. c. xliv. in Migne, Patrolog.
lat. 205, 159). It came, however, to symbolize the exemption
of the abbots from episcopal jurisdiction, their quasi-episcopal
character, and their immediate dependence on the Holy See.
No such significance could attach to the grant of the usus mitrae
(under somewhat narrow restrictions as to where and when)
to cathedral dignitaries. The first instance is again a bull of
Leo IX. (1051) granting to Hugh, archbishop of Besancon,
and his seven cardinals the right to wear the mitre at the altar
as celebrant, deacon and subdeacon, a similar privilege being
granted to Bishop Hartwig of Bamberg in the following year.
The intention was to show honour to a great church by allowing
it to follow the custom doubtless already established at Rome.
Subsequently the privilege was often granted, sometimes to
one or more of the chief dignitaries, sometimes to all the canons
of a cathedral (e.g. Campostella, Prague).
Mitres were also sometimes bestowed by the popes on secular
sovereigns, e.g. by Nicholas II. (1058-1061) on Spiteneus
(Spytihnew) II., duke of Bohemia; by Alexander II. on Wratis-
laus of Bohemia; by Lucius II. (1144-1145) on Roger of Sicily;
and by Innocent III., in 1204, on Peter of Aragon. In the
coronation of the emperor, more particularly, the mitre played
a part. According to the I4th Roman ordo, of 1241, the pope
places on the emperor's head first the mitra clericalis, then the
imperial diadem. Father Braun (Lilurgische Gewandung, p. 457)
gives a picture of a seal of Charles IV. representing him as
wearing both.
The original form of the mitre was that of the early papal
tiara (regnum), i.e. a somewhat high conical cap. The stages
of its general development from this shape to the
men*/ /" ^^ double-horned modern mitre are clearly trace-
Fona able ( see fig- J )> though it is impossible exactly to
distinguish them in point of date. The most charac-
teristic modifications may be said to have taken place from the
i ith to the middle of the i3th century. About 1 100 the conical
mitre begins to give place to a round one; a band of embroidery
is next set over the top from back to front, which tends to bulge
up the soft material on either side; and these bulges develop
into points or horns. Mitres with horns on either side seem
to have been worn till about the end of the i2th century, and
Father Braun gives examples of their appearances on episcopal
seals in France until far into the i3th. Such a mitre appears
on a seal of Archbishop Thomas Becket (Father Thurston,
The Pallium, London, 1892, p. 17). The custom was,
Father J. Braun and reproduced from his Liturgische Geutandung by permission of B. Herder.
FIG. I. Evolution of the Mitre from the i ith century to the present day.
This ugly and undignified type is still usually worn in the Roman
Catholic Church, but in some cases the earlier type has survived,
and many bishops are also now reverting to it.
The decoration of mitres was characterized by increasing elabora-
tion as time went on. From the first the white conical cap seems to
have been decorated round the lower edge by a band or orphrey
(circulus). To this was added later a vertical orphrey (titulus),
usually from the centre of the front of the circulus to that of the
back, partly in order to hide the seam, partly to emphasize the
horns when those were to left and right. When the horns came to be
set before and behind, the vertical orphrey retained its position.
Of the surviving early mitres the greater number have only the
orphrey embroidered, the body of the mitre being left plain. Very
early, however, the custom arose of ornamenting the triangular
spaces between the orphreys with embroidery, usually a round
medallion, or a star, set in the middle, but sometimes figures of
saints, &c. (e.g. the early example from the cathedral of Anagni,
reproduced by Braun, p. 469). The richness and variety of decora-
tion increased from the lath century onwards. Architectural
motives even were introduced, as frames to the embroidered figures
of saints, while sometimes the upper edges of the mitre were orna-
mented with crockets, and the horns with architectural finials.
Finally, the traditional circulus and titulus seem all but forgotten,
the whole front and back surfaces of the mitre being ornamented
with embroidered pictures or with arabesque patterns. The latter
is characteristic of the mitre in the modern Roman Catholic Church,
the tradition of the local Roman Church having always excluded the
representation of figures on ecclesiastical vestments.
2. Reformed Churches. In most of the reformed Churches
the use of mitres was abandoned with that of the other vest-
ments. They have continued to be worn, however,
by the bishops of the Scandinavian Lutheran
Churches. In the Church of England the use of
the mitre was discontinued at the Reformation. There is some
evidence to show that it was used in consecrating bishops up
to 1552, and also that its use was revived by the Laudian bishops
in the i7th century (Hierurgia anglicana ii. 242, 243, 240).
In general, however, there is no evidence to prove that this
use was liturgical, though the silver-gilt mitre of Bishop Wren
of Ely (d. 1667), which is preserved, is judged from the state of
the lining to have been worn. The instances of the use of the
mitre quoted in Hier. anglic. ii. 310, as carried by the bishop
of Rochester at an investiture of the Knights of the Bath (1725),
and by the archbishops and bishops at the coronation of
George II. (1727), have no liturgical significance. The tradition
of the mitre as an episcopal ornament has, nevertheless, been
continuous in the Church of England, " and that on three lines:
(i) heraldic usage; (2) its presence on the head of effigies of
bishops, of which a number are extant, of the i6th, I7th, i8th
and igth centuries; (3) its presence in funeral processions, where
1 In Father Braun's opinion, expressed to the writer, this mitre,
-n *' . f ' n aer raun s opon- expresse to te wter, ts mtr
already growing up of setting the horns over the front and back I which was formerly at Sens, belongs probably to the I 3 th century.
MITRE
PLATE.
FIG. 6. Mitre (restored) of William of Wykeham, Bishop of
Winchester (d. 1404), preserved at New College, Oxford.
From a photograph by Father Jotepk Braun, S. /., by kind permission.
FIG. 5. German Mitre, of red velvet embroidered with pearls
and silver gilt plaques. I5th century.
Halberstadt.
In the cathedral at
p IG -_ Flemish Mitre, embroidered in gold thread, and the
panels in colours, with figures of the Virgin and St Augustine.
The other side is similar, with figures of St Leonard and St
Mary Magdalene. It is dated 1592. repaired in 1766.
In the Victoria and Albert Museum.
XVIII. 626.
MITROVICA MITSCHERLICH
627
an actual mitre or the figure of one was sometimes carried,
and sometimes suspended over the tomb " (Report on the Orna-
ments of the Church, p. 106). The liturgical use of the mitre
was revived in the Church of England in the latter part of the
1 9th century, and is now fairly widespread.
3. Oriental Rites. Some form of liturgical head-dress is com-
mon to all the Oriental rites. In the Orthodox Eastern Church
the mitre (Gr. juirpa; Slav, mitra) is, as in the Western Church,
proper only to bishops. Its form differs entirely from that
of the Latin Church. In
general it rather resembles
a closed crown, Consisting
of a circlet from which rise
two arches intersecting
each other at right angles.
Circlet and arches are richly
chased and jewelled; they
are filled out by a cap of
stiff material, often red
velvet, ornamented with
pictures in embroidery or
applique 1 metal. Surmount-
ing all, at the intersection
of the arches is a cross.
In Russia this usually lies
flat, only certain metro-
politans, and by prescrip-
tion the bishops of the
eparchy of Kiev, having
the right to have the cross
upright (see fig. 2). In the
Drawn from a photograph taken by Father
J. Braun (reproduced in Die liturgisclie
Cewandung). By permission of B. Herder.
FIG. 2. Greek Mitre.
I'rom Braun s Litur-
Armenian Church priests and archdeacons, as well as the
bishops, wear a mitre. That of the bishops is of the Latin
form, a custom dating from a grant of Pope Innocent III.; that
of the priests, the sagoahart, is not unlike the Greek mitre (see
fig. 3). In the Syrian Church only the
patriarch wears a mitre, which resembles that
of the Greeks. The biruna of the Chaldaean
Nestorians, on the other hand, worn by all
bishops, is a sort of hood ornamented with
a cross. Coptic priests and bishops wear
the ballin, a long strip of stuff ornamented
with crosses &c., and wound turban-wise
lie Gavandung. round the head; the patriarch of Alexandria
B^pmnissionofB. has a he i m et-like mitre, the origin of which
FIG. 3. Mitre of is unknown, though it perhaps antedates the
Armenian Priest. appearance of the phrygium at Rome. The
Maronites, and the uniate Jacobites, Chaldaeans and Copts
have adopted the Roman mitre.
The mitre was only introduced into the Greek rite in com-
paratively modern times. It was unknown in the earlier part
of the 1 5th century, but had
certainly been introduced by
the beginning of the i6th.
Father Braun suggests that
its assumption by the Greek
patriarch was connected with
the changes due to the capture
of Constantinople by the Turks.
Possibly, as its form suggests, it
is based on the imperial crown
and symbolized at the outset
the quasi - sovereignty over
the rayah population which
Mahommed II. was content to
leave to the patriarch. In
1589 it was introduced into
FIG. 4. Mitra pretiosa of the Russia, when the tsar Theodore
late Cardinal Vaughan, Roman erected the Russian patriarch-
Catholic Archbishop of West- a t e and bestowed on the new
patriarch the right to wear the
mitre, sakkos and mandyas, all borrowed from the Greek rite.
A hundred years later the mitre, originally confined to the
patriarch, was worn by all bishops.
See J. Braun, S.J., Die liturgiscke Cewandung (Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, 1907), pp. 424-498. The question of the use of the mitre
in the Anglican Church is dealt with in the Report of the Sub-Committee
of the Convocation of Canterbury on the Ornaments of the Church
and its Ministers (1908). See also the bibliography to the article
VESTMENTS. (W. A. P.)
MITROVICA (Hungarian, Milrovicz; German, Mitrowitz),
a town of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary, situated on the river
Save, in the county of Syrmia. Pop. (1900), 11,518. Mitrovica
is on the railway from Agram, 170 m. W.N.W. to Belgrade,
38 m. E. by S. Roman remains have been discovered in its
neighbourhood, and it occupies the site of Sirmium or Syrmium,
the chief city of Lower Pannonia under Roman rule. The
emperor Probus (232-282) was born and buried at Sirmium,
where, according to some authorities, the emperor Marcus
Aurelius (121-180) also died; but this is uncertain. In 351, 357
and 358, ecclesiastical councils of some importance met at
Sirmium, which became an episcopal see about 305, and was
united with the diocese of Bosnia in 1773. The city was
sacked by the Huns in 441, and by the Turks, who destroyed
all its ancient buildings, in 1396 and 1521.
MITSCHERLICH, EILHARDT (1794-1863), German chemist,
was born on the 7th of January 1794 at Neuende near Jever,
in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, where his father was pastor.
His uncle, CHRISTOPH WILHELM MITSCHERLICH (1760-1854),
professor at Gottingen, was in his day a celebrated scholar.
He was educated at Jever under the historian F. C. Schlosser,
when he went to Heidelberg in 1811, devoted himself to philology,
giving special attention to the Persian language. In 1813 he
went to Paris to obtain permission to join the embassy which
Napoleon I. was to send to Persia. The events of 1814 put
an end to this, and Mitscherlich resolved to study medicine
in order that he might enjoy that freedom of travel usually
allowed in the East to physicians. He began at Gottingen
with the study of chemistry, and this so arrested his attention
that he gave up the journey to Persia. From his Gottingen
days dates the treatise on certain parts of Persian history,
compiled from MSS. in the university library and published
in Persian and Latin in 1814, under the title Mirchondi hisloria
Thaheridarum historicis nostris hucusque incognitorum Persiae
principum. In 1818 he went to Berlin and worked in the
laboratory of H. F. Link (1767-1851). There he made analyses
of phosphates and phosphites, arsenates and arsenites, con-
firming the conclusions of J. J. Berzelius as to their composi-
tion; and his observation that corresponding phosphates and
arsenates crystallize in the same form was the germ from which
grew the theory of isomorphism which he communicated to
the Berlin Academy in December 1819. In that year Berzelius
suggested Mitscherlich to the minister Altenstein as successor
to M. H. Klaproth at Berlin. Altenstein did not immediately
carry out this proposal, but he obtained for Mitscherlich a govern-
ment grant to enable him to continue his studies in Berzelius's
laboratory at Stockholm. He returned to Berlin in 1821, and in
the summer of 1822 he delivered his first lecture as extraordinary
professor of chemistry in the university, where in 1825 he was
appointed ordinary professor. In the course of an investigation
into the slight differences discovered by W. H. Wollaston in
the angles of the rhombohedra of the carbonates isomorphous
with calc-spar, he observed that the angle in the case of calc-spar
varied with the temperature. On extending his inquiry to
other aelotropic crystals he observed a similar variation, and
was thus led, in 1825, to the discovery that Aelotropic crystals,
when heated, expand unequally in the direction of dissimilar
axes. In the following year he discovered the change, pro-
duced by change of temperature, in the direction of the optic
axes of selenite. His investigation (also in 1826) of the two
crystalline modifications of sulphur threw much light on the
fact that the two minerals calc-spar and aragonite have the
same composition but different crystalline forms, a property
which Mitscherlich called dimorphism. In 1833 he made a
series of careful determinations of the vapour densities of a large
628
MITTEN MIZRAIM
number of volatile substances, confirming Gay-Lussac's law.
He obtained selenic acid in 1827 and showed that its salts are
isomorphous with the sulphates, while a few years later he proved
that the same thing is true of the manganates and the sulphates,
and of the permanganates and the perchlorates. He investi-
gated the relation of benzene to benzoic acid and to other
derivatives. In 1829-1830 he published his Lehrbuch der Chemie,
which embodied many original observations. His interest in
mineralogy led him to study the geology of volcanic regions,
and he made frequent visits to the Eifel with a view to the
discovery of a theory of volcanic action. He did not, however,
publish any papers on the subject, though after his death his
notes were arranged and published by Dr. J. L. A. Roth in the
Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (1866). In December 1861
symptoms of heart-disease made their appearance, but he was
able to carry on his academical work till December 1862. He
died at Schonberg near Berlin, on the 28th of August 1863.
Mitscherlich's published papers are chiefly to be found in the
Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, in Poggendorff' s Annalen,
and in the Annales de chimie et de physique. The 4th edition of the
Lehrbuch der Chemie was published in 1844-1847, a 5th was begun
in 1855, but was not completed.
MITTEN, a covering for the hand, with a division for the
thumb only, and reaching to the lower joint of the fingers;
it is made of silk, lace, wool or other material. The word is
of obscure origin; it has been connected with Ger. mitte, middle,
half, in the sense of that which half covers the hand. There
are several Celtic words which may be cognate, e.g. Irish miotag,
mutan, a thick glove, mitten, such as is worn by hedgers and
ditchers. The 16th-century French word miton meant a gauntlet.
A fine mitten made of lace or open network and extending well
up the forearm was much worn by ladies in the early part of
the i pth century, and has been fashionable at various times
since that date.
MITTWEIDA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the Zschopau, 12 m. by rail N. of Chemnitz on the railway
to Dobeln and Riesa. Pop. (1905), 17,465. It has a handsome
Evangelical church, a classical, a modern and a technical school,
and cotton and spinning mills. Other industries are the making
of furniture, machinery, cigars and cement.
MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON (1827-1900), English
biologist, was born in London on the 3oth of November 1827,
and educated at Clapham grammar-school, Harrow, and King's
College, London, and afterwards at St Mary's, Oscott, since his
conversion to Roman Catholicism prevented him from going to
Oxford. In 1851 he was called to the bar, but he devoted him-
self to medical and biological studies. In 1862 he was appointed
lecturer at St Mary's Hospital medical school, in 1869 he became
a fellow of the Zoological Society, and from 1874 to 1877 he was
professor of biology at the short-lived Roman Catholic University
College, London. In 1873 he published Lessons in Elementary
Anatomy, and an essay on Man and Apes. In 1881 appeared
The Cat; an Introduction to the Study of Back-boned Animals.
The careful and detailed work he bestowed on Insectivora and
Carnivora largely increased our knowledge of the anatomy of
these groups. In 1871 his Genesis of Species brought him into
the controversy then raging. Though admitting evolution
generally, Mivart denied its applicability to the human intellect.
His views as to the relationship existing between human
nature and intellect and animal nature in general were given
in Nature and Thought (1882); and in the Origin of Human
Reason (1889) he stated what he considered the fundamental
difference between men and animals. In 1884, at the invitation
of the Belgian episcopate, he became professor of the philosophy
of natural history at the university of Louvain, which had
conferred on him the degree of M.D. in 1884. Some articles
published in the Nineteenth Century in 1892 and 1893, in which
Mivart advocated the claims of science even where they seemed
to conflict with religion, were placed on the Index expurgatorius,
and other articles in January 1900 led to his excommunication
by Cardinal Vaughan, with whom he had a curious corre-
spondence vindicating his claim to hold liberal opinions while
remaining in the Roman Catholic Church. Shortly afterwards he
died, in London, on the ist of April 1900. Mivart was also the
author of many scientific papers and occasional articles, and of
Castle and Manor: a Tale of our Time (1900), which originally
appeared in 1894 as Henry Standon, by " D'Arcy Drew."
MIZPAH, or MIZPEH, the name of several places referred to
in the Old Testament, in each case probably derived from a'
" commanding prospect," the Hebrew name having that sig-
nificance, (i) MIZPAH OF GILEAD, where Jacob was reconciled
to Laban (Gen. xxxi. 49); apparently the site of the camp ot
the Israelites when about to attack the Ammonites under
Jephthah's leadership (Judges x. 1 7) . This ancient sanctuary was
probably the scene of Jephthah's vow (Judges xi. 29; cf. t>. u).
The identification of this Mizpeh is a difficult problem: it is
supposed to be the same as Ramoth Gilead, but the evidence is
scarcely conclusive. It is referred to in Hos. v. i. (2) MIZPAH
OF BENJAMIN. It has been suggested, on hardly sufficient
grounds, that the Mizpeh where the Hebrews assembled before
the extermination of the Benjamites (Judges xx. i) was not the
shrine where Samuel made his headquarters (i Sam. vii. 5)- It
was fortified by Asa (i Kings xv. 22), and after the destruction
of Jerusalem was the seat of government under the viceroy Geda-
liah (2 Kings xxv. 23): here Gedaliah was murdered (ibid. 25).
After the exile it retained the tradition of being a seat of govern-
ment (Neh. iii. 7) and a holy place (i Mace. iii. 46). It is
probably to be identified with the mountain, Neby Samwil,
north of Jerusalem, still considered sacred by the Moslems: a
Crusaders' church (now a mosque), covers the traditional tomb
of Samuel. (3) A territory near Mount Hermon, a seat of the
Hivites, which joined the coalition of Jabin against Joshua
(Joshua xi. 3). In the territory was the "valley of Mizpeh"
(v. 8) where the Canaanites were routed. (4) A town in the
tribe of Judah (Joshua xv. 38). (5) MIZPEH OF MOAB, where
David interviewed the king of Moab and found an asylum for
his parents (i Sam. xxii. 3). (R. A. S. M.).
MIZRAIM, the biblical name for Egypt (Gen. x. 6, 13, Hebrew
Mi$rayim; the apparently dual termination -aim may be due
to a misunderstanding); there is an alternative poetical form
Masor (2 Kings xix. 24, &c.). In Isa. xi. u the name is kept
distinct from Pathros or Upper Egypt, and represents some por-
tion at least of Lower Egypt. It perhaps means " boundary "
or " frontier," a somewhat ambiguous term, which illustrates
the topographical problems. First (a), E. Schrader pointed
out in 1874 that the Assyrians knew of some Musri (i.e. Mizraim)
in North Syria, and it is extremely probable that this land is
referred to in 2 Kings vii. 6 (mentioned with the Hittites), and
in i Kings x. 28 seq., 2 Chron. i. 16 seq., where the word for
" droves " (Heb. m-q-v-h) conceals the contiguous land Kue
(Cilicia). 1 Next (b), C. T. Beke, as long ago as 1834, concluded
in his Origines biblicae (p. 167 et passim) that " Egypt "
in the Old Testament sometimes designates a district near
Midian and the Gulf of "Akaba, and the view restated recently
and quite independently by* H. Winckler on later evidence
(1893) has been the subject of continued debate. Egypt is
known to have laid claim to the southern half of Palestine
from early times, and consequently the extension of the name
of Egypt beyond the limits of Egypt and of the Sinaitic penin-
sula, is inherently probable. When, for example, Hagar, the
" Egyptian," is the ancestress of Ishmaelite tribes, the evidence
makes it very unlikely that the term is to be understood in the
strict ethnical sense; and there are other passages more suitably
interpreted on the hypothesis that the wider extension of the
term was once familiar. In the second half of the 8th century
B.C., Assyrian inscriptions allude to a powerful Musri at a time
when the Nile empire was disintegrated and scarcely in a position
to play the part ascribed to it (i.e. if by Musri we are to under-
stand Egypt). 2 Not until the supremacy of Tirhakah does the
ambiguity begin to disappear, and much depends upon the
1 See further, H. Winckler, All. test. Untersuch. (1892), pp. 168-174.
* So, too, according to one passage, Tiglath-pileser IV. appoints
a governor over Musri before Egypt itself had actually been con-
quered.
MNEMONICS
unbiased discussion of the related biblical history (especially the
writings of Isaiah and Hosea) and the Egyptian data. But
even in the period of disintegration the minor princes of the
Delta were no doubt associated with their eastern neighbours,
and although the Assyrian Musri stands in the same relation to
the people of Philistia as do the Edomites and allied tribes
of the Old Testament, Philistia itself was always intimately
associated with Egypt. (See PHILISTINES.)
The problem is complicated by the obscurity which over-
hangs the history of south Palestine and the Delta (see EDOM;
MIDIAN). The political importance of Egypt was not constant,
and the known fluctuations of geographical terms combine with
the doubtful accuracy of early writers to increase the difficulties.
The Assyrian evidence alone points very strongly to a Musri in
north-west Arabia; the biblical evidence alone suggests an extra-
Egyptian Misrayim. On the whole the result of discussion has
been to admit the probability that Misrayim could refer to a
district outside the limits of Egypt proper. But it has not
justified the application of this conclusion to all the instances
in which some critics have relied upon it, or the sweeping
inferences and reconstructions which have sometimes been
based upon it. Each case must be taken on its merits.
See further, H. Winckler, Altorient. Forschungen, i. 24 seq; Mitteil.
d. vorderasiat. Gesell. (1898), pp. I sqq., 169 sqq.; Hibbert Journal
(April 1904); Keilinschr. u.das alte Test., 3rd ed., 136 sqq.; and Im
Kampfe urn den alien Orient, ii. (1907); T. K. Cheyne, especially
Kingdom of Judah (1908), pp. xiv. sqq. ; F. Hommel, Vier neue arab.
Landschaftsnamen in A . T. For criticisms (many of them somewhat
captious) see Konig's reply to Hommel (Berlin, 1902), A. Noordtzij,
Theolog. Tijdsch. (1906, July, September), and E. Meyer, Israeliten
u. ihre Nachbarstamme, pp. 455 sqq. A valuable survey of the
geographical and other conditions is given by N. Schmidt, Hibbert
Journal (January 1908). (S. A. C.)
629
MNEMONICS (from Gr. iivaaBai, remember; whence
mindful; rb nvrjuoviKov, sc. TexyTHJ-a, that which mechanically
aids the memory), the general name applied to devices for aiding
the memory. Such devices are also described as memoria
technica. The principle is to enable the mind to reproduce a
relatively unfamiliar idea, and specially a series of dissociated
ideas, by connecting it, or them, in some artificial whole, the
parts of which are mutually suggestive. A pupil is far more
likely to remember the cities which claimed to be the birthplace
of Homer when he remembers that their names can be made to
form the hexameter line, " Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis,
Rhodes, Argos, Athenae." Among the most famous examples
of metrical mnemonics are the " gender rhymes " of the Latin
grammars, the hexameter lines (especially that beginning
" Barbara Celarent ") invented by logicians (for a list see
Baldwin's Diet, of Philos., vol. ii., s.v, " Mnemonic Verses "), the
verse for remembering the number of days in the months
(" Thirty days hath September, April, June and November ").
Other devices are numerous. Thus the name and lights of the
sides of a ship may be remembered because the three shorter
words " port," " left," " red," go together, as compared with
the longer, " starboard," " right," " green."
Memory is commonly classified by psychologists according as
it is exercised (a) mechanically, by attention and repetition;
(b) judiciously, by careful selection and co-ordination; and
(c) ingeniously, by means of artifices, i.e. mnemotechny,
mnemonics. It must, however, be observed that no mnemonic
is of any value which does not possess the qualities of (a) and (b).
A mnemonic is essentially a device which uses attention and
repetition, and careful selection is equally necessary. A more
accurate description of mnemonics is " mediate" or " indirect "
memory. In the technical sense the word " mnemonic " is
confined to the systems of general application which have been
elaborated by various writers.
Systems. Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek
sophists and philosophers, and are repeatedly referred to by Plato
and Aristotle. In later times the invention was ascribed to the
poet Simonides, 1 perhaps for no other reason than that the
strength of his memory was famous. Cicero, who attaches
1 Pliny, H.N. yii. 24. Cicero, De or. ii. 86, mentions this belief
without committing himself to it.
considerable importance to the art, but more to the principle of
order as the best help to memory, speaks of Carneades (or
perhaps Charmades) of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis as
distinguished examples of the use of well-ordered images to
aid the memory. The latter is said by Pliny to have carried
the art so far " ut nihil non iisdem verbis redderet auditum."
The Romans valued such helps as giving facility in public speak-
ing. The method used is described by the author of Rhet. ad
Heren., iii. 16-24; see also Quintilian (Inst. Or. xi. 2), whose
account is, however, somewhat incomplete and obscure. In his
time the art had almost ceased to be practised. The Greek and
Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of
mental places and signs or pictures, known as " topical "
mnemonics. The most usual method was to choose a large
house, of which the apartments, walls, windows, statues,
furniture, &c., were severally associated with certain names,
phrases, events or ideas, by means of symbolic pictures; and to
recall these it was only necessary to search over the apartments
of the house till the particular place was discovered where they
had been deposited by the imagination. In accordance with this
system, if it were desired to fix an historic date in the memory, it
was localized in an imaginary town divided into a certain number
of districts, each with ten houses, each house with ten rooms,
and each room with a hundred quadrates or memory-places,
partly on the floor, partly on the four walls, partly on the roof.
Thus, if it were desired to fix in the memory the date of the
invention of printing (1436), an imaginary book, or some other
symbol of printing, would be placed in the thirty-sixth quadrate
or memory-place of the fourth room of the first house of the
historic district of the town. Except that the rules of mnemonics
are referred to by Martianus Capella, nothing further is known
regarding the practice of the art until the i3th century. Among
the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte
memorativa. Raimon Lull devoted special attention to
mnemonics in connexion with his ars generalis. The first
important modification of the method of the Romans was that
invented by the German poet Konrad Celtes, who, in his Epitoma
in utramque Ciceronis rhetoricam cum arte memoraliva nova (1492),
instead of places made use of the letters of the alphabet. About
the end of the isth century Petrus de Ravenna (b. 1448)
awakened such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats
that he was believed by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix
artis memoriae (Venice, 1491, 4 vols.) went through as many as
nine editions, the seventh appearing at Cologne in 1608. An
impression equally great was produced about the end of the
i6th century by Lambert Schenkel (Gazophylacium, 1610), who
taught mnemonics in France, Italy, and Germany, and, although
he was denounced as a sorcerer by the university of Louvain,
published in 1593 his tractate De memoria at Douai with the
sanction of that celebrated theological faculty. The most
complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil
Martin Sommer, published at Venice in 1619. In 1618 John
Willis (d. 1628?) published Mnemonica; sine ars reminiscendi
(Eng. version by Leonard Sowersby, 1661; extracts in Feinaigle's
New Art of Memory, 3rd ed., 1813), containing a clear statement
of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno,
in connexion with his exposition of the ars generalis of Lull,
included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum.
Other writers of this period are the Florentine Publicius (1482);
Johann Romberch (1533); Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae
(1602); B. Porta, Ars reminiscendi (1602).
In 1648 Stanislaus Mink von Wenussheim or Winckelmann
made known what he called the " most fertile secret " in mnemo-
nics namely, the use of consonants for figures, so as to
express numbers by words (vowels being added as required);
and the philosopher Leibnitz adopted an alphabet very similar
to that of Winckelmann in connexion with his scheme for a
form of writing common to all languages. Winckelmann's
method, which in fact is adopted with slight changes by the
majority of subsequent " original " systems, was modified and
supplemented in regard to many details by Richard Grey
(1694-1771), who published a Memoria technica in 1730. The
630
MNESICLES MOA
principal part of Grey's method (which may be compared with
the Jewish system by which letters also stand for numerals,
and therefore words for dates) is briefly this: "To remember
anything in history, chronology, geography, &c., a word is
formed, the beginning whereof, being the first syllable or syllables
of the thing sought, does, by frequent repetition, of course
draw after it the latter part, which is so contrived as to give
the answer. Thus, in history, the Deluge happened in the year
before Christ two thousand three hundred forty-eight; this is
signified by the word De\-etok, Del standing for Deluge and
elok for 2348." To assist in retaining the mnemonical words
in the memory they were formed into memorial lines, which,
however, being composed of strange words in difficult hexameter
scansion, are by no means easy to memorize. The vowel or
consonant, which Grey connected with a particular figure, was
chosen arbitrarily; but in 1806 Gregor von Feinaigle, a German
monk from Salem near Constance, began in Paris to expound
a system of mnemonics, one feature (based on Winckelmann's
system) of which was to represent the numerical figures by
letters chosen on account of some similarity to the figure to be
represented or some accidental connexion with it. This alphabet
was supplemented by a complicated system of localities and
signs. Feinaigle, who apparently published nothing himself,
came to England in 1811, and in the following year one of his
pupils published The New Art of Memory, which, beside giving
Feinaigle's system, contains valuable historical material about
previous systems. A simplified form of Feinaigle's method
was published by Aime Paris (Principes et applications diverses
de la mnemonique, 7th ed., Paris, 1834), and the use of symbolic
pictures was revived in connexion with the latter by a Pole,
Antoni Jazwinsky, of whose system an account was published by
the Polish general J. Bern, under the title Expose general de la
melhode mnemonique polonaise, perfectionnie a Paris (Paris,
1839). Various other modifications of the systems of Feinaigle
and Aime Paris were advocated by subsequent mnemonists,
among them being the Phrenotypics of Major Beniowsky, a Polish
refugee, the Phreno-Mnemotechny (1845) of Francois Fauvel
Gouraud the Mnemolechnik of Karl Otto Reventlow (generally
known as Karl Otto), a Dane, and the Mnemotechny of the
American Pliny Miles.
The more complicated mnemonic systems have fallen almost
into complete disuse; but methods founded chiefly on the so-called
laws of association (see ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS) have been taught
with some success in Germany by, among others, Hermann
Kothe, author of Lehrbuch der Mnemonik (and ed., Hamburg,
1852), and Katechismus der Gedachtnisskunst (6th ed. by Montag,
Leipzig, 1887); and Hugo Weber-Rumpe, author of Mnemonische
Zahlworterbuch (Breslau, 1885) and Mnemonische Unterrichts-
briefe (1887-1888); in England by Dr Edward Pick, whose
Memory and the Rational Means of Improving it ($th ed., 1873)
and Lectures on Memory Culture (1899) obtained a wide circula-
tion. Passing over the work of William Day (New Mnemonical
Chart and Guide to the Art of Memory, 1843), Rev. T. Brayshaw
(Metrical Mnemonics, a very rare work), Fairchild and W. Stokes,
the next name of any importance is the Rev. J. H. Bacon, a pupil
of Edward Pick. His book (A Complete Guide to the Improvement
of the Memory, 3rd ed., rev. 1890) contains a good summary of
the history of mnemonics and a very reasonable account of the
principles; it gains in value by its comparative simplicity. More
or less successful systems were issued by Lyon Williams (1866),
T. Maclaren (1866), Thomas A. Sayer (1867), Rev. Alexander
Mackay (1869), George Crowther (1870), F. Appleby (1880), John
Sambrook, who made use of similarities in sounds (gun, i ; Jew, 2),
the French scientist Abbe Moigno, J. H. Noble, and Allan
Dalzell. Considerable interest was roused both in London and
in America by the controversy which raged round the system of
"Alphonse Loisette," who taught his "art of never forgetting"
successively in London and Washington. It claimed to be
original in system, but was attacked in England by F. Appleby
and in America by George S. Fellows, and is generally regarded
as both unoriginal and inferior on the whole to preceding systems
(for the litigation in America see e.g. Part II. of Middleton's
Memory Systems, pp. 96 sqq.). An interesting work (Memoranda
mnemonica) was published by James Copner in 1893, containing
a system based partly on the use of letters for figures and words
for dates, as well as a large number of rhymes for remembering
facts in biblical, Roman, Greek and English history. He made
use of Grey's system, but endeavoured as far as possible to
invent, where necessary, words and terminations which in them-
selves had some special fitness in place of Grey's monstrosities.
More complicated systems are the Keesing Memory System
(Auckland, 1896), the Smith- Watson System of Memory and
Mental Training (Washington), and the Pelman memory system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A large number of the works referred to in the
text contain historical material. Among histories of the subject,
see C. F. von Aretin, Systematische Anleitung zur Theorie und Praxis
der Mnemonik (Sulzberg, 1810); A. E. Middleton, Memory Systems,
Old and New (espec. 3rd rev. ed., New York, 1888), with bibliography
of works from 1325 to 1888 by G. S. Fellows and account of the
Loisette litigation; F. W. Colegrove, Memory (1901), with biblio-
graphy, pp. 353-361. U- M. M.)
MNESICLES, the architect of the great Propylaea of the
Athenian Acropolis, set up by Pericles about 437 B.C.
MOA, apparently the Maori name of the extinct Ratite birds
in New Zealand, comprising the group Dinornithes (cf. BIRD:
Classification; and RATITAE). The earliest account of these
birds is that of Polack (New Zealand, London, 1838), who
speaks of the former existence of some struthious birds in the
north island as proved by fossil bones which were shown to him.
" The natives added that, in times long past, they received the
tradition that very large birds had existed, but the scarcity of
food, as well as the easy method of entrapping them, had caused
their extermination." In the North Island the moas seem
to have died out soon after the arrival of the Maoris, according
to F. W. Hutton, some 700-500 years ago. In the South Island
they seem to have lingered much longer, possibly, according
to H. O. Forbes (Nat Set. II. 1893, pp. 374-380), " down even
to the time that Captain Cook visited New Zealand." But
these are only surmises, based upon the fact that in various
dry caves limbs still surrounded by the mummified flesh and
skin, feathers, and even eggs with the inner membrane, have
been found. Great quantities of bones have been found in
caves and in swamps, so that now nearly every part of the
skeleton, of some kind or other, is known.
The most striking feature of the moas, besides the truly
gigantic size of some species, is the almost complete absence of
the wings. In fact, the whole skeletons of the wings and of the
shoulder girdle seem to have been lost, excepting Anomalo-
pteryx dromaeoides, which, according to Hutton, 1 had still some
vestiges. Such a complete reduction of the whole anterior
limb and girdle is unique among birds, but the cassowaries
indicate the process. In conformity with these reductions the
breastbone of the moas is devoid of any coracoidal facets; there
is no trace of a keel, and the number of sternal ribs is reduced
to three or even two pairs. The hind limbs are very strong; the
massive femur has a large pneumatic foramen; the tibia has
a bony bridge on the anterior surface of the lower portion, a
character in which the moas agree only with Apteryx amongst
the other Ratitae. The number of toes is four, unless the hallux
is more or less reduced. The pelvis much resembles that of the
kiwis.
The skull has been monographed by T. J. Parker (" On the
Cranial Osteology, Classification and Phylogeny of the Dinor-
nithidae," Tr. Z. Soc. (1893), xiii. 373-431, pis. 56-62); it
resembles in its general configuration that of the emeus ana
cassowaries, while it differs from that of Apteryx most obviously
by the short and stout bill.
The feathers have a large after-shaft which is of the size
of the other half, likewise in agreement with the Australian
Ratitae, while in the others, including the kiwis, the after-shaft
is absent. Another important point, in which the moas agree
with the other Ratitae and differ from the kiwis, are the branched,
instead of simple, porous canals in the eggshell.
1 " The Moas of New Zealand," Tr. N. Zea. Inst. (1892), xxiv.
93-172, pis. xv.-xvii.
MOAB
The affinities of the moas are undoubtedly with the Australian
Ratitae, and, in spite of the differences mentioned above, with
the kiwis. In this respect Max Fiirbringer and T. J. Parker
are in perfect agreement. The relationship with Aepyornis
of Madagascar is still problematic. Whilst the moas seem to
have been entirely herbivorous, feeding not unlikely upon the
shoots of ferns, the kiwis have become highly specialized worm-
eaters. In this respect cassowaries and emeus hold an inter-
mediate position, their occasional zoophagous (especially piscivo-
rous) inclination being well known. Unmolested by enemies
(Harpagornis, a tremendous bird of prey, died out with the
Pleistocene), living in an equable insular climate, with abundant
vegetation, the moas flourished and seem to have reached their
greatest development in specialization, numbers, and a bewilder-
ing variety of large and small kinds, within quite recent times.
Unfortunately no fossil moas, older than the Pleiocene, are
known. Parker recognizes five genera, with about twenty
species, which he combines into three sub-families: Dinornithinae
with Dinornis, Anomalopteryginae with Pachyornis, Mesopteryx
and Anomalopteryx, comprising the comparatively least special-
ized forms; and Emeinae with the genus Emeus, not to be con-
founded with the vernacular emeu. The moas ranged in size
from that of a turkey to truly colossal dimensions, the giant
being Dinornis maximus, which, with a tibial length of 39 in.,
stood with its small head about 12 ft. above the ground.
(H. F. G.)
MOAB, the name of an ancient people of Palestine who
inhabited a district E. of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, lying N.
of Edom and S. of Ammon (q.v.) and the Israelite Transjordanic
districts. There is little material for its earlier history outside
the Old Testament, and the various references in the latter are
often of disputed reference and date. The national traditions of
Israel recognize a close relationship between Moab and Ammon,
"sons" of Lot, and the "brothers" Esau (Edom) and Jacob
(Israel), and Moab is represented as already a powerful people
when Israel fled from Egypt (Exod. xv. 15). The detailed
narratives, however, give conflicting views of the exodus and
the conquest of Palestine. It was supposed that Moab, having
expelled the aboriginal giants, was in turn displaced by the
Amorite king Sihon, who forced Moab south of the Arnon (Wadi
Mojib, a natural boundary) and drove Ammon beyond the
Jabbok. The Israelites at Kadesh, almost at the gate of the
promised land, incurred the wrath of Yahweh, and, deterred by
a defeat at Hormah from pursuing their journey northwards,
were obliged to choose another route (Num. xiv. 40-45 ; contrast
xxi. 1-3). (See EXODUS, THE.) Messengers to Edom were repulsed
(Num. xx. 14-18), or Israel was met by Edom with force
(v. 19 seq.); consequently a great detour was made from Kadesh
round by the south of Edom (Num. xiv. 25,. xxi. 4; Judges xi. 18).
At length the people safely reached Pisgah in Moab (Num.
xxi. 16-20; cf. Deut. iii. 27, xxxiv. i), or, according to another
view, passed outside Moab until they reached the border of
Sihon's kingdom (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Judges xi. 17 seq.). There
are other details in Deut. ii., and the late list in Num. xxxiii.
even seems to assume that the journey was made from Kadesh
across the northern end of Edom. Apparently no fixed or distinct
tradition existed regarding the journeys, and it extremely
probable that some of the most characteristic features belong
to much later periods than the latter half of the second millen-
nium B.C., the age to which they are ascribed (e.g. the poem on
the fall of Heshbon, Num. xxi. 27-30).
The account of Balaam (([.v.), the son of Beor, the soothsayer, of
the children of Ammon (xxii. 5, some MSS.), or of Aram or of Edom
(see Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3685 and below), is noteworthy for the
prophecies of Israel's future supremacy; but he is passed over in the
historical sketch, Deut. ii. ; and even the allusion, ibid, xxiii. 4 seq.,
belongs to a context which on independent grounds appears to be a
later insertion. Israel's idolatry in Moab is supplemented by a
later story of the vengeance upon Midian (xxv. 6-18, xxxi.). In
Joshua xiii. 21 the latter is associated with both Sihon and Balaam,
and in some obscure manner Midian and Moab are connected in
Num. xxii. 4-7 (cf. xxv. 18, xxxi. 8). An Edomite list of kings
includes Bela (cf. Bil'am, i.e. Balaam), son of Beor, and states that
a Hadad, son of Bedad, smote Midian in the field of Moab (Gen.
631
xxxvi. 32, 35) ; these events, assigned to an early age, have been
connected with the appearance of Moabite power west of the Jordan
m j j ys of the " J ud S e " Ehud (3--)- However, all that is
recorded in Num. xxii. sqq., together with various legal and other
matter, now severs the accounts of the Israelite occupation of east
Jordan (Num. xxi. 33-35, xxxii. 39-42)- For full details see G. B.
Oray, Numbers (Internal. Critical Comment.).
Although Moab and Ammon were "brothers," their history
was usually associated with that of Judah and Israel respectively,
and naturally depended to a considerable extent upon these
two and their mutual relations. Jephthah (q.v.), one of the
Israelite " judges," delivered Gilead from Ammon, who resumed
the attack under its king Nahash, only to be repulsed by
Saul (q.v.). Ehud (q.v.) of Benjamin or Ephraim freed Israel
from the Moabite oppression. To the first great kings, Saul
and David, are ascribed conquests over Moab, Ammon
and Edom. The Judaean David, for his part, sought to
cultivate friendly relations with Ammon, and tradition
connects him closely with Moab. His son Solomon contracted
marriages with women of both states (i Kings xi. 5, 7), thus
introducing into Jerusalem cults which were not put down
until almost at the close of the monarchy (2 Kings xxiii. 13). In
the gth century B.C. the two states appear in more historical
surroundings, and the discovery of a lengthy Moabite inscription
has thrown valuable light upon contemporary conditions.
This inscription, now in the Louvre, was found at Dhlban,
the biblical Dlbon, in 1868 by the Rev. F. Klein, a representa-
tive of the Church Missionary Society stationed at Jerusalem.
It contains a record of the successes gained by the Moabite
king Mesha against Israel. 1 Omri (q.v.) had previously seized
a number of Moabite cities north of the Arnon, and for forty
years the Moabite national god Chemosh was angry with his
land. At length he roused Mesha; and Moab, which had evi-
dently retreated southwards towards Edom, now began to take
reprisals. " The men of Gad had dwelt in the land of 'Ataroth
from of old; and the king of Israel built 'Ataroth for himself."
Mesha took the city, slew its people in honour of Chemosh, and
dragged before the god the altar-hearth (or the priests?) of
D-v-d-h (apparently a divine name, but curiously similar to
David). Next Chemosh roused Mesha against the city of Nebo.
It fell with its thousands, for the king had "devoted" it to the
deity 'Ashtar-Chemosh. Yahweh had been worshipped there, and
his . . . (? vessels, or perhaps the same doubtful word as above)
were dragged before the victorious Chemosh. With the help of
these and other victories (at Jahaz, Aroer, &c.), Moab recovered
its territory, fortified its cities, supplied them with cisterns,
and Mesha built a great sanctuary to his god. The inscription
enumerates many places known elsewhere (Isa. xv.; Jer. xlviii.),
but although it mentions the " men of Gad," makes no allusion
to the Israelite tribe Reuben, whose seat lay in the district
(Num. xxxii.; Josh. xiii. 15-23; see REUBEN). The revolt will
have followed Ahab's death (see 2 Kings i. i) and apparently
led to the unsuccessful attempt by Jehoram to recover the lost
ground (ibid. iii.).
The story of Jehoram in 2 Kings iii. now gives prominence to
Elisha, his wonders, his hostility to the ruling dynasty and his regard
for the aged Jehoshaphat of Judah. Following other synchronisms,
the Septuagint (Lucian's recension) names Ahaziah of Judah; from
2 Kings i. 17, the reigning king could only have been Jehoram's
namesake. The king of Edom appears as an ally of Israel and
Judah (contrast I Kings xxii. 47; 2 Kings viii. 20), and hostile to
Moab (comp. above, and the obscure allusion in Amos ii. 1-2). But
the king of Moab's attempt to break through unto him suggests that
in the original story (there are several signs of revision) Moab and
Edom were in alliance. In this case the object of Jehoram's march
round the south of the Dead Sea was to drive a wedge between them,
and the result hints at an Israelite disaster. Singularly enough,
Jehoram of Judah suffered some defeat from Edom at Zair, an
unknown name for which Ewald suggested (the Moabite) Zoar
(2 Kings viii. 21 ; see JEHORAM).
Moab thus retained its independence, even harrying Israel
with marauding bands (2 Kings xiii. 20), while Ammon was
1 See edition by M. Lidzbarski, Altsemitische Texte, Bd. I. (Giessen,
1907) ; also G. A. Cooke, North Semitic 'Inscr., /pp. 1-14, and the articles
on " Moab " in Hasting's Diet. Bible (by W. H. Bennett), and
" Mesha " in Ency. Bib. (by S. R. Driver).
632
MO 'ALL AK AT
perpetrating cruelties upon Gilead (Am. i. 13 sqq.). But under
Jeroboam II. (q.v.) Israelite territory was extended to the Wadi
of the 'Arabah or wilderness (probably south end of the Dead
Sea), and again Moab suffered. If Isa. xv. seq. is to be referred
to this age, its people fled southwards and appealed for protec-
tion to the overlord of Edom (see UZZIAH). During the Assyrian
supremacy, its king Salamannu (probably not the Shalman
of Hos. x. 14) paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser IV., but joined
the short-lived revolt with Judah and Philistia in 711. When
Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 701, Kamus(Chemosh)-nadab
also submitted, and subsequently both Esarhaddon and Assur-
bani-pal mention the Moabite king Musuri ( " the Egyptian,"
but cf. MIZRAIM) among their tributaries. In fact, during
the reign of Assur-bani-pal Moab played the vassal's part in
helping to repulse the invasion of the Nabayati and nomads
of Kedar, a movement which made itself felt from Edom nearly
as far as Damascus. It had its root in the revolt of Samas-sum-
yukin (Shamash-shun-ukin) of Babylonia, and coming at a
time immediately preceding the disintegration of the Assyrian
Empire, may have had most important consequences for Judah
and the east of the Jordan. 1 (See PALESTINE: History.)
Moab shares with Ammon and Edom in the general obscurity
which overhangs later events. If it made inroads upon Judah
(2 Kings xxiv. 2), it joined the coalition against Babylonia
(Jer. xxvii. 3) ; if it is condemned for its untimely joy at the
fall of Jerusalem (Isa. xxv. 9 seq.; Jer. xlviii.; Ezek. xxv. 8-n;
Zeph. ii. 8-10), it had offered a harbour to fugitive Jews (Jer.
xl. n). The dates of the most significant passages are unfortu-
nately uncertain. If Sanballat the Horonite was really a native
of the Moabite Horonaim, he finds an appropriate place by the
side of Tobiah the Ammonite and Gashmu the Arabian among
the strenuous opponents of Nehemiah. Still later we find
Moab part of the province of Arabia in the hands of fresh tribes
from the Arabian desert (Jos. Ant. xiii. 13, 5); and, with the
loss of its former independent power, the name survives merely
as a type (Dan. xi. 41). (See JEWS; NABATAEANS.)
A populous land commanding the trade routes from Arabia
to Damascus, rich in agricultural and pastoral wealth, Moab,
as Mesha's inscription proves, had already reached a high state
of civilization by the 9th century B.C. Its language differed
only dialectically from Hebrew; its ideas and religion were very
closely akin to the Israelite, and it may be assumed that they
shared in common many features of culture. 2 The relation of
Chemosh, the national god, to his " children " (Num. xxi. 29)
was that of Yahweh to Israel (see especially Judges xi. 24).
He had his priests (Jer. xlviii. 7), and Mesha, perhaps himself
a priest-king, receives the oracles direct or through the medium
of his prophets. The practice of devoting, banning or annihilat-
ing city or community was both Moabite and Israelite (cf . above,
also Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, xx. 10-20; 2 Chron. xxv. 12, &c.), and
human sacrifice, offered as an exceptional gift to Chemosh in
2 Kings iii. 27, in Israel to Molech (?..), was a rite once less
rare. Apart from the religious cult suggested in the name
Mount Nebo, there were local cults of the Baal of Peor and
the Baal of Meon, and Mesha's allusion to 'Ashtar-Chemosh,
a compound deity, has been taken to point to a corresponding
consort whose existence might naturally be expected upon
other grounds (see ASTARTE) . The fertility of Moab, the wealth of
wine and corn, the temperate climate and the enervating heat
supply conditions which directed the form of cult. Nature-
worship, as in Israel, lay at the foundation, and the impure rites
of Shittim and Baal-Peor (Num. xxxi. 16; Ps. cvi. 28) would not
materially differ from practices which Israelite prophets were
called upon to condemn. Much valuable evidence is to be
obtained also from the survival of ancient forms of cult in Moab
1 See G. Smith, Ashurbanipal (p. 288, cyl. A. viii. 51, B. viii. 37) ;
L. B. Paton, Syria and Palestine, p. 269 seq.; R. F. Harper, Ass. and
Bab. Lit., pp. 118 sqq.; H. Winckler, Keilimchr. u. das alte Test
3rd ed., p. 151.
"Excavation alone can supplement the scanty information
which the present evidence furnishes. For a representation of a
Moabite warrior (-god ?), see G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Art in
Phoenicia, ii. 45 seq.
and east of the Jordan (e.g. sacrifices on the house roofs), and
from a survey of epigraphical and other data from the Greek,
Roman, and later periods, allowance being made for contamina-
tion. The whole question deserves careful investigation in the
light of comparative religion. 3
The relationship felt between Israel and the external states
(Moab, Edom, and Ammon) is entirely justified. It extends
intermittently throughout the history, and certain complicated
features in the traditions of the southern tribes point to affinities
with Moab which find a parallel in the traditions of David
(see RUTH) and in the allusions to intercourse between Moab
and Benjamin (i Chron. viii. 8) or Judah (ibid. iv. 21 seq.). But
the obscure historical background of the references makes it
uncertain whether the exclusiveness of orthodox Judaism (Neh.
xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3-6; Ezra ix. i, 12) was imposed upon
an earlier catholicity, or represented only one aspect of religious
spirit, or was succeeded by a more tolerant attitude. Evidence
for the last-mentioned has been found in the difficult
narrative in Josh. xxii. But Israel remained a great power
in religious history while Moab disappeared. It is true that
Moab was continuously hard pressed by desert hordes; the
exposed condition of the land is emphasized by the chains of
ruined forts and castles which even the Romans were compelled
to construct. The explanation of the comparative insignificance
of Moab, however, is not to be found in purely topographical
considerations. Nor can it be sought in political history, since
Israel and Judah suffered as much from external movements as
Moab itself. The explanation is to be found within Israel
itself, in factors which succeeded in re-shaping existing material
and in imprinting upon it a durable stamp, and these factors,
as biblical tradition recognizes, are to be found in the work
of the prophets.
See the articles on Moab in Hastings's Diet. Bible (W. H. Bennett),
Ency. Bib. (G. A. Smith and Wellhausen), and Hauck's Realencyklo-
pddie (F. Buhl) with their references; also the popular description
by W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra (1905),
and the very elaborate and scientific works by R. E. Briinnow and
A. von Domaszewski, Die Provincia Arabia (1904-1905), and A.
Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907-1908). Mention should be made of the
mosaic map of Palestine found at Medaba, dating perhaps from the
5th century A.D.; for this, see A. Jacoby, Das geograph. Mosaik von
M. (1905), and P. Palmer and Guthe (1906). For language and
epigraphy see NABATAEANS, SEMITIC LANGUAGES; for topography,
&c., PALESTINE; and for the later history, JEWS. (S. A. C.)
MO'ALLAKAT (MO'ALLAQAT or MU'ALLAQAT). Al-Mo'allaqat
is the title of a group of seven longish Arabic poems, which
have come down to us from the time before Islam. The name
signifies " the suspended " (pi.), the traditional explanation
being that these poems were hung up by the Arabs on or in
the Ka'ba at Mecca. The oldest passage known to the present
writer where this is stated occurs in the 'Iqd of the Spanish
Arab, Ibn 'Abd-Rabbihi (A.D. 860-940), Bulaq ed. of 1293
A.H. vol. iii. p. 116 seq. We read there: " The Arabs had such
an interest in poetry, and valued it so highly, that they took
seven long pieces selected from the ancient poetry, wrote them
in gold on pieces of Coptic linen folded up, and hung them
up ('allaqat) on the curtains which covered the Ka'ba. Hence
we speak of ' the golden poem of Amra'al Qais,' 'the golden
poem of Zuhair.' The number of the golden poems is seven;
they are also called 'the suspended' (al-Mo^allaqdt)." Similar
statements are found in later Arabic works. But against
this we have the testimony of a contemporary of Ibn 'Abd-
Rabbihi, the grammarian Nahhas (d. A.D. 949), who says in
his commentary on the Mo'allaqat: "As for the assertion that
they were hung up in [sic] the Ka'ba, it is not known to any of
those who have handed down ancient poems. " 4 This cautious
scholar is unquestionably right in rejecting a story so utterly
unauthenticated. The customs of the Arabs before Mahomet
8 See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2nd ed.), which may be
supplemented by the scattered gleanings in Clermont-Ganneau's
Recueil d'archeologie orientale; and more especially by P. Antonin
Jaussin's valuable monograph, Coutumes des Arabes ail pays de
Moab (Paris, 1908). (See also HEBREW RELIGION.)
4 Ernst Frenkel, An-Nafrbas' Commentar zur Mu'allaqa des
Imruul-Qais (Halle, 1876), p. viii.
MO'ALLAKAT
633
are pretty accurately known to us; we have also a mass of
information about the affairs of Mecca at the time when the
Prophet arose; but no trace of this or anything like it is found
in really good and ancient authorities. We hear, indeed, of
a Meccan hanging up a spoil of battle on the Ka'ba (Ibn Hisham,
ed. Wiistenfeld, p. 431). Less credible is the story of an impor-
tant document being deposited in that sanctuary (ibid. p. 230),
for this looks like an instance of later usages being transferred
to pre-Islamic times. But at all events this is quite a different
thing from the hanging up of poetical manuscripts. To account
for the disappearance of the Mo'allaqat from the Ka'ba we are
told, in a passage of late origin (De Sacy, Chrestom. ii. 480),
that they were taken down at the capture of Mecca by the
Prophet. But in that case we should expect some hint of the
occurrence in the circumstantial biographies of the Prophet,
and in the works on the history of Mecca; and we find no such
thing. That a series of long poems was written at all at that
remote period is improbable in the extreme. Up to a time when
the art of writing had become far more general than it was
before the spread of Islam, poems were never or very rarely
written, with the exception, perhaps, of epistles in poetic form.
The diffusion of poetry was exclusively committed to oral
tradition. Moreover, it is quite inconceivable that there
should have been either a gild or a private individual of such
acknowledged taste, or of such influence, as to bring about a
consensus of opinion in favour of certain poems. Think of the
mortal offence which the canonization of one poet must have
given to his rivals and their tribes. It was quite another thing
for an individual to give his own private estimate of the respec-
tive merits of two poets who had appealed to him as umpire, or
for a number of poets to appear at large gatherings, such as
the fair of 'Oqa? (Okad) as candidates for the place of honour
in the estimation of the throng which listened to their recitations.
No better is the modifications of the legend, which we find,
at a much later period, in the Moqaddima of Ibn Khaldun
(A.D. 1332-1406), who tells us that the poets themselves hung
up their poems on the Ka'ba (ed. Paris iii. 357). In short,
this legend, so often retailed by Arabs, and still more' frequently
by Europeans, must be entirely rejected. 1 The story is a
pure fabrication based on the name " suspended." The word
was taken in its literal sense; and as these poems were
prized by many above all others in after times, the same
opinion was attributed to " the [ancient] Arabs," who were
supposed to have given effect to their verdict in the way already
described. A somewhat simpler version, also given by Nahhas
in the passage already cited, is as follows: " Most of the Arabs
were accustomed to meet at 'Oqaz and recite verses; then, if
the king was pleased with any poem, he said, ' Hang it up,
and preserve it among my treasures.' " But, not to mention
other difficulties, there was no king of all the Arabs; and it is
hardly probable that any Arabian king attended the fair at
'Oqaz. The story that the poems were written in gold has
evidently originated in the name " the golden poems " (literally
" the gilded "), a figurative expression for excellence. We
may interpret the designation " suspended " on the same
principle. It seems to mean those (poems) which have been
raised, on account of their value, to a specially honourable
position. Another derivative of the same root is 'ilq, " precious
thing." A clearer significance attaches to another name some-
times used for these poems assumut, " the strings of pearls."
The comparison of artificially elaborated poems to these strings
is extremely apt. Hence it became so popular that, even in
ordinary prose, to speak in rhythmical form is called simply
na%m " to string pearls."
The selection of these seven poems can scarcely have been
1 Doubts had already been expressed by various scholars, when
Hengstenberg rigid conservative* as he was in theology openly
challenged it, and Sprenger (Das Leben des Mohammad, i. 14, Berlin,
1861) declared it a fable. Since then it has been controverted at
length in Noldeke's Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alien
Araber (Hanover, 1864), p. xvii. sqq. Ahlwardt concurs in this con-
clusion; see his Bemerkungen -fiber die Aechtheit der alien arabischen
Cedichte (1872), pp. 25 seq.
the work of the ancient Arabs at all. It is much more likely
that we owe it to some connoisseur of a later date. Now
Nahhas says expressly in the same passage: " The true view
of the matter is this: when Hammad ar-Rawiya (Hammad
the Rhapsodist) saw how little men cared for poetry, he collected
these seven pieces, urged people to study them, and said to
them: ' These are the [poems] of renown.' " And this agrees
with all our other information. Hammad (who lived in the
first three quarters of the 8th century A.D.) was perhaps of
all men the one who knew most Arabic poetry by heart. The
recitation of poems was his profession. To such a rhapsodist
the task of selection is in every way appropriate; and it may
be assumed that he is responsible also for the somewhat
fantastic title of " the suspended."
There is another fact which seems to speak in favour of
Hammad as the compiler of this work. He was a Persian by
descent, but a client of the Arab tribe, Bakr ibn Wall. For
this reason, we may suppose, he not only received into the
collection a poem of the famous poet Tarafa, of the tribe of
Bakr, but also that of another Bakrite, Harith, who, though
not accounted a bard of the highest rank, had been a prominent
chieftain; while his poem could serve as a counterpoise to
another also received the celebrated verses of Harith 's con-
temporary 'Amr, chief of the Taghlib, the rival brethren of
the Bakr. 'Amr praises the Taghlib in glowing terms: Harith,
in a similar vein, extolls the Bakr ancestors of Hammad's
patrons. The collection of Hammad appears to have consisted
of the same seven poems which are found in our modern editions,
composed respectively by Amra'al-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair, Labld,
'Antara ibn Shaddad, 'Amr ibn Kulthum, and Harith ibn Hilliza.
These are enumerated both by Ibn 'Abd-Rabbihi, and, on the
authority of the older philologists, by Nahhas; and all subsequent
commentators seem to follow them. We have, however, evidence
of the existence, at a very early period, of a slightly different
arrangement. Certainly we cannot now say, on the testimony
of the Jamharat ash'ar al 'Arab, that two of the most competent
ancient authorities on Arabic poetry, Mofaddal (d. c. 700)
and Abu 'Ubaida (d. A.D. 824, at a great age), had already
assigned to the " Seven " (viz. " the seven Mo'allaqat ") a
poem each of Nabigha and A'sha in place of those of 'Antara
and Harith. For meanwhile it has been discovered that the
compiler of the above-mentioned work who, in order to deceive
the reader, issued it under a false name is absolutely untrust-
worthy. But the learned Ibn Qotaiba (gth century A.D.), in his
book Of Poetry and Poets, mentions as belonging to the " Seven "
not only the poem of 'Amr, which has invariably been reckoned
among the Mo'allaqat (ed. de Goeje, p. 120), but also a poem
of 'Abid ibn Abra (ibid. 144). In place of which poem he read
this we do not know; and we are equally ignorant as to whether
he counted other pieces than those indicated above among the
seven.
Now Nabigha and A'sha enjoyed greater celebrity than any
of the poets represented in the Mo'allaqat, with the exception
of Amra'al-Qais, and it is therefore not surprising that scholars,
of a somewhat later date, appended a poem by each of these
to the Mo'allaqat, without intending by this to make them
an integral part of that work. This is clear, for instance, from
the introductory words of TibrizI (d. A.D. 1109) to his com-
mentary on the Mo'allaqat. Appended to this he gives a com-
mentary to a poem of Nabigha, to one of A'sha, and moreover
one to that poem of 'Abid which, as we have just seen, Ibn
Qotaiba had counted among the seven. It is a pure misunder-
standing when Ibn Khaldun (loc. tit.) speaks of nine Mo'allaqat;
and we ought hardly to lay any stress on the fact that he mentions
not only Nabigha and A'sha, but also 'Alqama, as Mo'allaqa
poets. He was probably led to this by a delusive recollection
of the Collection of the " Six Poets," in which were included
these three, together with the three Mo'allaqa-poets, Amra'al-
Qais, Zuhair and Tarafa.
The lives of these poets were spread over a period of more
than a hundred years. The earliest of the seven was AMRA'AL-
QAIS (q.v.), regarded by many as the most illustrious of Arabian
634
MO'ALLAKAT
poets. His exact date cannot be determined; but probably
the best part of his career fell within the midst of the 6th century.
He was a scion of the royal house of the tribe Kinda, which
lost its power at the death of King Harith ibn 'Amr in the year
529.' The poet's royal father, Hojr, by some accounts a son
of this Harith, was killed by a Bedouin tribe, the Band Asad.
The son led an adventurous life as a refugee, now with one
tribe, now with another, and appears to have died young. The
anecdotes related of him which, however, are very untrust-
worthy in detail as well as his poems, imply that the glorious
memory of his house and the hatred it inspired were still com-
paratively fresh, and therefore recent. A contemporary of
Amra'al-Qais was 'Asio IBN ABRAS, one poem of whose, as we
have seen, is by some authorities reckoned among the collection.
He belonged to the Banu Asad, and is fond of vaunting the
heroic dead of his tribe the murder of Hojr in opposition
to the victim's son, the great poet.
The Mo'allaqa of 'AMR hurls defiance against the king of
Hira, 'Amr son of Mundhir, who reigned from the summer of
554 till 568 or 569, and was afterwards slain by our poet. 2 This
prince is also addressed by HARITH in his Mo'allaqa. Of TARAFA,
who is said to have attained no great age, a few satirical verses
have been preserved, directed against this same king. This
agrees with the fact that a grandson of the Qais ibn Khalid,
mentioned as a rich and influential man in Tarafa's Mo'allaqa
(v. 80 or 81), figured at the time of the battle of Dhu-Qar, in
which the tribe Bakr routed a Persian army. This battle falls
between A.D. 604 and 6io. 3
The Mo'allaqa of ' ANTARA and that of ZUHAIR contain allusions
to the feuds of the kindred tribes 'Abs and Dhobyan. Famous
as these contests were, their time cannot accurately be ascer-
tained. But the date of the two poets can be approximately
determined from other data. Ka'b, son of Zuhair, composed
first a satire, and then, in the year 630, a eulogy on the Prophet;
another son, Bujair, had begun, somewhat sooner, to celebrate
Mahomet. 'Antara killed the grandfather of Ahnaf ibn Qais,
who died at an advanced age in A.D. 686 or 687; he outlived
'Abdallah ibn Simma, whose brother Duraid was a very old
man when he fell in battle against the Prophet (early in A.D.
630); and he had communications with Ward, whose son, the
poet'Orwa, may perhaps have survived the flight of Mahomet
to Medina. From all these indications we may place the pro-
ductive period of both poets in the end of the 6th century.
The historical background of 'Antara's Mo'allaqa lies somewhat
earlier than that of Zuhair's.
To the same period appears to belong the poem of 'ALQAMA,
which, as we have seen, Ibn Khaldun reckons amongst the
Mo'allaqat. This too is certainly the date of NABIGHA, who
was one of the most distinguished of Arabic poets. For in
the poem often reckoned as a Mo'allaqa, as in many others,
he addresses himself to No'man, king of Hira, who reigned
in the two last decades of the 6th century. The same king
is mentioned as a contemporary in one of 'Alqama's poems.
The poem of A'SHA, sometimes added to the Mo'allaqat,
contains an allusion to the battle of Dhu Qar (under the name
" Battle of Hinw," v. 62). This poet, not less famous than
Nabigha, lived to compose a poem in honour of Mahomet, and
died not long before A.D. 630.
LABID is the only one of these poets who embraced Islam.
His Mo'allaqa, however, like almost all his other poetical works,
belongs to the Pagan period. He is said to have lived till 66 1,
or even later; certainly it is true of him, what is asserted with
less likelihood of several others of these poets, that he lived to
a ripe old age.
The seven Mo'allaqat, and also the poems appended to them,
represent almost every type of ancient Arabian poetry in its
excellences and its weaknesses. In order rightly to appreciate
these, we must translate ourselves into the world of the Bedouin,
1 See Talari's Geschichte der Perser und Araber . . . iibersetzt von
Th. Noldeke (Leiden, 1879), p. 171.
'See Noldeke's Tabart, pp. 170,172.
3 Ibid. p. 311.
and seek to realize the peculiar conditions of his life, together
with the views and thoughts resulting from those conditions.
In the Mo'allaqa of Tarafa we are repelled by the long, anatomi-
cally exact description of his camel; but such a description had
an extraordinary charm of its own for the Bedouins, every man
of whom was a perfect connoisseur on this subject down to
the minutest points; and the .remaining parts of the poem,
together with the other extant fragments of his songs, show
that Tarafa had a real poetic gift. In the Mo'allaqat of 'Amr
and jjarith, for the preservation of which we are especially
grateful to the compiler, we can read the haughty spirit of the
powerful chieftains, boastfully celebrating the splendours of
their tribe. These two poems have also a certain historical
importance. The song of Zuhair contains the practical wisdom
of a sober man of the world. The other poems are fairly typical
examples of the customary qasida, the long poem of ancient
Arabia, and bring before us the various phases of Bedouin life.
But even here we have differences. In the Mo'allaqa of 'Antara,
whose heroic temperament had overcome the scorn with which
the son of a black slave-mother was regarded by the Bedouins,
there predominates a warlike spirit, which plays practically
no part in the song of Labid.
It is a phenomenon which deserves the fullest recognition,
that the needy inhabitants of a barren country should thus
have produced an artistic poetry distinguished by so high a
degree of uniformity. Even the extraordinary strict metrical
system, observed by poets who had no inkling of theory and
no knowledge of an alphabet, excites surprise. In the most
ancient poems the metrical form is as scrupulously regarded
as in later compositions. The only poem which shows unusual
metrical freedom is the above-mentioned song of 'Abid. It
is, however, remarkable that 'Abid's contemporary Amra'al-
Qais, in a poem which in other respects also exhibits certain
coincidences with that of 'Abid (No. 55, ed. Ahlwardt), presents
himself considerable licence in the use of the very same metre
one which, moreover, is extremely rare in the ancient period.
Presumably, the violent deviations from the schema in 'Abid
are due simply to incorrect transmission by compilers who
failed to grasp the metre. The other poems ascribed to 'Abid,
together with all the rest attributed to Amra'al-Qais, are con-
structed in precise accord with the metrical canons. It is
necessary always to bear in mind that these ancient poems, which
for a century or more were preserved by oral tradition alone,
have reached us in a much mutilated condition. Fortunately,
there was a class of men who made it their special business
to learn by rote the works either of a single poet or of several.
The poets themselves used the services of these rhapsodists
(rawl). The last representative of this class is Hammad, to
whom is attributed the collection of the Mo'allaqat; but he,
at the same time, marks the transition of the rhapsodist to the
critic and scholar. The most favourable opinion of these rhapso-
dists would require us to make allowance for occasional mistakes:
expressions would be transposed, the order of verses disarranged,
passages omitted, and probably portions of different poems
pieced together. It is clear, however, that Hammad dealt
in the most arbitrary fashion with the enormous quantity
of poetry which he professed to know thoroughly. The seven
Mo'allaqat are indeed free from the suspicion of forgery, but
even in them the text is frequently altered and many verses
are transposed. The loose structure of Arabic poems was
extremely favourable to such alterations. Some of the Mo-
'allaqat have several preambles: so, especially, that of 'Amr,
the first eight verses of which belong not to the poem,
but to another poet. Elsewhere, also, we find spurious verses
in the Mo'allaqat. Some of these poems, which have been
handed down to us in other exemplars besides the collection
itself, exhibit great divergences both in the order and number
of the verses and in textual details. This is particularly the
case with the oldest Mo'allaqa that of Amra'al-Qais the
critical treatment of which is a problem of such extreme difficulty
that .only an approximate solution can ever be reached. The
variations of the text, outside the Mo'allaqat collection, have
MOAT MOBILE
635
here and there exercised an influence on the text of that
collection. It would be well if our manuscripts at least gave
the Mo'allaqat in the exact form of Hammad's days. The
best text in fact, we may say, a really good text is that of
the latest Mo'allaqa, the song of Labid.
The Mo'allaqat exist in many manuscripts, some with old commen-
taries, of which a few ate valuable. They have also been several
times printed. Especial mention is due to the edition of Charles
(afterwards Sir Charles) Lyall with the commentary of Tibrizi
(Calcutta, 1894). Attempts to translate these poems, verse for
verse, in poetical form, could scarcely have a happy result. The
strangeness, both of the expression and of the subjects, only admits
of a paraphrastic version for large portions, unless the sense is to be
entirely obliterated. An attempt at such a translation, in conjunc-
tion with a commentary based on the principles of modern science,
has been made by the present author: " Ftinf Mo'allaqat ubersetzt
und erklart," in the Sitzungsberichte der kais. Akad. d. Wiss. in
Wien. Phtios.-hist. Classe. Bde. cxl.-cxiv. A supplement to this is
formed by an article, by Dr Bernh. Geiger, on the Mo'allaqa of
Tarafa, in the Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlands, xix.
323 sqq. See further the separate articles on the seven poets.
(Tn. N.)
MOAT, a ditch filled with water surrounding a castle, town
or other fortified place for purposes of defence. The word is
taken from the O. Fr. mote, or motte, a mound or embankment
of earth used as a means of defence; the transition in meaning
from the heap of earth to the trench left by excavating the
earth is parallel with the similar interchange of meaning in
dike and ditch (see DIKE). In mod. Fr. motte means a lump
or clod of earth. The word is probably of Teutonic origin,
and may be connected with Eng. " mud." (See FORTIFICATION
AND SlEGECRAFT.)
MOB. (i) A disorderly crowd, a rabble, also a contemptuous
name for the common people, the lower orders, the Greek oxXos,
(whence " ochlocracy," mob-rule). The word is a shortened
form of Lat. mobile (sc. vulgus), the movable or mutable
emotional, easily stirred crowd. " Mobile " in the sense of
rabble was used in the I7th century, and was still used after
the shortened form, for some time considered a vulgarism,
had become common. Thus Addison (Spectator, No. 135)
writes, " It is perhaps this humour of speaking no more than
we needs must which has so miserably curtailed some of our
words. ... I dare not answer that ' mob ' . . . ' incog.'
and the like will not in time be looked at as part of our tongue."
Roger North's Examen, vii., 574 (1740), dates the beginning
of the use of the shortened form " mob." " I may note that
the rabble first changed their title and were called the ' mob '
in the assemblies of this club. It was their beast of burden,
and called first mobile vulgus, but fell naturally into the con-
traction of one syllable, and ever since is become proper English."
The club alluded to is the Green Ribbon Club (q.v.), and the
date would be about 1680. (2) A kind of head-dress for women,
usually called a " mob cap," worn during the i8th and early
part of the igth centuries. It was a large cap covering all the
hair, with a bag-shaped crown, a broad band and frilled edge.
It seems to have been originally an article of wear for the morn-
ings. It is probably connected with words such as " mop,"
" mab," meaning untidy, neglige.
MOBERLY, GEORGE (1803-1885), English divine, was born
on the loth of October 1803, and educated at Winchester
and Balliol. After a distinguished academic career he became
head master of Winchester in 1835. This post he resigned in
1866, and retired to Brightstone Rectory, Isle of Wight. Mr.
Gladstone, however, in 1869 called him to be bishop of Salisbury,
in which see he kept up the traditions of his predecessors, Bishops
Hamilton and Denison, his chief addition being the summoning
of a diocesan synod. Though Moberly left Oxford at the begin-
ning of the Oxford movement, he fell under its influence: the
more so that at Winchester he formed a most intimate friendship
with Keble, spending several weeks every year at Otterbourne,
the next parish to Hursley. Moberly, however, retained his
independence of thought, and in 1872 he astonished his High
Church friends by joining in the movement for the disuse of
the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed. His chief
contribution to theology is his Bampton Lectures of 1868, on
The Administration of the Holy Spirit in the Body of Christ. He
died on the 6th of July 1885.
MOBERLY, ROBERT CAMPBELL (1845-1903), English
theologian, was born on the 26th of July 1845. He was the
son of George Moberly, bishop of Salisbury, and faithfully
maintained the traditions of his father's teaching. Educated
at Winchester and New College, Oxford, he was appointed
senior student of Christ Church in 1867 and tutor in 1869. In
1876 he went out with Bishop Copleston to Ceylon for six months.
After his return he became the first head of St Stephen's
House, Oxford (1876-1878), and then, after presiding for two
years over the Theological College at Salisbury, where he
acted as his father's chaplain, he accepted the college living
of Great Budworth in Cheshire in 1880, and the same year
married Alice, the daughter of his father's predecessor, Walter
Kerr Hamilton. In 1892 Lord Salisbury made him Regius
Professor of Pastoral Theology of Oxford; and after a long
period of delicate health he died at Christ Church on the 8th
of June 1903. His chief writings were: An essay inLuxMundi
on " The Incarnation as the Basis of Dogma " (1889); a paper,
Belief in a Personal God (1891); Reason and Religion (1896), a pro-
test against the limitation of the reason to the understanding;
Ministerial Priesthood (1897); and Atonement and Personality
(1901). In this last work, by which he is chiefly known, he aimed
at presenting an explanation and a vindication of the doctrine of
the Atonement by the help of the conception of personality.
Rejecting the retributive view of punishment, he describes
the sufferings of Christ as those of the perfect " Penitent," and
finds their expiatory value to lie in the Person of the Sufferer,
the God-Man.
MOBERLY, a city of Randolph county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
in the north central part of the state, about 130 m. E. by N. of
Kansas City. Pop. (1890), 8215; (1900), 8012, (923 negroes);
(1910), 10,923. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas
and the Wabash railways, and is a division headquarters of the
latter. The city is regularly laid out on a level prairie site.
There are two public parks, a Carnegie library, a commercial
college, a Y.M.C.A. building, and a hospital maintained by the
Wabash Employees Hospital Association. The most important
industrial establishments are the large machine shops (established
here in 1872) of the Wabash railway. Moberly was platted
in 1866, was incorporated as a town and became the county-
seat in 1868, and in 1873 secured a special city charter, which
it surrendered in 1889 for city status under the general
statute.
MOBILE, a city and the county-seat of Mobile county, Ala-
bama, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, at the mouth
of Mobile River, and the head of Mobile Bay. Pop. (1890),
31,076; (1900), 38,469, of whom 17,045 were negroes and 2111
foreign-born (562 German, 492 Irish, 202 English); (1910
census), 51,521. It is served by the Southern, the Louisville
& Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, the Mobile, Jackson & Kansas
City, and the Tombigbee Valley railways; by steamboat lines
to ports in Europe, Cuba, Mexico, Central America (especially
Panama) and South America; by a coastwise steamboat line
to New York ; and by river boats on a river system embracing
nearly 2000 m. of navigable waters in Alabama, Mississippi,
and Georgia. The city occupies about 17 sq. m. of a sandy
plain, which rises gradually from a low water front along the
river to a range of hills a few miles to the westward. Among
the principal buildings are the customs-house and post-office,
the court-house, the Battle House (a hotel), the United States
marine hospital, the city hospital, the Providence infirmary,
Barton Academy (a part of the public school system), a Young
Men's Christian Association building, St Joseph's church
(Roman Catholic), the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception,
the Van Antwerp office building, and the southern market and
armoury. Mobile is the see of a Roman Catholic bishopric
and the headquarters of the United States district court
for the southern district of Alabama. In the city are a public
library; the departments of medicine and pharmacy of the
university of Alabama; the academy of the Visitation, and the
6 3 6
MOBIUS
Immaculate Conception school, both for girls and both Roman
Catholic; the Convent of Mercy; the Emerson normal and
industrial school (for negroes), McGill Institute, the University
military school, and the Mobile military institute; and 5 m.
from Mobile, at Spring Hill, is Spring Hill college (Roman
Catholic, founded in 1830, chartered 1836), controlled by the
Jesuits. There is an annual celebration in Mobile on Mardi
Gras (Shrove Tuesday), conducted by the Order of Myths and
the Mystics, two social organizations, successors of the Cowbel-
lion de Rakin Society, which was organized in 1830 and long
conducted a somewhat similar celebration annually, on New
Year's Eve.
Mobile is the only seaport of Alabama. In 1826 the channel
from it to the Gulf, about 30 m. distant, had a minimum depth
of only 5^ ft. through Choctaw Pass and 8 ft. through Dog
River bar; but subsequently the channel has been greatly
improved by the United States government, and in June 1908'
vessels drawing 23 and 24 ft. could pass at low-water to the
mouth of Chickasaw Creek above the city. While the channel
was still shallow, and rapidly growing railway systems were
serving other ports, much foreign commerce was lost to Mobile,
the value of the exports falling off from $12,784,171 in 1877
to $3,258,605 in 1882, and the value of the imports, during the
same period, from $648,404 to $396,573; but after the improve-
ment of the channel the value of the exports increased from
$8,140,502 in 1897 to $26,815,279 in 1908, and the value of the
imports rose from $956,712 in 1897 to $4,242,169 in 1908.
The foreign commerce consists largely in the export of cotton,
lumber, timber, cotton-seed oil, coal, provisions and clothing,
and in the import of tropical fruits (especially bananas), sisal
grass, coffee, mahogany, asphalt, and manganese and sulphur
ores. Vegetables, particularly beans and cabbage, and small
fruits are grown extensively in the vicinity, and the city has an
important domestic trade in market-garden produce, fish and
oysters, hardware, dry goods, grain and groceries. In manu-
facturing Mobile was second (Birmingham being first) among the
cities of the state in 1905, when the value of the factory product
was $4,942,331, 41-8% more than in 1900. In 1905 it ranked
first in the state in the value of fertilizer, lumber and timber,
and in the construction of railway cars; and the manufacture
of flour and grist mill products and machinery for lumber mills
were important industries.
Founded by Pierre Lemoyne, Sieur d'Iberville (1661-1706),
and his brother Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville
(1680-1768), in 1702, Mobile 2 was the capital of the French
province of Louisiana until 1720, when the seat of government
was transferred to Biloxi, in the present Mississippi. The
original settlement was at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff, about
20 m. above the present site, to which it was removed in 1710
as a consequence of floods in 1709. By the Treaty of Paris
(1763) Mobile, as a part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi,
was ceded to Great Britain; but on the i4th of March 1780
it was captured by a Spanish force under Don Bernardo de
Galvez (1755-1786), the governor at New Orleans, and Spain
was confirmed in its possession by the treaty of 1783. Spanish
civil institutions were introduced, and new names, such as Con-
ception, St Emanuel and St Joseph, which still survive, were
given to the streets. Yet neither the English nor the Spanish
occupation made any substantial change in the tone of the place
or the habits of its people, even the negroes holding to their
French jargon. The alliance between Great Britain and Spain,
at the outbreak of the war of 1812, gave Mobile strategic import-
ance for the military operations in the south-west. Hence,
on the isth of April 1813 General James Wilkinson, acting on
President James Madison's instructions, which were based
on the claim that Mobile was a part of Louisiana sold by France
to the United States in 1803, seized Mobile for the United States.
1 Between 1826 and 1908 the Federal government expended
$5,148,179 on the improvement of the harbour. The bar channel
also has been improved.
2 The city was named from the Mobile or Maubila Indians, a
Muskhogean tribe, now extinct, who occupied the neighbouring
region and were Christianized by the French.
In August 1814 General Andrew Jackson made Mobile his
headquarters. He repaired Fort Bowyer, on Mobile Point
at the mouth of the bay, and garrisoned it just hi time for it
to resist attack by the British on the isth of September. On
the nth of February 1815, forty-two days after peace had been
declared and thirty-four days after the battle of New Orleans,
a British force captured Fort Bowyer;*but it made no move
against Mobile, and withdrew on the ist of April. Now began
the Americanization of Mobile, a tide of immigration from the
up-country setting in and rapidly changing the character of
the place, which had previously been distinctly French. A
town charter had been granted by the territorial legislature
of Mississippi on the 2oth of January 1814, and an interesting
feature under the town government was the " tariff for bakers,"
which fixed the weight of loaves of bread in accordance with
the price of flour. A city charter, dated the I7th of December
1819, was granted by the first state legislature of Alabama,
and Mobile became the commercial emporium for Alabama
and Mississippi, its cotton exports increasing from 7000 bales
in 1818 to 100,000 in 1830 and 450,000 in 1840. In 1826
Barton Academy, still one of the landmarks of the city, was
built; but it was not until 1852 that common schools were
opened in Mobile county. Branches of the United States
Bank and of the State bank were established at Mobile, and in
the panic of 1837 the Bank of Mobile was one of the few banks
in the United States that did not suspend payment. The
Mobile & Ohio railroad, begun in 1848, provided ampler com-
munication with the Mississippi valley, and Mobile's export
of cotton rose to 1,000,000 bales in 1861.
During the Civil War Mobile was an important seaport of the
Confederacy. A Federal blockade was begun as early as the 26th
of May 1861, but trade with West Indian and European ports
was continued by a line of swift vessels, which regularly escaped
the blockading squadron. On the sth of August 1864 Admiral
David G. Farragut (q.v.), with a Federal fleet of four iron moni-
tors, seven wooden sloops of war, and several gunboats, entered
the channel by passing the Confederate defences, Fort Gaines on
Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan occupying the site of old Fort
Bowyer on Mobile Point, captured the formidable Confederate
ironclad ram " Tennessee," destroyed one gunboat and drove
another aground. One of the Federal monitors, the " Tecum-
seh," was destroyed by torpedoes. The Confederate fleet was
commanded by Admiral Franklin Buchanan (1800-1874).
Fort Gaines surrendered on the 7th, and Fort Morgan on the 23rd
of the same month. In the spring of 1865 General E. R. S.
Canby (1819-1873), with a Federal force of about 45,000, laid
siege to Fort Blakely and Spanish Fort, on the east side of the
bay (opposite the city), defended by General Randall C. Gibson
(1830-1892) with 5000 men. After twenty-five days of resistance
the Confederates evacuated the fortifications and then the city,
the Federals entering on the i2th of April 1865. Losses from rail-
way enterprises and the panic of 1873 resulted in the bankruptcy
of the municipality in 1879, whereupon its charter was vacated,
its property vested in certain trustees acting under the Chancery
Court to adjust its debt, and a municipal government under the
name of Port of Mobile succeeded the city of Mobile until 1887,
when the latter was again chartered. On the 27th of September
1906 Mobile was swept by a hurricane, which destroyed property
valued at $5,000,000 or more.
See Peter J. Hamilton, Colonial Mobile (Boston, 1897); and a
chapter by the same writer in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the
Southern States (New York, 1900).
MOBIUS, AUGUST FERDINAND (1790-1868), German
astronomer and mathematician, was born at Schulpforta on the
1 7th of November 1790. At Leipzig, Gottingen and Halle he
studied for four years, ultimately devoting himself to mathe-
matics and astronomy. In 1815 he settled at Leipzig as privat-
docent, and the next year became extraordinary professor of
astronomy in connexion with the university. Later he was
chosen director of the university observatory, which was erected
(1818-1821) under his superintendence. In 1844 he was elected
ordinary professor of higher mechanics and astronomy, a position
MOCATTA MOCKING-BIRD
637
which he held till his death on the 26th of September 1868. His
doctor's dissertation, De computandis occullatlonibus fixarum per
planetas (Leipzig, 1815), established his reputation as a theoretical
astronomer. Die Haupisiitze der Astronomic (1836), Die Elemente
der Mechanik des Himmels (1843), ma y be noted amongst his
other purely astronomical publications. Of more general in-
terest, however, are his labours in pure mathematics, which
appear for the most part in Crelle's Journal from 1828 to 1858.
These papers are chiefly geometrical, many of them being develop-
ments and applications of the methods laid down in his great
work, Der barycentrische Calcul (Leipzig, 1827), which, as the
name implies, is based upon the properties of the mean point or
centre of mass (see ALGEBRA: Universal). This work abounds in
suggestions and foreshadowings of some of the most striking
discoveries in more recent times such, for example, as are
contained in H. Grassmann's Ausdehnungslehre and Sir W. R.
Hamilton's Quaternions. Mobius must be regarded as one of the
leaders in the introduction of the powerful methods of modern
projective geometry.
His Gesammelten Werke have been published in four volumes at
Leipzig (1885-1887).
MOCATTA, FREDERICK DAVID (1828-1905), English
Jewish philanthropist, was a member of the London financial
firm, Mocatta and Goldsmid, but retired from business in 1874
and devoted himself to works of public and private benevolence.
Besides this he was a patron of learning and himself an author of
historical works, the chief of which was The Jews and the Inquisi-
tion. On occasion of his 7oth birthday, he was presented with
a testimonial from more than 200 philanthropic and literary
institutions. The Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition (1887)
owed its inception to him. He bequeathed his fine library to the
Jewish Historical Society of England, of which he was at one
time president. This library formed the basis of the collections
which are now included in the Mocatta Library and Museum,
founded in his memory, and located at the University of London
(University College, Gower Street).
See Trans. Jewish Hist. Soc. Eng. vol. v. (I. A.)
MOCCASIN (a North-American Indian word, of which the
spelling and pronunciation vary in different dialects), a shoe made
of deerskin or other soft leather. It is made in one piece; the
sole is soft and flexible and the upper part is often adorned with
embroidery, beading or other ornament. It is the footwear of
the North American Indian tribes and is also worn by hunters,
traders and settlers. In botany, the lady's slipper is known
in the United States of America, as the " moccasin flower,"
from its resemblance to a shoe or moccasin. The name moccasin
is also given to a venomous snake, found as far north as North
Carolina and westward to the Rocky Mountains, and popularly
called " cottonmouth," from the white rim around the mouth.
It belongs to the family Crolalidae, species Ancistrodon (or
Cenchris) piscivorus, is about two feet long, and is often found
in marshy land. It is sometimes called the water moccasin to
distinguish it from the upland moccasin (Ancistrodon contortrix
or atrofuscus), which is commonly called " copperhead " and is
found further north in dry and mountainous regions. The
name is possibly a distinct word of which the origin has not
been traced.
MOCENI60, the name of a noble and ancient Venetian
family which gave many doges, statesmen and soldiers to the
republic. TOMMASO MOCENIGO (1343-1423) commanded the
crusading fleet in the expedition to Nicopolis in 1396, and also
won battles against the Genoese. While he was Venetian
ambassador at Cremona he was elected doge (1414), and he
escaped in secret, fearing that he might be held a prisoner by
Gabrino Fondolo, tyrant of that city. He made peace with the
Turkish sultan, but when hostilities broke out afresh his fleet
defeated that of the Turks at Gallipoli. During his reign the
patriarch of Aquileia was forced to cede his territories to the
republic (1420), which also acquired Friuli and Dalmatia.
Tommaso greatly encouraged commerce, reconstructed the ducal
palace and commenced the library. PIETRO MOCENIGO, doge
from 1474 to 1476, was one of the greatest Venetian admirals,
and revived the fortunes of his country's navy, which had fallen
very low after the defeat at Negropont in 1470. In 1472 he
captured and destroyed Smyrna; the following year he placed
Catherine Cornaro, queen of Cyprus, under Venetian protection,
and by that means the republic obtained possession of the island
in 1475. He then defeated the Turks who were besieging
Scutari, but he there contracted an illness of which he died.
GIOVANNI MOCENIGO, Pietro's brother, who was doge from 1478
to 1485, fought against Mohammed II. and Ercole I., duke of
Ferrara, from whom he recaptured Rovigo and the Polesine.
LUIGI MOCENIGO was doge from 1570 to 1577. During his reign
Venice lost the fortresses Nicosia and Famagosta in Cyprus.
He took part in the battle of Lepanto, but after the loss of Cyprus
he was forced to make peace with the Turks and to hand them
back his conquests. ANDREA MOCENIGO, who flourished in the
iSth and i6th centuries, was a senator of the republic and a
historian; he composed a work on the league of Cambrai entitled
Belli memorabilis Cameracensis adversus Venetos historiae libri vi.
(Venice, 1525). Another LUIGI MOCENIGO was doge from 1700
to 1709, and his brother SEBASTIANO from 172210 1732. ALVISE
MOCENIGO (1701-1778), who was doge from 1763 until his death,
restricted the privileges of the clergy, and in consequence
came into bitter conflict with Pope Clement XIII.
MOCHA STONE, a name applied to chalcedony with dendritic
markings, said to have been obtained originally from Mocha
in Arabia. The markings which sometimes simulate with
curious fidelity the form of miniature trees and shrubs, are
caused by the infiltration of solutions carrying iron and manga-
nese, which are deposited as thin films of oxide along the cracks
of the stone, producing black, brown or red dendrites, effectively
disposed on a ground of grey or white chalcedony. Most of the
Mocha stones of commerce are obtained from India, where they
are found among the agate-pebbles resulting from the disinte-
gration of the trap rocks of the Deccan. In recent years the
formation of dendrites has been artificially effected at the agate-
works of Oberstein, so as to imitate the true Mocha stones.
MOCK, an adjective meaning sham, feigned, spurious, falsely
imitative. As a verb it means to deride or imitate contemp-
tuously. The derivation of O. Fr. mocquer, mod. moquer; Ital.
moccare, from which the English word is adopted, is disputed.
Some authorities refer it to Ger. mucken, mucksen, to growl,
grumble, which is probably echoic in origin ; others to a supposed
Late Lat. muccare, formed from mucus mucus, in the sense of
" to wipe the nose at."
MOCKING-BIRD, or MOCK-BIRD (as W. Charleton, J. Ray and
M. Catesby called it), the popular name of birds belonging to
the American sub-family Miminae of the thrushes, Turdidae,
differing by having the tarsus scutellate in front, while the typical
thrushes have it covered by a single horny plate. Mimus poly-
glottus, the northern mocking-bird, inhabits the southern part of
the United States, being in the north only a summer visitant;
it breeds rarely in New England, is seldom found north of the
38th parallel, and migrates to the south in winter, passing that
season hi the Gulf States and Mexico. It appears to be less
numerous on the western side of the Alleghanies, though found in
suitable localities across the continent to the Pacific coast, but
seldom farther north than Virginia and southern Illinois, and it is
said to be common in Kansas. J. J. Audubon states that the
mocking-birds which are resident all the year round in Louisiana
attack their travelled brethren on the return of the latter from
the north in autumn. The names of the species, both English
and scientific, have been bestowed from its capacity of success-
fully imitating the cry of many other birds, to say nothing of
other sounds, in addition to uttering notes of its own which possess
a varied range and liquid fullness of tone that are unequalled,
according to its admirers, even by those of the nightingale (q.v.).
Plain in plumage, being greyish brown above and dull white
below, while its quills are dingy black, variegated with white,
there is little about the mocking-bird's appearance beyond its
graceful form to recommend it; but the lively gesticulations it
exhibits are very attractive, and therein its European rival in
melody is far surpassed, for the cock-bird mounts aloft in rapid
638
circling flight, and, alighting on a conspicuous perch, pours forth
his ever-changing song to the delight of all listeners; while his
actions in attendance on his mate are playfully demonstrative
and equally interest the observer. The mocking-bird is more-
over of familiar habits, haunting the neighbourhood of houses,
and is therefore a general favourite. The nest is placed with
little regard to concealment, and is not distinguished by much
care in its construction. The eggs, from three to six in number,
are of a pale bluish-green, blotched and spotted with light
yellowish-brown. They, as well as the young, are much sought
after by snakes, but the parents are often successful in repelling
these deadly enemies, and are always ready to wage war against
any intruder on their precincts, be it man, cat or hawk. Their
food is various, consisting of berries, seeds and insects.
Some twelve or fourteen other species of Mimus have been recog-
nized, mostly from South America; but M. orpheus seems to be
common to some of the Greater Antilles, and M.hilli is peculiar to
Jamaica, while the Bahamas have a local race in M. bahamensis.
The so-called mountain mocking-bird (Oreoscoptes montanus) is a
form not very distant from Mimus; but it inhabits exclusively the
plains overgrown with sage-brush (Artemisia) of the interior table-
land of North America, and is not at all imitative in its notes, so
that it is an instance of a misnomer. Of the various other genera
allied to Mimus, the best known are the thrashers (genus Harpo-
rhynchus) of which six or eight species are found in North America,
which are thrush-like and shy in their habits and do not mimic;
and the cat-bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis) , which in addition to
having an attractive song, utters clucks, whistles and mewing sounds.
The sooty-grey colour that, deepening into blackish-brown on the
crown and quills, pervades the whole of its plumage the lower tail-
coverts, which are of a deep chestnut, excepted renders it a con-
spicuous object; and though, for some reason or other, far from being
a favourite, it is always willing when undisturbed to become intimate
with men's abodes. It has a much wider range on the American
continent than the mocking-bird, and is one of the few species that
are resident in Bermuda, while on more than one occasion it is said
to have appeared in Europe.
The name mocking-bird, or more frequently mock-nightingale,
is in England occasionally given to- some of the warblers (q.v.),
especially the blackcap (Sylvia alricapilla) , and the sedge-bird
(Acrocephalus schoenobaenus) . In India and Australia the same name
is sometimes applied to other species. (A. N.)
MODEL (O. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern,
mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard), a tangible represen-
tation, whether the size be equal, or greater, or smaller, of an
object which is either in actual existence, or has to be constructed
in fact or in thought. More generally it denotes a thing, whether
actually existing or only mentally conceived of, whose properties
are to be copied. In foundries, the object of which a cast is to
be taken, whether it be for engineering or artistic purposes, is
usually first formed of some easily workable material, generally
wood. The form of this model is then reproduced in clay or
plaster, and into the mould thus obtained the molten metal is
poured. The sculptor first makes a model of the object he
wishes to chisel in some plastic material such as wax, ingenious
and complicated contrivances being employed to transfer this
wax model, true to nature, to the stone in which the final work
is to be executed. In anatomy and physiology, models are
specially employed as aids in teaching and study, and the method
of moulage or chromoplastic yields excellent impressions of
living organisms, and enables anatomical and medical prepara-
tions to be copied both in form and colour. A special method
is also in use for making plastic models of microscopic and
minute microscopic objects. That their internal nature and
structure may be more readily studied, these are divided by
numerous parallel transverse cuts, by means of a microtome,
into exceedingly thin sections. Each of these shavings is then
modelled on an enlarged scale in wax or pulp plates, which are
fixed together to form a reproduction of the object.
Models in the mathematical, physical and mechanical sciences
are of the greatest importance. Long ago philosophy perceived
Represenfa-the essence of our process of thought to lie in the
tionia fact that we attach to the various real objects
Thought. aroun j us particular physical attributes our con-
ceptsand by means of these try to represent the objects to our
minds. Such views were formerly regarded by mathematicians
and physicists as nothing more than unfertile speculations, but
MODEL
in more recent times they have been brought by J. C. Maxwell,
H. v. Helmholtz, E. Mach, H. Hertz and many others into
intimate relation with the whole body of mathematical and
physical theory. On this view our thoughts stand to things in
the same relation as models to the objects they represent. The
essence of the process is the attachment of one concept having
a definite content to each thing, but without implying complete
similarity between thing and thought; for naturally we can know
but little of the resemblance of our thoughts to the things to
which we attach them. What resemblance there is lies principally
in the nature of the connexion, the correlation being analogous to
that which obtains between thought and language, language and
writing, the notes on the stave and musical sounds, &c. Here,
of course, the symbolization of the thing is the important point,
though, where feasible, the utmost possible correspondence is
sought between the two the musical scale, for example, being
imitated by placing the notes higher or lower. When, therefore,
we endeavour to assist our conceptions of space by figures, by
the methods of descriptive geometry, and by various thread
and object models; our topography by plans, charts and globes;
and our mechanical and physical ideas by kinematic models
we are simply extending and continuing the principle by means
of which we comprehend objects in thought and represent them
in language or writing. In precisely the same way the micro-
scope or telescope forms a continuation and multiplication of
the lenses of the eye; and the notebook represents an external
expansion of the same process which the memory brings about
by purely internal means. There is also an obvious parallelism
with representation by means of models when we express longi-
tude, mileage, temperature, &c., by numbers, which should be
looked upon as arithmetical analogies. Of a kindred character
is the representation of distances by straight lines, of the course
of events in time by curves, &c. Still, neither in this case nor
in that of maps, charts, musical notes, figures, &c., can we
legitimately speak of models, for these always involve a concrete
spatial analogy in three dimensions.
So long as the volume of matter to be dealt with in science was
insignificant, the need for the employment of models was
naturally less imperative; indeed, there are self-evident advan-
tages in comprehending things without resort to complicated
models, which are difficult to make, and cannot be altered and
adapted to extremely varied conditions so readily as can the
easily adjusted symbols of thought, conception and calculation.
Yet as the facts of science increased in number, the greatest
economy of effort had to be observed in comprehending them
and in conveying them to others; and the firm establishment of
ocular demonstration was inevitable in view of its enormous
superiority over purely abstract symbolism for the rapid and
complete exhibition of complicated relations. At the present
time it is desirable, on the one hand, that the power of deducing
results from purely abstract premisses, without recourse to the
aid of tangible models, should be more and more perfected,
and on the other that purely abstract conceptions should be
helped by objective and comprehensive models in cases where
the mass of matter cannot be adequately dealt with directly.
In pure mathematics, especially geometry, models constructed
of papier-mache and plaster are chiefly employed to present to
the senses the precise form of geometrical figures, surfaces
and curves. Surfaces of the second order, repre- models la
sented by equations of the second degree between Mathematics
the rectangular co-ordinates of a point, are very andwys/es.
simple to classify, and accordingly all their possible forms
can easily be shown by a few models, which, however, become
somewhat more intricate when lines of curvature, loxodromics
and geodesic lines have to appear on their surfaces. On the
other hand, the multiplicity of surfaces of the third order is
enormous, and to convey their fundamental types it is necessary
to employ numerous models of complicated, not to say hazardous,
construction. In the case of more intricate surfaces it is
sufficient to present those singularities which exhibit variation
from the usual type of surface with synclastic or anticlastic
curvatures, such as, for example, a sharp edge or point, or
MODEL
639
an intersection of the surface with itself; the elucidation of
such singularities is of fundamental importance in modern
mathematics.
In physical science, again, models that are of unchangeable
form are largely employed. For example, the operation of the
refraction of light in crystals can be pictured if we imagine a
point in the centre of the crystal whence light is dispersed in all
directions. The aggregate of the places at which the light
arrives at any instant after it has started is called the wave-
front. This surface consists of two cups or sheets fitting closely
and exactly one inside the other. The two rays into which a
single ray is broken are always determined by the points of
contact of certain tangent-planes drawn to those sheets. With
crystals possessing two axes these wave-surfaces display peculiar
singularities in the above sense of the term, in that the inner
sheet has four protuberances, while the outer has four funnel-like
depressions, the lowest point of each depression meeting the
highest point of each protuberance. At each of these funnels
there is a tangent-plane that touches not in a single point, but in
a circle bounding the depression, so that the corresponding ray of
light is refracted, not into two rays, but into a whole cone of light
the so-called conical refraction theoretically predicted by Sir
W. R. Hamilton and experimentally detected by Humphrey
Lloyd. These conditions, which it is difficult to adequately
express in language, are self-evident so soon as the wave-surface
formed in plaster lies before our eyes. In thermodynamics,
again, similar models serve, among other purposes, for the
representation of the surfaces which exhibits the relation between
the three thermodynamic variables of a body, e.g. between its
temperature, pressure and volume. A glance at the model of such
a thermodynamic surface enables the behaviour of a particular
substance under the most varied conditions to be immediately
realized. When the ordinate intersects the surface but once a
single phase only of the body is conceivable, but where there is a
multiple intersection various phases are possible, which may be
liquid or gaseous. On the boundaries between these regions
lie the critical phases, where transition occurs from one type of
phase into the other. If for one of the elements a quantity
which occurs in calorimetry be chosen for example, entropy
information is also gained about the behaviour of the body when
heat is taken in or abstracted.
After the stationary models hitherto considered, come
the manifold forms of moving models, such as are used in
geometry, to show the origin of geometrical figures from the
motion of others e.g. the origin of surfaces from the motion
of lines. These include the thread models, in which threads are
drawn tightly between movable bars, cords, wheels, rollers, &c.
In mechanics and engineering an endless variety of working
models are employed to convey to the eye the working either of
machines as a whole, or of their component and subordinate
parts. In theoretical mechanics models are often used to
exhibit the physical laws of motion in interesting or special
cases e.g. the motion of a falling body or of a spinning-top, the
movement of a pendulum on the rotating earth, the vortical
motions of fluids, &c. Akin to these are the models which exe-
cute more or less exactly the hypothetical motions by which
it is sought to .explain various physical phenomena as, for
instance, the complicated wave-machines which present the
motion of the particles in waves of sound (now ascertained with
fair accuracy), or the more hypothetical motion of the atoms
of the aether in waves of light.
The varying importance which in recent times has been
attached to models of this kind is intimately connected with
Tfceortes o/ the changes which have taken place in our con-
Nature, ceptions of nature. The first method by which an
attempt was made to solve the problem of the universe
was entirely under the influence of Newton's laws. In ana-
logy to his laws of universal gravitation, all bodies were
conceived of as consisting of points of matter atoms or mole-
cules to which was attributed a direct action at a distance.
The circumstances of this action at a distance, however, were
conceived as differing from those of the Newtonian law of attrac-
tion, in that they could explain the properties not only of solid
elastic bodies, but also those of fluids, both liquids and gases.
The phenomena of heat were explained by the motion of minute
particles absolutely invisible to the eye, while to explain those
of light it was assumed that an impalpable medium, called
luminiferous aether, permeated the whole universe ; to this were
attributed the same properties as were possessed by solid bodies,
and it was also supposed to consist of atoms, although of a much
finer composition. To explain electric and magnetic phenomena
the assumption was made of a third species of matter electric
fluids which were conceived of as being more of the nature of
fluids, but still consisting of infinitesimal particles, also acting
directly upon one another at a distance. This first phase of
theoretical physics may be called the direct one, in that it took
as its principal object the investigation of the internal structure
of matter as it actually exists. It is also known as the mechani-
cal theory of nature, in that it seeks to trace back all natural
phenomena to motions of infinitesimal particles, i.e. to purely
mechanical phenomena. In explaining magnetic and electrical
phenomena it inevitably fell into somewhat artificial and
improbable hypotheses, and this induced J. Clerk Maxwell,
adopting the ideas of Michael Faraday, to propound a theory
of electric and magnetic phenomena which was not only new in
substance, but also essentially different in form. If the mole-
cules and atoms of the old theory were not to be conceived of as
exact mathematical points in the abstract sense, then their true
nature and form must be regarded as absolutely unknown, and
their groupings and motions, required by theory, looked upon as
simply a process having more or less resemblance to the workings
of nature, and representing more or less exactly certain aspects
incidental to them. With this in mind, Maxwell propounded
certain physical theories which were purely mechanical so far
as they proceeded from a conception of purely mechanical pro-
cesses. But he explicitly stated that he did not believe in the
existence in nature of mechanical agents so constituted, and that
he regarded them merely as means by which phenomena could
be reproduced, bearing a certain similarity to those actually
existing, and which also served to include larger groups of
phenomena in a uniform manner and to determine the relations
that held in their case. The question no longer being one of
ascertaining the actual internal structure of matter, many
mechanical analogies or dynamical illustrations became avail-
able, possessing different advantages; and as a matter of fact
Maxwell at first employed special and intricate mechanical
arrangements, though later these became more general and
indefinite. This theory, which is called that of mechanical
analogies, leads to the construction of numerous mechanical
models. Maxwell himself and his followers devised many kine-
matic models, designed to afford a representation of the mechani-
cal construction of the ether as a whole as well as of the separate
mechanisms at work in it: these resemble the old wave-machines,
so far as they represent the movements of a purely hypothetical
mechanism. But while it was formerly believed that it was
allowable to assume with a great show of probability the actual
existence of such mechanisms in nature, yet nowadays philo-
sophers postulate no more than a partial resemblance between
the phenomena visible in such mechanisms and those which
appear in nature. Here again it is perfectly clear that these
models of wood, metal and cardboard are really a continuation
and integration of our process of thought; for, according to the
view in question, physical theory is merely a mental construction
of mechanical models, the working of which we make plain to
ourselves by the analogy of mechanisms we hold in our hands,
and which have so much in common with natural phenomena as
to help our comprehension of the latter.
Although Maxwell gave up the idea of making a precise
investigation into the final structure of matter as it actually is,
yet in Germany his work, under G. R. Kirchhoff's lead, was
carried still further. Kirchhoff defined his own aim as being
to describe, not to explain, the world of phenomena; but as he
leaves the means of description open his theory differs little
from Maxwell's, so soon as recourse is had to description by
640
MODELS, ARTISTS' MODEL- YACHTING
means of mechanical models and analogies. Now the resources
of pure mathematics being particularly suited for the exact
description of relations of quantity, Kirchhoff's school laid great
stress on description by mathematical expressions and formulae,
and the aim of physical theory came to be regarded as mainly
the construction of formulae by which phenomena in the various
branches of physics should be determined with the greatest
approximation to the reality. This view of the nature of
physical theory is known as mathematical phenomenology;
it is a presentation of phenomena by analogies, though only
by such as may be called mathematical.
Another phenomenology in the widest sense of the term,
maintained especially by E. Mach, gives less prominence to
mathematics, but considers the view that the phenomena of
motion are essentially more fundamental than all the others to
have been too hastily taken. It rather emphasizes the prime
importance of description in the most general terms of the various
spheres of phenomena, and holds that in each sphere its own
fundamental law and the notions derived from this must be
employed. Analogies and elucidations of one sphere by another
e.g. heat, electricity, &c. by mechanical conceptions, this
theory regards as mere ephemeral aids to perception, which are
necessitated by historical development, but which in course
of time either give place to others or entirely vanish from the
' domain of science.
All these theories are opposed by one called energetics (in
the narrower sense), which looks upon the conception of energy,
not that of matter, as the fundamental notion of all scientific
investigation. It is in the main based on the similarities energy
displays in its various spheres of action, but at the same time it
takes its stand upon an interpretation or explanation of natural
phenomena by analogies which, however, are not mechanical,
but deal with the behaviour of energy in its various modes of
manifestation.
A distinction must be observed between the models which
have been described and those experimental models which pre-
Experi- setlt on a small scale a machine that is subsequently
mental to be completed on a larger, so as to afford a trial of
Models. j(- s capabilities. Here it must be noted that a mere
alteration in dimensions is often sufficient to cause a material
alteration in the action, since the various capabilities depend in
various ways on the linear dimensions. Thus the weight varies
as the cube of the linear dimensions, the surface of any single
part and the phenomena that depend on such surfaces are pro-
portionate to the square, while other effects such as friction,
expansion and conduction of heat, &c., vary according to other
laws. Hence a flying-machine, which when made on a small
scale is able to support its own weight, loses its power when its
dimensions are increased. The theory, initiated by Sir Isaac
Newton, of the dependence of various effects on the linear dimen-
sions, is treated in the article UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF. Under
simple conditions it may often be affirmed that in comparison
with a large machine a small one has the same capacity, with
reference to a standard of time which must be diminished in
a certain ratio.
Of course experimental models are not only those in which
purely mechanical forces are employed, but also include models
of thermal, electro-magnetic and other engines e.g. dynamos
and telegraphic machines. The largest collection of such models
is to be found in the museum of the Washington Patent Office.
Sometimes, again, other than purely mechanical forces are at
work in models for purposes of investigation and instruction.
It often happens that a series of natural processes such as
motion in liquids, internal friction of gases, and the conduction
of heat and electricity in metals may be expressed by the same
differential equations; and it is frequently possible to follow by
means of measurements one of the processes in question e.g. the
conduction of electricity just mentioned. If then there be
shown in a model a particular case of electrical conduction in
which the same conditions at the boundary hold as in a problem
of the internal friction of gases, we are able by measuring the
electrical conduction in the model to determine at once the
numerical data which obtain for the analogous case of internal
friction, and which could only be ascertained otherwise by intri-
cate calculations. Intricate calculations, moreover, can very
often be dispensed with by the aid of mechanical devices, such
as the ingenious calculating machines which perform additions
and subtractions and very elaborate multiplications and divi-
sions with surprising speed and accuracy, or apparatus for
solving the higher equations, for determining the volume or
area of geometrical figures, for carrying out integrations, and
for developing a function in a Fourier's series by mechanical
means. (L. Bo.)
MODELS, ARTISTS', the name given to persons who pose
to artists as models for their work. The Greeks, who had
the naked body constantly before them in the exercises of the
gymnasium, had far less need of professional models than the
moderns; but it is scarcely likely that they could have attained
to the high level reached by their works without constant study
from nature; and the story told of Zeuxis by Valerius Maximus,
who had five of the most beautiful virgins of the city of Crotona
offered him as models for his picture of Helen, proves their
occasional use. The remark of Eupompus, quoted by Pliny,
who advised Lysippus, " Let nature be your model, not an artist,"
directing his attention to the crowd instead of to his own work,
also suggests a use of models which the many portrait statues
of Greek and Roman times show to have been not unknown. In
Egypt, too, although the priesthood had control of both sculpture
and painting as used for the decoration of temples and palaces,
and imposed a strict conventionalism, there are several statues
of the early periods which are so lifelike in their treatment as to
make it certain that they must have been worked from life.
At the period of the Renaissance, painters generally made use
of their relations and friends as models, of which many examples
might be quoted from Venice, Florence, Rome and other places,
and the stories of Titian and the duchess of Ferrara, and Botti-
celli and Simonetta Vespucci, go to show that ladies of exalted
rank were sometimes not averse from having their charms
immortalized by the painter's brush. But paid models were
not unknown, as the story of the unfortunate contadino used by
Sansovino as model for his statue of the little Bacchus will show.
Artists' models as a special class appear when the establishment
of schools for the study of the human figure created a regular
demand, and since that time the remuneration offered has
ensured a continual supply. The prices and the hours of work
vary in different art centres. In England seven shillings is
generally paid for a day of six hours, but models of exceptional
beauty or talent frequently obtain more from successful artists
or wealthy amateurs.
MODEL-YACHTING, the pastime of building and racing
model-yachts. It has always been customary for ship-builders
to make a miniature model of the vessel under construction,
which is in every respect a copy of the original on a small scale,
whether steam-ship or sailing-vessel (there is a fine collection
in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London). Many of these
models are of exquisite workmanship, every rope, pulley or
portion of the engine being faithfully reproduced. In the case of
sailing yachts these models were often pitted against each other
on small bodies of water, and hence arose the modern pastime.
It was soon seen that elaborate fittings and complicated
rigging were a detriment to rapid handling, and that, on account
of the comparatively stronger winds in which models were sailed,
they needed a greater draught. For these reasons modern
model yachts, which usually have fin-keels, are of about 15%
or 20% deeper draught than full-sized vessels, while rigging and
fittings have been reduced to absolute simplicity. This applies
to models built for racing and not to elaborate copies of steamers
and ships, made only for show or for " toy cruising."
Model-yacht clubs have existed for many years in Great
Britain, Ireland and the United States, most of them holding a
number of regattas during each season. The rules do not
generally require the owner or skipper of a model to build his
own craft, but among model-yachtsmen the designing and the
construction of the boats constitute as important and interesting
MODENA
641
a part of the sport as the actual sailing. Models are constructed
of some light, seasoned wood such as pine (preferably white),
white cedar or mahogany free from knots. The hull may
ei her be hollowed out of a solid block of wood, or cut from layers
of planks in the so-called " bread-and-butter " style, or planked
over a frame of keel and cross-sections. The first two methods
are used in constructing " dug-out " models. Hollowing out
from the solid block entails a great deal of labour and has there-
fore fallen into disfavour. In the " bread-and-butter " style a
number of planks, which have been shaped to the horizontal
sections of the model and from which the middle has been
sawn out, are glued together and then cut down to the exact
lines of the design, templates being used to test the precision of
the curves. In the planked, or " built-up " model, which is
generally chosen by more expert builders, the planks are tacked
to the frame, as in the construction of large vessels. Models
now are generally exaggerated cutters, so far as their under-
bodies are concerned, or, more often, are fitted with fin-keels
weighted with lead, after the manner of full-sized yachts.
They may have any rig, but schooner and sloop rigs are most
common, the latter being the favourite for racing on account of
its simplicity. Two kinds of steering-gear are used, the weighted
swinging rudder and the " main-sheet balance gear," the object
of both being to keep the model on a true course, either before
or against the wind. Models are often sailed without rudders,
but though a perfectly built boat will sail readily against the
wind without steering-gear, it is almost impossible to keep it
on its course before the wind without some contrivance to check
divergence. This is accomplished by the weighted rudder,
which falls over when the vessel heels and tends to counteract
the force of the breeze. There are two varieties of the weighted
rudder, in the first of which the weight, usually lead, is fixed to
the edge of the rudder, while in the second the weight, usually
a ball of lead, is made to run on the tiller above the deck, so
that it can be placed further forward or aft, according to the
force needed to overcome the influence of the wind. While the
weighted rudder is almost universal in the British Isles, the chief
model-yachtsmen in America use the " main-sheet balance
gear," in which the boom is connected with the tiller in such a
manner that, when it swings out with a pressure of wind, the
rudder is automatically pulled round sufficiently to keep the
yacht in its course. This apparatus is particularly efficient in
sailing before the wind.
Model-yacht regattas are very different from the toy-boat
matches indulged in by children from one side of a pond to the
other. They take place upon sufficiently large bodies of water
to allow a course at least a quarter of a mile in length, which is
generally sailed twice or three times over to windward and back-
ward. Triangular courses are also sailed. Racing rules corre-
spond generally to those controlling regattas of large boats,
and there is full scope to exhibit all the proofs of good seaman-
ship. The yachts are followed in light skiffs, and may not be
touched more than a certain number of times during a race,
on penalty of a handicap. Racing measurements differ in the
various clubs, but all are based upon length and sail-area. In
Great Britain the regular Yacht Racing Association rule has
been generally adopted, and handicaps deducted from it. In
America models are divided into a single schooner with a maxi-
mum load water-line of 63 in., and three classes of sloops, the first
class including yachts with water-lines between 48 and 53 in.,
the second class those between 42 and 48 in. and the third and
smallest class those between 35 and 42 in. A yacht with a
shorter water-line than 35 in. must race in the third class. It has
been found that yachts bf smaller dimensions possess too little
resistance to the wind.
See Model Sailing Yachts, in Marshall's Practical Manuals series,
1905 ; and How to Build a Model Yacht, by Herbert Fisher (New
York, 1902).
MODENA (ancient Mutina), one of the principal cities of
Emilia, Italy, the chief town of the province of Modena and the
seat of an archbishop*, 31 m. E.S.E. of Parma by rail. Pop.
(1906), 26,847 (town); 66,762 (commune). It is situated in a
xvra. 21
damp, low plain in the open country in the south side of the valley
of the Po, between the Secchia to the west and the Panaro to the
east. Some of its main streets (as their names indicate) follow
the lines of canals, which still (though now covered) traverse
the city in various directions. The observatory stands 135 ft.
above the level of the sea. Dismantled since 1816, and now
largely converted into promenades, the fortifications give the
city an irregular pentagonal contour, modified at the north-west
corner by the addition of a citadel also pentagonal Within this
circuit there are various open areas the spacious Ippodromo
in front of the citadel, the public gardens in the north-east of
the city, the Piazza Grande in front of the cathedral, and the
Piazza Reale to the south of the palace. The Via Aemilia
passes obliquely right through the heart of the city, from the
Bologna Gate in the east to that of Sant' Agostino in the west.
Begun by the Countess Matilda of Tuscany in 1099, after the
designs of Lanfranc, and consecrated in i r84, the Romanesque
cathedral (S Geminiano) is a low but handsome building, with
a lofty crypt, under the choir (characteristic of the Tuscan
Romanesque architecture), three eastern apses, and a facade
still preserving some curious sculptures of the I2th century.
The interior was restored in 1897. The graceful bell-tower,
erected in 1224-1319, named La Ghirlandina from the bronze
garland surrounding the weathercock, is 335 ft. high; in the base-
ment may be seen the wooden bucket captured by the Modenese
from the Bolognese in the affray at Zappolino (1325), and
rendered famous by Tassoni's Secchia Rapita. Of the other
churches in Modena, the church of S Giovanni Decollate
contains a Pieta in painted terra-cotta by Guide Mazzoni
(1450-1518). The so-called Pantheon Estense (the church
of S. Agostino, containing works of sculpture in honour of
the house of Este) is a baroque building by Bibbiena;
it also contains the tombs of Sigonio and Muratori. San
Pietro and San Francesco have terra-cottas by Begarelli
(1498-1565). The old ducal palace, begun by Duke Francis I.
in 1635 from the designs of Avanzini, and finished by Francis
Ferdinand V., is an extensive building with a fine courtyard,
and now contains the military school and the observatory.
The Albergo d' Arti, built by Duke Francis III,, accommodates
the civic collections, comprising the Museo Lapidario (Roman
inscriptions, &c.); the valuable archives, the Biblioteca Estense,
with 90,000 volumes and 3000 MSS.; the Museo Civico, with large
and good palaeo-ethnological and archaeological collections; a
fine collection of textile fabrics, and the picture gallery, a good
representative collection presented to the city by Francis V.
and since augmented by the addition of the collection of the
Marchese Campori. Many of the best pictures in the ducal
collection were sold in the i8th century and found their way to
Dresden. The town hall is a noteworthy building, with arcades
dating from 1194, but in part rebuilt in 1826. The university
of Modena, originally founded in 1683 by Francis II., is mainly
a medical and legal school, but has also a faculty of physical and
mathematical science. The old academy of the Dissonanti,
dating from 1684, was restored in 1814, and now forms the
flourishing Royal Academy of Science and Art. In industrial
enterprise silk and linen goods and iron wares are almost the only
products of any note. Commerce is chiefly agricultural and is
stimulated by a good position in the railway system, and by a
canal which opens a water-way by the Panaro and the Po to the
Adriatic. Modena is the point at which the railway to Mantua
and Verona diverges from that between Milan and Bologna, and
has several steam tramways to neighbouring places. It is also
the starting-point of a once important road over the Apennines
to Pistoia by the Abetone Pass.
Modena is the ancient Mutina in the territory of the Boii,
which came into the possession of the Romans probably in the
war of 215-212 B.C. In 183 B.C. Mutina became the seat of a
Roman colony. The Roman town lay immediately to the south-
east of the modern; its north-western wall is marked by the
modern Corso Umberto I. (formerly Canal Grande) It appears
to have been a place of importance under the empire, but none
of its buildings is now to be seen. The Roman level, indeed,
642
MODERATOR MODJESKA
is some 15 to 20 ft. below the modern town. Its vineyards and
potteries are mentioned by Pliny, the latter doing a considerable
export trade. Its territory was coterminous with that of
Bononia and Regium, as its diocese is now, and to the south it
seems to have extended to the summit of the Apennines. During
the civil wars Marcus Brutus, the lieutenant of Lepidus, held
out within its walls against Pompeius in 78 B.C., and in 44 B.C.
the place was successfully defended by D. Brutus against Mark
Antony for four months. The 4th century found Mutina in a
state of decay; the ravages of Attila and the troubles of the
Lombard period left it a ruined city in a wasted land. In the
7th century, perhaps owing to a terrible inundation, 1 its exiles
founded, at a distance of 4 m. to the north-west, a new city,
Citta Geminiana (still represented by the village of Cittanova) ;
but about the close of the 9th century Modena was restored and
refortified by its bishop, Ludovicus. When it began to build its
cathedral (A.D. 1099) the city was part of the possessions of the
Countess Matilda of Tuscany; but when, in 1184, the edifice was
consecrated by Lucius III., it was a free community. In the
wars between Frederick II. and Gregory IX. it sided with the
emperor, though ultimately the papal party was strong enough
to introduce confusion into its policy. In 1288 Obizzo d'Este
was recognized as lord of the city; after the death of his successor,
Azzo VIII. (1308), it resumed its communal independence; but
by 1336 the Este family was again in power. Constituted a
duchy in 1452 in favour of Borso d'Este, and enlarged and
strengthened by Hercules II., it became the ducal residence on
the incorporation of Ferrara with the States of the Church (1598).
Francis I. (1620-1658) erected the citadel and commenced the
palace, which was largely embellished by Francis II. Rinaldo
(ob. 1737) was twice driven from his city by French invasion.
To Francis III. (1698-1780) the city was indebted for many of
its public buildings. Hercules III. (1727-1803) saw his states
transformed by the French into the Cispadine Republic, and,
having refused the principality of Breisgau and Ortenau, offered
him in compensation by the treaty of Campo Formic, died an
exile at Treviso. His only daughter, Maria Beatrice, married
Ferdinand of Austria (son of Maria Theresa), and in 1814 their
eldest son, Francis, received back the Stall Estensi. His rule
was subservient to Austria, reactionary and despotic. On the
outbreak of the French Revolution of 1830, Francis IV. seemed
for a time disposed to encourage the corresponding movement
in Modena; but no sooner had the Austrian army put an end
to the insurrection in Central Italy than he returned to his
previous policy. Francis Ferdinand V., who succeeded in 1846,
followed in the main his father's example. Obliged to leave
the city in 1848, he was restored by the Austrians in 1849; ten
years later, on the zoth of August 1859, the representatives of
Modena declared their territory part of the kingdom of Italy,
and their decision was confirmed by the plebiscite of 1860.
See Vedriani. Storia di Modena (1666); Tiraboschi, Mem. storiche
modenesi (1793); Scharfenberg, Gesch. des Herzogth. Modena (1859);
Oreste Raggi, Modena descritta (1860); Baraldi, Storia di Modena;
Valdrighi, Diz. Siorico, &c., delle contrade di Modena (1798-1880);
Crespellani, Guida di Modena (1879); Cavedoni, Dichiarazione degli
antici marmi Modenesi (1828).
MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit),
a judge or umpire, one who acts the part of mediator, and so
a term used of the person chosen to be president of a meeting
(as in America, of a town meeting). In academic use, the word
was formerly applied to the public officer who presided over the
exercises, &c., prescribed for candidates for degrees in the univer-
sity schools; it is now used at Cambridge of one or two officers
who are appointed each year to preside over the examination for
the mathematical tripos, at Oxford of an examiner in the first
public examination, known as " moderations," and at Dublin
of a candidate for honours in the examination for degree of
Bachelor of Arts. In the Presbyterian churches the name is
applied to the minister elected to preside over ecclesiastical
meetings or assemblies, as the synod, presbytery or general
_ 'Some authorities (of whom Tiraboschi was the first) attribute
ts desertion entirely to a succession of inundations, denying that it
was even among the cities destroyed by Attila.
assembly (see PRESBYTERIANISM). The name was historically
given to a party of people who joined together to oppose the
" Regulators," another party who professed to administer jus-
tice in the Carolinas (1767-1771). Technically, the word is also
used of a particular form of lamp, in which the flow of oil
from the reservoir to the burner is regulated by a mechanical
arrangement to which the name is applied.
MODERATUS OF GADES, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-
Pythagorean school, contemporary with Apollonius of Tyana.
He wrote a great work on the doctrines of the Pythagoreans,
and tried to show that the successors of Pythagoras had made no
additions to the views of their founder, but had merely borrowed
and altered the phraseology. He has been given a fictitious
importance by recent commentators, who have regarded him
as the forerunner of the Alexandrian School of philosophy.
Zeller has shown that the authority on which this view is based
is entirely unsound. Moderatus is thus left as an unimportant
though interesting representative of a type of thought which
had almost disappeared since the 5th century B.C.
Stobaeus, Eclogue, p. 3, preserves a fragment of his writings.
MODESTINUS, HERENNIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist, who
flourished about 250 B.C. He appears to have been a native
of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dalmatia,
and was a pupil of Ulpian. In Valentinian's Law of Citations
he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gaius and Ulpian. He is
mentioned in a rescript of Gordian in the year 240 B.C. in
connexion with a responsum which he gave to the party to whom
the rescript was addressed. No fewer than 345 passages in
the Digest are taken from his writings.
MODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 57 m.
W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail and 33 m. direct. Pop. (1901),
48,962. It lies on a hill between two valleys; the hill, crowned
by the church of S. Giorgio, reconstructed in the I7th century,
was the site of the Sicel town of Motyca, while the modern part
of the town extends along the river Mauro, an inundation of
which did much damage in September 1902. Remains of mega-
lithic buildings, apparently, however, houses of the Byzantine
period, are described in Notizie degli Scam, 1896, 242 seq. Six
miles to the south-east is the valley known as the Cava d'Ispica,
with hundreds of grottoes cut in its rocky sides; of these only a
few are Sicel tombs, the majority being catacombs or open
tombs of the early Christian and Byzantine periods, or even
cave-dwellings of the latter age.
See P. Orsi in Notizie degli Scavi (1905), 431.
MODILLION (a French word, probably from Lat. modulus,
a measure of proportion), a term in architecture for the enriched
block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and
above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably
so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances.
MODJESKA, HELENA (1844-1909), Polish actress, was born
at Cracow on the i2th of October 1844. Her father, Michael
Opido. was a musician, and her tastes soon declared themselves
strongly in favour of a dramatic career; but it was not until after
her marriage in 1861 that she first attempted to act, and then it
was with a company of strolling players. Her husband (whose
name, Modrzejewski, she simplified for stage purposes) died in
1865. In 1868 she married Count Bozenta Chlapowski, a Polish
politician and critic, and almost immediately afterwards received
an invitation to act at Warsaw. There she remained for seven
or eight years, and won a high position in her art. Her chief
tragic r61es were Ophelia, Juliet, Desdemona, Queen Anne in
Richard III., Louisa Miller, Maria Stuart, Schiller's Princess
Eboli, Marion Delorme, Victor Hugo's Tisbe and Slowacki's
Mazeppa. In comedy her favourite r61es were Beatrice in
Much Ado About Nothing, and Donna Diana in the Polish trans-
lation of an old Spanish play of that name. Madame Modjeska
was also the Polish interpretress of the most prominent plays of
Legouvfi, Dumas, father and son, Augier, Alfred de Musset,
Octave Feuillet and Sardou. In 1876 she went with her husband
to California, where they settled on a ranch. This new career,
however, proved a failure, and Madame Modjeska returned to
MODLING MOESIA
643
the stage. She appeared in San Francisco in 1877, in an English
version of Adrienne Lecouvreur, and, in spite of her imperfect
command of the language, achieved a remarkable success. She
continued to act principally in America, but was also seen from
time to time in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom,
her repertory including several Shakespearian r61es and a variety
of emotional parts in modern drama. She died on the gth of
April 1909 at her home near Los Angeles, California.
See Mabel Collins, The Story of Helena Modjeska (London, 1 883) , and
the (autobiographical) Memories and Impressions (New York, 1910).
MODLING, an old town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 10 m. S.
of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,304. It is situated at the
entrance of the Briihl valley and is a "popular summer resort,
possessing iron and sulphur baths. It possesses a Gothic church,
with a crypt dating from the isth century, and a still older
Romanesque burial chapel. It has a considerable iron and
metal industry, and manufactures of shoes, varnish, &c.
MODOC (i.e. " southerners "), a tribe of North American
Indians of the Lutuamian stock, who formerly lived around Lower
Klamath Lake, south-western Oregon. They were always an
aggressive people, and constantly at war with their neighbours.
They are known mainly from their stubborn resistance to the
United States government in 1872 and 1873. This is called
the Modoc War, and was caused by an attempt to place them
on a reservation. After some preliminary fighting the Modocs
retreated to the " Lava Beds," a basaltic region, seamed and
crevassed, and rich in caves. Here they made a stand for several
months. During the war two members of a peace commission
were treacherously massacred by them while under a flag of
truce. On their final submission the leaders were hanged and
part of the tribe was removed to Indian Territory (now
Oklahoma), and the others weie sent back to a reservation on
the Klamath.
MODULE (Lat. modulus, a measure), in architecture, the semi-
diameter of the column at its base; the term was first set forth
by Vitruvius (iv. 3), and was generally employed by the archi-
tects of the Italian revival to determine the relative proportions
of the various parts of a columnar ordinance. The module was
divided by the revivalists into thirty parts, called minutes,
allowing of much greater accuracy than was thought necessary
by Vitruvius, whose subdivision was usually six parts. The
tendency now is to adopt the whole diameter instead of the
semi-diameter when determining the height of the column or
entablature or any of their subdivisions. The term module is
also applied in hydraulics (q.v.) to a contrivance for regulating
the supply of water from an irrigation channel.
MOERIS, AELIUS, Greek grammarian, surnamed Atticista
(" the Atticist "), probably flourished in the 2nd century A.D.
He was the author of an extant (more or less alphabetical) list
of Attic forms and expressions ('KrTiKal Xeets), accompanied
by the Hellenistic parallels of his own time, the differences of
gender, accent and meaning being clearly and succinctly pointed
out.
Editions by J. Hudson (1711); J. Pierson (1759); A. Koch (1830);
I. Bekker (1833); with Harpocration.
MOERIS, LAKE OF, the lake which formerly filled the deep
depression of the Fayum to the Nile level, now shrunken and
sunk more than 200 'ft. to the shallow Birket el Kerun. In remote
prehistoric times the Fayum depression was probably dry, but
with the gradual rise of the river bed the high Nile reached a
level at which it could enter through the natural or artificial
channel now known as the Bahr Yusuf. The borders of the lake
were occupied by a neolithic people, and the town of Crocodilo-
polis grew up very early on the eastern slope south of the channel,
where the higher ground formed a ridge in the lake. The rise
continuing (at the rate of about 4 in. to the century) the waters
threatened to flood the town; consequently under the Xllth
Dynasty great embankments were made to save the settled land
from encroachment. The line of the embankment is still trace-
able in places and marked by monuments of the Xllth Dynasty
kings, an obelisk of Senwosri I. at Ebgig, and colossi of
Amenemhe' III. at Biahmu. The latter ornamented the quay
of the port of Crocodildpolis, and projected into the lake on high
bases. As the Nile fell the broad expanse of the lake lowered,
and the water pouring back through the channel was of value for
summer irrigation; the inflow and outflow were regulated by
sluices, and the capture of fish here and in the Jake was enormous.
The channel which was of such importance was called the " Great
Channel," Mewer, in Greek Moeris. The native name of the lake
was Shei, " the lake," later Pi6m, " the sea " (whence Fayum);
Teshei, " the land of the lake," was the early name of the region.
At its capital Crccodilopolis and elsewhere the crocodile god
Sobk (Suchus) was worshipped. Senwosri II. of the Xllth
Dynasty built his pyramid at Illahun at the outer end of the
channel, Amenemhe III. built his near the inner end at Hawara,
and the vast labyrinth attached to it was probably his funerary
temple. This king was afterwards worshipped in more than
one locality about the lake under the name Marres (his praeno-
men Nemare) or Peremarres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres. The mud
poured in at high Nile made rich deposits on the eastern slope;
in the reign of Philadelphus large reclamations of land were
made, veterans from the Syrian War were settled in the " Lake "
(Ai/.ij'ij), and the latter quickly became a populous and very
fertile province. Strabo's account of the Lake of Moeris must
be copied from earlier writers, for in his day the outflow had
been stopped probably for two centuries, and the old bed of the
lake was dotted with flourishing villages to a great depth below
the level of the Nile. Large numbers of papyri of the Ptolemaic
and Roman periods have been found in and about the Fayum,
which continued to flourish through the first two centuries of the
Roman rule.
See W. M. F. Petrie, Hawara Biahmu and Arsinoe (London, 1889) ;
R. H. Brown, The Fayum and Lake Moeris (London, 18921; B. P.
Grenfell, A. S. Hunt and D. G. Hogarth, Fayum Towns and their
Papyri (London, 1900); H. J C. Beadnell, The Topography and
Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt (Cairo, 1905). (F. LL. G.)
MOESIA (Gr. Mutrio and Muoia 17 iv Eftpawj, to distinguish it
from Mysia in Asia), in ancient geography, a district inhabited
by a Thracian people, bounded on the S. by the mountain ranges
of Haemus and Scardus (Scordus, Scodrus), on the W. by the
Drinus, on the N. by the Danube and on the E. by the Euxine.
It thus corresponded in the main to the modern Servia and Bul-
garia. In 75 B.C., C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia,
penetrated as far as the Danube, and gained a victory over the
inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Licinius Crassus,
grandson of the triumvir and also proconsul of Macedonia,
during the reign of Augustus c. 29 B.C. (see Mommsen,
Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., i. 12-14). The
country, however, was not organized as a province until the last
years of the reign; in A.D. 6 mention is made of its governor,
Caecina Severus (Dio Cassius Iv. 29). The statement of Appian
(Illyrica, 30) that it did not become a Roman province until the
time of Tiberius, is therefore incorrect. Originally one province,
under an imperial consular legate (who probably also had control
of Achaea and Macedonia), it was divided by Domitian into
Upper (superior) and Lower (inferior, also called Ripa, Thracia)
Moesia, the western and eastern portions respectively, divided
from each other by the river Cebrus (Ciabrus; mod. Cibritza or
Zibru). Some, however, place the boundary further west. Each
was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator.
As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations
and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube,
and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection
against Scythian and Sarmatian inroads. After the abandon-
ment of Dacia (q.v.) to the barbarians by Aurelian (270-275)
and the transference of its inhabitants to the south of the Danube,
the central portion of Moesia took the name of Dacia Aureliani
(again divided into Dacia ripensis and interior). The district
called Dardania (in Upper Moesia), inhabited by the Illyrian
Dardani, was formed into a special province by Diocletian with
capital Naissus (Nissa or Nish), the birthplace of Constantine
the Great. The Goths, who had already invaded Moesia in
250, hard pressed by the Huns, again crossed the Danube during
the reign of Valens (376), and with his permission settled in
644
MOFADDALIYAT
Moesia. But quarrels soon took place, and the Goths under
Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople
(378). These Goths are known as Moeso-Goths, for whom
Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible. In the 7th
century Slavs and Bulgarians entered the country and founded
the modern kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria. The chief towns
of Upper Moesia were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacium
(sometimes called municipium Aelium; Kostolatz), Bononia
(Widdin), Ratiaria (Artcher): of Lower Moesia; Oescus (colonia
Ulpia, Gigen), Novae (near Sistova, the chief seat of Theodoric),
Nicopolis ad Istrum (Nikup), really on the latrus or Yantra,
Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Kustendje), to which the poet Ovid was
banished. The last two were Greek towns, which, with Istros,
Mesambria and Apollonia, formed a pentapolis.
See Orosius v. 23, 20; Livy, Epit. 92, 134, 135; Dio Cassius H.
25-27 ; E. R. Rosier, Romanische Studien (Leipzig, 1871) ; T. Momm-
sen, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, iii. 141, 263; J. Marquardt,
Romische Staatsverwaltune (1881), i. 301; H. Kiepert, Lehrbuch der
alien Geographic (1878), 298, 299; article in Smith's Dictionary
oj Greek and Roman Geography (1873). 0- H. F.)
MOFADDALlYAT, strictly MUFADDALIYAT, an anthology of
ancient Arabic poems, which derives its name from al-Mufaddal,
son of Muhammad, son of Ya'la, a member of the tribe of Dabba,
who compiled it some time between A.D. 762 and 784 in the
latter of which years he died. Al-Mufaddal was a contempo-
rary of Hammad ar-Rawiya and Khalaf al-Ahmar, the famous
collectors of ancient Arab poetry and tradition, and was some-
what the junior of Abu 'Amr ibn al-'Ala, the first scholar who
systematically set himself to preserve the poetic literature of
the Arabs. He died about fifty years before Abu 'Ubaida and
al-Asma'I, to whose labours posterity is largely indebted for the
arrangement, elucidation and criticism of ancient Arabian verse;
and his anthology was put together between fifty and sixty years
before the compilation by Abu Tammam of the Jfamasa (q.v.).
Al-Mufaddal was a careful and trustworthy collector both
of texts and traditions, and is praised by all authorities on
Arabian history and literature as in this respect greatly the
superior of Hammad and Khalaf, who are accused (especially
the latter) of unscrupulous fabrication of poems in the style of the
ancients. He was a native of Kufa, the northernmost of the two
great military colonies founded in 638 by the caliph 'Omar for
the control of the wide Mesopotamian plain. In Kufa and Basra
were gathered representatives of all the Arabian tribes who
formed the fighting force of the Islamic Empire, and from these
al-Mufaddal was able to collect and record the compositions of
the poets who had celebrated the fortunes and exploits of their
forefathers. He, no doubt, like al-Asma'I and Abu 'Ubaida, also
himself visited the areas occupied by the tribes for their camping
grounds in the neighbouring desert; and adjacent to Kufa was
al-Hlra, the ancient capital of the Lakhmid kings, whose court
was the most celebrated centre in pre-Islamic Arabia, where,
in the century before the preaching of the Prophet, poets from
the whole of the northern half of the peninsula were wont to
assemble. There is indeed a tradition that a written collection
(diwdn) existed in the family of an-Nu'man, the last Lakhmid
king, containing a number of poems by the Fuhiil, or most
eminent poets of the pagan time, and especially by those who
had praised the princes of the house, and that this collection
passed into the possession of the Omayyad caliphs of the house
of Marwan; to this, if the tradition is to be believed, al-Mufaddal
probably had access.
The date of al-Mufaddal 's birth is unknown; but he lived for
many years under the caliphs of the Omayyad line until their
overthrow by the 'Abbasids in 749. In 762 he took part in the
rising led by Ibrahim ibn 'Abdallah ibn al-Hasan, the 'Alid,
called " The Pure Soul," against the caliph al-Mansur, and
after the defeat and death of Ibrahim was cast into prison. Al-
Mansur, however, pardoned him on the intercession of his fellow-
tribesman Musayyab ibn Zuhair of Dabba, and appointed him
the instructor in literature of his son, afterwards the caliph
al-Mahdl. It was for this prince that, at al-Mansur's instigation,
al-Mufaddal compiled the Mufaddaliyat.
The collection, in its present form, contains 126 pieces of
verse, long and short; that is the number included in the recen-
sion of al-Anbari, who had the text from Abu Tkrima of Dabba,
who read it with Ibn al-A'rabl, the stepson and inheritor of the
tradition of al-Mufa^dal. We know from the Fihrist of Muham-
mad an-Nadlm (A.D. 988) that in his time 128 pieces were
counted in the book; and this number agrees with that contained
in the Vienna MS., which gives an additional poem, besides
those annotated by al-Anbari, to al-Muraqqish the Elder ,and adds
at the end a poem by al-Harith ibn IJilliza. The Fihrist states
(p. 68) that some scholars included more and others fewer poems,
while the order of the poems in the several recensions differed;
but the correct text, the author says, is that handed down
through Ibn al-A'rabl. It is noticeable that this traditional text,
and the accompanying scholia, as represented by al-Anbari's
recension, are wholly due to the scholars of Kflfa, to which
place al-Mufaddal himself belonged. The rival school of Basra,
on the other hand, has given currency to a story that the original
collection made by al-Mufaddal included a much smaller number of
poems. The Berlin MS. ofal-Marzuql's commentary states that
the number was thirty, but a better reading of the passage,
found elsewhere, 1 mentions eighty; and that al-Asma'I and his
school added to this nucleus poems which increased the number
to a hundred and twenty. It is curious that this tradition is
ascribed by al-Marzuql and his teacher Abu 'All al-FarisI to Abu
'Ikrima of Dabba, who is represented by al-Anbari as the trans-
mitter of the correct text from Ibn al-A*rabi. There is no men-
tion of it in al-Anbari's work, and it is in itself somewhat im-
probable, as in al-AsmaTs time the schools of Kufa and Bara
were in sharp opposition one to the other, and Ibn al-A'rabl in
particular was in the habit of censuring al-Asma'l's interpretations
of the ancient poems. It is scarcely likely that he would have
accepted his rival's additions to the work of his step-father, and
have handed them on to Abu 'Ikrima with his annotations.
The collection is one of the highest importance as a record
of the thought and poetic art of Arabia during the time imme-
diately preceding the appearance of the Prophet. Not more
than five or six of the 126 poems appear to have been composed
by poets who had been born in Islam. The great majority
of the authors belonged to the days of " the Ignorance," and
though a certain number (e.g. Mutammim ibn Nuwaira, Rabl'a
ibn Maqrum, 'Abda ibn at-Tablb and Abu Dhu'aib), born
in paganism, accepted Islam, their work bears few marks
of the new faith. The ancient virtues hospitality to the
guest and the poor, profuse expenditure of wealth, valour in
battle, faithfulness to the cause of the tribe are the themes
of praise; wine and the game of maisir, forbidden by Islam,
are celebrated by poets who professed themselves converts;
and if there is no mention of the old idolatry, there is also
little spirituality in the outlook on life. The 126 pieces are
distributed between 68 poets, and the work represents a
gathering from the compositions of those who were called
al-Muqillun, " authors of whom little has survived," in contrast
to the famous poets whose works had been collected into diwans.
At the same time many of them are extremely celebrated, and
among the pieces selected by al-Mufaddal several reach a very high
level of excellence. Such are the two long poems of 'Alqama
ibn 'Abada (Nos. 119 and 120), tWe three odes by Mutammim
ibn Nuwaira (Nos. 9, 67, 68), the splendid poem of Salama ibn
Jandal (No. 22), the beautiful nasib of ash-Shanfara (No. 20),
and the death-song of 'Abd-Yaghuth (No. 30). One of the most
admirable and famous is the last of the series (No. 126), the long
elegy by Abu Dhu'aib of Hudhail on the death of his sons;
almost every verse of this poem is cited in illustration of some
phrase or meaning of a word in the national lexicons. Only
one of the poets of the Mu'allaqat (see MO'ALLAKAT) , al-Harith, son
of Hilliza, is represented in the collection. Of others (such as
Bishr ibn Abl Khazim, al-Hadira, 'Amir ibn at-Tufail, 'Alqamah
ibn 'Abadah, al-Muthaqqib, Ta'abba^a Sharra and Abu Dhu'aib)
dvwans or bodies of collected poems exist, but it is doubtful
how far these had been brought together when al-Mufaddal made
1 In the dhail or supplement to the AmaR of al-Qall. (Edn.
Cairo 1324 H., p. 131).
MOFETTA MOGADOR
645
his compilation. An interesting feature of the work is the treat-
ment in it of the two poets of Bakr ibn Wa'il, uncle and nephew,
called al-Muraqqish, who are perhaps the most ancient in the
collection. The elder Muraqqish was the great-uncle of Tarafa
of Bakr, the author of the Muallaqa, and took part in the long
warfare between the sister tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, called the
war of Basus, which began about the end of the 5th century A.D.
Al-Mufaddal has included ten pieces (Nos. 45-54) by him in the
collection, which are chiefly interesting from an antiquarian
point of view. One, in particular (No. 54), presents a very
archaic appearance. It is probable that the compiler set down
all he could gather of this ancient author, and that his interest
in him was chiefly due to his antiquity. Of the younger Muraq-
qish, uncle of Tarafa, there are five pieces (Nos. 55-59). The
only other authors of whom more than three poems are cited
are Bishr ibi) Abi Khazim of Asad (Nos. 96-99) and Rabt'a ibn
Maqrum of Dabba (Nos. 38, 39, 43 and 113).
The Mufaddaliydt differs from the ffamasa in being a collection
of complete odes (qa$idas) , while the latter is an anthology of
brilliant passages specially selected for their interest or effective-
ness, all that is prosaic or less striking being pruned away. It is
of course not the case that all the poems of al-Mufaddal's
collection are complete. Many are mere fragments, and even
in the longest there are often lacunae; but the compiler evidently
set down all that he could collect of a poem from the memory
of the rdwis, and did not, like Abu Tammam, choose only the
best portions. We are thus presented with a view of the litera-
ture of the age which is much more characteristic and comprehen-
sive than that given by the brilliant poet to whom we owe the
IJamasa, and enables us to form a better judgment on the
general level of poetic achievement.
The MufaddaKydt is not well represented by MSS. in the libraries
of the West. There is an imperfect copy of the recension of al-
Marzuqi (died 1030), with his commentary, in the Berlin collection. A
very ancient fragment (dated 1080) of al-Anbari's recension, contain-
ing five poems in whole or part, is in the Royal Library at Leipzig.
In the British Museum there is a copy made about a century ago
for C. J. Rich at Bagdad of a MS. with brief glosses; and at Vienna
there is a modern copy of a MS. of which the original is at Constan-
tinople, the glosses in which are taken from al-Anbari, though the
author had access also to al-Marzuqi. In the mosque libraries at
Constantinople there are at least five MSS.; and at Cairo there is a
modern copy of one of these, containing the whole of al-Anbari's
commentary. In America there are at Yale University a modern
copy of the same recension, taken from the same original as the
Cairo copy, and a MS. of Persian origin, dated 1657, presenting a
text identical with the Vienna codex. Quite recently a very in-
teresting MS., probably cf the 6th century of the Hegira, but not
dated, has come to light. It purports to be the second part of a
combination of two anthologies, the Mufaddattyat of al-Mufaddaland
the Asma'iydt of al-Asma'I, but contains many more poems than are
in either of these collections as found elsewhere. The commentary
appears to be eclectic, drawn partly (perhaps chiefly) from Ibn
as-Sikldt (died 858), and partly from Abu-Ja'far Ahmad ibn 'Ubaid
ibn Nasih, one of al-Anbari's sources and a pupil of Ibn al-A'rabi;
and the compilation seems to be older in date than al-Anbari, since its
glosses are often quoted by him without any name being mentioned.
This MS. (which is the property of Mr F. Krenkow of Leicester)
appears to represent one of the recensions mentioned by Muhammad
an-Nadim in the Fihrist (p. 68), to which reference has been made
above.
In 1885 Professor Heinrich Thorbecke began an edition of the text
based on the Berlin codex, but only the first fasciculus, containing
forty-two poems, had appeared when his work was cut short by death.
.In 1891 the first volume of an edition of the text, with a short com-
mentary taken from al-Anbari, was printed at Constantinople.
In 1906 an edition of the whole text, with short glosses taken from
al-Anbari's commentary, was published at Cairo by Abu Bakr b.
'Omar Daghistani al-Madani; this follows generally the Cairo codex
above mentioned, but has profited by the scholarship of Professor
Thorbecke's edition of the first half of the work. A complete
edition of al-Anbari's text and commentary, with a translation of
the poems, undertaken by Sir C. J. Lyall (see J.R.A. S., April 1904)
was in the press in 1910. (C. J- L.)
MOFETTA (Ital. from Lat. mephitis, a pestilential exhalation),
a name applied to a volcanic discharge consisting chiefly of carbon
dioxide, often associated with other vapours, representing the
final phase of volcanic activity. The word is used frequently
in the plural as mofette, or, following the French, mofettes. The
volcanic vents yielding the emanations are themselves called
mofette. They are not uncommon in Auvergne and in the
Eifel, notably on the shore of the Laacher See; whilst other
examples ar.e furnished by the Grotta del Cane, near Puzzuoli,
the Valley of Death in Java, and the Death Gulch in the
Yellowstone Park.
MOFFAT, ROBERT (1795-1883), Scottish Congregationalist
missionary to Africa, was born at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire,
on the aist of December 1795, of humble parentage. He began
as a gardener, but in 1814, when employed at High Leigh in
Cheshire, offered himself to the London Missionary Society,
and in 1816 was sent out to South Africa. After spending
a year in Namaqua Land, with the chief Afrikaner, whom
he converted, Moffat returned to Cape Town in 1819 and
married Mary Smith (1795-1870), the daughter of a former
employer, a remarkable woman and most helpful wife. In 1820
Moffat and his wife left the Cape and proceeded to Griqua
Town, and ultimately settled at Kuruman, among the Bechuana
tribes living to the west of the Vaal river. Here he worked as a
missionary till 1870, when he reluctantly returned finally to his
native land. He made frequent journeys into the neighbouring
regions as far north as the Matabele country. The results of
these journeys he communicated to the Royal Geographical
Society (Journal xxv.-xxxviii. and Proceedings ii.), and when
in England on furlough (1839-1843) he published his well-known
Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842). He
translated the whole of the Bible and The Pilgrim's Progress
into Sechwana. Moffat was builder, carpenter, smith, gardener,
farmer, all in one, and by precept and example he succeeded in
turning a horde of bloodthirsty savages into a "people apprecia-
ting and cultivating the arts and habits of civilized life, with a
written language of their own." He met with incredible dis-
couragement and dangers at first, which he overcame by his
strong faith, determination and genial humour. It was largely
due to him that David Livingstone, his son-in-law, took up his
subsequent work. On his return to England he received a
testimonial of 5000. He died at Leigh, near Tunbridge Wells,
on the gth of August 1883.
See Lives of Robert and Mary Moffat, by J. S. Moffat (1885) ; and
C. S. Home, The Story of the L. M. S. (1894).
MOFFAT, a burgh of barony, and police burgh, of Upper
Annandale, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2153. It
is situated 21 m. N.N.E. of Dumfries by road and 63 m. distant
by the Caledonian railway, from both Edinburgh and Glasgow.
It is the terminus of a branch line from Beattock, 2 m. distant.
It has been famous for its sulphur and saline waters since the
middle of the i8th century, and also enjoys great vogue as a
holiday resort. The hills in the locality range from the adjacent
Callow Hill (832 ft.) to Hartfell (2651 ft.); about 5 m. north
there is abundance of beautiful and varied scenery on the Annan,
the Evan, the Birnock and the Moffat. The spa, a mile to the
north of the town, was acquired by the burgh commissioners
in 1898, and there are also spas at Hartfell (3! m. north) and
Carpel (2 m. south-west). Dumcrieff House, 2 m. south-west,
is the seat of Lord Rollo.
MOGADOR (Es-Sueira), the most southern seaport on the
Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 31 50' N., 9 20' W., the capital
of the province of Haha. Pop. (1908), about 20,000, of whom
nearly a half are said to be Jews, and about 100 Europeans. The
town stands from 10 to 20 ft. above high water on a projecting
ridge of calcareous sandstone. In certain states of wind and sea
it is turned almost into an island, and a sea-wall protects the
road to Saffi. On the land side stretch miles of sand-dunes
studded with broom, and beyond, the argan forests, distinctive
of southern Morocco. Approached from this side the city bursts
on the view like a mirage between sky and sea, and this perhaps
entitles it to its name Es-Sueira " the picture." It is the
best planned and cleanest town in the empire, and this combined
with the climate, which is very equable, makes it a health resort,
especially for consumptive patients. The mean temperature of
the hottest month is 7i-o6, and of the coldest month s8-69.
The rainfall varies between 13 and 20 in. annually. The water
supply is carried by an overground conduit from a spring near
MOGILA MOHACS
Diabat. The prosperity of Mogador is due to its commerce.
The harbour is well sheltered from all winds except the south-
west, but escape is difficult with the wind from that quarter,
as the channel between the town and Mogador Island is narrow
and hazardous. It is the best-built port of the sultanate and
is generally second in point of trade, which is carried on mainly
with Marseilles, London, Gibraltar and the Canaries, the princi-
pal exports being almonds, goat-skins, gums and olive-oil, and
the principal imports cotton goods, sugar and tea. The exports
were valued at 407,000 in 1900 and at 364,000 in 1006. The
imports were worth 246,000 in 1900 and 368,000 in 1906.
Shipping, 1900, 132,000 tons; 1906, 140,000 tons.
A place called Mogador is marked in the 1351 Portulan of the
Laurentian library, and the map in Hondius's Atlas minor
shows the island of Mogador, I. Domegador; but the origin of
the present town is much more recent. Mogador was founded
by Mohammed XVII. (bin Abd Allah) in 1760, and completed
in 1770. The Portuguese called it after the shrine of Sidi
Megdul, which lies towards the south half-way to the village of
Diabat, and forms a striking landmark for seamen. In 1844
the citadel was bombarded by the French.
See A. H. Dye, " Les Ports du Maroc," in Bull. Soc. Geog. Comm.
Paris (1908), xxx. 313 sqq., and British Consular reports.
MOGILA, PETER (c. 1596-1647), metropolitan of Kiev from
1632, belonged to a noble Wallachian family. He studied for
some time at the university of Paris, and first became a monk in
1625. He was the author of a Catechism (Kiev, 1645) and other
minor works, but is principally celebrated for the Orthodox
Confession, drawn up at his instance by the Abbot Kosslowski of
Kiev, approved at a provincial synod in 1640, and accepted by
the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria and
Antioch in 1642-1643, and by the synod of Jerusalem in 1672.
(See ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH.)
There are numerous editions of the Confession in Russian; it has
been edited in Greek and Latin by Panagiotes (Amsterdam, 1662),
by Hofmann (Leipzig, 1695). and by Kimmel (Jena, 1843), and there
is a German translation by Frisch (Frankfort, 1727).
MOGILEV, a government of western Russia, situated on the
upper Dnieper, between the governments of Vitebsk and
Smolensk on the north and east, and Chernigov and Minsk on
the south and west. In the north it is occupied by the water-
shed which separates the basins of the Dvina and the Dnieper,
an undulating tract 650 to 900 ft. above sea-level, and covered
nearly everywhere with forests. This watershed slopes gently
to the south, to the valley of the Dnieper, which enters the
government from the north-east and flows due south. The
southern part of the government is flat and has much in common
with the Polyesie of the government of Minsk; it is, however,
more habitable, the marshes being less extensive. Mogilev is
built up of Devonian deposits in the north, of Cretaceous in the
east, and of Tertiary elsewhere, but generally is covered with a
thick layer of Glacial and later alluvial deposits. Interesting
finds from the Stone Age, as well as remains of the mammoth,
have been made.
The soil is mostly sand, clay (brick-clay and potter's-clay are
not uncommon), and peat-bogs,with a few patches of " black
earth." The climate is harsh and wet, the average yearly tem-
perature at the Gorki meteorological observatory being 4o-4 F.
(14- 2 in January and 63-8 in July); cold nights in summer
are often the cause of bad crops. The government had 947,625
inhabitants in 1870, and in 1897, 1,706,511, of whom 861,533
were women, and 146,752 lived in towns. The estimated popu-
lation in 1906 was 2,024,300. The population is mostly White
Russian. Agriculture is their chief occupation. Out of the total
area of 18,546 sq. m. 40 % is held in communal ownership by the
peasants, 48 % is owned by landlords possessing more than 270
acres each, and 3! % by small owners. Most of the private
owners belong to the nobility. The principal crops are rye,
oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, though wheat, beetroot,
flax, hemp and tobacco are also grown. Paper, spirits, wire and
nails, leather and tiles are the chief products of the manufactures.
The government is divided into eleven districts, of which the
chief towns with their populations in 1897 were: Mogiley-on-
Dnieper, or Mogilev Gubernskiy (47,591 in 1900), Chausy
(5550), Cherikov (5250), Homel or Gomel (45o8i in 1900),
Gorki (6730), Klimovichi (4706), Mstislavl (10,382 in 1900),
Orsha (13,161), Rogachev (9103), Staryi Bykhov (6354), and
Syenno (4061).
This government was inhabited in the loth century by the
Slav tribes of the Krivichi and Radimichi. In the I4th century
it became part of Lithuania, and afterwards of Poland. Russia
annexed it in 1772.
MOGILEV ON THE DNIEPER, a town of Russia, capital of
the government of Mogilev. Pop. (1900), 47,591, two-thirds
Jews. It is situated on a hilly site on both banks of the Dnieper,
120 m. by rail S.W. of Smolensk. It is the see of an archbishop
of the Orthodox Greek Church. The public buildings include
the cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church (founded by
Catherine II. of Russia and Joseph II. of Austria in 1780), a
Roman Catholic cathedral (built in 1692), an old castle, a
museum, a church dating from 1620, and an old Tatar tower.
The principal industries are tanneries. The commerce is mostly
in the hands of Jews. Corn, salt, sugar and fish are brought
from the south, whilst skins and manufactured wares, imported
from Germany, are sent to the southern governments.
Mogilev is mentioned for the first time in the i4th century as a
dependency of the Vitebsk, or of the Mstislavl principality. At
the beginning of the 1 5th century it became the personal property
of the Polish kings. But it was continually plundered either
by Russians, who attacked it six times during the i6th century,
or by Cossacks, who plundered it three times. In the I7th
century its inhabitants, who belonged to the Orthodox Greek
Church, suffered much from the persecutions of the United
Greek Church. In 1654 it surrendered to Russia, but in 1661
the Russian garrison was massacred by the inhabitants. In the
1 8th century the town was taken several times by Russians
and by Swedes, and in 1708 Peter the Great ordered it to be
destroyed by fire. It was annexed to Russia in 1772. Near
here the French under Davout defeated the Russians under
Bagration on the 23rd of July 1812.
MOGILEV ON THE DNIESTER, a town of Russia, in the
government of Podolia, on the left bank of the Dniester, 57 m.
E.S.E. of Kamenets-Podolsk. Pop. (1900), 25,141, nearly
one-half Jews; the remainder are Little Russians, Poles and a
few Armenians. The Little-Russian inhabitants carry on agri-
culture, gardening, wine-growing and mulberry culture. The
Jews and Armenians are engaged in a brisk trade with Odessa,
to which they send corn, wine, spirits and timber, floated down
from Galicia, as well as with the interior, to which they send
manufactured war^s imported from Austria.
Mogilev, named in honour of the Moldavian hospodar Mohila.
was founded by Count Potocki about the end of the i6th century.
Owing to its situation on the highway from Moldavia to the
Ukraine, at the passage across the Dnieper, it developed rapidly.
For more than 150 years its possession was disputed between the
Cossacks, the Poles and the Turks. It remained in the hands of
the Poles, and was annexed to Russia in 1795.
MOGUL, MOGHAL, or MUGHAL, the Arabic and Persian
form of the word Mongol, usually applied to the Mahommedan
Empire in India, which was founded by Baber. In consequence
the name is applied to all foreign Mahommedans from the coun-
tries on the west and north-west of India, except the Pathans.
The Great Mogul is the name given to the Mogul emperors of Delhi
by the Portuguese and subsequently by Europeans generally.
MOHACS, a market town of Hungary, in the county of
Baranya, 115 m. S. of Budapest. Pop. (1900), 15,812. It is
situated on the right bank of the Danube, and carries on a brisk
trade in wine and the agricultural produce of the neighbourhood.
Amongst its principal buildings are an old castle and the summer
palace of the bishop of Pecs. Mohacs is famous in the history
of Hungary by the two fateful battles which took place in the
plain situated about 3 m. south-west of the town, and marked
the beginning and the close of the Turkish dominion in Hungary.
In the first (Aug. 29, 1526) the Hungarian army under Louis II.
MOHAIR MOHICAN
647
was annihilated by the Ottoman forces led by Soliman the Mag-
nificent. In the second (Aug. 12, 1687) the Austrians under
Charles of Lorraine gained a decisive victory over the Turks,
whose power was afterwards still further broken by Prince
Eugene of Savoy.
MOHAIR, the hair of a variety of goat originally inhabiting
the regions of Asiatic Turkey of which Angora is the centre,
whence the animal is known as the Angora goat. The Arabic
muhayyar, from which the word came into English probably
through the Ital. moccacaro or Fr. mocayart, meant literally,
" choice " or " select," and was applied to cloth made of goats'
hair. In the i7th century the word, which before appears in
such forms as mocayare or mokaire, became corrupted by con-
nexion with " hair," cf. " cray-fish " from ecrevisse. From the
English " mohair " the French adapted moire, a watered silk
fabric.
The typical mohair fibre is 7 to 8 in. long, very lustrous owing
to its physical structure (which although akin to wool is different
in that the wool scales are indicated only instead of being fully
developed, while the fibre is always solid), ^ to -gfa of an
inch in diameter, of a soft elastic handle, and usually of a clear
white transparent colour. The staples of which the fleece is
formed should be uniform in length and clearly defined, naturally
lending themselves to a good " spin " a difficult attainment in
the case of mohair (see WOOLLEN AND WORSTED MANUFACTURES) .
There are many varieties of mohair, from the first qualities as
here defined to lower qualities of a kempy, unsatisfactory
character. Thus in Constantinople, the chief centre of the
Turkey mohair trade, a large variety of fleeces is recognized.
For example, from the Lake Van district a distinctly inferior kind
known as " Van " mohair is obtained, while other districts pro-
duce varieties ranging from Van up to the typical quality
described above.
The animal from which mohair was originally obtained was
a finely-bred Angora goat. Owing to the demand for raw
material exceeding the supply, from 1820 onwards there has been
a great deal of crossing of the well-bred Angora with the common
kind of goat: in fact it has been said that by 1863 the original
Angora had practically disappeared. The growing demand for
mohair further resulted in attempts on a commercial scale to
introduce the goat into South Africa where it was crossed
with the native goat the United States, Australia, and later
still New Zealand. Perhaps the introduction of the Angora
into Australia and New Zealand may in part be due to its value
as a scrub and blackberry browser; these growths being the
" pests " of the two respective countries.
The manufacture of fabrics from mohair as in the case of
alpaca and cashmere was in the first instance due to the genius
of the rearers of the goat. It would, indeed, be interesting to
know if the present day mohair goods often styled " alpacas "
really had their origin in the earlier products of Asia Minor.
That fabrics of mohair were in use in England early in the i8th
century is obvious from Pope's allusion:
" And, when she sees her friend in deep despair,
Observes how much a chintz exceeds mohair."
Raw mohair was first exported from Turkey to England about
1820, and from that date onwards marked strides were made in
its manufacture into useful yarns and fabrics. England has
always had, and still maintains, supremacy in this manufacture.
Practically the whole of both the Turkish and Cape clips is at
least converted into yarn in Yorkshire mills. Quantities of
these yarns are also woven into dress goods, dust cloakings,
pile fabrics, imitation furs, &c., in Yorkshire, but even greater
quantities of mohair yarn are exported to Russia, Germany,
Austria, &c., to be converted into astrakans, ordinary braids,
brush braids, &c. In the first decade of the 2oth century the
mohair braid trade received a blow from the introduction of
artificial silk.
The history of the introduction of the Angora goat from Asia
Minor into the other countries mentioned is as follows. In
1838 pure bred Angoras were introduced into Cape Colony
cashmeres having been previously tried and found unsatisfac-
tory. These pure-bred goats crossed with the common goat laid
the basis of the Cape flocks. In 1856-1857 other importations of
pure-bred goats were made. From 1868 to 1897 further impor-
tations were made, but these were not of the pure-bred goat and
consequently were not so valuable. It should here be noted
that the Cape flock-owner clips twice the summer clip yielding
a staple which should be of not less than 7 in., and the winter clip
a staple which should be of not less than 3 in. to 4 in. Bradford
from time to time has objected to the winter clip as being too
short, but this clip seems to have established itself and at least
once during recent years has been as saleable as I he summer
clip. The introduction of Angoras into the United States took
place in 1849. Other importations of goats from Asia Minor were
made between 1857 and 1880, and interchanges of blood also
took place between the United States and Cape Colony. Be-
tween 1856 and 1875 some three hundred goats were introduced
into Australia. Other importations from Cape Colony and the
United States have also been made from time to time, and it
seems at least possible, if not probable, that Australia may yet
find the Angora goat an important asset.
From the following statistics relating to mohair it will be realized
that the mohair supply practically comes from two sources, viz.
Turkey in Asia and South Africa :
Country. No. of Goats. Yield of Hair.
Asia Minor 3$ to 4 millions. II to 12,000,000 ft.
South Africa 4 millions. 12 to 14,000,000 ft>.
United States .... 800,000 1,600,000 Ib.
Australia 30,000
The price per ft of mohair has varied from 43. id. in 1870 to I3d.
or I4d. in 1903, and it is interesting to note that the shipments from
Turkey to England follow these price fluctuations in a most curious
manner.
Of the consumers of English mohair yarns Russia takes from 15
to 25 %, and the continent of Europe as a whole a very large per-
centage of the total mohair yarn production of Bradford.
MOHAVE (corrupted from hamok-habi, " three mountains,"
their native name, with reference to three peaks, which form a
prominent feature of their country), a tribe of North American
Indians of Yuman stock. They have always lived along both
banks of the lower Colorado river, in Arizona and California.
MOHAWK, a tribe of North American Indians, the chief
people of the Iroquois confederacy. The name probably means
"man-eaters"; they call themselves Kaniengehaga, "flint
people." Their villages were in the valley of the Mohawk river,
New York. Their territory extended northward to the St
Lawrence and southward to the Delaware river and Catskill
Mountains. They were thus early in touch with Dutch and
English, and were the first Indians to obtain firearms. In the
War of Independence they fought with the English, and finally
took refuge in Canada, where most of them have remained.
See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN. For Mohawk cosmology see
2ist Annual Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol. (1899-1900).
MOHICAN, MAHICAN AND MOHEGAN, the first two the
alternative names of an important tribe and confederacy of
North American Indians of Algonquian stock, and the last a
dialectic form of the name applied to a branch tribe. The
Mohicans inhabited the Hudson valley, and their domain
extended into Massachusetts. The Mohicans were called by the
French Loups (wolf Indians), a translation of " Mohican." At
first their council-fire was at Schodac, on an island near Albany,
and they were grouped in forty villages. In consequence of
attacks by the Mohawks, they moved their council-fire to what
is now Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1664; in 1730 many
migrated to the Susquehanna valley, Pennsylvania, and became
absorbed into the Delawares. In 1736 those left in Massachu-
setts were placed on a reservation at Stockbridge, and called
by that name. A few of these Stockbridge Indians, who may
be truly called " the last of the Mohicans," are now settled, with
some of the Munsees, on a reservation at Green Bay, Wisconsin.
The Mohegans, originally an offshoot of the Mohican, lived on
Thames river, Connecticut, their county extending into Massa-
chusetts and including Rhode Island. In 1637, on the destruc-
tion of the Pequots, an offshoot of the Mohegans, the Mohegans
claimed their country too, and thus the territorial power of the
MOHL MOHLER
two tribes was consolidated under one Mohegan chief. For some
time the Mohegans remained the supreme Indian people of
southern New England. Eventually they sold most of their
lands and centred in a small reservation on Thames river. They
have now practically become extinct.
MOHL, HUGO VON (1805-1872), German botanist, was born
at Stuttgart on the 8th of April 1805. He was a son of the
Wurttemberg statesman Benjamin Ferdinand von Mohl (1766-
1845), the family being connected on both sides with the higher
class of state officials of Wurttemberg. While a pupil at the
gymnasium he pursued botany and mineralogy in his leisure
time, till'in 1823 he entered the university of Tubingen. After
graduating with distinction in medicine he went to Munich,
where he met a distinguished circle of botanists, and found ample
material for research. This seems to have determined his career
as a botanist, and he started in 1828 those anatomical investiga-
tions which continued till his death. In 1832 he was appointed
professor of botany in Tubingen, a post which he never left.
Unmarried, his pleasures were in his laboratory and library,
and in perfecting optical apparatus and microscopic preparations,
for which he showed extraordinary manual skill. He was largely
a self-taught botanist from boyhood, and, little influenced in
his opinions even by his teachers, preserved always his indepen-
dence of view on scientific questions. He received many honours
during his lifetime, and was elected foreign fellow of the Royal
Society in 1868. Von Mohl's writings cover a period of forty-
four years; the most notable of them were republished in 1845 in
a volume entitled Vermischte Schriften (For lists of his works
see Botanische Zeilung, 1872, p. 576, and Royal Soc. Catalogue,
1870, vol. iv.) They dealt with a variety of subjects, but chiefly
with the structure of the higher forms, including both rough
anatomy and minute histology. The word " protoplasm " was
his suggestion; the nucleus had already been recognized by
R. Brown and others, but von Mohl showed in 1844 that the
protoplasm is the source of those movements which at that time
excited so much attention. He recognized under the name of
" primordial utricle " the protoplasmic lining of the vacuolated
cell, and first described the behaviour of the protoplasm in cell-
division. These and other observations led to the overthrow of
J. M. Schleiden's theory of origin of cells by free-cell-formation.
His contributions to knowledge of the cell-wall were no less
remarkable, he held the view now generally adopted of growth
of cell-wall by apposition. He first explained the true nature
of pits, and showed the cellular origin of vessels and of fibrous
cells; he was, in fact, the true founder of the cell theory. Clearly
the author of such researches was the man to collect into one
volume the theory of cell-formation, and this he did in his treatise
Die vegetabilische Zelle (1851), a short work translated into Eng-
lish (Ray Society, 1852). Von Mohl's early investigations on
the structure of palms, of cycads, and of tree-ferns permanently
laid the foundation of all later knowledge of this subject: so also
his work on Isoetes (1840). His later anatomical work was
chiefly on the stems of dicotyledons and gymnosperms; in his
observations on cork and bark he first explained the formation
and origin of different types of bark, and corrected errors relating
to lenticels. Following on his early demonstration of the origin
of stomata (1838), he wrote a classical paper on their opening
and closing (1850). In 1843 he started in conjunction with
F. Schlechtendal the weekly Botanische Zeilung, which he jointly
edited till his death. He was never a great writer of comprehen-
sive works; no text-book exists in his name, and it would indeed
appear from his withdrawal from co-operation in W. F. B.
Hofmeister's Handbuch that he had a distaste for such efforts.
In his latter years his productive activity fell cfi, doubtless
through failing health, and he died suddenly at Tubingen on
the ist of April 1872.
See Sachs. History of Botany, p. 292, &c. ; De Bary, Botanische
Zeitung (1872), p. 561 ; Proc. Roy. Soc., xxiii. I ; Allgemeine Deutsche
Biographic, xxii. 55. (F. O. B.)
MOHL, JULIUS VON (1800-1876), German Orientalist, brother
of Hugo von Mohl (?..), was born at Stuttgart on the 2Sth of
October 1800. Having studied theology at Tubingen (1818-
1823), he abandoned the idea of entering the Lutheran ministry,
and in 1823 went to Paris, at that time, under Silvestre De Sacy,
the great European school of Eastern letters. From 1826 to
1833 he was nominally professor at Tubingen, but had permission
to continue his studies abroad, and he passed some years in
London and in Oxford. In 1826 he was charged by the French
government with the preparation of an edition of the Shah Nama
(Lime des rois), the first volume of which appeared in 1838, while
the seventh and last was left unfinished at his death, being com-
pleted by Barbier de Meynard. Discerning this to be his life's
work, he resigned his chair at Tubingen in 1834, and settled per-
manently in Paris. In 1844 he was nominated to the academy
of inscriptions, and in 1847 he became professor of Persian at the
College de France. But his knowledge and interest extended to
all departments of Oriental learning. He served for many years
as secretary, and then as president of the Societe Asiatique.
His annual reports on Oriental science, presented to the society
from 1840 to 1867, and collected after his death in Paris on the
3rd of January 1876, under the title Vingt-sept ans d'histoire des
etudes orientales (Paris, 1879), are an admirable history of the
progress of Eastern learning during these years. Concerning
the discoveries at Nineveh he wrote Lettres de M. Botta sur les
decouvertes a Khorsabad (1845). He also published anonymously,
in conjunction with Justus Olshausen (1800-1882), Fragments
relatifs a la religion de Zoroastre (Paris, 1829); Confucii Chi-king
sive liber carminum, ex lalina P. Lacharmi interpretatione
(Stuttgart, 1830); and an edition of Y-King, Antiquissimus
Sinarum liber, ex interpretation P. Regis (Stuttgart, 1834-1839).
His wife Mary (1793-1883), daughter of Charles Clarke, had
passed a great part of her early life in Paris, where she was very
intimate with Madame Recamier, before their marriage in 1847,
and for nearly forty years her house was one of the most popular
intellectual centres in Paris. Madame Mohl's friends included a
large number of Englishmen and Englishwomen. She died in
Paris on the i4th of May 1883. Madame Mohl wrote Madame
Recamier, with a Sketch of the History of Society in France
(London, 1862).
See Kathleen O'Meara, Madame Mohl, her Salon and Friends
(1885); and M. C. M. Simpson, Letters and Recollections of Julius
and Mary Mohl (1887).
Mohl's elder brother, ROBERT VON MOHL (1790-1875), was
a well-known jurist and statesman. From 1824 to 1845 he was
professor of political sciences at the university of Tubingen,
losing his position because of some frank criticisms which brought
him under the displeasure of the authorities of Wurttemberg.
In 1847 he was a member of the parliament of Wurttemberg,
and in the same year he was appointed professor of law at
Heidelberg; in 1848 he was a member of the German parliament
which met at Frankfort, and for a few months he was minister
of justice. His later public life was passed in the service of the
grand-duke of Baden, whom he represented as ambassador in
Munich from 1867 to 1871. He died in Berlin on the 5th of
November 1875. Among his numerous writings may be men-
tioned, Die deutsche Polizeiwissenschaft nach den Grundsiitzen des
Rechtsstaats (Tubingen, 1832-1834, and again 1866); Geschichte
und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften (Erlangen, 1855-1858);
Encyklopadie der Staatswissenschaften (Tubingen, 1859, again
1881); and Staatsrecht, Volkerrecht und Politik (Tubingen, 1860-
1869).
See Mohl's own Lebenserinnerungen (Leipzig, 1901) ; and H.
Schulze, Robert von Mohl, Ein Erinnerungsblatt (Heidelberg, 1886),
Another brother, MORITZ VON MOHL (1802-1888), entered
official life at an early age and was a member of the Frankfort
parliament, and later of the parliament of Wurttemberg and
of the imperial Reichstag. He was a voluminous writer on
economic and political questions.
MOHLER, JOHANN ADAM (1796-1838), German theologian,
was born at Igersheim in Wurttemberg on the 6th of May 1796,
and after studying philosophy and theology in the lyceum at
Ellwangen, entered the university of Tubingen in 1817. Ordained
to the priesthood in 1819, he was appointed to a curacy at
Riedlingen, but speedily returned as " repetent " to Tubingen,
MOHMAND
649
where he became privatdozenl in 1822, extraordinary professor
of theology in 1826 and ordinary professor in 1828. His lectures
drew large audiences, including many Protestants. The con-
troversies excited by his Symbolik (1832) proved so unpleasant
that in 1835 he accepted a call to the university of Munich. In
1838 he was appointed to the deanery of Wtirzburg, but died
shortly afterwards (April 12, 1838).
Mohler wrote Die Einheit in der Kirche oder das Prinzip des
Katholicismus (Tubingen, 1825); Athanasius der Grosse u. d. Kirche
seiner Zeit (2 vols., Mainz, 1827); Symbolik, oder Darstellung der
dogmatischen Gegensdtze der Katholiken u. Protestanten nach ihren
offentlichen Bekenntnissschriften (Mainz, 1832; 8th ed., 1871-1872;
Eng. trans, by J. B. Robertson, 1843); and Neue Untersuchungen
der Lehrgegensdtze zwischen den Katholiken u. Protestanten (1834).
His Gesammelte Schriften u. Aufsdtze were edited by Dollinger in
1839; his Patrologie by Reithmayr, also in 1839; and a Biographie
by B. Worner was published at Regensburg in 1866. It is with the
Symbolik that his name is chiefly associated; the interest excited
by it in Protestant circles is shown by the fact that within two
years of its appearance it had elicited three replies of considerable
importance, those namely of F. C. Baur, P. K. Marheineke and
C. J. Nitzsch. But, although characterized by learning and acuteness,
as well as by considerable breadth of spiritual sympathy, it cannot be
said to have been accepted by Catholics themselves as embodying an
accurate objective view of the actual doctrine of their church. The
liberal school of thought of which Mohler was a prominent exponent
was discouraged in official circles, while Protestants, on the other
hand, complain that the author failed to grasp thoroughly the
significance of the Reformation as a great movement in the spiritual
history of mankind, while needlessly dwelling on the doctrinal
shortcomings, inconsistencies and contradictions of its leaders.
MOHMAND, a Pathan tribe who inhabit the hilly country to
the north-west of Peshawar, in the North-West Frontier Province
of India. They are one of the strongest tribes on the border
after the Afridis and Waziris, and have given much trouble to
the government of India. The country of the Mohmands may
be defined roughly as bounded on the E. by British districts
from near Jamrud to Fort Abazai, and thence by the Utman
Khel country; on the N. by Bajour; on the W. by Kunar; and
on the S. by the territories of the Shinwari and Afridi; area,
about 1200 sq. m. The Indo-Afghan boundary line now runs
through the Mohmand country; but the amir of Afghanistan
formerly claimed allegiance from all the Mohmands, and only
handed over the greater part of this tract to the British by the
Durand Agreement of 1893. The government has .given
assurances to the Burhan Khel, Dawezai, Halimzai, Isa Khel,
Tarakzai and Utmanzai sections of the Mohmands that they
will not suffer by the severance of their ancient connexion with
Afghanistan; and these are known as the Assured Clans. The
tribe are Afghans by descent, and are more akin to the Yusafzais
than any of their neighbours. The aspect of the Mohmand
hills is exceedingly dreary, and the eye is everywhere met by
dry ravines between long rows of rocky hills and crags, scantily
clothed with coarse grass, scrubwood and the dwarf palm. In
summer great want of water is felt, and the desert tracts radiate
an intolerable heat. This, coupled with the unhealthiness of
the lowlands, probably accounts for the inferior physique of
the Mohmands as compared with their Afridi and Shinwari
neighbours, who in summer retire to the cool highlands of Tirah
and the Safed Koh. The crops in the Mohmand hills are almost
entirely dependent on the winter and autumn rains, and should
these fail there is considerable distress; but the Mohmands
supplement this source of livelihood by a through trade on rafts
along the Kabul river between the British districts and the hill-
country beyond them. The exports are wax, hides, ghi and rice
from Kunar, and iron from Bajour; the imports are salt, cloth,
paper, soap, tea, indigo, sugar, grain, tobacco, needles, scissors
and other manufactures of civilization. The Mohmands are
characterized by great pride and haughtiness, they bear a bad
reputation for treachery and ruthless cruelty, and are not as
brave as their Afridi neighbours. They number some 18,000
fighting men, giving roughly a population of 65,000; but all the
clans would never act together under any circumstances. British
punitive expeditions have been sent against the Mohmands in
1851-52, 1854, 1864, 1879, 1880, but the principal operations
were those of 1897. (T. H. H.*)
Campaign of 1897. The year 1897 witnessed an almost
general outbreak among the tribes on the north-west frontier of
India. The tribes involved were practically independent, but
the new frontier arranged with the amir of Afghanistan, and
demarcated by Sir Mortimer Durand's commission of 1893-1894,
brought them within the British sphere of influence. The great
dread of these high-spirited mountaineers was annexation,
and the hostility shown during the demarcation led to the
Waziri expedition of 1894. Other causes, however, contributed
to bring about the outbreak of 1897. The easy victory of the
Turks over the Greeks gave rise to excitement throughout the
Mahommedan world, and the publication by the amir of Afghan-
istan, in his assumed capacity of king of Islam, of a religious
work, in portions of which fanatical antipathy to Christians was
thinly veiled, aroused a warlike spirit among the border Mabom-
medans. The growing unrest was not recognized, and all
appeared quiet, when, on the loth of June 1897, a detachment
of Indian troops escorting a British frontier officer was suddenly
attacked during the mid-day halt in the Tochi valley, where, since
the Waziri expedition of 1894-95, certain armed posts had been
retained by the government of India. On the 29th of July,
with equal suddenness, the fortified posts at Chakdara and Mala-
kand, in the Swat valley, which had been held since the Chitral
expedition of 1895, were for several days fiercely assailed by the
usually peaceful Swatis under the leadership of the Mad Mullah.
On the 8th of August the village of Shabkadar (Shankarghar),
within a few miles of Peshawar, and in British territory, was
raided by the Mohmands, while the Afridis besieged the fortified
posts on the Samana ridge, which had been maintained since
the expeditions of 1888 and 1891. Finally, the Afridis, within
a few days, captured all the British posts in the Khyber Pass.
A division commanded by Major-General Sir Bindon Blood was
assembled at Nowshera. The post at Malakand was reached on
the ist of August, and on the following day Chakdara was re-
lieved. The punishment of the Afridis was deferred till the
preparations for the Tirah campaign (see TIRAH) could be com-
pleted. The Mohmands, however, could be immediately dealt
with, and against them the two brigades of Sir Bindon Blood's
division advanced from Malakand simultaneously with the move-
ment of another division under Major-General (afterwards Sir
Edmund) R. Elles from Peshawar; it was intended that the two
columns should effect a junction in Bajour. About the 6th of
September the two forces advanced, and Major-General Blood
reached Nawagai on the i4th of September, having detached a
brigade to cross the Rambat Pass. This brigade being sharply
attacked in camp at Markhanai at the foot of the pass on the
night of the i4th, was ordered to turn northwards and punish
the tribesmen of the Mamund valley. On the isth Brigadier-
(afterwards Major-) General Jeffreys camped at Inayat Killa,
and on the following day he moved up the Mamund valley in
three columns, which met with strong resistance. A retirement
was ordered, the tribesmen following, and when darkness fell
the general, with a battery and a small escort, was cut off, and
with difficulty defended some buildings until relieved. The
casualties in this action numbered 149. This partial reverse
placed General Blood in a position of some difficulty. He deter-
mined, however, to remain at Nawagai, awaiting the arrival of
General Elles, and sent orders to General Jeffreys to prosecute
the operations in the Mamund valley. From the i8th to the
23rd these operations were carried on successfully, several villages
being burned, and the Mamunds were disheartened. Mean-
while, the camp at Nawagai was heavily attacked on the night
of the 2oth by about 4000 men belonging to the Hadda Mullah's
following. The attack was repulsed with loss, and on the 2ist
Generals Blood and Elles met at Lakarai. The junction having
been effected, the latter, in accordance with the scheme, advanced
to deal with the Upper Mohmands in the Jarobi and Koda Khel
valleys, and they were soon brought to reason by his well-con-
ducted operations. The work of the Peshawar division was now
accomplished, and it returned to take part in the Tirah campaign.
Its total casualties were about 30 killed and wounded. On the
22nd General Blood joined General Jeffreys, and on the 24th he
650
MOHONK LAKE MOHUR
started with his staff for Panjkora. On the zyth General
Jeffreys resumed punitive operations in the Mamund valley,
destroying numerous villages. On the aoth he encountered
strong opposition at Agrah, and had 61 casualties. On the 2nd
of October General Blood arrived at Inayat Killa with reinforce-
ments, and on the nth the Mamunds tendered their submission.
The total British loss in the Mamund valley was 282 out of a
force which never exceeded 1200 men. After marching into
Buner, and revisiting the scenes of the Umbeyla expedition of
1863, the Malakand field-force was broken up on the 2ist of
January. The objects of the expedition were completely
attained, in spite of the great natural difficulties of the country.
The employment of imperial service troops with the Peshawar
column marked a new departure in frontier campaigns.
(C. J. B.)
MOHONK LAKE, a summer settlement at the northern end of
Lake Mohonk, Ulster county, New York, U.S.A., about 14 m.
N.W. of Poughkeepsie. It is served from New Paltz, about i m.
S.E. (about 5^ m. by stage), by the Wallkill Valley railway, a
branch of the West Shore. The lake is a small body of water,
picturesquely situated 1245 ft. above the sea-level, on Sky Top
Mountain (1542 ft. ), one of the highest peaks of the Shawangunk
range. The highest point of Sky Top lies just east of the south
end of the lake; close by, to the west, Eagle Cliff rises to a height
of 1412 ft. The development of this beautiful region into a
summer resort and the holding of Indian and arbitration con-
ferences here have been due to Albert Keith Smiley (b. 1828),
a graduate of Haverford College (1849), who conducted an
English and classical academy in Philadelphia in 1853-1857,
was principal of the Oak Grove academy at Vassalboro, Maine,
in 1858-1860, was principal and superintendent of the Friends'
school at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1860-1879, atl( l became a
member of the United States Board of Indian Commissioners in
1879. In 1869 he bought, at the northern end of Lake Mohonk,
a tract of land on which he built a large hotel. Here, in October
1883, the first Conference of the Friends of the American Indian
met; these conferences have since been held annually, their
scope being enlarged in 1904 to include consideration of the
condition of " other dependent peoples " i.e. the natives of the
Philippines, Porto Rico and Hawaii. The first conference on
international arbitration was held here in June 1895.
MOHR, KARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1879), German pharmacist,
son of a well-to-do druggist in Coblentz, was born on the 4th
of November 1806. Being a delicate child he received much of
his early education at home, in great part in his father's labora-
tory. To this may be traced much of the skill he showed in
devising instruments and methods of analysis. At the age of
twenty-one he began to study chemistry under Leopold Gmelin,
and, after five years spent in Heidelberg, Berlin and Bonn,
returned with the degree of Ph.D. to join his father's establish-
ment. On the death of his father in 1840 he succeeded to the
business, retiring from it for scientific leisure in 1857. Serious
pecuniary losses led him at the age of fifty-seven to become a
privatdozent in Bonn, where in 1867 he was appointed, by the
direct influence of the emperor, extraordinary professor of
pharmacy. He died at Bonn on the 28th of September 1879.
Mohr was the leading scientific pharmacist of his time in Ger-
many, and he was the author of many improvements in ana-
lytical processes. His methods of volumetric analysis were
expounded in his Lehrbmh der chemisch-analytischen Titrir-
methode (1855), which won the special commendation of Liebig
and has run through many editions. His Geschichte der Erde,
eine Geologic auf never Grundlage (1866), also obtained a wide
circulation. In a paper " tlber die Natur der Warme," published
in the Zeilschrift fur Physik in 1837, he gave one of the earliest
general statements of the doctrine of the conservation of energy
in the words: " besides the 54 known chemical elements there
is in the physical world one agent only, and this is called Kraft
(energy). It may appear, according to circumstances, as motion,
chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism; and
from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of
the others."
MOHS, FRIEDRICH (1773-1839), German mineralogist, was
born at Gernrode in the Harz Mountains, on the 2gth of January
1773. He was educated at Halle, and at the mining academy
at Freiburg. He spent much time in Austria in studying miner-
alogy and mining, and became professor of mineralogy at Gratz
in 1812. On the death of Werner in 1817, he was appointed to
the chair of mineralogy in the mining academy of Freiburg,
and in 1826 he became professor of mineralogy and superinten-
dent of the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna. His great work was the
Grundriss der Mineralogie (Eng. trans. Treatise on Mineralogy,
by Wilhelm Haidinger, 1825). He died at Agardo, near Belluno,
Italy, on the 29th of September, 1839.
MOHUN, CHARLES MOHUN, 4 th BARON (c. 1675-1712), was
the son of the 3rd Baron Mohun, who died in October 1677 as the
result of a wound received while acting as second in a duel.
The boy had no regular guardian, and before he was seventeen
he had earned an unpleasant notoriety in London for rowdyism
and brawling, had fought a duel and had been tried on a
charge of murder. His friend, Captain Richard Hill, a roystering
young officer, was in love with the actress Mrs Bracegirdle,
and thought William Mountfort, the actor, to be his successful
rival. On the night of the 9th of December 1692 Mohun
assisted Hill to attempt the actress's abduction. The attempt
failed, and Mohun and Hill then escorted Mrs Bracegirdle to her
house, and subsequently remained together outside drinking till
the appearance of Mountfort, who lived close at hand. Greetings
were exchanged between Mohun and Mountfort, and the latter
made a disparaging remark about Hill, who either without
warning (according to Mountfort 's deathbed statement) or in
fair fight (according to other evidence) ran Mountfort through
the body, and then absconded. Mohun was arrested and put
on trial in Westminster Hall before his peers for murder as an
accessory before the fact (1693), but by an overwhelming
majority the peers found him not guilty. This verdict has been
severely criticized, notably by Macaulay, who saw in it merely
a gross instance of class favouritism. But a careful examination
of the evidence (in the State Trials) justifies the decision, and
establishes the presumption that the fight was a fair one. In
1 699 Mohun was put on his trial for another alleged murder, but
was unanimously and quite justly acquitted. His boon com-
panion, Edward Rich, earl of Warwick (1673-1701), who was
tried on a separate indictment for the same crime, was found
guilty of manslaughter. On this occasion Mohun expressed
regret for his past life, and he seems subsequently to have made
a genuine attempt to alter his ways and to have taken a practical
interest in public affairs. But in 1712 his violent temper again
got the better of him, and he forced the 4th duke of Hamilton,
with whom he had been at law for some years, into a desperate
duel in Hyde Park in the early hours of the 1 5th of November, in
which both combatants were killed. Thackeray has utilized
this incident in Esmond. Lord Mohun had no issue, and on his
death the barony, which was created in 1628 in favour of his
great-grandfather John Mohun (c. 1592-1640), became extinct.
See The Whole Life and History of My Lord Mchun and the Earl
of Warwick (London, 1711); J. Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence;
Historical Manuscripts Commission, nth report, appendix v.
(Dartmouth MSS.) ; G. C. Boase and W. P. Courtney, Bibliotheca
cornubiensis (1874-1882); Howell, State Trials; and Colley Gibber,
Apology, edited by R. W. Lowe (1889).
MOHUN, MICHAEL (c. 1625-1684), English actor, played at
the Cockpit in Drury Lane before the Civil War. He served
on the king's side with credit and was promoted captain,
and subsequently, in Flanders, major. At the Restoration he
returned with Charles II. and took up his former profession,
playing a great variety of parts, usually as second to Charles
Hart.
MOHUR, the name of a Persian gold coin, used in India from
the 1 6th century. The word is taken from the Persian muhr,
a seal or ring. Between 1835 and 1891 a gold coin, also called a
" mohur," was struck by the government of British India and
was of the nominal value of 1 5 rupees. On the establishment of
a gold standard in India in 1899, on the basis of i6d. a rupee,
MOIDORE MOKSHANY
651
the British sovereign was declared legal tender and the mohur
was thus superseded.
MOIDORE, (a corruption of the Portuguese moeda d'ouro,
literally, money of gold), the name of a gold Portuguese coin,
coined from 1640 to 1732. This was of the sterling value of
133. sfd. It is the double moida d'ouro, of the value of 4800
reis in 1688, that was current in western Europe and the West
Indies for a long period after it ceased to be struck. It was
the principal coin current in Ireland at the beginning of the
1 8th century, and spread to the west of England. At the same
period it was current in the West Indies, particularly in Barbados.
It was rated in English money at 273.
MOIR, DAVID MACBETH (1798-1851), Scottish physician
and writer, was born at Musselburgh on the sth of January
1798. He studied medicine at Edinburgh University, taking his
degree in 1816. Entering into partnership with a Musselburgh
doctor he practised there until his death on the 6th of July 1851.
He was a contributor of both prose and verse to the magazines,
and particularly, with the signature of " Delta," to Black-wood's.
A collection of his poetry was edited in 1852 by Thomas Aird.
Among his publications were the famous Life of Mansie Wauch,
Tailor (1828), which shows his gifts as a humorist, Outlines
of the Ancient History of Medicine (1831), and Sketch of the
Poetical Literature of the Past Half Century (1851).
MOISSAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 17 m.
W.N.W. of Montauban on the Southern railway between
Bordeaux and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 4523; commune,
8218. Moissac stands at the foot of vine-clad hills on the right
bank of the Tarn; it is divided into two parts by the lateral
canal of the Garonne, which crosses the Tarn by way of an
aqueduct a short distance above the town. It contains little
of note except the abbey-church of Ft Pierre, a building of the
i Sth century with a porch of the I2th century which is decorated
with elaborate Romanesque carving unsurpassed in France.
The cloister of the early i2th century adjoining the north side
of the church is also one of the finest of its kind. Romanesque
in character, it has pointed arches resting alternately on single
and clustered columns with sculptured capitals. Among other
remains of the abbey is the abbot's palace, which contains two
halls of the Romanesque period. St Martin, the oldest of the
other churches of Moissac, dates from before the year 1000.
The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance,
a communal college for boys, a library and a museum.
Trade is in oil, wine, eggs, wool, poultry and fruit (peaches,
apricots, &c.).
The town owes its origin to an abbey probably founded in the
7th century by St Amand, the friend of Dagobert. After being
devastated by the Saracens, the abbey was restored by Louis
of Aquitaine, son of Charlemagne. Subsequently it was made
dependent on Cluny, but in 1618 it was secularized by Pope
Paul V., and replaced by a house of Augustinian monks, which
was suppressed at th^ Revolution. The town, which was
erected into a commune in the I3th century, was taken by
Richard Cceur de Lion and by Simon de Montfort.
MOISSAN, HENRI (1852-1907), French chemist, was born at
Paris on the 28th of September 1852. Educated at the Museum
of Natural History, he was successively professor of toxicology
(1886) and of inorganic chemistry (1889) at the School of Phar-
macy, and of general chemistry at the Sorbonne (1900). In
1886 he succeeded in obtaining the element fluorine in the free
state by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride and anhydrous
hydrofluoric acid at a low temperature. Thence he was led to
study the production of carbon in its three varieties and to
attempt the artificial preparation of diamond, of which he was
able to make some minute specimens (see GEMS, Artificial}.
In connexion with these experiments he developed the electric
furnace as a convenient means of obtaining very high tempera-
tures in the laboratory; and by its aid he prepared many new
compounds, especially carbides, silicides and borides, and
melted and volatilized substances which had previously been
regarded as infusible. For his preparation of fluorine he was
awarded the Lacase prize in 1887, and in 1906 he obtained the
Nobel prize for chemistry. He died in Paris on the aoth of
February 1907.
His published works include Lefour tlectrique (1897), and Lefluor
el ses composes (1900), besides numerous papers in the Comptes
rendus and other scientific periodicals. A Traiti de chimie minerals
in five volumes was published under his direction in 1904-1906.
MOJI, a town of Japan, on the Kiushiu side of the Shimono-
seki Strait. The strait being only i m. in width, Moji and
Shimonoseki would be practically the same port did not the
swiftness of the current along the latter shore make it con-
venient for vessels to anchor off Moji. Moji is one of the places
voluntarily opened by the Japanese for purposes of direct
export. It is the starting-point of the Kiushiu railway, and
as there is abundance of coal in its neighbourhood, it has' become
a town of considerable importance. In 1890 it was little more
than a hamlet, but it had in 1901 a population of 25,274, and
a considerable foreign trade.
MOJSISOVICS VON MOJSVAR, JOHANN AUGUST 6EORG
EDMUND (1839-1907), Austro-Hungarian geologist and palae-
ontologist, son of the surgeon Georg Mojsisovics von Mojsvar
(1790-1860), was born at Vienna on the i8th of October 1839.
He studied law in Vienna University, taking his doctor's degree
in 1864, and in 1867 he entered the Geological Institute, becom-
ing chief geologist in 1870 and vice-director in 1892. He retired
in 1900, and died at Mallnitz on the 2nd of October 1907. He
paid special attention to the cephalopoda of the Austrian Trias,
and his publications include Das Gebirge um Hallstatt (1873-
1876); Die Dolomitrisse von Sudtirol und Venetien (1878-1880);
Grundiinien der Geologie von Bosnien-Herzegowina (1880) with
E. Tietze and A. Bittner; Die Cephalopoden der mediterranen
Triasprovinz (1882); Die cephalopoden der Hallstatler Kalke
(1873-1903); and Beitrage zur Kenntniss der obertriadischen
Cephalopodenfaunen des Himalaya (1896). With Melchior
Neumayr (1845-1890) he conducted the Beitrage zur Paldoti-
tologie und Geologie Oesterreich-Ungarns. In 1862, with Paul
Grohmann and Dr Guide von Sommaruga, he founded the
Austrian Alpine Club, and he also took part in establishing the
German Alpine Club, which combined with the former in 1873.
MOKANNA (al-Moqanna', the Veiled), the name given to
Hakim, or "A^a, a man of unknown parentage, originally a
fuller in Merv, who posed as an incarnation of Deity, and headed
a revolt in Khorasan against the caliph Mahdi. For about three
years he sustained himself in the field against the troops of the
caliph and for two years longer in his fortress of Sanam; then,
reduced to straits in 779, he and his followers took poison and
set fire to the fortress. Much is related to his magical arts, espe-
cially of a moonlike light visible for an enormous distance
which he made to rise from a pit near Nakhshab. He is the
hero of the first part of Moore's Latta Rookh.
MOKHA (Mocha, properly Makha), a town in Arabia on the
Red Sea coast in I3I9'N. and 43 12' E. Formerly the chief port
for the Yemen coffee export, it has much diminished in im-
portance. The coffee grown in the mountain districts of Haraz,
Uden, and Ta'iz is now shipped at Hodeda or Aden, though the
article retains the trade name of " Mocha." The town lies in
a small bay 40 m. N. of Perim at the southern entrance to the
Red Sea. The anchorage is not good, and the port is only used
by native vessels. Seen from the sea the town has rather an
imposing appearance, but a near review shows that the houses
though large and built of stone are mostly in ruins. The
neighbouring country is an arid plain without fresh water, the
town being supplied by an aqueduct from the viflage of Muza.
situated 16 m. to the east. This is probably identical with the
Muza of the Periplus, a great seat of the Red Sea trade in
antiquity, which like Betel Fakih, Zubed and other old Tehama
towns, formerly seaports, has long since been left by the receding
sea. There is a Turkish kaimakam and a small garrison at
Mokha, which is part of the civil district of Taiz in the vilayet
of Yemen.
MOKSHANY, a town of Russia, in the government of Penza,
24 m. N.W. of the city of Penza. Pop. (1900), 10,710. The
652
MOLASSES MOLDE
inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, or work in flour-mills,
oilworks, tanneries and potash-works. Mokshany, which was
built in 1535 as a fort to protect the country from the raids of the
Tatars and the Kalmucks, is supposed to occupy the site of the
Meshcheryak town of Murunza, mentioned as early as the pth
century.
MOLASSES, the syrup obtained from the drainings of raw
sugar or from sugar during the process of refining. In American
usage the word usually applies to both forms of the syrup, but
in English usage the second form is more usually known as
" treacle " (see SUGAR). The word, which in early forms appears
as melasses, molassos, &c., is from the Port, melafo, or Fr. melasse,
cf. the Late Lat. mellacettm, syrup made from honey (met).
The geological term " molasse " must be distinguished; this
word, applied to the soft greenish sandstone of the district
between the Jura and the Alps, is French, meaning " soft,"
Lat. mollis.
MOLAY, JACQUES DE (d. 1314), last grand master of the
Knights Templars, was born of a noble but impoverished family,
at a village of the same name in the old province of Franche-
Comte (mod. department of Haute-Sa6ne), about the middle of
the 1 3th century. The family property being the inheritance
of an elder brother, Jacques was thrown upon his own resources.
Having been brought up in the neighbourhood of a commandery
of the Temple, he entered the order in 1265 at Beaune in the
diocese of Autun. It is probable that he at once set out for the
East to take part in the defence of the Holy Land against the
Saracens. About 1295 he was elected grand master of the order.
After the Templars had been driven out of Palestine by the
Saracens, De Molay took refuge with the remnant of his followers
in the island of Cyprus. Here, while attempting to get together
a force to retrieve the disasters to the Christian arms, he received
a summons (in 1306) from Pope Clement V. to repair to Paris.
The pope's pretext for the summons was his desire to put an end
to the quarrels between the Templars and the Knights of St John,
and to concert plans for a new crusade ; in reality he had entered
into a secret agreement with the king of France for the sup-
pression of the Templars. Molay left Cyprus with a retinue of
60 followers, and made a triumphal entry into Paris. On the
I3th of October 1307 every Templar in France was arrested,
and a prolonged examination of the members of the order was
held. De Molay, probably under torture, confessed that some
of the charges brought against the order were true. He was
kept in prison for several years, and in 1314 he was brought up
with three other dignitaries of the Temple before a commission
of cardinals and others to hear the sentence (imprisonment for
life) pronounced. Then, to the surprise of the commission,
De Molay withdrew his confession. Immediately the king heard
of it he gave orders that De Molay and another of the four, who
had also recanted, should be burnt as lapsed heretics. The
sentence was carried out on the nth (or ipth) of March 1314.
De Molay's ashes were gathered up by the people, and it is said
that with his last breath he summoned the king and the pope
to appear with him before the throne of God.
For the charges brought against the Templars and the famous
process in connexion with them, see TEMPLARS; J. Michelet, Proces
des Templiers (1841-1851) and Lavocat, Prods des freres et de I'ordre
du Temple d'apres des pieces inedites publiees par M. Michelet (1888) ;
E. Besson, " Etude sur Jacques de Molay in Memoires de la soc.
d'emulation du Doubs (Besancon, 1876) ; H. H. Milman, Hist, of
Latin Christianity, bk. xii., chs. I and 2; H. Prutz, Entwickefung und
Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (Berlin, 1888).
MOLD (formerly Mould, Welsh Y Wyddgrug, a conspicuous
barrow, Lat. Mons altus, the translation of the Welsh name),
a market town, contributory parliamentary borough of Flint-
shire, N. Wales; on the London & North- Western railway
(Chester and Denbigh branch), 182 m. from London and n m.
from Chester. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4263. The locality
is populous owing to the collieries and lead-smelting works in
the vicinity. At the north end of the town there is a height,
Bailey Hill (perhaps from ballia, the architectural term applied
to fortified castle courts). This hill, partly natural and partly
artificial, was once the site of a Roman fortification, and in old
records is known as Moaldes, Monhault, or Monthault (de monte
alto). Mold Castle was probably built by Robert Monthault
(temp. William Rufus), was taken and destroyed by Owen
Gwynedd in 1144-1145, its site lost to the English and retaken
by Llewelyn ap lowerth in 1201, and by Gruffydd Llwyd in
1322. On this site, too, where there are now no remains of any
fortress, were found, in 1849, some 15 skeletons, supposed to be
of the I3th or i4th centuries. Maes Garmon (the battlefield of
Germanus) is about a mile west of Mold. Here, as is supposed,
the " Alleluia Victory " was gained over the Picts and Scots by
Lupus and Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, according to some
about A.D. 430, but others give A.D. 448, the date of the saint's
death. A commemorative obelisk was erected on the Maes by
N. Griffith of Rhual (1736). Over a mile south of Mold,
on the right of the road to Nerquis, is the "Tower" (isth
century, but perhaps restored in the i8th), where, in 1465 or
1475, the royal chieftain, Rheinallt ab Gruffyd ad Bleddyn,
hanged Robert Byrne, mayor of Chester, and subsequently
burned alive some 200 Chester folk who tried to arrest him.
Many tumuli are visible round Mold.
Mold county gaol, bought in 1880 by Jesuits expelled from
France, was by them named St Germanus's House. St Mary's
church, a Gothic building, is mentioned as early as the time of
Henry VII. Its important collieries and lead mines; fire-brick,
tile, earthenware, mineral oil, tinplate and nail manufactures,
tanneries, breweries and malt-houses, have made Mold the
business centre of the county. About 4 m. distant is Cilcain
village, of which the church has a carved oak roof, stolen from
Basingwerk Abbey at the dissolution of the monasteries.
Among the neighbouring Clwyd hills Moel Fammau and Moel
Arthur are specially noticeable. On the summit of the former
is George III.'s jubilee pyramid. The Ordovices and the
Romans fortified Moel Arthur. The sites of seven posts
established against Rome may be traced along the hills bound-
ing Flintshire and Denbighshire.
MOLDAVIA, a former principality of south-eastern Europe,
constituting, after its union with Wallachia on the 9th of
November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.).
MOLDAVITE, an olive-green or dull greenish vitreous sub-
stance, named by A. Dufrenoy from Moldauthein in Bohemia,
where it occurs. It is sometimes cut and polished as an orna-
mental stone under the name of pseudo-chrysolite. Its bottle-
glass colour led to its being commonly called Bouteillenstein,
and at one time it was regarded as an artificial product, but this
view is opposed to the fact that no remains of glass-works are
found in the neighbourhood of its occurrence: moreover pieces
of the substance are widely distributed in Tertiary and early
Pleistocene deposits in Bohemia and Moravia. For a long time
it was generally believed to be a variety of obsidian, but its
difficult fusibility and its chemical composition are rather
against its volcanic origin. Dr F. E. Suess pointed out that
the nodules or small masses of moldavite presented curious
pittings and wrinkles on the surface, which could not be due
to the action of water, but resembled the characteristic markings
on many meteorites. Boldly attributing the material to a
cosmic origin, he regarded moldavite as a special type of meteor-
ite for which he proposed the name of tectite (Gr. TTJKTOS,
melted). To this type are also referred the so-called obsidian
bombs and buttons from Australia and Tasmania, known some-
times as australite, and called by R. H. Walcott obsidianites.
Similar bodies have been found in Malaysia and have been
termed billitonite, from the isle of Billiton where they occur in
tin-bearing gravels. Usually they are flat, rounded or ellipsoidal
bodies, sometimes surrounded by an equatorial girdle or rim,
and often with a brilliant black superficial lustre, as though
varnished. Moldavite has been reported also from Scania in
Sweden.
See Franz E. Suess, Jahrbuch der k.-k. geolog. Reichsanstalt
(Vienna), 1901, p. 193; E. Weinschenk, Centralblatt f. Mineralogie
(Stuttgart), 1908, p. 737. (F. W. R.*)
MOLDE, a small seaside town of Norway, in Romsdal ami
(county), 204 m. by sea N.N.E. of Bergen, in 62 45' N. (that
MOLE, L. M. MOLE
of the Faroe Islands). It has little trade, but is the principa
tourist centre on this part of the coast, and the steamers from
Hull and Newcastle, the Norwegian ports, Hamburg, Antwerp
&c., call here. The town fronts the broad Molde Fjord, with
its long low islands, and to the east and south a splendic
panorama of jagged mountains is seen, reaching 6010 ft. in
Store Troldtinder of the Romsdal group. Molde is the port for
the tourist route through the Romsdal.
MOL6, LOUIS MATHIEU, COMTE (1781-1855), French states-
man, was born in Paris on the 24th of January 1781. His
father, a president of the parlement of Paris, who came of the
family of the famous president noticed below, was guillotined
during the Terror, and Count Mole's early days were spent in
Switzerland and in England with his mother, a relative of
Lamoignon-Malesherbes. On his return to France he studied
at the ecole centrale des travaux publics, and his social educa-
tion was accomplished in the salon of Pauline de Beaumont,
the friend of Chateaubriand and Joubert. A volume of Essais de
morale et de politique introduced him to the notice of Napoleon,
who attached him to the staff of the council of state. He became
master of requests in 1806, and next year prefect of the Cote
d'Or, councillor of state and director-general of bridges and
roads in 1809, and count of the empire in the autumn of the
same year. In November 1813 he became minister of justice.
Although he resumed his functions as director-general during
the Hundred Days, he excused himself from taking his seat
in the council of state and was apparently not seriously com-
promised, for Louis XVIII. confirmed his appointment as
director-general and made him a peer of France. Mole supported
the policy of the due de Richelieu, who in 1817 entrusted to him
the direction of the ministry of marine, which he held until
December 1818. From that time he belonged to the moderate
opposition, and he accepted the result of the revolution of 1830
without enthusiasm. He was minister for foreign affairs in the
first cabinet of Louis Philippe's reign, and was confronted with
the task of reconciling the European powers to the change of
government. The real direction of foreign affairs, however,
lay less in his hands than in those of Talleyrand, who had gone
to London as the ambassador of the new king. After a few
months of office Mole retired, and it was not until 1836 that the
fall of Thiers led to his becoming prime minister of a new govern-
ment, in which he held the portfolio of foreign affairs. One of
his first actions was the release of the ex-ministers of Charles X.,
and he had to deal with the disputes with Switzerland and
with the Strassburg coup of Louis Napoleon. He withdrew the
French garrison from Ancona, but pursued an active policy
in Mexico and in Algeria. Personal and political differences
rapidly arose between Mole and his chief colleague Guizot, and
led to an open rupture in March 1837 in face of the general
opposition to a grant to the due de Nemours. After some
attempts to secure a new combination Mole resonstructed his
ministry in April, Guizot being excluded. The general election
in the autumn gave him no fresh support in the Chamber of
Deputies, while he had now to face a formidable coalition between
Guizot, the Left Centre under Thiers, and politicians of the
Dynastic Left and the Republican Left. Mole, supported by
Louis Philippe, held his ground against the general hostility
until the beginning of 1839, when, after acrid discussions on the
address, the chamber was dissolved. The new house showed
little change in the strength of parties, but Mole resigned on
the 3ist of March 1839. A year later he entered the Academy,
and though he continued to speak frequently he took no im-
portant share in party politics. Louis Philippe sought his help
in his vain efforts to form a ministry in February 1848. After
the revolution he was deputy for the Gironde to the Con-
stituent Assembly, and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly,
where he was one of the leaders of the Right until the coup
d'etat on the 2nd of December 1851 drove him from public
life. He died at Champlatreux (Seine-et-Oise) on the 23rd of
November 1855.
See P. Thureau-Dangin, Histoire de la monarchic de juiilet (1884-'
1892) ; and Robert Cougny, Diet, des parlementaires franqais (1891).
653
MOLfi, MATHIEU (1584-1656), French statesman, son of
Edouard Mole (d. 1614), who was for a time procureur-general,
was educated at the university of Orleans. Admitted conseiller
in 1606, he was president aux requites in 1610, procureur-general
in succession to Nicolas de Bellievre in 1614, and he took part
in the assembly of the Notables summoned at Rouen in 1617.
He fought in vain against the setting up of special tribunals, or
commissions, to try prisoners charged with political offences,
and for his persistence in the case of the brothers Louis and
Michel de Marillac he was suspended in 1631, and ordered to
appear at Fontainebleau in his own defence. Hitherto Mole's
relations with Richelieu had been fairly good, but his inclination
to the doctrines of Port Royal increased the differences between
them, and it was not until after Richelieu's death that he was
able to secure the release of his friend, the abbe de St Cyran.
In 1641 he was appointed first president of the parlement, with
the preliminary condition that he should not permit the general
assembly of the chambers except by express order of the king.
After Richelieu's death the pretensions of the parlement in-
creased; the hereditary magistrature arrogated to itself the
functions of the states-general, and in 1648 the parlement with
the other sovereign courts (the cour des aides, the grand conseil,
and the cour des comptes) met in one assembly and proposed for
the royal sanction twenty-seven articles, which amounted in
substance to a new constitution. In the long conflict between
Anne of Austria and the parlement, Mole, without yielding the
rights of the parlement, played a conciliatory part. In the popu-
lar tumult known as the day of the barricades (Aug. 26, 1648)
he sought out Mazarin and the queen to demand the release of
Pierre Broussel and his colleagues, whose seizure had been the
original cause of the outbreak. Next day the parlement marched
in procession to repeat Mole's demand. On their way back they
were stopped 'by the crowd. " Turn, traitor," said one of the
rebels to Mole, seizing him by the beard, " and unless you wish
to be massacred, either bring back Broussel, or bring Mazarin
as a hostage." Many magistrates fled; the remnant, headed by
the intrepid Mole, returned to the Palais Royal, where Anne of
Austria was induced to release the prisoners.
Mole's moderating counsels failed to prevent the outbreak
of the first Fronde, but he negotiated the peace of Rueil in 1651,
and averted a conflict between the partisans of Conde and of
the Cardinal de Retz within the precincts of the Palais de
Justice. He refused honours and rewards for himself or his
family, but became keeper of the seals, in which capacity he was
compelled to follow the court, and he therefore retired from the
presidency of the parlement. He died on the 3rd of January 1656.
The Memoires of Mole were edited for the Societe de 1'histoire de
France (4 vols., 1855) by Aime Champpllion-Figeac, and his life was
written by Baron A. G. P. de Barante in Le Parlement et la Fronde
(1859). See also the memoirs of Omer Talon and of De Retz.
MOLE, (i) A small animal of the family Talpidae (see below).
(2) A mark, or stain, and particularly a dark-coloured raised spot
on the human skin. This word, O. Eng. mdl, appears in such
brms as meil or mail, in old forms of Teutonic languages, and
n mel, a sign; cf. Ger. Dcnkmal, a monument. It is probably
cognate with Lat. maculus, spot. Its meaning of stain is seen
n the corrupted form " iron-mould," properly " iron-mole," a
stain produced on linen or cloth by rust or ink. (3) A large
structure of rubble, stone or other material, used as a breakwater
or pier (see BREAKWATER), or the space of water so enclosed,
"orming a harbour or anchorage. This word comes through
the French from Lat. moles, a mass, large structure. The name
of the " Mole of Hadrian " (moles Hadriani) is sometimes given
o the mausoleum of that emperor, now the castle of St Angelo
at Rome.
In zoology the name of mole (a contracted form of mould-
warp, i.e. mould-caster), is properly applicable to the common
mole (Talpa europaea), a small, soft-furred, burrowing mammal,
with minute eyes, and broad fossorial fore-feet, belonging to
he order Insectivora and the family Talpidae. In a wider sense
may be included under the same term the other Old World
moles, the North American star-nosed and other moles, and the
654-
MOLECULE
African golden moles of the family Chrysochloridae. In a still
wider sense the name is applied to the Asiatic zokors and the
African strand-moles, belonging to the order Rodentia, as well
as to the Australian marsupial mole.
The common mole is an animal about six inches in length,
with a tail of one inch. The body is long and cylindrical, and,
owing to the forward position of the front limbs, the head
appears to rest between the shoulders; the. muzzle is long and
obtusely pointed, terminated by the nostrils, which are close
together in front; the minute eye is almost hidden by the fur;
the ear is without a conch, opening on a level with the sur-
rounding skin; the fore-limbs are rather short and very muscular,
terminating in broad, naked, shovel-shaped feet, the palms
normally directed outwards, each with five sub-equal digits
armed with strong flattened claws; the hind-feet, on the contrary,
are long and narrow; and the toes are provided with slender
claws. The body is densely covered with soft, erect, velvety fur
the hairs uniform in length and thickness, except on the muzzle
and short tail, the former having some straight bristles on its
sides, whilst the latter is clothed with longer and coarser hairs.
The fur is generally black, with a more or less greyish tinge, or
brownish-black, but various paler shades up to pure white have
been observed.
The food of the mole consists chiefly of earthworms, in pursuit
of which it forms its well-known underground excavations.
The mole is one of the most voracious of mammals, and, if
deprived of food, is said to succumb in from ten to twelve hours.
Almost any kind of flesh is eagerly devoured by captive moles,
which have been seen, as if maddened by hunger, to attack
animals nearly as large as themselves, such as birds, lizards, frogs,
and even snakes; toads, however, they will not touch, and no
form of vegetable food attracts their notice. If two moles be
confined together without food, the weaker is invariably devoured
by the stronger. Moles take readily to the water in this respect ,
as well as in external form, resembling their North American
representatives. Bruce, writing in 1793, remarks that he saw
a mole paddling towards a small island in the Loch of Clunie,
1 80 yds. from land, on which he noticed molehills.
The sexes come together about the second week in March,
and the young generally from four to six in number which
are brought forth in about six weeks, quickly attain their full
size.
Much misconception has prevailed with regard to the structure
of the mole's " fortress," i.e. the large breeding hillock, which is
generally placed in bushes, or amid the roots of a tree ; but a trust-
worthy account, by Mr L. E. Adams, will be found in the Memoirs
of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society for 1903, vol.
xlvii., pt. 2.
The geographical distribution of the mole exceeds that of all the
other species of the genus taken together. It extends from England
to Japan, and from the Doyre-Fjeld Mountains in Scandinavia and
the Middle Dwina region in Russia to southern Europe and the
southern slopes of the Himalaya, where it occurs at an elevation of
10,000 ft. In Great Britain it is found as far north as Caithness,
but in Ireland and in the Western Isles of Scotland (except Mull)
it is unknown. (See INSECTIVORA.) (G. E. D.; R. L.*)
MOLECULE (from mod. Lat. molecula, the diminutive of
moles, a mass), in chemistry and physics, the minutest particle
of matter capable of separate existence. The word appears to
have been invented during the iyth century, and remained
synonymous with " atom " (Gr. aro/uos, from a-, privative, and
Ttnvav, to cut) until the middle of the igth century, when a
differentiation was established. " Atom " has mainly a chemical
import, being defined as the smallest particle of matter which
can take part in a chemical reaction; a "molecule" is composed
of atoms, generally two or more. For the detailed chemical
significance of these terms, see CHEMISTRY; and for the atomic
theory of the chemist (as distinguished from the atomic or
molecular theory of the physicist) see ATOM; reference may
also be made to the article MATTER.
The doctrine that matter can be divided into, or regarded as
composed of, discrete particles (termed " atoms " by early
writers, and " molecules " by modern ones) has at all times
played an important part in metaphysics and natural science.
The leading historical stages in the evolution of the modern
conception of the molecular structure of matter are treated in
the following passage from James Clerk Maxwell's article ATOM
in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit.
" Atom 1 (&TOIJ.OS) is a body which cannot be cut in two. The
atomic theory is a theory of the constitution of bodies which asserts
that they are made up of atoms. The opposite theory is that of the
homogeneity and continuity of bodies, and asserts, at least in the
case of bodies having no apparent organization, such, for instance, as
water, that as we can divide a drop of water into two parts which
are each of them drops of water, so we have reason to believe that
these smaller drops can be divided again, and the theory goes on
to assert that there is nothing in the nature of things to hinder this
process of division from being repeated over and over again, times
without end. This is the doctrine of the infinite divisibility of
bodies, and it is in direct contradiction with the theory of atoms.
" The atomists assert that after a certain number of such divisions
the parts would be no longer divisible, because each of them would
be an atom. The advocates of the continuity of matter assert that
the smallest conceivable body has parts, and that whatever has
parts may be divided.
" In ancient times Uemocritus was the founder of the atomic
theory, while Anaxagcras propounded that of continuity, under the
name of the doctrine of homoeomeria ('O/uoiOM^pio), or of the similarity
of the parts of a body to the whole. The arguments of the atomists,
and their replies to the objections of Anaxagoras, are to be found in
Lucretius.
" In modern times the study of nature has brought to light many
properties of bodies which appear to depend on the magnitude and
motions of their ultimate constituents, and the question of the exist-
ence of atoms has once more become conspicuous among scientific
inquiries.
We shall begin by stating the opposing doctrines of atoms and
of continuity. The most ancient philosophers whose speculations
are known to us seem to have discussed the ideas of number and of
continuous magnitude, of space and time, of matter and motion,
with a native power of thought which has probably never been sur-
passed. Their actual knowledge, however, and their scientific
experience were necessarily limited, because in their days the records
of human thought were only beginning to accumulate. It is
probable that the first exact notions of quantity were founded on the
consideration of number. It is by the help of numbers that concrete
quantities are practically measured and calculated. Now, number
is discontinuous. We pass from one number to the next per saltunt.
The magnitudes, on the other hand, which we meet with in geometry,
are essentially continuous. The attempt to apply numerical methods
to the comparison of geometrical quantities led to the doctrine of
incommensurables, and to that of the infinite divisibility of space.
Meanwhile, the same considerations had not been applied to time,
so that in the days of Zeno of Elea time was still regarded as made
up of a finite number of ' moments,' while space was confessed to
be divisible without limit. This was the state of opinion when the
celebrated arguments against the possibility of motion, of which
that of Achilles and the tortoise is a specimen, were propounded by
Zeno, and such, apparently, continued to be the state of opinion
till Aristotle pointed out that time is divisible without limit, in
precisely the same sense that space is. And the slowness of the
development of scientific ideas may be estimated from the fact that
Bayle does not see any force in this statement of Aristotle, but
continues to admire the paradox of Zeno (Bayle's Dictionary, art.
' Zeno '). Thus the direction of true scientific progress was for many
ages towards the recognition of the infinite divisibility of space and
time.
"It was easy to attempt to apply similar arguments to matter.
If matter is extended and nils space, the same mental operation by
which we recognize the divisibility of space may be applied, in imagi-
nation at least, to the matter which occupies space. From this
point of view the atomic doctrine might be regarded as a relic of the
old numerical way of conceiving magnitude, and the opposite doc-
trine of the infinite divisibility of matter might appear for a time
the most scientific. The atomists, on the other hand, asserted very
strongly the distinction between matter and space. The atoms,
they said, do not fill up the universe; there are void spaces between
them. If it were not so, Lucretius tells us, there could be no motion,
for the atom which gives way first must have some empty place to
move into.
' Quapropter locus est intactus, inane, vacansque
Quod si non esset, nulla ratione mover!
Res possent ; namque, oflficium quod corporis exstat,
Officere atque obstare, id in omni tempore adesset
Omnibus : haud igitur quicquam procedere posset,
Principium quoniam cedendi nulla daret res.'
De rerum natura, i. 335.
" The opposite school maintained then, as they have always done,
1 It will be noted that Clerk Maxwell's " atom " and " atomic
theory" have the significance which we now attach to " molecule "
and molecular theory."
MOLECULE
that there is no vacuum that every part of space is full of matter
that there is a universal plenum, and that all motion is like that of a
nsh in the water, which yields in front of the fish because the fish
leaves room for it behind.
Cedere squamigeris latices nitentibus aiunt
Et liquidas aperire yias, quia post loca pisces
Linquant, quo possint cedentes confluere undae.'
Ibid. i. 373.
In modern times Descartes held that, as it is of the essence of
matter to be extended in length, breadth and thickness, so it is of
the essence of extension to be occupied by matter, for extension
cannot be an extension of nothing.
' ' Ac proinde si quaeratur quid fiet, si Deus auferat omne corpus
quod in ahquo vase continetur, et nullum aliud in ablati locum
venire permittat? respondendum est, vasis latera sibi invicem hoc
ipso fore contigua. Cum enim inter duo corpora nihil interjacet,
necesse est ut se mutuo tangant, ac manifeste repugnat ut distent,
sive ut inter ipsa sit distantia, et tamen ut ista distantia sit nihil;
quia omnis distantia est modus extensionis, et ideo sine substantia
extensa esse non potest.' Principia, ii. 18.
" This identification of extension with substance runs through the
whole of Descartes's works, and it forms one of the ultimate founda-
tions of the system of Spinoza. Descartes, consistently with this
doctrine, denies the existence of atoms as parts of matter, which by
their own nature are indivisible. He seems to admit, however, that
the Deity might make certain particles of matter indivisible in this
sense, that no creature should be able to divide them. These par-
ticles, however, would be still divisible by their own nature, because
the Deity cannot diminish his own power, and therefore must retain
his power of dividing them. Leibniz, on the other hand, regarded
his^monad as the ultimate element of everything.
"There are thus two modes of thinking about the constitution of
bodies, which have had their adherents both in ancient and in modern
times. They correspond to the two methods of regarding quantity
the arithmetical and the geometrical. To the atomist the true
method of estimating the quantity of matter in a body is to count the
atoms of it. The void spaces between the atoms count for nothing.
To those who identify matter with extension, the volume of space
occupied by a body is the only measure of the quantity of matter
in it.
"Of the different forms of the atomic theory that of R. J.
Boscovich may be taken as an example of the purest monadism.
According to Boscovich matter is made up of atoms. Each atom
is an indivisible point, having position in space, capable of motion
in a continuous path, and possessing a certain mass, whereby a
certain amount of force is required to produce a given change of
motion. Besides this the atom is endowed with potential force,
that is to say, that any two atoms attract or repel each other
with a force depending on their distance apart. The law of this
force, for all distances greater than say the thousandth' of an inch,
is an attraction varying as the inverse square of the distance. For
smaller distances the force is an attraction for one distance and a
repulsion for another, according to some law not yet discovered.
Boscovich himself, in order to obviate the possibility of two atoms
ever being in the same place, asserts that the ultimate force is a
repulsion which increases without limit as the distance diminishes
without limit, so that two atoms can never coincide. But this
seems an unwarrantable concession to the vulgar opinion that two
bodies cannot co-exist in the same place. This opinion is deduced
from our experience of the behaviour of bodies of sensible size,
but we have no experimental evidence that two atoms may not some-
times coincide. For instance, if oxygen and hydrogen combine
to form water, we have no experimental evidence that the molecule
of oxygen is not in the very same place with the two molecules of
hydrogen. Many persons cannot get rid of the opinion that all
matter is extended in length, breadth and depth. This is a pre-
judice of the same kind with the last, arising from our experience
of bodies consisting of immense multitudes of atoms. The system
of atoms, according to Boscovich, occupies a certain region of space
in virtue of the forces acting between the component atoms of the
system and any other atoms when brought near them. No other
system of atoms can occupy the same region of space at the same
time, because before it could do so the mutual action of the atoms
would have caused a repulsion between the two systems insuperable
by any force which we can command. Thus, a number of soldiers
with firearms may occupy an extensive region to the exclusion of the
enemy's armies, though the space filled by their bodies is but small.
In this way Boscovich explained the apparent extension of bodies
consisting of atoms, each of which is devoid of extension. According
to Boscovich's theory, all action between bodies is action at a dis-
tance. There is no such thing in nature as actual contact between
two bodies. When two bodies are said in ordinary language to be in
contact, all that is meant is that they are so near together that the
repulsion between the nearest pairs of atoms belonging to the two
bodies is very great.
" Thus, in Boscovich's theory, the atom has continuity of existence
in time and space. At any instant of time it is at some point of
space, and it is never in more than one place at a time. It passes
from one place to another along a continuous path. It has a definite
655
mass which cannot be increased or diminished. Atoms are endowed
with the power of acting on one another by attraction or repulsion,
the amount of the force depending on the distance between them.
Un the other hand, the atom itself has no parts or dimensions In
its geometrical aspect it is a mere geometrical point. It has no
extension in space. It has not the so-called property, of Impene-
trability, for two atoms may exist in the same place. This we may
regard as one extreme of the various opinions about the constitution
of bodies.
"The opposite extreme, that of Anaxagoras the theory that
bodies apparently homogeneous and continuous are so in reality-
is, in its extreme form, a theory incapable of development. To ex-
plain the properties of any substance by this theory is impossible.
We can only admit the observed properties of such substance as
Itimate facts There is a certain stage, however, of scientific
progress in which a method corresponding to this theory is of service
In hydrostatics, for instance, we define a fluid by means of one of
its known properties, and from this definition we make the system
ot deductions which constitutes tne science of hydrostatics. In
this way the science of hydrostatics may be built upon an experi-
mental basis without any consideration of the constitution of a
fluid as to whether it is molecular or continuous. In like manner,
alter the French mathematicians had attempted, with more or less
ingenuity, to construct a theory of elastic solids from the hypothesis
that they consist of atoms in equilibrium under the action of their
mutual forces, Stokes and others showed that all the results of this
hypothesis, so far at least as they agreed with facts, might be deduced
rom the postulate that elastic bodies exist, and from the hypothesis
that the smallest portions into which we can divide them are sensibly
homogeneous. In this way the principle of continuity, which
is the basis of the method of Fluxions and the whole of modern
mathematics, may be applied to the analysis of problems connected
with material bodies by assuming them, for the purpose of this
ana ysis to be homogeneous. All that is required to make the results
applicable to the real case is that the smallest portions of the sub-
stance of which we take any notice shall be sensibly of the same kind.
1 hus, if a railway contractor has to make a tunnel through a hill of
gravel, and if one cubic yard of the gravel is so like another cubic
yard that for the purposes of the contract they may be taken as
equivalent, then, in estimating the work required to remove the
gravel from the tunnel, he may, without fear of error, make his
calculations as if the gravel were a continuous substance. But if
a worm has to make his way through the gravel, it makes the greatest
possible difference to him whether he tries to push right against
a piece of gravel, or directs his course through one of the intervals
between the pieces; to him, therefore, the gravel is by no means a
homogeneous and continuous substance.
" In the same way, a theory that some particular substance, say
water, is homogeneous and continuous may be a good working
theory up to a certain point, but may fail when we come to deal
with quantities so minute or so attenuated that their heterogeneity
of structure comes into prominence. Whether this heterogeneity of
structure is or is not consistent with homogeneity and continuity
of ^substance is another question.
" The extreme form of the doctrine of continuity is that stated by
Descartes, who maintains that the whole universe is equally full of
matter, and that this matter is all of one kind, having no essential
property besides that of extension. All the properties which we
perceive in matter he reduces to its parts being movable among one
another, and so capable of all the varieties which we can perceive
to follow from the motion of its parts (Principia, ii. 23). Descartes's
own attempts to deduce the different qualities and actions of bodies
in this way are not of much value. More than a century was
required to invent methods of investigating the conditions of the
notion of systems of bodies such as Descartes imagined. But the
lydrodynamical discovery of Helmholtz that a vortex in a perfect
iquid possesses certain permanent characteristics has been applied
)y Sir W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) to form a theory of vortex atoms
n a homogeneous, incompressible and frictionless liquid."
THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF MATTER
An enormous mass of experimental evidence now shows quite
conclusively that matter cannot be regarded as having a con-
tinuous structure, but that it is ultimately composed of discrete
sarts. The smallest unit of matter with which physical pheno-
mena are concerned is the molecule. When chemical phenomena
occur the molecule may be divided into atoms, and these atoms,
n the presence of electrical phenomena, may themselves be
urther divided into electrons or corpuscles. It ought accordingly
to be possible to explain all the non-electrical and non-chemical
properties of matter by treating matter as an aggregation of
molecules. In point of fact it is found that the properties which
are most easily explained are those connected with the gaseous
state; the explanation of these properties in terms of the mole-
cular structure of matter is the aim of the " Kinetic Theory of
Gases." The results of this theory have placed the molecular
656
MOLECULE
conception of matter in an indisputable position, but even
without this theory there is such an accumulation of electrical
and optical evidence in favour of the molecular conception of
matter that the tenability of this conception could not be
regarded as open to question.
The Scale of Molecular Structure. Apart from speculation,
the first definite evidence for the molecular structure of matter
occurs when it is found that certain physical phenomena change
their whole nature as soon as we deal with matter of which the
linear dimensions are less than a certain amount. As a single
instance of this may be mentioned some experiments of Lord
Rayleigh (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 47, p. 364), who found that
a film of olive oil spread over the surface of water produced a
perceptible effect on small floating pieces of camphor, at places
at which the thickness of the film was io-6XicT 8 cms., but
produced no perceptible effect at all at places where the thickness
of the film was 8-iXio~ 8 cms. Thus a certain phenomenon,
of the nature of capillary action, is seen to depend for its existence
on the linear dimensions of the film of oil; the physical properties
of a film of thickness io-6Xio~ 8 cms. are found to be in some
way qualitatively different from those of a film of thickness
8-iXio~ 8 cms. Here is proof that the film of oil is not a con-
tinuous homogeneous structure, and we are led to suspect that
the scale on which the structure is formed has a unit of length
comparable with SXio" 8 cms. The probability of this con-
jecture is strengthened when it is discovered that in all pheno-
mena of this type the critical length connected with the stage
at which the phenomenon changes its nature is of the order of
magnitude of io~ 8 cms.
Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag. 1890 [5], 30, p. 474) has pointed
out that the earliest known attempt to estimate the size of
molecules, made by Thomas Young in 1805, was based upon the
consideration of phenomena of the kind just mentioned. Dis-
cussing the theory of capillary attractions, Young 1 found that
at a rough estimate " the extent of the cohesive force must be
limited to about the 25o-millionth of an inch " (=10"* cms.),
and then argues that " within similar limits of uncertainty we
may obtain something like a conjectural estimate of the mutual
distance of the particles of vapours, and even of the actual
magnitude of the elementary atoms of liquids. ... It appears
tolerably safe to conclude that, whatever errors may have
affected the determination, the diameter or distance of the
particles of water is between the two thousand and the ten
thousand millionth of an inch" ( = between i2^'X.io~ s and
025 X icT 8 cms.).
The best estimates which we now possess of the sizes of mole-
cules are provided by calculations based upon the kinetic theory
of gases. In the following table are given the values of the
diameters of the molecules of six substances with which it is
easy to experiment in the gaseous state, these values being
calculated in different ways from formulae supplied by the
kinetic theory.
Diameter calculated by the kinetic theory of gases.
Gas.
From devia-
tions from
Boyle's law.
From co-
efficient of
viscosity.
From co-
efficient of
conduction of
heat.
From co-
efficient of
diffusion.
Mean value.
Hydrogen
2-05 X IQ-*
2-05X10-*
I-99XIO-8
2-02x10-8
2-03XIO-8
Carbon
monoxide
Nitrogen
Air . .
3-I2XIO- 8
2-90X10-8
2-90X10-8
2-90X10-8
2-86X10-8
2-74X10-8
2-72XIO-8
2-92x10-*
2-85XIO-*
2-92X10-8
2-83X10-8
Oxygen
2-8lXio-
2-58X10-8
2-70x10-*
2-70X10-8
Carbon
dioxide
3-OOXIO-*
3-47X10-8
3-58X10-8
3-28x10-8
3'33 Xio" 8
The agreement of the values obtained for the same quantity
by different methods provides valuable confirmation of the
truth of the molecular theory and of the validity of the methods
of the kinetic theory of gases. That the results do not agree even
1 " On the Cohesions of Fluids," Phil. Trans. (1805); Young's
Coll. Works, i. 461. .
better need not cause surprise when it is stated that the quantities
are calculated on the hypothesis that the molecules are spherical
in shape. This hypothesis is introduced for the sake of sim-
plicity, but is known to be unjustifiable in fact. What is given
by the formulae is accordingly the mean radius of an irregularly
shaped solid (or, more probably, of the region in which the field
of force surrounding such a solid is above a certain intensity),
and the mean has to be taken in different ways in the different
phenomena. This and the difficulty of obtaining accurate
experimental results fully account for the differences inter se
in the values of the quantities calculated.
Heat a Manifestation of Molecular Motion. An essential
j feature of the modern view of the structure of matter is that
the molecules are supposed to be in rapid motion relatively to
one another. We are led to this conception by a number of
experimental results, some of which will be mentioned later.
We are compelled also to suppose that the motion assumes
different forms in different substances. Roughly speaking, it
is found that there are three main types of molecular motion
corresponding to the three states of matter solid, liquid and
gaseous. That the distances traversed by the molecules of a
solid are very small in extent is shown by innumerable facts
of everyday observation, as for instance, the fact that the surface
of a finely-carved metal (such as a plate used for steel engraving)
will retain its exact shape for centuries, or again, the fact that
when a metal body is coated with gold-leaf the molecules of the
gold remain on its surface indefinitely: if they moved through
any but the smallest distances they would soon become mixed
with the molecules of the baser metal and diffused through its
interior. Thus the molecules of a solid must make only small
excursions about their mean positions. In a gas the state of
things is very different; an odour is known to spread rapidly
through great distances, even in the stillest air, and a gaseous
poison or corrosive will attack not only those objects which are
in contact with its source but also all those which can be reached
by the motion of its molecules.
As a preliminary to examining further into the nature of
molecular motion and the differences of character of this motion,
let us try to picture the state of things which would exist in
a mass of solid matter in which all the molecules are imagined
to be at rest relatively to one another. The fact that a solid
body in its natural state is capable both of compression and
of dilatation indicates that the molecules of the body must not
be supposed to be fixed rigidly in position relative to one another;
the further fact that a motion of either compression or of dilata-
tion is opposed by forces which are brought into play in the
interior of the solid suggests that the position of rest is one in
which the molecules are in stable equilibrium under their
mutual forces. Such a mass of imaginary matter as we are now
considering may be compared to a collection of heavy particles
held in position relatively to one another by a system of light
spiral springs, one spring being supposed to connect each pair
of adjacent particles. Let two such masses of matter
be suspended by strings from the same point, and
then let one mass be drawn aside, pendulum-wise,
and allowed to impinge on the other. After impact
the two masses will rebound, and the process may
be repeated any number of times, but ultimately
the two masses will be found again hanging in con-
tact side by side. At the first impact each layer of
surface molecules which takes the shock of the
impact will be thrust back upon the layer behind
it: this layer will in this way be set into motion
and so influence the layer still further behind;
and so on indefinitely. The impact will accordingly
result in all the molecules being set into motion,
and by the time that the masses have ceased impinging
on one another the molecules of which they are composed
will be performing oscillations about their positions of
equilibrium. The kinetic energy with which the moving mass
originally impinged on that at rest is now represented by the
energy, kinetic and potential, of the small motions of the
MOLECULE
657
individual molecules. It is known, however, that when two
bodies impinge, the kinetic energy which appears to be lost
from the mass-motion of the bodies is in reality transformed
into heat-energy. Thus the molecular theory of matter, as we
have now pictured it, leads us to identify heat-energy in a body
with the energy of motion of the molecules of the body relatively
to one another. A body in which all the molecules were at rest
relatively to one another would be a body devoid of heat. This
conception of the nature of heat leads at once to an absolute
zero of temperature a temperature of no heat-motion which
is identical, as will be seen later, with that reached in other
ways, namely, about - 273 C.
The point of view which has now been gained enables us to
interpret most of the thermal properties of solids in terms of
molecular theory. Suppose for instance that two bodies, both
devoid of heat, are placed in contact with one another, and
that the surface of the one is then rubbed over that of the other.
The molecules of the two surface-layers will exert forces upon
one another, so that, when the rubbing takes place, each layer
will set the molecules of the other into motion, and the energy
of rubbing will be used in establishing this heat-motion. In
this we see the explanation of the phenomenon of the generation
of heat by friction. At first the heat-motion will be confined
to molecules near the rubbing surfaces of the two bodies, but,
as already explained, these will in time set the interior molecules
into motion, so that ultimately the heat-motion will become
spread throughout the whole mass. Here we have an instance
of the conduction of heat. 1 When the molecules are oscillating
about their equilibrium positions, there is no reason why their
mean distance apart should be the same as when they are at
rest. This leads to an interpretation of the fact that a change
of dimensions usually attends a change in the temperature of
a substance. Suppose for instance that two molecules, when
at rest in equilibrium, are at a distance a apart. It is very
possible that the repulsive force they exert when at a distance
a-e may be greater than the attractive force they exert when
at a distance a + e. If so, it is clear that their mean distance
apart, averaged through a sufficiently long interval of their
motion, will be greater than a. A body made up of molecules of
this kind will expand on heating.
As the temperature of a body increases the average energy
of the molecules will increase, and therefore the range of their
excursions from their positions of equilibrium will increase also.
At a certain temperature a stage will be reached in which it
is a frequent occurrence for a molecule to wander so far from its
position of equilibrium, that it does not return but falls into a
new position of equilibrium and oscillates about this. When
the body is in this state the relative positions of the molecules
are not permanently fixed, so that the body is no longer of
unalterable shape: it has assumed a plastic or molten condition.
The substance attains to a perfectly liquid state as soon as the
energy of motion of the molecules is such that there is a constant
rearrangement of position among them.
A molecule escaping from its original position in a body will
usually fall into a new position in which it will be held in
equilibrium by the forces from a new set of neighbouring mole-'
cules. But if the wandering molecule was originally close to
the surface of the body, and if it also happens to start off in the
right direction, it may escape from the body altogether and
describe a free path in space until it is checked by meeting a
second wandering molecule or other obstacle. The body is
continually losing mass by the loss of individual molecules in
this way, and this explains the process of evaporation. More-
over, the molecules which escape are, on the whole, those with
the greatest energy. The average energy of the molecules of
the liquid is accordingly lowered by evaporation. In this we see
the explanation of the fall of temperature which accompanies
evaporation.
When a liquid undergoing evaporation is contained in a closed
vessel, a molecule which has left the liquid will, after a certain
1 Other processes also help in the conduction of heat, especially
in substances which are conductors of electricity.
number of collisions with other free molecules and with the sides
of the vessel, fall back again into the liquid. Thus the process
of evaporation is necessarily accompanied by a process of recon-
densation. When a stage is reached such that the number of
molecules lost to the liquid by evaporation is exactly equal to
that regained by condensation, we have a liquid in equilibrium
with its own vapour. If the whole liquid becomes vaporized
before this stage is attained, a state will exist in which the vessel
is occupied solely by free molecules, describing paths which
are disturbed only by encounters with other free molecules or
the sides of the vessel. This is the conception which the
molecular theory compels us to form of the gaseous state.
At normal temperature and pressure the density of a substance
in the gaseous state is of the order of one-thousandth of the
density of the same substance in the solid or liquid state. It
follows that the average distance apart of the molecules in the
gaseous state is roughly ten times as great as in the solid or
liquid state, and hence that in the gaseous state the molecules
are at distances apart which are large compared with their
linear dimensions, (If the molecules of air at normal tem-
perature and pressure were arranged in cubical order, the edge
of each cube would be about 2-9X10-' cms.; the average
diameter of a molecule in air is 2-8Xio- 8 cms.) Further
and very important evidence as to the nature of the gaseous state
of matter is provided by the experiments of Joule and Kelvin.
These experiments showed that the change in the temperature of
a gas, consequent on its being allowed to stream out into a
vacuum, is in general very slight. In terms of the molecular
theory this indicates that the total energy of the gas is the sum
of the separate energies of its different molecules: the potential
energy arising from intermolecular forces between pairs of
molecules may be treated as negligible when the matter is in
the gaseous state.
These two simplifying facts bring the properties of the gaseous
state of matter within the range of mathematical treatment.
The kinetic theory of gases attempts to give a mathematical
account, in terms of the molecular structure of matter, of all
the non-chemical and non-electrical properties of gases. The
remainder of this article is devoted to a brief statement of the
methods and results of the kinetic theory. No attempt will
be made to follow the historic order of development, but the
present theory will be set out in its most logical form and order.
The Kinetic Theory of Gases.
A number of molecules moving in obedience to dynamical
laws will pass through a series of configurations which can be
theoretically determined as soon as the structure of each molecule
and the initial position and velocity of every part of it are known.
The determination of the series of configurations developing
out of given initial conditions is not, however, the problem of
the kinetic theory: the object of this theory is to explain the
general properties of all gases in terms only of their molecular
structure. We are therefore called upon, not to trace the series
of configurations of any single gas, starting from definite initial
conditions, but to search for features and properties common to
all series of configurations, independently of the particular
initial conditions from which the gas may have started.
We begin with a general dynamical theorem, whose special appli-
cation, when the dynamical system is identified with a gas, will
appear later. Let qi, qi, . . . g be the generalized co- Dyaamlcal
ordinatesof any dynamical system, and let p\, pi, . . . p n g^/g.
be the corresponding momenta. If the system is
supposed to obey the conservation of energy and to move solely
under its own internal forces, the changes in the co-ordinates and
momenta can be found from the Hamiltonian equations
dE
, }
where q r denotes dq r /dt, &c., and E is the total energy expressed as
a function of pi, qi, . . . p*, g. When the initial values of pi, qi .
p n , q n , are given, the motion can be traced completely from these
equations.
Let us suppose that an infinite number of exactly similar systems
start simultaneously from all possible values of pi, Oi, . . . p, ?-,,
each moving solely under its own internal forces, and therefore in
accordance with equations (i). Let us confine our attention to those
658
MOLECULE
systems for which the initial values of pi, qi, . . . pn, g lie within
a range such that
pi is between pi and pi+dpi
qi qi qi+dqi, and soon.
Let the product dpi dqi . . . dp* dq n be spoken of as the " extension "
of this range of values.
After a time dt the value of *i will have increased to pi+pidt,
where pi is given by equations (l), and there will be similar changes
in gi, p s , qi, . . . q n . Thus after a time dt the values of the co-
ordinates and momenta of the small group of systems under con-
sideration will lie within a range such that
dt
pi is between pi+pidl and pi+dpi -f (p
qi qi+qidt qi+dqi+ qi+-dq di,
and so on. Thus the extension of the range after the interval dt is
or, expanding as far as first powers of dt,
From equations (i), we find that
so that the extension of the new range is seen to be dpidqi . . . dp n dq n ,
and therefore equal to the initial extension. Since the values of the
co-ordinates and momenta at any instant during the motion may be
treated as " initial " values, it is clear that the " extension "of the
range must remain constant throughout the whole motion.
This result at once disposes of the possibility of all the systems
acquiring any common characteristic in the course of their motion
through a tendency for their co-ordinates or momenta to concentrate
about any particular set, or series of sets, of values. But the result
goes further than this. Let us imagine that the systems had the
initial values of their co-ordinates and momenta so arranged that the
number of systems for which the co-ordinates and momenta were
within a given range was proportional simply to the extension of
the range. Then the result proves that the values of the co-
ordinates and momenta remain distributed in this way throughout
the whole motion of the systems. Thus, if there is any character-
istic which is common to all the systems after the motion has been
in progress for any interval of time, this same characteristic must
equally have been common to all the systems initially. It must,
in fact, be a characteristic of all possible states of the systems.
It is accordingly clear that there can be no property common to
all systems, but it can be shown that when the system contains
a gas (or any other aggregation of similar molecules) as part of it
there are properties which are common to all possible states, except
for a number which form an insignificant fraction of the whole.
These properties are found to account for the physical properties of
gases.
Let the whole energy E of the system be supposed equal to Ei+E 2 ,
where Ez is of the form
) (2)
where 61,62, . . . 6 n and similarly <fo, fa, . . . <t>m are any momenta
or functions of the co-ordinates and momenta or co-ordinates alone
which are subject only to the condition that they do not enter into
the coefficients 01, 02, &c.
In this expression the first line may be supposed to represent the
energy (or part of the energy) of s similar molecules of a kind which
we shall call the first kind, the terms ^(mu^+mif+mw 1 ) being
the kinetic energy of translation, and the remaining terms arising
from energy of rotation or of internal motion, or from the energy,
kinetic and potential, of small vibrations. The second line in E 2
will represent the energy (or part of the energy) of s' similar mole-
cules of the second kind, and so on. It is not at present necessary
to suppose that the molecules are those of substances in the gaseous
state. Considering only those states of the system which have a
given value of E 2 , it can be proved, as a theorem in pure mathematics, 1
that when s, s', . . . are very large, then, for all states except an
infinitesimal fraction of the whole number, the values of u, v, w lie
within ranges such that
(i) the values of u (and similarly of v, w) are distributed among
the i molecules of the first kind according to the law of trial and error ;
and similarly of course for the molecules of other kinds:
(ii)
(3)
A state of the system in which these two properties are true
will be called a " normal state " ; other states will be spoken of as
"abnormal." Let all possible states of the system be _
divided into small ranges of equal extension, and of state
these let a number P correspond to normal, and a number
p to abnormal, states. What is proved is that, as i, s', . . . become
very great, the ratio P/p becomes infinite. Considering only
systems starting in the p abnormal ranges, it is clear, from the fact
that the extensions of the ranges 'do not change with the motion,
that after a sufficient time most of these systems must have passed
into the P normal ranges. Speaking loosely, we may say that there
is a probability P/(P+/>), amounting to certainty in the limit, that
one of these systems, selected at random, will be in the normal state
after a sufficient time has elapsed. Again, considering the systems
which start from the P normal ranges, we see that there is a prob-
ability p/(P+p) which vanishes in the limit, that a system selected
at random from these will be in an abnormal state after a sufficient
time. Thus, subject to a probability of error which is infinitesimal
in the limit, we may state as general laws that
A system starting from an abnormal state tends to assume the normal
state; while
A system starting from the normal state will remain in the normal
state.
It will now be found that the various properties of gases follow
from the supposition that the gas is in the normal state.
If each of the fractions (3) is put equal to I/4&, it is readily found,
from the first property of the normal state, that, of the^ aB , / D / s .
s molecules of the first kind, a number tributloa of
sVl^V^e~*'" (u2 *'' 24l '' 2> <*MJt)<fa/ (4) Velocities.
have velocities of which the components lie between u and u-\-du,
v and v+dv, w and w+dw, while the corresponding number of mole-
cules of the second kind is, similarly,
(5)
1 See Jeans, Dynamical Theory of Gases (1904), ch. v.
If c is the resultant velocity of a molecule, so that c 2 = *
it is readily found from formula (4) that the number of molecules
of the first kind of which the resultant velocity lies between c and
c+dc is
These formulae express the " law of distribution of velocities "
in the normal state : the law is often called Maxwell's Law of Dis-
tribution^
If 5i 2 denote the mean value of \rnif averaged over the
x molecules of the first kind, equations (3) may be written in the form
%mif = $mv 2 = \mw* = joi9 2 i = ... = I j^h, (7) Equlpartl-
showing that the mean energy represented by each tloa of
term in 2 (formula 2) is the same. These equations Energy.
express the " law of equipartition of energy," commonly spoken
of as the Maxwell-Boltzmann Law.
The law of equipartition shows that the various mean energies
of different kinds are all equal, each being measured by the quantity
1/4^. We have already seen that the mean energy in-
creases with the temperature: it will now be supposed Tempen-
that the mean energy is exactly proportional to the n '
temperature. The complete justification for this supposition will
appear later: a partial justification is obtained as soon as it is seen
how many physical laws can be explained by it. We accordingly
put l/2h = RT, where T denotes the temperature on the absolute
scale, and then have equations (7) in the form
'mu i = rmf= .. . =RT. (8)
When a system is composed of a mixture of different kinds of
molecules, the fact that h is the same for each constituent [cf.
formulae (5) and (6)] shows that in the normal state the different
substances are all at the same temperature. For instance, if the
system is composed of a gas and a solid boundary, some of the terms
in expression (2) may be supposed to represent the kinetic energy of
the molecules of the boundary, so that equations (7) show that in
the normal state the gas has the same temperature as the boundary.
The process of equalization of temperature is now seen to be a special
form of the process of motion towards the normal state : the general
laws which have been stated above in connexion with the normal
state are seen to include as special cases the following laws:
Matter originally at non-uniform temperature tends to assume a
uniform temperature; while
Matter at uniform temperature will remain at uniform temperature.
It will at once be apparent that the kinetic theory of matter enables
us to place the second law of thermodynamics upon a purely dynami-
cal basis. So far it has not been necessary to suppose the matter
to be in the gaseous state. We now pass to the consideration of laws
and properties which are peculiar to the gaseous state.
A simple approximate calculation of the pressure exerted by a
gas on its containing vessel can be made by supposing that the mole-
cules are so small in comparison with their distances .
apart that they may be treated as of infinitesimal size.
Let a mixture of gases contain per unit volume v mole- *
cules of the first kind, ' of the second kind, and so on. Let
us fix our attention on a small area dS of the boundary of the
MOLECULE
vessel, and let co-ordinate axes be taken such that the origin is in
db, and the axis of * is the normal at the origin into the gas. The
number of molecules of the first kind of gas, whose components
of velocity lie within the ranges between u and u+du, v and v+dv
w and w+dw, will, by formula (5), be
per unit volume. Construct a small cylinder inside the gas, having
db as base and edges such that the projections of each on the co-
ordinate axes are udt, vdt, wdt. Each of the molecules enumerated
in expression (9) will move parallel to the edge of this cylinder, and
each will describe a length equal to its edge in time dt. Thus
each of these molecules which is initially inside the cylinder, will
impinge on the area dS within an interval dt. The cylinder is of
volume u dt dS, so that the product of this and expression (9) must
give the number of impacts between the area dS and molecules of
the kind under consideration within the interval dt. Each impinging
molecule exerts an impulsive pressure equal to mu on the boundary
before the component of velocity of its centre of gravity normal to
the boundary is reduced to zero. Thus the contribution to the total
impulsive pressure exerted on the area dS in time dt from this cause
is
muXudldS X *V (h 3 m 3 /TT 3 )e- hm <-''* + ***" 2 )dudvdw (io)
The total pressure exerted in bringing the centres of gravity of
all the colliding molecules to rest normally to the boundary is ob-
tained by first integrating this expression with respect to u, v, w,
the limits being all values for which collisions are possible (namely
from oo to o for u, and from oo to + oo for and w), and then
summing for all kinds of molecules in ths gas. Further impulsive
pressures are required to restart into motion ail the molecules which
have undergone collision. The aggregate amount of these pressures
is clearly the sum of the momenta, normal to the boundary, of all
molecules which have left dS within a time dt, and this will be given
by expression (io), integrated with respect to u from o to oo, and
with respect to v and w from - oo to -f oo , and then summed for all
kinds of molecules in the gas. On combining the two parts of the
pressure which have been calculated, the aggregate impulsive
pressure on dS in time dt is found to be
Sdt dS fJJ i-V (A s m 3 /x 3 )e-'"( 2+ 2 ^ 2 >w2dttdpda>,
where 2 denotes summation over all kinds of molecules. This is
equivalent to a steady pressure pi per unit area where
pi -2J/J "V (h > m 3 lr 3 )e-*".<''*+'^)mu*dudvdw.
Clearly the integral is the sum of the values of mi? for all the
molecules of the first kind in unit volume, thus
On substituting from equations (7) and (8), this expression assumes
the forms
--('+"' +...)l_2h (12)
6 59
The number of molecules per unit volume in a gas at normal tem-
perature and pressure is known to be about 2-75 X io 19 . If in formula
.. . . (13) we put ^ = 1-013X10', (v+i>'-{- . . .)=2-75Xio 19
Velars T = 2 73- we obtain R = 1-35X10 ~ u and this enables us
' to determine the mean velocities produced by heat
motion in molecules of any given mass. For molecules of known
gases the calculation is still easier. If p is the density correspond-
ing to pressure p, we find that formula (ii) assumes the form
where C is a velocity such that the gas would have its actual transla-
tional energy if each molecule moved with the same velocity C. By
substituting experimentally determined pairs of values of p and p
we can calculate C for different gases, and so obtain a knowledge
of the magnitudes of the molecular velocities. For instance, it is
found that
for hydrogen at o Cent. C = 183,900 cms. per sec.
,, air ,, ' 15" C= 49,800 ,
,, mercury vapour at o C= 18,500 r ,
and other velocities can readily be calculated.
From the value R = I -35 X io~ 16 it is readily calculated that a mole-
cule, or aggregation of molecules, of mass io ~ u grammes, ought to
have a mean velocity of about 2 millimetres a second at
rowa in ^ Q o q Such a velocity ought accordingly to be set up in a
' particle of io ~ 12 grammes mass immersed in air or liquid
at O C., by the continual jostling of the surrounding molecules or
particles. A particle of this mass is easily visible microscopically,
and a velocity of 2 mm. per second would of course be visible if
continued for a sufficient length of time. Each bombardment will,
however, change the motion of the particle, so that changes are too
frequent for the separate motions to be individually visible. But
it can be shown that from the aggregation of these separate short
motions the particle ought to have a resultant motion, described
with an average velocity which, although much smaller than 2 mm.
a second, ought still to be microscopically visible. It has been shown
by R. von. S. Smoluchowski (Ann. d. Phys., 1906, 21, p. 756) that this
theoretically predicted motion is simply that seen in the " Brownian
movement^ first observed by the botanist Robert Brown in 1827.
1 hus the Brownian movements " provide visual demonstration
n i re ? lil: y of the heat-motion postulated by the kinetic theory.
Dalton s Law. The pressure as given by formula ( 1 2) I can be written
is the sum of a number of separate terms, one for each
gas in the mixture. Hence we have Dalton's law: Pressure,
The pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pres- Volume and
sures which would be exerted separately by the several Temperature
constituents if each alone were present. ' Relations.
Avogadro's Law. From formula (13) it appears that v+'+ . . .,
the total number of molecules per unit volume, is determined when
p, T and the constant R are given. Hence we have Avogadro's law :
Different gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
numbers of molecules per unit volume.
Boyle's and Charles' Laws.U v is the volume of a homogeneous
mass of gas, and N the total number of its molecules, N =v(v+v' +
. . .), so that
pv = RNT. (14)
In this equation we have the combined laws of Boyle and Charles:
When the temperature of a gas is kept constant the pressure varies
inversely as the volume, and when the volume is kept constant the
pressure varies as the temperature.
Since the volume at constant pressure is exactly proportional to
the absolute temperature, it follows that the coefficients of expansion
of all gases ought, to within the limits of error introduced by the
assumptions on which we are working, to have the same value 1/27*.
Van der Waals's Equation- -The laws which have just been stated
are obeyed very approximately, but not with perfect accuracy, by
all gases of which the density is not too great or the temperature too
low. Van der Waals, in a famous monograph, On the Continuity
of the Liquid and Gaseous States (Leiden, 1873), has shown that the
imperfections of equation (14) may be traced to two causes :
(i.) The calculation has not allowed for the finite size of the
molecules, and their consequent interference with one another's
motion, and
(ii.) The calculation has not allowed for the field of inter-molecular
force between the molecules, which, although small, is known to
have a real existence. The presence of this field of force results in
the molecules, when they reach the boundary, being acted on by
forces in addition to those originating in their impact with the
boundary.
To allow for the first of these two factors, Van der Waals finds that
v in equation (14) must be replaced by v b, where 6 is four times
the aggregate space occupied by all the molecules, while to allow for
the second factor, p must be replaced by p+a/ti 2 . Thus the pressure
is given by the equation
which is known as Van der Waals's equation. This equation is
found experimentally to be capable of representing the relation
between p, v, and T over large ranges of values. (See CONDENSATION
OF GASES.)
Let us consider a single gas, consisting of N similar molecules in a
volume v, and let the energy of each molecule, as in Colortmetry.
formula (2) be given by
E = j2(TOM 2 +mt> 2 -|-WK> 2 -t-ai0i 2 -|- . . . a n 2 ) (15)
N
= N(+3)/4& by equation (7)
= K+3)RNT. (16)
Let a quantity dQ of energy, measured in work units, be absorbed
by the gas from some external source, so that its pressure, volume
and temperature change. The quation of energy is
3 = dE-H>dt% (17)
expressing that the total energy dQ is used partly in increasing
the internal energy of the gas, and partly in expanding the gas
against the pressure *. If we take = RNT/z> from equation (14)
and substitute for E from equation (16), this last equation becomes
r-3)RNdT+RNTdn/ V , (18)
which may be taken as the general equation of calorimetry, for a
gas which accurately obeys equation (14).
Second Law of Thermodynamics. If we divide throughout by T,
we obtain
dQ i / , \r,-\idT
showing that dQ/T is a perfect differential. This not only verifies
that the second law of thermodynamics is obeyed, but enables us
to identify T with the absolute thermodynamical temperature.
If the volume of the gas is kept constant, we put dt> = o in
equation (18) and dQ = JC.NmdT, where C, is the specific Specific
heat of the gas at constant volume and J is the mechani- Heats.
cal equivalent of heat. We obtain
C, = i(+3)R/J- (19)
On the other hand, if the pressure of the gas is- keot constant
MOLE-RAT MOLESWORTH, LORD
66o
throughout the motion, T/ is constant and dQ = ]C p Nmd~r, whence
By division of the values of C, and C, we find for 7, the ratio of
the specific heats.
7 = i+2/(n+3). ( 2I )
The comparison of this formula with experiment provides a
striking confirmation of the truth of the kinetic theory but at the
same time discloses the most formidable difficulty which the theory
has so far had to encounter.
On giving different values to in formula (21), we obtain the
values for 7 :
n = o, I, 2, 3, 4, 5-
7 = 1-66, 1-5, 1-4, i'33. 1-28, 1-25, &c.
Thus, to within the degree of approximation to which our theory
is accurate, the value of 7 for every gas ought to be one of this series.
The following are the values of 7 for gases for which 7 can be observed
with some accuracy :
Mercury . . . .1-66 Nitrogen . . . .1-40
Krypton . . . .1-66 Carbon monoxide . .1-41
Helium . . . .1-65 Hydrogen . . . .1-40
Argon . . . .1-62 Oxygen . . . . .1-40
Air i - 4O Hydrochloric acid . . 1-39
It is clear that for the first four gases n = o, while for the remainder
n = 2. To examine what is meant by a zero value of re we refer to
formula (15). The value of re is the number of terms in the energy
of the molecule beyond that due to translation. Thus when n = o,
the whole energy must be translational : there can be no energy of
rotation or of internal motion. The molecules of gases for which
n = o must accordingly be spherical in shape and in internal structure,
or at least must behave at collisions as though they were spherical,
for they would otherwise be set into rotation by the forces expe-
rienced at collisions. In the light of these results it is of extreme
significance that the four gases for which = o are all believed to be
monatomic: the molecules of these gases consist of single atoms.
Moreover, these four are the only monatomic gases for which the
value of 7 is known, so that the only atoms of which the shape can
be determined are found to be spherical. It is at least a plausible
conjecture, until the contrary is proved, that the atoms of all
elements are spherical. 1
The next value which occurs is n = 2. The kinetic energy of the
molecules of these gases must contain two terms in addition to those
representing translational energy. For a rigid body the kinetic
energy will, in general, consist of three terms (Aui 2 +Bw2 2 +Go3 2 ) in
addition to the translational energy. The value re = 2 is appropriate
to bodies of which the shape is that of a solid of revolution, so that
there is no rotation about the axis of symmetry. We must accord-
ingly suppose that the molecules of gases for which re = 2 are of this
shape. Now this is exactly the shape which we should expect to
find in molecules composed of two spherical atoms distorting one
another by their mutual forces, and all gases for which n = 2 are
diatomic.
No molecule could possibly be imagined for which n had a negative
value or the value n = l. The theory therefore passes a crucial
test when it is discovered that no gases exist for which re is either
negative or unity. On the other hand, the theory encounters a
very serious difficulty in the fact that all molecules possess a great
number of possibilities of internal motion, as is shown by the
number of distinct lines in their spectra both of emission and of
absorption. So far as is known, each line in the spectrum of, say,
mercury, represents a possibility of a distinct vibration of the
mercury atom, and accordingly provides two terms (say 04? +/3< 2 ,
where $ is the normal co-ordinate of the vibration) in the expression
for the energy of the molecule. There are many thousands of
lines in the mercury spectrum, so that from this evidence it would
appear that for mercury vapour n ought to be very great, and 7
almost equal to unity. Instead of this we have n = o, and 7 = i|.
As a step towards removing this difficulty we notice that the energy
of a vibration such as is represented by a spectral line has the
peculiarity of being unable to exist (so far as we know) without
Buffering dissipation into the ether. This energy, therefore, comes
under a different category from the energy for which the law of
equipartition was proved, for in proving this law conservation of
1 Very significant confirmation of this conjecture is obtained
from a study of the specific heats of the elements in the solid
state. If a solid body is regarded as an aggregation of similar atoms
each of mass m, its specific heat C is given, as in formula (19) by C =
l(re+3)R/Jm. From Dulong and Petit's law that Cm is the same
for all elements, it follows that re+3 must be the same for all atoms.
Moreover, the value of Cm shows that re+3 must be equal to six.
Now if the atoms are regarded as points or spherical bodies oscillating
about positions of equilibrium, the value of n+3 is precisely six,
for we can express the energy of the atom in the form
where V is the potential and x, y, z are the displacements of the atom
referred to a certain set of orthogonal axes.
energy was assumed. The difficulty is further diminished when it
is proved, as it can be proved, 2 that the modes of energy repre-
sented in the atomic spectrum acquire energy so slowly that the
atom might undergo collisions with other atoms for centuries
before being set into oscillations which would possess an appreciable
amount of energy. In fact the proved tendency for the gas to pass
into the " normal state " in which there is equipartition of energy,
represents in this case nothing but the tendency for the transla-
tional energy to become dissipated into the energy of innumerable
small vibrations. We find that this dissipation, although un-
doubtedly going on, proceeds with extreme slowness, so that the
vibrations pass their energy on to the ether as rapidly as they
acquire it, and the " normal state " is never established. These
considerations suggest that the difficulty which has been pointed out
may be apparent rather than real. At the same time this difficulty
is only one aspect of a wider difficulty which cannot be lightly
passed over; Maxwell himself regarded it as the principal obstacle
in the way of the full acceptance of the theory of which he was so
largely the author. (J. H. JE.)
MOLE-RAT, the name of a group of blind burrowing rodents,
typified by the large grey Spalax typhlus of eastern Europe and
Egypt, which represents the Old World family Spalacidae.
All the mole-rats of the genus Spalax are characterized by the
want of distinct necks, small or rudimentary ears and eyes,
and short limbs provided with powerful digging claws. There
are three pairs of cheek-teeth which are rooted, and show folds
of enamel on the crown. Mble-rats are easily recognized by the
peculiarly flattened head, in which the minute eyes are covered
with skin, the wart-like ears, and rudimentary tail; they make
burrows in sandy soil, and feed on bulbs and roots. Bamboo-
rats, of which one genus (Rhizomys) is Indian and Burmese, and
the other (Tachyoryctes) East African, differ by the absence of
skin over the eyes, the presence of short ears, and a short,
sparsely-haired tail. They burrow either among tall grass,
or at the roots of trees (see RODENTIA).
MOLE-SHREW, any individual of the genera Urotrichus and
Uropsilus (see INSECTIVORA). These animals, which are some-
times called shrew-moles, are not moles with shrew-like habits,
but shrews with the burrowing habits of moles and resembling
them in appearance.
MOLESKIN, a term employed not only for the skin of a mole
but also, from a real or fancied resemblance, for a stout heavy
cotton fabric of leathery consistence woven as a satin twill on a
strong warp. It is shorn before being dyed or bleached. Being
of an exceedingly durable and economical texture, it has been
much worn by working-men, especially outdoor labourers. It
is also used for gun-cases, carriage-covers, and several purposes
in which a fabric capable of resisting rough usage is desirable.
MOLESWORTH, MARY LOUISA (1839- }, Scottish
writer, daughter of Major-General Stewart, of Strath, N.B.,
was born in Rotterdam on the 29th of May 1839, and was
educated in Great Britain and abroad. In 1861 Miss Stewart
married Major R. Molesworth. Her first novels, Lover and
Husband (1869) to Cicely (1874), appeared under the pseudonym
of " Ennis Graham." Mrs Molesworth is best known as a writer
of books for the young, such as Tell Me a Story (1875), Carrots
(1876), and The Cuckoo Clock (1877).
MOLESWORTH, ROBERT MOLESWORTH, IST VISCOUNT
(1656-1725), came of an old Northamptonshire family. His
father Robert (d. 1656) was a Cromwellian who made a fortune
in Dublin, and he himself supported William of Orange and in
1695 became a prominent member of the Irish privy council.
In 1716 he was created a viscount. He was succeeded by his
two sons, John, 2nd viscount (1679-1726), and Richard 3rd
viscount (1680-1758), the latter of whom saved Marlborough's
life at the battle of Ramillies and rose to be a field-marshal.
The 3rd viscount's son Richard Nassau (1748-1793) succeeded
to the title, which has descended accordingly.
A great-grandson of the ist viscount, JOHN EDWARD NASSAU
MoLESWORTH(i79o-i877), vicar of Rochdale, was a well-known
High Churchman and controversialist; and two of his sons
became prominent men WILLIAM NASSAU MOLESWORTH (1816-
1890), author of History of England 1830-1871 (1871-1873),
History of the Reform BUI (1865), and History of the Church oj
* J. H. Jeans, Dynamical Theory of Gases, ch. ix.
MOLESWORTH, SIR W. MOLIERE
661
England (1882); and SIR GUILFORD MOLESWORTH (b. 1828), an
eminent engineer and economist.
MOLESWORTH, SIR WILLIAM, BART. (1810-1855), English
politician, son of the 7th baronet, was born in London on the
2$rd of May 1810, and in 1823 succeeded to the baronetcy. At
Cambridge he fought a duel with his 'tutor, and for some time
studied abroad. On the passing of the Reform Act of 1832
he was returned to parliament for the eastern division of Cornwall,
to support the ministry of Lord Grey. Through Charles Buller
he made the acquaintance of Grote and James Mill, and in April
1835 he founded, in conjunction with Roebuck, the London
Review, as an organ of the " Philosophic Radicals." After the
publication of two volumes he purchased the Westminster
Review, and for some time the united magazines were edited
by him and J. S. Mill. From 1837 to 1841 Sir William Moles-
worth sat for Leeds, and acquired considerable influence in the
House of Commons by his speeches and by his tact in presiding
over the select committee on transportation. But his Radical-
ism made little impression either on the house or on his con-
stituency. From 1841 to 1845 he had no seat in parliament,
occupying his leisure time in editing the works in Latin and
English cf Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, a recreation which
cost him no less than 6000. In 1845 he was returned for
Southwark, and retained that seat until his death. On his
return to parliament he devoted special attention to the condition
of the colonies, and was the ardent champion of their self-
government. In January 1853 Lord Aberdeen included him
in the cabinet as first commissioner of works, the chief work
by which his name was brought into prominence at this time
being the construction of the new Westminster Bridge; he also
was the first to open Kew Gardens on Sundays. In July 1855
he was made colonial secretary, but he died on the 22nd of
October. Molesworth was for many years a great friend of Mr
and Mrs Grote, and Mrs Grote's privately printed work on
The Philosophical Radicals (1866) contains an account of his
life. He married in 1844, but had no children, and the baronetcy
passed to a cousin. His sister (d. 1910) married Richard Ford,
famous for his Handbook of Spain.
A Life by Mrs Fawcett was published in 1903. A full pedigree
of the .Molesworth family is printed in Sir John Maclean's Trigg
Minor, vol. i. ; the titles of his speeches and works may be found in
the Bibl. Cornubiensis, vol. i. and iii.
MOLFETTA, a seaport and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in
the province of Bari, from which it is 16 m. N.N.W. by rail.
Pop. (1901), 42,363. The old cathedral of S. Conrad is a
Romanesque structure. The old town is surrounded by walls,
and has medieval houses; the new town is more spacious, and
is an active seaport. The origin of Molfetta is uncertain,
though there was a neolithic settlement here. The town was
given by Charles V. to the duke of Termoli in 1522, and during
his lordship it was sacked by the French under Lautrec. In
1631 Cesare Gonzaga took the title of duke of Guastalia and
prince of Molfetta; but in 1640 the fief was sold to the Spinola
family, and in 1798 incorporated with the royal domain. The
bishopric is directly subject to the papal see.
MOLIERE (1622-1673), the nom de thedtre chosen, for some
undiscovered reason, by the great French dramatist Jean
Baptiste Poquelin, and ever since substituted for his family
name. He was born in Paris, probably in January 1622. The
baptismal certificate which is usually, and almost with absolute
certainty, accepted as his is dated isth January 1622, but it is
not possible to infer that he was born on the day of his christen-
ing. The exact place of his birth is also disputed, but it seems
tolerably certain that he saw the light in a house of the Rue St
Honore. His father was Jean Poquelin, an upholsterer, who, in
1631, succeeded his own uncle as "valet tapissier de chambre
du roi." The family of Poquelin came from Beauvais, where for
some centuries they had been prosperous tradesmen. The
legend of their Scotch descent seems to have been finally dis-
proved by the researches of M. E. Reverend du Mesnil. The
mother of Moliere was Marie Cresse; and on his father 's side he
was connected with the family of Mazuel, musicians attached to
the court of France. In 1632 Moliere lost his mother; his father
married again in 1633. The father possessed certain shops in
the covered Halle de la Foire, Saint Germain des Pres, and the
biographers have imagined that Moliere might have received his
first bent towards the stage from the spectacles offered to the
holiday people at the fair. Of his early education little is known;
but it is certain that his mother possessed a Bible and Plutarch's
Lives, books which an intelligent child would not fail to study.
In spite of a persistent tradition, there is no reason to believe
that the later education of Moliere was neglected. " II fit ses
humanitez au college de Clermont," says the brief life of the
comedian published by his friend and fellow-actor, La Grange, in
the edition of his works printed in 1682. La Grange adds that
Moliere " cut 1'advantage de suivre M. le Prince de Conti dans
toutes ses classes." As Conti was seven years younger than
Moliere, it is not easy to understand how Moliere came to be the
school contemporary of the' prince. Among more serious studies
the Jesuit fathers encouraged their pupils to take part in ballets,
and in later life Moliere was a distinguished master of this sort of
entertainment. According to Grimarest, the first writer who
published a life of Moh'ere in any detail (1705), he not only
acquired " his humanities," but finished his " philosophy " in
five years. He left the College de Clermont in 1641, the year
when Gassendi, a great contemner of Aristotle, arrived in Paris.
The Logic and Ethics of Aristotfe, with his Physics and Meta-
physics, were the chief philosophical textbooks at the College de
Clermont. But when he became the pupil of Gassendi (in
company with Cyrano de Bergerac, Chapelle, and Hesnaut),
Moliere was taught to appreciate the atomic philosophy of
Lucretius. There seems no doubt that Moliere began, and
almost or quite finished, a translation of the De natura rerum.
According to a manuscript note of Trallage, published by M. Paul
Lacroix, the manuscript was sold by Moliere's widow to a book-
seller. His philosophic studies left a deep mark on the genius
of Moliere. In the Jugement de Pluton sur les deux parties des
nouveaux dialogues des marts (1684), the verdict is " que
Moliere ne parleroit point de philosophic." To " talk philo-
sophy " was a favourite exercise of his during his life, and his
ideas are indicated with sufficient clearness in several of his plays.
There seems no connexion between them and the opinions of
" Moliere le Critique " in a dialogue of that name, published in
Holland in 1709. From his study of philosophy, too, he gained
his knowledge of the ways of contemporary pedants: of Pancrace
the Aristotelian, of Marphorius the Cartesian, of Trissotin, " qui
s'attache pour 1'ordre au Peripatetisme," of Philaminte, who
loves Platonism, of Belise, who relishes " les petits corps," and
Armande, who loves " les tourbillons." Grimarest has an
amusing anecdote of a controversy in which Moliere, defending
Descartes, chose a lay-brother of a begging order for umpire,
while Chapelle appealed to the same expert in favour of Gassendi.
His college education over, Moliere studied law, and there is
even evidence that of tradition in Grimarest, and of Le Bou-
langer de Chalussay, the libellous author of a play called tomire
hypochondre to prove that he was actually called to- the bar.
More trustworthy is the passing remark in La Grange's short
biography (1682), " au sortir des ecoles de droil, il choisit la
profession de comedien." Before joining a troop of half-
amateur comedians, however, Moliere had some experience
in his father's business. In 1637 his father had obtained
for him the right to succeed to his own office as " valet
tapissier de chambre du roi." The document is mentioned
in the inventory of Moliere's effects, taken after his death.
When the king travelled the valet tapissier accompanied
him to arrange the furniture of the royal quarters. There
is very good reason to believe (Loiseleur, Points obscurs, p. 94)
that Moliere accompanied Louis XIII. as his valet tapissier to
Provence in 1642. It is even not impossible that Moliere was the
young valet de chambre who concealed Cinq Mars just before his
arrest at Narbonne, on the i3th of June 1642. But this is
part of the romance rather than of the history of Moliere.
Our next glimpse of the comedian we get in a document of
6th January 1643. Moliere acknowledges the receipt of money
662
MOLIERE
due to him from his deceased mother's estate, and gives up his
claim to succeed his father as "valet de chambre du roi." On
the 28th of December of the same year we learn, again from
documentary evidence, that Jean Baptiste Poquelin, with
Joseph Bejard, Madeleine Bejard, Genevieve Bejard, and
others, have hired a tennis-court and fitted it up as a stage
for dramatic performances. The company called themselves
L'Ulustre Theatre, illustre being then almost a slapg word,
freely employed by the writers of the period.
We now reach a very important point in the private history of
Moliere, which it is necessary to discuss at some length in defence
of the much maligned character of a great writer and a good man.
Molie're's connexion with the family of Bejard brought him much
unhappiness. The father of this family, Joseph 'B6jard the elder,
was a needy man, with eleven children at least. His 'wife's
name was Marie Herve. The most noted of his children, com-
panions of Moliere, were Joseph, Madeleine, Genevieve, and
Armande. Of these, Madeleine was a woman of great talent
as an actress, and Moliere's friend, or perhaps mistress, through
all the years of his wanderings. Now, on the i4th of February
1662 (for we must here leave the chronological order of events),
Moliere married Armande Claire Elisabeth Gresinde Bejard.
His enemies at that time, and a number of his biographers in
our own day, have attempted to prove that Armande Bejard
was not the sister, but the daughter of Madeleine, and even
that Moliere's wife may have been his own daughter by Madeleine
Bejard. The arguments of M. Arsene Houssaye in support
of this abominable theory are based on reckless and ignorant
confusions, and do not deserve criticism. But the system of
M. Loiseleur is more serious, and he goes no further than the
idea that Madeleine was the mother of Armande. This, cer-
tainly, was the opinion of tradition, an opinion based on the
slanders of Montfleury, a rival of Moliere's, on the authority
of the spiteful and anonymous author of La Fameuse comedienne
(1688), and on the no less libellous play, FJomire hypochondre.
In 1821 tradition received a shock, for Beffara then discovered
Moliere's "acte de mariage," in which Armande, the bride, is
spoken of as the sister of Madeleine Bejard, by the same father
and mother. The old scandal, or part of it, was revived by
M. Fournier and M. Bazin, but received another blow in 1863.
M. Soulie then discovered a legal document of the loth of March
1643, in which the widow of Joseph Bejard renounced, in the
name of herself and her children, his inheritance, chiefly a collec-
tion of unpaid bills. Now in this document all the children
are described as minors, and among them is "une petite non
encore baptis6e." This little girl, still not christened in March
1643, is universally recognized as the Armande Bejard afterwards
married by Moliere. We reach this point, then, that when
Armande was an infant she was acknowledged as the sister,
not as the daughter, of Madeleine Bejard. M. Loiseleur refuses,
however, to accept this evidence. Madeleine, says he, had
already become the mother, in 1638, of a daughter by Esprit
Raymond de Moirmoron, comte de Modene, and chamberlain of
Gaston due d'Orleans, brother of Louis XIII. In 1642 Modene,
who had been exiled for political reasons, "was certain to
return, for Richelieu had just died, and Louis XIII. was likely to
follow him." Now Madeleine was again this is M. Loiseleur's
hypothesis about to become a mother, and if Modene returned,
and learned this fact, he would not continue the liaison, still
less would he marry her which, by the way, he could not do,
as his wife was still alive. Madeleine, therefore, induced her
mother to acknowledge the little girl as her own child. In the
first place, all this is pure unsupported hypothesis. In the
second place, it has always been denied that Bejard's wife could
have been a mother in 1643, owing to her advanced age, probably
fifty-three. But M. Loiseleur himself says that Marie Herve
was young enough to make the story "sufficiently probable."
If it was probable, much more was it possible. M. Loiseleur
supports his contention by pointing out that two of the other
children, described as legally minors, were over twenty-five,
and that their age, was understated to make the account of
Armande's birth more probable. Nothing is less likely than
that Modene would have consulted this document to ascertain
the truth about the parentage of Armande, yet M. Loiseleur's
whole theory rests on that extreme improbability. It must also
be observed that the date of the birth of Joseph Bejard is un-
known, and he may have been, and according to M. Jal (Diction-
naire critique, p. 178) must have been, a minor when he was
so described in the document of the icth of March 1643, while
Madeleine had only passed her twenty-fifth birthday, her legal
majority, by two months. This view of Joseph's age is supported
by Bouquet (Moliere d Rouen, p. 77). M. Loiseleur's only
other proof is that Marie Herve gave Armande a respectable
dowry, and that, as we do not know whence the money came,
it must have come from Madeleine. The tradition in Grimarest,
which makes Madeleine behave en femme furieuse, when she
heard of the marriage, is based on a juster appreciation of the
character of women. It will be admitted, probably, that the
reasons for supposing that Moliere espoused the daughter of a
woman who had been his mistress (if she had been his mistress)
are flimsy and inadequate. The affair of the dowry is insisted
on by M. Livet (La Fameuse comedienne, reprint of 1877,
p. 143). But M. Livet explains the dowry by the hypothesis
that Armande was the daughter of Madeleine and the comte
de Modene, which exactly contradicts the theory of M. Loiseleur,
and is itself contradicted by dates, at least as understood by
M. Loiseleur. Such are the conjectures by which the foul
calumnies of Moliere's enemies are supported in the essays of
modern French critics.
Michelet accepted the scandal apparently as a buttress to
his charges against Louis XIV. and Madame (Histoire de France,
1879, xv. 63, 64, 332).
To return to the order of events, Moliere passed the year
1643 in playing with and helping to manage the Theatre Illustre.
The company acted in various tennis-courts, with very little
success. Moliere was actually arrested by the tradesman who
supplied candles, and the company had to borrow money from
one Aubrey to release their leader from the Grand Chatelet
(Aug. 13, 1645). The process of turning a tennis-court into
a theatre was somewhat expensive, even though no seats were
provided in the pit. The troupe was for a short time under
the protection of the due d'Orleans, but his favours were not
lucrative. The due de Guise, according to some verses printed
in 1646, made Moliere a present of his cast-off wardrobe.
But costume was not enough to draw the public to the
tennis-court theatre of the Croix Noire, and empty houses at
last obliged the Theatre Illustre to leave Paris at the end of
1646.
"Nul animal vivant n'entra dans ndtre salle," says the author
of the scurrilous play on Moliere, F-lomire hypochondre. But
at that time some dozen travelling companies found means
to exist in the provinces, and Moliere determined to play among
the rural towns. The career of a strolling player is much the
same at all times and in all countries. The Roman comique
of Scarron gives a vivid picture of the adventures and mis-
adventures, the difficulty of transport, the queer cavalcade
of horses, mules, and lumbering carts that drag the wardrobe
and properties, the sudden metamorphosis of the tennis-
court, where the balls have just been rattling, into a stage,
the quarrels with local squires, the disturbed nights in crowded
country inns, all the loves and wars of a troupe on the
march. Perrault tells us what the arrangements to the theatre
were in Moliere's early time. Tapestries were hung round
the stage, and entrances and exits were made by struggling
through the heavy curtains, which often knocked off the
hat of the comedian, or gave a strange cock to the helmet
of a warrior or a god. The lights were candles stuck in tin
sconces at the back and sides, but luxury sometimes went so
far that a chandelier of four candles was suspended from the
roof. At intervals the candles were let down by a rope and
pulley, and any one within easy reach snuffed them with his
fingers. A flute and tambour, or two fiddlers, supplied the
music. The highest prices were paid for seats in the dedans
(cost of admission fivepencc); for the privilege of standing up
MOLIERE
663
in the pit twopence-halfpenny was the charge. The doors
were opened at one o'clock, the curtain rose at two.
The nominal director of the Theatre Illustre in the provinces
was Du Fresne; the most noted actors were Moliere, the Bejards,
and Du Pare, called Gros Rene. It is extremely difficult to
follow exactly the line of march of the company. They played
at Bordeaux, for example, but the date of this performance,
when Moliere (according to Montesquieu) failed in tragedy
and was pelted, is variously given as 1644-1645 (Trallage), 1647
(Loiseleur), 1648-1658 (Lacroix). Perhaps the theatre prospered
better elsewhere than in Paris, where the streets were barricaded
in these early days of the war of the Fronde. We find Moliere
at Nantes in 1648, at Fontenay-la-Compte, and in the spring
of 1649 at Agen, Toulouse, and probably at Angouleme and
Limoges. In January 1650 they played at Narbonne, and be-
tween 1650 and 1653 Lyons was the headquarters of the troupe.
In January 1653, or perhaps 1655, Moliere gave L'Etourdi at
Lyons, the first of his finished pieces, as contrasted with the
slight farces with which he generally diverted a country audience.
It would be interesting to have the precise date of this piece,
but La Grange (1682) says that " in 1653 Moliere went to Lyons,
where he gave his first comedy, L'Etourdi," while in his
Registre La Grange enters the year as 1655. At Lyons de Brie
and his wife, the famous Mile de Brie, entered the troupe, and
du Pare married the " marquise " de Gorla, better known as
Mile du Pare. The libellous author of La Fameuse comedienne
reports that Moliere's heart was the shuttlecock of the beautiful
du Pare and de Brie, and the tradition has a persistent life.
Moliere's own opinion of the ladies and men of his company
may be read between the lines of his Impromptu de Versailles.
In 1653 Prince de Conti, after many political adventures, was
residing at La Grange, near Pezenas, in Languedoc, and chance
brought him into relations with his old schoolfellow Moliere.
Conti had for first gentleman of his bed-chamber the abbe
Daniel de Cosnac, whose memoirs now throwiight for a moment
on the fortunes of the wandering troupe. Cosnac engaged
the company "of Moliere and of La Bejart"; but another
company, that of Cormier, nearly intercepted the favour of the
prince. Thanks to the resolution of Cosnac, Moliere was given
one chance of appearing on the private theatre of La Grange.
The. excellence of his acting, the splendour of the costumes,
and the insistence of Cosnac, and of Sarrasin, Conti's secretary,
gained the day for Moliere, and a pension was assigned to his
company (Cosnac, Memoires, i. 128; Paris, 1852). As Cosnac
proposed to pay Moliere a thousand crowns of his own money
to recompense him in case he was supplanted by Cormier, it
is obvious that his profession had become sufficiently lucrative.
In 1654, during the session of the estates of Languedoc, Moliere
and his company played at Montpellier. Here Moliere danced
in a ballet (Le Ballet des incompatibles) in which a number of
men of rank took part, according to the fashion of the time.
Moliere's own rdles were those of the Poet and the Fishwife.
The sport of the little piece is to introduce opposite characters,
dancing and singing together. Silence dances with six women,
Truth with four courtiers, Money with a poet, and so forth.
Whether the ballet, or any parts of it, are by Moliere, is still
disputed (La Jeunesse de Moliere, suivie du ballet des incompat-
ibles, P. L. Jacob, Paris, 1858). In April 1655 it is certain that
the troupe was at Lyons, where they met and hospitably enter-
tained a profligate buffoon, Charles d'Assoucy, who informs the
ages that Moliere kept open house, and " une table bien garnie."
November 1655 found Moliere at Pezenas, where the estates
of Languedoc were convened, and where local tradition points out
the barber's chair in which the poet used to sit and study
character. The longest of Moliere's extant autographs is a
receipt, dated at Pezenas, on the 4th of February 1656, for
6000 livres, granted by the estates of Languedoc. This year
was notable for the earliest representation, at Beziers, of Moliere's
second finished comedy, the Depit amoureux. Conti now
(1656) began to " make his soul." Almost his first act of peni-
tence was to discard Moliere's troupe (1657), which consequently
found that the liberality of the estates of Languedoc was dried
up for ever. Conti's relations with Moliere must have definitively
closed long before 1666, when the now pious prince wrote a
treatise against the stage, and especially charged his old school-
fellow with keeping a new school, a school of atheism (TraM
de la comtdie, p. 24; Paris, 1666). Moliere was now (1657)
independent of princes and their favour. He went on a new
circuit to Nismes, Orange and Avignon, where he met another
old class-mate, Chapelle, and also encountered the friend of his
later life, the painter Mignard. After a later stay at Lyons,
ending with a piece given for the benefit of the poor on the 27th
of February 1658, Moliere passed to Grenoble, returned to
Lyons, and is next found in Rouen, where, we should have said,
the Theatre Illustre had played in 1643 (F. Bouquet, La Troupe
de Moliere a Rouen, p. 90; Paris, 1880). At Rouen Moliere must
have made or renewed the acquaintance of Pierre and Thomas
Corneille. His company had played pieces by Corneille at
Lyons and elsewhere. The real business of the comedian in
Rouen was to prepare his return to Paris. " After several
secret journeys thither he was fortunate enough to secure the
patronage of Monsieur, the king's only brother, who granted
him his protection, and permitted the company to take his
name, presenting them as his servants to the king and the
queen mother " (Preface to La Grange's edition of 1682). The
troupe appeared for the first time before Louis XIV. in a theatre
arranged in the old Louvre (Oct. 24, 1658).
Moliere was now thirty-six years of age. He had gained all the
experience that fifteen years of practice could give. He had seen
men and cities, and noted all the humours of rural and civic
France. He was at the head of a company which, as La Grange,
his friend and comrade, says, " sincerely loved him." He
had the unlucrative patronage of a great prince to back him,
and the jealousy of all playwrights, and of the old theatres
of the Hotel de Bourgogne and the Marais, to contend
against. In this struggle we can follow him by aid of
the Registre of La Grange (a brief diary of receipts and
payments), and by the help of notices in the rhymed chronicles
of Loret.
The first appearance of Moliere before the king was all but
a failure. Nicomede, by the elder Corneille, was the piece,
and we may believe that the actors of the H6tel de Bourgogne,
who were present, found much to criticize. When the play
was over, Moliere came forward and asked the king's permission
to act " one of the little pieces with which he had been used to
regale the provinces." The Docteur amoureux, one of several
slight comedies admitting of much " gag," was then performed,
and " diverted as much as it surprised the audience." The
king commanded that the troupe should establish itself in Paris
(Preface, ed. 1682). The theatre assigned to the company
was a salle in the Petit Bourbon, in a line with the present Rue
du Louvre. Some Italian players already occupied the house
on Tuesdays, Fridays, and Sundays; the company of Moliere
played on the other days. The first piece played in the new
house (Nov. 3, 1658) was L'Etourdi. La Grange says the comedy
had a great success, producing seventy pistoles for each actor.
The success is admitted even by the spiteful author of Elomire
hypochondre (Paris, 1670):
" Je jouai I'Etourdi, qui fut une merveille."
The success, however, is attributed to the farcical element hi
the play and the acting the cuckoo-cry of Moliere's detractors.
The original of L'Etourdi is the Italian comedy (1629) L'lnav-
vertito, by Nicolo Barbieri detto Beltrame; Moliere pushed
rather far his right to " take his own wherever he found it."
Had he written nothing more original, the contemporary critic
of the Feslin de Pierre might have said, not untruly, that he
only excelled in stealing pieces from the Italians. The piece
is conventional: the stock characters of the prodigal son, the
impudent valet, the old father occupy the stage. But the
dialogue has amazing rapidity, and the vivacity of M. Coquelin
to Mascarille made L'Etourdi a favourite on the modern stage,
though it cannot be read with very much pleasure. The next
piece, new in Paris, though not in the provinces, was the Depit
amoureux (first acted at Beziers, 1656). The play was not
664
MOLIERE
less successful than L'totirdi. It has two parts, one an Italian
imbroglio; the other, which alone keeps the stage, is the original
work of Moliere, though, of course, the idea of amantium irae
is as old as literature. " Nothing so good," says Mr Saintsbury,
" had yet been seen on the French stage, as the quarrels and
reconciliations of the quartette of master, mistress, valet and
soubrette." Even the hostile Le Boulanger de Chalussay
(FJomire hypochondre) admits that the audience was much of
this opinion:
" Et de tous les c6t<5s chacun cria tout haut :
' C'est la faire et jouer les pieces comme il faut.' "
The same praise was given, perhaps even more deservedly, to
Les Precieuses ridicules (Nov. 18, 1659). Doubts have been
raised as to whether this famous piece, the first true comic satire
of contemporary foibles on the French stage, was a new play. La
Grange calls it piece nouvelle in his Regislre; but, as he enters it
as the third piece nouvelle, he may only mean that, like L'Etourdi,
it was new to Paris. The short life of 1682, produced under
La Grange's care, and probably written by Marcel the actor,
says the Pricieuses was " made " in 1659. There is another
controversy as to whether the ladies of the Hotel Rambouillet,
or merely their bourgeoises and rustic imitators, were laughed
at. Menage, in later years at least, professed 'to recognize an
attack on the over-refinement and affectation of the original and,
in most ways, honourable precieuses of the Hotel Rambouillet.
But Chapelle and Bachaumont had discovered provincial
precieuses, hyper-aesthetic literary ladies, at Montpellier before
Moliere's return to Paris; and Furetiere, in the Roman bourgeois
(1666), found Paris full of middle-class precieuses, who had
survived, or, like their modern counterparts, had thriven on
ridicule. Another question is: Did Moliere copy from the earlier
Precieuses of the abbe de Pure ? This charge of plagiarism is
brought by Somaize, in the preface to his Veritables precieuses.
De Pure's work was a novel (1656), from which the Italian
actors had put together an acting-piece in their manner that
is, a thing of " gag," and improvised speeches. The reproach
is interesting only because it proves how early Moliere found
enemies who, like Thomas Corneille in 1659, accused him of
being skilled only in farce, or, like Somaize, charged him with
literary larceny. These were the stock criticisms of Moliere's
opponents as long as he lived. The success of the Precieuses
ridicules was immense; on one famous occasion the king was
a spectator, leaning against the great chair of the dying Cardinal
Mazarin. The play can never cease to please while literary affec-
tation exists, and it has a comic force of deathless energy. Yet
a modern reader may spare some sympathy for the poor heroines,
who do not wish, in courtship, to " begin with marriage," but
prefer first to have some less formidable acquaintance with their
wooers. Moliere's next piece was less important, and more
purely farcical, Sganarelle; ou le cocu imaginaire (May 28, 1660).
The public taste preferred a work of this light nature, and Sgana-
relle was played every year as long as Moliere lived. The play
was pirated by a man who pretended to have retained all
the words in his memory. The counterfeit copy was published
by Ribou, a double injury to Moliere, as, once printed, any
company might act the play. With his habitual good-nature,
Moliere not only allowed Ribou to publish later works of his,
but actually lent money to that knave (Soulie, Recherches,
p. 287).
On the nth of October 1660 the Theatre du Petit Bourbon
was demolished by the superintendent of works, without notice
given to the company. The king gave Moliere the Salle du Palais
Royal, but the machinery of the old theatre was maliciously
destroyed. Meanwhile the older companies of the Marais and
the Hotel de Bourgogne attempted to lure away Moliere's
troupe, but, as La Grange declares (Registre, p. 26), " all the actors
loved their chief, who united to extraordinary genius an honour-
able character and charming manner, which compelled them
all to protest that they would never leave him, but always share
his fortunes." While the new theatre was being put in order,
the company played in the houses of the great, and before the
king at the Louvre. In their new house (originally built by
Richelieu) Moliere began to play on the aoth of January 1661.
Moliere now gratified his rivals by a failure. Don Garde de
Navarre, a heavy tragi-comedy, which had long lain among
his papers, was first represented on the 4th of February 1661.
Either Moliere was a poor actor outside comedy, or his manner
was not sufficiently " stagy," and, as he says, " demoniac,"
for the taste of the day. His opponents were determined that
he could not act in tragi-comedy, and he, in turn, burlesqued
their pretentious and exaggerated manner in a later piece.
In the Precieuses (sc. ix.) Moliere had already rallied " les grands
comediens " of the Hotel Bourgogne. " Les autres," he makes
Mascarille say about his own troupe, " sont des ignorants qui
recitent comme 1'on parle, ils ne savent pas faire ronfler
les vers." All this was likely to irritate the grands comediens,
and their friends, who avenged themselves on that unfortunate
jealous prince, Don Garcie de Navarre. The subject of this
unsuccessful drama is one of many examples which show how
Moliere's mind was engaged with the serious or comic aspects
of jealousy, a passion which he had soon cause to know most
intimately. Meantime the everyday life of the stage went
on, and the doorkeeper of the Theatre St Germain was wounded
by some revellers who tried to force their way into the house
(La Grange, Registre) . A year later, an Italian actor was stabbed
in front of Moliere's house, where he had sought to take shelter
(Campardon, Nouvelles pieces, p. 20). To these dangers actors were
peculiarly subject: Moliere himself was frequently threatened
by the marquises and others whose class he ridiculed on the stage,
and there seems even reason to believe that there is some truth
in the story of the angry marquis who rubbed the poet's head
against his buttons, thereby cutting his face severely. The
story comes late (1725) into his biography, but is supported
by a passage in the, contemporary play, Zelinde (Paris, 1663,
scene viii.). Before Easter, Moliere asked for two shares in the
profits of his company, one for himself, and one for his wife,
if he married. That fatal step was already contemplated (La
Grange). On the 24th of June he brought out for the first time
L'&ole des maris. The general idea of the piece is as old as
Menander, and Moliere was promptly accused of pilfering from
the Adelphi of Terence. One of the. ficelles of the comedy is
borrowed from a story as old, at least, as Boccaccio, and still
amusing in a novel by Charles de Bernard. It is significant
of Moliere's talent that the grotesque and baffled paternal wooer,
Sganarelle, like several other butts in Moliere's comedy, does
to a certain extent win our sympathy and pity as well as our
laughter. The next new piece was Les Fascheux, a comedie-
ballet, the Comedy of Bores, played before the king at Fouquet's
house at Vaux le Vicomte (Aug. 15-20, 1661). The comedians,
without knowing it, were perhaps the real " fascheux " on
this occasion, for Fouquet was absorbed in the schemes of his
insatiable ambition (Quo non ascendam? says his motto), and
the king was organizing the arrest and fall of Fouquet, his rival
in the affections of La Valliere. The author of the prologue to
Les Fasckeux, Pellisson, a friend of Fouquet's, was arrested with
the superintendent of finance. Pellisson's prologue and name
were retained in the later editions. In the dedication to the
king Moliere says that Louis suggested one scene (that of the
Sportsman), and in another place he mentions that the piece
was written, rehearsed, and played in a fortnight. The funda-
mental idea of the play, the interruptions by bores, is suggested
by a satire of Regnier's, and that by a satire of Horace. Perhaps
it may have been the acknowledged suggestions of the king
which made gossips declare that Moliere habitually worked up
hints and memoires given him by persons of quality (Nouvelles
nouvelles, 1663).
In February 1662 Moliere married Armande Bejard. The
date is given thus in the Registre of La Grange: " Mardy 14,
Les Visionnaires, L'Ecol des M.
" Part. Visile chez M e d'Equeuilly."
And on the margin he has painted a blue circle his way of
recording a happy event with the words, " mariage de M. de
Moliere au sortir de la Visite." M. Loiseleur gives the date in one
passage as the 2pth of February; in another as the 2oth of
MOLIERE
665
February. But La Grange elsewhere mentions the date as
" Shrove Tuesday," which was, it seems, the I4th of February.
Elsewhere M. Loiseleur makes the date of the marriage a vague
day " in January." The truth is that the marriage contract is
dated the 23rd of January 1662 (Soulie, Documents, p. 203).
Where it is so difficult to establish the date of the marriage,
a simple fact, it must be infinitely harder to discover the truth as
to the conduct of Mme Moliere. The abominable assertions of the
anonymous libel, Les Intrigues de Moliere et celles de sa femme;
ou la fameuse comedienne (1688), have found their way into
tradition, and are accepted by many biographers. But M. Livet
and M. Bazin have proved that the alleged lovers of Mme Moliere
were actually absent from France, or from the court, at the
time when they are reported, in the libel, to have conquered her
heart. A conversation between Chapelle and Moliere, in which
the comedian is made to tell the story of his wrongs, is plainly
a mere fiction, and is answered in Grimarest by another dialogue
between Moliere and Rohault, in which Moliere only complains
of a jealousy which he knows to be unfounded. It is noticed,
too, that the contemporary assailants of Moliere counted him
among jealous, but not among deceived, husbands. The hideous
accusation brought by the actor Montfleury, that Moliere had
married his own daughter, Louis XIV. answered by becoming
the godfather of Moliere's child. The king, indeed, was a firm
friend of the actor, and, when Moiiere was accused of impiety
on the production of Don Juan (1665) Louis gave him a pension.
We need not try to make Mme Moliere a verlu, as French
ladies of the theatre say, but it is certain that the charges against
her are unsubstantiated. It is generally thought that Moliere
drew her portrait in Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (acte in. sc. ix.),
" elle est capricieuse, mais on souffre tout des belles."
From 1662 onwards Moliere suffered the increasing hatred
of his rival actors. La Grange mentions the visit of Floridor
and Montfleury to the queen mother, and their attempt to
obtain equal favour, " la troupe de Moliere leur donnant beau-
coup de jalouzie " (Aug. 12, 1662). On the 26th of December
was played for the first time the admirable Ecole des femmes,
which provoked a literary war, and caused a shower of " paper
bullets of the brain." The innocence of Agnes was called
indecency; the sermon of Arnolphe was a deliberate attack
on Christian mysteries. We have not the space to discuss the
religious ideas of Moliere; but both in L' Ecole des femmes and
in Don Juan he does display a bold contempt for the creed of
" boiling chaldrons " and of physical hell. A brief list of the
plays, and pamphlets provoked by L' Ecole des femmes is all
we can offer in this place.
December 26, 1662. Ecole des femmes.
February 9, 1663. -Nouvelles nouvelles, by De Vis6. Moliere is
accused of pilfering from Straparola.
June I, 1663. Moliere's own piece, Critique de I'ecole des femmes.
In this play Moliere retorts on the critics, and especially on his
favourite butt, the critical marquess.
August 1663. Zelinde, a play by De Vis6, is printed. The scene
is in the shop of a seller of lace, where persons of quality meet, and
attack the reputation of " lomire " that is, Moli&re. He steals
from the Italian, the Spanish, from Furetiere's Francion, " il lit tous
les vieux bouquins," he insults the noblesse, he insults Christianity,
and so forth.
November 17, 1663. Portrait du peintre is printed an attack
on Moliere by Boursault. This piece is a detailed criticism, by
several persons, of L'Ecole des femmes. It is pronounced dull,
vulgar, farcical, obscene and (what chiefly vexed Moliere, who
knew the danger of the accusation) impious. Perhaps the only bio-
graphical matter we gain from Boursault's play is the interesting
fact that Moliere was a tennis-player. On the 4th November 1663,
Moliere replied with L' Impromptu de Versailles, a witty and merciless
attack on his critics, in which Boursault was mentioned by name.
The actors of the HStel de Bourgogne were parodied on the stage,
and their art was ridiculed.
The next scenes in this comedy of comedians were:
November 30. The Panegyrique de I'ecole des femmes, by
Robinet.
December 7. Reponse a I'impromptu; ou la vengeance des
marquis, by De Vis6.
January 19, 1664. L'Impromptu de I'hotel de Conde. It is a
reply by a son of Montfleury.
March 17, 1664. La Guerre comique; ou defense de I'ecole des
femmes.
1664. Lettre sur les affaires du theatre, published in Diver sites
galantes, by the author of Zelinde.
In all those quarrels the influence of Corneille was opposed
to Moliere, while his cause was espoused by Boileau, a useful
ally, when " les comediens et les auteurs, depuis le cedre [Cor-
neille?] jusqu'a 1'hysope, sont diablement animes centre lui "
(Impromptu de Versailles, sc. v.).
Moliere's next piece was Le Manage force (Feb. 15, 1664),
a farce with a ballet. The comic character of the reluctant
bridegroom excites contemptuous pity, as well as laughter.
From the end of April till the 22nd of May the troupe was at Ver-
sailles, acting among the picturesque pleasures of that great
festival of the king's. The Princesse d' Elide was acted for the
first time, and the three first acts of Tartuffe were given. Moliere's
natural hatred of hypocrisy had not been diminished by the
charges of blasphemy which were showered on him after the
Ecole des femmes. Tartuffe made enemies everywhere. Jan-
senists and Jesuits, like the two marquesses in L'Impromptu
de Versailles, each thought the others were aimed at. Five
years passed before Moliere got permission to play the whole
piece in public. In the interval it was acted before Madame,
Conde, the legate, and was frequently read by Moliere in private
houses. The Gazette of the i?th of May 1664 (a paper hostile to
Moliere) says that the king thought the piece inimical to religion.
Louis was not at that time on good terms with the devots, whom
his amours scandalized; but, not impossibly, the queen mother
(then suffering from her fatal malady) disliked the play. A
most violent attack on Moliere, " that demon clad in human
flesh," was written by one Pierre Roulle (Le Roy glorieux au
monde, Paris, 1664). This fierce pamphlet was suppressed,
but the king's own copy, in red morocco with the royal arms,
remains to testify to the bigotry of the author, who was cure
of Saint Barthelemy. According to Roulle, Moliere deserved
to be sent through earthly to eternal fires. The play was pro-
hibited, as we have seen, but in August 1665 the king adopted
Moliere's troupe as his servants, and gave them the title of
" troupe du roy." This, however, did not cause Moliere to relax
his efforts to obtain permission for Tartuffe (or Tartufe, or
Tartufle, as it was variously spelled), and his perseverance was
at length successful. That his thoughts were busy with contem-
porary hypocrisy is proved by certain scenes in one of his greatest
pieces, the Festin de Pierre, or Don Juan (Feb. 15, 1665). The
legend of Don Juan was familiar already on the Spanish, Italian
and French stages. Moliere made it a new thing: terrible and
romantic in its portrait of un grand seigneur mauvais homme,
modern in its suggested substitution of la humanite for religion,
comic, even among his comedies, by the mirthful character
of Sganarelle. The piece filled the theatre, but was stopped,
probably by authority, after Easter. It was not printed by
Moliere, and even in 1682 the publication of the full text was
not permitted. Happily the copy of De la Regnie, the chief
of the police, escaped obliterations, and gave us the full scene
of Don Juan and the Beggar. The piece provoked a virulent
criticism (Observations sur le festin de Pierre, 1665). It is
allowed that Moliere has some farcical talent, and is not unskilled
as a plagiarist, but he " attacks the interests of Heaven,"
" keeps a school of infidelity," " insults the king," " corrupts
virtue," " offends the queen-mother " and so forth. Two
replies were published, one of which is by some critics believed
to show traces of the hand of Moliere. The king's reply, as
has been shown, was to adopt Moliere's company as his servants,
and to pension them. L' Amour medecin, a light comedy,
appeared on the 22nd of September 1665. In this piece Moliere,
for the second time, attacked physicians. In December there
was a quarrel with Racine about his play of Alexandre, which
he treacherously transferred to the Hotel de Bourgogne. The
4th of June 1666 saw the first representation of that famous
play, Le Misanthrope (ou L' Atrabiliaire amoureux, as the ori-
ginal second title ran). This piece, perhaps the masterpiece
of Moliere, was more successful with the critics, with the court,
and with posterity than with the public. The rival comedians
called it " a new style of comedy," and so it was. The eternal
666
MOLIERE
passions and sentiments of human nature, modified by the
influence of the utmost refinement of civilization, were the
matter of the piece. The school for scandal kept by Celimene,
with its hasty judgments on all characters, gave the artist a wide
canvas. The perpetual strife between the sensible optimism
of a kindly man of the world (Philinte) and the saeva indigna-
tio of a noble nature soured (Alceste) supplies the intellectual
action. The humours of the joyously severe Celimene and of
her court, especially of that deathless minor poet Oronte, supply
the lighter comedy. Boileau, Lessing, Goethe have combined
to give this piece the highest rank even among the comedies
of Moliere. As to the " keys " to the characters, and the guesses
about the original from whom Alceste was drawn, they are as
valueless as other contemporary tattle.
A briefer summary must be given of the remaining years
of the life of Moliere. The attractions of Le Misanthrope were
reinforced (Aug. 6) by those of the Medecin malgre lui, an
amusing farce founded on an old fabliau. In December the
court and the comedians went to St Germain, where, among
other diversions, the pieces called Melicerte, La Pastorale comique
(of which Moliere is said to have destroyed the MS.) and the
charming little piece Le Sicilien were performed. A cold
and fatigue seem to have injured the health of Moliere, and
we now hear of the consumptive tendency which was cruelly
ridiculed in Elomire hypochondre. Moliere was doubtless obliged
to see too much of the distracted or pedantic physicians of an
age when medicine was the battlefield of tradition, super-
stition, and nascent chemical science. On the I7th of April
1667 Robinet, the rhyming gazetteer, says that the life of Moliere
was thought to be in danger. On the loth of June, however,
he played in Le Sicilien before the town. In the earlier months
of 1667 Louis XIV. was with the army in Flanders. There
were embassies sent from the comedy to the camp, and on the
5th of August it was apparent that Moliere had overcome the
royal scruples. Tartuffe was played, but Lamoignon stopped
it after the first night. La Grange and La Torilliere hastened
to the camp, and got the king's promise that he would reconsider
the matter on his return. Moliere's next piece (Jan. 13, 1668)
was Amphitryon, a free a very free adaptation from Plautus,
who then seems to have engaged his attention; for not long
afterwards he again borrowed from the ancient writer in L'Avarc.
There is a controversy as to whether Amphitryon was meant
to ridicule M. de Montespan, the husband of the new mistress
of Louis XIV. Michelet has a kind of romance based on this
probably groundless hypothesis. The king still saw the piece
occasionally, after he had purged himself and forsworn sack
under Mme de Maintenon, and probably neither he nor
that devout lady detected any personal references in the coarse
and witty comedy. As usual, Moliere was accused of plagia-
rizing, this time from Rotrou, who had also imitated Plautus.
The next play was the immortal George Dandin (July to), first
played at a festival at Versailles. Probably the piece was a
rapid palimpsest on the ground of one of his old farces, but the
addition of these typical members of a county family, the De
Sotenville, raises the work from farce to satiric comedy. The
story is borrowed from Boccaccio, but is of unknown age, and
always new Adolphus Crosbie in The Small House at Allington
being a kind of modern George Dandin. Though the sad
fortunes of this peasant with social ambition do not fail to make
us pity him somewhat, it is being too refined to regard George
Dandin as a comedy with a concealed tragic intention. Moliere
must have been at work on L'Avare before George Dandin
appeared, for the new comedy after Plautus was first acted
on the 9th of September. There is a tradition that the piece
almost failed; but, if unpopular in the first year of its produc-
tion, it certainly gained favour before the death of its author.
M. de Pourceaugnac (Sept. 17, 1669) was first acted at Chambord,
for the amusement of the king. It is a rattling farce. The
physicians, as usual, bore the brant of Moliere's raillery, some
of which is still applicable. Earlier in 1669 (Feb. 5) Tarlu/e
was played at last, with extraordinary success. Les Amants
magnifiques, a comedy-ballet, was acted first at St Germain
(Feb. 10, 1670). The king might have been expected to dance
in the ballet, but from Racine's Britannicus (Dec. 13, 1669) the
majestical monarch learned that Nero was blamed for exhibitions
of this kind, and he did not wish to out-Nero Nero. Astrology
this time took the place of medicine as a butt, but the satire
has become obsolete, except, perhaps, in Turkey, where astro-
logy is still a power. The Bourgeois genttthomme, too familiar
to require analysis, was first played on the 23rd of October
1770. The lively Fourberies de Scapin " saw the footlights " (if
footlights there were) on the 24th of May 1671, and on the 7th
of May we read in La Grange, " les Repetitions de Spsyche ont
commance." La Grange says the theatre was newly decorated
and fitted with machines. A " concert of twelve violins" was
also provided, the company being resolute to have every-
thing handsome about them. New singers were introduced.,
who did not refuse to sing unmasked on the stage. Quinault
composed the words for the music, which was by Lulli; Moliere
and Pierre Corneille collaborated in the dialogue of this magni-
ficent opera, the name of which (Psyche) La Grange eventually
learned how to spell. The Comtesse d' Escarbagnas (Feb. 2,
1672) was another piece for the amusement of the court, and
made part of an entertainment called Le Ballet des ballets.
In this play, a study of provincial manners, Moliere attacked the
financiers of the time in the person of M. Harpin. The comedy
has little importance compared with Les Femmes savantes
(Feb. u), a severer Precieuses, in which are satirized the vanity
and affectation of sciolists, pedants and the women who admire
them. The satire is never out of date, and finds its modern
form in Le Monde oil I' on s'ennuie, by M. Pailleron. On the 1 7th
of February Madeleine Bejard died, and was buried at St Paul.
She did not go long before her old friend or lover Moliere.
His Manage force, founded, perhaps, on a famous anecdote
of Gramont, was played on the i8th of July. On the 7th of
August La Grange notes that Moliere was indisposed, and there
was no comedy. Moliere's son died on the nth of October.
On the 22nd of November the preparations for the Malade
imaginaire were begun. On the loth of February 1673 the
piece was acted for the first time. What occurred on the I7th
of February we translate from the Registre of La Grange:
" This same day, about ten o'clock at night, after the comedy.
Monsieur de Moliere died in his house, Rue de Richelieu. He had
played the part of the said Malade, suffering much from cold and
inflammation, which caused a violent ccugh. In the violence of
the cough he burst a vessel in his body, and did not live more than
half an hour or three-quarters after the bursting of the vessel.
His body is buried at St Joseph's, parish of St Eustache. There
is a gravestone raised about a toot above the ground."
Moliere's funeral is thus described in a letUr, said to be by
an eyewitness, discovered by M. Benjamin Fillon:
" Tuesday, 2ist February, about nine in the evening, was buried
Jean Baptiste Poquelin Moli&re, tapissier valet de chambre, and a
famous actor. There was no procession, except three ecclesiastics;
four priests bore the body in a wooden bier covered with a pall,
six children in blue carried candles in silver holders, and there
were lackeys with burning torches of wax. The body . . . was
taken to St Joseph's churchyard, and buried at the foot of the
cross. There was a great crowd, and some twelve hundred livres
were distributed among the poor. The archbishop had given orders
that Moliere should be interred without any ceremony, and had
even forbidden the clergy of the diocese to do any service for him.
Nevertheless a number of masses were commanded to be said for
the deceased."
When an attempt was made to exhume the body of Moliere in
1792, the wrong tomb appears to have been opened. Unknown
is the grave of Moliere.
Moliere, according to Mile Poisson, who had seen him in
her extreme youth, was " neither too stout nor too thin, tall
rather than short; he had a noble carriage, a good leg, walked
slowly, and had a very serious expression. His nose was thick,
his mouth large with thick lips, his complexion brown, his
eyebrows black and strongly marked, and it was his way of
moving these that gave him his comic expression on the stage."
" His eyes seemed to search the deeps of men's hearts," says
the author of Zelinde. The inventories printed by M. Souli
prove that Molie're was fond of rich dress, splendid furniture,
MOLINA MOLINIER
667
and old books. The charm of his conversation is attested by
the names of his friends, who were all the wits of the age, and
the greater their genius the greater their love of Moliere. As an
actor, friends and enemies agreed in recognizing him as most
successful in comedy. His ideas of tragic declamation were
in advance of his time, for he set his face against the prevalent
habit of ranting. His private character was remarkable for
gentleness, probity, generosity and delicacy, qualities attested
not only by anecdotes but by the evidence of documents. He
is probably the greatest of all comic writers within the limits
of social and refined, as distinguished from romantic, comedy
like that of Shakespeare, and political comedy like that of
Aristophanes. He has the humour which is but a sense of the
true value of life, and now takes the form of the most vivacious
wit and the keenest observation, now of melancholy and pity
and wonder at the fortunes of mortal men. In the literature
of France his is the greatest name, and in the literature of the
modern drama the greatest after that of Shakespeare. Besides
his contemplative genius he possessed an unerring knowledge of
the theatre, the knowledge of a great actor and a great manager,
and hence his plays can never cease to hold the stage, and to
charm, if possible, even more in the performance than in the
reading.
The best biography of Moliere on a level with the latest researches
into his life is that in vol. x. of his works in Grands ecrivains de la
France (Eugene Despois and Paul Mesnard). The next best is
probably that of M. Taschereau, prefixed to an edition of his works
(CEuvres completes, Paris, 1863). To this may be added Jules
Loiseleur's Lies Points obscurs de la vie de Moliere (Paris, 1877).
We have seen that M. Loiseleur is not always accurate, but he is
laborious. For other books it is enough to recommend the ex-
cellent Bibliographic molieresque of M. Paul Lacroix (1875), which
is an all but faultless guide. The best edition of Moliere's works
for the purposes of the student is that published in Les Grands
ecrivains de la, France (Hachette, Paris, 1874-1882). It contains
reprints of many contemporary tracts, and, with the Registre of
La Grange, and the Collection molibresque of M. Lacroix, is the
chief source of the facts stated in this notice, in cases where the
rarity of documents has prevented the writer from studying them
in the original texts. Another valuable authority is the Recherches
sur Moliere et sur sa famille of Ed. Souli6 (1863). Lotheisen's
Molikre, sein Leben und seine Werke (Frankfurt, 1880), is a respect-
able German compilation. Le Molieriste (Tresse, Paris, ed. by
M. Georges Monval) was a monthly serial, containing notes on
Moliere and his plays, by a number of contributors. The essays,
biographies, plays and poems on Mplifire are extremely numerous.
The best guide to these is the indispensable Bibliographic of M.
Lacroix. ( A. L.)
MOLINA, LUIS (1535-1600), Spanish Jesuit, was born at
Cuenca in 1535. Having at the age of eighteen become a member
of the Society of Jesus, he studied theology at Coimbra, and after-
wards became professor in the university of Evora, Portugal.
From this post he was called, at the end of twenty years, to the
chair of moral theology in Madrid, where he died on the lath
of October 1600. Besides other works he wrote Liberi arbitrii cum
gratiae donis, divina praescientia, providentia, praedeslinatione
el reprobatione, concordia (410, Lisbon, 1588); a commentary
on the first part of the Summa of Thomas Aquinas (2 vols.,
fol., Cuenca, 1593); and a treatise De justitia et jure (6 vols.,
I S93~ I 6o9). It is to the first of these that his fame is principally
due. It was an attempt to reconcile, in words at least, the
Augustinian doctrines of predestination and grace with the
Semipelagianism which, as shown by the recent condemnation
of BAIUS (q.v.), had become prevalent in the Roman Catholic
Church. Assuming that man is free to perform or not to perform
any act whatever, Molina maintains that this circumstance
renders the grace of God neither unnecessary nor impossible:
not impossible, for God never fails to bestow grace upon those
who ask it with sincerity; and not unnecessary, for grace,
although not an efficient, is still a sufficient cause of salvation.
Nor, in Molina's view, does his doctrine of free-will exclude
predestination. The omniscient God, by means of His " scientia
media " (the phrase is Molina's invention, though the idea is
also to be found in his older contemporary Fonseca), or power
of knowing future contingent events, foresees how we shall
employ our own free-will and treat His proffered grace, and
upon this foreknowledge He can found His predestinating
decrees. These doctrines, although in harmony with the pre-
vailing feeling of the Roman Catholic Church of the period, and
further recommended by their marked opposition to the teachings
of Luther and Calvin,excited violent controversy in some quarters,
especially on the part of the Dominicans, and at last rendered
it necessary for the pope (Clement VIII.) to interfere. At
first (1594) he simply enjoined silence on both parties so far
as Spain was concerned; but ultimately, in 1598, he appointed
the " Congregatio de auxiliis Gratiae" for the settlement of
the dispute, which became more and more a party one. After
holding very numerous sessions, the " congregation " was able
to decide nothing, and in 1607 its meetings were suspended
by Paul V., who in 1611 prohibited all further discussion of
the question " de auxiliis," and studious efforts were made to
control the publication even of commentaries on Aquinas. The
Molinist subsequently passed into the Jansenist controversy (see
JANSENISM).
ful1 ^ ccount of Molina's theology will be found in Schneeman's
Entstehung der thomistisch-molmistischen Controverse," pub-
lished in the Appendices (Nos. 9, 13, 14) to the Jesuit periodical,
Stimmen aus Maria-Loach. To the lay reader may be recommended
Ernest Renan's article, " Les congregations de auxiliis " in his
Nouvelles etudes d'histoire religieuse.
MOLINE, a city of Rock Island county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
in the north-west part of the state, on the Mississippi river,
adjoining the city of Rock Island and opposite the upper end
of Rock Island. Pop. (1900), 17,248, of whom 5699 were foreign-
born, principally Swedes and Belgians; (1910 census), 24,199.
It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific,
and the Davenport, Rock Island & North-Western railways.
A channel in the Mississippi river here, 250 ft. wide and 4 ft.
deep at low water, projected in 1905, was completed in 1908;
and in 1907 a lock was finished which affords a draught of 6 ft.
and is a part of the 6 ft. channel improvement of Rock Island
Rapids. The city has large and varied manufacturing industries ;
water-power is derived from a dam maintained by the Moline
Water- Power Company; and there is a large electric-power
plant. The most important industry is the manufacture of
agricultural implements (particularly steel ploughs, which seem
to have been made here first in the United States, and corn-
planters). Among the other manufactures are boilers and
gasolene engines, wagons and carriages, automobiles, and pianos
and organs. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway has
a goo-acre yard and machine shop east of the city limits, and
there is a large U.S. arsenal on Rock Island. Moline was settled
in 1832, laid out as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a city
in 1855 and rechartered in 1872.
MOLINET, JEAN (1433-1507), French poet and chronicler,
was born at Desvres (Pas de Cakis). In 1475 he succeeded
Georges Chastellain as historiographer of the house of Burgundy,
and Margaret of Austria, governor of the Low Countries, made
him her librarian. His continuation of Chastellain's chronicle,
which covers the years from 1474 to 1504, remained unpublished
until 1828 when it was edited (Paris, 5 vols.) by J. A. Buchon.
It is far from possessing the historical value of his predecessor's
work. A selection from his voluminous poetical works was
published at Paris in 1531, Les Faictz et Dictz de feu . . . Jchan
Molinet. ... He also translated the Roman de la rose into prose
(pr. Lyons, 1503). He became, in 1501, canon of the church
of Notre-Dame at Valenciennes, where he died on the 23rd of
August 1507. He is noteworthy as the head of the vicious
Burgundian school of poetry known as the rhStoriqueurs, charac-
terized by the excessive use of puns and of puerile metrical
devices. His chief disciple was his nephew, Guillaume Cr6tin
(d. 1525), ridiculed by Rabelais as Raminagrobis, and Jean
Lemaire des Beiges was his friend.
See A. Wauters in the Biographie nationale de Belgigue (vol. xv.,
1899).
MOLINIER, AUGUSTS (1851-1904), French historian, was
born at Toulouse on the 3oth of September 1851. He was a
pupil at the ficole des Charles, which he left in 1873, and also
668
MOLINOS MOLIQUE
at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes; and he obtained appointments
in the public libraries at the Mazarine (1878), at Fontainebleau
(1884), and at St Genevieve, of which he was nominated libra-
rian in 1885. He was a good palaeographer and had a thorough
knowledge of archives and manuscripts; and he soon won a
first place among scholars of the history of medieval France.
His thesis on leaving the ficole des Chartes was his Catalogue
des actes de Simon et d'Amauri de Montfort (inserted in vol.
xxxiv. of the Bibliotheque de I'icole, an important contribution
to the history of the Albigenses. This marked him out as a
capable editor for the new edition of L'histoire generale de
Languedoc by Dom Vaissete: he superintended the reprinting
of the text, adding notes on the feudal administration of this
province from 900 to 1250, on the government of Alphonso
of Poitiers, brother of St Louis from 1226 to 1271, and on the
historical geography of the province of Languedoc in the middle
ages. He also wrote a Bibliographie du Languedoc, which
was awarded a prize by the Academic des inscriptions et belles-
lettres, but remained in manuscript. He also published several
documents for the Societe de 1'Orient Latin (Itinera hierosoly-
mitana, in collaboration with Ch. Kohler, 1885) ; for the Societe de
1'Histoire de France (Chronique normande du xiif siecle, assisted
by his brother Emile, 1883) ; for the Collection de textes relalifs
a I'enseignement de I'histoire ( Vie de Louis le Gros, by Suger,
1887); for the Collection des documents inedits (Correspondance
administrative d'Alfonse de Poitiers, 1894-1900); for the Recueil
des hisloriens de la France (Obituaires de la province de Sens
1904, 1906), &c., and several volumes in the Recueil des catalogues
des bibliotheques publiques de France. Applying to the French
classics the rigorous method used with regard to the texts of
the middle ages, he published the Pensees of Pascal, revised
with the original manuscript (1887-1889), and the Provinciales
(1891), edited with notes. In 1893 he was nominated professor
at the ficole des Chartes, and gave a successful series of lectures
which he published (Manuel des sources de I'histoire de France
au moyen age, 1902-1906). He also taught at the ficole des
Hautes fitudes. He died on the igth of May 1904, after a short
illness, leaving in manuscript a criticism on the sources of the
Speculum historiale of Vincent de Beauvais.
His elder brother, CHARLES (b. 1843), is also of some importance
as an historian, particularly on the history of art and on the
heresies of the middle ages. He was appointed professor of
history at the university of Toulouse in 1886.
A younger brother, EMILE (1857-1906), became an assistant
in the print-room at the Bibliotheque Nationale, and afterwards
joined the staff at the Musee du Louvre, of which he eventually
became keeper, retiring in 1902. He was a well-known con-
noisseur of art. He organized the famous Exposition Retro-
spective held at the Petit Palais in 1900, and published a number
of expert volumes on enamels, ceramics and furniture.
MOLINOS, MIGUEL DE (c. 1640-1697), Spanish divine, the
chief apostle of the religious revival known as Quietism, was
born about 1640 near Saragossa. 'He entered the priesthood
and settled in Rome about 1670. There he became well known
as a director of consciences, being on specially friendly terms
with Cardinal Odescalchi, who in 1676 became Pope Innocent XI.
In the previous year Molinos had published a volume, Guida
spirituale, che disinwlge I'anima e la conduce per Vinterior
camino all' acquisitc della perfetta contemplazione e del ricco
tesoro della pace interiore. This was shortly followed by a brief
Trallato della colidiana communione. No breath of suspicion
arose against Molinos until 1681, when the Jesuit preacher,
Segneri, attacked his views, though without mentioning his
name, in his Concordia tra lafatica e la quiete nell' orazione. The
matter was referred to the Inquisition. It pronounced that
the Guida spirituale was perfectly orthodox, and censured the
intemperate zeal of Segneri. But the Jesuits set Father La
Chaise to work on his royal penitent, Louis XIV., who prided
himself on being a pillar of orthodoxy; but he was on very bad
terms with Innocent XI., and soon yielded to the pleasure of
discovering heresy in an intimate friend of the pope. Following
on official representations by the French ambassador in Rome,
who happened to be a cardinal, Molinos was arrested in May
1685. At first his friends were confident of an acquittal, but
in the beginning of 1687 a number of his penitents of both sexes
were examined by the Inquisition, and several were arrested.
A report got abroad that Molinos had been convicted of moral
enormities, as well as of heretical doctrines; and it was seen that
he was doomed. On the 3rd of September 1687 he made public
profession of his errors, and was sentenced to imprisonment for
life. In the following November, Innocent signed a bull con-
demning sixty-eight propositions from the Guida spirituale and
other unpublished writings of its author. At some date unknown
in 1696 or 1697 Molinos died in prison.
Contemporary Protestants saw in the fate of Molinos nothing
more than a persecution by the Jesuits of a wise and enlightened
man, who had dared to withstand the petty ceremonialism of
the Italian piety of the day. But Molinos was much more
than the enlightened semi-Protestant that his English admirers
took him to be; and his Quietism, had it been suffered to run
its course would have swept aside beliefs and practices more
important than the rosaries of nuns, though it is most unlikely
that he realized the consequence of his own theories. Segneri
and La Chaise were not so easily deceived. They were Jesuits;
and Jesuitism is built up on the double assumption that God
reveals Himself wholly and only through Jesus, and that Jesus
reveals Himself wholly and only through the Church of Rome.
Luther had already broken through one link in this chain, when
he taught the Protestant world to come directly to Jesus,
without troubling about the Church; but Luther still assumed
that God could only be reached through the intermediacy of
Jesus. Molinos wished to find a royal road to God without
any intermediaries at all. The Reformation maintained that
the Church, so far from being a help, was a hindrance, to union
with Jesus; whereas Molinos welcomed both Church and Jesus
as helps to union with God, always provided that the believer
treated both as means to an end beyond themselves. In other
words, he held that there was a triple stage in piety. Beginners
gave themselves wholly to the Church. At the second step
came devotion to Jesus. At the third and highest stage both
Church and Jesus were left behind as deiformes, sed non Deus,
and God remained alone.
But how could a finite being bring himself into direct relation
with Infinity? Following very ancient precedents, Molinos fell
back on those phenomena of our consciousness which seem least
within our own power. The less sense of proprietorship we had
in a thought or action the less it was the fruit of our deliberate
will the more certain might we be that it was divinely inspired.
But what state of mind is most likely to be visited by these
spontaneous illuminations? Plainly the state that Molinos calls
the " soft and savoury sleep of nothingness," where the soul is
content to fold its hands, and wait in dreamy musing till the
message comes; meanwhile it will think, do, will as little as
it can. For this reason disinterested love became the great
hall-mark of Quietist sanctity. Why it is unfitted to be a test
of sanctity in general has been explained at length by Bossuet
in a remarkable Instruction sur les e'tals d'oraison, published
while the Quietist controversy was at its height. But, although
Molinos's system did not long survive him, he had at least
the double merit of courage and tenacity. Few writers have
struggled so long and so hard to disengage the essence of religion
from its transitionary embodiment in an historical creed.
The Guida spirituale was published in Italian in 1675, and has
been reprinted. An English translation appeared in 1688; it has
been re-edited by Mrs Arthur Lyttelton. French, Spanish and
Latin translations have also appeared. For the history of its
author see C. E. Scharling, Michael de Molinos (Ger. trans, from
Danish; Gotha, 1855). H. Heppe, Geschichte der quietistischen
Mystik (Berlin, 1875). On the whole subject of Quietism see
H. Delacroix, Etudes d'histoire el de psychologie du 'mysticisme
(Paris, 1908). There is a brilliant, but very fanciful, account of
Molinos and his doctrines in J. H. Shorthouse's romance, John
Inghsant. (ST C.)
MOLIQUE, WILHELM BERNHARDT (1802 1869), German
violinist and composer, was born at Nuremberg on the 7th of
October, 1802, and learnt the violin at Munich under Pietro
MOLKO MOLLUSCA
669
Rovelli. In 1826 he became music-director at Stuttgart. As
a composer for the violin Molique was commonly compared with
Spohr. He also wrote some charming songs. He died at
Cannstadt in 1869.
MOLKO (1500-1532), a Marano kabbalist, who proclaimed
the advent of the Messiah. He was associated with David
Reubeni, who also made Messianic claims. Molko, after a
chequered career, was condemned to death by the ecclesiastical
court at Mantua. He was offered his life by the emperor
Charles V. if he would return to Christianity, in which he had
been educated. He refused, and died at the stake. (I. A.)
MOLLENDORF, RICHARD JOACHIM HEINRICH VON
(1724-1816), Prussian soldier, began his career as a page of
Frederick the Great in 1740. The outbreak of the Silesian wars
gave him his first opportunity of seeing active service, and the
end of the second war saw him a captain. In the Seven Years'
War his brilliant conduct at the churchyard of Leuthen (1757)
and at Hochkirch won him his majority. In 1760 his exertions
retrieved the. almost lost battle of Torgau, and the last success
of the great king was won by the brigades of Prince Wied and
Mollendorf (now major-general) at the Burkersdorf heights.
Seventeen years later, as lieutenant-general, he won at Brix one
of the few successes of the Bavarian Succession (or " Potato ")
War. In the years of peace he occupied considerable posts,
being made governor of Berlin in 1783. Promoted general of in-
fantry in 1787, and general field marshal in 1793, he commanded
the Prussian army on the Rhine in 1794. In the disastrous
campaign of Jena (1806) Mollendorf played a considerable
part, though he did not actually command a corps. He was
present with the king at Auerstadt, falling into the hands of
the French in the debdcle which followed. After his release
he passed the remainder of his life in retirement. He died
in 1816.
MOLLIEN, NICOLAS FRANCOIS, COUNT (1758-1850), French
financier, was born at Paris on the 28th of February 1758. The
son of a merchant, he early showed ability, and entered the
ministry of finance, where he rose rapidly; in 1784, at the time
of the renewal of the arrangements with the farmers-general
of the taxes, he was practically chief in that department and
made terms advantageous to the national exchequer. Under
Calonne he improved the returns from the farmers-general;
and he was largely instrumental in bringing about the erection
of the octroi walls of Paris in place of the insufficient wooden
barriers. He, however, advocated an abolition of some of the
restrictions on imports, as came about in the famous Anglo-
French commercial treaty of 1786, to the conclusion of which
he contributed in no small measure. The events of the French
Revolution threatened at times to overwhelm Mollien. In
1794 he was brought before the revolutionary tribunal of
Evreux as a suspect, and narrowly escaped the fate that befell
many of the former farmers-general. He retired to England,
where he observed the financial measures adopted at the crisis of
1796-1797. After the coup d'eiat of Brumaire (November 1799)
he re-entered the ministry of finance, then under Gaudin, who
entrusted to him important duties as director of the new caisse
d'amortissement. Napoleon, hearing of his abilities, frequently
consulted him on financial matters, and after the Proclamation
of the Empire (May 1804) made him a councillor of state. The
severe financial crisis of December 1805 to January 1806 served
to reveal once more his sound sense. Napoleon, returning in
haste not long after Austerlitz, dismissed Barge-Marbois from
the ministry of the treasury and confided to Mollien those
important duties. He soon succeeded in freeing the treasury
from the interference of great banking houses. In other respects,
however, he did something towards curbing Napoleon's desire
for a precise regulation of the money market. The conversations
between them on this subject, as reported in Mollien's Memoirs,
are of high interest, and show that the ministry had a far truer
judgment on financial matters than the emperor, who often
twitted him with being an ideologue. In 1808 Mollien was
awarded the title of count. He soon came to see the impossi-
bility of the measures termed collectively " the continental
system "; but his warnings on that subject were of no avail.
After the first abdication of the emperor (April u, 1814),
Mollien retired into private life, but took up his ministerial duties
at the appeal of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), after
which he again retired. Louis XVIII. wished to bring him back
to office, but he resisted these appeals. Nominated a peer in
1819, he took some part in connexion with the annual budgets.
He lived to see the election of Louis Napoleon as president of
the Second Republic, and died in April 1850, with the exception
of Pasquier, the last surviving minister of Napoleon I.
See Mollien's Memoires d'un ministre du tresor public 1780-1815,
4vols. (Paris 1845; new ed., Paris, 3 vols., 1898); A. G. P. Barante,
Etudes historiques et biographiques ; Salvandy, Notice sur Mollien;
also M. M. C. Gaudin (due de Gaete), Notice historique sur les finances
de la France 1800-1814 (Paris, 1818). (J. HL. R.)
MOLLUSCA, one of the great " phyla," or sub-kingdoms,
of the animal pedigree or kingdom. The shell-bearing forms
belonging to this group which were known to Linnaeus were
placed by him (in 1 748) in the third order of his class Vermes
under the name " Testacea," whilst the Echinoderms, Hydroids
and Annelids, with the naked Mollusca, formed his second order
termed " Zoophyta." Ten years later he replaced the name
" Zoophyta " by " Mollusca," which was thus in the first instance
applied, not to the Mollusca at present so termed, but to a group
coasisting chiefly of other organisms. Gradually, however, the
term Mollusca became used to include those Mollusca formerly
placed among the " Testacea," as well as the naked Mollusca.
It is important to observe that the term naXaicta., of which
Mollusca is merely a latinized form, was used by Aristotle to
indicate a group consisting of the cuttle-fishes only.
As now classified, the Mollusca consist of the following sub-
divisions:
Grade A. Iso pleura.
Class I. Amphineura (see CHITON).
Grade B. Prorhipidoglossomorpha.
Class II. Gastropoda (q.v.).
Class III. Scaphopoda (q.v.).
Class IV. Lamellibranchia (#..).
Grade C. Siphonopoda.
Class V. Cephalopoda (q.v.).
History of Classification. The definite erection of the Mollusca
into the position of one of the great primary groups ol the animal
kingdom is due to George Cuvier (1788-1800), who largely occupied
himself with the dissection of representatives of this type. 1 * An
independent anatomical investigation of the Mollusca had been
carried on by the remarkable Neapolitan naturalist Poli (1791),
whose researches 2 were not published until after his death (1817),
and were followed by the beautiful works of another Neapolitan
zoologist, the illustrious Delle Chiaje. 3
The embranchement or sub-kingdom Mollusca, as defined by
Cuvier, included the following classes of shellfish: (i) the cuttles
or poulps, under the name CEPHALOPODA; (2) the snails, whelks
and slugs, both terrestrial and marine, under the name GASTROPODA ;
(3) the sea-butterflies or winged-snails, under the name PTEROPODA ;
(4) the clams, mussels and oysters, under the name ACEPHALA;
(5) the lamp-shells, under the name BRACHICPODA; (6) the sea-
squirts or ascidians, under the name NUDA ; and (7) the barnacles
and sea-acorns, under the name CIRRHOPODA.
The main limitations of the sub-kingdom or phylum Mollusca.
as laid down by Cuvier, and the chief divisions thus recognized
within its limits by him, hold good to the present day. At the same
time, three of the classes considered by him as Mollusca have been
one by one removed from that association in consequence of improved
knowledge, and one additional class, incorporated since his day
with the Mollusca with general approval, has, after more than forty
years, been again detached and assigned an independent position
owing to newly acquired knowledge.
The first of Cuvier's classes to be removed from the Mollusca
was that of the Cirrhopoda. Their affinities with the lower Crustacea
were recognized by Cuvier and his contemporaries, but it was cne of
the brilliant discoveries of that remarkable and too-little-honoured
naturalist, J. Vaughan Thompson, of Cork, which decided their posi-
tion as Crustacea. The metamorphoses of the Cirrhopoda were
described and figured by him in 1830 in a very complete manner,
and the legitimate conclusion as to their affinities was formulated
by him. 4 Thus it is to Thompson (1830), and not to Burmeister
(1834), as erroneously stated by Keferstein, that the merit of this
discovery belongs. The next class to be removed from Cuvier's
* These figures refer to the Bibliography at the end of the article.
MOLLUSCA
Mollusca was that of the Nuda, better known as Tunicata. In 1866
the Russian embryologist Kowalewsky startled the zoological world
with a minute account of the developmental changes of Ascidia, one
of the Tunicata, 6 and it became evident that the affinities of that
class were with the Vertebrata, whilst their structural agreements
with Mollusca were only superficial. The last class which has been
removed from the Cuvierian Mollusca is that of the Lamp-shells or
Brachiopoda. The history of its dissociation is connected with that
of the class, viz. the Polyzoa or Bryozoa. which has been both added
to and again removed from the Mollusca between Cuvier's date and
the present day. The name of I. Vaughan Thompson is again that
which is primarily connected with the history of a Molluscan class.
In 1830 he pointed out that among the numerous kinds of " polyps"
at that time associated by naturalists with the Hydroids, there were
many which had a peculiar and more elaborate type of organization,
and for these he proposed the name Polyzoa. Subsequently 6 they
were termed Bryozoa by Ehrenberg (1831).
Henri Milne- Edwards in 1844 demonstrated the affinities of
the Polyzoa with the Molluscan class Brachiopoda, and proposed to
associate the three classes Brachiopoda, Polyzoa and Tunicata in a
large group " Molluscoidea," co-ordinate with the remaining classes
of Cuvier^ Mollusca, which formed a group retaining the name
Mollasca. By subsequent writers the Polyzoa have in some cases
been kept apart from the Mollusca and classed with the " Vermes " ;
whilst by others they have, together with the Brachiopoda, been
regarded as true Mollusca. Increase of knowledge has now, hov/ever,
established the conclusion that the agreement of structure supposed
to obtain between Polyzoa and true Mollusca is delusive; and accord-
ingly they, together with the Brachiopoda, were removed from the
Molluscan phylum by Lankester in his article in the 9th edition of
this work (on the which present article is based). Further details
in regard to this, the last revolution in Molluscan classification, will
be found in the article POLYZOA.
As thus purified by successive advances of embryclogical research,
the Mollusca were reduced to the Cuvierian classes of Cephalopoda,
Pteropoda, Gastropoda and Acephala. Certain modifications in the
disposition of these classes are naturally enough rendered necessary
by the vast accumulation of knowledge as to the anatomy and em-
bryology of the forms comprised in them. Foremost among those
who between 1840 and 1880 laboured in this field are the French
zoologists Henri Milne-Edwards' and Lacaze Duthiers, 10 to the
latter of whom we owe the most accurate dissections and beautiful
illustrations of a number of different types. To Kolliker, 11
Gegenbaur, 12 and more recently Spenger, 13 amongst German anato-
mists, we are indebted for epoch-making researches cf the same
kind. In England, Owen's anatomy of the pearly nautilus, 14
Huxley's discussion of the general morphology of the Mollusca, 17
and Lankester's embryological investigations, 19 have aided in
advancing pur knowledge ofthe group. Two remarkable works of
a systematic character dealing with the Mollusca deserve mention
here the Manual of the Mollusca, by Dr S. P. Woodward, a model
of clear systematic exposition, and the exhaustive treatise on the
Malacozoa or Weichthiere by Professor Keferstein of Gottingen,
published as part of Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs.
The arrangement adopted by Ray Lankester in the gth edition of
the Ency. Brit. (art. " Mollusca "; 1883) was as follows: Of the four
Cuvierian classes mentioned above, the Pteropoda were united with
the Cephalopoda, on account of the apparent similarity of the
cephalic tentacles in some of the former to the arms of the latter.
An additional class wasjnstituted for the reception of Dentalium and
its few allies, and for this class Bronn's name Scaphopoda was used.
The Chitons and their allies were placed under the Gastropoda, as a
distinct branch called Isopleura, and for the Acephala de Blainville's
name Lamellibranchia was substituted. The latter were regarded
as forming a distinct branch, equivalent in rank to the other three
classes together, the latter all possessing the radula which is wanting
in Lamellibranchs.
Since the gth edition of the Ency. Brit, was published important
advances have been made in our knowledge of the Mollusca, as the
result of researches largely due to the interest excited in the subject
by Lankester's article. Attention has been especially directed to
the investigation of the most primitive forms in each group, and
accordingly we can now form much more definite conceptions of the
phytogeny and evolution of the various classes. The most important
and extensive contributions to this progress have been made by the
Belgian zoologist, Dr Paul Pelseneer, who has made the Mollusca his
special study.
The Chitonidae and the Aplacophora are now separated from the
Gastropoda and raised to the rank of a distinct class, under the name
of Amphineura. On the other hand, Boas and Pelseneer have shown
that the Pteropoda have nothing to do with the Cephalopoda, but
are Gastropoda modified for a pelagic life; they are therefore now
united with the Gastropoda. The Lamellibranchia are no longer
regarded as a distinct branch in contrast to the remaining Mollusca;
according to Pelseneer they are allied to the Gastropoda and Sca-
phopoda, all three classes being derived from a common hypotheti-
cal ancestor, called Prorhipidoglossum. These three classes have
therefore been united by Grobben into one branch or grade, the
Prorhipidoglossomorpha.
General Characters of the Mollusca. The forms comprised
in the various groups, whilst exhibiting an extreme range of
variety in shape, as may be seen on comparing an oyster, a
cuttle-fish, and a sea-slug such as Doris; whilst adapted, some
to life on dry land, others to the depths of the sea, others to
rushing streams; whilst capable, some of swimming, others of
burrowing, crawb'ng or jumping, some, on the other hand,
fixed and immobile; some amongst the most formidable of
carnivores, others feeding on vegetable mud, or on the minutest
of microscopic organisms yet all agree in possessing in common
a very considerable number of structural details which are not
possessed in common by any other animals.
The structural features which the Mollusca do possess in
common with other animals belonging to other great phyla of
the animal kingdom are those characteristic of the Coelomata,
one of the two great grades (the other and lower being that of
the Coelentera) into which the higher animals, or Metazoa as
distinguished from the Protozoa, are divided. The Metazoa
all commence their individual existence as a single cell or plastid,
which multiplies itself by transverse division. Unlike the cells
of Protozoa, these embryonic cells of the Metazoa do not remain
each like its neighbour and capable of independent life, but
proceed to arrange themselves into two layers, taking the form
of a sac. The cavity of the two-cell-layered sac or diblastula
thus formed is the primitive gut or arch-enteron. In the
Coelentera, whatever subsequent changes of shape the little
sac may undergo as it grows up to be polyp or jelly-fish, the
original arch-enteron remains as the one cavity pervading all
regions of the body. In the Coelomata, on the other hand,
there is another cavity, dividing the body- wall into two layers:
an internal layer surrounding the gut, and an external layer.
This cavity is excavated in a third mass of cells distinct from the
cells lining the gut, forming the endoderm, and the cells covering
the surface of the body, the ectoderm. This third mass of cells
is the mesoderm. The Mollusca agree in being coelomate with
the phyla Vertebrata, Platyhelmia (flat- worms), Echinoderma,
Appendiculata (insects, ringed-worms, &c.), and others in
fact, with all the Metazoa except the sponges, corals, polyps,
and medusae.
In common with all other Coelomata, the Mollusca are at
one period of life possessed of a prostomium or region in front
of the mouth, which is the essential portion of the " head,"
and is connected with the property of forward locomotion in
a definite direction and the steady carriage of the body (as
opposed to rotation of the body on its long axis). As a result,
the Coelomata, and with them the Mollusca, present (in the
first instance) the general condition of body knov/n as bilateral
symmetry; the dorsal is differentiated from the ventral surface,
whilst a right and a left side similar to, or rather the complements
of, one another are permanently established. In common with
all other Coelomata, the Mollusca have the mouth and first part
of the alimentary canal which leads into the met-enteron formed
by a special invagination of the outer layer of the primitive
body-wall, not to be confounded with that which often, but not
always, accompanies the antecedent formation of the arch-
enteron; this invagination is termed the stomodaeum. Similarly
an anal aperture is formed in connexion with a special invagi-
nation which meets the hinder part of the met-enteron, and is
termed the proctodaeum.
The coelom is primarily and essentially the generative cavity:
the reproductive cells arise from its walls, i.e. from the coelomic
epithelium. True nephridia do not primarily open into the
coelom, as was formerly taught, but are intra-cellular ducts
in the mesoderm. Such organs are absent in Mollusca in the
adult state, but a pair of nephridia usually occurs in the larva.
The coelom opens to the exterior by ducts which are primarily
genital ducts by which the ova or sperms are discharged. These
ducts, however, as well as the coelomic epithelium, may assume
excretory functions. In Mollusca the coelom is reduced and
consists of two parts, the pericardial cavity which surrounds
the heart, and the cavity of the gonads or generative organs.
There is usually one pair of coelomic ducts leading from the
MOLLUSCA
671
pericardium to the exterior, and these are the excretory organs
or kidneys, formerly known as the organs of Bojanus. The
walls of the pericardium are also excretory in parts, these parts
forming the pericardial glands. In the majority of Mollusca the
gonads are provided with a pair of ducts of their own. There
are thus two pairs of coelomic ducts. This fact gives rise to
the question whether the Mollusca are to be regarded as primi-
tively segmented animals or not. In animals which exhibit
typical segmentation or metamerism, such as segmented worms
(Chaetopoda), each segment or metamere possesses its own
coelomic cavity, a pair of coelomic ducts, and a pair of nephridia.
The structure of the Mollusca in the greater number of cases
agrees with the hypothesis that the primitive form was unseg-
mented, and therefore had but one pair of coelomic ducts and
one pair of nephridia. In existing forms the latter disappear
in the adult. In the most primitive forms of several classes
there are no distinct genital ducts, the gonads when mature
discharging into or through the kidneys. Among the Gastropoda,
in the Aspidobranchia, there is no genital duct, and the gonad
opens into the right kidney; in the more modified forms the
left kidney alone is functional, the right has been converted
into the genital duct. Among the Lamellibranchia again the
kidneys serve as genital ducts in the Protobranchia and some
Filibranchia. In the higher forms the opening of the gonad
is shifted more and more towards the external aperture of each
kidney until finally it is situated on the external surface, and
thus the gonad secondarily acquires an independent aperture.
In the Scaphopoda there is no distinct genital duct, the relations
are as in Aspidobranchia. Among the Amphineura we find one
pair of coelomic ducts in the Aplacophora, two pairs in the
Chitons. In the former the genital coelom and the pericardial
coelom are continuous and the reproductive cells escape by the
renal ducts. In the Chitons or Polyplacophora, on the other
hand, the two cavities are separate, and there are independent
genital ducts. It is possible therefore to regard the latter
condition as secondary, and to conclude that the separate
genital ducts have been derived from the original single pair of
coelomic ducts, as in Lamellibranchs.
The Cephalopoda, however, do not harmonize so well with this
view. The earliest forms of this class geologically are the
Nautiloidea. Assuming that these ancestral forms resembled
the existing Nautilus in their internal anatomy, they had two
pairs of renal ducts and one pair of genital ducts, which would
apparently indicate, not a single metamere or unsegmented
body, but three metameres. There are however only two pairs
of branchiae. The Dibranchia, with only one pair of branchiae,
one pair of renal organs, and one pair of genital ducts, are much
more recent, not appearing till the end of the Secondary epoch,
and therefore must be regarded as descended from the Tetra-
branchia. The latter are represented in the Upper Cambrian
formations, together with Lamellibranchia and Gastropoda, and
there are no earlier Molluscan fossils than these. Palaeontology
therefore throws no light on the question whether the metameric
or the unsegmented Mcllusca were the earlier. The development
of the Cephalopoda affords at present no better evidence that
the metamerism is secondary. That of Nautilus, which would
be most important in this inquiry, is unfortunately still unknown.
In the Dibranchia true nephridia have not been detected in the
embryo, nor has it been shown that the genital ducts are derived
from the renal tubes. On the other hand, there is no evidence
that the forms which show no metamerism, such as the Gastro-
poda, are descended from metameric ancestors. On the whole,
then, the most probable conclusion is that the original ancestral
form of the Mollusca was unsegmented, possessed one pair of true
nephridia, and one pair of coelomie ducts whose function was
to conduct the generative products to the exterior. The chief
types of Mollusca were already differentiated at the beginning
of the geological record, and the metamerism which occurs in
the Cephalopoda has been evolved within the limits of that
class.
External Characters. The characteristic organs of Mollusca
are the mantle and shell, the foot, the ctenidia and the radula,
of which all but the last are external. The original form was
bilaterally symmetrical, and this symmetry is retained in all
the classes except the Gastropoda. At the anterior end the head
is differentiated; it bears the sense-organs, and contains the
muscular pharynx within which is the radular apparatus. The
rest of the body consists of the foot ventrally and the visceral
mass dorsally. The foot is a muscular mass without cuticle
or skeleton, excepting certain cuticular structures such as the
byssus of Lamellibranchs and the operculum of Gastropods,
which do not aid in locomotion. The foot is usually the only
organ of locomotion. It corresponds to the ventral part of the
body-wall in other animals. The muscular tissue of the dorsal
body-wall is much reduced and the integument here is thin and
a.bv.
fl.
FIG. I. Ctenidia of various Mollusca (original).
A, Of Chiton: f.t., fibrous tissue; a.b.v., afferent blood-vessel;
e.b.v., efferent blood-vessel; g./., laterally paired lamellae.
B , Of Sepia : letters as in A.
C , Of Fissurella : letters as in A.
D, Of Nucula: d, position of axis with blood-vessels; a, inner:
b and c, outer row of lamellae.
E, Of Paludina: i, intestine running parallel with the axis of the
ctenidium and ending in the anus a; br., rows of elongate
processes corresponding to the two series of lamellae of the
upper figures.
soft. The external epithelium of the dorsal region secretes the
shell. Between the edge of the shell and the foot there is a
groove or cavity, chiefly developed laterally and posteriorly.
The dorsal border of this groove is extended outwards and
downwards as a fold of the integument. There is some confusion
of terms here: some writers call the free fold the mantle or
pallium, and this is the proper use of the term; but others apply
the term to the whole of the dorsal integument, including both
the projecting fold and the part covering the viscera. The
shell extends to the edge of the mantle-fold, and the cavity
between the mantle and the side of the body is the pallial
chamber. This chamber serves two purposes: it is primarily
672
MOLLUSCA
the respiratory cavity containing the gills, but it also serves
to enclose the body so that the latter is surrounded by the
shell, from which the head and foot can be protruded at the will
of the animal.
The shell consists of an organic basis the substance of which
is called conchiolin, impregnated with carbonate of lime, with
a small proportion, 1-2 %, of phosphate of lime. On the outside
of the shell is a non-calcified layer of conchiolin called the
periostracum, secreted by the thickened edge of the mantle.
The zone of the external surface of the mantle within the edge
secretes a layer formed of prisms of calcite; the rest of the
epithelium from this zone to the apex secretes the inner layer
of the shell, composed of successive laminae; this is the nacreous
layer, and in certain species has a commercial value as nacre
or mother-of-pearl. Thus the growth of the shell in extent
is due to additions to the prismatic layer at the edge, its growth
in thickness to new layers of nacre deposited on its inner surface.
In many cases in various classes the mantle is reflected over
the edges of the shell, so as to cover more or less completely
its outer surface. When this covering is complete the shell
is contained in a closed sac and is said to be " internal," but
the sac is lined by ectoderm and the shell is always morpho-
logically external. In one or two cases the epithelium of the
foot secretes a calcined shell, which is either free as in Argonauta
or adherent as in Hipponyx.
The ctenidia (fig. i) are the branchial organs of the Mollusca.
In the primitive condition there is one on each side in the
mantle cavity, towards the posterior end of the body. Each
is an outgrowth of the body-wall at the side of the body, and
consists of an axis containing two main vessels, an afferent and
efferent, and bearing on either side a series of transverse plates
whose blood-sinuses communicate with the vessels of the axis.
The afferent vessel of the ctenidium receives blood from the
vena cava or principal blood-sinus of the body, the efferent
vessel opens into the auricle of its own side. Near the base of
the ctenidium is a patch of sensory epithelium innervated from
the branchial nerve, forming a sense-organ called the osphra-
dium, whose function is to test the water entering the branchial
cavity. The branchial current is maintained by the cilia which
cover the surface of the ctenidia, except in Cephalopoda, in
which cilia are absent and the current is due to muscular action.
Thus in the primitive mollusc the mantle-cavity contains a
symmetrical group of structures at the posterior end of the
body, and this group of structures is called the pallial complex.
It consists of the anus in the middle, a renal organ and renal
aperture on each side of this, and a ctenidium outside or anterior
to the renal organ, an osphradium being situated at the base
of the ctenidium.
Internal Anatomy: Digestive Tube, In primitive Mollusca the
mouth and anus are the two extremities of the body, but the anus
may be brought to an anterior position by a ventral flexure, compli-
cated in Gastropoda by a lateral torsion. The alimentary tube
consists of three regions: firstly, the anterior buccal mass with the
oesophagus, of ectodermic origin, and therefore bearing cuticular
structures, namely the jaws and radula; secondly, the mid-gut, of
endodermic origin and including the stomach and liver; and, thirdly,
the hind-gut or intestine. The radula consists of a chitinous band
bearing teeth, secreted by a ventral caecum of the pharnyx and
moved by an apparatus of cartilage and muscles. It was present in
the ancestral mollusc, occurs in nearly all archaic types, and is only
absent in the most specialized forms, in which it has evidently been
lost; these forms are certain Neomeniomorpha, all the Lamelli-
branchia, various degenerate Gastropoda, and the Cirrhoteuthidae
among Cephalopods. The teeth are secreted by a small number of
cells at the closed end of the caecum, the basal membrane by a trans-
verse row of cells in front of these. The teeth are disposed in trans-
verse rows, and in each row they are arranged symmetrically on
either side of a central tooth. In Polyplacophora there are eight
on each side (8.1.8); in Scaphopoda two on each side (2.1.2); in
almost all Cephalopoda three on each side (3.1.3) ; in Gastropoda the
number varies very much in different subdivisions. Beneath the
anterior parts of the radula where it emerges from the caecum are a
pair of cartilages, and attached to these a number of special muscles
by which the radula is moved backwards and forwards to act as a
rasp. The secretion of the radula at the closed end of the caecum
is continuous, so that it is constantly growing forward as fast as its
exposed anterior portion is worn away by use, just as a finger-
nail is pushed forward by constant growth at its posterior end,
and is worn away or has to be cut short from time to time at its
outer end.
Circulation. The system of blood-vessels is entirely separate
from the coelomic cavities. It consists of arteries, veins and
sinuses, but ramified capillaries are usually absent except in the
integuments of Cephalopods. The arteries and veins have proper
endothelial walls; they pass abruptly into the sinuses and in some
cases communication is effected by orifices in the walls of the vessels,
as for example in the vena cava of Nautilus. The heart is situated
in the pericardium on the dorsal side of the intestine and at the
posterior end of the animal. The pericardium never contains blood,
as is well shown in those forms which have red corpuscles in their
blood ; these corpuscles are never found in the pericardium.
The heart receives blood from the gills and mantle, and pumps it
through arteries to the body. It consists of a median ventricle
with muscular walls and a cavity traversed by muscular strands.
On either side of the ventricle, in the primitive condition, is a thin-
walled auricle, opening into the ventricle by a valved opening.
Each auricle forms the terminal enlargement of the efferent vein of
the ctenidium of its own side. In Nautilus two pairs of auricles are
present, corresponding with the two pairs of ctenidia. In the primi-
tive form a single anterior aorta is given off from the ventricle, the
two together representing the dorsal blood-vessel of ' Chaetopods.
In more specialized forms a posterior aorta passes backwards from
the ventricle, as in Gastropods and the majority of Lamellibranchs.
The ramifications of the arteries convey the blood to all parts of the
body, and it finally reaches the venous sinuses, the chief of which are
the pedal, the pallia! and the median-ventral. The last is between
the pericardium and the foot ; from it the blood passes through the
renal organs to the ctenidia. Some blood, however, enters the auricles
directly from the mantle, without passing through the ctenidia. In
the majority of Gastropoda one gill and one auricle are lost.
The blood is usually a colourless liquid containing amoeboid cells
and sometimes other corpuscles called haematids. It may be
coloured blue by haemocyanin, a respiratory compound containing
copper. In a few forms the blood contains haemoglobin, either in
solution or in haematids (red blood-corpuscles). In the Gastropoda
the muscular tissue of the buccal mass is coloured red by haemo-
globin.
Nervous System. The central nervous system may be described as
consisting of a collar surrounding the oesophagus, and two pairs of
cords arising from the collar and passing backwards. The two pairs
of cords arise from the same point of the collar. The ventral cords
are the pedal, the dorso-lateral, the pleural, the former innervating
the foot, the latter the mantle. The dorsal half of the collar is the
cerebral commissure, the ventral the labial commissure. The pedal
cords are connected by commissures, and the pedal and pleural of
each side are similarly connected. The pallial cords are united to
one another posteriorly, dorsal to the rectum. This is the condition
of the nervous system found in Chiton and the other Amphineura,
but may not be in all respects the ancestral condition. Generally
the system is differentiated into ganglia connected by nerve-cords
consisting of nerve-fibres only. At the point of the collar whence
the nerve-cords arise are the cerebral ganglia ; from these one pair
of connectives passes to a pair of pedal ganglia, and another pair of
connectives to a pair of pleural ganglia. Pedal and pleural on each
side are connected by a pleuro-pedal connective Each pleural
ganglion gives off a long nerve which supplies the viscera, and the
two unite posteriorly below the intestine. There are usually three
small ganglia on the course of this visceral commissure, namely, the
right and left visceral ganglia and the abdominal. The perio-
esophageal nerve-ring of Chaetopoda and Arthropoda is represented,
not by the collar first mentioned in the above description, but by the
commissures connecting the cerebral and pedal ganglia. The labial
commissure supplies only the buccal mass and the oesophagus and
stomach.
The special sense-organs are a pair of eyes on the head, a pair of
otocysts or statocysts, and a pair of osphradia which have already
been mentioned. In certain cases accessory eyes are also present,
e.g. the pallial eyes of Pecten and other Lamellibranchs, and of
Chitons. The otocysts are invaginations of the epithelium of the
foot, but are innervated from the cerebral ganglia, and the same
innervation has been proved in some cases for the osphradia.
Reproduction and Development. Molluscs are usually of separate
sexes, but sexual dimorphism is seldom highly developed. Herma-
phroditism is secondary, and occurs in one sub-class of Gastropoda, in
some Lamellibranchs, and in one sub-order of Amphineura. In
Cephalopods and the majority of Gastropods copulation occurs. As
a rule no parental care is exhibited, but incubation of the developing
ova within some part of the parental body, or receptacles attached
to the parent, occurs in some Lamellibranchs, some Gastropods, and
in Argonauta among the Cephalopods. True viviparity, that is
the development of the ova within the oviduct, is very rare, occurring
only in one case among the Amphineura and in some aquatic and
pulmonate Gastropoda.
The egg-cell of Mollusca is either free from food-material a
simple protoplasmic corpuscle or charged with food-material to a
greater or less extent. Those cases which appear to be most typical
i.e. which adhere to a procedure which was probably common at one
time to all then existing Mollusca and has been departed from only
MOLLUSCA
673
in later and special lines of descent show approximately the
following history. By division of the egg-cell a mulberry-mass of
embryonic-cells is formed (mprula), which dilates, forming a one-cell-
layered sac (blastula). By invagination one portion of this sphere
becomes tucked into the other as in the preparation of a woven
night-cap for the head. The orifice of invagination (blastopore)
narrows, and we now have a two-cell-layered sac the gastrula.
The invaginated layer is the enteric cell-layer or endoderm ; the outer
cell-layer is the dermic cell-layer or ectoderm. The cavity communi-
cating with the blastopore and lined by the endoderm is the arch-
enteron. The blastopore, together with the whole embryo, now
elongates. The blastopore then closes along the middle portion of
its extent, which corresponds with the later developed foot. At
the same time the stomodaeum, or oral invagination, forms around
the anterior remnant of the blastopore, and the proctodaeum, or anal
invagination, forms around the posterior remnant of the blastopore.
There are, however, variations in regard to the relation of the blasto-
pore to the mouth and to the anus which are probably modifications
of the original process described above.
In eggs which contain a larger quantity of food-yolk, the process
by which the endoderm is enveloped by the ectoderm is somewhat
different. Segmentation in these is very unequal, and results in the
formation of small cells called micromeres and large cells called
megameres, as in fig. 4. As the micromeres become more numerous
they gradually envelop the megameres until the latter are completely
enclosed. The gastrula is in these cases said to be formed by epibole.
Between ectoderm and endoderm a third intermediate cell-layer
(After Lankester, 15.)
FIG. 2. Development of the Pond-Snail, Limnaeus stagnalis.
r, Directive corpuscle.
bl, Blastopore.
en, Endoderm or enteric cell layer.
ec, Ectoderm or deric cell-layer.
, Velum.
m, Mouth.
/, Foot.
t, Tentacles.
fp, Pore in the foot (belonging
to the pedal gland?).
w/.The mantle-flap or limbus
pallialis.
sh, The shell.
here
A, First four cells resulting from
the cleavage of the original
egg-cell.
B, Side-view of the same.
C, Diblastula stage showing the
two cell-layers and
blastopore.
D, E, F, Trochosphere stage
older than E or F.
G, Three-quarter view of a Dib-
lastula, to shpw the orifice o!
invagination of the endo-
derm or blastopore, (W).
H, I, Veliger stage later than
D.
I, The sub-pallial space
destined to become the lung.
is formed, which is called the mesoderm, and gives rise to the
muscular and connective tissues to the vascular system, and to the
excretory and generative organs. The mesoderm arises for the mosl
part from the endoderm. When the segmentation is unequal pne of
the megameres gives rise by successive divisions to two primary
mesoderm cells called mesomeres; these divide to form two masses
of cells called mesoblastic bands. The coelom is formed as a cavity
or cavities in the interior of these cell-masses. In some cases
XVin ?3
coelom is formed as a single cavity, and renal and generative organs
are formed from its walls. This is the primitive method, but in
other cases the organs mentioned may be formed separately in the
mesoderm. The renal organs are tubular outgrowths of the peri-
cardia! parts of the coelom ; the reproductive cells are derived from
cells lining the generative portion.
. The external form of the embryo meanwhile passes through
lighly characteristic changes, which are on the whole fairly constant
E
(After Lanfcester, 17.)
FIG. 3. Development of the River-Snail, Paludina vivipara.
dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast
ceil).
ae, Arch-enteron or cavity lined
by the enteric cell-layer or
endoderm.
bl, Blastopore.
vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated
cells.
dv, Velar area or cephalic dome.
sm, Site of the as yet unformed
mouth.
/, Foot.
mes, Rudiments of the skeleto-
trophic tissues.
pi, The pedicle of invagination,
the future rectum.
shgl, The primitive shell-sac or
shell-gland.
m, Mouth.
A, Gastrula phase (optical sec-
tion).
B, The Gastrula has become a
Trochosphere by the devel-
opment of the ciliated ring
vr (optical section).
C, Side view of the Trochosphere
with commencing formation
of the foot.
D, Further advanced Trocho-
sphere (optical section).
E, The Trochosphere passing to
the Veliger stage, dorsal view
showing the formation of the
primitive shell-sac.
F, Side view of the same, showing
foot, shell-sac (shgl), velum
(vr), mouth and anus.
an, anus.
N.B. In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form indepen-
dently of the blastopore.
throughout the Mollusca. A circlet of cilia forms when the embryo
is still nearly spherical in an equatorial position. As growth pro-
ceeds, one hemisphere remains relatively small, the other elongates
and enlarges. Both mouth and anus are placed in the larger area;
the smaller area is the prostomium simply; the ciliated band is
therefore in front of the mouth. The larval form thus produced
is known as the trochosphere. It exactly agrees with the larval
form of many Chaetopod worms and other Coelomata. Most remark-
able is its resemblance to the adult form of the Wheel animalcules,
or Rotifera, which retain the prae-oral ciliated band as their chi
organ of locomotion and prehension throughout life. So far the
young mollusc has not reached a definitely molluscan stage <
5
674
MOLLUSCA
development, being only in a condition common to it and other
Coelomata. It now passes to the veliger phase, a definitely molluscan
form, in which the disproportion between the area in front of the
ciliated circlet and that behind it is very greatly increased, so that
the former is now simply an emarginated region of the head fringed
with cilia. It is termed the " velum," and is frequently drawn out
(From Balfour, after Bobretzky.)
FIG. 4. Early Stages of division of the Fertilized Egg-cell in Nassa
mutabilis.
A, The egg-cell has divided into two spheres, of which the lower
contains more food-material, whilst the upper is again incom-
pletely divided into two smaller spheres. Resting on the dividing
upper sphere are the eight-shaped " directive corpuscles," better
called ' ' praeseminal outcast cells or apoblasts," since they are the
result of a cell-division which affects the egg-cell before it is
impregnated, and are mere refuse, destined to disappear.
B, Gne of the two smaller spheres is reunited to the larger sphere.
C, The single small sphere has divided into two, and the reunited
mass has divided into two, of which one is oblong and
practically double, as in B.
D, Each of the four segment-cells gives rise by division to a small
pellucid cell.
E, The cap of small cells has increased in number by repeated for-
mation of pellucid cells in the same way, and by division of
those first formed. The cap will spread over and enclose the
four segment-cells.
into lobes and processes. As in the Rotifera, it serves the veliger
larva as an organ of locomotion. The body of the veliger is charac-
terized by the development of the visceral hump on one surface, and
by that of the foot on the other. Growth is greater in the vertical
dorso- ventral axis than in the longitudinal oro-anal axis ; consequently
the foot is relatively small and projects as a blunt process between
mouth and anus, which are not widely distant from one another,
whilst the antipedal area projects in the form of a great hump or
dome. In the centre of this antipedal area there has appeared
(often at a very early period) a gland-like depression or follicle of the
integument. This is the primitive shell-sac discovered by Lankester
in 1871, and shown by him to precede the development of the
permanent shell in a variety of molluscan types. The shell-gland is
bounded by a ridge of ectodermic cells. This ridge forms the edge
of the shell-secreting epithelium, and therefore of the mantle,
since the shell extends to the edge of the mantle. The shell-gland, as
development proceeds, extends from its point of origin as an
ectodermic thickening, which may be only slightly concave or may
be deeply invaginated and then evaginated.
In the larvae of several Gastropoda and Lamellibranchia occur
excretory organs which have the characters of true nephridia. There
is a single pair of these organs situated immediately behind the
velum. _ They agree with primitive nep_hridia in being of ectodermic
origin, in consisting of perforated cells in linear series, and in having
no communication with the coelom. The inner end of each of these
organs consists of a flame-cell, i.e. a cell with an internal cavity
containing a vibrating filament or flagellum. They are best de-
veloped in the Pulmonata; in some cases they are very rudimentary
and may be destitute of an external opening. They invariably
disappear before the adult stage is reached, but their presence in
the larva is evidence that the ancestral mollusc possessed a pair of
true nephridia quite distinct from the coelomic excretory organs,
which are so characteristic of existing forms in the adult condition.
The ctenidia, it will be observed, nave not vet been mentioned,
and they are indeed the last of the characteristic Molluscan organs
to make their appearance. They arise as outgrowths of the sides
of the body within the cavity formed by the development of the
mantle. _ The veliger, as soon as its shell has attained some extent
and begins to assume definite shape, is no longer of a form common
to Mollusca generally, but acquires characters peculiar to the parti-
cular class to which its parents belong. For the later development
therefore the articles on the several classes must be consulted.
Relations between the Classes. From the preceding discussion
an idea may be formed of the primitive characters of the Phylum
(From Gegcnbaur.)
FIG. 5. " Veliger " embryonic form of Mollusca.
v, Velum. A, Earlier, and (B), later, Veliger
c, Visceral dome with dependent of a Gastropod.
mantle-skirt. C, Veliger of a Pteropod showing
p. Foot. lobe-like processes of the
/, Cephalic tentacles. velum and the great paired
op, Operculum. outgrowths of the foot.
Mollusca, and it is possible to construct a diagrammatic mollusc,
as was first done by Lankester, which will possess these primitive
features. The figure here given represents such a hypothetical
form according to present views. We cannot assert that this
was in all respects the condition of the common ancestor, as
will be seen when we attempt to derive the various sub-types
from it. In the Amphineura the nervous system, having no
at 4<t
ft* ..
A.
(From Lankcster's Treatise on Zoology. A. and C. Black.)
FIG. 6. Diagram of a primitive Mollusc, viewed from the left side.
pa.n, Pallial nerve.
pe, Pericardium.
p.g, Pedal ganglion.
pl.g, Pleura! ganglion.
ni, Radula.
r.p.o, Reno-pericardial orifice.
st. Stomach.
st.g, Stomato-gastric ganglion.
v.g, Visceral ganglion.
Anus.
eg, Cerebral ganglion.
/, Foot.
g, Gill, in the pallial cavity.
fo, Gonad.
, Heart.
k, Kidney.
la.c, Labial commissure.
m. Mouth.
pa, Mantle.
separate ganglia and no ventral visceral commissure, may be
still more primitive. The metameric repetition of the shell-
plates and of the ctenidia are probably special modifications,
but it is difficult to explain the spicules of the dorsal integument
except as a condition more primitive than the shell itself. The
Prorhipidoglossomorpha are distinguished by the separation of
the genital coelom from the pericardium, and by the long
visceral commissure passing ventral to the intestine. The
Lamellibranchia have markedly diverged from the original type
by the adoption of filtration as a method of feeding. This has
MOLLUSCOIDA MOLLY MAGUIRES
led to the loss of the radula, and is accompanied by the division
of the shell into two valves. The peculiarities of the Gastropoda
are all due to the torsion of the shell and body. The Cephalopoda
can be derived without much difficulty from the schematic
Mollusc, if we assume that some metameric repetition of organs
has occurred, as explained above in reference to the coelom.
The foot has been developed into long processes which have
extended in a circle round the mouth; all the ganglia, including
the visceral, have been concentrated around the oesophagus.
Habits and Distribution. More than 28,000 species of living
Molluscs have been distinguished, of which more than half are
Gastropods. They are essentially aquatic animals, and the
(From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. A. and C. Black.)
FIG. 7. Diagrams of the five classes of Mollusca, from the left side.
h, Heart, in the pericardium.
h.a, Posterior adductor.
m, Mouth.
pa, Pallium or mantle.
p.g, Pedal ganglion.
pl.g. Pleura! ganglion.
ra, Radula.
st, Stomach.
st.g, Stomato-gastric ganglion.
v.g, Visceral ganglion.
A, Amphineura.
B, Scaphopoda.
C, Gastropoda.
D, Lamelhbranchia.
E, Cephalopoda.
a. Anus.
a.a. Anterior adductor.
c.g, Cerebral ganglion.
/, Foot.
/, Funnel.
g, Ctenidium.
majority live in the sea. Some, like many Cephalopods and
the Pteropods, are pelagic or free-swimming; others creep or lie
on the sea bottom. Some are littoral, living between tide-marks;
others are found at very various depths, up to 2800 fathoms.
A few species have invaded the fresh waters, while the pulmonate
and terrestrial Gastropods are distributed over the whole
surface of the land in all latitudes and to a height of 1 5,000 ft. As
a rule Molluscs are free and more or less active, but many
Lamellibranchs are sedentary, and a few of these and of Gastro-
pods are permanently fixed to their habitat. Commensalism
occurs in a few instances, but parasitism either external or
internal is rare. The latter is confined to certain Gastropods
which live in Echinoderms and are extremely degenerate in
structure. Protective resemblance is exhibited by some
Nudibranch Gastropods which have assumed the colour and
appearance of their habitat.
LITERATURE. I. Morphology, (i) G. Cuvier, Memoires pour senir
& I'histoire ei a Vanatomie des mollusques (Paris, 1816). (2) J. Poll,
Testacea utriusque Siciliae, eorumque historia et anatome, tabulis aeneis
) illustrata, vols. i.-iii., fol. (Parma, 1791-1795 and 1826-1827).
,) St delle Chiaje, Memorie sulla storia e anatomia degli animali
nza vertebre del regno di Napoli (Naples, 1823-1829), new edition
with 172 plates, fol., 1843. (4) J. Vaughan Thompson, Zoological
Researches (Cork, 1830) ; memoir iv., " On the Cirripedes or Barnacles,
demonstrating their deceptive character." (5) A. Kowalewsky,
" Entwickelungsgeschichte der einfachen Ascidien," in Mem. de
I'acad. des sciences de St Petersbourg (1866), and " Entwickelungs-
geschichte des Amphioxus lanceolatus," ibid. (1867). (6) J. Vaughan
Thompson,]Zoo/ogico/ Researches (Cork, 1830) ; memoir v., Polyzoa, a
new animal discovered as an inhabitant of some Zoophytes." (7) C. G.
Ehrenberg, " Die Korallenthiere des Rothen Meeres " (Berlin, 1834);
Abhand. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenschaften in Berlin (1832). (8) H.
Mi\ne-E,dviards,.Recherches sur les polypiers de France (Paris, 1841-
1844). (9) H. Milne-Edwards, papers in the Annales des sciences
naturelles (1841-1860). (10) H. de Lacaze-Duthiers, papers in the
Annales des sciences naturelles, e.g. " Anomia " (1854), <! Mytilus"
(1856), " Dentalium " (1856-1857), " Purpura " (1859), " Haliotis
(1859), "Vermetus" (1860). (11) A. Kolliker, Entwickelungsges-
chickte der Cephalopoden (Zurich, 1844). (12) C. G. Gegenbaur,
Untersuchungen uber Pteropoden und Heteropoden, (Leipzig, 1855).
(13) J. W. Spengel, " Die Geruchsorgane und das Nervensystem der
Mollusken," Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. (1881). (14) Richard Owen,
Memoir on the Pearly Nautilus (London, 1832). (15) L. Cuenot,
" Excretion chez les mollusques," Arch. d. biof. xvi. (1899). (16) P.
Geddes, " On the Mechanism of the Odontophore in certain Mol-
lusca." (17) T. H. Huxley, " On the Morphology of the Cephalous
Mollusca," Phil. Trans. (1853). (18) Von Jhering, Vergleichende
Anatomie des Nervensystems und Phylogenie der Mollusken (Leipzig,
1877). (19) E. R. Lankester, " Contributions to the Developmental
History of the Mollusca," Phil. Trans. (1875) ; " Note on the Coelom
and Vascular System of Mollusca and Arthropoda," Quart. Journ.
After. Sci. xxxiv. (1893). (20) P. Pelseneer, Introduction a I'etude
des Mollusques (Brussels, 1894); " Recherches sur les Mollusques
archaiques, Mem. cour. Acdd. belg., LVII. (1899); "Mollusca,"
Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt. v. (1906).
II. Conchology. (2i)Cooke, Molluscs," Cambridge Natural His-
tory, vol. m. (1895). (22) Fischer, Manuel de conchyliologie (1887). (23)
Jeffreys, British Conchology (1862-1869). (24) Simroth, " Mollusca,"
Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd. iii. ( 1 895) , in prog.
(25) Tryon, Manual of Conchology (1878), in prog. (26) Woodward,
A Manual of the Mollusca (1880). (E. R. L.; J. T. C.)
MOLLUSCOIDA, a name long employed to denote a. division
of the animal kingdom -which contained Brachiopods (q.v.),
Polyzoa (q.v.), and Tunicata (q.v.), the members of the three
groups having been supposed to resemble the Mollusca. As it
is now known that these groups have no relation to molluscs,
and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been
abandoned.
MOLLY MAGUIRES, an Irish American secret society which
maintained numerous branches in the anthracite coal regions
of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., from 1854 to 1877, and perhaps later.
The name was imported from Ireland, where it had been used
to designate one of the Ribbon societies that devoted its energies
to intimidating and maltreating process servers and the agents
of landlords, and whose greatest activity was between 1835
and 1855. The Irish society of Molly Maguires seems to have
been organized in 1843 in the barony of Farney, Co. Monaghan,
to co-operate with the ribbonmen, and its membership seems
to have been confined to the very lowest classes. The
Molly Maguires of Pennsylvania consisted of similar classes
of Irishmen, but there seems to have been no connexion between
the two societies. Every member of the American organization
was also a member of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, an
association organized for benevolent purposes, and having
branches throughout the United States and Great Britain. To
the Ancient Order of Hibernians none might be admitted but
persons of Irish birth or descent, who were Roman Catholics,
and whose parents were Roman Catholics; but notwithstanding
this requirement, the organization being a secret society was
under the ban of the Catholic Church. At the head of each
division or lodge there was a " body master," who communicated
directly with a county delegate; the county delegates reported
to the state delegate, and the state delegates to a national
delegate. The supervision of the whole order was vested
in a " Board of Erin," meeting quarterly in England, Ireland
or Scotland, and at each meeting arranging a new code
of signals and passwords, which were communicated to the
national delegate in the United States by the steward of a
transatlantic steamship, and thence were transmitted to the
various subdivisions. In the mining districts of Pennsylvania
the organization fell under the control of a lawless element.
6y6
MOLOCH
which created the inner order of " Molly Maguires," with the
object, it appears, of intimidating the Welsh, English, and
German miners, and of ridding the region of mine superin-
tendents, bosses and police who should make themselves in
any way objectionable to members of the order. Any member
having a grievance might lay a formal complaint before his
" body master," who thereupon conferred with the officers of
the neighbouring divisions and secured members from a distance
to make away with the offending person. Under this system
the crimes in a given district were always committed by strangers
rendering identification of the criminal difficult and escape
easy. The society grew in strength during the Civil War, when
the increased demand for coal caused an influx of miners, many
of them lawless characters, into the coal-fields, and in 1862-1863
it opposed enlistments in the Federal Army and roughly treated
some of the enlisting officers. After the war its activity was
shown by an increasing number of assassinations, burnings
and other outrages, until by 1875 it completely dominated the
mining classes and forced a general strike in the coal regions.
After repeated efforts to bring the criminals to justice had failed,
Franklin B. Gowen (1836-1889), president of the Philadelphia
and Reading Coal and Iron Company, sent James McParlan,
an Irish Catholic and a Pinkerton detective (who some thirty
years later attracted attention in the investigation of the assas-
sination of Governor Steunenberg of Idaho), to the mining
region in 1873; he joined the order, lived among the " Molly
Maguires " for more than two years, and even became secretary
of the Shenandoah division, one of the most notoriously
criminal lodges of the order. The evidence he secured led to the
arrest, conviction, and execution or imprisonment of a large
number of members during the years 1876-1877, and subse-
quently the outrages ceased and the society was disbanded.
See F. P. Dewees, The Molly Maguires ^Philadelphia, 1877) ;
Allan Pinkerton, The Molly Maguires and the Detectives (New York,
1877); E. W. Lucy, The Molly Maguires of Pennsylvania; (London,
n.d.); The Commonwealth versus John Kehoe et al. (Pottsville, Pa.,
1878); and an article by J. F. Rhodes in Amer. Hist. Review,
April, 1910.
MOLOCH, or MOLECH (in Hebrew, with the doubtful exception
of i Kings xi. 7, always " the Molech "), the name or title of
the divinity which the men of Judah in the last ages of the
kingdom were wont to propitiate by the sacrifice of their own
children. According to the Hebrew consonants it might simply
be read " the king " (melek), an appellation for the supreme
deity of a Semitic state or tribe. The traditional pronunciation
(MoXox), which goes back as far as the Septuagint version of
Kings, probably means that the old form was perverted by
giving it the vowels of bosheth " shame," the contemptuous name
for Baal (q.v.). In i Kings xi. 7 (see above) it is the name of
the god of the Ammonites, elsewhere called Milcom or Malcam ;
but it appears from 2 Kings xxiii. 10, 13 that the worship of
Milcom at the shrine set up by Solomon was distinct from
Molech worship, and the text should probably therefore be
emended to the longer form (so the Septuagint).
The phrase employed in speaking of these sacrifices is that of
dedication " to make one's son or daughter pass through
(or by means of) fire to (the) Molech " (2 Kings xxiii. 10;
but elsewhere without the words " through fire " Lev. xviii.
21); and it appears from Jer. vii. 31, xix. 5; Ezek. xvi. 20 seq.,
that this phrase denotes a human holocaust, 1 and not, as some-
times has been thought, a mere consecration to Molech by passing
through or between fires, as in the Roman Palilia and similar
rites elsewhere (on which see Frazer, Golden Bough, and ed.,
ii. 40 sqq., iii. 237 sqq.). Human sacrifice was common in
Semitic heathenism, and at least the idea of such sacrifices was
1 In 2 Chron. xxviii. 3 (parallel to 2 Kings xvi. 3) a single letter is
transposed in the phrase, changing the sense from " caused to pass
through the fire " to '"caused to burn with fire." Geiger (Urschrift
und Uebersetzung, p. 305) very unnecessarily supposed that this was
everywhere the original reading, and that it had been changed to
soften the enormity ascribed to the ancient Hebrews. The phrase
to give one's seed to Molech " (Lev. xx. 2 seq.), and the fact that
these victims were (like other sacrifices) regarded as food for the
deity (Ezek. xvi. 20) explain and justify the common reading.
not unknown to Israel from early times (see ISAAC; JEPHTHAH).*
We learn from 2 Kings iii. 27 that the piacular sacrifice of his
son and heir was the last offering which the king of Moab made
to deliver his country. Even the Hebrew historian ascribes to
this act the effect of rousing divine indignation against the
invading host of Israel; it would not, therefore, be surprising if
under the miseries brought on Palestine by the westward march
of the Assyrian power, the idea of the sacrifice of one's own
son, as the most powerful of atoning rites, should have taken
hold of those kings of Judah (Ahaz and Manasseh, 2 Kings xvi. 3,
xxi. 6) who were otherwise prone, in their hopelessness of help
from the old religion (Isa. vii. 12), to seek to strange peoples and
their rites. Ahaz's sacrifice of his son (which indeed rests on a
somewhat late authority) was apparently an isolated act of
despair, since human sacrifices are not among the corruptions
of the popular religion spoken of by Isaiah and Micah. In the
7th century, however, when the old worship had sustained
rude shocks, and all religion was transformed into servile fear
(Mic. vi. i seq.), the example of Manasseh did not stand alone,
and Jeremiah and Ezekiel made frequent and indignant reference
to the " high places " for the sacrifice of children by their parents
which rose beneath the very walls of the temple from the gloomy
ravine of Hinnom or Tophet. 3 (Jer. vii. 31, xix., xxxii. 35;
Ezek. xvi. 18 sqq., xxiii. 37). The children apparently were
not burned alive; they were slain and burned like any other
holocaust (Ezek. loc. oil.; Isa. Ivii. 5), their blood was shed
at the sanctuary (Jer. xix. 4; Ps. cvi. 38). Thus the late
Rabbinical picture of the calf-headed brazen image of Molech
within which children were burned alive is pure fable, and
with it falls the favourite comparison between Molech and the
Carthaginian idol from whose brazen arms children were rolled
into an abyss of fire, and whom Diodorus (xix. 14) naturally
identifies with the child-eater Kronos, thus leading many
moderns to make Molech the planet Saturn.
It is with these sacrifices that the name of " the Molech "
is always connected; sometimes " the Baal " (lord) appears as
a synonym. At the same time, the horrid ritual was so closely
associated with Yahweh worship (Ezek. xxiii. 39) that Jeremiah
more than once finds it necessary to protest that it is not of
Yahweh's institution (vii. 31, xix. 5). So too it is the idea of
sacrificing the firstborn to Yahweh that is discussed and rejected
in Micah vi. It is indeed plain that such a sacrifice for we
have here to do, not with human victims in general, but with the
sacrifice of the dearest earthly thing could only be paid to the
supreme deity; and Manasseh and his people never ceased to
acknowledge Yahweh as the God of Israel. Thus the way in
which Jeremiah (Jer. xix. 5) and the legislation of Leviticus
(xviii. 21, xx. 2-5) and the author of Kings, seem to mark out
the Molech or Baal as a false god, distinct from Yahweh, is
precisely parallel to the way in which Hosea speaks of the
golden calves or Baalim. In each case the people thought
themselves to be worshipping Yahweh under the title of Molech
or Baal; but the prophet refuses to admit that this is so, because
the worship itself is an apostasy to heathenism. Note, also,
the attitude. of Ezekiel in xx. 25 seq., 31, references which
cannot be explained away.
Although the motive came from within, the form taken by
the cult has appeared to many to be of non-Israelite origin.
Babylonia and Assyria, however, seem to be out of the question:
malik, " arbiter, decider," is there an epithet of various gods, and
as an appellative means " prince " and not king; further, little
2 In Hos. xiii. 2, the interpretation " they that sacrifice men " is
improbable, and 2 Kings xvii. 17 and Lev. xviii., xx. are of too late
date by themselves to prove the immolation of children to Moloch
in old Israel. The " ban " (oin), which was a religious execution
of criminals or enemies, was common to Israel with its heathen
neighbours (cf. the inscription of Mesha), but lacked the distinctive
character of a sacrifice in which the victim is the food of the deity,
conveyed to him through fire.
3 The etymology of the word Tophet is obscure ; it is possibly of
Aramaic origin and means'." fire-place," cf. tophteh, "pyre, (Isa. xxx.
33). The vocalization is artificial, the Masoretes having given it
the vowel-points of bosheth. See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites,
2nd ed., 377.
MOLSHEIM MOLTKE
677
evidence for the prevalence of human sacrifice has as yet been
found in those lands (A. Jeremias, Das Alls Test, im Lichte d. alien
Orients, 2nd ed., p. 454). Among the Canaanite branch, the
king-god is more prominent, and apart from the Ammonite
variant Milcom, numerous names compounded with Milk- are
found on Phoenician inscriptions and among western Semites
mentioned in cuneiform literature (H. Zimmern, Keilinschr. u.
das Alte Test., 3rd ed. pp. 470 sqq.). It is true that child-
sacrifice in connexion with fire prevailed among the Phoenicians,
and, according to the Greeks, the deity honoured with these
grisly rites was Kronos (identified with the Phoenician El,
" God "). On the other hand, the seat of the cult appears to
have been at Jerusalem, and the period during which it flourished
does not favour any strong Phoenician influence. Again, the
form of the word Tophet and Ahaz's association with Damascus
might point to an Aramaean origin for the cult; but it would
not be safe to support this view by the statements and names
in 2 Kings xvii. 31. On the whole, the biblical tradition that
the Molech-cult was Canaanite and indigenous (Deut. xii. 29 sqq.,
xviii. 9 seq.) holds the ground. There was a tendency in time
of misfortune to revert to earlier rites (illustrated in some
ancient mourning customs), and it may have been some old
disused practice revived under the pressure of national distress.
See, generally, G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib., s.v.; Lagrange, tudes sur
les religions semitiques 2nd ed. pp. 99-109; B. Stade, Bib. Theol. d.
Alt. Test. i. 232 seq., 244 seq.; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, &c., 2nd ed.
pp. 144 seq. 401 sqq ; and J. A. Montgomery, Journ. Bib. Lit., 1908,
. 40 sqq. On archaeological evidence for human sacrifice from
Palestinian soil, see H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres I' exploration
recente, pp. 50, 1 16, 189 sqq. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)
MOLSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine at the foot of the Vosges, on the Breusch and
at the junction of railways to Zabern and Strassburg. Pop.
(1905), 3164. It contains a beautiful Roman Catholic and a
Protestant church, a handsome new town-hall and an agricultural
school. Its industries embrace the manufacture of iron and
steel goods, tanning and organ-building. There is also some
trade in wine. Molsheim was known in the gth century as
Molleshem, and formerly was the seat of a famous Jesuit college,
which in 1702 was removed to Strassburg and united with the
university of that city.
MOLTKE, ADAM GOTTLOB, COUNT (1710-1792), Danish
courtier, was born on the xoth of November 1710, at Riesenhof
in Mecklenburg. Though of German origin, many of the
Moltkes were at this time in the Danish service, which was
considered a more important and promising opening for the
young north German noblemen than the service of any of the
native principalities; and through one of his uncles, young
Moltke became a page at the Danish court, in which capacity
he formed a life-long friendship with the crown prince Frederick,
afterwards Frederick V. He never had any opportunity of
enriching his mind by travel or study, but he was remarkable
for a strongly religious temperament and seems for some time
to have been connected with the Moravians. Immediately
after his accession, Frederick V. made him hofmarskal (court
marshal), and overwhelmed him with marks of favour, making
him a privy councillor and a count and bestowing upon him
Bregentved and other estates. As the inseparable companion
of the king, Moltke's influence soon became so boundless that the
foreign diplomatists declared he could make and unmake
ministers at will. Fortunately he was no ordinary favourite.
Naturally tactful and considerate, he never put difficulties in
the way of the responsible ministers. Especially interesting
is Moltke's attitude towards the two distinguished statesmen
who played the leading parts during the reign of Frederick V.,
Johan Sigismund Schulin and the elder BernstorfL For Schulin
he had a sort of veneration. Bernstorff irritated him by his
grand airs of conscious superiority. But though a Prussian
intrigue was set up for the supersession of Bernstorff by Moltke,
the latter, convinced that Bernstorff was the right man in the
right place, supported him with unswerving loyalty. Moltke
was far less liberal in his views than many of his contemporaries.
He looked askance at all projects for the emancipation of the
serfs, but, as one of the largest landowners of Denmark, he did
much service to agriculture by lightening the burdens of the
countrymen and introducing technical and scientific improve-
ments which greatly increased production. His greatest merit,
however, was the guardianship he exercised over the king,
whose sensual temperament and weak character exposed him
to many temptations which might have been very injurious
to the state. Frederick had the good sense to appreciate the
honesty of his friend and there was never any serious breach
between them. On the death of Queen Louisa the king would
even have married one of Moltke's daughters had he not
peremptorily declined the dangerous honour. On the decease
of Frederick V., who died in his arms (Jan. 14, 1766), Moltke's
dominion was at an end. The new king, Christian VII., could
not endure him, and exclaimed, with reference to his lanky
figure: " He's stork below and fox above." He was also
extremely unpopular, because he was wrongly suspected of
enriching himself at the public expense. 1 In July 1766 he was
dismissed from all his offices and retired to his estate at Bre-
gentved. Subsequently, through the interest of Russia, to
whom he had always been favourable, he regained his seat in
the council (Feb. 8, 1768), but his influence was slight and of
brief endurance. He was again dismissed without a pension, on
the loth of December 1770, for refusing to have anything to
do with Struensee. He lived in retirement till his death on the
25th of September 1792.
His memoirs, written in German and published in 1870, have
considerable historical importance. See H. H. Langhorn, Historische
Nachricht liber die danischen Moltkes (Kiel, 1871). (R. N. B.)
MOLTKE, ADAM WILHELM, COUNT (1785-1864), Danish
statesman, son of the minister Joachim Godske Moltke (1746-
1818), and grandson of Adam Gottlob Moltke, was born at
Einsiedelsborg in Funen, on the 25th of August 1785. Under
the influence of the agricultural reformer Christian Colbjornsen
he abandoned the legal career he had adopted and entered the
administrative service of the state, to which he devoted the
remainder of his life. In 1831 he succeeded Johan Sigismund
Mosting (1780-1843), as minister of finance. On the death of
Christian VIII. he was one of the most prominent members
of the Council of State, and when the constitutional crisis came
in 1848 he seemed marked out as the man who could bridge over
the gap between the old era and the new. The services which
Count Moltke rendered to Denmark cannot be too highly appre-
ciated. The mere fact that a distinguished statesman who had
served the last two absolute kings of Denmark now voluntarily
placed himself at the head of a ministry which included the
most advanced of the popular agitators, gave the new govern-
ment the hall-mark of stability and trustworthiness, whilst
the fact that he still retained the ministry of finance was of
itself a guarantee of security during the earlier years of a trouble-
some and costly war. It was this, his first administration,
which introduced the constitution of the 5th of June 1849,
and he also presided over the third constitutional ministry
which was formed in July 1851; but he resigned on the 27th of
January 1852, because he could not approve of the decree which
aimed at transforming Denmark into a composite, indivisible,
monarchy. Moltke continued to take part in public life as a
member of the Landsting, or Upper House, but henceforth kept
in the background. On the 2nd of October 1855 he was elected
a member of the consultative Rigsraad, a position he continued
to hold till 1863. He died on the isth of February 1864.
See Swalin, Del danske Staatsraad (Stockholm, 1881); Madvig,
Livserindringer (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.)
MOLTKE, HELMUTH CARL BERNHARD, COUNT VON
(1800-1891), Prussian field marshal, for thirty years chief of
the staff of the Prussian army, the greatest strategist of the
latter half of the igth century, and the creator of the modern
method of directing armies in the field, was born on the 26th of
October 1800, at Parchim in Mecklenburg, of a German family
of ancient nobility. His father in 1805 settled in Holstein and
1 He was said to be worth 10 million rix-dollars, but proved that
he had less than one million.
6y8
MOLTKE
became a Danish subject, but about the same time was impover-
ished by the burning of his country house and the plunder by
the French of his town house in Liibeck, where his wife and
children were. Young Moltke therefore grew up in straitened
circumstances. At the age of nine he was sent as a boarder
to Hohenfelde in Holstein, and at the age of eleven to the cadet
school at Copenhagen, being destined for the Danish army and
court. In 1818 he became a page to the king of Denmark
and second lieutenant in a Danish infantry regiment. But at
twenty-one he resolved to enter the Prussian service, in spite
of the loss of seniority. He passed the necessary examination
with credit, and became second lieutenant in the 8th Infantry
Regiment stationed at Frankfort-on-Oder. At twenty-three,
after much less than the regulation term of service, he was
allowed to enter the general war school, now the war academy,
where he studied the full three years and passed in 1826 a brilliant
final examination. He then for a year had charge of a cadet
school at Frankfort-on-Oder, after which he was for three years
employed on the military survey in Silesia and Posen. In 1832
he was seconded for service on the general staff at Berlin, to which
in 1833 on promotion to first lieutenant he was transferred.
He was at this time regarded as a brilliant officer by his superiors,
and among them by Prince William, then a lieutenant-general,
afterwards king and emperor. He was well received at court
and in the best society of Berlin. His tastes inclined him to
literature, to historical study and to travel. In 1827 he had
published a short romance, The Two Friends. In 1831 it was
followed by an essay entitled Holland and Belgium in their
Mutual Relations, from their Separation under Philip II. to
their Reunion under William I., in which were displayed the
author's interest in the political issues of the day, and his
extensive historical reading. In 1832 appeared An Account
of the Internal Circumstances and Social Conditions of Poland,
a second study of a burning question based both on reading
and on personal observation of Polish life and character. In
1832 he contracted to translate Gibbon's Decline and Fall into
German, for which he was to receive 75, his object being to
earn the money to buy a horse. In eighteen months he had
finished nine volumes out of twelve, but the publisher failed to
produce the book and Moltke never received more than 25,
so that the chief reward of his labour was the historical know-
ledge which he acquired. He had already found opportunities
to travel in south Germany and northern Italy, and in 1835
on his promotion as captain he obtained six months' leave
to travel in south-eastern Europe. After a short stay in Con-
stantinople he was requested by the sultan to enter the Turkish
service, and being duly authorized from Berlin he accepted
the offer. He remained two years at Constantinople, learned
Turkish and surveyed for the sultan the city of Constantinople,
the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. He travelled in the sultan's
retinue through Bulgaria and Rumelia, and made many other
journeys on both sides of the Strait. In 1838 he was sent as
adviser to the Turkish general commanding the troops in
Armenia, who was to carry on a campaign against Mehemet
Ali of Egypt. During the summer he made extensive recon-
naissances and surveys, riding several thousand miles in the
course of his journeys, navigating the dangerous rapids of the
Euphrates, and visiting and mapping many districts where no
European traveller had preceded him since Xenophon. In
1839 the army moved south to meet the Egyptians, but upon
the approach of the enemy the general became more attentive
to the prophecies of the mollahs than to the advice of the
Prussian captain. Moltke resigned his post of staff officer and
took charge of the artillery, which therefore, in the ensuing
battle of Nezib or Nisib, was the last portion of the Turkish
army to run away. The Turks were well beaten and their
army dispersed to the four winds. Moltke with infinite hardship
made his way back to the Black Sea, and thence to Constanti-
nople. His patron Sultan Mahmoud was dead, so he returned
to Berlin where he arrived, broken in health, in December 1839.
When he left Berlin in 1834 he had already " the courtier's,
soldier's, scholar's eye, tongue, sword." When he returned it was
with a mind expanded by a rare experience, and with a character
doubly tempered and annealed. While away, he had been a
constant letter-writer to his mother and sisters, and he now
revised and published his letters as Letters on Conditions and
Events in Turkey in the Years 1835 to 1839. No other book
gives sfl deep an insight into the character of the Turkish Empire,
and no other book of travels better deserves to be regarded as a
German classic. One of his sisters had married an English
widower named Burt, who had settled in Holstein. Her step-
daughter, Mary Burt, had read the traveller's letters, and when
he came home as a wooer was quickly won. The marriage took
place in 1841, when Mary was just turned sixteen. It was a very
happy union, though there were no children, and Moltke's
love-letters and letters to his wife are among the most valuable
materials for his biography. On his return in 1840 Moltke had
been appointed to the staff of the 4th army corps, stationed at
Berlin; he was promoted major on his wedding day. The fruits
of his Eastern travels were by no means exhausted. He published
his maps of Constantinople, of the Bosporus and of the Darda-
nelles, and, jointly with other German travellers, a new map of
Asia Minor and a memoir on the geography of that country, as
well as a number of periodical essays on various factors in the
Eastern Question. In 1845 appeared The Russo-Turkish Cam-
paign in Europe, 1828-29, described in 1845 by Baron von Moltke,
Major in the Prussian Staff, a volume which was recognized by
competent judges as a masterpiece of military history and
criticism. Moltke at this period was much occupied with the
development of railways. He was one of the first directors of
the Hamburg-Berlin railway, and in 1843 published a review
article entitled What Considerations should determine the Choice
of the Course of Railways? which reveals a mastery of the technical
questions involved in the construction and working of railway
lines.
In 1845 Moltke was appointed personal adjutant to Prince
Henry of Prussia, a Roman Catholic who lived at Rome. He
thus had the opportunity of a long stay in the Eternal City,
with no more than nominal duties to perform. It was a life
which he and his wife much enjoyed, and he spent much of his
leisure in a survey, of which the result was a splendid map of
Rome, published at Berlin in 1852. In 1846 Prince Henry
died, and Moltke was then appointed to the staff of the 8th
army corps at Coblenz. In 1848, after a brief return to the great
general staff at Berlin, he became chief of the staff of the 4th army
corps, of which the headquarters were then at Magdeburg, where
he remained seven years, during which he rose to lieutenant-
colonel (1850), and colonel (1851). In 1855 he was appointed
first adjutant to Prince Frederick William (afterwards crown
prince and emperor), whom he accompanied to England on his
betrothal and marriage, as well as to Paris and to St Petersburg
to the coronation of Alexander II. of Russia. Prince Frederick
William was in command of a regiment stationed at Breslau,
and there as his adjutant Moltke remained for a year, becoming
major-general in 1856. On the 23rd of October 1857, owing to
the serious illness of King Frederick William IV., Prince William
became prince regent. Six days later the regent selected
Moltke for the then vacant post of chief of the general staff of
the army. The appointment was made definitive in January
1858. Moltke's posthumously published military works disclose
a remarkable activity, beginning in 1857, devoted to the adapta-
tion of strategical and tactical methods to changes in armament
and in means of communication, to the training of staff officers
in accordance with the methods thus worked out, to the perfection
of the arrangements for the mobilization of the army, and to
the study of European politics in connexion with the plans for
campaigns which might become necessary. In 1859 came the
war in Italy, which occasioned the mobilization of the Prussian
army, and as a consequence the reorganization of that army, by
which its numerical strength was nearly doubled. The reorgani-
zation was the work not of Moltke but of the king, and of Roon,
minister of war; but Moltke watched the Italian campaign
closely, and wrote a history of it, published in 1862, and attri-
buted on the title-page to the historical division of the Prussian
MOLTKE
679
staff, which is the clearest account of the campaign and contains
the best criticism upon it. In December 1862 Moltke was asked
for an opinion upon the military aspect of the quarrel with
Denmark then becoming acute. He thought the difficulty
would be to bring the war to an end, fe the Danish army would
if possible retire to the islands, where, as the Danes had the
command of the sea, it could not be attacked. He sketched
a plan for turning the flank of the Danish army before the
attack upon its position in front of Schleswig, and hoped that
by this means its retreat might be intercepted. When the
war began in February 1864, Moltke was not sent with the
Prussian forces, but kept at Berlin. The plan was mismanaged
in the execution, and the Danish army escaped to the fortresses
of Duppel and Fredericia, each of which commanded a retreat
across a strait on to an island. The allies were now checked;
Duppel and Fredericia were besieged by them, Duppel taken
by storm, and Fredericia abandoned by the Danes without
assault; but the war showed no signs of ending, as the Danish
army was safe in the islands of Alsen arid Fiinen. On the 3oth
of April Moltke was sent to be chief of the staff to the commander-
in-chief of the allied forces, and, so soon as the armistice of
May and June was over, persuaded Prince Frederick Charles to
attempt to force the passage of the Sundewitt and attack the
Danes in the island of Alsen. The landing was effected on the
2Qth of June, and the Danes then evacuated Alsen. Moltke
next proposed a landing in Fiinen, but it was unnecessary. The
Danes no longer felt safe in their islands, and agreed to the
German terms. Moltke's appearance on the scene had quickly
transformed the aspect of the war, and his influence with the
king had thus acquired a firm basis. Accordingly, when in
1866 the quarrel with Austria came to a head, Moltke's plans
were adopted and he was almost invariably supported in their
execution. A disciple rather of Clausewitz, whose theory of war
was an effort to grasp its conditions, than of Jomini, who ex-
pounded a system of rules, Moltke regarded strategy as a practical
art of adapting means to ends, and had developed the methods of
Napoleon in accordance with the altered conditions. He had
been the first to realize the great defensive power of modern
firearms, and had inferred from it that an enveloping attack had
become more formidable than the attempt to pierce an enemy's
front. He had pondered the tactics of Napoleon at Bautzen,
when the emperor preferred to bring up Ney's corps, coming
from a distance, against the flank of the allies, rather than to
unite it with his own force before the battle; he had also drawn
a moral from the combined action of the allies at Waterloo.
At the same time he had worked out the conditions of the march
and supply of an army. Only one army corps could be moved
along one road in the same day; to put two or three corps on
the same road meant that the rear corps could not be made use
of in a battle at the front. Several corps stationed close together
in a small area could not be fed for more than a day or two.
Accordingly he inferred that the essence of strategy lay in
arrangements for the separation of the corps for marching and
their concentration in time for battle. In order to make a large
army manageable, it must be broken up into separate armies or
groups of corps, each group under a commander authorized to
regulate its movements and action subject to the instructions
of the cominander-in-chief as regards the direction and purpose
of its operations. In the strategy of 1866 the conspicuous
points are: (i) The concentration of effort. There were two
groups of enemies, the Austro-Saxon armies, 270,000; and the
north and south German armies, 1 20,000. The Prussian forces
were 64,000 short of the adverse total, but Moltke determined
to be superior at the decisive point against the Austro-Saxons;
he therefore told off 278,000 men for that portion of the struggle,
and employed only 48,000 men in Germany proper. His
brilliant direction enabled the 48,000 to capture the Hanoverian
army in less than a fortnight, and then to attack and drive
asunder the south German forces. (2) In dealing with Austro-
Saxony the difficulty was to have the Prussian army first ready
no easy matter, as the king would not mobilize until after the
Austrians. Moltke's railway knowledge helped him to save
time. Five lines of railway led from the various Prussian
provinces to a series of points on the southern frontier on the
curved line Zeitz-Halle-G6rlitz-Schweidnitz. By employing all
these railways at once, Moltke had the several army corps
moved .simultaneously from their peace quarters to points on
this curved line. When this first move was finished the corps
then marched along the curve to collect into three groups, one
near Torgau (Elbe army), another at the west end of Silesia
(first army, Prince Frederick Charles), the third between Lands-
hut and Waldenburg (second army, crown prince). The first
army when formed marched eastwards towards Gorlitz. The
small Saxon army at Dresden now had the Elbe army in its
front and the first army on its right flank, and as it was out-
numbered by either of them, its position was untenable, and so
soon as hostilities began fell back into Bohemia, where it was
joined by an Austrian corps, with which it formed an advance
guard far in front of the Austrian main army concentrated near
Olmutz. The Elbe army advanced to Dresden, left a garrison
there, and moved to the right of Prince Frederick Charles, under
whose command it now came. (3) Moltke now had two armies
about 100 miles apart. The problem was how to bring them
together so as to catch the Austrian army between them like
the French at Waterloo between Wellington and BlUcher. If,
as was thought likely, the Austrians moved upon Breslau, the
first and Elbe armies could continue their eastward march to.
co-operate with the second. But on the isth of June Moltke
learned that on the nth of June the Austrian army had been
spread out over the country between Wildenschwerdt, Olmutz
and Briinn. He inferred that it could not be concentrated at
Josefstadt in less than thirteen days. Accordingly he deter-
mined to bring his own two armies together by directing each
of them to advance towards Gitschin. He foresaw that the
march of the crown prince would probably bring him into
collision with a portion of the Austrian army; but the crown
prince had 100,000 men, and it was not likely that the Austrians
could have a stronger force than that within reach of him.
The order to advance upon Gitschin was issued on the 22nd of
June, and led to one of the greatest victories on record. The
Austrians marched faster than Moltke expected, and might
have opposed the crown prince with four or five corps; but
Benedek's attention was centred on Prince Frederick Charles,
and he interposed against the crown prince's advance four
corps not under a common command, so that they were beaten
in detail, as were also the Saxons and the Austrian corps with
them, by Prince Frederick Charles. On the ist of July Benedek
collected his already shaken forces in a defensive position in front
of Koniggratz. Moltke's two armies were now within a march
of one another and of the enemy. On the 3rd of July they were
brought into action, the first against the Austrian front and the
second against the Austrian right flank. The Austrian army
was completely defeated and the campaign decided, though an
advance towards Vienna was needed to bring about the peace
upon Prussia's terms. Moltke was not quite satisfied with the
battle of Koniggratz. He had tried to have the Elbe army
brought up to the Elbe above Koniggratz so as to prevent the
Austrian retreat, but its general failed to accomplish this. He
also tried to prevent the first army from pushing its attack,
hoping in that way to keep the Austrians in their position until
retreat should be cut off by the crown prince, but he could
not restrain the impetuosity of Prince Frederick Charles and
of the king. During the negotiations Bismarck, who dared
not risk the active intervention of France, opposed the king's
wish to annex Saxony and perhaps other territory beyond what
was actually taken. Moltke would not have hesitated; he was
confident of beating both French and Austrians if the French
should intervene, and he submitted to Bismarck his plans in
case of need for the opening moves against both French and
Austrians.
After the peace, the Prussian Diet voted Moltke the sum of
30,000, with which he bought the estate of Creisau, near
Schweidnitz, in Silesia. In 1867 was published The Campaign
of 1866 in Germany, a history produced under Moltke's personal
68o
MOLTKE
supervision, and remarkable for its combination of accuracy
with reticence. On the 24th of December 1868 Moltke's wife
died at Berlin. Her remains were buried in a small chapel
erected by Moltke as a mausoleum in the park at Creisau.
In 1870 suddenly came the war with France. The probability
of such a war had occupied Moltke's attention almost con-
tinuously since 1857, and a series of memoirs is preserved in
which from time to time he worked out and recorded his ideas
as to the best arrangement of the Prussian or German forces
for the opening of the campaign. The arrangements for the
transport of the army by railway were annually revised in
order to suit the changes in his plans brought about by political
conditions and by the growth of the army, as well as by the
improvement of the Prussian system of railways. The great
successes of 1866 had strengthened Moltke's position, so that
when on the isth of July 1870 the order for the mobilization
of the Prussian and south German forces was issued, his plans
were adopted without dispute and five days later he was ap-
pointed " Chief of the general staff of the army at the head-
quarters of his Majesty the King " for the duration of the war.
This gave Moltke the right to issue in the king's name, though
of course not without his approval, orders which were equivalent
to royal commands. Moltke's plan was to assemble the whole
army to the south of Mainz, this being the one district in
which an army could best secure the defence of the whole
frontier. If the French should disregard the neutrality of
Belgium and Luxemburg, and advance on the line from Paris
to Cologne or any other point on the Lower Rhine, the German
army would be able to strike at their flank, while the Rhine
itself, with the fortresses of Coblenz, Cologne and Wesel, would
be a serious obstacle in their front. If the French should
attempt to invade south Germany, an advance of the Germans
up either bank of the Rhine would threaten their communica-
tions. Moltke expected that the French would be compelled
by the direction of their railways to collect the greater part of
their army near Metz, and a smaller portion near Strassburg.
The German forces were grouped into three armies: the first
of 60,000 men, under Steinmetz, on the Moselle below Treves;
the second of 131,000 men, under Prince Frederick Charles,
round Homburg, with a reserve of 60,000 men behind it; the
third under the crown prince of 130,000 men, at Landau. Three
army corps amounting to 100,000 men were not reckoned upon
in the first instance, as it was desirable to keep a considerable
force in north-eastern Germany, in case Austria should make
common cause with France. If, as seemed probable, the French
should take the initiative before the German armies were ready,
and for that purpose should advance from Metz in the direction
of Mainz, Moltke would merely put back a few miles nearer to
Mainz the points of debarcation from the railway of the troops
of the second army. This measure was actually adopted,
though the anticipated French invasion did not take place.
Moltke's plan of operations was that the three armies while
advancing should make a right wheel, so that the first army
on the right would reach the bank of the Moselle opposite Metz,
while the second and third armies should push forward, the
third army to defeat the French force near Strassburg, and the
second to strike the Moselle near Pont-a-Mousson. If the
French army should be found during this advance in front of
the second army, it would be attacked in front by the second
army and in flank by the first or the third or both. If it should
be found on or north of the line from Saarburg to Luneville,
it could still be attacked from two sides by the second and
third armies in co-operation. The intention of the great right
wheel was to attack the principal French army in such a direction
as to drive it north and cut its communications with Paris. The
fortress of Metz was to be observed, and the main German
forces, after defeating the chief French army, to march upon
Paris. This plan was carried out in its broad outlines. The
battle of Worth was brought on prematurely, and therefore
led, not to the capture of MacMahon's army, which was intended,
but only to its total defeat and hasty retreat as far as Chalons.
The battle of Spicheren was not intended by Moltke, who wished
to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar till he could attack it
with the second army in front and the first army on its left
flank, while the third army was closing towards its rear. But
these unintended or unexpected victories did not disconcert
Moltke, who carried out his intended advance to Pont-a-Mousson,
there crossed the Moselle with the first and second armies, then
faced north and wheeled round, so that the effect of the battle
of Gra.velotte was to drive Bazaine into the fortress of Metz
and cut him off from Paris. Nothing shows Moltke's insight
and strength of purpose in a clearer light than his determination
to attack on the i8th of August, when many strategists would
have thought that, the strategical victory having been gained,
a tactical victory was unnecessary. He has been blamed for
the last local attack at Gravelotte, in which there was a fruitless
heavy loss; but it is now known that this attack was ordered by
the king, and Moltke blamed himself for not having used his
influence to prevent it. During the night following the battle
Moltke made his next decision. He left one army to invest
Bazaine and Metz, and set out with the two others to march
towards Paris, the more southerly one leading, so that when
MacMahon's army should be found the main blow might be
delivered from the south and MacMahon driven to the north.
On the 25th of August it was found that MacMahon was moving
north-east for the relief of Bazaine. The moment Moltke was
satisfied of the accuracy of his information, he ordered the
German columns to turn their faces north instead of west.
MacMahon's right wing was attacked at Beaumont while
attempting to cross the Meuse, his advance necessarily aban-
doned, and his army with difficulty collected at Sedan. Here
the two German armies were so brought up as completely to
surround the French army, which on the ist of September was
attacked and compelled to raise the white flag. After the
capitulation of Sedan, Moltke resumed the advance on Paris,
which was surrounded and invested. From this time his
strategy is remarkable for its judicious economy of force, for
he was wise enough never to attempt more than was practicable
with the means at his disposal. The surrender of Metz and of
Paris was a question of time, and the problem was, while main-
taining the investment, to be able to ward off the attacks of
the new French armies levied for the purpose of raising the
siege of Paris. Metz surrendered on the 27th of October, and
on the 28th of January 1871 an armistice was concluded at
Paris by which the garrison became virtually prisoners and the
war was ended.
On the 2Qth of October 1870 Moltke was created graf (count
or earl), and on the i6th of June 1871, field marshal. After
the war he superintended the preparation of its history, which
was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff.
In 1888 he resigned his post as chief of the staff. In 1867
Moltke was elected to the North German Diet, and in 1871 to
the Reichstag. His speeches, dealing mostly with military
questions, were regarded as models of conciseness and relevancy.
He died suddenly on the 24th of April 1891, and after a magni-
ficent funeral ceremony at Berlin his remains were laid beside
those of his wife in the chapel which he had erected as her tomb
at Creisau.
As a strategist Moltke cannot be estimated by comparison
with Frederick or Napoleon, because he had not the authority
either of a king or of a commander-in-chief . While it is doubtful
whether he can be convicted of any strategical errors, it seems
beyond doubt that he never had to face a situation which placed
any strain on his powers, for in the campaigns of 1866 and 1870
his decisions seemed to be made without the slightest effort,
and he was never at a loss.
He had a tall spare figure, and in his latter years his tanned
features had received a set expression which was at once hard
and grand. He was habitually taciturn and reserved, though
a most accomplished linguist, so that it was said of him that
he was " silent in seven languages." The stern school of his
early life had given him a rare self-control, so that no indiscreet
or unkind expression is known to have ever fallen from him.
Long before his name was on the lips of the public he was known
MOLUCCAS MOLYBDENUM
681
in the army and in the staff as the " man of gold," the ideal
character whom every one admired and who had no enemies.
AUTHORITIES. Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwilrdigkeiten des
General Feldmarschalls Graf en Helmuth von Mcltke (8 vols., Berlin,
1892-1893) ; Moltke's militarische Werke (Berlin, o vols., 1892-1900) ;
Feldmarschall Moltke, by Max Jahns (3 vols., Berlin, 1894-1900);
Feldmarschall Graf Moltke: Ein militdrisches Lebensbild, by W. Bigge,
Oberst, &c. (2 vols., Munich, 1901). (H. S. W.)
MOLUCCAS, or SPICE ISLANDS, a name which in its wider
sense includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago between
Celebes on the W., New Guinea on the E., Timor on the S., and
the open Pacific Ocean on the N. They are thus distributed
over an area between 2 43' N. and 8 23' S. and 124 22'
and 135 E., and include: (i) the Moluccas proper or Ternate
group, of which Halmaherais the largest and Ternate the capital;
(2) the Bachian, Obi, and Xulla groups; (3) the Amboyna group,
of which Ceram (Serang) and Bum are the largest; (4) the Banda
Islands (the spice or nutmeg islands par excellence) ; (5) the south-
eastern islands, comprising Timor-Laut or Tenimber, Larat,
&c.; (6) the Kei Islands and the Aru Islands, of which the former
are sometimes attached to the south-eastern group; and (7)
the south-western islands or the Babar, Sermata, Leti, Damar,
Roma and Wetar groups. At the close of the i6th century
this part of the archipelago was divided among four rulers
settled at Ternate, Tidore, Halmahera and Bachian. The
northern portion belongs to the Dutch residency of Ternate,
the southern portion to that of Amboyna.
The name Moluccas is said to be derived from the Arabic
for " king." Argensola (1609) uses the forms islas Malucas,
Maluco, and el Maluco; Coronel (1623), islas del Moluco; and
Camoens, Maluco. Since 1867, when the political unity, under
a governor, was dissolved, the Moluccas are often named by
the Dutch the " Great East " (Groote Oost). Most of the islands
are mountainous, with still active volcanoes. As they lie near
or under the equator, the monsoons blowing over them are less
regular, and the rainfall, of large volume throughout the year,
is dependent on the height and direction of the chains. The
vegetation of the small and narrow islands, all encompassed
by the sea, is very luxuriant, and the products, principally
nutmegs, mace, and other spices, include also rice and sago.
The inhabitants are of mixed descent. In some islands are
people of obvious Papuan blood, while in others are Polynesian
or Malayan tribes. With these three main races have crossed
traders and colonists, Macassars, Buginese, Javanese and
Europeans.
The geology of the Moluccas is very imperfectly known. The
great chain of volcanoes which runs through Sumatra and Java is
continued eastwards into the Moluccas, and terminates in a hook-
like curve which passes through the Damar Islands to the Banda
group. Outside this hook lies a concentric arc of non-volcanic
islands, including Tenimber, the Lesser Kei Islands, Ceram and
Buru; and beyond is still a third concentric arc extending from
Taliabu to the Greater Kei Islands. The islands of these outer
arcs consist chiefly of crystalline schists and limestones, overlaid
by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. On the whole it
appears that the older rocks are found more particularly towards
the interior of the curve, and the newer rocks towards the exterior.
Eruptive rocks of supposed Cretaceous age are met with in these
outer islands, but Tertiary and recent volcanic lavas are confined to
the innermost arc. Halmahera lies outside these arcs. It appears
to consist chiefly of gabbro, peridotite, serpentine and other very
basic eruptive rocks, which are believed to be of Cretaceous age.
Nummulitic limestone occurs in the south-east. Upon the floor of
older rock rise a number of volcanoes, some of which are now extinct
while others are still active. Most of them lie near the west coast or
on the islands off this coast; and they are arranged in lines which
run approximately from north to south, with, generally, a slight
convexity towards the west.
See further MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, and separate articles on the
principal islands and groups.
MOLY (Gr. n>\v), a mysterious plant with magical powers
described in Homer, Odyssey, x. 302-306. Hermes pulls it up
and gives it to Odysseus as a protection against the arts of
Circe. It is further described as " having a black root and a
flower like milk, and hard for mortals to pull up." There has
been much controversy as to the identification. Philippe
Champault Phenitiens et Grecs en Italic d'apres I'Odyssee (1906),
pp. 504 seq. decides in favour of the Peganum harmala (of the
order Rutaceae), the Syrian or African rue (Gr. irrryavov),
from the husks of which the vegetable alkaloid harmaline
(Ci 3 Hi 4 N 2 O) is extracted. The flowers are white with green
stripes. Victor Berard Les Phtniciens et I'Odyssee, ii. 288
seq. relying partly on a Semitic root, prefers the A triplex
halimus (atriplex, a Lat. form of Gr. drp<i</>aw, and aXi/ios,
marine), order Chenopodiaceae, a herb or low shrub common
on the south European coasts. These identifications are noticed
by R. M. Henry in Class. Rev. (Dec. 1906), p. 434, who illustrates
the Homeric account by passages in the Paris and Leiden
magical papyri, and argues that moly is probably a magical
name, derived perhaps from Phoenician or Egyptian sources,
for a plant which cannot be certainly identified. He shows that
the " difficulty of pulling up " the plant is not a merely physical
one, but rather connected with the peculiar powers claimed
by magicians. In Tennyson's Lotus Eaters the moly is
coupled with the amaranth (" propt on beds of amaranth and
moly ").
MOLYBDENITE, a mineral consisting of molybdenum
disulphide, MoSj. It closely resembles graphite in appearance,
but may readily be distinguished from this by its greater density
(4-7) and by its behaviour before the blowpipe. Crystals have
the form of six-sided plates or scales, but they are never sharply
defined, and their reference to the hexagonal system is doubtful.
They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the large surface of the
plates, and the flakes are readily bent, but are not elastic.
The mineral is very soft (H=i to ij) and unctuous, and makes
a bluish-grey mark on paper: it is opaque and has a bright
metallic lustre. The colour is lead-grey differing slightly from
that of graphite in having a bluish tinge. The name molybdenite
is from the Greek ftoXvfioos, meaning lead or lead ore, with
which graphite (black-lead) and molybdenite were confused;
the latter was distinguished by P. J. Hjelm, who in 1782
discovered the element molybdenum in this mineral.
Molybdenite occurs as disseminated scales in crystalline
rocks such as granite, gneiss, schist and marble and also in
quartz-veins. It has been found in small amounts at many
localities, but only those which have yielded large crystals need
be specially mentioned here, viz. in a pyroxene-rock at Aldfield
in Pontiac county, Quebec; with native bismuth at Kingsgate
in Gough county, New South Wales; with wolframite and
scheelite in quartz-veins at Caldbeck Fells in Cumberland; and
recently, as crystals 6 in. across, at Slangsvold near Raade in
Norway.
Molybdenite has been used mainly for the preparation of
molybdates for use as chemical reagents. Recently, however,
it has been used in the manufacture of molybdenum steel
(ferro-molybdenum), which by reason of its hardness and
toughness is specially suitable for tools. (L. J. S.)
MOLYBDENUM [symbol, Mo; atomic weight, 96 (O=i6)]
a metallic chemical element. The name is derived from
Gr. ^i6Xu|95os, lead, and was originally employed to denote
many substances containing or resembling lead; ultimately
the term was applied to graphite and to molybdenum sulphide.
The difference between these two latter substances was first
pointed out by Cronstedt, and in 1778 C. Scheele prepared
molybdic acid from the sulphide. Molybdenum occurs in
nature chiefly as the minerals molybdenite (MoSz) and wulfenite
(PbMoO 4 ), and more rarely as molybdic ochre (MoOs) and ilse-
mannite; it also occurs in many iron ores. The metal may be
obtained by heating the trioxide with carbon in the electric
furnace (H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1893, 116, p. 1225), or by
the Goldschmidt method (Rosenheim and Braun, Zeit. anorg.
Chem., 1905, p. 311) or by dissociating the tetra- and penta-
chloride in a graphite crucible with an electric current below
1330 (J- N. Pring and W. Fielding, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1909, 95,
p. 1497). It forms a grey coloured powder of specific gravity
9-01; it is malleable, and not as hard as glass. It is rapidly
oxidized on heating to a temperature of 5oo -6oo C., and also
when fused with nitre or potassium chlorate. It is soluble in
dilute nitric acid, and in concentrated sulphuric acid; in the
682
MOLYNEUX MOMBASA
latter case with the formation of a blue solution which on heating
becomes colourless, molybdenum trioxide being formed with
the liberation of sulphur dioxide.
Molybdenum combines with oxygen to form many oxides, the most
important of which are : the monoxide, MoO.n (H 2 O), the sesquioxide,
MosOa the dioxide, MoO 2 , and the trioxide, MoQ 3 . Molybdenum
monoxide, MoO.n(H 2 O), is a black powder obtained when the
dichloride is boiled with concentrated potash solution. According to
W. Muthmann and W. Nagel (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2009), this oxide does
not exist, the reaction leading to the formation of an hydroxide
according to the equation : MosCl4(OH) 2 + 4KHO + 3H 2 O =
3Mo(OH)j+4KBr+3H. Molybdenum sesquioxide, MosOs, a black
mass insoluble in acids, is formed by heating the corresponding
hydroxide in vacua, or by digesting the trioxide with zinc and
hydrochloric acid. Molybdenum dioxide, MoO 2 , is formed by heating
sodium trimolybdate, NaaMoaOio, to redness in a current of hydrogen
(L. Svanberg and H. Struve, Jour. prak. Chem., 1848, 44, p. 301), or
by long fusion -of a mixture of ammonium molybdate, potassium car-
bonate, and boron trioxide (W. Muthmann, Ann., 1887, 238, p. 114),
It forms quadratic prisms, having a violet reflex and insoluble in
boiling hydrochloric acid. Molybdenum trioxide, MoO 3 , is prepared
by oxidizing the metal or the sulphide by heating them in air, or
with nitric acid. It is a white powder, which turns pale yellow on
heating, and melts at a red heat. It sublimes in small rhombic tables
or needles, and is slightly soluble in cold water, the solution possess-
ing an acid reaction. Several hydrated forms of the oxide are known,
and a colloidal variety may be obtained by the dialysis of a strong
hydrochloric acid solution of sodium molybdate. Molybdenum
trioxide, like chromium trioxide, is an acidic oxide, and forms salts
known as molybdates. The normal molybdates show a tendency
to pass into polymolybdates. The molybdates are also capable
of combining with other oxides (such as phosphorus and arsenic
pentoxides) yielding very complex salts. The ordinary ammo-
nium molybdate, used as a test reagent for phosphates, is a salt of
composition (NH4)ioMOi 2 O; it has been examined physicochemi-
cally by J. Sand and F. Eisenlohr (Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii. pp. 178,
179). The molybdates may be recognized by the fact that they
give a white precipitate on the addition of hydrochloric or nitric
acids to their solutions, and that with reducing agents (zinc and
sulphuric acid) they give generally a blue coloration which turns to
a green and finally to a brown colour.
Molybdenum combines with the halogen elements in varying pro-
portions, forming with chlorine a di-, tn-, tetra- and penta-chloride,
and similar compounds with bromine and iodine. Molybdenum
dichloride (MoCI 2 ) 8 or CUMoaClj (chlormolybdenum chloride), is
prepared (together with some tetrachloride) by heating the tri-
chloride in a stream of carbon dioxide (C. W. Blomstrand, Jour. f.
prak.Chem.,i857,7i,p.^.g; 1861,82, p. 433). It is a yellow amorphous
powder which is soluble in dilute alkalis, the solution on acidifi-
cation giving an hydroxide, Cl4Mo ? (OH) 2 , which is soluble in nitric
acid, and does not give a reaction with silver nitrate. The molecular
weight determinations of W. Muthmann and W. Nagel (Ber., 1898, 31,
p. 2009) show the salt to possess the composition MoaCl._ Molybdenum
trichloride, MoCl, is obtained when the pentachloride is heated to a
temperature of about 250 C. in a current of hydrogen. It forms red
crusts, is insoluble in cold water, but is decomposed by boiling water.
It is easily soluble in hot nitric acid. Molybdenum pentachloride,
MoCl 6 , is obtained when molybdenum is gently heated in dry
chlorine (L. P. Liechti and B. Kempe, Ann., 1873, 169, p. 345). It
is a dark-coloured crystalline solid which melts at 194 C. and boils
at 268 C. It fumes in moist air and deliquesces gradually. It is
occasionally used as a chlorine carrier. It is soluble in absolute
alcohol and in ether. Molybdenum disulphide, MoS, is found as
the mineral molybdenite, and may be prepared by heating the
trioxide with sulphur or sulphuretted hydrogen. It is a black
crystalline powder, resembling graphite in appearance. It is readily
oxidized by nitric acid, and when strongly heated in a current
of hydrogen is reduced to the metallic condition. Molybdenum
trisulphide, MoSs, is obtained by saturating a solution of an alkaline
molybdate with sulphuretted hydrogen and adding a mineral acid.
It is a brown powder which on heating in air loses sulphur and
leaves a residue of the disulphide. A tetrasulphide, MoS4, has also
been described.
Many varying values have been given for the atomic weight of
molybdenum. J. J. Berzelius (Pogg. Ann., 1826, 8, p. 23), by convert-
ing lead molybdate into lead nitrate, obtained the value 95-2 ; while
J. B. A. Dumas (Ann., 1860, 113, p. 32), by converting the trioxide
into the metal, obtained the value 95-65. K. Seubert and W. Pollard
(Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1895, 8, p. 434J using this second method
obtained the value 96-28; whilst E. F. Smith and P. Maas (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1894, 5, p. 280), by heating pure sodium molybdate
in hydrochloric acid and estimating the amount of sodium chloride
formed, obtained the value 96-087.
MOLYNEUX. This historic English name came into the
country from France at the time of the Norman Conquest
through William de Molines (Moleyns, Molyneux), who obtained
a grant of Sefton, in Lancashire, whence come the earls of Sefton
to-day. His descendant Adam de Molyneux (Moleyns or
Molins), who died in 1450, was bishop of Chichester and keeper
of the privy seal; he was a son of Sir Richard Molyneux of Sefton,
and uncle of the Sir Richard Molyneux (d. 1459), the Lancastrian
and favourite of Henry VI., whose descendant Richard Molyneux
(1593-1636) was created in 1628 ist Viscount Molyneux of
Maryborough, a title now merged in that of Sefton (created
1771). Another Molyneux family of some importance is the
Irish one, descended from Sir Thomas Molyneux (1531-1597),
Irish chancellor of the exchequer, who, born at Calais, settled in
Ireland in 1576. He was the great-grandfather of Sir Thomas
Molyneux, Bart. (1661-1733), a well-known physician and
zoologist, and of William Molyneux (1656-1698), the philosopher,
astronomer and politician, the friend of Locke, and author
of Dioptrica nova (1692), whose famous work on the legislative
independence of Ireland (The Case of Ireland, &c. 1698) created
much stir at the time. The latter's son Samuel Molyneux
(1689-1728), was also a well-known astronomer.
MOMBASA, the principal seaport of British East Africa,
in 4 4' S., 39 43' E., 150 m. N. of Zanzibar. Pop. about
30,000. Mombasa is built on a coralline island which nearly
fills the mouth of a deep arm of the sea. The channel on either
side of the island Mombasa to the N.E., Kilindini to the S.W.
affords safe harbourage, and each leads to a deeper ramification
of the sea, Mombasa Harbour to Port Tudor, Kilindini Harbour
to Port Reitz. Mombasa town is on the N.E. side of the island,
2 m. from Kilindini, with which it is connected by rail and
tramways. Viewed from the sea Mombasa has a picturesque
appearance, the most conspicuous object being the fort, built
on a coral hill 40 ft. high. Except for the main street and
Government Square (close to the harbour and containing the
customs-house and other official buildings), Mombasa proper
presents the usual aspect of an Oriental city a maze of narrow,
irregular streets and lanes. To the south, overlooking the sea,
is the European suburb. There are Anglican and Roman
Catholic churches (the Roman Catholic church and mission
house is one of the finest buildings in Mombasa), mission schools,
Hindu, Parsee, and Mahommedan temples, and hospitals and
law courts, the last named completed in 1902. Built into the
facade of the courts is a stone with an inscription recording
the building of a fort, dedicated to St Joseph, by the Portuguese
at Kilindini in 1666. This stone was found in the ruins of Fort
St Joseph. Mombasa Fort, or citadel, quadrangular in form,
was built by the Portuguese in 1593-1595 (as an inscription in
the interior testifies), was dedicated to the Saviour, and known
as the Jesus Fort. It bears the symbol I.H.S. The fort was
repaired by Seixas de Cabreira in 1635, the restoration being
recorded in an inscription over the gateway. By the British
authorities the fort is used as a military store and central gaol.
In the public garden on the point of the town facing the sea
a bronze statue of Sir William Mackinnon to whom Mombasa
owes its renaissance has been placed. The population of
the city is cosmopolitan, with three well-marked racial distinc-
tions: the Arab (Swahili), the Indian and the European. The
climate is fairly healthy, and Europeans live there with comfort.
The harbour at Mombasa is more than a mile in length,
but only 1200 ft. in width. It is consequently not so suitable
for large ships as Kilindini (" the place of deep water "), which
possesses the finest land-locked harbour on the East Coast of
Africa. The entrance is about the same width as that of
Mombasa, but Kilindini Harbour widens to | m. and is
3 m. long, the depth of water varying from 25 to 30 fathoms.
Kilindini is a depot of the British navy. Port Reitz, which
opens out of Kilindini Harbour westward, is 4 m. long and
i m. broad, with excellent anchorage. At Kilindini is a
pier alongside which ships 450 ft. in length and drawing
27 ft. can load and unload cargo. Here is the virtual terminus
of the Uganda railway, and the offices, workshops and hospital
connected therewith, also a branch customs-house. The Uganda
railway crosses to the mainland on a bridge, J m. long, built
over the shallow channel which on the north-west separates
the island from the continent. Mombasa is the outlet for the
produce of a large tract of territory, including the European
MOMEIN MOMMSEN
683
settlements in the highlands of the protectorate, and by means
of the railway to Victoria Nyanza taps the rich regions of the
Nile sources. German, British, French and Austrian mail-
boats call regularly at the port, which is connected by submarine
cable with Zanzibar. Trade statistics are included in those of
British East Africa (q.v.).
Mombasa Island (named after the town) is 3 m. long by z\ m.
broad, with an area of 9 sq. m. Except at the western end,
the coast of the island consists of cliffs from 40 ft. to 60 ft. high.
The island contains many fertile plantations, chiefly of coco-nut
palms, except on the side facing the ocean, where there is little
vegetation, the coral reefs being but thinly covered with earth.
There are no springs and the island is dependent for water on
rain collected in tanks or drawn from wells the latter brackish.
Ruins of Arab, Portuguese and Turkish buildings are found in
various parts of the island. At Ras Serani are the ruins of a
chapel " Nossa Senhora das Merces," built by the Portuguese
in the I7th century on the site of a Turkish fort, and afterwards
turned into a fort again by the Arabs.
Mombasa takes its name from Mombasa in Oman. A Perso-
Arabic settlement was made here about the nth century. It is
mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1331 as a large place, and at the
time of Vasco da Gama's visit (1498) it was the seat of consider-
able commerce, its inhabitants including a number of Calicut
Banyans and Oriental Christians. The ruler of the city tried
to entrap da Gama (or so the Portuguese navigator imagined),
and with this began a series of campaigns which gave full force
to its Swahili name Mvita (war). The principal incidents are
the capture and burning of the place by Almeida (1505), Nuno
da Cunha (1529), and Duarte de Menezes (1587) this last as
a revenge for its submission to the sultan of Constantinople
the revolt and flight (1631) of Yusuf ibn Ahmed (who murdered
all the Portuguese in the town over 100), and the three-years'
siege by the imam of Omam 1696-98(1116 garrison being reduced
to eleven men and two women), ending in the expulsion of
the Portuguese. From the I2th of March 1728 to the zgih of
November 1 7 29 a Portuguese force from Goa again held Mombasa ,
when they were finally driven out by the Muscat Arabs. In
December 1823 the Mazrui family, who had ruled in Mombasa
from the early part of the i8th century, first as representatives
of Oman, afterwards as practically independent princes, placed
the city under British protection; and in February 1824 Lieut.
J. J. Reitz was appointed commandant or resident at the city
by Captain (afterwards Vice-Admiral) W. F. W. Owen. Reitz,
after whom Port Reitz is named, died at Mombasa either in
1824 or 1825. The protectorate was repudiated by the British
government, which left the place to be bombarded and captured
by Seyyid Said of Oman, who made repeated attacks between
1829 and 1833, and only got possession in 1837 by treachery.
Said thereafter made Zanzibar his capital, Mombasa becoming of
secondary importance. A revolt against Zanzibar in 1875 was
put down with British assistance. The British government in
the following year vetoed a proposal by the khedive Ismail to
annex Mombasa and its hinterland up to the equatorial lakes to
Egypt a project which originated with General C. G. Gordon,
when that officer administered the Upper Nile provinces. In 1887
the city was handed over by the sultan of Zanzibar to the British
for administration. It became the capital of the province of
Seyyidie and of the East Africa protectorate. In 1907, how-
ever , the seat of the central government was removed to
Nairobi (q.v.). Mombasa still forms, nominally, part of the
sultanate of Zanzibar. The city, together with Malindi, is
mentioned in Paradise Lost.
HOMEIN, the Burmese name of the Chinese city Teng-yueh-
chow, in the S.W. of the province of Yunnan, China. It was
opened to foreign trade by the Burmese Convention of 1897,
but so far no advantage has been taken of the permission.
It lies close to the Burmese frontier and on the old trade route
from Bhamo to Yunnan, but its importance as an outpost of
the British Empire is political rather than commercial. The
distance from Teng-yueh to Bhamo by the usual trade route
is 160 m., and is generally traversed by pack-animals in seven
or eight days. In a straight line the two towns are only 80 m.
apart. Near Momein and within its jurisdiction is the frontier
town of Manwyne, where A. R. Margary was assassinated in
January 1875.
MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817-1903), German historian and
archaeologist, was born on the soth of November 1817 at
Carding, in Schleswig. After being educated at the univewity
of Kiel he devoted himself to the study of Roman law and
antiquities. In 1843 a grant from the Danish government
enabled him to undertake a journey to Italy, which was to be
decisive for his future career. There he began the study of
Roman inscriptions, in association with other Italian and German
scholars, especially Borghesi, de Rossi and Henzen. His first
work was directed to the restoration of the old Italian dialects,
and the French government, which at one time proposed to
undertake the task of compiling a complete collection of all
extant Roman inscriptions, asked for his co-operation. When
they gave up the project it was taken up by the Berlin Academy,
which had recently completed the collection of Greek inscriptions
edited by Boeckh. They had already made a grant to Mommsen,
and in 1844 Savigny proposed that he should be appointed
to carry out the great work. Many years, however, passed
before the plan was finally approved. Meanwhile Mommsen
continued his work in Italy: he drew up a full memorandum
explaining the principles on which a Corpus inscriptionum
should be compiled, and on which alone he could undertake
the editorship. As a specimen he collected the inscriptions
of Samnium, and in 1852 published those of the kingdom of
Naples. These works caused him to be recognized as the
first authority in this field of learning. In 1847, however, he
was obliged to return to Germany: he first went to Schleswig,
where during the Revolution he edited a paper in which he
supported the claims of the Elbe Duchies; at the end of 1848
he was appointed professor of civil law at Leipzig. His work
there was interrupted by his political opinions. During 1848,
when the extreme party was in the ascendant, Mommsen
supported the monarchy against the Republicans. With
characteristic courage and independence, next year, when the
Revolution had spent its force and Beust executed his coup
d'etat, he protested, with many of his colleagues, against this
act. In consequence he was summoned before a disciplinary
court, and, together with Haupt and Jahn, dismissed from
his professorship.
Mommsen found an asylum in Switzerland, and became
professor at Zurich: he repaid the hospitality of the Republic
by writing exhaustive monographs on Roman Switzerland.
His spare time was occupied with the Roman History, the three
volumes of which appeared between 1854 and 1856. His name
at once became known throughout Europe. In this work,
with a true insight into the relative importance of things, he
passed over with a few strong broad touches the antiquarian
discussions on the origins of the city, on which previous historians
had laboured so long; but in place of this he painted with
astonishing vigour the great political struggle that accompanied
the fall of the republic. It was, above all, his new reading
of old characters which demanded attention, if not always
approval: Cicero, the favourite of men of letters, was for him
"a journalist in the worst sense of the word"; Pompey, the
hero of Plutarch and the Moralists, was brushed aside as a
mere drill-sergeant; and the book culminated in the picture
of Caesar, who established absolute rule in the name of demo-
cracy, " the complete and perfect man."
The three volumes ended with the dictatorship of Caesar. The
book has never been continued, for the volume on the Roman
Provinces under the Empire, which appeared in 1884, is in reality
a separate work. Mommsen was henceforward fully occupied
with work of a more technical nature. In 1854 the definite
offer was made to him by the Academy that he should be chief
editor of a Corpus inscriptionum, with full control, and in order
that he might carry on the work he was appointed in 1858
to a professorship at Berlin. The first volume appeared in
1861; five of the succeeding volumes he edited himself, and the
684
MOMORDICA MONACO
whole was executed under his immediate supervision and with
the co-operation of scholars whom he had himself trained.
Enormous as was the labour, this task occupied only a small
part of his extraordinary intellectual energy. He found time
to write two larger works, the History of the Roman Coinage
and the Romisches Staatsrecht, a profound analysis of Roman
constitutional law, and Romisches Strafrecht, on Roman criminal
jurisdiction. His Roman Provinces already mentioned gives
a singularly interesting picture of certain aspects of social life'
under the empire. His smaller papers amount to many hundreds
in number, and there is no department of Roman life and learn-
ing, from the earliest records of the Roman law to the time of
Jornandes, which he has not illuminated. As secretary to the
Berlin Academy for over twenty years he took a leading part in
their deliberations, and was their spokesman on great occasions.
His interest in political problems of the present was as keen
as in those of the past. He was one of the founders of the
Preussische Jahrbiicher, the most influential of German political
periodicals. For many years he was a member of the Prussian
Parliament. His political opinions were strong but ill-regulated.
Intensely nationalist, he acquiesced in the annexation of his
native land to Prussia, and in a public letter to the Italian nation
in 1870 defended the German cause before the nation which had
become to him a second fatherland; but he was of too independent
a character ever to be quite at ease under Prussian government.
Loving liberty, he hated its consequences; a democrat, he had
and always expressed a profound contempt for the mob. Like
many idealists, he was a severe critic of the faults of his own
and other countries, and he added something to the increasing
Chauvinism in Germany.
It was, however, above all, German scholarship which remained
his first interest. There is probably no other instance in the
history of scholarship in which one man has established so
complete an ascendancy in a great department of learning.
Equally great as antiquary, jurist, political and social historian,
he lived to see the time when among students of Roman history
he had pupils, followers, critics, but no rivals. He combined
the power of patient and minute investigation with a singular
faculty for bold generalization and the capacity for tracing
out the effects of thoughts and ideas on political and social
life. Partly, perhaps, owing to a philosophical and legal train-
ing, he had not the gift of clear and simple narrative, and he
is more successful in discussing the connexion between events
than in describing the events themselves. Though his History
ends with the fall of the republic, his most enduring work has
been that on the empire; and if he has not written the history
of the empire, he has made it possible for others to do so.
Mommsen died at Charlottenburg on the ist of November
1903. His brothers, Carl Johann Tycho (1819-1900), a great
authority on Pindar and Shakespeare, and August (b. 1821),
who wrote chiefly on ancient chronology and Greek festivals,
were also prominent among German scholars in their day.
The History of Rome (including the volumes of the provinces)
has been translated into English by W. P. Dickson (the Provinces,
revised by F. Haverfield, 1909) ; there is a French edition of his work
on Roman Coinage. Many of his pamphlets and articles have been
collected under the title Romische Forschungen. Of his other works,
the more important are the Roman Chronology to the Time of Caesar
(1858), a work written in conjunction with his brother August; his
editions of the Mpnumentum Ancyranum and of the Digest in the
Corpus juris civilis, and of the Chronica of Cassiodorus in Monu-
menta Germaniae historica, the Auctores antiquissimi section of
which was under his supervision. A great part of his work is
to be found in the German learned publications such as Hermes,
Rheinisches Museum, &c. His Reden und Aufsdtze and Gesammelte
Schriftcn, i. ii., were published after his death. A full list of his
works is given by Zangemeister, Mommsen als Schriftsteller (1887;
continued by Jacobs, 1905). See also monographs by C. Bardt
(1903) and Gradenwitz(i9O4, in the Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung
fur Rechtsgesckichte) , and O. Hirschfeld, Gedachtnisrede auf Theodor
Mommsen (1904).
MOMORDICA, in botany, a genus of annual or perennial
climbing herbs belonging to the natural order Cucurbitaceae,
natives of the tropics, especially Africa, and known in cultivation
chiefly as hothouse plants. They are grown for their ornamental
fleshy fruits, which are oblong to cylindrical in shape, orange
to red in colour, prickly or warted externally, and burst when
ripe, generally with elastic force, into irregular valves. M .
Balsamina, known as balsam apple, is a very pretty annual,
well adapted for trellises, &c., in warm outside situations.
MOMUS, in Greek mythology, the son of ND (Night), the
personification of censoriousness'. He is frequently mentioned
in Lucian as the lampooner of the gods. It is said that
Pallas, Hephaestus, and Poseidon entered into a competition
as to which of them could create the most useful thing.
Hephaestus made a man, Poseidon an ox, Pallas a house. Momus,
being called upon to pronounce an opinion as to the merits of
these productions, expressed dissatisfaction with all: with the
man, because a window ought to have been made in his breast,
through which his heart could be seen; with the ox, because
its horns were in the wrong place; with the house, because it
ought to have been portable, so as to be easily moved to avoid
unpleasant neighbours. Momus is reported to have burst
with chagrin at being unable to find any but the most trifling
defects in Aphrodite. He is represented sometimes as a young,
sometimes as an old man, wearing a mask, and carrying a fool's
bauble.
Hesiod, Theogony, 214; Lucian, Hermotimus, 20, and especially
Deorum Concilium; Philostratus, Epistolae, 37.
MONA, the name used by classical writers, and in particular
by Tacitus, to denote Anglesey (q.v.). This island was raided
by the Roman general Suetonius about A.D. 60 and conquered by
Agricola about A.D. 79. The Romans probably mined copper
there, but no trace has yet been found of any Roman military
post, and the villages of the inhabitants which have been recently
excavated show only mediocre traces of Roman civilization.
The name Mona seems also to have been occasionally used,
perhaps from ignorance, for the other large island lying between
England and Ireland, Man. The ancient name of this latter
was probably not unlike that of Mona, but is not accurately
known to us (? Monapia, Manavia). (F. J. H.)
MONACO, a territory of south-eastern France, the smallest of
the sovereign principalities of Europe. Area about 8 sq. m., the
length being 2j m. and the width varying from 165 to noo yds.
Pop. (1900), 15,180. Monaco is situated on the coast of the
Mediterranean, 9 m. east of Nice, and is bounded on all sides
by the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. It includes the
towns of Monaco (3292), Condamine (6218) and Monte Carlo
(3794). The principality at one time included Mentone and
Roccabruna, now known as Roquebrune, which towns, however,
were ceded to France in 1861 for a sum of four million francs.
The town of Monaco occupies the level summit of a rocky head-
land, rising about 200 ft. from the shore, and still defended
by ramparts. Though largely modernized, the palace is an inter-
esting specimen of Renaissance architecture; the " cathedral "
(Romanesque-Byzantine style), and the oceanographical museum
may also be mentioned. For this museum a fine building,
appropriately decorated, was opened in March 1910 by the prince
of Monaco. It stands on the edge of the cliff rising from the sea
at the gardens of St Martin, and was designed to house the
collections made by the prince during twenty-five years of
oceanographical research, and others. Behind the rock, between
Mont Tete de Chien and Mont de la Justice, the high grounds rise
towards La Turbie, the village on the hill which takes its name
from the tropaea with which Augustus marked the boundary
between Gaul and Italy. On the north lies the bay of Monaco;
along the lower ground on the west of the bay stretches the health
and bathing resort of Condamine, with.orange-gardens, manufac-
tures of perfumes and liqueurs, and the chapel of Ste Devote,
the patron saint of Monaco; to the north of the bay on the rocky
slopes of the Spelugues (speluncae) are grouped the various
buildings of the Casino of Monte Carlo with the elaborate gardens
and the numerous villas and hotels which it has called into
existence. Adjoining the Casino terrace and overlooking the
sea is the pigeon-shooting ground, the competitions on which are
celebrated.
There appear to have been gambling-tables at Monte Carlo
MONAD MONAGHAN
685
in the year 1856, but it was in 1861 that Francois Blanc, seeing
his tenancy at Homburg coming to an end, with no hope of
renewal, obtained a concession for fifty years from Charles III.
This concession passed into the hands of a joint-stock company,
which in 1898 obtained an extension to 1947, in return for a
payment to the prince of 400,000 in 1899 and of 600,000 in
1913, together with an increase of the annual tribute of 50,000
to 70,000 in 1907, 80,000 in 1917, 90,000 in 1927, and 100,000
in 1937. None of the inhabitants of Monaco have access to the
tables; and their interest in the maintenance of the status quo
is secured by their complete exemption from taxation and the
large prices paid for their lands. The ruler of the principality,
Prince Albert, born 1848, succeeded his father, Prince Charles
III., in 1889. He married in 1869 Lady Mary Douglas Hamilton,
by whom in 1870 he had a son, Prince Louis: that marriage was,
however, annulled in 1880, and subsequently Prince Albert
married Alice, dowager-duchess of Richelieu, from whom he was
divorced in 1902. The prince is absolute ruler, as there is no
parliament in the principality. He is advised by a small council
of state, the members of which are appointed by himself. The
maire and other municipal authorities are also appointed by the
prince. A governor-general presides over the administration.
The judicial system is the same as that of France, there being a
court of first instance and a juge de paix. By arrangement,
two Paris judges form a court of appeal. Monaco is the seat of a
RomanjCatholic bishop.
A temple of Heracles seems to have been built on the Monaco
headland by the Phoenicians at a very early date, and the same
god was afterwards worshipped there by the Greeks under the
surname of Mopot/coj, whence the name Monaco. Monoeci
Portus or Portus Herculis is frequently mentioned by the later
Latin writers. From the loth century the place was associated
with the Grimaldi, a powerful Genoese family who held high
offices under the republic and the emperors; but not till a much
latter date did it become their permanent possession and residence.
In the beginning of the I4th century it was notorious for its
piracies. Charles 'I. (a man of considerable mark, who, after
doing great service by sea and land to Philip of Valois in his
English wars, was severely wounded at Crecy) purchased
Mentone and Roccabruna, and bought up the claims of the
Spinola to Monaco. The princes of Monaco continued true to
France till 1524, when Augustin Grimaldi threw in his lot with
Charles V. Honore I., Augustin's successor, was made marquis
of Campagna and count of Canosa, and people as well as rulers
were accorded various important privileges. The right to
exact toll from vessels passing the port continued to be exercised
till the close of the i8th century. Honore II. in 1641 threw off
the supremacy of Spain and placed himself under the protec-
torate of France; he was compensated for the loss of Canosa, &c.,
with the duchy and peerage of Valentinois and various lesser
lordships; and " duke of Valentinois " long continued to be the
title of the heir-apparent of the principality. In 1731 Antoine,
his great-grandson, was succeeded by his daughter Louise
Hippolyte; she had married Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon
and Thorigny, who took the name of Grimaldi and succeeded
his wife. The National Convention annexed the principality
to France in 1793; restored to the Goyon Grimaldis by the
Treaty of Paris in 1814, it was placed by that of Vienna under the
protection of Sardinia. The Sardinian government took the
opportunity of disturbances that occurred in 1848 to annex
Mentone and Roccabruna, which were occupied by a Sardinian
garrison till 1859. With the transference of Nice to France in
1860 the principality passed again under French protection.
See H. Mtivier, Monaco et ses princes, La Fleche (1862).
MONAD (Gr. fjavas, unit, from juows, alone), a philosophic
term which now has currency solely in its connexion with the
philosophy of Leibnitz. In the earlier Greek philosophy the
term meant unity as opposed to duality or plurality; at a later
time it meant an individual, or, with the Atomists, an atom. It
was first used in a sense approximate to that of Leibnitz by
Bruno, who meant by it a primary spiritual element as opposed
to the material atom. Leibnitz, however, seems to have
borrowed the term not directly from Bruno, but from a con-
temporary, Van Helmont the younger. Leibnitz's view of things
is that the world consists of monads which are immaterial
centres of force, each possessing a certain grade of mentality,
self-contained and representing the whole universe in miniature,
and all combined together by a pre-established harmony.
Material things, according to Leibnitz, are in their ultimate
nature composed of monads, each soul is a monad, and God is the
monas monadum. Thus monadism, or monadology, is a kind
of spiritual atomism. The theory has been revived in recent
years by C. B. Renouvier.
MONADNOCK, a term derived from Mount Monadnock in
New Hampshire, U.S.A., to denote the " isolated remnants of
hard rock which remain distinctly above their surroundings in
the late stages of an erosion cycle " (T. C. Chamberlin, R. D.
Salisbury). Examples are frequently found where a hard pipe
of igneous rock surrounded by softer rock is gradually exposed
by the washing away of the softer rock and becomes a con-
spicuous feature of the landscape, forming a volcanic " neck,"
and finally, in the later stages of erosion, a stump. The Peak
Downs, Queensland, furnish many examples, and Mato Tepee,
Wyoming, is a remarkably conspicuous instance of this type of
formation.
MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland in the province of Ulster,
bounded E. by Armagh, S.E. by Louth, S. by Meath, S.W. by
Cavan, W. by Fermanagh, and N. by Tyrone. The area is
319,741 acres, or about 496 sq. m. The north-western part of
the country is included in the great central plain of Ireland; but
to the south and east the surface is irregular, although none of
the hills is of great elevation. The principal range is that of
Slievebeagh, a rugged and barren tract extending into the county
Fermanagh, its highest summit being 1254 ft. above sea-level.
The principal rivers are the Finn, which rises near the centre of
the county and passes into Fermanagh, and the Blackwater,
which forms the boundary with Tyrone. The Ulster Canal
passes the towns of Monaghan and Clones, affording communi-
cation between Lough Neagh and Lough Erne. In geological
structure the county drops from the Upper Carboniferous
outlier of Slievebeagh in the north-west to a Carboniferous
Limestone area towards Monaghan town; but south of this a
tumbled Silurian area stretches across the Cavan and Armagh
borders. At Carrickmacross, an outlier of Carboniferous
Limestone, Coal Measures (with poor seams of coal) and Trias
is encountered. Gypsum has been quarried in the Trias, and
lead ore was formerly mined in many places in the Silurian area.
The Triassic clay furnishes excellent bricks. Eskers or glacial
ridges occur at several places. The limestone is not only abun-
dant and good, but from the position of the rocks it can be
obtained at small expense in working. Freestone and slates
are quarried in considerable quantities. The soil in the more
level portions of the county is fertile where it rests on limestone,
and there is also a mixed soil of deep clay, which is capable of
high cultivation; but in the hilly regions a strong retentive clay
prevails, which could be made productive only by careful
draining and culture. Spade husbandry generally prevails.
The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as i to ij.
Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal crops, but the
quantity grown decreases. The number of cattle, sheep, pigs,
goats and poultry, on the other hand, increases or is well main-
tained. Linen is the only manufacture of consequence, but the
cultivation of flax has almost died out. The Belfast and Clones
line of the Great Northern railway crosses the county from
north-east to west, passing the town of Monaghan, and the
Dundalk and Clones line of the same company runs from south-
east to west, with branches to Carrickmacross and to Cootehill
(county Cavan).
The population (86,206 in 1801; 74,611 in 1901) decreases
as rapidly as any county population in Ireland, and emigration
is very heavy. The total includes about 73% of Roman
Catholics, and about 12% each of Protestant Episcopalians
and of Presbyterians. The principal towns are Monaghan (the
county town, pop. 2932), Clones (2068), Carrickmacross (1874),
686
MONAGHAN MONARCHY
Castleblayney (1576) and Ballybay (1208). Thecounty includes
five baronies. Assizes are held at Monaghan, and quarter ses-
sions at Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan.
The two county members sit for the north and south divisions
respectively. The county is in the Protestant and Roman
Catholic dioceses of Clogher.
The district now called the county Monaghan was included
in the district of Uriel or Orgial, and long known as Macmahon's
country. It was made shire ground under its present name by
Sir John Perrot in the reign of Elizabeth. At Clones there is a
round tower in good preservation, but very rude in its masonry ;
another at Inishkeen is in ruins. Near Clones there are two
large raths. Although there are several Danish forts there are
no medieval castles of importance. The only monastic structure
of which any vestiges remain is the abbey of Clones, which was
also the seat of a bishopric. The abbey dates from the 6th
century, but was rebuilt in the I4th century after destruction
by fire.
HONA6HAN, a market town and the -county town of county
Monaghan, Ireland, on the Ulster Canal and the Belfast and
Clones line of the Great Northern railway, by which it is 52 m.
S.W. by W. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 2932. There is a modern
Roman Catholic cathedral (1862-1892)^ the diocese of Clogher,
a convent of the Sisters of St Louis, and a Protestant church
(1836), and the public and county buildings include court-house,
gaol, workhouse, asylum, hospital and barracks. Educational
establishments include a national model school and the college
of St Macartan, preparatory for the Roman Catholic priesthood.
The town takes its name (Muinechan, the town of monks) from
an early monastery. It was incorporated by James I., but was
little more than a hamlet until the close of the i8th century.
Rossmore Park, the fine demesne of Lord Rossmore, is the most
noteworthy of several neighbouring residences. The town is
governed by an urban district council.
MONA MONKEY, a West African representative of the group
of monkeys generally known as guenons, and scientifically as
Cercopithecus. The mona (C. mono) typifies a sub-genus of the
same name (Mona) characterized, among other features, by the
presence of a black band running from the angle of each eye to
the ear. In the mona itself the general colour of the upper parts
is black, with a pair of oval white spots near the root of the tail,
while a band across the forehead and the whole under surface
are likewise white. (See PRIMATES.)
MONARCHIANISM, a theological term designating the view
taken by those Christians who, within the Church, towards the
end of the 2nd century and during the 3rd, opposed the doctrine
of an independent personal subsistence of the Logos. During
the middle of the 2nd century a number of varying christological
views began to germinate, growing for a time side by side. They
fall into two great classes: (a) Christ was a man in whom the
Spirit of God had dwelt; (b) Christ was the Divine Spirit who had
assumed flesh. Each class based its position on Scripture, but
the latter (which prevailed) had the advantage of being able
easily to combine with cosmological and theological propositions
current in the religious philosophy of the time. The opposition
to it arose out of a fear that it threatened monotheism. The
representatives of the extreme monotheistic view, which while
regarding Christ as Redeemer, clung tenaciously to the numerical
unity of the Deity, were called Monarchians, a term brought into
general use by Tertullian. It has to be remembered (i) that the
movement originated within the pale of the Church, and had a
great deal in common with that which it opposed; (2) that it was
ante-Catholic rather than anti-Catholic, e.g. the Canon of the
New Testament had not yet been established. It is usual to
speak of two kinds of monarchianism the dynamistic and the
modalistic, though the distinction cannot be carried through
without some straining of the texts. By monarchians of the
former class Christ was held to be a mere man, miraculously
conceived indeed, but constituted the Son of God simply by the
infinitely high degree in which he had been filled with Divine
wisdom and power. This view was represented in Asia Minor
about the year 170 by the anti-Montanistic Alogi, so called by
Epiphanius on account of their rejection of the Fourth Gospel;
it was also taught at Rome about the end of the 2nd century by
Theodotus of Byzantium, a currier, who was excommunicated
by Bishop Victor, and at a later date by Artemon, excommuni-
cated by Zephyrinus. About the year 260 it was again pro-
pounded within the Church by Paul of Samosata (q.v.), who held
that, by his unique excellency, the man Jesus gradually rose to
the Divine dignity, so as to be worthy of the name of God.
Modalistic monarchianism, conceiving that the whole fullness
of the Godhead dwelt in Christ, took exception to the " subordi-
natianism " of some Church writers, and maintained that the
names Father and Son were only two different designations of
the same subject, the one God, who " with reference to the rela-
tions in which He had previously stood to the world is called the
Father, but in reference to His appearance in humanity is called
the Son." It was first taught, in the interests of the " mon-
archia " of God, by Praxeas, a confessor from Asia Minor, in
Rome about 190, and was opposed by Tertullian in his well-
known controversial tract. The same view the " patripassian "
as it was also called, because it implied that God the Father had
suffered on the cross obtained fresh support in Rome about 215
from certain disciples of Noetus of Smyrna, who received a
modified support from Bishop Callistus. It was on this account
that Hippolytus, the champion of hypostasian subordinatianism,
along with his adherents, withdrew from the obedience of
Callistus, and formed a separate community. In Carthage
Praxeas for a time had some success, but was forced by Ter-
tullian not only to desist but to retract. A new and conciliatory
phase of patripassianism was expounded at a somewhat later
date by Beryllus of Bostra, who, while holding the divinity of
Christ not to be idia, or proper to Himself, but irarpiKri (belonging
to the Father), yet recognized in His personality a new wpotrwrov
or form of manifestation on the part of God. Beryllus, however,
was convinced of the wrongness of this view by Origen (q.v.),
and recanted at the synod which had been called together in
244 to discuss it. (For the subsequent history of modalistic
monarchianism see SABELLIUS.)
See the Histories of Dogma by A. Harnack, F. Loofs, R. Seeberg ;
also R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation.
MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr.
fiovapxia,, rule of one, n&vos, alone, dpxi?, rule), strictly, the
undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. Hence the
term is applied to states in which the supreme authority is
vested in a single person, the monarch, who in his own right
is the permanent head of the state. The character of true
monarchy is well defined in the well-known lines of Cowper
( Verses supposed to be written by Alexander Selkirk) :
" I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute."
The word " monarchy " has, however, outlived this original
meaning, and is now used, when used at all, somewhat loosely
of states ruled over by hereditary sovereigns, as distinct from
republics with elected presidents; or for the " monarchical
principle," as opposed to the republican, involved in this dis-
tinction.
The old idea of monarchy, viz. that of the prince as represent-
ing within the limits of his dominions the monarchy of God over
all things, culminated in the I7th century in the doctrine of the
divine right of kings, and was defined in the famous dictum of
Louis XIV.: L'tiat c'est moil The conception of monarchy was
derived through Christianity from the theocracies of the East ; it
was the underlying principle of the medieval empire and also
of the medieval papacy, the rule of the popes during the period
of its greatest development being sometimes called " the papal
monarchy." The monarchical principle was shaken to its
foundations by the English revolution of 1688; it was shattered
by the French revolution of 1789; and though it survives as a
political force, more or less strongly, in most European countries,
" monarchists," in the strict sense of the word, are everywhere a
small and dwindling minority. To express the change phrases
were invented which have come into general use, though
involving a certain contradiction in terms, viz. " limited " or
MONASSIR MONASTICISM
687
" constitutional monarchy," as opposed to " absolute " or
" autocratic monarchy."
Finally, a distinction is drawn between " elective " and
" hereditary " monarchies. Of the former class the most
conspicuous was the Holy Roman Empire; but in Europe all
monarchies were, within certain limits, originally elective; and,
after the introduction of Christianity, the essential condition
of the assumption of sovereign power was not so much kinship
with the reigning family as the " sacring " by the divine
authority of the Church. The purely hereditary principle
was of comparatively late growth, the outcome of obvious
convenience, exalted under the influence of various forces into
a religious or quasi-religious dogma. (See also GOVERNMENT
and SOVEREIGNTY.)
MONASSIR (MONASIR), an African tribe of Semitic stock,
living in the Nile valley (Berber mudiria) between Birti (their
headquarters) and Dar Robatab. They are a prosperous,
sedentary tribe, claim kinship with the Ababda, and speak
Arabic, but are of very mixed blood. Next to Birti their
chief settlement is at Salamat. Both places are on the left
bank of the Nile. It was by Monassir tribesmen that Colonel
J. D. H. Stewart, Gordon's comrade at Khartum, was mur-
dered in 1884.
MONASTICISM (Gr. /^wucrri/cis, living alone, fi&vos), a system
of living which owes its origin to those tendencies of the human
soul which are summed up in the terms " asceticism " and
" mysticism." Mysticism may broadly be described as the
effort to give effect to the craving for a union of the soul with the
Deity already in this life; and asceticism as the effort to give
effect to the hankering after an ever-progressive purification of
the soul and an atoning for sin by renunciation and self-denial
in things lawful. These two tendencies may well be said to be
general instincts of humanity; because, though not always
called into activity, they are always liable to be evoked, and in
all ages and among all races they frequently have asserted them-
selves. (See ASCETICISM and MYSTICISM.) Indeed the history of
religion shows that they are among the most deep-rooted and
widespread instincts of the human soul; and monasticism is
the attempt to develop and regulate their exercise. Thus
monasticism is not a creation of Christianity; it is much
older, and before the Christian era a highly organized
monasticism existed in India. (See the articles op BRAHMANISM;
BUDDHISM; and LHASA.)
1. Pre-Christian Monasticism. Greek asceticism and mysti-
cism seem never to have produced a monastic system; but among
the Jews, both in Judaea and in Alexandria, this development
took place. In Judaea the Essenes before the time of Christ
lived a fully organized monastic life (see Schiirer, Jewish People,
ii. 30) ; and the same is true in regard to the Therapeutae in
the neighbourhood of Alexandria (the authenticity of Philo's
De Vila contemplativa, which describes their manner of life, is
again recognized by scholars).
A general sketch of pre-Christian asceticism and monasticism,
with indication of the chief authorities, is given in O. Zockler's
Askese und Monchtum (1897), pp. 32-135. This account is epito-
mized by J. O. Hannay, Spirit and Origin of Christian Monaslicism
(1903). app. i: the view now common among scholars is there
maintained, that these pre-Christian realizations of the monastic
idea had little, and indeed no, influence on the rise and development
of Christian monasticism.
2. Beginnings of Christian Monasticism. The practice of
asceticism asserted itself at an early date in Christian life: men
and women abstained from marriage, from flesh meat, from the
use of intoxicating drink, and devoted themselves to prayer,
religious exercises and works of charity (S. Schiwietz, Das
morgenlandische Monchtum, 1904, pt. i.; J. O. Hannay, op. cit.
chs. 2, 3). This they did in their homes, without withdrawing
from their families or avocations. In time, however, the ten-
dency to withdraw from society and give oneself up wholly to
the practice of religious and ascetical exercises set in; and at any
rate in Egypt, at the middle of the 3rd century, it was the custom
for such ascetics to live in solitary retirement in the neighbour-
hood of the towns and villages. This was the manner of life
which St Anthony (q.v.) began to lead, c. 270; but after fifteen
years he withdrew to a deserted fort on the east bank of the
Nile, opposite the Fayum. Here he enclosed himself and led a
life cut off from all intercourse with man. There are reasons
for doubting that Anthony was the first Christian hermit:
probably there is some historical foundation for the tradition
that one of those who fled to the desert in the Decian persecution
continued to dwell in a cave by the shore of the Red Sea, un-
known to men, till visited by St Anthony long years afterwards
(see E. C. Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius, 1898, pt. i.
p. 230). But this was a single case which does not affect the
fixed tradition of monastic Egypt in the 4th century that
Anthony was the father of Christian monachism.
During twenty years Anthony lived a life of seclusion, never
coming forth from his fort, never seeing the face of man. But his
fame went abroad and a number of would-be disciples came and
took up their abode in the caves and among the rocks that sur-
rounded his retreat, and called on him to guide them in the path
of life they had chosen. In response to these appeals Anthony
came forth and set himself to organize the life of the multitude
of ascetics tha't had grown up around him. This act, which took
place in the first years of the 4th century, must be regarded as
the inauguration of Christian monachism.
3. St Anthony's Monachism. The form of monastic life
directly derived from St Anthony was the type that prevailed
in middle and northern Egypt up to the middle of the sth
century. The chief authorities for the study of this type of
monastic life are the Vita Antonii (probably by Athanasius), the
Historia monachorum (ed. E. Preuschen), the Historia lausiaca
of Palladius (ed. E. C. Butier) these works are to be found in
Latin in Rosweyd's Vitae Patrum (Migne, Patrol Lat. LXXIIL,
LXXIV.) and the writings of Cassian (English translation by
Gibson in " Nicene and Post-Nicene Library "). A generation
ago all this literature was in disrepute; but it has been revindi-
cated, and its substantially historical character is now recognized
on all hands (see E. C. Butler, op. cit. pt. ii. i).
Antonian monachism grew out of the purely eremitical life,
and it retained many of the characteristic features inherited
from its origin. The party of travellers whose journey in 394 is
narrated in the Historia monachorum found at the chief towns
along the Nile from Lycopolis (Assiut or Siut) to Alexandria,
and in the deserts that fringed the river, monastic habitations,
sometimes of hermits, sometimes of several monks living to-
gether but rather the life of hermits than of cenobites. It is at
the great monastic settlements of Nitria and Scete that we are
best able to study this kind of Egyptian monasticism. Here in
one portion of the desert, named Cellia, the monks lived a purely
eremitical life; but in Nitria (the Wadi Natron) they lived either
alone, or two or three together, or in communities, as they
preferred. The system was largely voluntary; there was no
organized community life, no living according to rule, as it is
now understood. In short the life continued to be semi-
eremitical. (See Butler, op. cit. pt. i. p. 233; Hannay, op. cit.
chs. 4, 5; Schiwietz, op. cit. pt. ii. i-n.)
4. St Pachomius's Monachism. Very different was the type
of monastic life that prevailed in the more southerly parts of
Egypt. Here, at Tabennisi near Dendera, about 315-320, St
Pachomius (q.v.) established the first Christian cenobium, or
monastery properly so called. (On St Pachomius and his
monastic institute see P. Ladeuze, Cenobitisme Pakhomien
(1898); Schiwietz, op. cit. pt. ii. 12-16; E. C. Butler, op. cit.
pt. i. p. 234, pt. ii. notes 48, 49, 54, 59). Before sbis death in
346 Pachomius had established nine monasteries of mert and one
of women, and after his death other foundations continued to
be made in all parts of Egypt, b\it especially in the south, and
in Abyssinia. Palladius tells us that c. 410 the Pachomian or
Tabennesiot monks numbered some seven thousand. The life
was fully cenobitical, regulated in all details by minute rules,
and with prayer and meals in common. As contrasted with the
Antonian ideal, the special feature was the highly organized
system of work, whereby the monastery was a sort of agricul-
tural and industrial colony. The work was an integral part
688
MONASTICISM
of the life, and was undertaken for its own sake and not merely
for an occupation, as among the Antonian monks. This marks
a distinctly new departure in the monastic ideal.
In another respect too St Pachomius broke new ground:
not only did he inaugurate Christian cenobitical life, but he
also created the first " Religious Order." The abbot of the head
monastery was the superior-general of the whole institute; he
nominated the superiors of the other monasteries; he was
visitor and held periodical visitations at all of them; he exercised
universal supervision, control and authority; and every year a
general chapter was held at the head house. This is a curious
anticipation of the highly organized and centralized forms of
government in religious orders, not met with again till Cluny,
Citeaux, and the Mendicant orders in the later middle ages.
A passing reference should be made to the Coptic abbot
Shenout, who governed on similar lines the great " White
Monastery," whereof the ruins still survive near Akhmim; the
main interest of Shenout's institute lies in the fact that it
continued purely Coptic, without any infiltration of Greek ideas
or influence. (See J. Leipoldt, Schenute von Atripe, 1903.)
Egyptian monachism began to wane towards the end of the
5th century, and since the Mahommedan occupation it has ever
been declining. Accounts of its present condition may be found
in R. Curzon's Monasteries of the Levant (1837), or in A. J.
Butler's Ancient Coptic Churches (1884). Hardly half a dozen
monasteries survive, inhabited by small and ever dwindling
communities.
5. Oriental Monachism. The monastic institute was imported
early in the 4th century from Egypt into Syria and the Oriental
lands. Here it had a great vogue, and under the influence of the
innate Asiatic love of asceticism it tended to assume the form of
strange austerities, of a kind not found in Egyptian monachism
in its best period. The most celebrated was the life of the
Stylites or pillar hermits (see SIMEON STYLITES). Monastic
life here tended to revert to the eremitical form, and to this day
Syrian and Armenian monks are to be found dwelling in caverns
and desert places, and given up wholly to the practice of
austerity and contemplation (see E. C. Butler, Lausiac History
of Palladius, pt. i. p. 239, where the chief authorities are indi-
cated). Before the close of the 4th century monachism spread
into Persia, Babylonia and Arabia.
6. Basilian and Greek Monachism. Though Eustathius
of Sebaste was the first to introduce the monastic life within the
confines of what may be called Greek Christianity in Asia
Minor (c. 340), it was St Basil who adapted it to Greek and
European ideas and needs. His monastic legislation is explained
and the history of his institute sketched in the article BASILIAN
MONKS. Here it will suffice to say that he followed the Pacho-
mian rather than the Antonian model, setting himself definitely
against the practice of the eremitical life and of excessive
asceticism, and inculcating the necessity and superiority of
labour. The lines laid down by St Basil have continued ever
since to be the lines in which Greek and Slavonic monasticism
has rested, the new multitudinous modifications of the monastic
ideal, developed in such abundance in the Latin Church, having
no counterpart in the Greek. But the element of work has
decreased, and Greek and Slavonic monks give themselves up
for the most part to devotional contemplation.
7. Early Western Monachism. The knowledge of the monas-
tic life was carried to western Europe by St Athanasius, who
in 340 went to Rome accompanied by two monks. The Vita
Antonii was at an early date translated into Latin and propagated
in the West, and the practice of monastic asceticism after the
Egyptian model became common in Rome and throughout
Italy, and before long spread to Gaul and to northern Africa.
A resume of the chief facts will be found in E. C. Butler, op. cit.
pt. i. p. 245; see also Hannay, op. cit. ch. 7. The monastic ideals
prevalent were those of the Antonian monachism, with its
hankering after the eremitical life and the practice of extreme
bodily austerities. But climatic conditions and racial tempera-
ment rendered the Oriental manner of monasticism unattainable,
as a rule, in the West. Hence it came to pass that by the end of
the sth century the monastic institute in western Europe, and
especially in Italy, was in a disorganized condition, sinking under
the weight of traditions inherited from the East. It was St
Benedict who effected a permanently working adaptation of
the monastic ideal and life to the requirements and conditions
of the western races.
8. St Benedict's Monachism. St Benedict (c. 500) effected
his purpose by a twofold break with the past: he eliminated
from the idea of the monastic life the element of Oriental
asceticism and extreme bodily austerity; and he put down the
tendency, so marked in Egypt and the East, for the monks to
vie with one another in ascetical practices, commanding all to
live according to the rule. The life was to be self-denying and
hard, but not one of any great austerity (for details see
BENEDICT OF NURSIA; and E. C. Butler, op. cit. pt. i. pp. 237
and 251). The individual monk was sunk in the community,
whose corporate life he had to live. St Benedict's rule was a
new creation in monastic history; and as it rapidly supplanted
all other monastic rules in western Europe, and was for several
centuries the only form of monasticism in Latin Christianity
(outside of Ireland), it is necessary to speak in some little detail
of its spirit and inner character. 1 It has to be emphasized at the
outset that the monasteries in which the Benedictine rule was
the basis of the life did not form a body or group apart within
the great " monastic order," which embraced all monasteries of
whatever rule; nor had Benedictine monks any special work or
object beyond that common to all monks viz. the sanctifying
of their souls by living a community life in accordance with the
Gospel counsels. St Benedict defines his monastery as " a
school of the service of the lord " (Reg., Prol.). The great act
of service is the public common celebration of the canonical
office, the " work of God " he calls it, to which " nothing is to be
preferred " (Reg. c. 43). The rest of the day is filled up with a
round of work and reading. Work, and in St Benedict's time
it was predominantly field work, took an even more recognized
and integral place in the life than was the case under St Pacho-
mius or St Basil, occupying notably more time than the church
services. St Benedict introduced too into the monastic life
the idea of law and order, of rule binding on the abbot no less
than on the monks; thus he reduced almost to a vanishing point
the element of arbitrariness, or mere dependence on the abbot's
will and whim, found in the earlier rules. Lastly, he introduced
the idea of stability, whereby monk and community were bound
to each other for life, the normal thing for the Benedictine being
to live and die in the monastery of his profession: thus the
power hitherto enjoyed by monks, of wandering from monastery
to monastery, was cut away, and the Benedictine community
was made into a family whose members were bound to one
another by bonds that could not be severed at will.
9. Western Monachism in the Early Middle Ages. It is easy
to understand that a form of monastic life thus emptied of dis-
tinctively Oriental features and adapted to the needs of the West
by a great religious genius like St Benedict, should soon have
distanced all competitors and have become the only monastic
rule in western Europe. The steps in the propagation of the
Benedictine rule are traced in the article BENEDICTINES. The
only serious rival was the Irish rule of Columban; and here it
will be in place to say a word on Irish monasticism, which, in
its birthplace, stood aloof to the end from the general movement.
The beginnings of Celtic monachism are obscure, but it seems
to have been closely connected with the tribal system. 2 When,
however, Irish monachism emerges into the full light of history,
it was in its manifestations closely akin to the Egyptian, or even
to the Syrian type: there was the same love of the eremitical
life, the same craving after bodily austerities of an extraordinary
kind, the same individualistic piety. The Irish monks were
great missioners in the north of England and the northern and
1 This topic is dealt with by F. A. Gasquet, Sketch of Monastic Con-
stitutional History (pp. viii.-xxii.), the Introduction to and edition
of the translation of Montalembert's Monks of the West (1895).
2 See Willis Bund, Celtic Church in Wales (1897); H. Zimmer, art.
" Keltische Kirche " in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.),
translated into English by Kuno Meyer (1902).
MONASTICISM
689
central parts of Europe, and in the course of the yth century the
Irish rule of St Columban and the Roman rule of St Benedict
met in the monasteries in central Europe that had been founded
by Columban and his Irish monks. The Benedictine rule
supplanted the Irish so inevitably that the personnel ceased to be
Irish, that even in St Columban's own monastery of Luxeuil
his rule was no longer observed, and by Charlemagne's time all
remembrance of any other monastic ride than the Benedictine
had died out.
During the 7th and 8th centuries the Benedictine houses were
the chief instrument in the christianizing, civilizing and educat-
ing of the Teutonic races. In spite of the frequent pillage and
destruction of monasteries by Northmen, Saracens, Arabs and
other invaders; in spite of the existence of even widespread
local abuses, St Benedict's institute went on progressing and
consolidating; and on the whole it may be said that throughout
the early middle ages the general run of Benedictine houses
continued to perform with substantial fidelity the religious and
social functions for which they were created.
10. Ojfshools and Modifications of Benedictine Monachism:
the Rise of " Orders." Up to the beginning of the loth century
we do not meet in the West such a thing as an " order " an
organized corporate body composed of several houses, diffused
through various lands, with centralized government and objects
and methods of its own. As stated above, St Pachcmius's
monasteries formed an order a curious anticipation of what
six centuries later was to become the vogue in Western monasti-
cism. The Benedictine houses never coalesced in this manner;
even when, later on, a system of national congregations was
introduced, they were but loose federations of autonomous
abbeys; so that to this day, though the convenient expression
" Benedictine order " is frequently used, the Benedictines do
not form an order in the proper sense of the word. But with
the toth century we reach the period of orders, and it is on this
line that all subsequent developments in Western monasticism
have run.
The first order was that of Cluny, founded in 910; in rule and
manner of life it continued purely Benedictine, and it wielded
extraordinary power and religious influence up to the middle of
the 1 2th century. (See CLUNY.)
The chief offshoot from the Benedictine institute were the
Cistercians (c. 100) ; their ground idea was a return to the letter
of St Benedict's rule, and a reproduction, as close as could be,
of the exterior conditions of life as they existed in St Benedict's
own monastery; consequently field work held a prominent place
in the Cistercian ideal. This ideal it has not been possible
permanently to maintain in the great body of the order, but only
in limited circles, as Trappists (q.v.). But for a century (1125-
1225) Citeaux supplanted Cluny as the spiritual centre of western
Europe. The Cistercians were an organized, centralized order
in the full sense of the word. (See CISTERCIANS.)
Towards the end of the icth century and during the nth a
strong tendency set in to revert to the eremitical life, probably
owing to the example of the Greek monks, who at this time
entered Sicily and south Italy in great numbers. This tendency
produced the orders of the Camaldulians or Camaldolese
(c. 975) in Italy, and in France the Grandmontines (1076) and
Carthusians (1084), all leading practically eremitical lives,
and assembling ordinarily only fcr the church services. The
Vallombrosians (1038) near Florence maintained a cenobitical
life, but eliminated every element of Benedictine life that was not
devoted to pure contemplation. At Fontevrault (founded in
1095) the special feature was the system of " double monasteries "
i.e. neighbouring, but rigorously separated, monasteries of men
and of women the government being in the hands of the
abbesses.
In all these lesser orders may be discerned the tendency of
a return to the elements of Eastern monasticism discarded by
St Benedict to the eremitical life; to the purely contemplative
life with little or no factor cf work; to the undertaking of rigorous
bodily austerities and penances it was at this time that the
practice of self-inflicted scourgings as a penitential exercise was
introduced. All this was a reaction from St Benedict's recon-
struction of the monastic life a reaction which in the matter of
austerities and individualistic piety has made itself increasingly
felt in the later manifestations of the monastic ideal in the West.
n. New Kinds of Religious Orders. Up to this point we have
met only with monasticism proper; and if the term were taken
strictly, the remainder of this article would be concerned only
with the later history of the institutes already spoken of; for
neither canons regular, friars, nor regular clerks, are in the strict
sense monks. But it is usual, and it will be convenient here, to
use the term monasticism in a broader sense, as equivalent to
the technical "religious life," and as embracing the various
forms that have come into being so prolifically in the Latin
Church at all periods since the middle of the nth century.
The first of these new forms was that of the canons regular
or Augustinian canons (q.v.) who about the year 1060 arose out
of the older semi-monastic canonical institute, and lived ac-
cording to the so-called " Rule of St Augustine." The essential
difference between monks and regular canons may be explained
as follows: monks, whether hermits or cenobites, are men who
live a certain kind of life for its own sake, for the purpose of
leading a Christian life according to the Gospel's counsel and thus
serving God and saving their own souls; external works, either
temporal or spiritual, are accidental; clericature or ordination
is an addition, an accession, and no part of their object, and, as a
matter of fact, till well on in the middle ages it was not usual
for monks to be priests; in a word, the life they lead is their
object, and they do not adopt it in order the better to compass
some other end. But canons regular were in vhtue of their
origin essentially clerics, and their common life, monastery,
rule, and the rest, were something additional grafted on to their
proper clerical state. The difference manifested itself in one
external point: Augustinian canons frequently and freely
themselves served the parish churches in the patronage of their
houses; Benedictine monks did so; speaking broadly, hardly at
all, and their doing so was forbidden by law, both ecclesiastical
and civil. In other respects the life of canons regular in their
monasteries, and the external policy and organization among
their houses, differed little from what prevailed among the Black
Benedictines; their superiors were usually provosts or priors,
but sometimes abbots. As contrasted with the friars they are
counted among the monastic orders. Alongside of the local
federations or congregations of houses of Augustinian canons
were formed the Premonstratensian order (1120) (q.v.), and the
English " double order" of St Gilbert of Sempringham (1148)
(q.v.), both orders, in the full sense of the word, composed of
Augustinian canons.
Two special kinds of orders arose out of the religious wars
waged by Christendom against the Mahommedans in the Holy
Land and in Spain: (i) the Military orders: the Knights
Hospitallers of St John and the Knights Templars, both at the
beginning of the I2th century, and the Teutonic Knights at its
close; (2) the orders of Ransom, whose object was to free
Christian prisoners and slaves from captivity under the
Mahommedans, the members being bound by vow even to offer
themselves in exchange; such orders were the Trinitarians (q.v.)
founded in 1198, and the order of Our Lady of Ransom (de
Mercede), founded by St Peter Nolasco in 1223; both were
under the Augustinian rule.
At the beginning of the I3th century arose the series of great
Mendicant orders. Their nature and work and the needs that
called them into being are explained in the article MENDICANT
MOVEMENT, and in the separate articles on ST FRANCIS or Assist
and FRANCISCANS (1210), ST DOMINIC and DOMINICANS (1215),
CARMELITES (1245), AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS (1256) these were
the four great orders of Mendicant friars to them were added,
in 1487, the Servites (q.v.) founded in 1233.
It will be in place here to explain the difference between friars,
monks, and canons regular. The distinction between the two
last has already been brought out; but they agree in this that the
individual monk and canon alike belongs to his house of
profession and not to any greater or wider corporation. They
690
MONASTICISM
are bound by place and the unit is the individual community.
Thus among monks and canons regular each monastery has its
own fixed community, which is in a real sense a family; and the
monk or canon, no matter where he may be, looks on his monas-
tery as his " home," like the ancestral home of a great family.
With the friars this is all changed: the friar does not belong to
any particular house, but to the province or order, so that there
is no reason, beyond the command of his superiors, why he should
be living in one house rather than another. In the monk
attachment to his own one monastery is a virtue; in the friar
detachment is the ideal. The monk, or the canon, normally exer-
cises his influence on the world in and through his community,
not as an individual but as a member of a corporate body.
The friar's sphere of work is normally outside his convent, and
he works and influences directly and as an individual. Lastlyj
in regard to the object aimed at there was an important differ-
ence, for the professed object of the friars was to be clerical
helpers of the parochial clergy in meeting the specifically religious
needs of the time. Already, in St Francis's lifetime, his friars
had grown into an order dedicated to spiritual ministrations
among the poor, the sick, the ignorant, the outcasts of the great
cities; while by the very conception of their institute the Domini-
cans were dedicated to the special work of preaching, especially
to heretics and heathens. Here, too, should be mentioned St
Francis's other great creation, the Tertiaries (q.v.), or devout
men and women living in the world, who while continuing their
family life and their ordinary avocations, followed a certain rule
of life, giving themselves up to more than ordinary prayer and
the pursuit of good works, and abstaining from amusements of a
worldly kind.
12. The Religious Orders in the Later Middle Ages. The I3th
century was the heyday of monasticism in the West; the
Mendicant orders were in their first fervour and enthusiasm; the
great abbeys of Benedictines, Cistercians and Augustinian canons
reflected the results of the religious reform and revival associated
with Hildebrand's name, and maintained themselves at a high
and dignified level in things religious and secular; and under the
Benedictine rule were formed the new congregations or orders
of Silvestrines (1231), Celestines (c. 1260) and Olivetans (1319),
which are described under their several headings. But towards
the end of the century a period of decline set in, which ran its
course in increasing volume throughout the I4th century. A
great wave of secularity rolled over the Church, engulfing the
religious orders with the rest; love waxed cold, fervour lan-
guished, learning declined, discipline was relaxed, bitter rivalries
broke out, especially between Franciscans and Dominicans.
The great schism was reflected in the Mendicant orders which
were divided into two obediences, to the destruction of discipline.
The great wealth of the old monastic orders exposed them,
especially in France and Italy, to the vicious system of commen-
dation, whereby a bishop, an ecclesiastic, or even a layman was
appointed " commendatory abbot " of a monastery, merely for
the purpose of drawing the revenues (see ABBOT); the monas-
teries were often deprived even of necessary maintenance, the
communities dwindled, and regular observance became impos-
sible. There is reason to believe that in England a relatively
good level was maintained throughout, thank's in great measure
to the fact that the kings resolutely refused to allow the
introduction of commendation Wolsey was the first and last
commendatory abbot in England. In the German lands, the
lowest level was touched, and the writings of the Augustinian
canon Johann Busch, and of the Benedictine abbot Trithemius
reveal a state of things in the first half of the isth century
that urgently called for reform. The first move in this direction
was made in the Netherlands and north Germany under the
influence of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), and issued in the formation
of the Windesheim congregation of Augustinian canons and
the secular congregation of Brothers of Common Life (q.v.)
founded c. 1384, both of which became centres of religious
revival. During the first half of the isth century numerous
and effective efforts at reform were initiated in all the
orders without exception, and in every part of Europe. These
movements, promoted by the councils of Constance and Basel,
partook of the spirit of the time and were characterized by
an extreme austerity of life and a certain hardness of
spirit, and a sort of police regulation easily understandable
at a time of reaction from grave abuses. At this time arose
the Hieronymites (q.v.) founded in 1375, under the Augustinian
rule, the Observants (1415) among the Franciscans (q.v.), and
the Minims (founded c. 1460 by St Francis of Paola, q.v.), whose
programme was to outdo the Minors or Franciscans. These
various reform movements among the orders were widely but
not universally successful; and so the Reformation found reli-
gious houses in an unsatisfactory state in sufficient numbers to
afford the reformers one of their chief handles against the old
religion. The Reformation and the religious wars that followed
in its wake destroyed the monasteries and religious orders of
all kinds in northern Europe and crippled them in central
Europe.
13. The Modern Orders. During the Reformation period
there sprang up, to meet the needs of the time, a new kind of
religious order, called Regular Clerks. These are religious
orders in the full sense of the word, as the members take the
solemn religious vows. Regular clerks are by their institute
clerics and priests, and they are devoted to some particular work
or works as their own special object as education, the preaching
of missions and retreats, or the going on missions to the heathen.
They carry still further the tendencies that differentiate the friars
from the monks; and in particular, in order to be more free in
devoting themselves to their special works, the orders of regular
clerks have commonly given up the choral celebration of the
canonical office, which had been maintained by the friars.
Of regular clerks by far the most important are the Jesuits
(q.v.), founded in 1540; there are also the Theatines (founded
1524 by St Cajetan and Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV.); the
Barnabites (founded 1530, by St Antonio Zaccaria) and others
(see Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1897), II.,
108-114). Strictly speaking the "religious congregations "
should be distinguished from the orders of regular clerks, the
difference being that in the former the vows, though taken for
life, are only " simple vows " and more easily dispensable by
authority; but the character and work of the two institutes is
very similar. The chief of these congregations are the Passion-
ists (founded by St John of the Cross, 1725) and the
Redemptorists (founded by St Alfonsus Liguori, 1749), both
dedicated to giving missions and retreats. The Christian
Brothers, devoted to primary education, founded by St Jean
Baptiste de la Salle in 1679, are not in orders (Heimbucher,
op. cit. 115-118).
Besides the religious congregations there are a number of
" secular congregations," composed of secular priests living
together under temporary vows and free to leave at will; the
following deserve mention: Oblates of St Charles (founded by
St Charles Borromeo, 1578); Oratorians (founded by St Philip
Neri, c. 1570); the French Oratpry (founded by Cardinal Berulle,
1613), a similar but distinct institution, which produced a
number of scholars of the highest distinction Thomassin,
Morin, Marlebranche, Richard Simon, Juenin, Lebrun, Masillon,
and others; Lazarists (founded by St Vincent de Paul, 1624);
Sulpicians (founded by M. Olier, 1642), and avast number of
others, including several for the mission to the heathen (see
Heimbucher op. cit. 124-140).
During the period under review, from the Reformation to
the French Revolution, the old orders went on alongside of the
new, and many notable revivals and congregations arose among
them: the most noteworthy were the Capuchins (q.v.) among the
Franciscans (1528); the Discalced Carmelites (q.v.) of St Teresa
and St John of the Cross (1562); the Trappists (q.v.) among the
Cistercians (1663); and, most famous of all, the Maurists (q.v.)
among the Benedictines of France (1621).
14. The Religious Orders in Recent Times. At the end of the
1 8th century and the opening of the igth the religious orders
received a succession of blows in those countries in which they
had survived the Reformation from which they have only
MONASTIR
691
in the present generation recovered. The Jesuits were suppressed
by Pope Clement XIV. in 1773, and restored by Pius VII. in 1814.
As the result of the ecclesiastical policy of the emperor Joseph II.
nearly all religious houses of all kinds were suppressed through-
out the Austrian dominions (1780). The French Revolution
swept them out of France and caused the secularization of the
great majority in central Europe and Italy. In Portugal and
Spain they were dissolved in 1834-1835; in Italy in 1866; in the
Prussian dominions in 1871. The last half of the ipth century,
and more especially the last quarter, witnessed a remarkable
revival of vitality and growth in most of the older orders in
nearly every country of western Europe, and besides, an extra-
ordinary number of new congregations, devoted to works of
every sort, were founded in the ipth century: Heimbucher
(op. cit., 118, 134-140) numbers no fewer than seventy of
these new congregations of men. In the new countries, especi-
ally in the United States and Australia, but also in South Africa,
orders and congregations of all kinds are most thriving. The
chief set-back has come again in France, where, by the Associa-
tion Laws of 1903, the religious orders have nearly all been
suppressed and expelled and their property confiscated.
15. The Nuns. In the foregoing sketch nothing has been said
concerning the nuns; and yet in all ages women, hardly less than
men, have played their part in monasticism. In the earliest
Christian times the veiled virgins formed a grade or order apart,
more formally separated from the community than were the male
ascetics. There is reason for believing that there were organized
convents for women before there were any for men; for when
St Anthony left the world in 270 to embrace the ascetic life,
the Vita says he placed his sister in a nunnery (irapBevuiv).
We learn from Palladius that by the end of the 4th century
nunneries were numerous all over Egypt, and they existed also
in Palestine, in Italy and in Africa in fact throughout the
Christian world. It is a curious coincidence that the sister of
each of the three great cenobitical founders, Pachomius, Basil
and Benedict, was a nun and ruled a community of nuns ac-
cording to an adaptation of her brother's rule for monks. In the
West the Benedictine nuns played a great part in the Christian
settlement of north-western Europe. As the various monastic
and mendicant orders arose, a female branch was in most cases
formed alongside of the order; and so we find canonesses, and
hermitesses, and Dominicanesses, and Franciscan nuns [or Clares
(q.v.)] requisite information will be found in the respective
articles. Then there were the " double orders " of Sempringham
(see ST GILBERT) and Fontevrault, in which the nuns were the
predominant, or even the dominant, element. Of the modern
orders of men only a few include nuns. But on the other there
are a vast number of purely female orders and congregations.
The great majority of these modern congregations of women
follow the Augustinian rule, supplemented by special constitu-
tions or by-laws; such are the Brigittines, the Ursulines and the
Visitation nuns: others follow the rule of the third order of the
Franciscans or other Mendicants (see TERTIARIES). In early
times nuns could go out of their enclosure on occasion; but in
the later middle ages, up to the council of Trent, the tendency
was to keep them more and more strictly confined within their
convent precincts. In 1609 an English lady, Mary Ward
founded at Munich the " Institute of Mary," the nuns of which
were not bound to enclosure. This new departure, or rather
return to old ideas, encountered vehement opposition anc
difficulties that nearly wrecked it; but it has survived, and has
been the pioneer in the extraordinary development of institutes
of women devoted to external good works of every kind. St
Vincent of Paul soon followed; in 1633 he established the Sisters
of Charity, bound only by yearly vows, and wholly given up to
works of charity chiefly nursing in hospitals and in the homes
of the poor, and primary education in poor schools.
As women are debarred from exercising the spiritual function
of the ministry, it follows that nuns have to devote themselves
either to a more purely contemplative life, or else to a more wholly
active one, than is usual among the orders of men, who commonly
in virtue of their priesthood, have been able to find a mixed form
f life between the two extremes. The nuns belonging to the
Jder orders tend to the contemplative idea, and they still find
ecruits in sufficient numbers, in spite of the modern rush to the
.ctive congregations. These latter exist in wondrous number
and variety, exercising every imaginable form of good work
iducation, both primary and secondary; the care of hospitals,
irphanages, penitentiaries, prisons; of asylums for the blind,
he deaf and dumb, the insane; of refuges for the aged poor and
he destitute.
See the works of Helyot and Heimbucher, referred to below under
Literature " ; also Lma Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism
1896); and for information on the various orders of women, J. N.
durphy, Terra incognita (1873); and F. M. Steele, Convents of Great
Britain and Ireland (1902).
16. Conclusion. Few phenomena are more striking than the
change that has come over educated Protestant opinion in its
estimate of monasticism. The older Protestantism uncompro-
misingly judged the monastic ideal and life to be both unchristian
and unnatural, an absolute perversion deserving nothing but
:ondemnation. But now the view of the critico-historical school
of Protestant thought, of which Dr Adolf Harnack is so represen-
:ative a spokesman, is that the preservation of spiritual religion
n Catholic Christianity, both Eastern and Western, has been
mainly, if not wholly, due to monasticism (see Harnack's early
;ractate Das Monchtum, translated under the title Monasticism,
jy E. E. Kellett, 1901; also the lectures on Greek and Roman
Catholicism in Das Wesen des Christentums, translated by Bailey
Saunders, 1902; the first-named work is the most suggestive
general aperc.u of the whole subject though written from a
frankly hostile standpoint, it is in large measure a panegyric).
The views of the new Protestantism concerning monasticism
are probably no less excessive than those of the old. The truth
probably lies somewhere between them. It may perhaps be
agreed that not the least of the services rendered to the Christian
people at large by monasticism is this: Into every life the spirit
of renunciation must enter; in most lives there are crises in which
the path of mere duty can be followed only in virtue of a great
renunciation; if we are able to make these ordinary and necessary
renunciations, it is in some measure owing to the fact that the
path has been made easier for us by those who (like the author
of the Imitation of Christ) have shown the example, and thereby
been able to formulate the theory, of renunciation in a supreme
degree.
LITERATURE. The literature on monasticism is immense. The chief
repertory for information on the historical side is Helypt's Histoire
des ordres religieux (8 vols., 1714 ; 2nd ed. 1792 ; digested in dictionary
form by Migne, 1860). This information has been condensed and
brought up to date by Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen
(2 vols., 1896-1897; a 2nd ed. in 3 vols., 1907) this most useful
handbook is equipped throughout with an excellent and well chosen
bibliography. Otto Zockler's Askese und Monchtum (1897), also
covers the whole ground, and is written more from the point of view
of theory. The inner spirit and working of the older monasticism is
well portrayed in F.A. Gasquet's English Monastic Life (1904);
more popular accounts are given in H. J. Feasy's Monasticism (1898),
and F. M. Steele's Monasteries and Religious Houses of Great Britain
and Ireland (1903). The rules of the various orders are collected
in Brockie's edition of Holsten's Codex regularum (6 vols., 1759)- The
article Monchtum in Herzog-Hauck Realencyklopddie (yd ed.), and in
Wetzer und Welte Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) go over the same general
ground as the present article, in the earlier portion entering into
greater detail as to facts, but in the later dealing much more sum-
marily. The relevant separate articles in these two great diction-
aries, Protestant and Catholic respectively, will supply adequate
information and ample references on most points. The Catholic
Dictionary contains useful articles on most of the subjects here
touched on; and an extensive Catholic Encyclopaedia is in course of
preparation at the Catholic University of Washington. The habits
and dress of the various orders may be seen in Helyot s Htstoire,
which abounds in plates, coloured, in the ed. of 1792. There are
plates representing members of the chief orders in Dugdale s M onas-
ticon, and in the books of Gasquet and Steele mentioned above;
also (coloured) in Tuker and Malleson, Handbook to Christian Rome,
pt. iii. (1900).
MONASTIR, or BITOLIA, the second city of Macedonia, and
the capital of the vilayet of Monastir in European Turkey, on
the Salonica- Monastir railway, 400 m. W. of Constantinople.
Pop. (1905), about 60,000. Monastir is situated at an altitude
692
MONAZITE MONBODDO
of 2019 ft. on the eastern versant of the richly wooded mountains
which culminate in the Peristeri (8300 ft.) and sever Lake
Prespa from the valley of the Kara-Su or Tzerna. A tributary
of this river, the Dragor or Drahor, traverses Monastir through a
rocky channel which is rarely filled except after a thaw or heavy
rain. The city possesses many mosques, churches and schools,
baths and a military hospital. It is the seat of numerous con-
sulates, an American Protestant mission, and a Lazarist mission.
The annual value of its trade is about 400,000. Grain, flour,
cloth, hides and bones are exported, and a large amount of gold
and silver ornaments is manufactured, though this industry
tends to decline.
The military advantages of its position at the meeting-place
of roads from Salonica, Durazzo, Uskub, and Adrianople led
the Turks, about 1820, to make Monastir the headquarters of
an army corps. Since then the general and commercial impor-
tance of the city has greatly increased, and in 1898 it was made
the see of a Bulgarian bishop. The ancient diocese of its Greek
archbishop is known as Pelagonia, from the old name of the
Kara-Su Plain. Monastir itself has been identified with the
ancient Heraclea Lyncestis on the Via Egnatia; its modern name
is derived from the monastery of Bukova (" the beeches ") near
the southern outskirts of the city.
MONAZITE, a mineral consisting of anhydrous phosphate of
the cerium metals (Ce, La,Di)PO4, together with small and vari-
able amounts of thorium (ThO 2 , 1-10%) and yttrium. It is
of considerable commercial importance as a source of thoria
for the manufacture of the Welsbach and other mantles for
incandescent gas-lighting: the cerium is used to a limited extent
in pharmacy.
The following analyses are of monazite from: (I.) Burke county,
North Carolina; (II.) Arendal, Norway; (III.) Emmaville, Gough
county, New South Wales.
Phosphorus pentoxide
Cerium oxide (CejOs)
Lanthanum oxide (La
Didymium oxide (Di 2 O 3 )
Yttrium oxide (Yt 2 O 3 )
Thorium oxide (ThO2)
Silica (SiO 2 ) . . .
Alumina (AUOj)
Iron oxide (FeiO 3 )
Lime (CaO) . . .
Water (H 2 O) . .
I.
II.
III.
29-28
27-55
25-09
31-38
29-20
36-64
30-88
26-26
30-21
3-82
6-49
9-57
1-23
1-40
1-86
3-21
0-20
0-69
0-52
99-63 100-60 99-49
Specific gravity 5-10 5-15 5-001
Thoria and silica being often present in the molecular ratio I : I, it
has been suggested that they exist as thorite (ThSiC>4) as a mechanical
impurity in the monazite.
Crystals of monazite belong to the monoclinic system, and are
usually flattened parallel to the ortho-pinacoid (a in the figure).
The large (up to 5 in. in length) reddish-
brown, dull and opaque crystals from
Norway and the Urals are simple in form,
whilst the small, translucent, honey-yellow
crystals from the Alps are bounded by
numerous bright faces. Crystals of the
latter habit were described in 1823 from
Dauphine under the name turnerite, and
owing to their rarity were not until many
years afterwards analysed chemically and proved to be iden-
tical with monazite. Monazite from the Urals was described
by A. Breithaupt in 1829, and named by him from Gr. povafftv,
to be solitary, because of the rarity of the singly occurring
crystals. The hardness is 55, and the specific gravity 5-1-5-2.
Light which has traversed a crystal or grain of monazite
exhibits a characteristic absorption spectrum, and this affords a
ready means of detecting the mineral.
As minute idiomorphic crystals monazite is of wide distribu-
tion in granites and gneisses, being present in very small amounts
as an accessory constituent of these rocks. By powdering the
rock and washing away the lighter minerals in a stream of water
the heavy minerals (zircon, anatase, rutile, magnetite, garnet,
monazite, xenotime, &c.) may be collected. This separation has
been effected naturally by the weathering and disintegration of
the rocks and the accumulation of the heavier minerals in the
beds of streams. Under these conditions monazite has been
found as rounded water-worn grains in the alluvial gold-washings
of the Urals, Finland, Siberia, the United States, Brazil, Colom-
bia, New South Wales, &c., and in tin-gravels in Swaziland,
South Africa. Larger crystals of monazite are found embedded
in pegmatite veins in the Ilmen Mountains (southern Urals) ; at
Arendal and other places in southern Norway, where it is col-
lected in the feldspar quarries to the extent of about one ton per
annum; and in the mica mines at Villeneuve in Quebec, where
masses of monazite weighing 20 Ib have been found. The small
crystals of the " turnerite " habit occur implanted, often with
anatase and rutile, on the crystallized quartz and albite, which
line crevices in the crystalline schists of the French, Swiss and
Tirolese Alps; similar crystals with the same associations occur
very exceptionally in the clay-slate at Tintagel in Cornwall.
Microscopic crystals of monazite (cryptolite, from Kpinrrbs,
concealed) have been observed embedded in the crystallized
apatite of Arendal in Norway.
The deposits worked commercially are the monazite-bearing
sands of North Carolina and Brazil, and to a smaller extent those
of South Carolina. In North Carolina it occurs over a wide area
in the streams rising in the South Mountains, an eastern outlier
of the Blue Ridge. The rocks of the district are granitic biotite-
gneiss and hornblende-gneiss, and are intersected by veins of auri-
ferous quartz. The percentage of monazite in the river-gravels
varies from very small amounts up to I or 2 %. The heavy minerals
contained in the gravels are collected in the same manner as in
washing for gold (which is often also present) ; magnetite is separated
with a magnet; but other minerals, such as zircon, rutile, garnet,
corundum, &c., cannot be separated by mechanical means. The
product is a fine-grained yellowish sand containing 65-85% of
monazite and 3-9% of thoria. In Brazil it occurs in river-gravels
and also in the sand on the sea-beaches; an extensive accumulation
of very rich monazite sand occurs on the seashore near Alcobaca
in Bahia, and this has been shipped as ballast in the natural state.
See H. B. C. Nitze, " Monazite " (i6th Annual Report of the United
States Geological Survey, pt. iv. (1895), pp. 667-693). (L. J. S.)
MONBODDO, JAMES BURNETT, LORD (1714-1799), Scottish
judge and anthropologist, was born in 1714 at Monboddo in
Kincardineshire. He studied at Aberdeen, and, after passing
his law examinations in Edinburgh, he quickly took a leading
position at the Scottish bar, being made a Lord of Session in
1767 with the title of Lord Monboddo. Many of his eccen-
tricities, both of conduct and opinion, appear less remarkable to
us than they did to his contemporaries; moreover, he seems to
have heightened the impression of them by his humorous sallies
in their defence. He may have had other reasons than the
practice of the ancients for dining late and performing his
journeys on horseback instead of in a carriage. He is remembered
more particularly for his writings on human origins. In his
Antient Metaphysics (1770-1799), Monboddo conceived man as
gradually elevating himself from an animal condition, in which
his mind is immersed in matter, to a state in which mind acts
independently of body. In his equally voluminous work, The
Origin and Progress of Language (1773), he brought man under
the same species as the orang-outang. He traced the gradual
elevation of man to the social state, which he conceived as a
natural process determined by " the necessities of human life."
He looked on language (which is not " natural " to man in the
sense of being necessary to his self-preservation) as a consequence
of his social state. His views about the origin of society and
language and the faculties by which man is distinguished from
the brutes have many curious points of contact with Darwinism
and neo-Kantianism. His idea of studying man as one of the
animals, and of collecting facts about savage tribes to throw
light on the problems of civilization, bring him into contact with
the one, and his intimate knowledge of Greek philosophy with
the other. In both respects Monboddo was far in advance of
his neighbours. His studied abstinence from fine writing frcm
" the rhetorical and poetical style fashionable among writers of
the present day " on such subjects as he handled confirmed
the idea of his contemporaries that he was only an eccentric
MONCEY MONDOVI
693
concocter of supremely absurd paradoxes. He died on the 26th
of May 1799.
Boswell's Life of Johnson gives an account of the lexicographer's
visit to Burnett at Monboddo, and is full of references to the natural
contemporary view of a man who thought that the human race
could be descended from monkeys.
MONCEY, BON ADRIEN JEANNOT DE, DUKE OF CONEGLIANO
(1754-1842), marshal of France, was the son of a lawyer of
Besancon, where he was born on the 3ist of July 1754. In his
boyhood he twice enlisted in the French army, but his father
procured his discharge on both occasions. His desire was at last
gratified in 1778, when he received a commission. He was a
captain when, in 1791, he embraced the principles of the French
Revolution. Moncey won great distinction in the campaigns
of 1793 and 1794 on the Spanish frontier (see FRENCH REVOLU-
TIONARY WARS), rising from the command of a battalion to the
command in chief of the Army of the Western Pyrenees in a
few months, and his successful operations were largely instru-
mental in compelling the Spanish government to make peace.
After this he was employed in the highest commands until 1799,
when the government, suspecting him of Royalist views, dis-
missed him. But the coup d'etat of 18. Brumaire brought him
back to the active list, and in Napoleon's Italian campaign of
1800 he led a corps from Switzerland into Italy, surmounting
all the difficulties of bringing horses and guns over the then
formidable pass of St Gothard. In 1801 Napoleon made him
inspector-general of gendarmerie, and on the assumption of the
imperial title created him a marshal of France. In 1805 Moncey
received the grand cordon of the legion of honour, and in 1808
the title of duke of Conegliano. In the latter year, the first of
the Peninsular War, Moncey was sent to Spain in command of
an army corps. He signalized himself by his victorious advance
on Valencia, the effect of which was, however, destroyed by
the disaster to Dupont at Baylen, and took a leading part in
the emperor's campaign on the Ebro and in the second siege of
Saragossa in 1809. He refused to serve in the invasion of
Russia, and therefore had no share in the campaign of the
grande armee in 1812 and 1813. When, however, France was
invaded (1814) Marshal Moncey reappeared in the field and
fought the last battle for Paris on the heights of Montmartre
and at the barrier of Clichy. He remained neutral during the
Hundred Days, feeling himself bound to Louis XVIII. by his
engagements as a peer of France, but after Waterloo he was
punished for refusing to take part in the court-martial on Ney
by imprisonment and the loss of his marshalate. He was
reinstated in 1816, and re-entered the chamber of peers three
years later. His last active service was as commander of an
army corps in the short war with Spain, 1823. In 1833 he
became governor of the Invalides. He died on the 2oth of
April 1842.
MONCHIQUE, a town of southern Portugal, in the district
of Faro (formerly the province of Algarve); 13 m. S. of Saboia
station on the Lisbon-Faro railway, and 12 m. N. of Villa Nova
on the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 7345. Monchique is one of the
principal Portuguese health-resorts, finely situated among the
wooded heights of the Serra de Monchique, which rise on the
west to 2963 ft. There are hot sulphur springs, with baths
and a sanatorium 4 m. south. Wheat, millet, rye, beans, oranges,
wine, olive oil and chestnuts are the chief products, and there is
a woollen factory.
MONCTON, a city and port of entry in Westmoreland county,
New Brunswick, Canada, 89 m. by rail N.E. of St John, at the
head of navigation on the Petitcodiac river, the seat of the
workshops and general offices of the Inter-Colonial railway and
the eastern terminus of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway.
Pop. (1901), 9026. It has large stove factories, engine and boiler
works, and is a flourishing manufacturing town. The workshops
of the railway and great part of the town were swept away by
fire in February 1906, but have been rebuilt on a larger and
more modern scale.
MONO, LUDWIG (1830-1909), British chemist, was born at
Cassel in Germany on the 7th of March 1839. After studying
at Marburg under Hermann Kolbe and at Heidelberg under
Robert Bunsen, he came to England in 1862 and obtained a
position in a chemical works at Widnes, where he elaborated the
practical application of a method he had devised for recovering
the sulphur lost as calcium sulphide in the black ash waste
of the Leblanc alkali process. He became a naturalized
British subject in 1867. In 1873 he entered into partnership
with Sir John Tomlinson Brunner (b. 1842- ),whom he had
met when he was at Widnes, and thus founded the great chemical
manufacturing firm of Brunner, Mond & Co. They began to
make alkali by the ammonia-soda process, under licence from
the Belgian chemist, Ernest Solvay, but at first the venture
threatened to prove a failure. Gradually, however, the tech-
nical difficulties were overcome and success assured, largely as a
result of improved methods worked out by Mond for the recovery
of the ammonia. About 1879 he began experiments ill the
economical utilization of fuel, and his efforts led him to the
system of making producer-gas, known by his name (see GAS:
II. For Fuel and Power). Later, while attempting to utilize the
gas for the production of electricity by means of a Grove gas
battery, he noticed that the carbon monoxide contained in it
combined with nickel. The resulting compound, nickel car-
bonyl, which was described to the Chemical Society in 1890, is
both formed and decomposed within a very moderate range of
temperature, and on this fact he based a successful process for
the extraction of nickel from its ores. A liberal contributor to
the purposes of scientific research, Mond founded in 1896 the
Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory in connexion with the
Royal Institution. On his death, which occurred in London on
the nth of December 1909, he bequeathed a large part of his
collection of pictures to the nation.
MONDAY (in O.E. Monandaeg, the moon's day, a transla-
tion of the Late Lat. Lunae dies, from which the French lund i
is taken), the second day of the week (see CALENDAR). The
day has been humorously canonized as St Monday, the festival
of cobblers, who seldom work on Mondays, and were supposed
not to know exactly on which day St Crispin's (their patron
saint) festival fell, save that it should be a Monday, and thus
celebrated each Monday in the year as a holiday so as to be
certain to honour the day. In some parts of Yorkshire any
holiday is called Cobblers' Monday. Collop Monday, in the
north of England, is the Monday before Shrove Tuesday, so
called in allusion to the dish of fried eggs and bacon, and slices
of salted, dried meat, called collops, taken on that day prepara-
tory to the Lenten fast. Plough Monday in England is the
Monday after Twelfth Day, the first Monday after Epiphany,
in allusion to the fact that in medieval times the ploughmen
had their fete-day and went around the villages begging plough-
money. The lord mayor of London holds a Grand Court of
Wardmote at the Guildhall on Plough Monday of each year, to
receive returns from the wards of the election of common
councilmen and to hear petitions against such returns.
MONDONEDO, a city of northern Spain, in the province of
Lugo, 27 m. N.N.E. of the city of Lugo, on the river Masma.
Pop. (1900), 10,590. Mondonedo occupies a sheltered valley
among the northern outliers of the Cantabrian Mountains. The
principal buildings are the cathedral, a Corinthian structure of
the 1 7th century, an ex-convent of Franciscan friars of Alcantara,
which is used for a theatre and a public school, and the civil
hospital. The industries include lace-making, linen-weaving,
and leather manufacture.
According to local tradition, the bishopric of Dumium, near
Braga, was transferred to San Martin de Mondonedo (10 m.
from Mondonedo) in the 8th century; it was brought to
Mondonedo itself in the beginning of the I2th century. After
having been for nearly a century and a half in the hands of the
Moors, Mondonedo was recaptured by Ordofio I. in 858; and the
Christian possession was made permanent by Alphonso III. in
870. It was taken by surprise by the French in 1809.
MONDOVl, a town and episcopal see of the province of Cuneo,
Piedmont, Italy, 17 m. by rail E. of Cuneo. Pop. (1901),
5379 (town); 18,982 (commune). The lower town is 1283 ft.
694
MONET MONEY
above sea-level, the upper 1834 ft. There is a school of the
industrial arts and handicrafts, and majolica, paper, and silk
cocoons aTe produced. The upper town contains the hex-
agonal piazza., a citadel, erected in 1573 by Emanuel Philibert,
the cathedral of S. Donatus, a spacious episcopal palace, and
higher up is a tower, the Belvedere, with a fine view. At the
foot of the hill along the banks of the EUero (a tributary of the
Po) lie the industrial and commercial suburbs of Breo, Borgatto,
Pian della Valle and Carassone, with their potteries, tanneries,
paper-mills, marble-works, &c. The mansion of Count San
Quintino in Pian della Valle was the seat of the printing-press
which from 1472 issued books with the imprint Mons Regalis.
Mondovi Mons Vici,Mons Regalis,Monteregale did not take
its rise till about A.D. icoo. The bishopric dates from 1388.
About 2 m. to the east is the sanctuary of Vico, a church
designed by Ascanio Vittozzi in 1596 and crowned by a famous
dome (1730-1748), which has been declared a national monu-
ment. In the square before it is a monument (1891) to
Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy.
See L. Melano Rossi, The Sanctuario of the Madonna di Vico
(London, 1907).
MONET, CLAUDE (1840- ), French painter, was born in
Paris on the i4th of November 1840. His youth was passed
at Havre, where his father had settled in 1845. Until he was
fifteen years old he led a somewhat irregular life, learning little
at school, and spending all his time in decorating his books with
drawings and caricatures which gave him notoriety in Havre.
At the same time he became acquainted with Boudin, a clever
sea-painter, under whose guidance he learned to love and to
understand nature. At the age of twenty he became a. soldier,
and spent two years of his military time with the regiment of
the Chasseurs d'Afrique in the desert. Falling ill with fever,
he was sent home, and entered the studio of Gleyre. This
classical painter tried in vain to keep him to conventional art
and away from truth and nature, and Monet left his studio,
where he had become acquainted with two other " impression-
istic " painters Sisley and Renoir. At that time he also knew
Manet (?..), and in 1869 he joined the group of Cezanne, Degas,
Duranty, Sisley, and became a plein air painter. During the
war of 1870 he withdrew to England, and on his return was
introduced by Daubigny to a dealer, M. Durand-Ruel, in whose
galleries almost all his works have been exhibited. In 1872
he exhibited views of Argenteuil, near Paris; in 1874 a series
entitled " Cathedrals," showing the cathedral of Rouen under
different lights. He afterwards painted views of Vetheuil (1875,
see Plate), Pourville and cliffs of Etretat (1881), of Bordighera
(1886), of the Creuse (1889), Le Meules (1891), and some further
views of cathedrals (1894). In December 1900 he exhibited
some pictures called " Le Bassin des Nympheas," and was
engaged at the beginning of 1901 in painting views of London.
Several of Monet's paintings, bequeathed by M. Caillebotte, are
in the Luxembourg Museum, Paris. (See IMPRESSIONISM.)
MONETARY CONFERENCES (INTERNATIONAL). These
assemblies were one of the features of the latter half of the igth
century, due to the decided tendency towards securing reforms
by concerted international action. The disorganized state of
the European currencies, which became more serious in conse-
quence of the great expansion in trade and industry, came into
notice through the great gold discoveries and their effect on the
relations between the two precious metals. Both by its situation
and its currency system, France was the country that was first
led to aim at the establishment of a currency union, in which
French ideas and influences would be predominant. A pre-
liminary step was the formation of the Latin union, whereby
the currencies of France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland were
in respect to their gold and silver coins assimilated. In 1867
the Paris Exhibition furnished the occasion for summoning a
monetary conference, to which the principal countries of the world
sent representatives. The guiding spirit of this assembly was
the eminent economist, De Parieu, who had originated the Latin
Union. By his advice a scheme was approved recommending
the adoption of the single gold standard, the use of the decimal
system, and the co-ordination of the various currencies with the
French system. Difficulties as to the mode of bringing these
principles into practical operation were discussed, and full
liberty had to be given to the several nations to carry out the
proposals in the way that seemed best. The result proved that
the obstacles were insurmountable, e.g. the British government
could not obtain the assent of a Royal Commission to the assimi-
lation of the- sovereign to the 25-franc piece; and the course
of political events soon completely altered the relative position
of the leading countries, even in their monetary relations.
Germany and the United States reformed their currencies,
without reference to any international considerations.
The meeting of the next international conference took place
under very different conditions. A great fall in the value of
silver as measured in gold, in progress from 1873, had affected
the relations of silver-using countries, and disturbed the level of
prices. Indian interests as well as those of American producers
of silver suffered, while the management of all double-standard
currencies became a task of increasing difficulty. The govern-
ment of the United States invited the representatives of the
leading powers to meet in Paris for the purpose of considering
(i) the desirability of retaining the unrestricted use of silver for
coinage, (2) the adoption of international bimetallism (q.v.), by the
acceptance of a ratio to be fixed by agreement. Eleven nations
sent delegates, Germany being the only great power unrepre-
sented. After somewhat protracted discussion and the presen-
tation of a large number of documents the European states
accepted the American proposition " that it is necessary to
maintain in the world the monetary functions of silver "; but
declined to bind the discretion of particular states as to the
methods to be employed. They further declared it impossible
to enter into an agreement for a common ratio. The conference,
therefore, separated without any result being obtained.
In consequence of the continuing fall in the value of silver,
which stimulated the bimetallic agitation, a third conference was
convened by the joint action of France and the United States; it
also met in Paris, and was more influential than its predecessor,
since Germany sent representatives, as did Spain, Portugal,
Denmark and India. The characteristic of this conference was
the greater strength of the support given to the bimetallic
proposal by France and the United States, together with the
opposition of the delegates of the smaller European countries,
and the refusal of Germany to promise any co-operation. The
inevitable consequence of this situation was the adjournment of
the conference to obtain fresh instructions, which, however, were
never furnished.
After several abortive attempts the fourth (and last) of the
conferences of this class was brought together at Brussels in
November 1892 on the initiative of the United States. A full
representation of the powers attended, but delay arose from the
absence of definite proposals by the American government.
These, when they were presented, proved to be only a reaffirma-
tion of the bimetallic policy, and showed no advance. The
conference, therefore, proceeded to consider the plans of Levy,
Baron de Rothschild and Sotbeer for the more extended use
of silver. Such devices, being merely alleviations, failed to
gain any effective support. Appeals to England and Germany
to grant some concessions likewise failed. Thus, like its Paris
forerunners, the Brussels conference adjourned, but never
resumed its sittings.
After 1892 the currency problem passed into a new stage, in
which action was national rather than international. The method
of procedure by conference was for the time abandoned.
The proceedings of the several conferences have been issued by the
governments taking part in them. Those of the United States
are the most convenient for English and American readers. See
also H. B. Russell, International Monetary Conferences (New York,
1898). (C. F. B.)
MONEY, i. Definition and Functions. The difficult question
as to the best definition of money has been complicated by the
efforts of writers so to define the term as to give support to their
particular theories. It is hard to frame a precise account which
MONEY
695
will hold good of the many objects that have served for monetary
use. From denoting coined metal, money has come to include
anything that performs the money work: though there has been
considerable hesitation in extending the term to those forms of
credit that are in modern societies the chief instrument of
exchange. It is therefore best to avoid a formal definition;
and, instead, to bring out the character of money by describing
the functions that it performs in the social system. The most
important is, clearly, that of facilitating exchange. It is not
necessary to dwell on the great importance of this office. The
slightest consideration of industrial organization shows that it
is based on the division of employments; but the earliest economic
writers saw plainly that division of employments was only
possible through the agency of a medium of exchange. They
recognized that the result of increasing specialization of labour
was to establish a state of things in which each individual pro-
duced little or nothing for the direct satisfaction of his own wants,
and had therefore to live by exchanging his product for the
products of others. They saw, further, that this only became
feasible by the existence of an article that all would be willing
to accept for their special products; as otherwise the difficulty
of bringing together persons with reciprocal wants would prove
an insurmountable obstacle to that development of exchange,
which alone made division of labour possible. A second function
hardly inferior in importance to the one just mentioned is that
of affording a ready means for estimating the comparative values
of different commodities. Without some common object as a
standard of comparison this would be practically impossible.
" If a tailor had only coats and wanted to buy bread or a horse,
it would be very troublesome to ascertain how much bread he
ought to obtain for a coat or how many coats he should give for
a horse "; and as the number of commodities concerned increased
the problem would become harder, " for each commodity would
have to be quoted in terms of every other commodity." There
is, indeed, a good deal to be said for the view that the conception
of general exchange value could never have been formed without
the previous existence of money; it has certainly support from
the evidence of competent observers respecting the methods of
exchange followed by savage communities. The selection of
some particular article as the criterion makes the comparison of
values easy. " The chosen commodity becomes a common
denominator, or common measure of value in terms of which we
estimate the value of all other goods," and in this way money,
which in its primary function renders exchange possible by acting
as an intermediate term in each transfer, also makes exchanges
easier by making them definite. Still another function of money
comes into being with the progress of society. One of the
most distinctive features of advancing civilization is the increas-
ing tendency of people to trust each other. There is thus a con-
tinuous increase in relations arising from contract, as can be seen
by examining the development of any legal system. Now, a
contract implies something to be done in the future, and for
estimating the value of that future act a standard is required;
and here money which has already acted as a medium of exchange
and as a measure of value at a given time, performs a third
function, by affording an approximate means of estimating the
present value of the future act; in this respect it may be regarded
as a standard of value, or as some prefer to say, of deferred payments.
Nor does this exhaust the list of services that money renders.
In the earlier stages of economic life it acts as a store of value;
for in no other way could a large body of wealth be concentrated.
Though this is no longer needed by individuals, even at the
present day the great banks find that their reserves must take
the form of a monetary store. Again, money in its various forms
has been the great agency for transmitting values from place to
place. Its international function in this respect still continues.
The balance of debt between countries is ultimately settled by
the passage of bullion from the debtor to the creditor nation.
But, though money has these powers, it is nevertheless correct
to say that its essential functions are three in number, i.e. it
supplies: (i) the common medium by which exchanges are made
possible; (2) the common measure by which the comparative
values of those exchanges are estimated; (3) the standard by
which future obligations are determined.
2. The Value of Money, its Determining Causes. The Quantity
of Money required by a Country. The value of money is in
principle only a special case of the general problem of value; but
owing to its peculiar position the medium of exchange has in
this respect become surrounded by difficulties that need to be
removed. The very phrase " value of money " is employed in
two senses, which on the surface seem to have no connexion with
each other, and are the cause of much confusion to those who
have not looked into the matter. In mercantile phraseology the
value of money means the interest charged for the use of loanable
capital. When the market rate of interest is high, money is
said to be dear; when it is low, money is regarded as cheap.
Without entering into the reasons for this use of the term, it is
sufficient to state the other and for our present purpose more
correct meaning of the phrase. As the value of a thing is what
it will exchange for; so " the value of money is what money will
exchange for, or its purchasing power. If prices are low, money
will buy much of other things, and is of high value; if prices
are high, it will buy little of other things, and is of low value.
The value of money is inversely as general prices, falling as they
rise and rising as they fall." Now the proximate condition
under which value is determined is admittedly the establish-
ment of an equation between demand and supply. In the case
of money, however, some explanation as to the nature of both
these elements in the problem becomes necessary. In what
forms is the supply of, and the demand for, money exhibited ?
The supply of a commodity is the quantity of it which is offered
for sale. But in what shape does the sale of money take place ?
Plainly, by being offered for goods. The supply of money is the
quantity of it which people are wanting to lay out, i.e. all the
money in circulation at the time. Demand, in like manner,
means the quantity of a commodity desired, or, according to
another mode of expression, the amount of purchasing power
offered for it. Taking the latter as the more convenient for the
case of money, we can say that the demand for it consists in all
goods offered for sale. The position of money as the medium
of exchange introduces a further novel feature; for the market
in its case is world- wide and the demand is unceasing; money is
consequently in a constant state of supply and demand. It thus
appears that the factors determining the value of money at a
given time are: (i) the amount of money in circulation, and
(2) the amount of goods on sale. Closer examination reveals
other influencing conditions. The mere quantity of money is
not the only element on the supply side. The varying circula-
tion of the monetary units must be taken into account. Some
coins do not make a single purchase in a year, while others change
hands in transactions hundreds of times. By averaging, we may
estimate the effect of the rapidity with which money does its
work, or, to employ a technical term, the " efficiency of money."
Similarly, the amount of sales rather than the quantity of
commodities is the determining element on the demand side.
Thus, if the influence of credit be omitted, it is true to say that
the value of money varies inversely as its quantity multiplied
by its efficiency, the amount of transactions being assumed to be
constant. Some additional explanation is required before this
formula can be accepted as an expression of the whole truth on
the subject. It must be noticed that it is not commodities
only that are exchanged for money. Services of all kinds consti-
tute a large portion of the demand for the circulating medium,
while the payment of interest on the many kinds of obligations
makes a further call on it. The potent influence of credit must
also be recognized. The latter force is indeed the chief agency
to be considered in dealing with the variations of prices; though
so far as it is based on deposits of metallic money it may be
regarded as a form of increased monetary efficiency, and therefore
as coming within the formula given above. In its wider aspect,
credit acts as a substitute for ordinary money, and may be
interpreted as equivalent to a system of perfected barter, or,
better, as a new currency development. An interesting but
paradoxical conclusion should be noticed: it is that increased
6 9 6
MONEY
trade and expanding business are causes which operate not
to raise, but to lower prices; for by enlarging the work that
money has to do they raise its value, i.e provided that other
things remain the same. Another more obvious deduction is
that a large addition to the stock of money does not necessarily
raise prices, since money is only effective when brought into
circulation.
The chief topic of dispute in respect to the theory of money-
value has been concerned with the question as to the ultimate
regulating influence. The value of freely produced commodities
is according to economic theory determined by " cost of
production," or, where the article is produced at different costs,
by the cost of production under the most unfavourable circum-
stances. As demand varies with price, it follows that an
adjustment of value takes place through the interaction of cost
and demand, the latter indicating the influence of the utility
of the commodity on the quantity required. In applying the
theory to the special case of money, the first consideration is
the fact that gold and silver, the principal money materials, are
the products of mines, and are produced at different costs, so
that their values depend on the portions raised at greatest cost.
We thus obtain the proposition that has figured in so many text-
books; viz. that " the value of money depends on its cost of
production." The theory of normal value, however, involves
certain assumptions, which are significant in this connexion.
Competition is conceived as absolutely free; it is assumed that
there are accurate data for computing costs, and that the deter-
mination of value by cost is effective only " in the long run."
It is recognized, also, that cost operates on value through its
power in regulating supply. " The latent influence," says Mill,
"by which the value of things are made to conform in the long
run to the cost of production is the variation that would other-
wise take place in the supply of the commodity." From such
considerations it follows that the influence of cost on the value
of money is not so predominant as a rigid interpretation of the
theory of value seems to suggest.
In earlier times it has been a common proceeding on the part of
governments to restrict or stimulate both mining for the precious
metals and the business of coining. At all times the working
of gold and silver mines has been rather a hazardous speculation
than a legitimate business. " When any person undertakes to work
a new mine in Peru," says Adam Smith, " he is universally looked
upon as a man destined to bankruptcy and ruin, and is upon that
account shunned and avoided by everybody. Mining, it seems,
is considered there in the same light as here, as a lottery in which
the prizes do not compensate the blanks." The modern capitalistic
organization of gold mining has not done much to alter this con-
dition. As regards the adjustment of supply to meet an altered
cost of production the difficulties are, if possible, greater. The
actual supply of money is so large, when compared with the annual
production of the precious metals, that a change in output can operate
but slowly on its value. The total stoppage of fresh supplies
from the mines would not be sensibly felt for some years; and though
increased production is more rapid in its operation, it takes some
time to produce a decided effect. Hence the conclusion is reached
that " the effects of all changes in the conditions of production
of the precious metals are at first, and continue to be for many
years, questions of quantity only, with little reference to cost of
production." This is the position which is usually known as that
of the " quantity " theory; though very different degrees of doctrine
are comprised under .the general title. With due qualification and
comment it may be taken as the prevalent theory. At all events
it is beyond dispute that the cost of production is not for short
periods the controlling force which governs the value of money;
while even for long periods its influence is very hard to ascertain,
in consequence of the speculative nature of the industries of gold
and silver mining. Another peculiar feature of the problem of
money value arises from the fact that it is only through an actual
change in the supply of money that its value can be altered. With
other commodities the knowledge that they can be produced at
lower cost will bring about a reduction in their value. In the case
of money, this does not hold. There must be an adjustment of
the amount, or of the efficiency, of the money stock, since, as ex-
plained above, it is in a constant state of supply and demand.
Its value is established in the very process of carrying on exchanges,
and that process is influenced by the available supply. In regard to
another form of money the effect of the amount in existence is still
more decisive. This is paper money, not immediately redeemable
in coin. In this case the idea of cost is manifestly inapplicable;
the quantity in circulation is evidently, as proved by abundant
experience, the ruling influence on value. In fact, the " quantity "
theory receives its simplest illustration in the case of inconvertible
paper. The truth that the theory is but an instance of the action
of supply and demand is equally shown by this prominent class of
instances. Where metallic coinage is artifically limited the same
principle holds good. The value of such currencies plainly depends
on the conditions of supply and demand.
The immense growth of credit and its embodiment in instru-
ments that can be used as substitutes for money has led to the
promulgation of a view respecting the value of money which may
be called the " credit " theory. According to the upholders of
this doctrine, the actual amount of metallic money has but a
trifling effect on the range of prices, and therefore on the value
of money. What is really important is the volume of credit
instruments in circulation. It is on their amount that price
movements depend. Gold has become only the small change of
the wholesale markets, and its quantity is comparatively un-
important as a determinant of prices. The theory has some
connexion with the view of " money " as consisting in the
loanable capital of the market, taking shape in the cheques that
transfer liabilities. Thus the rate of interest comes to form a
factor in the creation of " money," and the mercantile use of
the phrase " value of money " receives a justification. Like the
pure " cost " theory of money value, the " credit " theory gives
too one-sided a view of the facts. In particular, it fails to
recognize the ultimate dependence of all kinds of credit on the
stock of money in the full sense, i.e. on metallic legal-tender
money. The truths adumbrated in the theory are better ex-
pressed in the statement of the quantity theory in its developed
form, as set forth above. It is necessary to take into account
the varying quantities of the precious metals, the modes of use
in respect to them; the influence of cost of production, and
the way in which credit expedients replace standard money.
A complete theory must include all these elements, while not
unduly emphasizing any one of them.
At the beginning of statistical inquiry much attention was
given to the question : What quantity of money does a country
require for the proper working of its industrial system? Petty
and Locke were ready to give definite answers; but modern
inquirers decline making any quantitative statement, and content
themselves with indicating the conditions to be considered.
Amongst these are: Population, amount of transactions, the
efficiency of money, the development of credit, and the height
to which banking organization has attained. Other elements in
the problem are the disposition towards hoarding, and the
employment of some form of barter in transactions. The
contrast between India and the United States in monetary and
industrial habits supplies an effective series of illustrations on this
matter. The conclusion is obvious that economic progress is
accompanied by a more sparing use of money. The most
important aspect of the question in modern times is in relation
to the division of money between countries. Regarded from this
point of view, the quantity of money that a country needs is
that which will keep its prices in due level with those of the
countries with which it has commercial relations. For, this is
the condition of equilibrium; there would otherwise be an excess
of either exports or imports, involving a transfer of money to
adjust the balance. It may be added that the organization
works automatically, since fluctuations in the stock of money
are corrected by the action of trade. The best estimates place
the gold circulation of the United Kingdom at somewhat under
100,000,000, the token currency at about 15,000,000, and the
note circulation as nearly 43,000,000. The French use of
metallic money is much larger; probably over 200,000,000, and
the note circulation is also over 200,000,000.
3. Early Forms of Currency. Up to the present we have
considered money as being fully established and properly adapted
to fulfil its various functions. We have now to trace the steps
by which a suitable system of currency was evolved from a state
of barter. It is important for a right understanding of the
question to grasp the fact that exchanges took place originally
between groups, and not between individuals. The slow growth
of exchanges is thus explained, as each group produced most of
the articles necessary for itself, and such acts of barter as took
MONEY
697
place were rather reciprocal presents than mercantile exchanges.
Such is actually the case among modern savages. " It is in-
structive to see trade in its lowest form among such tribes as
the Australians. The tough greenstone valuable for making
hatchets is carried hundreds of miles by natives, who receive
from other tribes in return the prized products of their districts,
such as red ochre to paint their bodies with; they have even got
so far as to let peaceful traders pass unharmed through tribes
at war, so that trains of youths might be met, each lad with a
slab of sandstone on his head to be carried to his distant home
and shaped into a seed-crusher. When strangers visit a tribe
they are received at a friendly gathering or. corrobboree, and
presents are given on both sides. No doubt there is a general
sense that the gifts are to be fair exchanges, and if either side is
not satisfied there will be grumbling and quarrelling; but in this
roughest kind of barter we do not yet find that clear notion
of a unit of value which is the great step in trading." This
vivid description of E. B. Tylor's enables us to realize the way
in which money came into existence. When any commodity
becomes an object of desire, not merely from its use to the
persons desiring it, but from their wanting it as being readily
exchangeable for other things, then that article may be regarded
as rudimentary money. Thus the greenstone and ochre are on
their way to being promoted to the position of currency, and
the idea of a " unit of value " is all that is needed to complete
the invention. " This higher stage is found among the Indians
of British Columbia, whose strings of haiqua-shells worn as orna-
mental borders to their dresses serve them also as currency to
trade with a string of ordinary quality being reckoned as
worth one beaver's skin." Such shells are in reality money,
inasmuch as they discharge its functions.
On a review of existing savage tribes and ancient races of more
or less civilization we are surprised at the great variety of objects
which have been used to supply the need of a circulating medium.
Skins, for instance, seem to be one of the earliest forms of money.
They have been found among the Indians of Alaska performing
this service, while accounts of leather money seem to show that
their use was formerly more general. As the hunting stage gives
place to the pastoral, and animals become domesticated, the anima!
itself, instead of its skin, becomes the principal form of currency.
There is a great mass of evidence to show that, in the most distant
regions and at very different times, cattle formed a currency for
pastoral and early agricultural nations. Alike among existing
barbarous tribes, and in the survivals discovered among classical
nations, sheep and oxen both appear as units of value. Thus we
find that at Rome, and through the Italian tribes generally, " oxen
and sheep formed the oldest medium of exchange, ten sheep being
reckoned equivalent to one ox. The recognition of these objects as
universal legal representatives of value, or, in other words, as money,
may be traced back to the epoch of a purely pastoral economy."
The Icelandic law bears witness to a similar state of things; while
the various fines in the different Teutonic codes are estimated in
cattle. The Latin word pecunia (pecus) is an evidence of the earliest
Roman money being composed of cattle. The English fee and the
famous term feudal, according to its most probable etymology, are
derived from the same root. In a well-known passage of the Iliad
(vi. 235-6) the value of two different sets of armour is estimated in
terms of oxen. The Irish law tracts bear evidence as to the use of
cattle as one of the measures of value in early Irish civilization.
Similarly, oxen from the principal wealth and the circulating medium
among the Zulus and Kaffirs. On the testimony of an eye-witness
we are assured that, " as cattle constitute the sole wealth of the
people, so they are their only medium of such transactions as involve
exchange, payment or reward." So also we find that cattle-rents
are paid by the pastoral Indian tribes to the United States govern-
ment. From the prominence of slavery in early societies it is
reasonable to suppose that slaves would be adopted as a medium
of exchange, and one of the measures of value in the Irish law tracts,
cumhal, is said to have originally meant a female slave. They are
at present applied to this purpose in Central Africa, and also in
New Guinea. On passing to the agricultural stage a greater number
of objects are found capable of being applied to currency purposes.
Among these are corn used even at present in Norway maize,
olive oil, coco-nuts and tea. The most remarkable instance of an
agricultural product being used as currency is to be found in the
case of tobacco, which was adopted as legal tender by the English
colonists in North America. Another class of articles used for money
consists of ornaments, which among all uncivilized tribes serve this
purpose. The haiqua-shells mentioned before are an instance,
cowries in India, whales' teeth among the Fijians, red feathers
among some South Sea Island tribes, and finally, any attractive kinds
of stone which can be easily worked. Mineral products, so far as
they do not come under the preceding head, furnish another class.
Thus salt was used in Abyssinia and Mexico; while the metals
a phenomenon which will require a more careful examination have
succeeded in finally driving all their inferior competitors out of the
field, and have become the sole substances for money.
4. The Metals as Money. Reasons for their Adoption. Superi-
ority of Silver and Gold. The employment of metals as money
material can be traced far back in the history of civilization;
but as it is impossible to determine the exact order of their
appearance in this capacity, it will be convenient to take them
in the order of their value, beginning with the lowest. Iron
to judge from the statement of Aristotle was widely used as
currency. One remarkable instance is the Spartan money,
which was clearly a survival of a form that had died out among
the other Greek states; though it has often been attributed to
ascetic policy. In conjunction with copper, iron formed one
of the constituents of early Chinese currency, and at a later time
was used as a subsidiary coinage in Japan. Iron spikes are used
as money in Central Africa, while Adam Smith notes the employ-
ment of nails for the same purpose in Scotland. Lead has
served as money, e.g. in Burma. The use of copper as money
has been more extensive than is the case in respect to the metals
just mentioned. It, as stated, was used in China along with
iron an early instance of bimetallism and it figured in the
first Hebrew coins. It was the sole Roman coinage down to
269 B.C. and it has lingered on to a comparatively recent date
in the backward European currencies. It even survives as a
part of the token coinage of the present. Tin has not been a
favourite material for money: the richness of the Cornish mines
accounts for its use by some British kings. Silver holds a more
prominent place than any of the preceding metals. Down to
the close of the i8th century it was the chief form of money, and
often looked on as forming the necessary standard substance.
It was the principal Greek money material, and was introduced
at Rome in 269 B.C. The currencies of medieval Europe had
silver as their leading constituent; while down almost to the
present day Eastern countries seemed to prefer silver to gold.
The pre-eminence of gold as money is now beyond dispute;
there, is, however, some difficulty in discovering its earliest
employment. It is, perhaps, to be found in " the pictures of the
ancient Egyptians weighing in scales heaps of rings of gold and
silver. " According to W. Ridgeway's ingenious theory gold
comes into use as a currency in due equation to the older cattle-
unit, the ox. It was certainly employed by the great Eastern
monarchs; its further development will be considered later on.
Metals of modern discovery such as nickel and platinum are
only used by the fancy of a few governments, though the former
makes a good token coinage.
The preceding examination of the varied materials of currency,
metallic and non-metallic, suggests some conclusions respecting
the course of monetary evolution, viz.: (i) that the metals tend to
supersede all other forms of money among progressive com-
munities; and (2) that the more valuable metals displace the less
valuable ones. The explanation of these movements is found
in the qualities that are specially desirable in the articles used
for money. There has been a long process of selection and
elimination in the course of monetary history.
First, it is plain that nothing can serve as money which has
not the attributes of wealth; i.e. unless it is useful, transferable
and limited in supply. As these conditions are essential to the
existence of value, the instrument for measuring and transferring
values must possess them. A second requisite of great effect
is the amount of value in proportion to weight or mass. High
value in small bulk gives the quality of portability, want of
which has been a fatal obstacle to the continued use of many
early forms of money. Skins, corn and tobacco were defective
in this quality, and so were iron and copper. Sheep and oxen,
though technically described as " self-moving," are expensive
to transport from place to place. That the material of money
shall be the same throughout, so that one unit shall be equal in
value to another, is a further desideratum, which is as decidedly
lacking in cattle-currency as it is prominent in the metals. It
is, further, desirable that the substance used as money shall be
698
MONEY
capable of being divided without loss of value, and, if needed,
of being reunited. Most of the articles used in primitive
societies such as eggs, skins and cattle fail in this quality.
Money should also be durable, a requirement which leads to
the exclusion of all animal and most vegetable substances from
the class of suitable currency materials. To be easily recognized
is another very desirable quality in money, and moreover to
be recognized as of a given value. Articles otherwise well fitted
for money-use, e.g. precious stones, suffer through the difficulty
of estimating their value. Finally, it results from the function
of money as a standard of value that it should alter in its own
value as little as possible. Complete fixity of value is from the
nature of things unattainable; but the nearest approximation
that can be secured is desirable. In early societies this quality
is not of great importance; for future obligations are few and
inconsiderable. With the growth of industry and commerce
and the expansion of the system of contracts, covering a distant
future, the evil effects of a shifting standard of value attract
attention, and lead to the suggestion of ingenious devices to
correct fluctuations. These belong to the later history of money
and currency movements. It is enough for the ordinary pur-
poses of money that it shall not alter within short periods, which
is a characteristic of the more valuable metals, and particularly
of silver and gold, while in contrast such an article as corn changes
considerably in value from year to year.
From the foregoing examination of the requisites desirable
in the material of money it is easy to deduce the empirical laws
which the history of money discloses, since metals, as compared
with non-metallic substances, evidently possess those requisites
in a great degree. They are all durable, homogeneous, divisible
and recognizable, and in virtue of these superior advantages they
are the only substances now used for money by advanced nations.
Nor is the case different when the decision has to be made
between the different metals. Iron has been rejected because of
its low value and its liability to rust, lead from its extreme
softness, and tin from its tendency to break. All these metals,
as well as copper, are unsuitable from their low value, which
hinders their speedy transmission so as to adjust inequalities of
local prices.
The elimination of the cheaper metals leaves silver and gold
as the only suitable materials for forming the principal currency.
Of late years there has beep a very decided movement towards
the adoption of the latter as the sole monetary standard, silver
being regarded as suitable only for a subsidiary coinage. The
special features of gold and silver which render them the most
suitable materials for currency may here be noted. " The value
of these metals changes only by slow degrees; they are readily
divisible into any number of parts which may be reunited by
means of fusion without loss; they do not deteriorate by being
kept; their firm and compact texture makes them difficult to
wear; their cost of production, especially of gold, is so consider-
able that they possess great value in small bulk, and can of
course be transported with comparative facility; and their
identity is perfect." The possession by both these metals of
all the qualities needed in money is more briefly but forcibly
put by Cantillon when he says that " gold and silver alone are
of small volume, of equal goodness, easy of transport, divisible
without loss, easily guarded, beautiful and brilliant and durable
almost to eternity." This view has even been pushed to an
extreme form in the proposition of Turgot, that they became
universal money by the nature and force of things, independently
of all convention and law, from which the deduction has been
drawn that to proscribe silver by law from being used as money
is a violation of the nature of things.
5. The Introduction and Development of Coinage. The State and
Money. The earliest metallic currencies passeu by weight; they
were, in fact, commodities, though used in a special way. The
Hebrew records, as well as the Greek writers, bear witness to the
prevalence of this primitive system. Thus, Aristotle, after ex-
plaining the circumstances that led to the invention of money,
points out how it was at first denned simply by size and weight,
although finally men went further and set a stamp on every coin
to relieve them from the trouble of weighing it." (Pol. i. 9, 8.)
Coinage systems have had a long period of growth, in which two
distinct stages can be noted. In the first only the quality or fine-
ness of the metal is denoted by the stamp, no attempt being made
to fix the weight. The stamp, so to speak, acts as a kind of hall-
mark. The cubes of gold employed by the Chinese may have been
the earliest coins. Modern authorities accept the view of Herodotus
that gold and silver coins were first used by the Lydians ; the same
author mentions that the first Gr,eek coinage was at Aegina by
Pheidon of Argos. In order to complete the invention it became
necessary to certify the weight of metal in the coin as well as its
fineness. A further result was the establishment of a regular
shape for the purpose of preventing any tampering with the coin
after its manufacture. Though various experiments in form were
made, by the production of hexagonal and octagonal coins, the
universally accepted shape came to be that of a flat circle, each
side of which is stamped, as also in many cases the edge. The great
number of the Greek city states afforded ample opportunities for
experiment and competition, and rapid progress in the direction
of securing good currencies was made. The improvement in the
Greek coinages may be regarded as the consequence, and in some
degree a cause, of their growing commerce. From Greece the art
of coining was introduced into Italy by the Hellenic settlers and
traders, and became one of the essential features of a civilized
society. Progress, however, did not stop with the establishment
of the institution of coined money. A number of practical questions
had to be decided respecting the best way of overcoming the
difficulties that certain technical problems presented. In spite of
early experience, it has at times been suggested that the circular
form might be replaced by some other, e.g. the square or oblong.
Practice has confirmed the wisdom of the old-established shape.
Another question was in respect to the limits of size that were most
suitable for coins. Here the lower limit is prescribed by the con-
venience of the users. Coins that are easily lost, or picked up with
trouble, such as the British threepenny piece and the American
gold dollar, ought not to be issued. The determination of the
upper limit presents greater difficulties. Very large pieces are
hard to coin, and they give facilities for improper treatment by
drilling holes 'and filling them up with cheaper metal, or even for
the entire removal of the interior, the faces being preserved. The
attractive appearance of large gold coins is no compensation for this
danger. The English sovereign and, in silver, the half-crown
seem to come near the upper limit of safe issue. The comparative
wear of coins of different sizes must be considered. A long series
of experiments, supported by ordinary experience, goes to show
that the smaller coins wear more rapidly. The English mint in
1833 estimated the loss per cent, per annum at 2s. 6d. on half-crowns,
45. on shillings, and 7s. 6d. on sixpences. There are accordingly
reasons for adopting a medium size in preference to large or small
coins. The actual coins issued have, of course, to be adapted to
the requirements of the particular community. Even prejudices
must be taken into due account. The designs employed in con-
nexion with coinage have proved a fruitful field for the student of
Numismatics (g.f.). From the monetary standpoint the aim of
the design is to prevent either counterfeiting or the abstraction
of any portion of the metal. For the former purpose careful
execution in designing and the use of powerful machinery are the
really effective safeguards. The latter is best obviated by pro-
tecting the edges by the process of milling, to which a raised
inscription has sometimes been added. Great advances have
been made in the organization of the modern Mint (q.v.) by the
use of new appliances and scientific methods. The question of
the proper alloy in coins has received a great deal of attention.
As gold and silver are both by nature soft, some other metal, such
as copper or tin, has to be added, in order to secure the necessary
hardness. The English gold coins have an alloy of one-twelfth;
the silver coins one of three-fortieths. Far more general is the
alloy of one-tenth, which is probably due to the sentiment in favour
of a decimal system; but at any rate is simple for calculations.
There does not appear to be any strong technical reason for pre-
ferring either of these alloys to the other. The French mint
authorities are in favour of their one-tenth ; while the English ones
adhere to the alloy of one-twelfth. There is agreement only on
the point that a very small amount of alloy, e.g. that of one in
seventy-two, as used in the Austrian ducat, does not give the
requisite hardness.
A question of far more importance, both politically and economic-
ally, is that of the issue of money, and the power of the state in
regard to it. In the ruder societies, where money was not sharply
distinguished from commodities, no difficulty presented itself.
Skins, shells or cattle were money so to speak by the force of
things; and the same condition persisted as long_as crude metals
were employed. But with the introduction of coinage the idea of
a regulating authority came into being. The necessity of enforcing
contracts and the parallel system of penalties made it incumbent
on the ruler and judges to provide due standards of payment.
The combined effect of these influences was reinforced by the
establishment of the rudimentary forms of state revenue, which
made it a matter of interest to the ruler to provide a good medium
of payment. Accordingly, with the origin of the organized state,
we find the coinage as a special prerogative of the king, though
MONEY
private persons often exercised the privilege of coining. The very
large number of the autonomous cities of Greece, which possessed
the right of issuing money, was the cause of the competition between
different currencies, each having legal tender power only within
its own city. In its practical outcome this " free coinage system
proved beneficial, for it compelled the maintenance of the true
standard in order to gain wider circulation. With the establish-
ment of larger states the control over the issue of money grew more
stringent. In the later Roman Empire the right of coining was
reserved to the emperor exclusively. After the fall of the empire
the traditions of prerogative passed on to the medieval kings,
a right carefully guarded by the English sovereigns. In France
and Germany the principal nobles claimed this seignorial right,
but in the modern state the regulation money has been definitely
vested in the supreme authority, i.e. the sovereign.
One reason for the close connexion of money with the state is
the fact that there is one attribute of currency which comes within
the area of work specially allotted to the public authority. Money
ought to have the power finally to close a transaction, i.e. to say
it should be " legal tender." This " liberating power," as the
French call it, might be regarded as one of the money functions.
Those who- look on money as a purely legal institution naturally
take this view; it seems, however, better to take the economic
conditions as the really fundamental ones. It is only on account
of their economic effects that legal regulations require consideration.
These effects are, indeed, very far-reaching. By prescribing the
standard and amount of penalties, by their power of selecting the
substances to be used as money, and by their frequent interferences
with existing currencies, the governments of the world have guided
as well as very often disturbed the normal course of development.
What Aristotle regarded as the " unnatural " character of money
is mainly attributable to state intervention. But it is important
to remember that the sphere of governmental action in respect to
money is limited. A currency system is never an arbitrary creation ;
it must grow slowly put of the habits and customs of the community,
and must subserve its economic needs. No sudden change at the
caprice of the state is likely to continue. Further, it is clear that
no government can determine the results of its interference; these
will depend on the existing conditions and will conform to economic
law. Monetary history is rich in examples of the failure of legal
enactment to direct the course of events, and of the disasters that
have followed on the ill-advised measures of public authority.
One result of the close connexion of the state with the business
of coining has been the establishment of regulations in reference to
the expense^ of the process. As coins are manufactured articles
it seems evident that a charge sufficient to cover the cost may
rightly be imposed. Such a charge is described by the term Seignior-
age (q.v.). It has in many cases been so fixed as to bring in a large
profit to the government; but then it amounts to a depreciation
of the currency; for the levy of a charge on coining is the same as
the substraction of so much metal from the coins issued. English
policy is peculiar in its adoption of gratuitous coinage of gold, an
anomaly due in its origin to the prejudices of the mercantile doc-
trines, but defended on the ground of the convenience to trade
from the equivalence of gold bullion and coin. The heavy seignior-
age on the silver coins at present over 60% is a source of con-
siderable profit; in some years exceeding 800,000. All other
countries levy moderate charges on their gold coinages, and make
profit on their silver issues, though in different ways. As it has
become the duty of the state to maintain the currency in a sound
condition, it has to deal with the question of its expense. This is
composed of several elements, viz. (i) the cost of manufacture,
just mentioned; (2) the loss through the wear which money under-
goes in the work of circulating; and (3) the interest on the capital
sunk in the monetary stock. A country with a metallic circulation
of 100,000,000 incurs a loss of the interest which that amount of
capital would produce by investment, i.e. at 4% 4,000,000. The
expense is amply justified by the services that a good currency
renders; but, at the same time, it proves the desirability of any
economies that do not detract from efficiency. The great economiz-
ing agency is, the use of representative money and the various
forms of credit, in which so much of the latest advances consist.
6. Representative Money; its Introduction and Development.
The Mode in which Credit is used as Money. Economy in the
employment of the precious metals is naturally suggested by
ordinary experience; but the way in which states have profited
by the expedient of depreciation affords a special inducement
to follow what is practically the same course, and issue paper
documents in place of the more costly metallic medium. In
theory, as Ricardo explained, a paper currency is one in which
the whole value has been appropriated as seigniorage. The cost
of keeping a stock of valuable money is obviated, and the new
instrument of exchange is supported by state authority. Here
the action of economic conditions is instructively illustrated;
for though a government can set up a paper currency, it is not
within its power to prescribe its value. The quantity theory
699
( 2) is confirmed by the inevitable decline in value when
issue passes a definite point. The only effective mode of pre-
venting depreciation is by limiting the amount of paper money
to that of the metallic money previously in circulation. The
easiest way to accomplish this is to leave the use of the paper
currency optional by making it convertible into coin at the will
of the holder. The amount of the circulation is thus automatic-
ally fixed by the action of the community. An evident dis-
advantage is the necessity of keeping an adequate reserve of coin
to meet actual and prospective demands. For ideal security
the whole amount of paper issue should be covered by an equal
value of metal. In practice the reserve may be much smaller;
but so far as it is required, it means a deduction from the gain
of issue. The temptation to reduce the reserve to an inadequate
amount and then to escape the difficulty by resorting to the
expedient of refusing to pay coin for notes, i.e. making the notes
inconvertible, has proved too strong for nearly all governments
at times of pressure. The history of state dealings with paper
money may broadly be described as a history of inconvertibility.
Hard-bought experience has only now forced on the notice of
governments the loss that follows from a disturbance of the
standard used in ordinary payments. They are evident to all
careful observers, and may be concisely summarized as consisting
in: (i) the injustice to creditors through being paid in a much
lower standard than that in which they lent; (2) the disturbance
to trade, both domestic and foreign, by the fluctuations in the
value of money; (3) the pressure on the working classes from
the slower rise of money wages, in contrast with the quicker
movement of the prices of commodities, resulting in a fall of
real wages; and (4) the check to dealings in relation with the
international money market, due to the risk of exchange
fluctuations. The only gains are the temporary stimulus to
certain branches of trade, and the advantage to the state by
contracting a forced loan without paying interest.
The origination of paper money by state direction is the easiest
to consider and explain. It does not follow that it is the most
important or the earliest kind of representative currency. As
W. Bagehot has pointed out, the real origin of economic institu-
tions is often very different from the apparent one. In truth,
representative money seems to have grown up out of the elemen-
tary contrivances of early credit. A claim could be expressed and
transferred by a document, which might be used for facilitating
exchanges. The rigid formalism of early law hindered the
extensive use of this convenient machinery. It was not till the
institution of banking that the coining of credit was made easy.
Thus the bank-note comes into use, resting, not on the fiat of the
state, but on the repute of the issuer. At this stage the history
of the two distinct forms of representative money becomes mixed,
owing to the control exercised over banks by government and
to the fact that banking companies were in many cases the
agents by which what was virtually state money was issued.
There is, however, the fundamental difference that bank money
finds its way into use through the ordinary system of granting
credit; while government money is used in the purchase of
commodities and the hire of services. The former, therefore,
returns in a short time; the latter remains in circulation and
displaces metallic currency. In the long controversy over the
Bank Charter Act 1844 this distinction was brought into promi-
nence. Since that date the extraordinary development of deposit
banking in both Great Britain and the United States has
furnished these countries with by far the most flexible form of
currency yet known in the cheques that transfer claims on the
capital held by the banking institutions. The confusion so
often shown regarding the relation of credit to money is con-
nected with this latest progress. When it is remembered that
in its origin money is only an instrument to facilitate exchange
we might even say to render it possible it follows that from
its earliest to its latest form the ruling influence is the need of
society for the best mechanism of exchange.
7. Production and Consumption of the Precious Metals in their
Economic Aspects. In considering various monetary questions
it is essential to have some acquaintance with the economic
yoo
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aspects of the production of gold and silver. The first point
to which attention may be directed is the field over which
production .extends. At one time or other these two metals
have been found in every continent. Asia Minor in early times
possessed its goldfields, or rather auriferous sands. Ceylon
also undoubtedly contained gold-mines. China and India both
produced silver to a considerable extent. Egyptian remains
show that gold was commonly known in that country, prob-
ably procured from Nubia and Abyssinia. On the opposite
side of Africa, too, the name of Gold Coast shows that that metal
was thence exported. The mines of Laurium in Attica were a
source of supply to the Athenians, and were worked as a state
monopoly. At an earlier date the Babylonian and Assyrian
empires had each accumulated large stores of gold. The
Phoenician importations of gold from the Red Sea coasts (Ophir)
are known from Scripture. The Persian kings from the time
of Darius levied tribute on all their provinces in gold from
India, in silver from the remaining districts, the larger part
of which was stored up in the royal treasuries. This tendency
of despotic rulers to accumulate treasure had all through ancient
history important effects on the economic structure of society.
At present it is quite natural to assume that the materials of
money are distributed by means of international trade, and tend
to keep at an equal level all the world over an assumption
which is in general well grounded, though an important exception
exists. Ancient history presents a widely different set of forces
in operation. Gold and silver were produced by slaves under
the pressure of fear, and were drawn towards the ruling parts
of the great empires; in a word, war, not commerce, was the
distributing agency. From this condition of affairs it is easy to
see that, whatever may be the reasons for assigning to cost of
production a potent influence over the value of money in modern
times (and grounds have been already advanced for the belief
that its influence has been exaggerated), no such reasons then
existed. The production of the precious metals was carried
on in similar manner to the great buildings and other works
of those periods, on non-economic grounds, and therefore
produced quite different effects. The whole history of the
Persian monarchy to its overthrow by Alexander (330 B.C.)
shows that the hoarded mass of the precious metals continued
constantly to increase. On the capture of Persepolis by the
Grecian army an enormous treasure was found there, some
estimates placing it as high as 1 20,000 talents of gold and silver
(27,600,000). All the temples, too, were receptacles for the
precious metals, so that the stock accumulated at about 300 B.C.
must have been very great. The only causes which tended to
diminish the store were the losses arising from wars, when the
various treasuries were liable to be plundered and their contents
dispersed. There was therefore a more unequal distribution of
the material of money than at present. The growth of the
Roman dominion led to important results, since under their
rule the Spanish mines were developed and became a leading
source of supply. The great masses of treasure set towards
Rome, so that it became the monetary centre of the world. The
overthrow of the republican government and the peace which
followed also affected the conditions of production. The in-
efficiency of the Roman administration made it advantageous
to let out the mines to farmers, who worked them in a wasteful
and improvident manner, while the supply of slaves was reduced,
thus depriving the lessees of their principal agency for cariying
on production. The result was a continuous decline in the store
of money. W. Jacob has made an attempt to estimate the
amount at the death of Augustus (A.D. 14), and arrives at the
conclusion that it was 358,000,000. (Precious Metals, i. 225.)
Without placing much value on this necessarily conjectural
estimate, it is safe to assume that this period marked the
highest point of accumulation.
The succeeding centuries exhibit a steady decline, though
it is of course impossible to attach any value to even the most
carefully guarded numerical estimates. The phenomenon which
has since so often attracted notice the drain of the precious
metals to the East began at this time, and was a subject of
complaint by the Roman writers, while the stock of gold and
silver being thrown into general circulation suffered from abrasion,
and was more likely to be lost than when stored up in the royal
treasure-houses and temples. These causes tended to depress
the scale of prices, while the barbarian invasions produced a
strong effect on the supply by drawing off the mining population
and damaging the various erections used for working the
mines. The conjectural estimate is that about A.D. 800 the
total supply had been reduced to 33,000,000 (or about one-
eleventh of what it had been at the death of Augustus). A
new period in the history of gold and silver production may be
fixed at this date. The Moors, now firmly established in Spain,
began to reopen the mines in that country which had been allowed
to fall into disuse. Other European mines also were opened,
notably those of Saxony and the Harz Mountains, as well as
the Austrian mines the chief medieval sources of supply. The
international system of currency, based on the pound of silver
as a unit, which was introduced by Charlemagne, must have
tended to economize the wear of the metals. We may therefore
conclude that from this date (A.D. 800) the supply was sufficient
to counteract the loss by wear and exportation, and accordingly
regard the metallic supply as fixed in amount until the next
change in the conditions of production, which was the result of
the discovery of America. Though 1492 is the date of the first
landing, yet for some time no important additions were made to
the supply of money. The conquest of Mexico (1519) gave oppor-
tunities of working the silver-mines of that country, while the first
mines of Chile and Peru were almost simultaneously discovered,
and in 1545 those of Potosi were laid open. From this latter
date we may regard the American supply as an influential factor
in causing a continuous increase in the stock of money. The
annual addition to the store of money has been estimated as
2,100,000 for the period from 1545 to 1600. At this date the
Brazilian supply began. The course of distribution of these
fresh masses of the precious metals deserves some notice. The
flow of the new supplies was first towards Spain and Portugal,
whence they passed to the larger commercial centres of the other
European countries, the effect being that prices were raised in
and about the chief towns, while the value of money in the coun-
try districts remained unaltered. The additions to the supply
of both gold and silver during the two centuries 1600-1800
continued to be very considerable; but, if Adam Smith's
view be correct, the full effect on prices was produced by 1640,
and the increased amount of money was from that time counter-
balanced by the wider extension of trade. At the commence-
ment of the igth century the annual production of gold had
been estimated as being from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000. The
year 1809 seems to mark an epoch in the production of these
metals, since the outbreak of the revolts of the various Spanish
dependencies in South America tended to check the usual
supply from those countries, and a marked increase in the
value of money was the consequence. During the period 1809-
1849 the value of gold and silver rose to about two and a
half times its former level, notwithstanding fresh discoveries
in Asiatic Russia, which became considerable from 1823. The
annual yield in 1849 was estimated at 8,000,000. The next
important date for our present purpose is the year 1848, when
the Californian mines were opened, while in 1851 the Australian
discoveries took place. By these events an enormous mass of
gold was added to the world's supply. The most careful esti-
mates fix the addition during the years 1851-1871 atsoo,ooo,ooo,
or an amount nearly equal to the former stock in existence.
The problems raised by this phenomenon have received careful
study. The main features of interest may be briefly summed
up. (i) The additional supply was almost entirely of gold,
thus tending to produce a distinction between the two principal
monetary metals and an alteration in the currency of bimetallic
countries. Under this influence France, from being a silver-
using, became a gold-using country. (2) The contemporaneous
development of the continental railway systems, and the partial
adoption of free trade, with the consequent facilities for freer
circulation of commodities, led to the course of distribution
MONEY
701
being different from that of the i6th century. The more back-
ward districts were the principal gainers, and a more general
equalization of prices combined with a slight elevation in value
was the outcome. (3) The increased supply of gold rendered
a general currency reform possible, and made the use of a gold
monometallic standard appear feasible. The movements for
currency reform, as will be seen, all arose after these discoveries.
(4) The change in the value of money, which may for the period
1840-1869 be fixed at 20 %, enabled a general increase of
wages to be carried out, thus improving the condition of the
classes living on manual labour. It may be added that the
difficulty of tracing the effects of this great addition to the money
stock is a most striking proof of the complexity of modern
economic development. (5) The last point to be noticed is the
very small influence exercised on the value of silver by the
new gold. The gold price of silver in London rose only from
59|d. per oz. to 62d. per oz. i.e. between 4 and 5%. Hardly
had the gold discoveries of 1848-1851 ceased to produce a
decided effect when new silver mines of unusual fertility came
into working. During the period immediately succeeding the
gold discoveries the production of silver remained at an annual
amount of from 8,000,000 to 9,000,000. This amount suddenly,
about 1870, increased to 15,000,000, and remained at that
amount for the next five years. More than half of the supply
came from new mines opened in Nevada. This increased
supply was accompanied by a marked depreciation in the gold
price of silver, though the prices of commodities in countries
having a silver standard did not rise. The disturbances resulting
from the combined effect of the new silver and the diminution
in the annual output of gold which began about 1870 and
continued for nearly twenty years were the cause of much contro-
versy and led to the propounding of novel monetary theories.
Bimetallism came into prominence; and the modes of relieving
trade depression caused by the fall in prices were keenly discussed.
Before any monetary adjustment took place the situation
again changed in consequence of a renewal of the Australian
gold production, soon followed by the great gold discoveries
in South Africa. The annual output of gold, which had fallen
below 20,000,000, in 1884 rose rapidly to 60,000,000, and in
1908 reached the prodigious figure of over 80,000,000, with
the prospect of still larger yields in the near future. By this
change the difficulties that had led to the agitations for " free
silver " in the United States, and for " international bimetal-
lism " in Europe and in India were removed, showing the close
connexion between the production of the precious metals and
the economic, especially the monetary, policy of all periods.
The modes of consumption of the precious metals under which
their use is included are of equal importance with those of their
production. Classed roughly, they come under three heads, viz.
(i) their use as merchandise, (2) their use as money, (3) the "drain"
to the East. With regard to the first, though precise data are
not available, it may be said with some confidence that the demand
for personal use tends, after society has made some progress, to
decline in strength. The desire for adornment is not a keen one
with most civilized persons; and, so far as it exists, is gratified in
other ways than by using silver or gold. For purposes of manu-
facture their use is large and increasing. The second head is that
with which we are principally concerned. It is evidently connected
with the need for metallic currency; and this again depends on the
level of prices and the monetary organization, including in the
latter the banking system. Currency requirements still form the
largest part of the demand for the precious metals. Under the
third head a remarkable exception to the tendency towards the
equal diffusion of the precious metals is presented. For nearly
two thousand years the movement of silver from west to east has
been noticed. Humboldt has made the ingenious remark that the
course of these metals is in the opposite direction to that of civiliza-
tion, and history supports his view. During the middle ages the
chief Eastern products used in Europe were luxuries, such as silk
and spices, and silver was sent from Europe to pay for them.
Eastern trade increased, owing to the discovery of the passage
round the Cape of Good Hope, and the flow of silver became greater.
Special circumstances have from time to time influenced the move-
ment. Thus, the new supplies of gold in the middle of the last
century caused by their action m on the bi-metallic currencies of
Europe an acceleration in the flow, the amount exported between
1851-1862 reaching 110,000,000. To this drain of silver a more
recent one of gold has been added. India takes year by year a
considerable amount of gold bars, which may in the future have a
monetary use, but up to the present appear to be hoarded or used
for ornament. With the complete reconstruction of Eastern
currencies that now seems probable there may come a decided change
in the character of the demand. Another influencing condition
is also undergoing change ; the tendency to fix prices on a customary
basis is bound to yield to the pressure of competition. The in-
evitable result will be to make the price level alter with each influx
of money, and thus to limit the demand for bullion through the
action of the exchanges.
One of the technical features of the production of the precious
metals should be noted, in consequence of its economic effect.
Gold has more frequently been found near the surface; silver is
usually obtained by deep mining. It follows that the amount of
the former metal produced depends more on accidental circum-
stances, in contrast to that of silver, which is affected by the standard
of mining skill. The mines of Nevada were exceptional in their
possessing both metals and in nearly equal value. The gold-mines
of South Africa have come to be worked at deep levels and therefore
are technically in the same class as silver ones. In fact, there is
a pronounced tendency all the world over towards the system of
capitalistic working.
8. Review of the History of Some Important Currencies.
Monetary theory requires to be elucidated by the constant
reference to history; just as in turn the history of currency
has to be interpreted by the aid of general principles. Each
country has its peculiar problems, which call for special
treatment ; though at the same time there is no way of avoid-
ing the operation of those economic conditions and forces
that are to be found in all countries. The first decisive fact
that emerges from the vast material presented by the history
of money is the tendency at most periods towards deterioration.
In the time of purely metallic currency debasement is the most
serious danger; when representative money has come into being
extravagant issues of paper are chosen as the readiest way of
evading the limits of a sound currency. It is perhaps too
extreme to say that monetary history is altogether made up of
accounts of debasements and over-issues. The truth is better
expressed in the proposition that there has been a constant
struggle between the influences that make for deterioration and
those that give support to the maintenance of a good currency
condition. There is also the cheering circumstance that in spite
of much popular ignorance there has on the whole been a steady
improvement in the treatment of monetary systems. Expert
knowledge has more effect in the later than in the earlier
periods. The crude expedients of the Tudors would not be
tolerated in modern England. There is much fuller recognition
of the danger of over-issue in paper money; and this is
accompanied by greater care in the treatment of credit institu-
tions in their relation to the modern media of circulation. It
is also noteworthy that mere popular agitation has lost a great
deal of its power, as shown in the failure of both the " soft
money " and the " free silver " movements in the United
States. On the other hand the tendency to accept scientific
methods is illustrated in the treatment of the Indian currency
question.
Greek Currencies. As already noticed the political conditions
of Greek life supplied a varied field for monetary experiments.
Unfortunately the details are very incompletely known, and the
subject of Hellenic money has not been sufficiently studied from the
economic side. Certain broad facts are prominent. The Athenian
use of silver as the standard substance, coupled with the later
employment of gold to serve for an extra or commercial currency,
is a characteristic feature. The alteration of the standard by Solon
appears in the light of an exceptional revolutionary expedient.
It amounted to the creation of a new standard unit the Attic
which was imitated by other states, e.g. Corinth. Only one doubtful
instance of debasement can be found in the subsequent history of
Athens. This honesty in respect to the monetary standard seems
on the whole to have prevailed in the Greek states. Some despots,
as Dionysius, issued adulterated coins, but these were isolated
cases. The use of gold and silver in an amalgam, known as electrum,
was an admissible device ; it, however, had the evil effect of suggest-
ing the use of poorer alloys.
Roman Money. The history cf money in Rome is rather different.
Beginning with copper, the currency was changed into a double
standard one by the introduction of silver (269 B.C.). Gold came
in for commercial use with the extension of the Roman dominions, and
copper was reduced to a token coinage. In the stress of the Punic
Wars debasement was one of the financial devices of the magistrates.
The conquest of the Greek territories brought about the regulation
702
of their currencies. Silver was prescribed as the money substance.
The establishment of the empire led to the definite concentration
of the right of coining in the sovereign; though concessions were
made in various localities, where the smaller coinages were allowed
to continue. But the principal interest of the money of the Roman
Empire is due to the remarkable way in which it illustrates the
tendency of despotic and bureaucratic rule to lower the condition
of good administration. A long course of debasement is the
characteristic aspect of the currency system. " Under the empire,"
we are told, " the history of the silver coinage is one of melancholy
debasement. The most extensive frauds in connexion with money
were perpetrated by the Romans." The gold aureus, which in the
time of Augustus was one forty-fifth of a pound, was under
Constantine only one seventy-second of a pound. The alloy in the
silver coins gradually rose to three-fourths of the weight. Plated
coins came into extensive use. The practice of debasement was
in accordance with the theories of the jurists, who seem to have
regarded money as simply the creature of the state, i.e. the personal
ruler.
Medieval Money. After the overthrow of the Western Empire,
though the invaders were in the condition of what has been called
" natural economy," the state in which money has not come into
being, they soon were disposed to carry on the Roman tradition,
and their rulers adopted some form of silver currency. With the
temporary revival of the empire under Charlemagne there comes
the effort to found a general standard money on the basis of the
silver pound. From this new starting-point it is possible to trace
the course of some of the leading currency systems of Europe.
For purposes of illustration it will be sufficient to sketch the move-
ments in England and France, which are typical of the general
course of monetary development. The systems of these countries
are moreover remarkable (i) in the contrasts that they present
to each other, and (2) in the widespread influence that they have
exercised on the monetary arrangements of other nations.
English Monetary History. The English currency begins with
the pound of silver (troy weight) as the standard unit, subdivided
into 20 shillings, each containing 12 pennies. The only coin at
first in use was the silver penny. This system, in force before the
Conquest, is the direct descendant of the Carlovingian system, and
it continued without change until about 1276, when a slight depre-
ciation was introduced by coining the pound into 243 pennies,
instead of the original 240. This was the first of a series of changes,
generally in the direction of lowering the weight of the coin. Two
periods are remarkable for the operation of this tendency, viz.
(l) the reign of Edward I., when the silver was debased by 20%
in the period 1344-1351 ; and (2) the close of the reign of Henry VIII.
and that of Edward VI., 1543-1552. In this short space of ten
years the expedient of degrading the quality of the coinage by
bringing the alloy up to three-fourths of the mass was practised
for the only time in English history. The substitution of the
pound troy for the Tower pound in 1527 was accompanied by
a lowering in weight which far exceeded the gain from the higher
weight of the new pound (5760 instead of 5400 grains). The
reformation of the silver coinage under Elizabeth (1560), and its
definite settlement in 1601 on the basis of coining 62 shillings from
the pound troy also deserve mention. Turning to the gold currency,
we find some gold pennies issued in 1257, probably in imitation of
the issue of the Italian cities, which were due to the opening of
eastern trade and the example of the Greek Empire, which had
always retained its gold currency. The regular series of English
gold coins begins in 1343, when Edward III. ordered the coinage of
florins the title is significant at 50 to the Tower pound. The
" noble " soon followed. The " sovereign " was first issued in
1489. But gold was treated as a commercial money, to be used
as subsidiary to the standard silver. Its value was therefore
varied from time to time to meet the difficulty that local bimetallism
is certain to cause, in consequence of the undervaluing of one or
other metal. During the I7th century the most noticeable mone-
tary events are: the proposals for depreciation, of which the most
remarkable was that of W. Lowndes (1652-1724), for lowering
the standard by some 25%; the introduction of the guinea as the
leading gold coin, and the frequent readjustment of the values of
the two metals by proclamation. The great recoinage of 1696,
carried out on the principles advocated by Locke, reformed the
silver currency. In the i8th century the establishment of the
guinea at 2is. by Newton's advice made the adoption of gold as
the standard inevitable, since it was overvalued in an appreciable
degree. The position of gold as the practical standard is clearly
recognized by Adam Smith (1776) and is regarded as settled by
Ricardo (1809). The full legal establishment of the present metallic
currency took place in 1816, when the guinea made way for the
present pound or " sovereign," and silver was formally reduced
to the level of a token coinage, being slightly lowered by the coinage
of the pound of silver into 66 shillings. Thus, by a course of develop-
ment extending over 700 years, the English currency has been
transformed from a crude silver standard system into one resting
on gold, but employing both silver and representative money for
the greater part of the actual work.
French Money: its Development. Though the monetary system
of Charlemagne soon disappeared in Germany and Italy, it con-
MONEY
tinued in the part of his empire that became France. The extreme
confusion of the time of his successors enabled the feudal lords to
claim the right of coinage. No less than 150 seigneurs are said to
have exercised this power at the accession of the first Capet. With
the growth of the royal authority the freedom of private coining
was restricted, in order to reserve to the Crown the profitable
right of seigniorage. Unfortunately the legitimate profit from this
source was not sufficient to satisfy the wants of the royal treasury.
Therefore French monetary history is marked by a long series of
debasements, extending from the time of Philip I. to that of
Louis XV. (1060-1774). In sharp contrast to English policy the
tampering with the currency was persistent, so that Louis IX. was
looked on as quite exceptional. " In later days his management of
the royal mint was always appealed to as the equitable standard
for the observance of his successors." Yet in his time the livre had
been debased to less -than one-fourth of its primitive level. The
Hundred Years' War presented the occasion for still further degrada-
tion. At the accession of Louis XI. (1461) the livre had been brought
down to one-fifteenth of its original value. The i6th century is equally
an age of depreciation, no less than nineteen occurring between
1497 and 1602. Again, in contrast to the English system, the
absolute monarchy continued the process of debasing the standard
under Louis XIV., and the livre was only one-half what it had been
under Henri IV. At the Revolution the decline had proceeded so far
that the livre had been reduced to one seventy-eighth of its primitive
value. The new spirit of reform produced an entire change. The
franc was substituted for the livre at the equation: 80 francs,
81 livres. In fact, until the establishment of constitutional govern-
ment the French people had to depend on popular violence to pro-
cure any temporary reform in their currency. Since the Revolution
the course of development has been essentially orderly and regular.
All through the time of the ancien regime silver was the principal
money and the standard, as the use of the word " argent " as a
synonym for money shows. Just as England got a gold currency
by overvaluing gold, so did France get a silver one by overvaluing
silver. Indeed, it may be said that the different ratios chosen by
the two countries necessarily caused a reciprocal drain, affording
a good example of the action of local bimetallic systems with
different ratios between the two metals. A further result from
the comparison of the systems of England and France is the greater
maturity of the former. England gained an honest currency
before France ; she led the way in the adoption of the gold standard,
while in her treatment of representative money she has held as
decided a priority. The difference in economic conditions in the
nations in part explains the contrast. There is no doubt that in
both cases a high degree of development has been reached. Finally,
it should be remarked, that as England has worked out in practice
the system of " composite legal tender," so has France, with its
monetary allies, been the first to show effectively the operation of
the " limping standard " (etalon boiteux). Each nation has thus
supplied a type, which recent monetary changes give evidence of
having been used as the pattern for other less advanced countries.
9. Some General Questions respecting the Constitution of Money.
The consideration of the history of currency systems naturally
suggests the general problems that the more advanced countries
have had to encounter. Of these, some may be described as
formal, i.e. they relate to the arrangement and the definition
of coinage and standards. Others are in essence issues of principle
involving the most complicated theoretical doctrines, on which
there is even yet sharp differences of opinion between competent
students of economics. In some instances an intermediate
class may be found, e.g. the question of subdivision of the
coins does raise some difficult matters of application; though
it clearly belongs of right to the group of formal questions.
But the distinction is a valid one. Whether a country should
adopt the " gold standard " or prefer a " bimetallic " standard
is obviously very different from the elementary points about
units and the different classes of coins. We will therefore begin
by noticing some of the characteristics that are found in all
modern currencies and some of which are implied in the idea
of money. Thus it is true that every currency system must be
based on a standard unit of value which consists of a " fixed quantity
of some concrete substance defined by reference to the units of
weight or space." The English unit, for example, is the pound,
which consists of a definite quantity of gold (123-27447 grs.
standard fineness) while the French unit is the franc (composed
of 5 grammes of silver nine-tenths fine). It is not necessary,
though it is usually the case, that there shall be a coin correspond-
ing to the standard unit, all that is needed is that the current
coins shall be multiples or submultiples of the unit, or at the
least easily reducible to it. The Portuguese rei is too small to
be coined, and the pound of silver that formed the unit of the
MONEY
early English and French currencies was too large. Quite
distinct from both the actual coins and the unit of value is the
money of account, though in practice it is usually identical with
one of them. In Russia in early times the rouble was an imagi
nary money of account not coined, while the copper copeck was
the unit of value. Connected with the distinction between
the coins and the unit is the highly important one between
standard and token money, the former being of full power for
discharging debts, and in the case of most systems only o
equal value to the metal out of which it is made, while the latter
is rated at a nominal value higher than that of its material
The silver and copper coinage in England and the smaller coins
in the Latin union are only tokens; in the case of English silver
coins, the cost value is less than 40% of the nominal one. The
French tokens are made of inferior fineness (835 per 1000) to
the full tender silver. Two restrictions are applied to token
issues: (i) they are only legally available to discharge small
debts in England silver is limited to the payment of 403.;
(2) they can be coined only by the permission of the state. Thus
in England the Bank of England is the state agent for the silver
coinage. The limitations are evidently required to prevent
the expulsion of standard money, and to avoid the flooding of
the circulation with coinage that is not needed for the purpose
of the limited exchanges to which it is confined. Intermediate
between standard and token currency are those forms of coinage
that are free from the first limitation, but restricted by the second.
They have this further point of resemblance to tokens in that
their nominal value is higher than that of their material the
French s-franc pieces and the Indian rupees are prominent
examples. Similarly, the analogy between representative
money and token money is deserving of attention, and suggests
the desirability of the latter being regarded as in some respects
a fiduciary issue, for which the issuing authority incurs
responsibility.
A class of considerations already referred to ( 5) requires explicit
notice here, viz. the influence of popular sentiment on the character
and forms of a country's currency. The fact that money has to
circulate amongst all classes of society makes it indispensable that
it should be suited to the wants and even the prejudices of the users.
Many curious instances of preferences for particular coins or special
forms of paper money can be given. The Austrian Maria Theresa
dollar of 1780 is a favourite on the African coasts and has been
frequently reissued for use there. Reasons of convenience and of
security combine with sentiment; as in the determined rejection
of the U.S. " greenbacks " by the inhabitants of California during
the inconvertibility of that currency. Recognition of the desires
and tastes of the community is almost essential in carrying out
any monetary reform. It is only by building on the habits and
customs that have become established that improvements in the
monetary system can be effectively completed. Not only is this
careful observance of the disposition of the mass of society expedient ;
there is still greater need for taking account of the methods and
interests of those sections of the business world that deal specially
with money. A currency change that was bitterly opposed by the
banking interest would certainly be difficult to introduce in either
England or the United States; traders have great influence as to
the forms of money that they will accept and facilitate the use of.
In another aspect the study of the interest of dealers in the arrange-
ment of the monetary system presents itself. One of the features
that caused much surprise in the infancy of economic study was the
disappearance of good coins from the circulation, while inferior
ones remained in use indefinitely. To the first observers there
seemed to be something perverse in the preference apparently
shown towards debased or worn coins. In business transactions
inferior articles are taken only at a lower price. The explanation
is easily understood, when furnished; it consists in stating the
difference between a commodity which is sought for its use, and
money which is taken as merely a medium of exchange. Provided
that coin is not too bad for further circulation it will be accepted
without difficulty. Still less will there be any trouble if the differ-
ence is only in the relative value of two metals, such as silver and
gold. The great majority of any population will give and take
money without particularly observing it. It is enough if the
coin conforms to the usual type. There exists, however, in all
mercantile communities a class of dealers in money, who make a
profit by selecting the best coins for exportation, or if two metals
are in concurrent use, the coins of that metal which is undervalued
in the proportion fixed. In the case of inconvertible paper issues
the withdrawal is also for the purpose of hoarding to secure the
profit expected when there is a high premium on bullion. The
action of self-interest under these conditions produces an effect
703
which has been briefly formulated in the statement " that bad
money tends to drive out good money." The proposition has been
styled Gresham s Law " (q.v.). Abundant illustrations of its
working are available. The establishment of the English told
currency and the French silver one in the l8th century, already
mentioned ( 8), is an effective one. Quite as good is the transition
ot prance from the silver to the gold currency form after the great
gold discoveries of the middle of the igth century. In truth it
may be said that most of the monetary transitions have been due
the operation of the force indicated in Gresham's Law. The
importance of the law lies in the warning that it gives against the
attempt to reform a degraded currency by the issue of better
money. Such operations of the mint are," in Adam Smith's
judgment, somewhat like the web of Penelope." The caution
holds equally in respect to the reform of a depreciated paper cur-
rency or to an effort to force an undervalued metal into circulation,
i he success of so many monetary reforms in the last forty years
has been in great measure due to the better appreciation of the
working of the principle. Its aid can also be obtained by setting
currencies rest altogether on the maintenance of an overvalued
coinage, along with one of higher value by the limitation of the
quantity of the former to the amount that can be employed without
expelling the remaining part of the circulating medium from
monetary use.
Another part of the structure of any currency is the scale on
which its accounts, and by consequence the degrees of its coins,
are arranged. The pound, the shilling, and the penny in the older
t-nghsh system represented so many grades in the subdivision of
value. All other currencies have the same need for divisions.
Ihe simplest scale would be what is called the " binary "; in which
each coin is the half of the next higher, and double the one immedi-
ately below it. Most actual systems have series of coins on the
binary scale. The penny, the halfpenny, the farthing; the 45.
piece, the florin, the shilling, the sixpence, the threepenny; at a
higher level the sovereign, the half-sovereign, the crown, the half-
crown, are English examples. The Latin and Scandinavian unions,
as also Germany and the United States, have several binary coinage
series. But no country adopts a purely binary scale. England
in part retains the old " duodecimal " division in the relation of
the shilling and the penny. Nearly all civilized nations have come
to accept the system of Decimal Coinage (q.v.), though in their actual
currencies they admit certain divergences from the strict decimal
system. The convenience of having the monetary scale of accounts
in accordance with the arithmetical scale will probably secure the
ultimate victory of the decimal system everywhere, in spite of the
objections to it on the ground of its having only two factors
2 and 5 as against the larger number of the duodecimal scale
(2, 3, 4 and 6). The immense trouble involved in altering accounts
and the difficulty of overcoming the hostility to change felt by the
ordinary members of the community are the obstacles that prevent
the adoption of the decimal system in England.
Connected with the composition of a currency and the scale on
which it is based is the question of its relation to other currencies.
From a very early time the conception of a money that should
not be confined by a political limit appears to have existed. In
[act until the state took over the control of money its more important
iorms had a wide diffusion. The talent, equated to the ox, is a
prominent instance. Even when the city-state provided its par-
ticular coinage we can still perceive the circulation of the better
coinages outside their legal area. The effect on the Greek currencies
las been noted above (8). Under the Roman hegemony and the
empire that arose out of it there was the equivalent of an inter-
lational currency in the wide circulation of the coinages adopted
'rom the conquered states. Such coins as the drachma and the
denarius were of general use in the then civilized world. In later
times the Carolingian silver currency for a short period supplied
an international medium, which vanished in the confusion of the
niddle ages. Owing to the rise of national governments money
jecame a national distinction peculiar to each state. It is only in
the last sixty years that the idea of international money has been
revived in a practical form. Unfortunately the revival was speedily
checked by the reaction in favour of nationalism that followed
he Franco-German War (1870-71) and by the controversies as to
he proper standard. (See BIMETALLISM and MONETARY CON-
FERENCES for further discussion of this topic.)
10. Typical Currency Systems: their Evolution and Governing
Principles. At first sight it appears that the systems of currency
are almost infinite in their variety. They have grown up in
different nations under the influence of local conditions and reflect
he customs of the particular society. But, underlying these
uperficial differences, there are certain general principles that
jermit of a grouping into a small number of clearly marked types.
The classification, though resting on logical grounds, is very
argely in conformity with the course of historical development.
74
MONEY
Better forms have come into being as social progress has
become more pronounced; and further improvement may be
expected in the future. The condition of things when money
is coming into being is characterized by the weighing or measur-
ing of the substances used for aiding the course of exchanges.
It has therefore been called the system of " currency by weight."
In strictness, it is better regarded as the stage before the intro-
duction of real money; and thus outside the field cf currency
systems proper. The simplest system of currency seems to be
that in which the state coins ingots of different metals and allows
them to circulate without assigning any ratio for their respective
values. Such an inconvenient form is not likely to be of long
continuance; but it has sometimes arisen at a later time through
the introduction of foreign coinages. Holland at the end of the
1 6th century, Turkey down to the present day may be given as
countries approaching this state. The title of " currency by
tale " is Jevons's apt denomination for such a currency system.
The next form in logical order is that in which a single metal is
definitely appointed as the sole standard money. In early
ages this is the most natural arrangement, and it has, therefore,
been widely adopted. Silver has been the metal generally
used in this way; as the instances previously given (8)
prove. The title of " single legal tender " system is the obvious
one ior this form. With the growth of transactions a difficulty
soon presents itself. If the chosen metal is not of high value
it is cumbrous for making large payments; if on the other hand
its value is high, it is unsuitable for use in small transactions.
Hence there almost inevitably follows the use of other metals,
which are better suited for certain particular uses. Thus silver
is at once too heavy and too light. To pay 1000 in silver at its
present value would take 800 Ib troy, while a silver penny
would be under the convenient limit of size. Partly for these
reasons, but also to a large extent through the persistence of
currency by tale, we find that along with the standard money
other kinds are brought into or retained in use. Copper long
survives beside silver; and gold is employed for the more impor-
tant commercial transactions. Public convenience leads to the
valuation of these subsidiary forms of money, and in this easy
manner another currency system that of " multiple legal
tender "comes into being. Though, theoretically, several
substances might be valued for use as money, in practice some
kind of bimetallism is used, and generally gold and silver are
the constituents of the system. Thus for over three centuries
England had a currency in which the values of gold and silver
were fixed from time to time by royal proclamation. France
and the United States, as well as many other countries, have had
long experience of national bimetallism. The great problem
in such a form of currency has always been that of keeping the
two metals in effective circulation. As the values of the precious
metals fluctuate, the principle of Gresham's Law is exemplified
by the expulsion of the undervalued one. Each change in the
conditions of production or in the ratios fixed by other countries
tends to disturb the balance and is harassing to trade. Local or
national bimetallism comes to be unsustainable, and is replaced
by other currency types. The most remarkable is that known
as the " composite legal tender " system. Its object is to
combine any advantages of multiple legal tender with the main-
tenance of the single standard principle. One metal is selected
as the standard and is legal tender to any amount; other metals
are utilized for the purpose of token currency. Thus in the
system of the United Kingdom gold is the only standard coinage :
but silver and copper are employed for the lower coins and for
smaller payments. The establishment of this ingenious arrange-
ment is rather the outcome of the circumstances that governed
the English monetary situation in the i8th century than any
refined considerations of theory; but its justification on grounds
of principle is furnished in Lord Liverpool's Coins of the Realm
(1805). The extent to which the system has been copied by
other nations and the stability of the English currency are
strong confirmations of its merits as a solution of currency
difficulties. Though the composite legal tender system has been
a decided success, it does not follow that it supplies the only
mode of dealing with the troubles that attend on the use of the
local double standard. Other methods have been evolved from
the monetary experiences of France and India, which take
distinct forms according to the special features of the case.
There is the currency system known as the " limping standard,"
the essence of which is the concurrent use of two metals, one
being overvalued and coined only by state authority. The
quantity of this favoured metal is necessarily limited in amount,
to avoid depreciation or the ejection of the other metal from the
circulation. It, however, has the position of money in the
fullest sense, in that it is legal tender for any amount. The
S-franc pieces issued by the Latin union are the best known
specimen of such coinage. In this case also the origin of the
system was not theoretical, it was the result of the fall in the value
of silver and the fear entertained by the French government
that gold would be displaced by the cheaper metal. The
temporary expedient of limiting the coinage of standard silver
has developed into the maintenance during more than thirty-
five years of the limping standard, which derives its name from
the shortness of one limb of the currency body. Equally
suggestive for monetary theory is another phase or system,
usually described as the " gold-exchange standard " system,
in which the ordinary currency is of a rnetal coined only by the
state, and so limited as to keep it in a prescribed value ratio
to another metal (gold) which does not circulate, but acts as the
standard of value. This variation on the limping standard
has been produced by the effort of the Indian government to
meet the embarrassment caused by the continuous fall in the
gold value of silver. Under the pressure of failing revenue and
of persons suffering from the rupee depreciation in gold, the
limitation on silver coinage was first enacted (1893); to be
followed some years later (1899) by the establishment of gold as
the standard, with a definite parity assigned for the state silver
issues. The success of the Indian experiment for such it
avowedly was has led to its imitation by the American adminis-
tration in the Philippine Islands and by Mexico. It may be
looked on as the natural product of the condition in which the
single legal tender system is proving unfit, while the material
for the composite legal tender system is wanting. The employ-
ment and theoretic explanation of these methods of currency
adjustment mark the greatest advance made in monetary
science and practice in recent years. Whether the limping, or
the gold-exchange standards will be permanent forms is difficult
to determine; but they are beyond doubt of much importance
in meeting the risks of a period of transition. In any case they
are entitled to recognition as distinct forms of currency organi-
zation, resting on a scientific basis.
The types presented by purely metallic currencies can be
considered by themselves for the purpose of theoretical exposi-
tion. In actual working they are now affected by the existence
of representative money. The state issues paper money which
may be either convertible or inconvertible, or if it refrains from
so doing, the banks take up the task and supply a medium of
exchange in the form of notes, or by a later development through
providing for the use of cheques by their customers. An
inconvertible paper currency has some pronounced affinities
with overvalued metal; a duly regulated issue of this kind is
quite on the lines of the gold-exchange system, and the diffi-
culties of the two forms are very similar. But, just as the cruder
systems of metallic money have gradually given way to the
higher ones, so it may be said that the grosser forms of misman-
agement in representative money are being removed, notwith-
standing the recurrence of such monetary crises as that of 1907
in the United States. The great instance of government paper
money is the United States notes, known, as " greenbacks,"
which are fixed at the amount of $346,681,016. The most
prominent case of bank issue of notes is that of the Bank of
France, with somewhat over 200,000,000 in circulation.
Examples of the cheque currency are more difficult to state in
quantitative shape; as the constituent parts are continually
being created and cancelled, but the clearing-house returns give
some idea of its extent in England. The figure for 1909 was
MONEY
705
13,525,446,000. It seems highly probable that the next stage
in improvement will be the extension of currency based on
. credit, after the Anglo-American pattern, to the other commer-
cial countries of the world. But this movement can only be
slow, it will not affect Eastern countries. For a long time they
will remain in the metallic currency stage, with the moderate
use of a guaranteed note circulation.
There are several plans which have been advocated as superior
to any of the systems actually in use. Most of these schemes
are undeserving of notice; a few, however, claim attention on
the ground of theoretical or practical importance. The most
conspicuous is that known as " international bimetallism,"
which was designed to obviate the evils said to result from the
demonetization of silver and the overflow of the established
ratio between the precious metals. Its central idea was the
creation of a monetary league, composed, if not of all, at least
of the leading states (the larger the number the better), the
members being bound to coin any amount of gold and silver
at an agreed ratio. By such an agreement an adequate field
for the use of both metals would be provided, and fluctuations
in the relative value of silver and gold would be completely
prevented. The expulsion of the cheaper metal would be
impossible, owing to the absence of any place to which it could
be driven. Variations in the production of the precious metals
would act en both metals, not on one. Another plan for meeting
the same set of difficulties is the composition of the monetary
standard by taking assigned amounts of both metals in combina-
tion as the unit say i oz. of gold with 10 oz. of silver. The
title " symmetallism " has been given to this ingenious mode of
trying to obtain a more stable standard than that afforded by
the employment of a single metal. Amongst the many devices
that the use of paper money has suggested the most noticeable
are those that aim at the replacement of metallic money
by some other basis. The socialist conception of a
" labour note " may be paralleled by the idea of
" commodity notes," resting on a development of the
clearing system. Viewed from the practical standpoint
it may be said that the double standard in any form
is condemned by the course of events; it has been
defeated by the gold standard. In respect to the other
proposed methods there is the almost insurmountable
difficulty of making them in any way sufficiently
popular to overcome the resistance that they must
necessarily encounter. This criticism holds good, quite
apart from the objections of principle to which they
are all open, in very different degree it is true. The
influence of custom in relation to money can never be
set aside. For this reason it is certain that very gradual
change is the only possible kind of monetary reform
that can hope for success. It is essential to preserve
as far as possible the old surroundings and avoid the
intrusion of novel devices. The adoption of what
Sir R. Giffen has styled " fancy monetary standards "
is reserved for a distant future.
In the course of the development of monetary
systems important theoretical problems have presented
themselves. For the middle ages the great question
was the best mode of securing an honest metallic
currency. At the beginning of the modern national
states the problem of keeping a parity between silver
and gold was the most serious issue which each state
attempted to solve independently. With the rise of
credit there followed debate on the proper manage-
ment of paper money in its various forms, which has
not yet been completely closed. But the tendency in
the last fifty years has been to concentrate attention
on the meaning and due constitution of the monetary
standard. In particular, the difficulties that result
from an alteration in general prices, and the incon-
venience to foreign trade from different currency
standards have been exhaustively considered. It is
therefore desirable to present in a concise form what
xvm. 13.
appears to be the outcome of these discussions. The first
established conclusion is the impossibility of obtaining an
absolute and invariable standard. The best that can be hoped
is a near approximation by balancing the elements of fluctuation.
The construction of the most suitable monetary system is a work
of practical adjustment. The influence of the actual conditions,
which has been already emphasized, helps to indicate the limits
of profitable inquiry. In respect to the metallic basis the choice
is between the single standard gold or silver, and some combina-
tion of these. The single standard of silver can be set aside,
though it has had influential supporters. On the other hand the
only combinations that need be considered are those indicated
above by the titles " bimetallism " and " symmetallism."
The theory of the gold standard rests on the principle that one
metal is a better criterion for measuring values than two, since the
fluctuations that occur by the substitution of one metal for the
other are certain to be disturbing. There is the further difficulty
that no ratio can be permanently fixed between two metals, as their
values must vary with the alterations in production. The inherent
simplicity, and, so to speak, " naturalness," of the single standard is
best realized by embodying it in gold, which is universally desired,
of high cost and yet found in sufficient amount to discharge the
money work of the standard. The verdict of history is appealed to
as confirming the theoretic presumption, for gold has been gaining
ground from century to century. The struggles to reverse this
process have only made it more pronounced (see MONETARY CON-
FERENCES). Most of the objections to the gold standard rest on
ideas which are the support of other economic fallacies. The at-
tempts to supersede it involve the rejection of the rule of economic
law. The foundation of the doctrine of " bimetallism " is the theory
that the value of money is determined, not simply by cost of pro-
duction, nor by unregulated supply and demand, but by the action
of regulated demand, in conjunction with the actual conditions
of production. States are the demanders of metal for monetary
use, and by adjusting that demand they can powerfully influence
the course of production, especially as the cost at which either
TABLE I. Estimated Production of Gold and Silver, 1493-190-
Period.
^o.of
Years.
Amount in Kilos.
Value in Millions
of Francs.
latio of
Value of
Gold to
Silver.
Gold.
Silver.
Gold.
Silver.
1493-1520
28
162,400
1,316,000
56o
292
"3
1521-1544
24
171,800
2,165,000
592
481
1 1 -2
I545-I580
36
273,000
10,976,000
940
2,439
"5
1581-1600
20
147,600
8,378,000
508
,862
Ji-9
1601-1620
20
170,400
8,458,000
587
,880
13-0
1621-1640
20
166,000
7,872,000
572
.749
13-4
1641-1660
2O
175,400
7,326,000
604
,628
13-8
1661-1680
2O
185,200
6,740,000
638
,498
14-7
1681-1700
2O
215,300
6,838,000
742
,520
15-0
1701-1720
2O
256,400
7,112,000
883
,580
15-2
1721-1740
20
381,600
8,624,000
I-3I4
,916
I5-I
1741-1760
20
492,200
10,663,000
1,695
2,370
14-8
1761-1780
2O
414,100
13-055,000
1,426
2,900
14-8
1781-1800
2O
355.8oo
17,581,000
1,226
3,906
I5-I
1801-1810
IO
177,800
8,942,000
612
-987
15-6
1811-1820
IO
1 14,400
5,408,000
394
,202
15-5
1821-1830
IO
142,200
4,606,000
490
,023
15-8
1831-1840
10
202,900
5,964,000
699
.325
15-7
1841-1850
10
547,600
7,804,000
1,886
-734
15-8
1851-1855
5
987,600
4,431,000
3-402
985
15-4
1856-1860
5
1,030,000
4,525,000
3-549
,006
15-3
1861-1865
5
925,600
5,506,000
3,i88
,223
J5-4
1866-1870
5
959,500
6,695,000
3,305
,488
15-6
1871-1875
5
.869,500
9,847,000
2,985
2,188
16-0
1876-1880
5
862,100
12,251,000
2,960
2,522
17-8
1881-1885
5
745,700
14,308,000
2,579
2,640
18-6
1886-1890
5
796,800
17,362,000
2,743
2,832
2I-I
1891
196,600
4,266,000
677
669
20-9
1892
220,900
4,893,000
761
659
23-7
1893
236,700
5,165,000
8i5
640
26-5
1894
273,200
5,121,000
941
512
3 2-6
1895
301,500
5,234,000
1,045
544
31-6
1896
305,700
4,908,000
,049
549
30-7
1897
356,900
5,013,000
,215
499
34-o
1898
433,200
5,413,000
,486
530
35-2
1899
463,500
5,225,000
,590
520
33-9
1900
384,600
5,377,000
,325
556
33-4
1493-1850
358
4,752,100
149,828,000
16,368
33>292
14-05
1851-1885
35
6,380,000
57,563,000
21,968
12,052
16-3
1886-1900
15
3,969,600
53,070,000
13-647
8,510
27-2
1493-1900
408
15,101,700
260,461,000
51,983
53-854
14-72
yo6
MONEY
gold or silver is obtained varies with the productiveness of the
poorest mine in working. Thus by directing consumption, states are
controlling production, and therefore within limits fixing the
relative value of the two metals. This power has been shown in the
stability of the ratio during the continuance of the French double-
standard (1803-1873). The possibility of maintaining a given
ratio being thus established, the argument proceeds to show the
advantages of the system, (i.) It secures the concurrent use of the
precious metals and avoids throwing all the money work on gold,
(ii.) Greater stability in value may be expected, since the fluctua-
tions of either metal will be compensated by those of the other.
At the worst the variation can only be as great, (iii.) The larger
stock of money tends to keep up prices to the benefit of trade;
for falling prices hamper production, (iv.) The fixed ratio provides
a stable par of exchange between silver-using and gold-using
countries; though universal bimetallism would remove this dis-
tinction, (v.) The establishment of a world-currency would be
facilitated by allowing both metals a well-defined relation. -This
enumeration of the heads of the " bimetallic " case shows that its
working depends on the area of its operation. It must be " inter-
national " and the states composing the union must be " great
powers " in the monetary sense. Otherwise, their action would
be comparatively ineffective. The crucial difficulty has been the
determination of the common ratio. The risk of failure in carrying
out the policy has proved a deterrent to such great powers as England
and Germany, who are in possession of the gold standard. On the
theoretic side the chief weakness of bimetallism has been its failure
to supply any clear account of the limits within which states can
regulate the ratio of gold to silver. If the ratio 15-5:1 can be set
up why should not the ratio 100:1, or that of equality ? Its
practical failure has resulted partly from political conditions,
partly from the removal of most of the difficulties which it was
TABLE II. The Coinage Systems of Continental Europe, exhibiting the gold and silver coins, their weight, fineness, remedy and
approximate value in English and United States money.
Rem.
Approximate
Rem.
Approximate
3
-a
1-8
p. looo
Money Value.
._;
-"1
3 *3
p. looo
Money Value.
Coins.
'8
-c a
fl
. !
JS
i
f.
M
d j.
Coins.
S
tl
.is
8 5
1
Jg
s
.a
s*
In Finer
JP
C
'3
S
H
'5 5
rt
ESG
.3
ml
J
K
a
1
G
.9
1
M
Is
AUSTRIA HUNGARY '
loo Krcutzer 20 Kronen piece
Gold
6*775067
goo'o
20
.,._
s. d.
0:6 8
$ c.
405
NETHERLANDS 5
100 Cents = 10 Guilder piece
Gold
6*720
goo'o
I'S
2'0
s. d.
0166
$c.
4 2
= i Gulden. 10
8 Gulden
3*3875.34
6*4516:
goo'o
goo'o
2'0
2'O
"J
2\s
084
015 10
202
386
i Guilder, 5
"
3 36o
goo'o
2"O
083
2 I
4 ,t
,,
3*22580
goo'o
2"O
2'S
0711
I 93
2i ,,
Silver
25*000
945*0
2*5
'5
042
I O
4 Ducat
,,
13*9630
g86'i
117 7
915
* it
,,
lO'OOO
945 '0
2*5
o i 8
o 40
I ,.
3*4909
986 'i
095
a 29
i
9 it
,,
S'ooo
945*0
2'5
' r
o o 10
o 20
I Krone ,,
Silver
5*0
835-0
O O IO
o 20
25 Cents . . .
IO
"
3*575
i ' 400
640*0
640*0
2*5
2*5
*5
005
002
O IO
o 4
i Dollar
(Maria Theresa)
2 Gulden
**
28*0668
24*6914
goo'o
2'0
*'S
o 3 n;
096
5 - - .
NORWAY. See DENMARK.
PORTUGAL * **
"
0'68 5
640*0
2*5
"5
I
O 2
I
20 Kreutzer
1 i,
BELCIUII. See FRANCE.
12*3457
2*666
I 666
goo'o
Soo'o
400" o
20
2'0
2' 5
O I II.
005
002;
048
O IO
o 5
loooRcisi Crown or $10' ooo
Milrei. Half-Crown or $5 ' ooo
One-fifth Crown or $2 ' ooo
One-tenth Crown or $i 'ooo
Gold
17*735
8*867
3 '547
1*773
916-666
916-666
916 666
gi6'666
2*0
2 '0
2 '0
2'0
2'0
2"O
2 '0
2 '0
245
122.;
o 8 10
045
10 80
5 40
2 16
i S
DENMARK 2
iooOr=i 20 Kroner piece
Krone. 10
Gold
8*960572
4*480286
OOO'O
goo'o
i'S
2'0
121
O II OJ
536
2 63
500 Reis .
200 . . .
Silver
12 '500
S'ooo
gi6'666"
gi6 666
o 54
O 21
2 '0
i'o
O O IO.;
Silver
800' o
.
IOO
50 , t
"
2 "SOO
I ' 250
gl6'666
gi6'666
2 ' O
2 ' O
rc
o o 5J
O II
i Krone
7'500
Soo'o
3'o
30
O Z XI
53
027
RUMANIA. See FRANCE.
RUSSIA '
40 . .
25
jj
4*000
2*420
6oo"o
600 'o
3'0
3 o
3'o
3'o
005*
3J
o 13
O IO
o 6J
100 Copecks 15 Rouble piece
= Rouble. (Imperial )
Gold
I2'gO2
goo'o
nil
2'O
i ii 8
7 72
IO . .
ti
1*450
400*0
3
3'o
ij
O 2'
IO
8*601
000*0
2'0
113
5 14
FRANCE 3
74 i,
M
6*4SI
goo'o
2'0
o 15 10
3 86
ioo Centimes 100 Franc piece
= i Franc. 50
Gold
32*25806
16*12003
goo'o
goo'o
2 '0
2'0
I '0
I 'O
319 3-j
ng 7]
1930
965
(i -Imperial)
5
4*301
goo'o
n
2"O
oio 8
2 57
20 ,, ,,
6*45161
goo'o
2"O
2 '0
o 15 10
386
1
M
3*22580
goo'o
2 'O
2 'O
0711
I 93
1 ii
Silver
ig'ggs
goo'o
M
2'0
O 2 l|
o 51
S
1*61290
goo'o
2"0
3'
o 3iiJ
o 96
I : ::
"
g'997
4'gq8
ooo'o
goo'o
"
2'0
2'
O I Of
o i 6-J
o 25
o 13
5
Silver
25-0
goo'o
2 '0
Vo
o 3 n!
096
20 Copecks . .
,,
3 599
500 'o
005
O IO
IO'O
835 'o
i 'o
S " o
017
038
'5 . .
,,
2'6gg
Soo'o
003}
o 7
i
5 ? o
835 "o
)
S o
O O On
o ig
10 . .
,,
I*7g9
500 'o
002-1
o S
50 Centimes . .
2'5
835 'o
v ;
OO4J
O IO
SERVIA. See FRANCE.
20 . .
I'O
835 "o
002
o 4
SPAIN.** See FRANCE.
GERMANY*
SWEDEN. See DENMARK.
ioo Pfennige 20 Mark piece .
Gold
7.964954
goo'o
019 7
476
SWITZERLAND. See FRANCE.
= i Mark. 10
3.982477
goo'o
ooo',
238
TURKEY * -
S ii
I.g9l239
goo'o
-
4IOJ
I 19
loo Piastres Medjidie or Lira
Gold
7*216
9l6'66<>
2'0
2'O
o 18 o
4 40
-= i Medjidie. 1
3*608
916-666
2'0
2'O
090
2 2O
S
Silver
27*7777
900*0
o 410}
i 19
1 ..
1(
1*804
916 666
2'0
2 '0
046
I IO
2
tt
I'lllt
goo'o
__
_
O I I ! ',
048
1 r.f ."
tl
s;sss5
goo'o
o on]
024
20 Piastres . .
Silver
24*055
830*0
Vo
3 'o
037
o 88
50 Pfennige
,,
goo'o
006
12
IO
tj
12*027
830*0
3'0
3
I Qv
44
20
GREECE.* See FRANCE.
"
I'lllt
goo o
O O 2.1
o 5
5
2 M
6*013
2 "4O5
830*0
830*0
3'o
Vo
*5 o
O O IOJ
004
22
O 9
ITALY. See FRANCE.
I . .
I' 2O2
830*0
1
i o
O O 2
4
Inconvertible paper currency.
1 Present system introduced in 1894, in place of the system
adopted in 1870. The Maria Theresa dollar is only used as a com-
mercial money in Levantine trade.
2 The system of the Scandinavian union came into force on the
1st of January 1875. It is based on gold monometallism.
3 The coinage system of France came into force on the 6th of
May 1799. It was extended to the countries forming the Latin
union in_ 1865; it has been adopted by Greece, Rumania, Servia
and Spain. It is the most widely extended system in Europe.
The Austrian 8 and 4 gulden pieces were equivalent to the 20
and 10 franc pieces. In 1879 it was estimated that the system
was used by populations amounting to 148,000,000. In its origin
a double standard (with ratio of 15-5:1) it has become a limping
standard by the limitation of the silver coinage. The unit is the
same value all through the union, but receives different names in
lifferent countries. The titles are: in France, Belgium and
Switzerland, franc and centime; in Italy, lira and eentesimo; in
Greece, drachme and lepta; in Rumania, leu and ban; in Servia,
dinar and para; in Spain, peseta and eentesimo.
4 The German coinage law came into force on the 1st of January
1875. It was modelled on the English system, but it is only in the
last few years that the old silver has been completely withdrawn.
6 The Dutch standard has been changed more than once. In
1847 a silver standard was introduced, and retained till 1872, the
unit being the silver guilder. In 1875 the free coinage of gold was
decreed; silver coinage having been restricted since 1872. Thus
the limping standard is in force.
6 The nominal standard of Portugal is gold. The English
sovereign is legal tender at 4500 reis.
7 The Russian currency until 1897 was nominally a silver
standard one; but really was inconvertible. The currency was
improved in 1885; and in 1897 the gold standard was adopted,
provision being made for the withdrawal of the paper money.
Finland, which had a currency on the French model, is now being
compelled to accept the Russian currency.
8 The Spanish coinage was assimilated to that of the Latin
union in 1871. Spain, differing from the other countries of the
group, coins a 25 peseta piece.
The Medjidie coinage was introduced in 1844. English sove-
reigns circulate at 125 piastres; 20 franc pieces at 100 piastres.
MONEY
intended to meet by the subsequent economic development. The
proposal for a joint standard formed by using a unit in which the
two metals are combined has the advantage of escaping the risk
of failure to maintain the ratio, for it makes the employment of
both silver and gold essential. Its influence in causing stability
is also likely to be greater ; but it is open to the danger that a shortage
of one metal would not be compensated by the abundance of the
other. The further advantage that it does not need international
agreement (for each country could settle its own combination) is
counterbalanced by the strangeness of the plan and by its necessi-
tating the use of representative money. The suggestion of
707
" goloid " coins on the model of the Greek electrum would hardly be
acceptable.
n. The Present Money Systems of the World: Changes of the
last Half Century. The facts as to the money of the leading
countries of the world are given in Tables II. and III. It is,
however, necessary to explain the way in which this position
has been reached by the reforms of the last fifty years. Since
1860 the alterations in standards and in coin denominations
have been of a very extensive nature. England is one of the
TABLE III. Currencies of the more important non-European States.
2
~ S
_.
Rem.
p. 1000.
Approximate
Money Value.
d
Rem.
p. IOOO.
Approximate
Money Value.
Coins.
1
1
% 5
Millesim
Finenes
jq
f
A
.3
I
IS
a a
Coins.
Material
Id
g "Q
f=
in en ess.
M
1
Is
a
d
&
"
a
d
fl
i
'~--J.
A. NORTH AMERICA.
CHILE * *
BRITISH DOMINIONS '
100 Cents- i Dollar.
100 Centavos 20 Peso piece
i Peso. (Condor) . .
10
Gold
11*982
5'99I
316*6
9l6'6
s. d.
I IO O
o 15 o
S c.
7 20
3 60
MEXICO *
f s d
5
2-995
916*6
o 7 6
I So
loo Centavos 10 Dollar piece.
= i Dollar 5
(Piastre).
Gold
8*333
4*166
90o'o
900*0
i*5
3'0
S'o
105
o 10 3
4 98
2 49
50 Cent piece .
20
Silver
2O'O
lO'O
S'o
835*o
835'0
8-15-0
o i 6
009
o 34
o 36
IS
o 7
i
50 Cent piece .
20
Silver
27'073
ii'S
S'o
902*7
Soo'o
800*0
3'o
4*0
4'o
3'6
6*0
8*0
o 2 o j
O I Oi
005
49
25
O IO
1
COLOMBIA* '
100 Centavos 20 Peso piece .
Gold
32-258
835*0
9oo'o
~
~
002
3 19 3a
4
19 30
10
UNITED STATES '
100 Cents 20 Dollar piece
= i Dollar. (Double Eagle)
Gold
33'43&
800*0
900*0
4*0
2"O
S'o
I'O
o o 2}
4 2 6
S
" i Peso. 10 ,,
(Condor) . .
5 Peso piece .
2
"
i6'i29
8'o6 S
3'22S
900*0
9OO'o
9OO'O
-
x 19 8
o 19 10
o 7 "1
9 65
482
I 93
10 Dollar piece
(Eagle)
I
Silver
25'O
5 Dollar piece.
,,
8'359
900*0
2'0
2'O
o 7i
20 Centavos .
S'o
835*0
92
o 19
is "
"
SOIS
4'I79
900*0
900*0
2*O
2"0
2*O
I'O
12 4}
10 4
PE RD 8_ S " ' '
I'2S
835*0
-
o o s|
5
i
50 Cent piece .
25
Silver
I '67 1
26*729
12*500
6*250
900*0
900*0
900*0
900*0
2*O
3'0
3*0
3*0
3'0
s'o
S'o
4 Ij
4 ii
2 Oj
10 Soles i Libra piece
- i Libra. 5 Soles(j Libra)
i Sol piece .
50 Centavos .
Gold
Silver
7'988
3'994
25"O
I2'5
916-5
9i6'6
900*0
900*0
z o
2*0
I O O
486
:> 43
o 48
o 24
2 O
2 O
s'o
3"o
O 2 O
O I O
S "
"
1*250
900*0
Vo
5 ,
2J
20
ECUADOR. See PERU.
S'o
835*0
30
S'o
OO2}
o S
3
,,
0*802
750*0
3*0
Ij
B SOUTH AMERICA.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC * * l
100 Centesimos 20 Peso piece .
= i Dollar 10
(Peso). 5
Gold
33*333
i6'666
8'533
900 "o
900*0
goo'o
4 i 8
2 O IO
i o 5
19 94
9 97
4 98
INDIA (BRITISH) 9
3 Fie= i Pice, i Rupee piece .
4 Pice= i Anna, j
(15 Rupees
Silver
11-665
5-832
2*916
1*458
916-6
916*6
9i6"6
916*6
-
014
008
OO4
002
o 3 >
o 16
o 8
o 4
= i Pound).
i
Silver
25-000
goo'o
o 3 ui
o 96
JAPAN i
BRAZIL*
1000 Reis 20 Milreis piece.
-= i Mtirei. 10
Gold
17-929
8-964
9i6'6
916*6
-
2 4 loi
I 2 5
10 91
5 45
100 Sen= i Yen. 20 Yen piece
10
5
Gold
16*666
8*333
4'l66
900*0
9OO"O
goo'o
I'O
I'O
I'O
'2
'3
'4
2 1
i o 6
o 10 3
9 97
4 98
2 49
2
Silver
25-500
916*6
045
I 9
50 Sen
Silver
I3'478
800*0
3'o
.
I OJ
o 25
,,
12*250
916*6
2 2 j
SS
20
If
6'39I
800*0
3'0
^
005
10
J
6'375
916*6
Oil
o 27
1 M
"
2-695
800*0
3'o
*6
00 2-j
o 5
* Inconvertible paper currency.
1 Until 1906 there was no mint in Canada. English and American
coins circulate. The standard is gold (1=4-866 dollars). There
were formerly different methods of counting, viz. English sterling,
Halifax currency and Canadian sterling; the respective ratios
being 100: 120: 108.
2 The Mexican currency has been entirely altered in its standard
by the legislation of 1905. The gold-exchange system has been
brought, into force. The old-established dollar, which is called
piastre, is reduced so as to represent a ratio of about 33-1.
'The dollar-was introduced in 1787 as the unit. In 1792 the
ratio of gold to silver was fixed at i to 15. This valuation under-
rated gold, consequently silver became the standard. In 1834 the
ratio was altered to I to 16, and it was again changed in 1837.
In these changes gold was overrated, and silver was driven out of
circulation. This led, in 1853, to the reduction of the metal in
the silver coins, which therefore became a token-currency. The
suspension of cash payments took place in 1 86 1. In 1873 silver
was demonetized, and gold became the standard. In 1878 the
" Bland Bill " was passed, making the silver dollar a legal tender,
but confining its coinage to the executive, and fixing the amount
at from two to four million dollars per month. The difficulties that
resulted from this measure led to the Sherman Act of 1890, pro-
viding for the coinage of silver to the annual amount of 54,000,000 oz.
Owing to the critical situation created by these efforts to aid silver,
the repeal of the Sherman Act was carried in 1893. Since then the
chief problem has been to maintain an effective gold reserve.
4 The Argentine currency is, in practice, one of inconvertible
paper. The gold coins were altered in 1881. The old South
American onza weighed 27 grammes, was 875 fine and worth
3. 4s. 6d.
E The Brazilian currency is greatly depreciated. It is derived
from the Portuguese.
6 The Chilean coinage was reformed in 1895, when the gold
standard was adopted, and the system brought into relation to the
English one. Two Chilean Condors (20 peso pieces) being equal
to 3.
7 In 1904 Colombia adopted the gold standard by taking the
equivalent of the U.S. dollar as the unit; but the inconvertible
paper is the main currency; and the old coins pass as commercial
money.
'Alter attempting a parity with the Latin union, and passing
through a period of inconvertible paper, Peru has adopted the English
gold standard and coinage, but keeps her own silver denominations.
9 The silver standard was prescribed in India in 1835, with the
use of the gold mohurs. The latter was demonetized in 1853.
In consequence of the fall in the gold value of silver, the Indian
mints were closed to the coinage 6f silver, otherwise than by the
government, in 1893. The amount of currency was so limited as
to bring the rupee to the value of is. 4d. On the realization of this
position, English sovereigns were made legal tender at the ratio
of 15 rupees = i sovereign. India has, by these measures joined
the class, now becoming numerous, of gold-exchange standard
countries.
10 The old Japanese currency consisted of gold cobangs and
silver itzibus, with a ratio of 4 to I. This antique system was
replaced in 1871 by a double-standard one on the French plan,
the ratio being 16-17: II. The system passed first into one of silver
monometallism; and then became one of inconvertible paper.
The great reform of 1897, aided by the Chinese War indemnity,
placed the currency on the gold basis.
yo8
MONEY-LENDING
few countries that has not found change desirable. France has
reorganized her token coins (1864), entered into the Latin
union (1865) and adopted the limping standard in 1874. Ger-
many has completely transformed the monetary system hitherto
existing in the German States (1873). The Scandinavian union
has been set up (1875). Holland has changed her system more
than once. Still later, Austria-Hungary (1892) and Russia
(1897) have come over from the silver standard with the practical
use of inconvertible paper to new currencies on the gold basis.
In America the United States, after a series of monetary expe-
riences, has made the gold dollar its standard unit, though
the silver complication still exists. Mexico has succeeded in
establishing a gold-exchange standard at such a ratio as to induce
the import of gold. British India has had its rupee currency
put into relation to the English gold unit, and has been followed
by the Straits Settlements. Japan first abandoned its ancient
currency (1871). It then adopted a double standard system
which became in practice a silver one and later passed into
inconvertible paper. Finally, it has (1897) established a composite
legal tender system on the gold basis. The Dutch Indies have
the gold-exchange standard on the same plan as British India.
Remarks. In addition to the tabular statements, the following
points respecting the currencies of !ess advanced countries may be
indicated. Though there is a tendency to establish the money of
the mother-country in colonies, some of the British possessions,
acquired by conquest, have kept their former currency. There
has been a widespread movement in the backward countries of
the world towards reforming their money; chiefly by setting up
some line of connexion with the gold standard. In South and
Central America the dollar has been retained as the unit; but the
movement for co-ordination with the French system has ceased.
The English standard has been preferred as a model by Chile and
Peru. In Asia the currency of the Philippines has been reorganized
under American control. China is considering monetary reform,
and Siam has made progress in the direction of the gold-exchange
standard. Probably the most defective currencies are now those
of Turkey and her tributary states.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature on the subject of money has been
well described as " almost measureless." The list of writers who
have contributed to it begins with Aristotle, and includes such
famous names as Copernicus, Locke and Newton. A full enumera-
tion would fill a volume of no slight size. All that can be done here
is to give a short classified list of the most serviceable books.
I. Economic text-books: English and American J. S. Mill,
Principles of Political Economy (London, 1848; new ed. by Ashley,
1909); Sidgwick, Principles of Political Economy (London, 1883;
3rd ed., 1901); J. S. Nicholson, Principles of Political Economy
(3 vols., London, 1893-1901); F. A. Walker, Political Economy
(New York, 1883; 2nd ed., 1887, often reprinted); A. T. Hadley.
Economics (New York, 1896) ; E. R. A. Seligman, Principles of Econo-
mics (New York, 1905); H. R. Seager, Introduction to Economics
(New York, 1904; 3rd ed., 1908). French: M. Chevalier, Cours
d'economie politique (vol. iii. " La Monnaie," Paris, 1850); P. Leroy-
Beaulieu, Trails d'economie politique (4 vols., Paris, 1896); C. Gide,
Cours d'economie politique (Paris, 1909). German: H. Mangoldt,
Grundriss der Volksmrtschaflslehre (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1871);
G. Schonberg, Handbuch der politischen Oeconomie (Tubingen,
1882; 4th ed., 1904); G. Schmoller, Grundriss der attgemeinen
Volkswirtschaftslehre (Leipzig, 1900-1904). The Dutch work by
N. G. Pierson has been translated into English with the title
Principles of Economics (London, 1902).
II. Special treatises on " Money": W. S. Jevons, Money and
the Mechanism of Exchange (London, 1875); F. A. Walker, Money
(New York, 1878); J. S. Nicholson, Money and Monetary Problems
(London, 1888 ; 6th ed., 1902) ; C. A. Conant, The Principles of Money
and Banking (2 vols., New York, 1905) ; A. Arnaune, La Monnaie,
le credit et le change (Paris, 1894; 2nd ed., 1902); A. de Foville, La
Monnaie (Paris, 1907); C. Knies, Geld und Kred.it (Berlin, 1873-
1879); G. F. Knapp, Staatliche Theorie des Geldes (Leipzig, 1905).
III. Works on special questions : See BIMETALLISM; BANKING; and
MONETARY CONFERENCES for writings on the problems of the stand-
currency, besides the works on the numismatic side Lord Liverpool,
Coins of the Realm (1805; reprinted 1880). For America W. G.
Sumner, History of American Currency (New York, 1874). On the
production and consumption of money materials, W. Jacob,
Production and Consumption of the Precious Metals (2 vols.,
London, 1831); and A. Del Mar, History of the Precious Metals
(London, 1880). Technical details in Tate's Cambist (many
editions). (C. F. B.)
MONEY-LENDING, the lending of money on usury (q.v.).
The business of the professional money-lender is one which, as
tyranny and abuse are likely to appear, all countries have at
different times endeavoured to regulate. In England the lessons
of experience have shown that the abuses of this business are
best regulated by a system of registration coupled with relief
to debtors against harsh and unconscionable bargains. Other
countries however still appear to cling to the belief that it is
wisest to fix a maximum rate of legal interest. Thus in Germany
the commercial code fixes the legal rate of interest on commercial
transactions at 5%. Moreover in that country traders can
demand interest on commercial debts from the day on which
the debts fall due. In France, again, the Code fixes the rate
of interest on ordinary loans at 5%, and on commercial trans-
actions at 6%. In the United States of America the law
relating to the lending of money on usury varies in the different
states. All the states have what is called a " legal rate " of
interest; and when no rate of interest is specified in the contract
between the parties, there is a presumption that the borrower
has agreed to pay the legal rate. This legal rate varies from
5% in Louisiana to 8% in Wyoming; in the Eastern states
it is generally 6%. Some of the states have usury laws giving
relief to borrowers in cases where circumstances have compelled
them to agree to extortionate rates; but other states have no such
laws, except that a contract in writing is invariably required
in all cases where the " legal rate " is exceeded.
Practically every form of investment in which a man is
capable of indulging involves the lending and borrowing of
money, the interest exacted being the profit which the lender
receives for the use of his capital. The existence of the pro-
fessional lender, as apart from the ordinary facilities for borrow-
ing money on good security, is obviously due to the fact that
it is not every borrower who is in a position to give good security
for a loan. Where the security is bad the market is narrowed;
the individuals who are prepared to lend the money on merely
personal security require a high rate of interest.
The first people to practise the profession of money-lending
in England regularly were the Jews, and the business has
remained largely in their hands, though they are in the habit
of trading under assumed names. The Norman and Angevin
kings were fully alive to the advantages which accrued to the
people through borrowing at usury from the Jews, but they were
also alive to the advantages whichVhey themselves were able
to reap by extorting from the Jews the wealth which the latter
had acquired from the people. The Jews were regarded as the
king's serfs, and squeezing them was but a popular form of
taxing the people. Indeed in the reign of Henry II. the Scac-
carium Judaeorum was established as a separate branch of the
exchequer and used for the purpose of filling the royal coffers.
The English people on the other hand were not so prone to foster
the money-lending business. Sections 10 and n of Magna
Carta provided that when a person died owing money to a Jew
no interest should accrue during the minority of the heir, and
further that the widow should be entitled to her dower, and any
children who were minors should be provided with necessaries
before the repayment of the loan. Then followed a large number
of statutes known generally as the Usury Laws (see also USURY).
The first of these was passed in 1235 (20 Hen. III. c. 5). The
acts were directed to restrain the lending of money at usurious
rates. The earlier ones in some cases prohibited the lending of
money on usury at all, as in a statute of Jewry of the reign of
Edward I.; but the later statutes were chiefly confined to limiting
the rate of interest. Thus 21 Jac. I. c. 17 declared void all
contracts where the interest was more than 8%. In 1818 a
select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to
consider the Usury Laws and in 1841 a similar committee of the
House of Lords was appointed. As a result an act was passed
in 1854 (17 & 18 Viet. c. 90) whereby all the existing laws against
usury were repealed.
The question whether any interest is payable or not, and
also the amount of such interest, depends on whether the
parties to the transaction have expressly or impliedly agreed
to the payment of interest by the borrower; for apart from such
agreement no interest can lawfully be demanded on a loan.
MONFORTE MONGE
Although in general there is no limit on the amount of interest
which a borrower may agree to pay, equity has always been
ready to grant relief from unconscionable bargains. This
equitable relief is still available, though it is not so wide as the
relief now given to borrowers under the Money-lenders Act
1000. This act provides that where proceedings are taken in
any court by a money-lender for the recovery of money lent,
and there is evidence which satisfies the court that the interest
charged on the loan, or the amounts charged for expenses,
inquiries, fines, bonus, premium, renewals, &c., are excessive,
and that in either case the transaction is harsh and uncon-
scionable, or is otherwise such that a court of equity would
grant relief, the court may reopen the transaction and take
an account between the money-lender and the person sued, and
may, notwithstanding any statement or settlement of account
or any agreement purporting to close previous dealings and
create a new obligation, reopen any account already taken
between them and relieve the person sued from payment of any
sum in excess of the sum adjudged by the court to be fairly due
in respect of such principal, interest and charges as the court,
having regard to the risk and all the circumstances, may adjudge
to be reasonable.
The Money-lenders Act of 1900 was passed in consequence
of grave abuses which had arisen. It had been the practice of a
certain class of lender to trade under a variety of names; so that
under one name the same individual would lend money to a
person who borrowed from him under another name; the
second loan would be spent in liquidating the first, and the
borrower finding it always easy to obtain more money would
continue borrowing until he became hopelessly involved. The
act struck at the root of this pernicious system by providing
that every money-lender, as defined by the act, must register
himself as such, under his own or usual trade name, and in no
other name, and with the address, or all the addresses if more
than one, at which he carries on his business of a money-lender.
If a money-lender fails to register himself, or if he carries on a
money-lending business otherwise than in his registered name,
or in more names than one, or elsewhere than at his registered
address, he is liable on summary conviction to a fine, not
exceeding one hundred pounds. For the purposes of the act
" money-lender " is defined as including every person whose
business is that of money-lending, but it does not include
pawnbrokers, in respect of business carried on by them under
the Pawnbrokers Act, Registered Friendly, Loan or Building
Societies, coporate bodies incorporated or empowered by
special act of parliament to lend money, persons bona fide
carrying on the business of banking or insurance, or bona fide
carrying on any business not having for its primary object the
lending of money, or bodies corporate for the time being
exempted from registration by order of the Board of Trade.
The act is not confined to providing for the registration of money-
lenders and for the reopening of harsh and unconscionable bargains.
A check is placed on false representations and promises made with
the intention of inducing a borrower to enter into a loan transaction.
If any money-lender, or any manager, agent or clerk of a money-
lender, or any person being a director, manager or other officer of
a corporation carrying on the business of a money-lender, by any
false, misleading or deceptive statement, representation or promise,
or by any dishonest concealment of material facts, fraudulently
induces, or attempts to induce, any person to borrow money or to
agree to the terms on which money is to be borrowed, he is declared by
the act to be guilty of a misdemeanour and is liable on indictment to
imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding
two years, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds, or to both.
The act further provides that if any one for the purpose of earn-
ing interest, commission, reward or other profit sends or causes to
be sent to a person whom he knows to be an infant any circular or
other document which invites the person receiving it to borrow
money or to apply to any person or at any place with a view to
obtaining information or advice as to borrowing money, he shall
be liable, if convicted on indictment," to imprisonment with or
without hard labour, or to a fine, or to both imprisonment and fine.
If any such circular or document sent to an infant purports to issue
from any address named therein or indicates any address as the
place at which application is to be made v/ith reference to the
subject matter of the document, and at that place there is carried
on any business connected with loans, every person who attends
such place for the purpose of taking part in or assisting in the
709
carrying on of such business will be deemed to have sent 'or caused
to be sent such circular or document, unless he proves that he was
not in any way a party to and was wholly ignorant of the sending
of such document. Moreover, by section 5 of the Money-lenders
Act 1900, where any proceedings are taken against the senders of
these circulars to infants, if it is proved that the person to whom
the document was sent is an infant, the person charged will be
deemed to have been cognisant of the fact unless he proves that he
had reasonable grounds for believing the infant to be of full age.
Under the act of 1892 this shifting of the burden of proof only oc-
curred if the circular had been sent to any person at any university,
college, school or other place of education.
As for the recovery of money lent ; if the loan is not tainted with
illegality or immorality, or made for a purpose contrary to public
policy, the amount may be recovered by a common law action.
Where an intending borrower breaks his agreement to borrow,
specific performance will not be granted, and the damages recover-
able must be measured by the loss sustained through the breach
and not by the sum agreed to be lent (The South African Territories.
Limited v. Wallington (1897), i Q.B. 692).
AUTHORITIES. On equitable relief to borrowers reference should
be made to Bellot and Willis's Bargains with Money-lenders. On
the law under the act of 1900 see Hastings's Law relating to Money-
lenders and Unconscionable Bargains; and Edmondson's Money-
lenders Act 1900. For the taxation of the Jews in the middle
ages, see Bridges, The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ages, and
Gneist s History of the English Constitution. For American law
relating to Usury, see Stimson's American Statute Law, and the
statutes of the various states. For France and Germany, see the
codes of those countries. (C. G. ALA.)
MONFORTE, or MONFORTE DE LEMOS, a town of north-western
Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the Cabe, a small right-hand
tributary of the Sil, and at the junction of the railways from
Tuy and Astorga to Corunna. Pop. (1900), 12,912. Monforte
is built on a hill surmounted by a ruined medieval citadel; it
contains an ancient Benedictine monastery converted into a
hospital, a Jesuit college, and a fine Renaissance parish church,
besides several convents and palaces of the Leonese nobility.
Monforte has manufactures of soap and linen, and some trade
in timber and livestock.
MONGE, GASPARD (1746-1818), French mathematician, the
inventor of descriptive geometry, was born at Beaune on the
icth of May 1746. He was educated first at the college of the
Oratorians at Beaune, and then in their college at Lyons where,
at sixteen, the year after he had been learning physics, he was
made a teacher of it. Returning to Beaune for a vacation, he
made, on a large scale, a plan of the town, inventing the methods
of observation and constructing the necessary instruments; the
plan was presented to the town, and preserved in their library.
An officer of engineers seeing it wrote to recommend Monge to
the commandant of the military school at Mezieres, and he was
received as a draftsman and pupil in the practical school attached
to that institution; the school itself was of too aristocratic a
character to allow of his admission to it. His manual skill was
duly appreciated: " I was a thousand times tempted," he said
long afterwards, " to tear up my drawings in disgust at the
esteem in which they were held, as if I had been good for nothing
better." An opportunity, however, presented itself: being
required to work out from data supplied to him the " defile-
ment " of a proposed fortress (an operation then only performed
by a long arithmetical process), Monge, substituting for this
a geometrical method, obtained the result so quickly that the
commandant at first refused to receive it the time necessary
for the work had not been taken; but upon examination the value
of the discovery was recognized, and the method was adopted.
And Monge, continuing his researches, arrived at that general
method of the application of geometry to the arts of construction
which is now called descriptive geometry (see GEOMETRY,
DESCRIPTIVE). But such was the system in France before the
Revolution that the officers instructed in the method were
strictly forbidden to communicate it even to those engaged in
other branches of the public service; and it was not until many
years afterwards that an account of it was published.
In 1768 Monge became professor of mathematics, and in 1771
professor of physics, at Mezieres; in 1778 he married Mme
Horbon, a young widow whom he had previously defended in
a very spirited manner from an unfounded charge; in 1780 he
was appointed to a chair of hydraulics at the Lyceum in Paris
yio
MONGHYR MONG NAI
(held by him together with his appointments at Mezieres), and
was received as a member of the Academic; his intimate friend-
ship with C. L. Bertholkt began at this time. In 1783, quitting
Mfizieres, he was, on the death of E. Bezout, appointed examiner
of naval candidates. Although pressed by the minister to prepare
for them a complete course of mathematics, he declined to do
so, on the ground that it would deprive Mme Bezout of her
only income, from the sale of the works of her late husband;
he wrote, however (1786), his Trails GUmentaire de la statique.
Monge contributed (1770-1790) to the Memoirs of the
Academy of Turin, the Memoires dss saiiantes etrangers of the
Academy of Paris, the Memoires of the same Academy, and the
Annaks de chimie, various mathematical and physical papers.
Among these may be noticed the memoir " Sur la theorie des
deblais et des remblais " (Mem. de I'acad. de Paris, 1781), which,
while giving a remarkably elegant investigation in regard to the
problem of earth-work referred to in the title, establishes in
connexion with it his capital discovery of the curves of curvature
of a surface. Leonhard Euler, in his paper on curvature in the
Berlin Memoirs for 1760, had considered, not the normals of the
surface, but the normals of the plane sections through a par-
ticular normal, so that the question of the intersection of
successive normals of the surface had never presented itself to him.
Monge's memoir just referred to gives the ordinary differential
equation of the curves of curvature, and establishes the general
theory in a very satisfactory manner; but the application to
the interesting particular case of the ellipsoid was first made by
him in a later paper in 1795. A memoir in the volume for 1783
relates to the production of water by the combustion of hydrogen;
but Monge's results had been anticipated by Henry Cavendish.
In 1792, on the creation by the Legislative Assembly of an
executive council, Monge accepted the office of minister of the
marine, but retained it only until April 1793. When the
Committee of Public Safety made an appeal to the savants to
assist in producing the materiel required for the defence of the
republic, he applied himself wholly to these operations, and
distinguished himself by his indefatigable activity therein; he
wrote at this time his Description de I' art de fabriquer les canons,
and his Avis aux ouvriers en fer sur la fabrication de Fader. He
took a very active part in the measures for the establishment
of the normal school (which existed only during the first four
months of the year 1795), and of the school for public works,
afterwards the polytechnic school, and was at each of them
professor for descriptive geometry; his methods in that science
were first published in the form in which the shorthand writers
took down his lessons given at the normal school in 1795, and
again in 1798-1799. In 1796 Monge was sent into Italy with
C. L. Berthollet and some artists to receive the pictures and
statues levied from several Italian towns, and made there the
acquaintance of General Bonaparte. Two years afterwards he
was sent to Rome on a political mission, which terminated in
the establishment, under A. Massena, of the short-lived Roman
republic; and he thence joined the expedition to Egypt, taking
part with his friend Berthollet as well in various operations of
the war as in the scientific labours of the Egyptian Institute of
Sciences and Arts; they accompanied Bonaparte to Syria, and
returned with him in 1798 to France. Monge was appointed
president of the Egyptian commission, and he resumed his
connexion with the polytechnic school. His later mathematical
papers are published (1794-1816) in the Journal and iheCorre-
spondance of the polytechnic school. On the formation of the
Senate he was appointed a member of that body, with an ample
provision and the title of count of Pelusiutn; but on the fall of
Napoleon he was deprived of all his honours, and even excluded
from the list of members of the reconstituted Institute. He died
at Paris on the 28th of July 1818.
For further information see B. Brisson, Notice hislorique sur
Gaspard Monge; Dupin, Essai historique sur les services etles travaux
scientifiques de Gaspard Monge (Paris, 1819), which contains (pp. 162-
166) a list of Monge's memoirs and works; and the biography bv
F. Arago (CEuvres, t. ii., 1854).
Monge's various mathematical papers are to a considerable
extent reproduced in the Application de V analyse a la geometric (4th
ed., last revised by the author, Paris, 1819); the pure text of this
is reproduced in the 5th ed. (revue, corrig6e et annote'e par M.
Liouville) (Paris, 1850), which contains also Gauss's Memoir, " Dis-
quisitiones generates circa superficies curvas," and some valuable
notes by the editor. The other Principal separate works are Traite
elementaire de la, statique, &' edition, conformee a la precedents, par
M. Hachelte, et^ suivie d'une note &r,., par M. Cauchy (Paris, 1846);
and the Geometrie descriptive (originating, as mentioned above, in
the lessons given at the normal school). The 4th edition, published
shortly after the author's death, seems to have been substantially
the same as the 7th (Geomelrie descriptive par G. Monge, suivie
d'une theorie des ombres et de la perspective, extraite des papiers de
I'auleur, par M. Brisson (Paris, 1847). (A. CA.)
MONGHYR, a town and district of British India, in the
Bhagalpur division of Bengal. The town is on the right bank
of the Ganges, and has a railway station, with steam ferry to the
railway on the opposite bank of the river. Pop. (1901), 35,880.
In 1195 Monghyr, a fortress of great natural strength, appears
to have been taken by Mahommed Bakhiyar Khilji, the first
Moslem conqueror of Bengal. Henceforth it is often mentioned
by the Mahommedan chroniclers as a place of military importance,
and was frequently chosen as the seat of the local government.
After 1590, when Akbar established his supremacy over the
Afghan chiefs of Bengal, Monghyr was long the headquarters of
his general, Todar Mai; and it also figures prominently during the
rebellion of Sultan Shuja against his brother, Aurangzeb. In
more recent times Nawab Mir Kasim, in his war with the English,
selected it as his residence and the centre of his military prepara-
tions. Mcnghyr is famous for its manufactures of iron : firearms,
swords, and iron articles of every kind are produced in abundance
but are noted for cheapness rather than quality. The art of
inlaying sword-hilts and other articles with gold and silver
affords employment to a few families.
The DISTRICT OF MONGHYK has an area of 3922 sq. m. The
Ganges divides it into two portions. The northern, intersected
by the Burhi Gandak and Tiljuga, two important tributaries of
the Ganges, is always liable to inundation during the rainy
season, and is a rich, flat, wheat and rice country, supporting
a large population. A considerable area, immediately bordering
the banks of the great rivers, is devoted to permanent pasture.
Immense herds of buffaloes are sent every hot season to graze on
these marshy prairies; and the ghi, or clarified butter, made from
their milk forms an important article of export to Calcutta.
To the south of the Ganges the country is dry, much less fertile,
and broken up by fragmentary ridges. Irrigation is necessary
throughout the section lying on the south of the Ganges. The
population in 1901 was 2,068,804, showing an increase of 1-6%
in the decade. The principal exports sent to Calcutta, bcth
by rail and by river, are oil-seeds, wheat, rice, indigo, grain
and pulse, hides and tobacco; and the chief imports consist of
European piece-goods, salt and sugar. The southern portion
of the district is well provided with railways. At Lakhisarai
junction the arc and chord lines of the East Indian railway divide,
and here also starts the branch to Gaya. At Jamalpur, which
is the junction for Monghyr, are the engineering workshops of
the company. In the early years of British rule Monghyr
formed a part of Bhagalpur, and was not created a separate
district till 1832.
See Monghyr District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1909).
MONO NAI (called by the Burmese and on most old maps
Mone), one of the largest and most important of the stales in
the eastern subdivision of the southern Shan States of Burma.
The state of Keng Tawng (Burmese Kyaing Taung) is a depen-
dency of Mong Nai. It lies approximately between 20 10' and
21 N. and between 97 30' and 98 45' E., and occupies an area
of 2717 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 44,252, of whom more than five-sixths
are Shans. The Salween river bounds it on the east. The main
state and the sub-state of Keng Tawng consist of two plains
with a ridge between them. There is much flat rice bottom,
but a considerable portion consists of gently undulating plain-
land. In the central plain rice is the only crop. Outside this
considerable quantities of sugar are produced. Tobacco of a
quality highly esteemed by the Shans is grown in the Nawng
Wawp circle at an altitude of 3100 ft. above sea-level; gram,
MONGOLIA
711
thanatpet (a leaf used for cigar-wrappers), and garden crops are
the chief produce otherwise. In the outlying tracts quantities
of coarse native paper are manufactured from the bark of a
species of mulberry, and much is exported to other parts of the
Shan States.
MONGOLIA, a vast territory belonging to the Chinese empire,
the administrative limits of which cannot be determined with
precision. On the N. it is bounded by the frontier of Russia,
beginning at Mount Kalas or Kanas (49 5' N., 87 40' E.) in
the Altai, and running to the S.E. corner of Transbaikalia in
the vicinity of Dalai-nor, thus having on the N. .the Siberian
provinces of Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk and Transbaikalia.
In the E. the boundary line which separates Mongolia from
Manchuria runs past Dalai-nor and Lake Buir, crossing the
Great Khingan in 47 30' N., towards Tsitsihar in Manchuria;
then, crossing the Nonni river, it strikes the Sungari at Khulan-
chen, where it turns westwards up this river, reaching the
Shara-muren river in 123 30' E. From China proper on the S.
Mongolia is separated by a line running in a south-westward
direction up the Shara-muren and across the Mongolian
plateau to the bending of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in
about 40 N. and 110 30' E. Thence the boundary describes
a sinuous line, following the Great Wall, and thus includes the
Ordos (Ho-tau) and Alashan (Si-tao), and reaches its most
southern point in 36 40' N., 104 20' E. Thence it turns
north-west, following the Great Wall for over 300 m.; it then
crosses the plateau so as to separate Mongolia from the Chinese
province of Sin-Kia.ng (Han-su-sin-tsiang, which includes the
Nan-shan highlands and eastern Turkestan) , and from Dzungaria,
reaching the Chinese or Ektagh Altai in 46 30' N., 92 50' E.
From that point the boundary coincides with the main water-
parting of the Altai Mountains till it reaches Mount Kalas.
Geographically, Mongolia may thus be said to occupy both
terraces of the great plateau of east Asia, which stretches in the
south of Siberia, between the Sailughem range of the Great
Altai and the Great Khingan with the exception of the Dzun-
garian depression. From Manchuria and China it is separated
by the border ridge of the plateau the Great Khingan, while
in the south-west it runs up to the foot of the high northern
border ridges of the Tibetan plateau an artificial frontier
separating it from east Turkestan and Dzungaria. Broadly
speaking, Mongolia may be divided naturally into three parts:
(i) north-western Mongolia, which occupies the high terrace
of the plateau; (2) the Gobi, in its wide sense, covering the
lower terrace of the plateau, together with a slightly more
elevated and better- watered zone along the western slope of the
Great Khingan and its south-western continuation; and (3) south-
eastern Mongolia, on the eastern slope of the Khingan. Of these
parts, the second is considered in detail under the heading GOBI.
North-western Mongolia was formerly represented as a region
intersected by lofty mountain chains. It appears, however, from
Russian explorations during the last third of the igth
century, that it has all the characteristics of an elevated
Mter ? plateau, of a rhomboid shape (like Bohemia), bounded
Mongolia, t four mountam ra nges; namely, the Russian Altai on
the N.W., the Sayans on the N.E., the Kentei range on the S.E.,
and the Ektagh Altai on the S.W. The border-ridge character
of the Sayans (Ergik-targak-taiga) is well established, and the
same orographic character is confirmed by recent explorers with
regard to the Sailughem range of the Altai. The only point still
remaining undecided is whether the valleys of the Bom-kemchik
(a tributary of the Yenisei) and its left-hand tributaries do not be-
long geographically to the Altai region. At any rate, throughout
the whole of north-west Mongolia, which covers an area of nearly
370,000 sq. m., the altitude nowhere falls below 2370 ft. (Ubsa-nor) ;
and the area round this lake which has less than 3000 ft. of
altitude covers only 6600 sq. m. The remainder of this extensive
territory ranges at altitudes of 3000 to 4500 ft., even in the
bottoms of the river valleys and in the lower plains; while the
ridges which constitute the water-partings rise about 2000 ft.
above the general level of the plateau. Along the south-western
border of this division of Mongolia a gigantic border-ridge, the
Ektagh (or Mongolian) Altai, runs in an E.S.E. direction from
the Russian Altai to 99 E. and is probably continued even
farther by the Artsa-bogdo, the Saikhat and other ranges as far
as the northern loop of the Yellow river. The passes across the
Ektagh Altai lie at altitudes of 10,000 ft. in the north-west and
9250 ft. in 93 20' E. ; farther east they become much lower. But
while its southern foot stands in the Dzungarian trench, i.e. at
altitudes of 1550 ft. only near Lake Ulungur, and at 3000 ft. in 94 E.,
its north-eastern foot rests on the high plateau, i.e. at 4260 it. at
Kobdo, 5410 at Oshku, 4070 at Orok-nor on the route from Kiakhta to
Su-chow, and so on. Thus the Ektagh Altai is a true border-range
that is, a lofty and steep escarpment facing the Dzungarian depres-
sion, with a gentle and relatively short slope towards the plateau.
In the same way the Kentei (or Gentei) Mountains, as they are
called, to the north of Urga, and the Yablonoi Mountains of Trans-
baikalia, separate the higher terrace of north-west Mongolia (drained
by the tributaries of the Selenga) from the lower terrace of the Gobi,
which is drained by the upper tributaries of the Onon and the
Kerulen, both belonging to the basin of the Amur. It is also very
probable that the Tannu-ola Mountains north-east of Ubsa-nor,
and the Khangai Mountains between Ulyasutai and the upper
Orkhon, both running W.N.W. to E.S.E. , border another slightly
higher terrace of the same great plateau of north-west Mongolia,
upon which Lake Kossogol lies, at an altitude of 5320 ft. On this
vast upper terrace even the bottoms of the river valleys are at
altitudes of 4200 to 5500 ft., with one single exception the narrow
gorge of the Khua (Khi)-khem, or upper Yenisei; while the highest
pass across the Tannu-ola Mountains is 7090 ft., though the others
are much lower. The conception of north-west Mongolia as a
region filled with mountain ranges radiating from the Altai must
thus be abandoned. It is a massive swelling of the earth's crust,
representing the northern counterpart cf the plateau of Tibet.
This massive swelling is cut into, between the Ektagh Altai and the
eastern T'ien-shan, by the relative depression of Tarbagatai and
Dzungaria, 1500 to 3000 ft. in altitude; while to the south of the
eastern T'ien-shan conies the Tarim depression, from 2200 to 3000 ft.
high, and occupying an area of about 88,000 sq. m. Neither of
these " depressions, ' however, penetrates beyond 94 E., and on
the route from Kiakhta to Su-chow, in 100 E., there is only one
single place (42 N.) in which the altitude drops as low as 3300 ft.;
everywhere else it varies between 4000 and 5000 ft.
Lakes and Rivers. North-western Mongolia is well watered, and
has in its western part a group of lakes which possess no outlet to
the ocean, being in reality the rapidly desiccating remains of what
were formerly much larger basins. The chief of them is Ubsa-nor
(2370 ft.), which receives the large river Tes. It lies in the middle
of a large plain, and has to the west of it a smaller but much higher
lake, Urga-nor, besides several smaller ones. Farther south on
the same wide plain lie the sister lakes Kirghiz-nor and Airyk-nor,
which receive another large river, the Dzap'hyn, and the Kungui.
Many small lakes are scattered over the plain to the east of them.
A third group of lakes occur in the neighbourhood of Kobdo.
The Kobdo river, which rises in the Dain-gol (7060 ft.) in the Ektagh
Altai, winds in great curves across the plateau, and enters Lake
Kara-usu (3840 ft.), which also receives the Buyantu, an outflow
from Lake Kobdo, and is connected by a small river with another
large lake, Durga-nor, situated a score of miles to the east. There
are also many smaller lakes fed by the glaciers of the Sailughem
(Achit-nor, 4650 ft., and Uryu-nor), and others scattered through
the Ektagh Altai. The largest lake of this region is, however,
Kosogol (Khubsu-gul), which lies at an altitude 015320 ft., close to
the Russian frontier, at the foot of the snow-clad Munku-sardyk.
Besides the rivers just mentioned, there are others belonging to the
basin of the Yenisei (Khua-or Khi-khem, Bei-khem and Bom-
kemchik); while yet others belong to the Selenga, a river formed
by the junction of the Eder with the Telghir. The Selenga receives
the Orkhon, at the head of which remarkable inscriptions were
discovered in the end of the igth century, and cleverly deciphered
by Professor V. Thomsen of Copenhagen. 1 The rivers which flow
down the outer slopes of the border-ridges become lost in the Gobi
shortly after entering it.
A very large portion of north-west Mongolia constitutes a high
plain, 3000 to 4200 ft. in altitude, which penetrates from the south-
east in a north-western direction between the Ektagh Altai and the
Khangai Mountains. It has a true Mongolian character, i. e. it is
covered with gravel, and presents the appearance of a dry prairie
devoid of forests. This same character is also exhibited by the
bottoms of the broad valleys, while the more elevated and hilly
portions of the territoiy, especially on their northern slopes, are
covered with larch, cedar, pine and deciduous trees belonging to the
Siberian flora ; where the forests fail they are marshy or assume the
character of Alpine meadows e.g. in the Khangai, the lannu-ola,
and on the slopes of the border-ridges. The whole of this region
is covered with excellent pasture. The forests decrease as one
travels southwards. For instance, while both slopes of the Sayans
are covered with forests, the Tannu-ola and the Khangai Mountains
have woods on their northern faces only, and the Ektagh Altai is
quite devoid of woods, even on its northern slope.
Climate. Owing to its high altitude, north-western Mongolia
is very cold, and the severity of the winter is intensified by the
prevalence of cold but dry north-western winds. The north-east
wind brings more moisture. In summer the warm winds come
from the south and south-east, but having first to cross the Gobi,
1 See V. Thomsen, Inscriptions de I'Orkhon (Helsingfors, 1900)
7 I2
MONGOLS
they are dried before they reach north-western Mongolia. The
yearly amount of rain at Urga (altitude 4350 ft., at the northern
foot of the Kentei Mountains) is only 9i in., and the average
temperatures are: year 27 F., January 18, July 64; a minimum
of 35 F. has been observed. The climate of Ulyasutai (5400 ft.)
may be taken as typical, its average temperatures being : year
31-6, January 12, July 66.
The geology is still very imperfectly known. The plateau is
built up of granites, gneisses and crystalline schists of Archean
and probably Primary age. Coal is known to exist to the south-
east of Kobdo, in the Tannu-ola, and in the basin of the Yenisei,
but its age is unknown (fresh-water Jurassic ?). Graphite and some
silver ores have also been found.
The fauna is a mixture of the Siberian and the Daurian the latter
penetrating up the valleys of the Selenga basin. The chief towns
of north-west Mongolia are Urga, Ulyasutai, Kobdo and Ulankom.
South-eastern Mongolia is the part of Mongolia which lies on the
eastern slope of the Great Khingan Mountains, entering like a wedge
between the lower course of the Nonni river and the
middle Sungari. Chiefly owing to the drynessof climate,
" ra its physical characteristics are similar to those of
Mongolia. Mongolia proper, except that the altitude of the plains is
much lower. This portion of Mongolia is also much better watered,
namely, by the Khatsyr, the Lao-ho and the Shara-muren, all flowing
from the Khingan Mountains eastwards, and the last making the
frontier between Mongolia and the Chinese province of Chihli.
Population. The population of the whole of Mongolia is
estimated at about 5,000,000. It consists of Mongols Eastern
Mongols and Kalmucks in the west various Turkish tribes,
Chinese and Tunguses. The Mongols proper, with the exception
of those who inhabit north-west Mongolia, may be divided into
northern and southern (more properly north-western and south-
eastern) Mongols. The former, belonging to the Khalkas,
occupy the Gobi and the regions of the Kentei Mountains and
Khingan Mountains, while the second, divided into numerous
minor branches, roam over south-eastern and southern Mongolia.
The principal occupation of the Mongols is cattle-breeding, and
Russian writers estimate that on an average each yurta, or family,
has about 50 sheep, 25 horses, 15 horned cattle and 10 camels.
The transport of goods is their next most important occupation.
It is calculated that 100,000 camels are used for the transport of
tea only from Kalgan to Siberia, and that no less than 1,200,000
camels and 300,000 ox-carts are employed in the internal
caravan trade. Agriculture is only carried on sporadically,
chiefly in the south, where the Mongols have been taught by
the Chinese. Various domestic industries are also carried on.
The trade is chiefly concentrated at Urga, Ulyasutai and Kobdo
in north-west Mongolia; Kalgan, Kuku-khoto, Kuku-erghi,
Dolon-nur and Biru-khoto in southern and south-eastern
Mongolia; and at Kerulen in the north-east.
Administration. Before the Manchurian conquest the Mongols
were governed by their own feudal princes, who regarded
themselves as being descended from seven different ancestors,
all, however of the same kin. Each group of principalities
constituted a separate aimak, and each principality a separate
hoshun. Under Manchu rule the aimaks became converted into
the same number of military corps, each composed of so many
hoshuns as military units. Each of these again was divided
into sumuns or squadrons, each containing 150 families. In
case a hoshun contained more than 6 sumuns, every 6
of the latter were organized into a regiment tsalan. Four
Manchu tsian-tsuns, or governor-generals, acted as chiefs
of the troops, and the prince of each aimak, nominated from
Peking, was considered as the lieutenant or assistant of his
respective Manchu chief. The hoshuns were subject to their
own princes, each of whom had a military adviser, generally
a Manchu. Their internal or tribal affairs were in the hands
of the princes, those which concerned a whole aimak being
settled at gatherings of the princes under the eldest of them,
named khan. This organization was maintained by the Manchu
rulers, the khan being elected from among the princes, and the
latter having each an adviser, tusalakchi, nominated from Peking.
Mongolia is now administered by a Lifan Yuen or superin-
tendency with headquarters at Peking. Excluding the territory
to which the name of Mongolia is geographically applied, but
which is included in the provinces of Shansi and Chihli, Mongolia
is divided into inner and outer divisions. Inner Mongolia,
lying between the desert of Gobi, China proper and Manchuria,
is divided into 24 aimaks. There are two military governors-
general and two commissaries of the viceroy of Chihli, having
control of civil matters. One of each pair of officials is
stationed at Kalgan, and the other at Jehol. Outer Mongolia,
the remainder of the territory, has 4 aimaks, three of which are
under hereditary khans. There is a Chinese imperial agent at
Urga.
AUTHORITIES. The following works in Russian are the most
important: Prjevalsky, Mongolia and the Land of the Tanguts (1875),
and his Third and Fourth Journey (1883 and 1888); G. N. Potamn,
Sketches of North-West Mongolia (1881-1883); The Tangut-Tibet
Border of China and Central Mongolia (1893 seq.) ; V. Pyevtsoff , Sketch
of a Journey to Mongolia, &c. (Omsk, 1883); D. Pozdneeff, Towns
of North Mongolia (1880); Mongolia and the Mongols (1896 and
1899).; and the article " Mongolia " in Russian Encycl. Dictionary,
vol. xix. (1896); G. and M. Grum Grzimailo, Description of a Journey
to Western China (1898-1899); V. Pyevtsoff, K. Bogdanovitch,
V. I. Roborovsky and P. K. Kozloff, The Tibet Expeditions (1886-
1902); V. Obrucheff, Central Asia, Northern China and the Nan-
shan (1900-1901); Z. Matusovskiy, Geogr. Descr. of Chinese Empire
(1888); Batorskiy, Essay of a Military and Statistic Sketch (1890);
A. Woyeikoff, Climates of the Earth (1884) ; Mongolia and Kham
(Imperial Russian Geographical Society's Expedition, 1899-1901).
See also R. Pumpelly, Geol. Researches (Washington, 1866); Ney
Elias, in Journal R.G.S. (1873); Baron Richthofen, China (1877);
J. Gilmour, Among the Mongols (1883); W. W. Rockhill, Journey
through Mongolia and Thibet (1894); F. E. Younghusband, The
Heart of a Continent (1896). (P. A. K.)
MONGOLS, the name of one of the chief ethnographical
divisions of the Asiatic peoples (see also TURKS). The early
history of the Mongols, like that of all central-Asian tribes, is
extremely obscure. Even the meaning of the name " Mongol "
is a disputed point, though a general consent is now given to
Schott's etymology of the word from mong, meaning brave.
From the earliest and very scanty notice we have of the Mongols
in the history of the T'ang dynasty of China (A.D. 610-690) and
in works of later times, it appears that their original camping-
grounds were along the courses of the Kerulen, Upper Nonni
and Argun rivers. But in the absence of all historical particulars
of their origin, legend, as is usual, has been busy with their
early years. The Mongol historian Sanang Setzen gives currency
to the myth that they sprang from a blue wolf; and the soberest
story on record is that their ancestor Budantsar was miraculously
conceived of a Mongol widow. By craft and violence Budantsar
gained the chieftainship over a tribe living in the neighbour-
hood of his mother's tent, and thus left a heritage to his son.
Varying fortunes attended the descendants of Budantsar, but
on the whole their power gradually increased, until Yesukai,
the father of Jenghiz Khan, who was eighth in descent from
Budantsar, made his authority felt over a considerable area.
How this dominion was extended under the rule of Jenghiz Khan
is shown in the article JENGHIZ KHAN, and when that great
conqueror was laid to rest in the valley of Kilien in 1227 he left
to his sons an empire which stretched from the China Sea to the
banks of the Dnieper.
Over the whole of this vast region Jenghiz Khan set his
second surviving son Ogotai or Ogdai as khakan, or chief khan,
while to the family of his deceased eldest son Juji he assigned
the country from Kayalik and Khwarizm to the borders
of Bulgar and Saksin " where'er the hoofs of Mongol horse had
tramped "; to Jagatai, his eldest surviving son, the territory
from the borders of the Uighur country to Bokhara; while Tul6,
the youngest, received charge of the home country of the
Mongols, the care of the imperial encampment and family, and
of the archives of the state. The appointment of Ogdai as his
successor being contrary to the usual Mongol custom Ogdai
of primogeniture, gave rise to some bitterness of Khan.
feeling among the followers of Jagatai. But the commands of
Jenghiz Khan subdued these murmurs, and Ogdai was finally
led to the throne by his dispossessed brother amid the plaudits of
the assembled Mongols. In accordance with Mongol customs,
Ogdai signalized his accession to the throne by distributing
among his grandees presents from his father's treasures, and to
his father's spirit he sacrificed forty maidens and numerous
horses. Once fairly on the throne, he set himself vigorously to
MONGOLS
follow up the conquests won by his father. At the head of a
large army he marched southwards into China to complete the
ruin of the Kin dynasty, which had already been so rudely
shaken, while at the same time Tule advanced into the province
of Honan from the side of Shensi. Against this combined attack
the Kin troops made a vigorous stand, but the skill and courage
of the Mongols bore down every opposition, and over a hecatomb
of slaughtered foes they captured Kai-feng Fu, the capital of
their enemies. From Kai-feng Fu the emperor fled to Ju-ning
Fu, whither the Mongols quickly followed. After sustaining a
siege for some weeks, arid enduring all the horrors of starvation,
the garrison submitted to the Mongols, and at the same time the
emperor committed suicide by hanging. Thus fell in 1234 the
Kin or " Golden " dynasty, which had ruled over the northern
portion of China for more than a century.
But though Ogdai's first care was to extend his empire in the
rich and fertile provinces of China, he was not forgetful of the
obligation under which Jenghiz Khan's conquests in western
Asia had laid him to maintain his supremacy over the kingdom
of Khwarizm. This was the more incumbent on him since
Jelal ed-din, who had been driven by Jenghiz into India, had
returned, reinforced by the support of the sultan of Delhi, whose
daughter he had married, and, having reconquered his hereditary
domains, had advanced westward as far as Tiflis and Kelat. Once
more to dispossess the young sultan, Ogdai sent a force of 300,000
men into Khwarizm. With such amazing rapidity did this army
march in pursuit of its foe that the advanced Mongol guards
reached Amid (Diarbekr), whither Jelal ed-din had retreated,
before that unfortunate sovereign had any idea of their approach.
Accompanied by a few followers, Jelal ed-din fled to the Kurdish
Mountains, where he was basely murdered by a peasant. The
primary object of the Mongol invasion was thus accomplished;
but, with the instinct of their race, they made this conquest but
a stepping-stone to another, and without a moment's delay
pushed on still farther westward. Unchecked and almost un-
opposed, they overran the districts of Diarbekr, Mesopotamia,
Erbil and Kelat, and then advanced upon Azerbaijan. In the
following year (1236) they invaded Georgia and Great Armenia,
committing frightful atrocities. Tiflis was among the cities
captured by assault, and Kars was surrendered at their approach
in the vain hope that submission would gain clemency from the
victors. Meanwhile, in 1235, Ogdai despatched three armies
in as many directions. One was directed against Korea, one
against the Sung dynasty, which ruled over the provinces of
China south of the Yangtsze Kiang, and the third was sent
westward into eastern Europe. This last force was commanded
by Batu, the son of Juji, Ogdai's deceased eldest brother, who
took with him the celebrated Sabutai Bahadur as his chief
adviser. Bolgari, the capital city of the Bulgars, fell before the
force under Sabutai, while Batu pushed on over the Volga. With
irresistible vigour and astonishing speed the Mongols made
their way through the forests of Penza and Tambov, and appeared
before the " beautiful city " of Ryazan. For five days they
discharged a ceaseless storm of shot from their balistas, and,
having made a breach in the defences, carried the city by assault
on the 2ist of December 1237. " The prince, with his mother,
wife, sons, the boyars and the inhabitants, without regard to
age or sex, were slaughtered with the savage cruelty of Mongol
revenge; some were impaled, some shot at. with arrows for sport,
others were flayed or had nails or splinters of wood driven under
their nails. Priests were roasted alive, and nuns and maidens
ravished in the churches before their relatives. ' No eye
remained open to weep for the dead.' ' Moscow, at this time
a place of little importance, next fell into the hands of the
invaders, who then advanced against Vladimir. After having
held out for several days against the Mongol attacks, the city at
length succumbed, and the horrors of Ryazan were repeated.
If possible, a more dire fate overtook the inhabitants of Kozelsk,
near Kaluga, where, in revenge for a partial defeat inflicted on
a Mongol force, the followers of Batu held so terrible a "carnival
of death " that the city was renamed by its captors Mobalig,
" the city of woe." With the tide of victory thus strong in
their favour the Mongols advanced against Kiev, " the mother
of cities," and carried it by assault. The inevitable massacre
followed, and the city was razed to the ground.
Victorious and always advancing, the Mongols, having deso-
lated this portion of Russia, moved on in two divisions, one
under Batu into Hungary, and the other under Baidar and
Kaidu into Poland. Without a check, Batu marched to the
neighbourhood of Pest, where the whole force of the kingdom
was arrayed to resist him. The Hungarian army was posted
on the wide heath of Mohi, which is bounded by " the vine-clad
hills of Tokay," the mountains of Lomnitz, and the woods of
Diosgyor. To an army thus hemmed in on all sides defeat
meant ruin, and Batu instantly recognized the dangerous
position in which his enemies had placed themselves. To add
to his chances of success he determined to deliver his attack by
night, and while the careless Hungarians were sleeping he
launched his battalions into their midst. Panic-stricken and
helpless, they fled in all directions, followed by their merciless
foes. Two archbishops, three bishops, and many of the nobility
were among the slain, and the roads for two days' journey from
the field of battle were strewn with corpses. The king, Bela IV.,
was saved by the fleetness of his horse, though closely pursued
by a body of Mongols, who followed at his heels as far as the
coast of the Adriatic, burning and destroying everything in
their way. Meanwhile Batu captured Pest, and on Christmas
Day 1241, having crossed the Danube on the ice, took Esztergom
by assault. While Batu had been thus triumphing, the force
under Baidar and Kaidu had carried fire and sword into Poland.
While laying waste the country they received the announcement
of the death of Ogdai, and at the same time a summons for Batu
to return eastwards into Mongolia.
While his lieutenants had been thus carrying his arms in all
directions, Ogdai had been giving himself up to ignoble ease and
licentiousness. Like many Mongols, he was much given to
drink, and it was to a disease produced by this cause that he
finally succumbed on the nth of December 1241. He was
succeeded by his son Kuyuk, who reigned only seven years.
Little of his character is known, but it is noticeable that his two
ministers to whom he left the entire conduct of affairs were
Christians, as also were his doctors, and that a Christian chapel
stood before his tent. This leaning towards Christianity, how-
ever, brought no peaceful tendencies with it. On the death of
Kuyuk dissensions which had been for a long time smouldering
between the houses of Ogdai and Jagatai broke out into open
war, and after the short and disputed reigns of Kaidu and Chapai,
grandsons of Ogdai, the lordship passed away for ever from the
house of Ogdai. It did not go, however, to the house of Jagatai,
but to that of Tule.
On the ist of July 1251 Mangu, the eldest son of Tule, and
nephew to Ogdai, was elected khakan. With perfect impar-
tiality, Mangu allowed the light of his countenance
to fall upon the Christians, Mahommedans and
Buddhists among his subjects although Shamanism
was recognized as the state religion. Two years after his
accession his court was visited by Rubruquis (q.v.) and other
Christian monks, who were hospitably received. The descrip-
tion given by Rubruquis of the khakan's palace at Karakorum
shows how wide was the interval which separated him
from the nomad, tent-living life of his forefathers. It was
" surrounded by brick walls. ... Its southern side had three
doors. Its central hall was like a church, and consisted of a
nave and two aisles, separated by columns. Here the court sat
on great occasions. In front of the throne was placed a silver
tree, having at its base four lions, from whose mouths there
spouted into four silver basins wine, kumiss, hydromel and
terasine. At the top of the tree a silver angel sounded a trumpet
when the reservoirs that supplied the four fountains wanted
replenishing." On his accession complaints reached Mangu that
dissensions had broken out in the province of Persia, and he
therefore sent a force under the command of his Hulagu ,
brother Hulagu to punish the Ismailites or Assassins
.v.), who were held to be the cause of the disorder. Marching
MONGOLS
by Samarkand and Karshi, Hulagu crossed the Oxus and advanced
by way of Balkh into the province of Kuhistan or Kohistan.
The terror of the Mongol name induced Rukneddin Gurshah II.
(Rokn al-din), the chief of the Assassins, to deprecate the wrath
of Hulagu by offers of submission, and he was so far successful
that he was able to purchase a temporary immunity from mas-
sacre by dismantling fifty of the principal fortresses in Kohistan.
But when once the country had thus been left at the mercy of
the invaders, their belief in the old saying " Stone dead hath no
fellow " sharpened their battle-axes, and, sparing neither man,
woman, nor child, they exterminated the unhappy people.
Rukneddin having been killed, 1256 (see ASSASSINS), Hulagu
marched across the snowy mountains in the direction of Bagdad
to attack the last Abbasid caliph and his Seljuk protectors. On
arriving before the town he demanded its surrender. This being
refused, he laid siege to the walls in the usual destructive Mongol
fashion, and at length, finding resistance hopeless, the caliph was
induced to give himself up and to open the gates to his enemies.
On the isth of February 1258 the Mongols entered the walls
and sacked the city (see CALIPHATE ad fin). While at Bagdad
Hulagu gave his astronomer, Nasir al-din permission to build
an observatory. The town of Maragha was the site chosen,
and, under the superintendence of Nasir al-din and four western
Asiatic astronomers who were associated with him, a handsome
observatory was built, and furnished with "armillary spheres
and astrolabes, and with a beautifully-executed terrestrial globe
showing the five climates." The fall of Bagdad was almost
contemporaneous with the end of the Seljuks of Konia as an
independent power, though their actual destruction did not
take place until 1308 (see SELJUKS). One terrible result of the
Mongol invasion was a fearful famine, which desolated the
provinces of Irak-Arabi, Mesopotamia, Syria and Rum. But,
though the inhabitants starved, the Mongols had strength and
energy left to continue their onward march into Syria. Aleppo
was stormed and sacked, Damascus surrendered (1260) and
Hulagu was meditating the capture of Jerusalem with the
object of restoring it to the Christians when he received the
news of Mangu's death, and, as in duty bound, at once set out
on his return to Mongolia, leaving Kitboga (Kitubuka) in
command of the Mongol forces in Syria.
Hitherto a vassal of Mangu, as is shown by his striking
coins bearing the name of Mangu as well as his own, Hulagu was
now recognized as ruler of the conquered provinces. He assumed
the title of ilkhan, and, although acknowledging the khakan as
supreme lord, was practically independent. The title of ilkhan
was that borne by his successors, who ruled over Persia for
about a century (see infra, " The Ilkhans of Persia ").
While Hulagu was prosecuting these conquests in western
Asia, Mangu and his next brother Kublai were pursuing a like
course in southern China. Southward they even advanced into
Tong-king, and westward they carried their arms over the
frontier into Tibet. But in one respect there was a vast differ-
ence between the two campaigns. Under the wise command
of Kublai all indiscriminate massacres were forbidden, and
probably for the first time in Mongol history the inhabitants
and garrisons of captured cities were treated with humanity.
While carrying on the war in the province of Szech'uen Mangu
was seized with an attack of dysentery, which proved fatal after
a few days' illness. His body was carried into Mongolia on the
backs of two asses, and, in pursuance of the custom of slaughter-
ing every one encountered on the way, 20,000 persons were,
according to Marco Polo, put to the sword.
At the Kuriltai, or assembly of notables, which was held at
Shang-tu after the death of Mangu, his brother Kublai (see
KUBLAI KHAN) was elected khakan. For thirty-five years he
sat on the Mongol throne, and at his death in 1294, in his seventy-
ninth year, he was succeeded by his son Timur Khan, or, as
he was otherwise called, Oldjeitu or Uldsheitu Khan (Chinese
Yuen-cheng) . The reign of this sovereign was chiefly remarkable
for the healing of the division which had for thirty years separated
the families of Ogdai and Jagatai from that of the ruling khakan.
Uldsheitu was succeeded by his nephew Khaissan, who was
gathered to his fathers in February 1311, after a short reign,
and at the early age of thirty-one. His nephew and successor,
Buyantu (Chinese Yen-tsung), was a man of considerable culture,
and substantially patronized Chinese literature. Among other
benefits which he conferred on letters, he rescued the celebrated
inscription-bearing " stone drums," which are commonly said
to be of the Chow period (1122-255 B.C.), from the decay and
ruin to which they were left by the last emperor of the Kin
dynasty, and placed them in the gateway of the temple of
Confucius at Peking, where they now stand. After a reign of
nine years, Buyantu was succeeded by his son Gegen (Chinese
Ying-tsung), who perished in 1323 by the knife of an assassin.
Yissun/Timur (Chinese Tai-ting-ti), who was the next sovereign,
devoted himself mainly to the administration of his empire.
He divided China, which until that time had been apportioned
into twelve provinces, into eighteen provinces, and rearranged
the system of state granaries, which had fallen into disorder.
His court was visited by Friar Odoric, who gives a minute
description of the palace and its inhabitants. Speaking of the
palace this writer says:
" Its basement was raised about two paces from the ground, and
within there were twenty-four columns of gold, and all the walls
were hung with skins of red leather, said to be the finest in the
world. In the midst of the palace was a great jar more than two
paces in height, made of a certain precious stone called merdacas
(jade); its price exceeded the value of four large towns. . . . Into
this vessel drink was conducted by certain conduits from the court
of the palace, and beside it were many golden goblets, from which
those drank who listed. . . . When the khakan sat on his throne
the queen was on his left hand, and a step lower two others of his
women, while at the bottom of the steps stood the other ladies of
his family. All those who were married wore upon their heads the
foot of a man as it were a cubit and a half in length, and at the
top of the foot there were certain cranes' feathers, the whole foot
being set with great pearls, so that if there were in the whole world
any fine and large pearls they were to be found in the decoration
of those ladies."
The following years were years of great natural and political
convulsions. Devastating floods swept over China, carrying
death and ruin to thousands of homes; earthquakes made
desolate whole districts; and in more than one part of the
empire the banners of revolt were unfurled. Under various
leaders the rebels captured a number of cities in the provinces
of Kiang-nan and Honan, and took possession of Hang-chow,
the capital of the Sung emperors. At the same time pirates
ravaged the coasts and swept the imperial vessels off the sea.
In 1355 a Buddhist priest named Chu Yuen-chang became
so impressed with the misery of his countrymen that he threw
off his vestments and enrolled himself in the rebel army. His
military genius soon raised him to the position of a leader, and
with extraordinary success he overcame with his rude levies the
trained legious of the Mongol emperor. While unable to defeat
or check the rebels in the central provinces, Toghon Timur Khan
was also called upon to face a rebellion in Korea. Nor were
his arms more fortunate in the north than in the south. An
army which was sent to suppress the revolt was cut to pieces
almost to a man. These events made a dream which the
emperor dreamt about this time of easy interpretation. He
saw in his sleep " a wild boar with iron tusks rush into the city
and wound the people, who were driven hither and thither
without finding shelter. Meanwhile the sun and the moon
rushed together and perished." " This dream," said the diviner,
" is a prophecy that the khakan will lose his empire." The
fulfilment followed closely on the prophecy. By a subterfuge
the rebels, after having gained possession of most of the central
provinces of the empire, captured Peking. But Toghon Timur
by a hasty flight escaped from his enemies, and sought safety
on the shores of the Dolon-nor in Mongolia. For a time the
western provinces of China continued to hold out against the
rebels, but with the flight of Toghon Timur the Mongol troops
lost heart, and in 1368 the ex-Buddhist priest ascended the
throne as the first sovereign of the Ming or " Bright " dynasty,
under the title of Hung-wu.
Thus ended the sovereignty of the house of Jenghiz Khan
in China, nor need we look far to find the cause of its fall. Brave
MONGOLS
and hardy the Mongols have always shown themselves to be; but
The Mongols the capacity for consolidating the fruits of victory,
fxpeKed for establishing a settled form of government, and
tram Chine. f or g a ; n ing the allegiance of the conquered peoples,
have invariably been wanting in them.
Not content with having recovered China, the emperor
Hungwu sent an army of 400,000 men into Mongolia in pursuit
of the forces which yet remained to the khakan. Even on their
own ground the disheartened Mongols failed in their resistance
to the Chinese, and at all points suffered disaster. Meanwhile
Toghon Timur, who did not long survive his defeat, was suc-
ceeded in the khakanate by Biliktu Khan, who again in 1379 was
followed by Ussakhal Khan. During the reign of this last
prince the Chinese again invaded Mongolia, and inflicted a
crushing defeat on the khan's forces in the neighbourhood of Lake
Buyur. Besides the slain, 2994 officers and 77,000 soldiers
are said to have been taken prisoners, and an immense booty
to have been secured. This defeat was the final ruin of the
eastern branch of the Mongols, who from this time surrendered
the supremacy to the western division of the tribe. At first
the Keraits or Torgod, as in the early days before Jenghiz Khan
rose to power, exercised lordship over the eastern Mongols, but
from these before long the supremacy passed to the Oirad, who
for fifty years treated them as vassals. Notwithstanding their
subjection, however, the Keraits still preserved the imperial
line, and khakan after khakan assumed the nominal sovereignty
of the tribe, while the real, power rested with the descendants
of Toghon, the Oirad chief, who had originally attached them
to his sceptre. Gradually, however, the Mongol tribes broke
away from all governing centres, and established scattered
communities with as many chiefs over the whole of eastern
Mongolia. The discredit of having finally disintegrated the
tribe is generally attached to Lingdan Khan (1604-1634), of
whom, in reference to his arrogant and brutal character, has
been quoted the Mongolian proverb: " A raging khakan disturbs
the state, and a raging saghan (elephant) overthrows his
keepers."
At this time the Mongols, though scattered and in isolated
bodies, had recovered somewhat from the shock of the disaster
he which they had suffered at the hand of the first Ming
Chaknsrs. sovereign of China. When first driven northwards,
they betook themselves to the banks of the Kerulen,
from whence they had originally started on their victorious career;
but gradually, as the Chinese power became weaker among the
frontier tribes, they again pushed southwards, and at this time
had established colonies in the Ordus country, within the
northern bend of the Yellow River. The Mongol royal family
and their immediate surroundings occupied the Chakhar country
to the north-west of the Ordus territory, where they became
eventually subjugated by the Manchus on the overthrow of the
Ming dynasty in 1644 by the present rulers of China. At times
the old vigour and strength which had nerved the arm of Jenghiz
Khan seemed to return to the tribe, and we read of successful
expeditions being made by the Ordu Mongols into Tibet, and
even of invasions into China. The relations with Tibet thus
inaugurated brought about a rapid spread of Buddhism among
the Mongolians, and in the beginning of the I7th century the
honour of having a Dalai Lama born among them was vouchsafed
to them. In 1625 Toba, one of the sons of Bushuktu Jinung
Khan, went on a pilgrimage to the Dalai Lama, and brought
back with him a copy of the Tanjur to be translated into Mon-
golian, as the Kanjur had already been. But though the prowess
of the Ordu Mongols was still unsubdued, their mode of living
was as barren and rugged as the steppes and rocky hills which
make up their territory. Their flocks and herds, on which they
are entirely dependent for food and clothing, are not numerous,
and, like their masters, are neither well fed nor well favoured.
But though living in this miserable condition their princes yet
keep up a certain amount of barbaric state, and the people have
at least the reputation of being honest.
Several of the tribes who had originally migrated with those
who finally settled in the Ordu territory, finding the country to
be so inhospitable, moved farther eastward into richer pastures.
Among these were the Tumeds, one of whose chiefs, Allan Khan
(Chinese Yen-ta), is famous in later Mongol history for the power
he acquired. For many years during the i6th century he carried
on a not altogether unsuccessful war with China, and finally,
when peace was made (1571), the Chinese were fain to create him
a prince of the empire and to confer a golden seal of authority
upon him. In Tibet his arms were as successful as in China;
but, as has often happened in history, the physical conquerors
became the mental subjects of the conquered. Lamaism has
always had a great attraction in the eyes of the Mongols, and,
through the instrumentality of some Lamaist prisoners whom
Allan brought back in his train, the religion spread at this time
rapidly among the Tumeds. Allan himself embraced the faith,
and received at his court the Bogda Sodnam Gyamtso
Khutuktu, on whom he lavished every token of honour. One
immediate effect of the introduction of Buddhism among the
Tumeds was to put an end to the sacrifices which were commonly
made at the grave of their chieftains. In 1584 Allan died, and
was succeeded by his son Senge Dugureng Timur. The rich
territory occupied by the Tumeds, together with the increased
intercourse wilh China which sprang up after the wars of Allan,
began lo effecl a change in the manner of life of the people.
By degrees the pastoral habits of the inhabitants became more
agricullural, and al ihe presenl day, as in Manchuria, Chinese
immigrants have so stamped their mark on the fields and
markets, on the lowns and villages, that the country has become
to all intenls and purposes part of China proper.
Passing now from Ihe inner division of Ihe Mongols who live
in the southern and eastern portions of the deserl we come lo the
outer division, which occupies the terrilory to the *,*..
north "of Ihe deserl. Of Ihese the chief are the
Kalkas, who are divided into the Western and Eastern Kalkas.
These people form the link of communication belween Europe
and easlern Asia. Early in Ihe I7lh cenlury the Russians sent
an embassy to the court of the Golden Khan with Ihe objecl of
persuading Ihe Mongol khan lo acknowledge allegiance to the
tsar. This he did withoul much hesilalion or inquiry, and he
furlher despatched envoys to Moscow on Ihe relurn of the
Russian embassy. But the allegiance thus lightly acknowledged
was lighlly Ihrown off, and in a quarrel which broke oul belween
Ihe Khirghiz and Ihe Russians Ihe Kalkas look the side of Ihe
former. The breach, however, was soon healed over, and. we
find ihe Golden Khan sending an envoy again lo Moscow, asking
on behalf of his masler for presenls of jewels, arms, a lelescope,
a clock, and " a monk who had been lo Jerusalem lhat he might
teach the Kalkas how the Christians prayed." Their sub-
mission lo Russia on Ihe north did not save Ihem, however,
from Ihe Chinese altacks on the south. At thai lime Ihe presenl
Manchu dynasly ruled in China, and to the then reigning
sovereign the Kalkas gave in their submission. For some time
Ihe Chinese yoke sal lighlly on Iheir consciences, but diffi-
culties having arisen with Ihe Kalmucks, Ihey were ready enough
lo claim Ihe proleclion of China. To cemenl Ihe alliance Ihe
emperor K'ang-hi inviled all the Kalka chiefs to meel him al ihe
plain of Dolon-nor. This ceremony broughl the separate history
of the Kalkas to a close, since from that time they have been
engulfed in the Chinese Empire.
During Ihe Kin dynasly of China Ihe Keraits, as has been
pointed out, were for a time supreme in Mongolia, and il was
during lhat period thai one of Ihe earliesl recognized sovereigns,
Merghus Buyuruk Khan, sal on Ihe Ihrone. In an engagement
with a neighbouring Tatar tribe their khan was caplured and
senl as a propilialory presenl lo Ihe Kin emperor, who pul him
lo dealh by nailing him on a wooden ass. On the treacherous
Tatar chief the widow determined to avenge herself, and chose
the occasion of a feasl as a fitting opportunity. Wilh well-
disguised friendship she senl him a presenl of len oxen, a hundred
sheep and a hundred sacks of koumiss. These, lasl, however,
inslead of being filled wilh skins of Ihe liquor which Mongolians
love so well, conlained armed men, who, when Ihe Talar was
feasled, rushed from Iheir concealmenl and killed him.
716
A grandson of Merghus was the celebrated Wang Khan, who
was sometimes the ally and sometimes the enemy of Jenghiz
Khan, and has also been identified as the Prester John of early
western writers. In war he was almost invariably unfortunate,
and it was with no great difficulty, therefore, that his brother
Ki Wang detached the greater part of the Kerait tribes from
his banner, and founded the Torgod chieftainship,
orgo ' named probably from the country where they settled
themselves. The unrest peculiar to the dwellers in the Mongolian
desert disturbed the Torgod as much as their neighbours. Their
history for several centuries consists of nothing but a succession
of wars with the tribes on either side of them, and it was not
until 1672, when Ayuka Khan opened relations with the Russians,
that the country obtained an even temporarily settled existence.
Its position, indeed, at this time made it necessary that Ayuka
should ally himself either with the Russians or with his southern
neighbours the Turks, though at the same time it was obvious
that his alliance with the one would bring him into collision with
the other. His northern neighbours, the Cossacks of the Yaik
and the Bashkirs, both subject to Russia, had the not un-
common propensity for invading his borders and harassing
his subjects. This gave rise to complaints of the tsar's govern-
ment and a disposition to open friendly relations with the Krim
khan. A rupture with Russia followed, and Ayuka carried
his arms as far as Kazan, burning and laying waste the villages
and towns on his route and carrying off prisoners and spoils.
Satisfied with this vengeance, he advanced no farther, but made
a peace with the Russians, which was confirmed in 1722 at an
audience which Peter the Great gave him at Astrakhan. On
Ayuka's death shortly after this event, he was succeeded by
his son Cheren Donduk, who received from the Dalai Lama a
patent to the throne. But this spiritual support availed him
little against the plots of his nephew Donduk Ombo, who so
completely gained the suffrages of the people that Cheren Donduk
fled before him to St Petersburg, where he died, leaving his
nephew in possession. With consummate impartiality the
Russians, when they found that Donduk Ombo had not only
seized the throne but was governing the country with vigour
and wisdom, formally invested him with the khanate. At his
death he was succeeded by Dondak Taishi, who, we are told,
went to Moscow to attend the coronation of the empress Eliza-
beth, and to swear fealty to the Russians. After a short reign
he died, and his throne was occupied by his son Ubasha. The
position of the Torgod at this time, hemmed in as they were
between the Russians and Turks, was rapidly becoming unbear-
able, and the question of migrating " bag and baggage " was
very generally mooted. In the war between his two powerful
neighbours in 1760 and 1770, Ubasha gave valuable assistance to
the Russians. His troops took part in the siege of Ochakov,
and gained a decided victory on the river Kalaus. Flushed
with these successes, he was in no mood to listen patiently
to the taunts of the governor of Astrakhan, who likened him
to a " bear fastened to a chain," and he made up his mind to
break away once and for all from a tutelage which was as galling
as it was oppressive. He determined, therefore, to migrate
eastward with his people, and on the sth of January 1771 he
began his march with 70,000 families. In vain the Russians
attempted to recall the fugitives, who, in spite of infinite hard-
ships, after a journey of eight months reached the province of
Hi, where they were welcomed by the Chinese authorities.
Food for a year's consumption was supplied to each family;
and land, money and cattle were freely distributed. It is
believed that 300,000 persons survived to receive the hospitality
of the Chinese. By this desperate venture the Torgod escaped,
it is true, the oppression of the Russians, but they fell into
the hands of other masters, who, if not so exacting, were equally
determined to be supreme. The Chinese, flattered by the
compliment implied by the transference of allegiance, settled
them on lands in the province of Ili, in the neighbourhood of
the Altai mountains, and to the west of the desert of Gobi.
But the price they were made to pay for this liberality was
absorption in the Chinese empire.
MONGOLS
Among the Mongol chiefs who rose to fame during the rule
of the Ming dynasty of China was Toghon, the Kalmuck khan,
who, taking advantage of the state of confusion which
reigned among the tribes of Mongolia, established Kalmuck.
for himself an empire in north-western Asia.
Death carried him off in 1444, and his throne devolved upon
his son Ye-seen, who was no degenerate offspring. Being
without individual foes in Mongolia he turned his arms against
China, which through all history has been the happy hunting-
ground of the northern tribes, and had the unexampled good
fortune to take prisoner the Chinese emperor Cheng-t'ung.
But victory did not always decide in his favour, and after having
suffered reverses at the hands of the Chinese, he deemed it wise
to open negotiations for the restoration of his imperial prisoner.
Thus, after a captivity of seven years Cheng-t'ung re-entered
his capital in 1457, not altogether to the general satisfaction
of his subjects. On the death of Yi-sien, shortly after this event,
the Kalmucks lost much of their power in eastern Asia, but
retained enough in other portions of their territory to annoy
the Russians by raids within the Russian frontier, and by
constant acts of pillage. In the I7th century their authority
was partly restored by Galdan, a Lama, who succeeded by
the usual combination of wile and violence to the throne of
his brother Senghe. Having been partly educated
at Lhasa, he was well versed in Asiatic politics, .
and, taking advantage of a quarrel between the
Black and White Mountaineers of. Kashgar he overran Little
Bokhara, and left a viceroy to rule over the province with his
capital at Yarkand. At the same time he opened relations
with China, and exchanged presents with the emperor. Having
thus secured his powerful southern neighbour, as he thought,
he turned his arms against the Kalkas, whose chief ground of
offence was their attachment to the cause of his brothers. But
his restless ambition created alarm at Peking, and the emperor
K'ang-hi determined to protect the Kalkas against their enemy.
The emperor, in person commanding one of the two forces,
marched into Mongolia. After enduring incredible hardships
during the march through the desert of Gobi the imperial army
encountered the Kalmucks at Chao-modo. The engagement was
fiercely contested, but ended in the complete victory of the
Chinese, who pursued the Kalmucks for ten miles, and completely
dispersed their forces. Galdan, with his son, daughter and a few
followers, fled westward and escaped; and thus collapsed a
power which had threatened at one time to overshadow the
whole of Central Asia. For a time Galdan still maintained
resistance to his powerful enemy, but death overtook him while
yet in the field against the Chinese.
But though Galdan was dead the Chinese did not enjoy
that complete immunity from war at the hand of his successor
that they had looked for. Tsi-wang Arabian was, however,
but the shadow of his brother and predecessor, and a dispute
which arose with the Russians during his reign weakened his
power in other directions. Little Bokhara was said to be rich
in gold mines, and therefore became a coveted region in the
eyes of the Russians. Under the vigorous administration of
Peter the Great an expedition was despatched to force a passage
into the desired province. To oppose this invasion the Kalmucks
assembled in force, and after a protracted and undecided engage-
ment the Russians were glad to agree to retire down the Irtish
and to give up all further advance.
To Tsi-wang Arabian succeeded Amursama owing to the
support he received from the Chinese emperor K'ien-lung, who
nominated him khan of the Kalmucks and chief of Dzungaria.
But, though to the ear these titles were as high-sounding as those
of his predecessors, in reality the power they represented was
curtailed by the presence of Chinese commissioners, in whose
hands rested the real authority. The galling weight of this state
of dependence drove Amursama before long into revolt. He
dispersed the Chinese garrisons stationed in Ili (Kulja) , killed the
generals, and advanced his own forces as far as Palikun on the
river Ili. To punish this revolt, K'ien-lung sent a large force
into the rebellious province. As on the previous occasion, the
MONGOLS
717
Chinese were everywhere victorious, and Amursama fled into
Siberia, where he died of small-pox after a short illness.
While China was thus absorbing the Mongols within her reach,
Russia was gathering within her borders those with whom she
came into contact. Among these were the Burials, who occupied
a large territory on both sides of Lake Baikal. As usual in such
cases, disputes arose out of disturbances on (he frontier, and were
ended by the Burials and the neighbouring Mongol Iribes
becoming one and all Iribulary lo Russia.
The dominions given by Jenghiz Khan to his son Jagatai were
involved in the quarrels belween Kaidu and Kublai for Ihe
The House khakanale, bul al the beginning of the I4th cenlury
otJagata!. Dua, a greal-greal-grandson of Jagalai, made him-
self undispuled lord of Ihe whole region. Shortly
afler Dua's dealh Ihe Mongols of Eastern Turkestan, descen-
dants of those who had favoured the pretensions of Kaidu
to be khakan, separated from their weslern brelhren and chose
a son of Dua as Iheir khan. Henceforlh Ihe Jagalaids were
divided inlo Iwo dynasties, the western reigning at Samarkand,
the easlern firsl at Kashgar and later at Yarkand and Aksu.
Kazan (1343-1346) was the last independent khan of Ihe weslern
Jagalaids; thereafter power fell into the hands of amirs, who,
however, continued to place a titular khan on the Ihrone. In
1360 Toghluk-Timur, a grandson of Dua and khan of Ihe easlern
Jagalaids (Ihe kingdom called by Ihe Persian historians Mogo-
lislan), invaded Ihe lerrilories of Ihe weslern Jagalaids. About
this lime Timur (q.v.), olherwise Timur-i-leng (Tamerlane), a
young amir al Ihe court of Ihe weslern Jagalaids, allied himself
wilb Ihe leaders who had delhroned Kazan, and afler Ihe dealh
of Toghluk-Timur became by righl of conquesl khan of bolh
seclions of Ihe Jagalaids. Afler Timur's dealh Ihe Iwo seclions
again divided, while a Ihird kingdom, Ferghana, was held by Ihe
Timurids (descendants of Timur). At the beginning of Ihe i6lh
cenlury all Ihree dynaslies were swept away by Mahommed
Shalbani, head of the Uzbeg Mongols (see infra, Uzbegs).
The empire of Ihe Ilkhans established by Hulagu lasled
nominally unlil 1353, bul afler Ihe dealh of Ihe Ilkhan Abu Said
> n r 33S the real power was divided belween five
it y dynaslies which had been formed oul of Ihe
provinces conquered by Hulagu. Meanlime Islam
had made greal progress among Ihe Mongols, Ihe Ihird
Ilkhan, Nikudar Ahmed (reigned 1281-1284) having embraced
lhal failh. The weslern fronliers of Iheir empire bordering on
Ihe Syrian possessions of Egypl Ihere was frequenl inlercourse,
somelimes friendly, somelimes warlike, belween Ihe Ilkhans and
the sullans of Egypl (q.v.). Of Ihe pelly dynaslies which
supplanted lhal of Hulagu, one known as Ihe Jelairids held
Bagdad unlil aboul 1400. Anolher dynasly which reigned in
Azerbaijan was overthrown in 1355 by Ihe weslern Kipchaks
(see infra, Golden Horde). Belween 1369 and 1400 Timur had
made himself masler of Ihe grealer part of Persia and established
there a second Mongol dynasty, which in turn gave place to lhat
of Ihe Ak Kuyunli (see PERSIA).
Of Ihe Mongol Iribes who became enlirely subjecl lo Russia
Ihe principal are Ihose of Ihe Crimea, of Kazan, and Aslra-
khan; of Ihese Ihe Talars of Kazan are Ihe Iruesl
representatives of Ihe Golden Horde or weslern
Hord Kipchaks, who originally formed Ihe subjects of
Batu and Orda. Balu, whose viclorious campaign
in Russia has already been skelched, was finally awarded as his
fief Ihe vasl sleppes which stretch from the Carpalhian Moun-
tains to Lake Balkash. He fixed his headquarters on the Volga,
and Ihere sel up his Golden Tenl from which Ihe horde acquired
Ihe name of Ihe Golden Horde. In 1255 Balu died and was
succeeded by his brolher Bereke Khan. During Ihe reign of Ihis
sovereign Ihe exaclions which were demanded from Ihe Russian
Chrislians by Ihe Mongols aroused Ihe Chrislian world againsl
Ihe barbarian conquerors, and al Ihe command of Pope Alex-
ander IV. a general crusade was preached againsl Ihem. Bul
Ihough Ihe rage of the Christians was great, they lacked lhal
uniled energy which might have availed them againsl Iheir
enemies; and, while Ihey were yel brealhing oul denunciations,
a Tatar hosl, led by Nogai and Tulabagha, appeared in Poland.
Afler a rapid and Iriumphanl march Ihe invaders look and des-
Iroyed Cracow, and from Ihence advanced as far as Bylhom
(Beulhen) in Oppeln, from which poinl they eventually retired,
carrying with them a crowd of Christian slaves. From this time
the Mongols became for a season an imporlanl faclor in European
polilics. They corresponded and Ireated with the European
sovereigns, and intermarried with royal families. Hulagu
married a daughler of Michael Palaeologus; Toktu Khan took
as his wife Maria, the daughler of Andronicus II. ; and lo Nogai
Michael betrothed his daughter Irene. Toktu, the second khan
in succession to Bereke, is Ihe firsl Mongol ruler whom we hear
of as having slruck coins. Those issued during his reign bear
Ihe mint marks of Sarai, New Sarai, Bulgar, Ukek, Khwarizm,
Krim, Jullad and Madjarui, and vary in date from 1291 to
1312.
The adoption of Islam by the rulers of Ihe Golden Horde had
as one result the drawing closer of the relalions of Ihe Mongols
wilh Conslanlinople and Egypl. Embassies passed belween the
three courts, and so importanl was Ihe alliance wilh Ihe Mongols
deemed by Ihe sullan Nasir, ruler of Egypl, lhal he senl lo demand
in marriage a princess of Ihe house of Jenghiz Khan. At first
his requesl was refused by Ihe proud Mongols, but Ihe present
of a million gold dinars, besides a number of horses and suits of
armour, changed the refusal into an acquiescence, and in
Oclober 1319 Ihe princess landed at Alexandria in regal state.
Her reception al Cairo was accompanied wilh feasling and rejoic-
ing, and Ihe members of her escort were sent back laden with
presents. With lhal religious toleration common to his race,
Uzbeg Khan, having married one princess to Nasir, gave another
in marriage to George Ihe prince of Moscow, whose cause he
espoused in a quarrel exisling belween lhal prince and his uncle,
Ihe grand-prince Michael. Assuming Ihe attitude of a judge in
the dispute, Uzbeg Khan summoned Michael to appear before
him, and, having given his decision againsl him, ordered his
execulion. The senlence was carried oul wilh aggravaled
cruelly in sight of his nephew and accuser. From Ihis lime
Uzbeg's sympathies turned towards Chrislianity. He prolecled
Ihe Russian churches wilhin his fronliers, and put his seal to his
new religious views by marrying a daughter of the Greek emperor,
Andronicus III. He died in 1340, afler a reign of Iwenly-eight
years. His coins were struck at Sarai, Khwarizm, Mokshi,
Bulgar, Azak and Krim, and are daled from 1313 lo 1340. His
son and successor, Tinibeg Khan, afler a reign of only a few
monlhs, was murdered by his brolher Janibeg Khan, who
usurped his Ihrone, and, according lo Ihe historian Ibn Haidar,
proved himself lo be " just, God-fearing, and Ihe palron of Ihe
meritorious." These excellenl qualilies did not, however,
prevenl his making a raid inlo Poland, which was conducled in
Ihe usual Mongol manner, nor did Ihey save his counlrymen from
being decimated by Ihe black plague. The Ihrone Janibeg had
seized by violence was, in 1357, snatched from him by violence.
As he lay ill on his return from a successful expedition against
Persia he was murdered by his son Berdibeg, who in his turn
was, afler a short reign, murdered by his son Kulpa. Wilh Ihe
dealh of Berdibeg Ihe fortunes of Ihe Golden Horde began
rapidly to decline. As Ihe Uzbeg proverb says, " The hump of
Ihe camel was cul off in the person of Berdibeg."
But while the power of the Golden Horde was dwindling away,
Ihe While Horde or Easlern Kipchak, which was Ihe inherilance
of Ihe elder branch of Ihe family of Juji, remained
prosperous and full of vilality. The descendanls
of Orda, Balu's elder brolher, being far removed
from Ihe dangerous influences of European courts, Kipchak.
mainlained much of Ihe simplicily and vigour of
Iheir nomad ancestors, and Ihe Ihrone descended from
falher lo son with undiminished aulhorily until the reign
of Urus Khan (1360), when complications arose which changed
the fortunes of the tribe. Like many other opponenls of Ihe
Mongol rulers, Khan Tuli Khoja paid wilh his life for his lemerity
in opposing Ihe political schemes of his connexion Urus Khan.
Toktamish, Ihe son of Ihe murdered man, fled at Ihe news of his
MONGOLS
Moscow
Sacked.
father's death and sought refuge at the court of Timur, who
received him with honour and at once agreed to espouse his cause.
With this intention he despatched a force against Urus Khan,
and gained some advantage over him, but, while fitting out
another army to make a fresh attack, news reached him of the
death of Urus. Only at Sighnak are coins known to have been
struck during the reign- of Urus, and these bear date from 1372
to 1375.
He was followed on the throne by his two sons, Tuktakia and
Timur Malik, each in turn; the first reigned but for a few weeks,
and the second was killed in a battle against Tok-
mish, the son of his father's enemy. Toktamish
'now (1378) seized the throne, not only of Eastern
Kipchak but also of the Golden Horde, over which his arms had
at the same time proved victorious. He reigned as Nasir ed-din
Jetal ed Mahmud Ghujas Toktamish. His demands for tribute
from the Russian princes met with evasions from men who had
grown accustomed to the diminished power of the later rulers
of the Golden Horde, and Toktamish therefore at once marched
an army into Russia. Having captured Serpukhov, he advanced
on Moscow. On the 23rd of August 1382 his troops appeared
before the doomed city. For some days the inhabitants bravely
withstood the constant attacks on the walls, but failed in their
resistance to the stratagems which were so common a phase in
Mongolian warfare. With astonishing credulity they opened
the gates to the Mongols, who declared themselves
the enemies of the grand-prince alone, and not of the
people. The usual result followed. The Russian
general, who was invited to Toktamish's tent, was there
slain and at the same time the signal was given for a general
slaughter. Without discriminating age or sex, the Mongol
troops butchered the wretched inhabitants without mercy,
and, having made the streets desolate and the houses tenant-
less, they first plundered the city and then gave it over to the
flames. The same pitiless fate overtook Vladimir, Zvenigorod,
Yuriev, Mozhaisk and Dimitrov. With better fortune, the
inhabitants of Pereslavl and Kolomna escaped with their
lives from the troops of Toktamish, but at the expense of
their cities, which were burned to the ground. Satisfied with
his conquests, the khan returned homewards, traversing and
plundering the principality of Ryazan on his way. Flushed
with success, Toktamish demanded from his patron Timur the
restoration of Khwarizm, which had fallen into the hands of the
latter at a period when disorder reigned in the Golden Horde.
Such a request was not likely to be well received by Timur, and,
in answer to his positive refusal to yield the city, Toktamish
marched an army of 90,000 men against Tabriz. After a siege
of eight days the city was taken by assault and ruthlessly ravaged.
In the meantime Timur was collecting forces to punish his
rebellious protege. When his plans were fully matured, he
advanced upon Old Urgenj and captured it. More merciful
than Toktamish, he transported the inhabitants to Samarkand,
Wars with ^ ut ' m orc ' er to mar ^ his anger against the rebellious
Timui? c ' tv ne levelled it with the ground and sowed barley
on the site where it had stood. On the banks of
the Oxus he encountered his enemy, and after a bloody battle
completely routed the Kipchaks, who fled in confusion. A lull
followed this victory, but in 1390 Timur again took the field. To
each man was given " a bow, with thirty arrows, a quiver, and a
buckler. The army was mounted, and a spare horse was supplied
to every two men, while a tent was furnished for every ten, and
with this were two spades, a pickaxe, a sickle, a saw, an axe, an
awl, a hundred needles, 8| Ib of cord, an ox's hide, and a strong
pan." Thus equipped the army set forth on its march. After
a considerable delay owing to an illness which overtook Timur
his troops arrived at Kara Saman. Here envoys arrived from
Toktamish bearing presents and a message asking pardon for
his past conduct; but Timur was inexorable, and, though he
treated the messengers with consideration, he paid no attention
to their prayer. In face of innumerable difficulties, as well
as of cold, hunger, and weariness, Timur marched forward
month after month through the Kipchak country in pursuit
of Toktamish. At last, on the iSth of June, he overtook him
at Kandurcha, in the country of the Bulgars, and at once forced
him to an engagement. For three days the battle lasted, and,
after inclining now to this side and now to that, victory finally'
decided in favour of Timur. The Kipchaks were completely
routed and fled in all directions, while it is said as many as
100,000 corpses testified to the severity of the fighting.
Toktamish, though defeated, was not subdued, and in 1395
Timur found it necessary again to undertake a campaign against
him. This time the armies met upon the Terek, and after a
fiercely-contested battle the Kipchaks again fled in confusion.
Timur, threatened by the advancing autumn, gave up further
pursuit, and retired with a vast booty of gold ingots, silver
bars, pieces of Antioch linen and of the embroidered cloth of
Russia, &c. On his homeward march southwards he arrived
before Azak, which was then the entrepot where the merchants
of the east and west exchanged their wares. In vain the natives,
with the Egyptian, Venetian, Genoese, Catalan ?nd Basque
inhabitants, besought him to spare the city. His answer was
a command to the Moslems to separate themselves from the
rest of the people, whom he put to the sword, and then gave
the city over to the flames. Circassia and Georgia next felt
his iron heel, and the fastnesses of the central Caucasus were
one and all destroyed. After these successes Timur gave himself
up for a time to feasting and rejoicing, accompanied by every
manifestation of Oriental luxury. " His tent of audience was
hung with silk, its poles were golden, or probably covered
with golden plates, the nails being silver; his throne was of
gold, enriched with precious stones; the floor was sprinkled
with rose water." But his vengeance was not satisfied, and,
having refreshed his troops by this halt, he marched northwards
against Astrakhan, which he utterly destroyed. The inhabitants
were driven out into the country to perish with the cold, while
the commander of the city was killed by being forced beneath
the ice of the Volga. Sarai next shared the same fate, and,
Timur, having thus crushed for the second time the empire of
Toktamish, set out on his return home by way of Derbent and
Azerbaijan.
The power in the hands of the successors of Toktamish never
revived after the last campaign of Timur. They were constantly
engaged in wars with the Russians and the Krim Tatars,
with whom the Russians had allied themselves, and by degrees
their empire decayed, until, on the seizure and death of Ahmed
Khan at the beginning of the i6th century, the domination of
the Golden Horde came to an end.
The fate which thus overtook the Golden Horde was destined
to be shared by all the western branches of the great Mongol
family. The .khans of Kazan and Kasimov had
already in 1552 succumbed to the growing power of Tatars."*
Russia, and the Krim Tatars were next to fall
under the same yoke. In the isth century, when the Krim
Tatars first appear as an independent power, they attempted
to strengthen their position by allying themselves with the
Russians, to whom they looked for help against the attacks
of the Golden Horde. But while they were in this state of
dependence another power arose in eastern Asia which modified
the political events of that region. In 1453 Constantinople
was taken by the Osmanli Turks, who, having quarrelled with
the Genoese merchants who monopolized the trade on the
Black Sea, sent an expedition into the Crimea to punish the
presumptuous traders. The power which had captured Con-
stantinople was not likely to be held in check by any forces at
the disposal of the Genoese, and without any serious opposi-
tion Kaffa, Sudak, Balaklava and Inkerman fell before the
troops of the sultan Mahommed. It was plain that, situated as
the Crimea was between the two great powers of Russia and
Turkey, it must of necessity fall under the direction of one
of them. Which it should be was decided by the invasion of
the Turks, who restored Mengli Girai, the deposed khan, to
the throne, and virtually converted the khanate into a depen-
dency of Constantinople. But though under the tutelage of
Turkey, Mengli Girai, whose leading policy seems to have been
MONGOLS
719
the desire to strengthen himself against the khans of the Golden
Horde, formed a close alliance with the grand-prince Ivan of
Russia. One result of this friendship was that the Mongols
were enabled, and encouraged, to indulge their predatory habits
at the expense of the enemies of Russia, and in this way both
Lithuania and Poland suffered terribly from their incursions.
It was destined, however, that in their turn the Russians should
not escape from the marauding tendencies of their allies, for,
on pretext of a quarrel with reference to the succession to the
Kazan throne, Mahommed Girai Khan in 1521 marched an
army northwards until, after having devastated the country,
massacred the people, and desecrated the churches on his route,
he arrived at the heights of Vorobiev overlooking Moscow.
The terror of the unfortunate inhabitants at the sight once
again of the dreaded Mongols was extreme; but the horrors
which had accompanied similar past visitations were happily
averted by a treaty, by which the grand-prince Basil undertook
to pay a perpetual tribute to the Krim khans. This, however,
proved but a truce. It was impossible that an aggressive
state like Russia should live in friendship with a marauding
power like that of the Krim Tatars. The primary cause of
contention was the khanate of Kazan, which was recovered
by the Mongols, and lost again to Russia with that of Astrakhan
in 1555. The sultan, however, declined to accept this condition
of things as final, and instigated Devlet Girai, the Krim khan,
to attempt their recovery. With this object the latter marched
an army northwards, where, finding the road to Moscow unpro-
tected, he pushed on in the direction of that ill-starred city.
On arriving before its walls he found a large Russian force
occupying the suburbs. With these, however, he was saved
from an encounter, for just as his foremost men approached
the town a fire broke out, which, in consequence of the high
wind blowing at the time, spread with frightful rapidity, and
in the space of six hours destroyed all the churches, palaces
and houses, with the exception of the Kremlin, within a com-
pass of 30 miles. Thousands of the inhabitants perished in the
flames. " The river and ditches about Moscow," says Horsey,
" were stopped and filled with the multitudes of people, laden
with gold, silver, jewels, chains, ear-rings and treasures. So
many thousands were there burned and drowned that the river
could not be cleaned for twelve months afterwards." Satisfied
with the destruction he had indirectly caused, and unwilling to
attack the Kremlin, the khan withdrew to the Crimea, ravaging
the country as he went. Another invasion of Russia, a few
years later (1572), was not so fortunate for the Mongols, who
suffered a severe defeat near Molodi, 50 versts from Moscow.
A campaign against Persia made a diversion in the wars which
were constantly waged between the Krim khan and the Russians,
Cossacks and Poles. So hardly were these last pressed by their
pertinacious enemies in 1649 that they bound themselves by
treaty to pay an annual subsidy to the khan. But the fortunes
of war were not always on the side of the Tatars, and with
the advent of Peter the Great to the Russian throne the power
of the Krim Mongols began to decline. In 1696 the tsar, sup-
ported by a large Cossack force under Mazeppa, took the field
against Selim Girai Khan, and gained such successes that the
latter was compelled to cede Azov to him. By a turn of the
wheel of fortune the khan had the satisfaction in 1711 of having
it restored to him by treaty; but this was the last real success
that attended the Tatar arms. In 1735 the Russians in their
turn invaded the Crimea, captured the celebrated lines of
Perekop, and ravaged Bakhchi-sarai, the capital. The inevitable
fate which was hanging over the Krim Tatars was now being
rapidly accomplished. In 1783 the Krim, together with the
eastern portion of the land of the Nogais, became absorbed
into the Russian province of Taurida.
It will now only be necessary to refer briefly to the Uzbegs,
who, on the destruction of the Golden Horde, assumed an
important position on the east of the Caspian Sea.
luLes The founder of their greatness was the khan Abulk-
hair, who reigned in the isth century, and who, like
another Jenghiz Khan, consolidated a power out of a number
of small clans, and added lustre to it by his successful wars.
Shaibani Khan, his grandson, proved himself a worthy successor,
and by him Baber (?..), the Timurid khan of Ferghana, who
afterwards founded the Mogul Empire in India, was driven
from his ancestral dominions. In 1500 he inflicted a severe
defeat on Saber's forces, and captured Samarkand, Herat
and Kandahar. By these and other conquests he became
possessed of all the country between the Oxus and the Jaxartes,
of Ferghana, Khwarizm and Hissar, as well as of the territory
of Tashkent from Kashgar to the frontiers of China. In the
following year, by a dashing exploit, Baber recovered Samarkand,
but only to lose it again a few months later. During several
succeeding years Shaibani's arms proved victorious in many
fields of battle, and but for an indiscreet outrage on the
territories of the shah of Persia he might have left behind
him a powerful empire. The anger, however, of Shah Ismail
roused against him a force before which he was destined to fall.
The two armies met in the neighbourhood of Merv, where, after
a desperate encounter, the Uzbegs were completely defeated.
Shaibani, with a few followers, sought refuge in a cattle-pound.
But finding no exit on the farther side, the refugees tried to leap
their horses over the wall. In this attempt Shaibani was killed
(1510). When his body was recognized by his exultant enemies
they cut off the head and presented it to the shah, who caused
the skull to be mounted in gold and to be converted into a
drinking-cup. After this defeat the Uzbegs withdrew across
the Oxus and abandoned Khorasan. Farther east the news
aroused Baber to renewed activity, and before long he reoccupied
Samarkand and the province " Beyond the River," which had
been dominated by the Uzbegs for nine years. But though
the Uzbegs were defeated they were by no means crushed,
and ere long we, find their khans reigning, now at Samarkand,
and now at Bokhara. As time advanced and European powers
began to encroach more and more into Asia, the history of the
khanates ceases to be confined to the internecine struggles of
rival khans. Even Bokhara was not beyond the reach of
Russian ambition and English diplomacy. Several European
envoys found their way thither during the first half of the -
igth century, and the murder of Stoddart and Conolly in 1842
forms a melancholy episode in British relations with that
fanatical capital. With the absorption of the khanate of Bokhara
and the capture of Khiva by the Russians the individual history
of the Mongol tribes in Central Asia comes to an end, and their
name has left its imprint only on the dreary stretch of Chinese-
owned country from Manchuria to the Altai Mountains, and
to the equally unattractive country in the neighbourhood of
the Koko-nor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir H. Howorth, History of the Mongols (1876,
1878); D'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols (1834); Cahun, Introduction
A I'histoire d'Asie; Kohler, Die Entwicklung des Kriegswesens;
Strakosch-Grossmann, Der Einfall der Mongolen in Mittel-Europa;
(for the general reader) Jeremiah Curtin, The Mongols, a history
(1908). (R. K. D.)
Language. The Mongol tongue is one of the members of
the great stock which recent scholars designate as Ural-Altaic,
which also includes the Finno-Ugric, Turkish, Manchu and Samo-
yede. The members of this group are not so closely related to one
another as those of the Indo-European stock; but they are all
bound together by the common principle of agglutinative formation,
especially the so-called harmony of vowels, by their grammatical
structure, and also by certain common elements in the stock of
roots which run through them all, or through particular more
closely-connected families within the group. 1 The fatherland proper
of the Mongols is Mongolia (q.v.). The _sum total of the Mongol
population under Chinese government is calculated at between
two and three millions.
Generally the whole Mongol tribe may be divided into three
branches: East Mongols, West Mongols and Burials. _
i. The East Mongols are divided into the Kalkas in the borders
just- mentioned, the Shara Mongols south of the Gobi along the
Great Wall north-eastward to Manchuria, and lastly the Shiraigol
or Sharaigol in Tangut and in northern Tibet.
1 Compare W. Schott, Versuch uber die tatarischen Sprachen
(Berlin, 1836); Ueber das aUai'sche oder finnisch-tatarische Sprachen-
geschlecht (Berlin, 1849); Altajische Studien, parts i.-v. (Berlin,
1860-1870); and A. Castren, Ethnologische Vorlesungen uber die
Altai'schen Volker, ed. by A. Schiefner (St Petersburg, 1857).
720
MONGOLS
2. On the signification and employment of the different names
of the West Mongols (Kalmucks, Oelod, Oirad or Dorbon Oirad = the
four Oirad, Mongol Oirad), and also as regards the subdivision of
the tribes, there is much uncertainty. The name Kalmuck, so
generally employed among us, is in fact only used by the Volga
Kalmucks (Khalimak), but even with them the name is not common,
and almost a byname. It is of foreign origin, and most likely
a Tataric word which has yet to be explained. Oirad means the
" near ones," the " related. The usual explanation given is that
the single tribes consider themselves as being related to each other
hence Mongol Oirad, " the Mongol related tribe." This is the
favourite name among Kalmucks. Dorbon Oirad, or the four related
tribes, comprise (i) Dzungars, (2) Torgod, (3) Koshod, (4) Derbet.
The signification of the name Oelod, in the East Mongolian Oegeled,
now the most widely-spread among the tribes living in China, is
likewise very doubtful. Some assert that " Oelod " is nothing but
the Chinese transcription of Oirad, as the ordinary Chinese language
does not possess the sound r. We have, however, to bear in mind
that we have a Mongolian root ogeleku, with the sense " to be
inimical," " to bear hatred, ill-will," &c. The main population of
the Kalmucks live, or rather drag out, their existence after the usual
fashion of nomad tribes in Dzungaria, in the eastern part of the
Tian-shan, on the south border of the Gobi, on K6k5-nor, and in the
province of Kan-suh. All these are under the Chinese government.
In consequence, however, of the extension of the Russian empire
in Tian-shan and Alatau, many hordes have come under the Russian
sway. According to an approximate account we may reckon in
the territory Semiryetshensk (Kulja) and Semipalatinsk 34,000
Kalmucks, while in the southern part of the government Tomsk,
on the Altai, the Kalmuck population amounted formerly to 19,000.
Besides these we find a section of Kalmuck population far in the
west, on the banks of the Volga (near Astrakhan). From their
original seats in Dzungaria they turned in their migrations to the
north, crossed the steppe of the Kirghiz, and thus gradually reached
the Emba and the Or. Between these two rivers and the Ural the
Torgod settled in 1616; thence they crossed the Volga in 1650, and
took possession of the now so-called steppe of the Kalmucks, being
followed in 1673 by the Derbet and in 1675 by the Koshod. In
1771 a considerable number returned to the Chinese empire. There
is still a not unimportant population in the so-called steppe of the
Kalmucks, which extends between the Caspian and the Volga in
the east and the Don in the west, and from the town of Sarepta
in the north to the Kuma and the Manych in the south. According
to modern statistical accounts, this population amounts to 76,000.
To these we have to add 25,000 more on the borders of the Cossacks
of the Don, and lastly 8000 in the bordering provinces of Orenburg
and Saratov.
3. In the southern part of the Russian province of Irkutsk, in
a wide circle round Lake Baikal, lies the heirdom proper of the
Buriats, which they also call the " Holy Sea " ; the country east
of the lake is commonly called Transbiakalia. Their country
practically extends from the Chinese frontier on the south within
almost parallel lines to the north, to the town Kirensk on the Lena,
and from the Onon in the east to the Oka, a tributary of the Angara,
in the west, and still farther west towards Nizhni-Udinsk. They
are most numerous beyond the Baikal Lake, in the valleys along
the Uda, the Onon and the Selenga, and in Nertchinsk. These
Transbaikalian Buriats came to these parts only towards the end
of the 1 7th century from the Kalkas. While Mongols and Kal-
mucks generally continue to live after the usual fashion of nomads,
we find here agricultural pursuits, most likely, however, due mainly
to Russian influence. Christianity is also making its way. The
sum total of the Buriats amounts to about 250,000.
Another tribe separated from the rest of the Mongols is the so-
called Hazara (the thousand), and the four Aimak (i.e. tribes), who
wander about as herdsmen in Afghanistan, between Herat and
Kabul. In external characteristics they are Mongols, and in all
probability they are the remains of a tribe from the time of the
Mongol dynasty. Their language, which shows, of course, Persian
influence, is strictly Mongolian, more particularly West Mongolian
or Kalmuck, as has been proved by H. C. von der Gabelentz. 1
Agreeably with this threefold division of the Mongols we have
also a threefold division of their respective languages: (i) East
Mongolian or Mongolian proper, (2) West Mongolian or Kalmuck,
(3) Buriatic.
The dialects just mentioned are found to be in close relation to
each other when we examine their roots, inflections and grammatical
structure. The difference between them is indeed so slight that
whoever understands one of them understands all. Phonetically a
characteristic of them all is the " harmony of vowels," which are
divided into two chief classes: the hard a, o, u and the soft e, 5, u,
between which i is in the middle. All vowels of the same word
must necessarily belong to the same class, so that the nature of the
first or root-vowel determines the nature of the other or inflection-
vowels; now and then a sort of retrogressive harmonv takes
place, so that a later vowel determines the nature of the former.
1 See his essay, " Ueber die Sprache der Hazaras und Aimaks," in
the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, xx. 326-
335-
The consonants preceding the vowels are equally under their in-
fluence.
The Mongolian characters, which in a slightly altered form are
also in use among the Manchus, are written perpendicularly from
above downward, and the lines follow from left to right, the alpha-
bet having signs for seven vowels , e, i, o, u, 6, u, and diphthongs
derived from them ao, ai, ei, ii, oi, ui, oi ui, and for seventeen con-
sonants n, b, kh, gh, k, g, m, I, r (never initial), /, d, y, s, (ds), ts,
ss, sh, w. All these are modified in shape according to their position,
in the beginning, middle, or end of a word, and also by certain
orthographic rules. In Mongolian and Manchu writing the syllable
(i.e. the consonant together with the vowel) is considered as a unit,
in other words a syllabarium rather than an alphabet. The existing
characters are lineal descendants of the original Uighurian forms,
which were themselves derived from the Syriac, having been brought
to the Uighurs by Nestorian missionaries. An Indian and Tibetan
influence may also be noticed, while the arrangement of the cha r .
acters in perpendicular lines is common to the Chinese. The writing
was brought into its present shape by the learned Lamas Saskya
Pandita, Phags-pa Lama, and Tshoitshi Odser in the 131)1 century, 2
but is exceedingly imperfect. To express the frequently-occurring
letters borrowed from Sanskrit and Tibetan, which are wanting
in the Mongol alphabet, a special alphabet, called Galik, is employed.
Every one who has tried to read Mongolian knows how many
difficulties have to be overcome, arising from the ambiguity of
certain letters, or from the fact that the same sign is to be pronounced
differently, according to its position in the word. Thus, there are
no means for distinguishing the o and u, o and u, the consonants
g and k, t and d, y and i (ds). A and e, o () and o (u), a (e) and
n, g and kh, t (d) and on, are liable to be mistaken for each other.
Other changes will be noticed and avoided by advanced students.
It is a great defect that such common words as ada (a fury) and ende
(here), ende (here) and nada (me), aldan (fathom) and altan (gold),
ordu (court-residence) and urlu (long), onokhu (to seize) and unukhu
(to ride), tere (this) and dere (pillow), gebe (said) and kebe (made),
gem (evil) and kem (measure), ger (house) and ker (how), naran (sun)
and nere (name), yagon (what) and dsagon (hundred), should be
written exactly alike. This list might be largely increased. These
defects apply equally to the Mongolian and Buriatic alphabets.
In 1648 the Saya Pandita composed a new alphabet (the Kalmuck),
in which these ambiguities are avoided, though the gra phic differences
between the two alphabets are only slight. The Kalmuck alphabet
avoids the angular and clumsy shapes of the Mongolian, and has,
on the contrary, a rounded and pleasing shape. The Kalmuck
alphabet has also this great advantage that every sound has its
distinct graphic character; a mistake between two characters can
scarcely occur. The Kalmuck words once mastered, they can be
easily recognized in their Mongolian shape. The dialectical differ-
ences are also very slight.
The Kalmuck, therefore, is the key of the Mongolian, and should
form the groundwork of Mongolian studies. The Kalmuck and East
Mongolian dialects do not differ much, at least in the spoken lan-
guage; but the Kalmucks write according to their pronunciation,
while the Mongols do not. For example, son (dson), " hundred,"
is pronounced alike by the Kalmucks and the East Mongolians; but
according to Mongolian orthography the word appears in the form
dsagon. The dialectic difference between the two dialects very
frequently lies only in a different pronunciation of some letters.
Thus East Mongolian ds is in Kalmuck soft s, &c. The chief differ-
ence between the two dialects lies in the fact that in Kalmuck the
soft guttural between two vowels is omitted, while, through the
joining of the two vowels, a long vowel is produced. In the pro-
nunciation of common East Mongolian the g is likewise omitted,
but it is written, while in Kalmuck, as just now mentioned, the
guttural can only be traced through the lengthening of the syllable.
Thus we find: Mongol khagan, " prince, " Kalmuck khan: M. dagnn,
"voice, sound," K. don, dun, M. dologan, "seven," K. doldii; M.
K. ssanan; M. baragon~ " on the right," K. baron, bariin; M.
shibagon, "bird," K. showon; M. chilagon, "stone," K. chilon
(chulun); M.jirgogan, " six," K. surgan; M. degere, " high, above,'*
K. dere; M. ugukhu, " to drink," K. ukhu; M. logodshi, " history,"
K. todshi, tudshi; M. egiiden, " door," K. oden; M. dsegun, " left,"
K. son; M. ogede, "in the height," K. odo; M, Sgeled, "the
Kalmucks," K. olod; M. uileged, " if one has done,'* K. uiled;
M. kobegun, "son," K. kowon; M. gegun, " mare," K. gun; M.
kegur, " corpse." K. kiir; M. kharigad, " returned," K. khared, &c.
The Buriatic, in these peculiarities, is almost always found with
East Mongolian, with which it is in every respect closely allied.
In the pronunciation of some letters the transition of East Mongolian
tsa, tse into Buriatic is noticeable; for instance: Mong. tselsek,
"flower," Buriatic ssessek; M. tsak, "time," B. ssak; M. tsagan,
"white," B. ssagan; M. tsetsen, "prudent," B.ssessen. lissome-
times pronounced like (the German) ch: East M. ssain, " good," B.
2 Cf. H. C. von der Gabelentz, in the Zeitschrift f. d. Kunde d.
Morgenlandes' (Gottingen, 1838), ii. 1-21, " Versuch uber eine alte
mongolische Inschrift.
MONG PAI
721
chain; M. ssedkil, "heart," B. chedkil. K in the beginning or
middle of a word is always aspirated.
The noun is declined by the help of appended particles, some of
which are independent post-positions, viz. Gen. yin, u, un; Dat.
dur, a; Ace. yi, i; Ablat. else; Instrum. her, yer; Associative, luga,
luge. The dative and accusative have also special forms which
have at the same time a possessive sense, viz. Dat. dagan, degen;
Accus. ben, yen. The plural is expressed by affixes (nar, ner, od,
ss, d), or frequently by words of plurality, " all," " many," e.g.
kumun nogod (man, many = men). The oblique cases have the
same endings in singular and plural. Gender is not indicated.
The adjective is uninflected both as attribute and as predicate;
there is no comparative form, this idea being expressed by the con-
struction or by the use of certain particles. The personal pronouns
are bi, I; tchi, thou; bida, we; to, ye; their genitives serve as pos-
sessives. The demonstratives are ene, tere (this, that), plural ede,
tede; interrogative ken, who? The relative is lacking, and its place
is supplied by circumlocutions. The numerals are: I, nigen; 2,
khoyar; 3, gurban; 4, dorben; 5, tabun; 6, jirgugan; 7, dologan;
8, naiman; <),yisun; 10, arban; 100, dsagon; 1000, minggan. The
ordinals are formed by appending tugar, tilger. The theme of the
verb is seen in the imperative, as ban, grasp. The conjugation is
rich in forms for tense and mood, but the person and number are
with few exceptions unexpressed. The present is formed from the
theme by adding mui (barimui), the preterite by bai or luga (baribai,
barilugja), the future by ssugai or ssu (barissugui, barissu). The
preterite has also in the third person the terminations dsugui and
run ; the future has in the third person yu, and in the first ya. The
conditional ends in bassu (baribassu), the precative in tugai. tugei,
the potential in sa (barimuisa) , the imperative plural in ktun, the
gerund in the present in n, dsu (barin, baridsu) or tala, " while, till "
(baritala, " inter capiendum "), in the preterite it is formed in gad
(barigad); the present part, has ktchi (bariktchi), the past part.
kssan (barikssan) ; the supine ends in ra, the infinitive in khu
(barikhu, or when used substantively barikhui). There is but one
perfectly regular conjugation, and derivative forms, derived from
the theme by infixes, are conjugated on the same scheme. Thus
the passive has infixed to or kda (barikdakhu, to be grasped), the
causative gul (barigulkhu, to cause to grasp), the co-operative or
sociative lisa or Ida (bariltsakhu, to grasp together).
There are no prepositions, only post-positions. Adverbs are either
simple particles (affirmative, negative, interrogative, modal, &c.)
or are formed by suffixes from other parts of speech. There are
very few conjunctions; the relations of clauses and sentences are
mainly indicated by the verbal forms (part., sup., conditional, but
mainly by the gerund).
The order of words and sentences in construction is pretty much
the opposite of that which we follow. In a simple sentence the
indication of time and place, whether given by an adverb or a sub-
stantive with a post-position, always comes first; then comes the
subject, always preceded by its adjective or genitive, then the object
and other cases depending on the verb, last of all the verb itself
preceded by any adverbs that belong to it. So in the structure of
a period all causal, hypothetical, concessive clauses, which can be
conceived as preceding the main predication in point of time, or
even as contemporary with it, or as in any way modifying it, must
come first; the finite verb appears only at the end of the main
predication or apodosis. The periods are longer than in other
languages; a single one may fill several pages.
AUTHORITIES. Grammars and dictionaries may be divided
according to the three dialects. For East Mongolian, I. J. Schmidt
gave the first grammar (St Petersburg, 1831), and a Mongolian-
German-Russian dictionary (St Petersburg, 1835). Next Jos. Koval-
evski published in Russian a Mongolian grammar (Kasan, 1835), a
chrestomathy (2 vols., Kasan, 1836, 1837), and his great Dictionnaire
mongol-russe-franc,ais (3 vols., Kasan, 1844, 1846, 1849). We may
mention R. Yuille, Short Mongolian Grammar (in Mongolian), xylo-
graphed at the mission press near Selenginsk beyond Lake Baikal
(1838). A. Bobrovnikov's Russian Grammar of the Mongolian-
Kalmuck Language (Kasan, 1849) is also very good. An abridg-
ment of Schmidt's work is C. Puini, Elementi della grammatica
mongolica (Florence, 1878). A. Popov's Mongolian Chrestomathy
appeared in 2 vols. at Kasan (1836). For the Kalmuck we have
grammars by Popov (Kasan, 1847), Bobrovnikov, as above, and
H. A. Zwick (s. I. et a.), autographed at Donaueschingen (1851).
Zwick's autographed Kalmuck and German dictionary with a printed
German index appeared (s. I. eta.) in 1852; B. Julg's edition of the
tales of Siddhi-kur (Leipzig, 1866) gives a complete glossary to these
stories. There are small Russian and Kalmuck vocabularies by
P. Smirnov (Kasan, 1857) and C. Golstunskyi (St Petersburg, 1860).
For the Buriatic we have Castren, Versuch einer burjatischen
Sprachlehre, ed. by Schiefner (1857), and A. Orlov's Russian grammar
of the Mongol-Buriatic colloquial language (Kasan, 1878).
Literature. A clear distinction must be drawn between the
higher and nobler written or book-language and the common or con-
versational language of every-day life. The difference between the
two is very considerable, and may be fairly compared to that between
the modern High German book-language and the different dialects.
All grammars and dictionaries as yet published treat only of the
book-language; and so also, with a few exceptions, the published
literary documents are written in this higher style. The exceptions
are the Gesser-Khan, and the Siddhi-kur and Ujangariad (the last
two published by Golstunskyi). The popular or conversational
language has been fixed in writing by A. Pozdneev in his Russian
work, Specimens of the Popular Literature of the Mongolian Tribes,
pt. i., "Popular Songs " (St Petersburg, 1880), which contains rich
material for the study cf the popular literature.
The literature consists mostly of translations from the Tibetan,
the holy language of Buddhism, which is still the language o! the
learned. The Tibetan Buddhist literature is itself translated from
the Sanskrit; hence, now and then, through Mongols and Kalmucks
we get acquainted with Indian works the originals of which are not
known in Sanskrit. Such is the case, for instance, with the tales
of Siddhi-kur. Many books have also been translated from the
Chinese. Most of the writings are of a religious, historical, philo-
sophical, medical, astronomical or astrological character. Favourite
subjects are folk-lore and fairy tales. Among the religious books,
perhaps the most important is that containing the legends entitled
uliger un dalal, " ocean of comparisons " (ed. by I. Jacob Schmidt
under the title, Der Weise und der Thor, in Tibetan and German
(St Petersburg, 1843). To this may be added the boddhi mor, or " the
holy path," the oltan gerel, " gleaming of gold," the mani gambo and
yertuntchu yin toli, " mirror of the world." What was known of
rtical literature before Pozdneev is scarcely worth mentioning.
some parts of the historical and narrative literature we find,
wherever the narrative takes a higher flight, an admixture of poetical
diction. The poetry appears in a certain parallelism of the phrases,
with a return either of the same endings (rhyme) or of the same
words (refrain). Frequently we find, besides the rhyme or refrain,
alliteration. The essay ot H. C. von der Gabelentz in Z.J. d. Kunde
des Morgenlandes, i. 20-37, " Einiges iiber mongolische Poesie," has
been superseded by the work of Pozdneev.
Among historical works a high place is due to that composed by
the tribal prince, Sanang Setzen, in the middle of the 1 7th century
(Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen und Hires Fiirstenhauses, Mongolian and
German, by I. J. Schmidt, St Petersburg, 1829), and to the Alton
toblchi, i.e. " golden knob " or " precious contents " (text and Russian
trans, by the Lama Galsang Gomboyev, St Petersburg, 1858). Of
folk-lore and fairy tales, we have the legend of the hero Gesser-
Khan (text ed. by I. J. Schmidt, St Petersburg, 1836, and German
version, 1839; Schott, Ve.ber die Sage v. Geser-Khan, Berlin,
1851, and B. Jiilg in the Transactions of the Wurzburger Philol.
Versam. of 1868, pp. 58 sqq., Leipzig, 1869); and the tales about
A rdshi Bordshi (Russian version by Galsang Gombo.yev.St Petersburg,
1858; text and German trans, by B. Jiilg, Innsbruck, 1867, 1868).
A favourite book is the tales of Siddhi-kur, based on the Sanskrit
Vet&la panchavinQati (Russian trans, by Galsang Gomboyev, St Peters-
burg, 1865, nine of the tales in Mongolian and German, by B. Jiilg,
Innsbruck, 1 868). The fuller collection of these tales in Kalmuck first
became known by the German trans, of B. Bergmann in vol. i. of his
Nomadische Streifereien unter d. Kalmiiken (4 vols., Riga, 1804, 1805) ;
an autographed edition in the vulgar dialect was published by
C. Golstunskyi (St Petersburg, 1864); text and German trans, with
glossary by B. Jiilg (Leipzig, 1866). A poetic heroic story is the
pjangariad, extracts from which were given by Bergmann (op. tit.,
iv. 181 sqq.); a complete Russian version by A. Bobrovnikov (St
Petersburg, 1854) ; a German version by F. v. Erdmann in Z.D.M.G.,
1857 (Kalmuck text by Golstunskyi, St Petersburg, 1864). A similar
poem is the history of Ubasha Khuntaidshi and his war with the
Oirad, Kalmuck text and Russian trans, by G. Gomboyev in his Altan
tobtchi as above, and text alone autographed by Golstunskyi (St
Petersburg, 1864). Some books of religion for the Christian Buriats
(transcribed in Russian characters) represent the Buriatic dialect.
The Russian and English Bible Societies have given us a translation
of the whole Bible. I. J. Schmidt translated the Gospels and the
Acts into Mongolian and Kalmuck for the Russian Bible Society
(8 vols., St Petersburg, 1819-1821) a masterly work. The English
missionaries, E. Stallybrass and W. Swan, and afterwards R. Yuille,
translated the whole Old Testament into Mongolian (1836-1840).
This work was printed at a mission press erected at great cost for
the purpose near Selenginsk, beyond Lake Baikal in Siberia. In
1846 the New Testament by the same hands appeared at London.
AUTHORITIES. The richest collections of Mongolian and Kalmuck
Crinted books and MSS. are in the Asiatic museum of the St Peters-
urg Academy, and in the libraries of Kazan and Irkutsk ; there is
also a good collection in the royal library at Dresden. Consult in
general, besides the already-cited works of Bergmann and Pozdneev,
P. S. Pallas, Sammlungen historischer Nachrichten ii. d. mongolischen
Volkerschaflen (2 vols., St Petersburg, 1776-1801); I. J. Schmidt,
Forschungen im Gebiete der dlteren . . . Bildungsgeschichte der
Volker Mittelasiens, vorz. d. Mongolen und Tibeter (St Petersburg
and Leipzig, 1824) ; B. Jiilg, " On the Present State of Mongolian
Researches," Journ. R. As. Soc., xiv. (1882), pp. 42-65. (B. J.)
MONG PAI (called Mobye by the Burmese), the most south-
westerly of the British Shan States of Burma. It has an approx-
imate area of 1000 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 19,351.
The general character of the country is hilly, rising westwards
in a gentle slope from the chief stream, the Nam Hpilu or Balu.
722
MONO PAN MONITOR
This is navigable for native boats throughout the year to the
point where it sinks underground in Karen-ni. The chief culti-
vation is rice, with about two acres of dry or hill rice to one of wet
bottom. The hill fields are left fallow for ten years after two
years' cultivation. The chief, the Sawbwa Hkun Yon, held
charge through the reigns of four Burmese kings, and submitted
early in 1887 on the first arrival of British troops. He abdicated
in favour of his son in 1890, and died a few years later.
MONO PAN (the Burmese Maingpan), a state in the eastern
division of the southern Shan States, lying approximately
between 19 45' and 20 25' N. and between 98 and 99 E.,
with an area of 2299 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 16,629.
The main state lies, except for a few insignificant circles, entirely
west of the Salween, but beyond that river are the four sub-
feudatory states of Mong Tun, Mong Hang, Mong Kyawt and
Mong Hta. The only considerable area of flat land is round the
capital, which lies in a large and fertile plain, marking roughly
the centre of the state. From this plain rise on all sides low
hills covered with scrub jungle, sloping up to ranges of about
5000 ft. on nearly every side. Rice is the only crop, irrigated
where possible; elsewhere dry cultivation prevails. The state
has valuable teak forests on both sides of the Salween, which
cover a considerable but undetermined area. The general
altitude of the valleys is about 2000 ft. The capital is small,
and has only about 200 houses. The chief is of Sawbwa rank.
MONGREL (earliest form mengrel, probably from the root
meng-, or mong-, to mix, cf. mingle, among), a dog that is
the progeny of two different breeds, or one whose breed it is
impossible to tell on account of the various crossings. In the
case of other animals or plants it is the result of a fertile cross
between two varieties of the same species, and so to be distin-
guished from a " hybrid," the result of a fertile cross between two
distinct species (see HYBRIDISM).
MONIER-WILLIAMS, SIR MONIER (1819-1899), British
orientalist, son of Colonel Monier- Williams, surveyor-general in
the Bombay presidency, was born at Bombay on the I2th of
November 1819. He, matriculated at Oxford from Balliol
College in 1837, but left the university on receiving in 1839 a
nomination for the East India Company's civil service, and
was completing his course of training at Haileybury when the
entreaties of his mother, who had lost a son in India, prevailed
upon him to relinquish his nomination and return to Oxford.
As Balliol was full, he entered University College and, devoting
himself to the study of Sanskrit, he gained the Boden scholarship
in 1843. After taking his degree he was appointed professor
of Sanskrit, Persian and Hindustani at Haileybury, where he
remained until the abolition of the college upon the transfer of
the government of India from the Company to the Crown. He
taught oriental languages at Cheltenham for ten years, and in
1860 was elected Boden professor of Sanskrit at Oxford after a
contest with Professor Max Muller (</..), which attracted great
public interest and severe criticism, the motive of the non-
resident voters, whose suffrages turned the scale, being notoriously
not so much to put Monier- Williams in as to keep Max Muller
out. Although, however, far inferior to his rival in versatility
and literary talent, Monier- Williams was in no way inferior in the
special field of Sanskrit, and did himself and his professorship
much honour by a succession of excellent works, among which
may especially be named his Sanskrit-English and English-
Sanskrit dictionaries; his Indian Wisdom (1875), an anthology
from Sanskrit literature; and his translation of Sakuntala (1853).
In his later years he was especially attracted by the subject of
the native religions of India, and wrote popular works on Brah-
manism, Buddhism and Hinduism. His principal undertaking,
however, was the foundation of the Indian Institute at Oxford,
which owes its existence entirely to him. He brought the pro-
ject before the university in May 1875, and in that year and the
following, and again in 1883, visited India to solicit the moral
and financial support of the native princes and other leading men.
Lord Brassey came to his aid with a donation of 9000, and in
November 1880 the institute was adopted by the university,
but the purchase of a site and the erection of a building were left
to the professor. Upwards of 30,000 was eventually collected;
the prince of Wales, in memory of his visit to India, laid the
foundation stone in May 1883; and the edifice, erected in three
instalments, was finally completed in 1896. Ere this, failing
health had compelled Monier-Williams to withdraw from the
active duties of his professorship, which were discharged by the
deputy-professor, Dr A. Macdonell, who afterwards succeeded
him. He continued, nevertheless, to work upon Sanskrit
philology until his death at Cannes on the nth of April 1899.
He had been knighted in 1886, and was made K.C.I.E. in 1889,
when he adopted his Christian name of Monitr as an additional
surname.
MONISM (from Gr. iiovos, alone), the philosophic view of the
world which holds that there is but one form of reality, whether
that be material or spiritual. The aim of knowledge is explana-
tion, and the dualism or pluralism which acquiesces in recog-
nizing two or more wholly disparate forms of reality has in
so far renounced explanation (see DUALISM). To this extent
monism is justified; but it becomes mischievous if it prompts us
to ignore important differences in facts as they present them-
selves to our intelligence. All forms of monism from Plotinus
downwards tend to ignore personal individuality and volition, and
merge all finite existence in the featureless unity of the Absolute;
this, indeed, is what inspires the passion of the protest against
monism. Turning to the historical forms of the theory we may class
Plotinus as a mystical monist : he attains to the One which is the
All by an act of mystic union raising him above the phenomenal
sphere. Spinoza is a materialistic monist with an inconsistent
touch cf mysticism and a certain concession, more apparent than
real, to the spiritual side of experience. Hegel's is an intellectualist
monism, explaining matter, sensation, personal individuality and
will as forms of thought. The doctrine of Schopenhauer and
von Hartmann is a monism of cosmic will which submerges the
individual no less completely than Hegelianism, though in a
different manner. Haeckel's monism is mere materialism
dignified by a higher title. Those who maintain that all these
forms of synthesis are hasty and superficial stand by the convic-
tion that the right philosophic attitude is to accept provisionally
the main distinctions of common sense, above all the distinction
of personal and impersonal; but to press forward to the under-
lying unity so far as experience and reflection justify.
SeeAesoLUTE; DUALISM; METAPHYSICS; MATERIALISM; IDEALISM.
MONITION, or ADMONITION (Lat. monere, to admonish), in
English ecclesiastical law, an order requiring or admonishing the
person complained of to do something specified in the monition,
or appear and show cause to the contrary, " under pain of the
law and penalty thereof." It is the lightest form of ecclesiastical
censure, whether to clergymen or laymen, but disobedience to it,
after it has been duly and regularly served, entails the penalties
of contempt of court. Monitions of a disciplinary character
are either for the purpose of enforcing residence on a benefice,
or in connexion with suits to restrain ritual alleged to be unlawful.
MONITOR (from Lat. monere, to warn, advise), an advisor or
counsellor, one who warns another person as to his course of
action, also used of things that are more or less personified, as
conscience. The word is chiefly applied to senior pupils (also
known as " prefects ") in some of the great secondary schools in
England; in America to senior students in certain colleges to
whom special duties are assigned, particularly that of keeping
order; and also to pupil teachers in English elementary schools.
It is used in a general way of anything that gives warning, and
in this sense is applied to a lizard of the family Monitoridae, or
Varanidae, found in Africa and Australia, which is supposed to
give warning of the Approach of crocodiles. The name of moni-
tor was also given to a particular kind of ironclad invented for
the American navy by Captain John Ericsson (q.v.) in 1862,
which had a very low freeboard and revolving gun-turrets.
The letter of Ericsson to the assistant secretary of the navy, of
the 2oth of January 1862 (quoted in the Century Dictionary),
gives the inventor's reason for the name. " The impregnable
and aggressive character of this structure will admonish the
leaders of the Southern Rebellion that the batteries on the banks
MONK, GEORGE
723
of their rivers will no longer present barriers to the entrance of the
Union forces. The ironclad intruder will thus prove a severe
monitor to those leaders . . . ' Downing Street ' will hardly
view with indifference this last ' Yankee notion,' this monitor."
It is also the name of an ironclad railway truck used for carrying
a big gun. In America the raised part of the roof of a railway
carriage or omnibus in which the lights or ventilators are placed
is known as a monitor roof or top. In mining the word is applied
to a jointed nozzle which may be turned in all directions, and is
used in hydraulic mining.
MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE, ist DUKE OF ALBEMARLE
(1608-1669), second son of Sir Thomas Monk, a gentleman of
good family but in embarrassed circumstances, was born at
Potheridge, near Torrington, in Devonshire, on the 6th of Decem-
ber 1608. Having thrashed the under-sheriff of the county in
revenge for a wrong done to his father, he had to leave home,
and naturally took to the career of arms. He served as a
volunteer in the expedition to Cadiz, and the next year did good
service at the Isle of Rhe. In 1629 Monk went to the Low
Countries, then the school of war, and there he gained a high
reputation as a leader and disciplinarian. In 1638 he threw up
his commission in consequence of a quarrel with the civil autho-
rities of Dordrecht, and came to England. He obtained the
lieutenant-colonelcy of Newport's regiment. During the opera-
tions on the Scottish border he showed his skill and coolness in
the dispositions by which he saved the English artillery at
Newburn, though himself destitute of ammunition. At the
outbreak of the Irish rebellion he was appointed colonel of Lord
Leicester's regiment. All the qualities for which he was noted
through life his talent of making himself indispensable, his
imperturbable temper and his impenetrable secrecy were fully
displayed in this employment. The governorship of Dublin was
vacant, and Monk was appointed by Leicester. But Charles I.
overruled the appointment in favour of Lord Lambart, and
Monk with great shrewdness gave up his claims. Ormonde,
however, who viewed him with suspicion as one of the two officers
who refused the oath to support the Royal cause in England,
sent him under guard to Bristol. But he justified himself to
Charles in person, and his soldierly criticisms on the conduct of
the Irish War impressed the king, who gave him a command in
the corps sent over from Ireland during the English Civil War.
Monk was, however, soon taken prisoner, at Nantwich (1644),
and spent the next two years in the Tower, where he found it
difficult to live owing to his want of means. The king himself
sent him 100, a gift for which Monk himself was sincerely
grateful. He beguiled his imprisonment by writing his Observa-
tions on Military and Political Affairs.
Monk's Irish experience, however, led to his release and an
invitation to take service in the parliament's army against the
Irish rebels. Making a distinction like other soldiers of the time
between fighting the Irish and taking arms against the king,
he accepted the offer and took the covenant. At first as adju-
tant-general to the Parliamentary lord-lieutenant, his old friend
Lord Lisle, and afterwards as governor of Ulster, he rendered
great services to his new masters. In conjunction with Colonel
Michael Jones, governor of Leinster, he made head against the
rebels for two years, but in the third (1649) the Parliamentarians,
weakened by defections brought about by the execution of the
king, were no longer able to keep the field. Losing one strong
place after another, Monk concluded an armistice with the rebel
Owen Roe O'Neill upon terms which he knew the parliament
would not ratify. The convention was indeed a military
expedient to deal with a military necessity, and although
most of his army went over to the Royalist cause, he him-
self remained faithful to his employers and returned to
England. As he expected, parliament " utterly disapproved "
of the armistice but exonerated their general. His next
service was in Cromwell's army in Scotland. He commanded
a brigade at the great victory of Dunbar, and afterwards
captured a number of small places. When in 1651 Cromwell with
the field army hurried southward into England to bring the
invading Scots to battle, Monk was left behind to complete the
subjugation of the country. In February 1632 he left Scotland
to recruit his broken health at Bath, and in November of the same
year he became an admiral, or rather a " general at sea," instead
of a soldier. Ten days after hoisting his flag for the first time he
was engaged with his colleagues, Blake and Deane, in the battle
of Portland (Feb. 18, 1653). In the action of June 2-3 Monk
exercised the general command after Deane's death. A third
battle followed on the 2gth and 3Oth of July, which was a decisive
victory for the Commonwealth's fleet (see DUTCH WAKS). On
his return he married Anne Clarges, a woman of low extraction,
often supposed to have been his mistress, " ever a plain homely
dowdy," says Pepys, who, like other writers who mention her,
is usually still less complimentary. Next year he was back in
Scotland, methodically beating down a Royalist insurrection
in the Highlands, and when this service was over settled down
to a steady government of the country for the next five years.
The timely discovery of a plot fomented by Overton, his second
in command, in 1654, gave him an excuse for thoroughly purging
his army of all Anabaptists, Fifth Monarchy men, and other
dangerous enthusiasts. It is improbable that at this time Monk
had proposed to himself the restoration of the king, though so
astute a diplomatist must have weighed the chances of such an
event. His very reticence, however, caused alarm on one side and
hope on the other. In 1655 he received a letter from Charles II.,
a copy of which he at once sent to Cromwell, who is said to
have written to him in 1657 in the following terms: " There be
that tell me that there is a certain cunning fellow in Scotland
called George Monk, who is said to lye in wait there to introduce
Charles Stuart; I pray you, use your diligence to apprehend
him, and send him up to me." Monk's personal relations with
Cromwell were those of sincere friendship on both sides.
During the confusion which followed Cromwell's death Monk
remained silent and watchful at Edinburgh, careful only to
secure his hold on his troops. At first he contemplated armed
support of Richard Cromwell, but gave up this idea on realizing
the young man's incapacity for government, and renewed his
waiting policy. In July 1659 direct and tempting proposals
were again made to him by the king. His brother Nicholas, a
clergyman, was employed by Sir J. Grenvil to bring to him the
substance of Charles's letter. No bribe, however, could induce
him to act one moment before the right time. He bade his
brother go back to his books, and refused to entertain any
proposal. But when Booth rose in Cheshire for the king, so
tempting did the opportunity seem that he was on the point of
joining forces with him, and a manifesto was prepared. His
habitual caution, however, induced him to wait until the next
post from England, and the next post brought news of Booth's
defeat.
For a momerit he thought of retiring into private life, but
soon Fleetwood and Lambart declared against the parliament,
and to their surprise Monk not only refused to join them, but
(Oct. 20, 1659) at once took measures of active opposition.
Securing his hold on Scotland by a small but trusty corps of
occupation, he crossed the border with the rest of his army.
Holding Lambart in play without fighting until his army began
to melt away for want of pay, Monk received the commission of
commander-in-chief of the parliament's forces (Nov. 24). The
navy, some of the English garrisons and the army in Ireland
declared for the parliament, and the army from Scotland crossed
the Tweed on the 2nd of January 1660. It was inferior in
number, but in all other respects superior to Lambart's, and
Monk slowly marched on to London, disbanding or taking over
on his way the detachments of Lambart's army which he met, and
entered the capital on the 3rd of February. In all this his
ultimate purpose remained mysterious. At one moment he
secretly encouraged the demands of the Royalist City of London,
at another he urged submission to the existing parliament,
then again he refused to swear an oath abjuring the house of
Stuart, and further he hinted to the attenuated Long Parliament
the urgent necessity of a dissolution. Lastly, acting as the stern
military agent of the infuriated parliament, he took away the
gates and portcullises of the city. This angered not only the
724
citizens but his own army, and gave him the lever that he desired
to enforce the dissolution of parliament, while at the same time
enabling him to break up as a matter affecting discipline, the
political camarillas that had formed in his own regiments. He
was now master of the situation, and though he protested his
adherence to republican principles, it was a matter of common
knowledge that the new parliament, which Monk was imposing
on the remnant of the old, would have a strong, Royalist colour.
Monk himself was now in communication with Charles II.,
whose Declaration of Breda was based on Monk's recommenda-
tions. The new parliament met on the 25th of April, and on the
ist of May voted the restoration of the monarchy.
With the Restoration the historic interest of Monk's career
ceases. Soldier as he was, he had played the difficult game of
diplomacy with incomparable skill, and had won it without
firing a shot. That he was victor sine sanguine, as the preamble
of his patent of nobility stated, was felt by every one to be the
greatest service of all. He was made gentleman of the bedcham-
ber, knight of the Garter, master of the horse and commander-
in-chief, raised to the peerage with the titles of Baron Monk,
earl of Torrington and duke of Albemarle, and had a pension of
7000 a year allotted to him. As long as the army existed of
which he was the idol, and of which the last service was to
suppress Venner's revolt, he was a person not to be displeased.
But he entirely concurred in its disbandment, and only the
regiment of which he was colonel, the Coldstream (Guards),
survives to represent the army of the Civil Wars. In 1664 he
had charge of the admiralty when James, duke of York, was in
command of the fleet, and when in 1665 London was deserted
on account of the plague, Monk, with all the readiness of a man
accustomed to obey without thinking of risk, remained in charge
of the government of the city. Once more, at the end of this
year, he was called upon to fight, having a joint commission
with Prince Rupert against the Dutch. The whole burden of
the preparations fell upon him. On the 23rd of April 1666 the
admirals joined the fleet, and on the ist of June began the great
four days' battle, in which Monk showed not only all his old
coolness and skill, but also a reckless daring which had seemed
hitherto foreign to his character. Later in the same year he
maintained order in the city of London during the Great Fire.
His last service was in 1667, when the Dutch fleet sailed up
the Thames, and Monk, though ill, hastened to Chatham to
oppose their farther progress. From that time he lived much in
privacy, and died of dropsy on the 3rd of January 1670, " like
a Roman general with all his officers about him." The dukedom
became extinct on the death of his son Christopher, 2nd duke of
Albemarle (1653-1688).
See the Life of Monk, by Dr Gumble, his chaplain (London, 1671),
and the memoir and bibliography by C. H. Firth in the Diet. Nat.
Biogr.
MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856), English divine and
classical scholar, was born at Buntingford, Herts. He was edu-
cated at Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Cambridge,
and in 1809 was elected professor of Greek in succession to Person.
The establishment of the classical tripos was in great measure
due to his efforts. In 1822 he was appointed dean of Peter-
borough; in 1830, bishop of Gloucester (with which the see of
Bristol was amalgamated in 1836). He is best known as the
author of a Life of Bentley (1830) and as the editor (with C. J.
Blomfield) of Person's Adversaria (1812).
MONK, MARIA (c. 1817-18^50), an adventuress and impostor,
who, coming to New York in 1835, claimed to have escaped from
the Montreal nunnery of the Hotel Dieu, concerning which, and
the practices prevalent there, she circulated sensational charges
in Awful Disclosures by Maria Monk (1836). Over 200,000
copies of this book and a sequel were sold, and a violent anti-
Catholic agitation resulted. She was finally exposed as a woman
of bad character, and her story proved to be absolutely false,
but not until she had deceived many people of good standing.
MONK (O.Eng. mumic; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g.
Du. monnik, Ger. Monch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital.
monacho and Span, monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adapted
MONK, J. H. MONKSWELL
from Gr. itova.\6s, one living alone, a solitary; itovos, alone), a
member of a community of men living a life under vows of
religious observance; the term is properly confined to a member
of a Christian community, but is sometimes applied to mem-
bers of Buddhist and Mahommedan religious brotherhoods.
The Greek and Latin name was first used of the hermits, but was
early widened to embrace the coenobites. The term " monk "
should not be used either of " friars " or of " canons regular."
(See MONASTICISM.)
MONKEY, a term apparently applicable to all members of
the order PRIMATES (q.v.) except man and perhaps the larger
apes. In zoology it may be used in this wider sense, as inclusive
of all the Primates except man and lemurs; but it may also be
employed in a more restricted application, so as to denote all
ordinary " monkeys " as distinct from baboons on the one hand
and the tail-less man-like apes on the other. The word appears
in English first in the i6th century. The Low-German version of
Reynard the Fox (Reinke de Vos, 1479) calls the son of Martin,
the ape, Moneke; and the French version has Monnekin, Manne-
quin; these are apparently Teutonic diminutives of a word for
ape which occurs in several Romanic languages, e.g. Fr. monne,
It. monna, &c.
MONKHOUSE, WILLIAM COSMO (1840-1901), English poet
and critic, was born in London on the i8th of March 1840. His
father, Cyril John Monkhouse, was a solicitor; his mother's
maiden name was Delafosse. He was educated at St Paul's
School, quitting it at seventeen to enter the board of trade as a
junior supplementary clerk, from which grade he rose eventually
to be the assistant-secretary to the finance department of the
office. In 1870-1871 he visited South America in connexion with
the hospital accommodation for seamen at Valparaiso and other
ports; and he served on different departmental committees,
notably that of 1894-1896 on the Mercantile Marine Fund. He
was twice married: first, to Laura, daughter of James Keymer
of Dartford; and, secondly, to Leonora Eliza, daughter of
Commander Blount, R.N. He died in London on the 2oth of
July 1901. Cosmo Monkhouse was one of those who have not
only a vocation, but an avocation. His first bias was to poetry,
and in 1865 he issued A Dream of Idleness and Other Poems, a
collection strongly coloured by his admiration for Wordsworth
and Tennyson. It was marked by exceptional maturity, and
scarcely received the recognition it deserved. Owing perhaps
to this circumstance, it was not till 1890 that he put forth Corn
and Poppies, a collection which contains at least one memorable
effort in the well-known " Dead March." Five years later
appeared a limited edition of the striking ballad of The Christ
upon the Hill, illustrated with etchings by Mr William Strang.
After his death his poetical output was completed by Pasiteles
the Elder ard other Poems (including The Christ upon the Hill).
In 1868 Monkhouse essayed a novel, A Question of Honour.
Then, after preluding with a Life of Turner in the " Great
Artists Series " (1879), he devoted himself almost exclusively
to art criticism. Besides many contributions to the Academy,
the Saturday Review, the Magazine of Art and other periodicals,
he published volumes on The Italian Pre-Raphaelites (1887),
The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters (1890 and 1897),
In the National Gallery (1895) and British Contemporary
Artists (1899). He was a contributor to the Diet. Nat. Biog.
from the beginning. Monkhouse also wrote an excellent
Memoir of Leigh Hunt in the " Great Writers Series " (1887).
As an art critic Monkhouse's j-udgments were highly valued;
and he had the rare gift of differing without offending, while
he invariably secured respect for his honesty and ability. As
a poet, his ambition was so wide and his devotion to the art
so thorough, that it is difficult not to regret the slender bulk of
his legacy to posterity.
MONKSWELL, ROBERT PORRETT COLLIER, ist BARON
(1817-1886), English judge, was born at Plymouth, on the zist
of June 1817, and was the son of a prominent merchant of Quaker
extraction. He was educated at Oxford, was called to the bar
in 1843, and went the western circuit. He obtained a high
reputation by his successful defence of Brazilian pirates in 1845;
MONLUC MONMOUTH, DUKE OF
725
they were, indeed, convicted at the assizes, but Collier ultimately
procured their escape upon a point of law which the judge had
refused to reserve. He was elected member of parliament for
Plymouth in the Liberal interest in 1852, and in 1859 was
appointed counsel to the admiralty and judge-advocate to the
fleet. In this capacity he gave in 1862 an opinion in favour of
detaining the Confederate rams building in the Mersey, which
would have saved his country much money and much credit if
it had been acted upon. In 1863 he became solicitor-general,
and in 1868 attorney-general, and in 1869 successfully passed
a bankruptcy bill. In 1871 he was appointed by Mr Gladstone
one of four new judges upon the judicial committee of the privy
council, although it was expressly provided by the act creating
these offices that none of them should be filled by a law-om'cer of
the Crown. This prohibition was evaded by making Collier a
judge of common pleas, and transferring him after a few days
to the privy council. This arrangement was unanimously
condemned by public opinion, and gave the Gladstone cabinet
a serious blow. He officiated, nevertheless, with distinction
until his death on the 3rd of November 1886, and was raised
to the peerage as Baron Monkswell in 1885. He was a man
of many accomplishments, and especially distinguished as an
amateur painter, frequently exhibiting landscapes at the Royal
Academy and elsewhere. In his younger days he had been
noted as a clever caricaturist. He was succeeded in the peerage
by his elder son, Robert (b. 1845), who, after taking a first class
in law at Cambridge, went to the bar, and became (1871)
conveyancing counsel to the treasury, and (1885-1886) an
official examiner of the High Court, and, taking to politics as a
Liberal, under-secretary for war (1895). The younger son,
John Collier (b. 1850), inherited his father's artistic tastes,
and became a well-known painter.
MONLUC, or MDNTLUC, the name of a French family. The
house of Lasseran-Mansencomme, which possessed the estate
of Monluc in Agenais, and took its name in the i6th century,
is held to be a branch of the family of Montesquieu. Marshal
Blaise de Monluc (d. 1577), author of the Commentaires, had a
son, Pierre Bertrand, called the Capitaine Peyrot, who perished
in an expedition to Madeira in 1566, and another son, Fabien
de Monluc, whose granddaughter, Jeanne de Monluc (d. 1657),
countess of Carmaing, princess of Chabanais, brought the estates
of her house to the family of Escoubleau by her marriage with
Charles d'Escoubleau, marquess of Sourdis and Alluyes. Jean
de Monluc, brother of the marshal, was bishop of Valence and Die,
and distinguished himself in several embassies. He died in
1579, leaving a natural son, Jean de Monluc (d. 1603), seigneur
de Balagny, who was at first a zealous member of the League,
but made his submission to Henry IV., and received from him
the principality of Cambrai and the baton of a marshal of France.
MONMOUTH, JAMES SCOTT, DUKE or (1640-1685), leader
of his abortive insurrection against James II. in 1685, was the
son of Lucy Walters, " a brown, beautiful, bold but insipid
creature," who became the mistress of Charles II. during his
exile at the Hague. He was born at Rotterdam on the 9th of
April 1649. That Charles was his father is more than doubtful,
for Lucy Walters had previously lived with Robert Sidney (son
of the earl of Leicester), brother of Algernon, and the boy
resembled him very closely. Charles, however, always recog-
nized him as his son, and lavished on him an almost doting
affection. Until the Restoration he was placed under the care,
first of Lord Crofts, by whose name he was known, and then of
the queen-dowager, receiving his education to the age of nine
from Roman Catholics, but thenceforward from Protestant
tutors. In July 1662 he was sent for by Charles, and at thirteen
was placed under the protection of Lady Castlemaine and
in the full tide of the worst influences of the court. No formal
acknowledgment of his relation to the king was made until his
betrothal to Anne Scott, countess of Buccleuch, the wealthiest
heiress of Scotland, whom he married in 1665. During 1663 he
was made duke of Orkney, duke of Monmouth and knight of the
Garter, and received honorary degrees at both universities; and
on his marriage he and his wife were created duke and duchess
of Buccleuch, and he took the surname of Scott. At court he
was treated as a prince of the blood. In 1665 he served with
credit under the duke of York in the sanguinary naval battle off
Lowestoft. A captaincy in the Life Guards was given him, and
in 1670, on the death of Monk, he was made captain-general of
the king's forces. In 1670 Monmouth was with the court at
Dover, and it is affirmed by Reresby that the mysterious death
of Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, was due to her
husband's revenge on the discovery of her intrigue with the duke.
It is certain, from an entry by Pepys, that as early as 1666 he
had established a character for vice and profligacy. He was the
direct author of the attack in December 1670 on Sir John
Coventry, and only a few months later received the royal pardon
for his share in the wanton murder of a street watchman.
Hitherto Monmouth had been but the spoiled child of a wicked
court. Now, however, by no act or will of his own, he began to
be a person politically important. As early as 1662 the king's
excessive fondness for him had caused anxiety. Even then the
fear of a " difference " between Monmouth and James, duke of
York, exercised men's minds, and every caress or promotion
kept the fear alive. Who could tell but that, in default of legiti-
mate issue from his queen, Charles might declare Monmouth
himself his lawful son? A civil war would be the certain conse-
quence. Soon after 1670 the matter took a more serious aspect.
The anti-popery spirit was rapidly becoming a frenzy, and the
succession of James a probability and a terror. Charles was
urged to legitimize Monmouth by a declaration of his marriage
with Lucy Walters. He returned answer that, much as he loved
the duke, be would rather see him hanged at Tyburn than own
him for his legitimate son. Every attempt, however, was hence-
forth made, especially by Shaftesbury, 'to accustom people to
this idea, and his position was emphasized by James's second
marriage, with the Roman Catholic princess Mary of Modena.
From this time his popular title was " the Protestant duke."
In 1674 he was made " commander-in-chief "; and in connexion
with this another unsuccessful attempt, graphically described
in Clarke's Life of James, was made to gain from Charles a tacit
admission of his legitimacy. At Shaftesbury's instance he was
placed in command of the army employed in 1675 against
the Scottish Covenanters, and was present at Bothwell Bridge
(June 22, 1679). In 1678, when Charles was driven into war
with Louis, Monmouth took the command of the English contin-
gent, and again gained credit for personal courage at the battle of
St Denis. On his return to London England was in the throes of
the popish terror. The idea of securing the Protestant succes-
sion by legitimizing Monmouth again took shape and was eagerly
pressed on by Shaftesbury; at the time it seemed possible that
success would wait on the audacity.
The pensionary parliament was dissolved in January 1678
1679, and was succeeded by one still more determined in its anti-
popery spirit. To avoid the storm, and to save, if possible, his
brother's interests, Charles instructed him to leave the country.
James retired to Brussels, the king having previously signed a
declaration that he "never was married, nor gave contract to
any woman whatsoever but to my wife Queen Catherine." In
the summer of 1679 the king suddenly fell ill, and the dangers of
a disputed succession became terribly apparent. The party
opposed to Monmouth, or rather to Shaftesbury, easily prevailed
upon Charles to consent to his brother's temporary return.
When, after the king's recovery, James went back to Brussels,
he received a promise that Monmouth too should be removed
from favour and ordered to leave the country. Accordingly,
in September 1679, the hitter repaired to Utrecht, while shortly
afterwards James's friends so far gained ground as to obtain for
him permission to reside at Edinburgh instead of at Brussels.
Within two months of his arrival at Utrecht Monmouth secretly
returned to England, arriving in London on the 2 7th of Novem-
ber. Shaftesbury had assiduously kept alive the anti-popery
agitation, and Monmouth, as the champion of Protestantism,
was received with every sign of popular delight. The king
appeared to be greatly incensed, deprived him of all his offices,
and ordered him to leave the kingdom at once. This he refused
726
MONMOUTH, DUKE OF
to do, and the only notice taken of the disobedience was that
Charles forbade him to appear at court.
It was at this time that the Appeal from the Country to the City,
written by Ferguson, was published, in which the legitimacy
was tacitly given up, and in which it was urged that " he that
hath the worst title will make the best king." Now it was, too,
that the exclusionists, who in the absence of parliament were
deprived of their best basis for agitation, developed the system
of petitioning. So promptly and successfully was this answered
by the " abhorrers " that Charles, feeling the ground safer under
him, recalled James to London a step immediately followed by
the resignation of the chief Whigs in the council.
Once more, however, a desperate attempt was made, by the
fable of the " black box," to establish Monmouth's claims; and
once more these claims were met by Charles's public declarations
in the Gazette that he had never been married but to the queen.
Still acting under Shaftesbury's advice, Monmouth now went
upon the first of his progresses in the west of England, visiting
the chief members of the country party, and gaining by his open
and engaging manner much popularity among the people. In
August 1680 James returned to Edinburgh, his right to the
succession being again formally acknowledged by Charles.
Monmouth at once threw himself more vehemently than ever into
the plans of the exclusionists. He spoke and voted for exclusion
in the House of Lords, and used language not likely to be for-
gotten by James when an opportunity should come for resenting
it. He was ostentatiously feasted by the city, the stronghold of
Shaftesbury's influence; and it was observed as he drove to
dinner that the mark of illegitimacy had been removed from
the arms on his coach.
The year 1681 seemed likely to witness another civil war.
The parliament finished a session of hysterical passion by passing
a series of resolutions of extreme violence, of which one was that
Monmouth should be restored to all his offices and commands;
and when Charles summoned a fresh parliament to meet at
Oxford the leaders of the exclusionists went thither with troops
of armed men. Not until the dissolution of this last parliament,
on the 27th of March 1681, did the weakness of Monmouth's
cause appear. The deep-seated respect for legitimate descent
asserted itself, and a great reaction took place. In November
Dryden published Absalom and Achitophel. Shaftesbury was
attacked, but was saved for the time. by a favouring jury.
Monmouth himself did not escape insult in the street and from
the pulpit. He was forbidden to hold communication with the
court; and when he went, in September 1682, on a second progress
through the western and north-western counties his proceedings
were narrowly watched, and he was at length arrested at Stafford.
Severity and extreme lenity were strangely mingled in the treat-
ment he received. He was released on bail, and in February
1683, after the flight and death of Shaftesbury, he openly broke
the implied conditions of his bail by paying a third visit to
Chichester with Lord Grey and others on pretence of a hunting
expedition.
It is probable that Monmouth never went so far as to think of
armed rebellion; but there is little doubt that he had talked
over schemes likely to lead to this, and that Shaftesbury had
gone farther still. The Rye House plot gave an excuse for
arresting the Whig leaders; Russell and Sidney were judicially
murdered; Monmouth retired to Toddington, in Bedfordshire,
and was left untouched. Court intrigue favouring him, he
succeeded, by the betrayal of his comrades and by two submissive
letters, in reconciling himself with the help of Halifax both to
the king and to James, though he had the humiliation of seeing
his confessions and declarations of penitence published at length
in the Gazette. His character for pettishness and folly was thus
amply illustrated. Charles heartily despised him, and yet
appears to have retained affection for him. His partial return
to favour raised the hopes of his partisans; to check these,
Algernon Sidney was executed. Monmouth was now subpoenaed
to give evidence at the trial of young Hampden. To escape
from the difficulties thus opened before him he fled to Holland,
probably with Charles's connivance, and though he once more,
in November 1684, visited England, it is doubtful whether he
ever again saw the king.
The quiet accession of James II. soon brought Monmouth
to the crisis of his fate. Within two months of Charles's death
he had yielded to the impetuosity of Argyll and others of the
exiles and to vague invitations from England. It is curious,
as showing the light in which 'his claims were viewed by his
fellow-conspirators, that one of the terms of the compact between
them was that, though Monmouth should lead the expedition,
he should not assume the title of king without their consent,
and should, if the rebellion were successful, resign it and accept
whatever rank the nation might offer. Now, as always, he was
but a puppet in other men's hands.
On the 2nd of May Argyll sailed with three ships to raise the
west of Scotland; and three weeks later, with a following of
only eighty-two persons of whom Lord Grey, Fletcher of
Saltoun, Wade, and Ferguson, the author of the Appeal from the
Country to the City, were the chief Monmouth himself set out
for the west of England, where, as the stronghold of Protestant
dissent and as the scene of his former progresses, he could alone
hope for immediate support. Even here, however, there was
no movement; and when on the nth of June Monmouth's
three ships, having eluded the royal fleet, arrived off Lyme
Regis, he landed amid the curiosity rather than the sympathy
of the inhabitants. In the market-place his " declaration,"
drawn up by Ferguson, was read aloud. In this document
James was painted in the blackest colours. Not only was he
declared to be the murderer of Essex, but he was directly charged
with having poisoned Charles to obtain his crown. Monmouth
soon collected an undisciplined body of some 1500 men, with
whom he seized Axminster, and entered Taunton. Meanwhile
the parliament had declared it treason to assert Monmouth's
legitimacy, or his title to the crown; a reward of {,5000 was
offered for him dead or alive, and an act of attainder was passed
in unusual haste. Troops had been hurriedly sent to meet him,
and when he reached Bridgwater Albemarle was already in his
rear. From Bridgwater the army marched through Glastonbury
to attack Bristol, into which Lord Feversham had hastily thrown
a regiment of foot-guards. The attempt, however, miscarried;
and, after summoning Bath in vain, Monmouth, with a disordered
force, began his retrograde march through Philips Norton and
Frome, continually harassed by Feversham's soldiers. At the
latter place he heard of Argyll's total rout in the western
Highlands. He was now anxious to give up the enterprise, but
was overruled by Grey, Wade and others. On the 3rd of July he
reached Bridgwater again, with an army little better than a
rabble, living at free quarters and behaving with reckless violence.
On Sunday, the 5th, Feversham entered Sedgemoor in pursuit:
Monmouth the same night attempted a surprise, but his troops
were hopelessly routed. He himself, with Grey and a few others,
fled over the Mendip Hills to the New Forest, hoping to reach
the coast and escape by sea. The whole country, however, was
on the alert, and at midnight on the 8th, within a month of their
landing, James heard that the revolt, desperate from the first,
was over and that his rival had been captured close to Ringwood
in Hampshire.
On the day of his capture Monmouth wrote to James in terms
of the most unmanly contrition, ascribing his wrong-doings to
the action of others, and imploring an interview. On the i3th
the prisoners reached the Tower, and on the next day Monmouth
was allowed to see James. No mercy was shown him, nor did
he in the least deserve mercy; he had wantonly attacked the
peace of the country, and had cruelly libelled James. The king
had not, even in his own mind, any family tie to restrain him from
exercising just severity, for he had never believed Monmouth
to be the son of any one but Robert Sidney. Two painful
interviews followed with the wife for whom he bore no love,
and who for him could feel no respect; another imploring letter
was sent to the king, and abject protestations and beseechings
were made to all whom he saw. He offered, as the last hope,
to become a Roman Catholic, and this might possibly have
proved successful, but the priests sent by James to ascertain
MONMOUTH, EARL OF MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF 727
the sincerity of his " conversion " declared that he cared only
for his life and not for his soul.
He met his death on the scaffold with calmness and dignity.
In the paper which he left signed, and to which he referred in
answer to the questions wherewith the busy bishops plied him,
he expressed his sorrow for having assumed the royal style,
and at the last moment confessed that Charles had denied to
him privately, as he had publicly, that he was ever married to
Lucy Walters. He died at the age of thirty-six, on the isth of
July 1685.
Monmouth had four sons and two daughters by his wife,
who in 1688 married the 3rd Lord Cornwallis and died in 1732.
The elder of the two surviving sons, James, earl of Dalkeith
(1674-1705) had a son Francis (1695-1751), who through his
grandmother inherited the title of duke of Buccleuch in 1732,
and was the ancestor of the later dukes. The younger son,
Henry (1676-1730), was created earl of Deloraine in 1706, and
rose to be a major-general in the army.
The best accounts of Monmouth's career, apart from the modern
histories, are G. Roberta's detailed Life (1844), the articles in the
Diet. Nat, Biog. (by A. W. Ward) and in Colhns's Peerage, and the
Correspondence of Lord Clarendon with James, earl of Abingdon,
1683-1685 (Clarendon Press, 1896). For the rebellion, Lord Grey's
Secret History (1754) should be consulted. See also Evelyn's and
Pepys's Diaries, &c.
MONMOUTH, ROBERT CAREY, IST EARL OF(C. 1560-1639),
youngest son of Henry Carey, ist Baron Hunsdon, chamberlain
and first cousin of Queen Elizabeth, by Anne, daughter of Sir
Thomas Morgan, of Arkestone in Herefordshire, was born about
the year 1 560. As a young man he accompanied several diplo-
matic missions abroad and took part in military expeditions.
In 1587 he joined in the attempt to relieve Sluys, in 1588 served
as a volunteer against the Spanish expedition, and commanded
a regiment in Essex's expedition to Normandy hi 1591, taking
part in the siege of Rouen. He was knighted by Essex the same
year for having by his intercession with the queen procured his
recall. In the parliaments of 1586 and 1588 he represented
Morpeth; in that of 1593, Callington; and in those of 1596 and
1601, Northumberland. From 1593 till the end of Elizabeth's
reign he occupied various posts in the government of the Scottish
borders, succeeding to his father's appointment of lord warden
of the marches in 1596, which he held till February 1598. In
March 1603 he visited the court, and witnessed the queen's
last illness, which he described in his Memoirs. Anxious to
recommend himself to her successor, and disobeying the orders
of the council, he started on horseback immediately after the
queen's death on the morning of the 24th of March, in order to be
the first to communicate the tidings to James, arrived at Holy-
rood late on the 26th, and was appointed by the king a gentleman
of the bedchamber. But his conduct met with general and
merited censure as " contrary to all decency, good manners and
respect," and on James's arrival in England he was dismissed
from his new post. On the 23rd of February 1605, however,
he was made governor of Prince Charles, in 1611 his master of
the robes, in 1617 his chamberlain, and on the 6th of February
1622, he was created Baron Carey of Leppington. In 1623 he
followed Charles to Spain, and after the latter's succession to
the throne he was created earl of Monmouth in 1626. He died
on the 1 2th of April 1639. His eldest son HENRY (1596-1661),
succeeded him as 2nd earl of Monmouth, and on his death
without surviving male issue the peerage became extinct.
His Memoirs were published first by the earl of Cork and Orrery
in 1759, a new edition, annotated by Sir Walter.Scott, being printed
in 1808.
MONMOUTH (Welsh Mynwy), a municipal and contributory
parliamentary borough, and the county town of Monmouthshire,
England, 18 m. S. of Hereford, on the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901), 5095. It is picturesquely situated at the confluence
of the Wye and the Monnow, between the two rivers, and is
almost surrounded by hills. Portions of the town walls remain,
and there is a picturesque old gateway on the Monnow bridge;
but there are only insignificant ruins of the castle, which was
originally a Saxon fortress, and was twice taken by the Parlia-
mentary forces during the Civil War. Besides the churche
that of St Mary, completed in 1882 on an ancient site, and the
chapel of St Thomas, a late Norman structure the principal
buildings are the town-hall, the Rolls Hall and the free grammar-
school, which was founded in 1614, and educates about 150 boys
on the usual lines of a public school. A statue of Henry V.,
who was born in its castle, stands in the market-place. With
Newport and Usk, Monmouth forms the Monmouth parlia-
mentary district of boroughs, returning one member.
Monmouth (Monemula) from the coincidence of position is
supposed to be the Blaestium of Antoninus. Situated between
the Severn and the Wye its strategic importance was early
recognized by the Saxons, who fortified it against the Britons,
while in later years it played a leading part in Welsh border
warfare. At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was
in the custody of William Fitz Baderon. Henry III. granted it,
together with the lordship of the borough, to his son Edmund
Crouchback, through whose descendants both borough and
castle passed into the duchy of Lancaster. Since the i8th
century the dukes of Beaufort have been lords of the borough.
Monmouth was a borough by prescription as early as 1256, and
was governed by a mayor in 1461, but was not incorporated
until 1550 under the title of "Mayor, Bailiffs and Commonalty."
This charter was confirmed in 1558, 1606 and 1666, a recorder
and town clerk being added to the constitution. In accordance
with the act of 1535-1536 Monmouth as county town obtained
the right of representation in parliament; the earliest returns
existing are for 1553, since which date one member has been
returned regularly. Wednesday and Saturday markets were
confirmed to Monmouth hi 1550, with the further proviso that
no others were to be held within five miles of the borough.
Friday is now the weekly market-day. At the same time
an annual three-days' fair, which still exists, was granted on
Whit-Tuesday and successive days. During the i6th and i7th
centuries the manufacture of Monmouth caps was an important
industry, fostered by legislation and mentioned by Fuller in his
Worthies of England.
See Charles Heath, The Town of Monmouth (Monmouth, 1804).
MONMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Warren county,
Illinois, in the W. part of the state, about 40 m. S. of Rock
Island. Pop. (1890), 5936; (1900), 7460 (594 foreign-born);
(1910), 9:28. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
and the Iowa Central railways, and by electric railways to Gales-
burg and to Rock Island. The city is the seat of Monmouth
College (1856; United Presbyterian), which in 1908 had 28
instructors and 454 students. Among the public buildings and
institutions are the county court-house, the federal building, a
hospital and the Warren county library (1836). Monmouth is
situated in a good farming region, and cattle, swine and ponies
are raised in the vicinity. The city has various manufactures.
Monmouth was settled about 1824, first incorporated as a village
in 1836, chartered as a city in 1852 and in 1882 reorganized under
a general state law.
MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF (1778), a battle in the American
War of Independence. The prospect of an alliance between
France and America hi 1778 induced the British to concentrate
their forces. Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Sir W.
Howe in command, determined to abandon Philadelphia,
captured in the previous year, and move his troops direct to
New York through New Jersey. Washington, who had spent
the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and had materially
recruited his army, immediately marched to intercept the British,
and overtook them near Monmouth Court House (now Freehold),
New Jersey, on the 28th of June 1778. A strong detachment of
Americans under General Charles Lee was sent forward to harass
the enemy's rear and if possible cut off a portion of their long
baggage train. Clinton strengthened his rearguard, which
turned upon the Americans and compelled them to retreat.
When Washington, who was well up with his main body, heard
of Lee's retreat, he spurred forward and exerted himself in
forming a strong line of battle in case the British continued their
determined attack. Warm words passed between Washington
728
MONMOUTHSHIRE
and Lee, which subsequently led to the latter's court-martial
and suspension for a year. The readjusted American line was
composed of the divisions of Lafayette, Greene, Alexander and
Patterson, while Wayne's brigade, which had been in Lee's
advance from the first, was posted in a favourable position.
The British attacked this line and a warm, though brief, engage-
ment ensued. Both sides encamped at night on the ground
occupied. The British, having accomplished their object in
delaying Washington's pursuit, continued their march the next
day towards New York. Washington turned to the left, crossed
the Hudson above, and encamped for the remainder of the season
at White Plains, New York, within striking distance of the city.
Each side suffered about the same loss in the battle, that of the
British being 400 (60 due to sunstroke) , the American somewhat
less. In this engagement Lieut-Colonel Henry Monckton (i 740-
1778) of the British Grenadiers was killed in leading a charge.
MONMOUTHSHIRE, a western border county of England,
bounded E. by Gloucestershire, N. E. by Herefordshire, N.W.
by Brecknock, W. and S.W. by Glamorganshire (Wales), and
S. by the estuary of the river Severn. The area is 534 sq. m.
The surface is varied, and in many districts picturesque, especi-
ally along the valley of the Wye, and between that river and
the Usk. In the west and north the hills rise to a considerable
height, and this mountain region encircles a finely undulating
country. The highest summits are Sugar Loaf (1955 ft.),
Blorenge (1838), and Skirrid Fawr (1601), summits of the hills
which almost encircle the town of Abergavenny. On the other
hand, along the shore of the Severn estuary on either side of
the Usk, are two extensive tracts of marshland, called the
Caldicot and Wentlloog levels, stretching from Cardiff to
Portskewet, and protected from inundations by strong embank-
ments. The principal rivers are the Wye, which forms the
greater part of the eastern boundary of the county with Glouces-
tershire, and falls into the Severn; the Monnow, which forms a
portion of its boundary with Herefordshire, and falls into the
Wye at the town of Monmouth; the Usk, which rises in Breck-
nock, and flows southward through the centre of the county;
the Ebbw, which rises in the north-west, and enters the estuary
of the Usk below Newport; and the Rhymney, which rises in
Brecknock, and, after forming the boundary between Monmouth
and Glamorgan, enters the Bristol Channel a little east of Cardiff.
Salmon abound especially in the Wye and the Usk, and trout are
plentiful in many of the streams.
Geology. The oldest rocks in the county are the Silurian strata
(Wenlock Shale and Limestone, and Ludlow Beds) which form
an extensive anticline at Usk; a smaller inlier appears at Rumney
on the south-west borders of the county near Cardiff. These beds
dip under the Old Red Sandstone, a great series of red marls,
sandstones and concretionary limestones (cornstones) which occupies
the north-eastern part of the county; the highest beds contain
grits and conglomerates which give rise to bold escarpments and
lofty plateaux (e.g. the Sugar Loaf and Skirrid Fawr) alongside the
outcrop of the Carboniferous Limestone. The western part of the
county, between Pontypool and the river Rhymney, is occupied
by the eastern end of the great South Wales coal-field, where the
Carboniferous Limestone, Millstone Grk and Coal Measures (Lower
Coal Series, Pennant Sandstone and Upper Coal Series) dip west-
ward and succeed each other from east to west. The Coal Measures
abound in coal-seams and ironstone, and their densely populated
valleys offer a marked contrast to the agricultural and pastoral
districts of the rest of the county. The Carboniferous Limestone
comes in again in the south-east near Chepstow, and has imparted
its characteristic scenery to the lower reaches of the Wye. After
a prolonged interval, during which these older formations were
folded, faulted, upheaved and finally carved by erosion into hills
and valleys, the southern portion of the region was submerged
beneath the \naters of the Triassic lake in which the Keuper Marls
were deposited. These consist of red conglomerates and marls
which wrap round the heights and fill up the hollows among the
older rocks to the south-west of Chepstow, and the subsidence
continuing, admitted the waters of the Jurassic sea which deposited
the fossiliferous Rhaetic and Lias limestones and shales of Llanwern
and Goldcliff near Newport. Glacial gravel and boulder-clay are
found in the valleys and a broad tract of alluvium borders the
shores of the Bristol Channel.
Agriculture. Along the Severn shore the soil is deep and loamy,
and admirably suited for the growth of trees. The most fertile
land is that resting on the Red Sandstone, especially along the
banks of the Usk, where wheat of fine quality is raised. In the
mountainous regions more attention is paid to grazing than to
the raising of crops. There are a considerable number of dairy
farms, but sheep-farming is much more largely followed. Only
about seven-tenths of the total area of the county is under cultiva-
tion. There is a large extent of hill pasture, and a considerable
acreage under orchards.
Mining. The coal-mines and iron-works which Monmouthshire
shares with South Wales are very important. They occur in the
wild and mountainous western part of the county, where a series
of upland valleys, running parallel from N.N.W. to S., has
each its populous mining townships and railways, which have in
many cases necessitated remarkable engineering works such as
the great Crumlin viaduct. These valleys, in order from east to
west, with the principal townships in each, are as follows: Afon
Lwyd (Panteg, Pontypool, Abersychan and Blaenavon); Ebbw
Fach (Abertillery, Nantyglo and Blaina), joining the Ebbw (Risca,
Ebbw Vale) ; Sirhowy (Bedwellty and Tredegar) ; Rhymney (New
Tredegar and Rhymney). Besides coal, a considerable quantity
of fire-clay and some iron are raised.
Communications. The principal railway serving the county is
the Great Western, but in the mining districts there are also various
branches of the London and North- Western, Rhymney and Brecon
and Merthyr systems. The Crumlin Canal from the Ebbw Valley,
and the Monmouthshire Canal from Pontypool converge upon
Newport, which is the principal port in the county. The Brecon
Canal runs north from Pontypool into the valley of the Usk.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 341,688 acres, with a population in 1891 of 252,416,
and in 1901 of 292,317. The area of the administrative county
is 349,712 acres. The county comprises 6 hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are Abergavenny (pop. 7795), Monmouth
(5095), and Newport, a county borough (67,270). The following
are urban districts: Abercarn (12,607), Abersychan (17,768),
Abertillery (21,945), Bedwellty (9988), Blaenavon (10,869),
Caerleon (1367), Chepstow (3067), Ebbw Vale (20,994), Llan-
frechfa, Upper (2979), Llantarnam (5287), Mynyddislwyn
.(3337), Nantyglo and Blaina (13,489), Panteg (7484), Pontypool
(6126), Rhymney (7915), Risca (9661), Tredegar (18,497), and
Usk (1476). Monmouthshire is in the Oxford circuit, and
assizes are held at Monmouth. It has one court of quarter
sessions, and is divided into n petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs of Monmouth and Newport have commissions of the
peace, but no separate court of quarter sessions. The parlia-
mentary divisions are the northern, western and southern, each
returning one member; and the Monmouth district of parlia-
mentary boroughs, consisting of the towns of Monmouth,
Newport and Usk, returns one member.
History. The district which is now Monmouthshire formed the
Welsh kingdom of Gwent at the time of the Heptarchy, and,
owing to the extraordinary courage of the Gwentians in resisting
the repeated inroads of the Saxons, no permanent English settle-
ment was effected in the district until close upon the middle of
the nth century. The incursions of the West Saxons began in
the 7th century, and, during the reign of Alfred, Brochmael
and Fermael, kings of Gwent, acknowledged Alfred as their
lord, and sought his protection against their enemies. In the
9th and loth centuries the district was frequently harried by
the Danes, who in 915, under Ohter and Hwald, sailed round
Wessex and Cornwall to the mouth of the Severn and plundered
all along the banks of the Wye, finally taking prisoner the
bishop of Llandaff, whom they only released on a ransom of
40. In 926 ^Ethelstan obliged the kings of the north Britons
to meet him at Hereford and fixed the Wye 1 as the limit of their
territory. In 976 the Danes destroyed Caerleon, at this time
the chief town of the district. The early nth century was
taken up with a series of interminable contests between the
Welsh princes for the succession in South Wales, as a result
of which the Welsh Chronicle relates that in 1047 the whole
of South Wales lay waste, and in 1049, when a fleet of Irish
pirates entered the Severn estuary, Griffith, the king of South
Wales, assisted them in plundering the neighbourhood. In
1065 Harold conquered the whole district between the lower
reaches of the Wye and the Usk, and gave orders for the
construction of a hunting-box at Portskewet for Edward the
Confessor, but very shortly after Caradoc ap Griffith, with
a large body of followers, killed all the workmen engaged in
MONNIER MONOCHORD
729
the building and carried away the provisions prepared for the
king's reception.
After the Conquest the district conquered by Harold was
bestowed on William Fitz Osborne, earl of Hereford, who built
Monmouth Castle, and continued the line of defence against
the Welsh frontier along the Wye, while a second line of fortifi-
cations along the Usk Valley marked the continued advance
of the Normans, who by 1085 had subjugated almost the whole
of Gwent. The lordship of Overwent fell to Hamelin de Baladun,
who founded the castle and priory of Abergavenny, and from
him passed to Brian Fitz Count, and later to Walter Fitz Miles,
earl of Hereford. The lordship of Netherwent remained for many
centuries with the Clare family. Penhow Castle was a strong-
hold of the family of St Maur or Seymour, from whom are
descended the present dukes of Somerset, and Grosmont and
Skenfrith Castles of the family of Braose. Gwent still ranked
as Welsh territory at the time of the Domesday Survey, but
the town of Monmouth, the castle of Caerleon, and the district
of Archenfeld, are assessed under Herefordshire, and the
three hardwicks of Llanwern, Portskewet and Dinam under
Gloucestershire. The Norman lords of the present county held
their lands " per baroniam," so that the king's writ did not run
in them, and the lives and property of the poorer inhabitants
were entirely at the mercy of these lords marchers as they were
termed. The county still exhibits remains of no less than
twenty-five Norman castles. The province of Gwent was
formerly divided into four cantrefs, each comprising several
commotes. Cantref Uwchcoed, or Upper Gwent, comprised the
commotes of Erging and Ewyas, now principally in Hereford-
shire, and the greater part of the present hundreds of Skenfrith,
Abergavenny and Usk; Cantref Iscoed, or Lower or Nether
Gwent, comprised the present hundred of Raglan and parts
of Caldecote and Usk; Cantref Gwentlwg comprised the present
hundred of Wentlwg; while the fourth cantref, Cantref Coch,
now forms the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. Leland,
writing in the i6th century, describes Gwent as comprising
the three divisions of low, middle and high " Venteland,"
and at this period it included no less than 24 lordship
marches, each governed by its own ancient laws and customs
and ruled by its own lord. Under the act of 1536 for the
abolition of the marches, these 24 lordships were united to
form a shire; Monmouth was constituted the shire town,
and the sheriff's court was ordered to be held alternately at
Monmouth and Newport. A commission was also appointed
to divide the shire into hundreds, which were made 6 in
number: Abergavenny, Caldecote, Raglan, Skenfrith, Usk
and Wentlwg, the bounds being subsequently ratified by act of
parliament of 1542-1543. No sheriffs were actually appointed
for Monmouthshire until 1541, and the legal authority of the
lords marchers was not finally abolished until 1689. The act
of 1536 did not expressly separate the county from Wales, and
it was only gradually that Monmouthshire came to be regarded
as an English county, being included in the Oxford circuit for
the first time in the reign of Charles II.
Ecclesiastically Monmouthshire has been almost entirely included
in the diocese of Llandaff since the foundation of that diocese in
the 6th century. Monmouth, however, was in the diocese of Here-
ford, and a few parishes formed part of the diocese of St Davids,
until under the statute of 1836 the whole county was placed under
the jurisdiction of the bishop of Llandaff. It contains, wholly or
in part, 134 ecclesiastical parishes.
The river fisheries of Monmouthshire have been famed from very
early times, Caerleon with seven fisheries in the Wye and the Usk
yielding a return of 7, los. at the time of the Domesday Survey.
Coal is said to have been worked in the reign of Edward I., but
the industry lapsed altogether until it received new life from the
construction of the canal between Blaenayon and Newport, begun in
1792 and completed in 1795. The first iron- workers at Pontypool
were a family of the name of Grant, who were succeeded in 1565
by Mr Richard Hanbury. In 1740, however, Monmouthshire
contained only two furnaces, making 900 tons annually. Fifty
years later three new furnaces were constructed at Blaenavon,
and from that date the industry steadily improved.
By the act of 1536 two knights were to be returned for the shire
and one burgess for the borough of Monmouth, but the first returns
for the county were made in 1547 and for the borough in 1553.
From 1698 the boroughs of Newport and Usk returned one member
each. Under the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 the county
now returns three members in three divisions.
Antiquities. Of Norman fortresses in Monmouthshire, either
built or taken possession of by the lords of the marches, there are
remains of no less than twenty-five. The more interesting and
important are: Caldicot, the seat of the De Bohuns, with a round
keep of the 13th century, gatehouse and other portions, still partly
inhabited; Chepstow, one of the finest examples of the Norman
fortress extant, in an imposing situation on a cliff above the Wye;
Newport, Abergavenny, the gateway and hall of Grosmont, once
the residence of the dukes of Lancaster; and Usk Castle, rebuilt
by the Clares in the time of Edward IV. Raglan Castle, begun in
the reign of Henry V., is a very extensive ruin, still in good pre-
servation, and of special interest as a very late example of the
feudal stronghold. Charles I. resided in it after the battle of
Naseby, and in 1646 it was delivered up to the parliamentary forces
after a stubborn resistance of ten weeks against Colonel Morgan
and General Fairfax.
At the Reformation there were in Monmouth two hospitals
and fifteen other religious houses; but of these there are now im-
portant remains of only two Llanthony Abbey and Tintern
Abbey, both Cistercian. Llanthony Abbey in the Black Mountains
was founded by William de Lacy in 1103, and the 'church, dating
from about 1200, is one of the earliest examples in England of the
Pointed style. The ruins consist of portions of the nave, transept,
central tower and choir. Tintern Abbey (q.v.), founded by Walter
de Clare in 1131, occupies a position of great beauty on the Wye,
and is among the finest monastic ruins in England. Of the churches,
those chiefly worthy of mention are at Abergavenny, belonging to
a Benedictine priory, and containing a number of old tombs; Chep-
stow, partly Norman, and possessing a richly moulded doorway;
St Woolos' Church, Newport, also Norman; the Norman chapel
of St Thomas, Monmouth; Christchurch, principally Norman;
Mathern, Early English, with a tablet to Tewdrig, king of Gwent
in the 6th century; and Usk, formerly attached to a Benedictine
priory.
See Victoria County History, Monmouthshire; William Coxe,
An Historical Tour in Monmouthshire, 2 pts. (London, 1801);
N. Rogers, Memoirs on Monmouthshir'e (London, 1708); David
Williams, History of Monmouthshire (1796); George Ormerod,
Slrigulensia. Archaeological Memoirs relating to the District adjacent
to the Confluence of the Severn and the Wye; M. E. Bagnall-Oakeley,
Account of the Rude Monuments in Monmouthshire (Newport,
1889); J. A. Bradney, A History of Monmouthshire (1904, &c.);
also the publications of the Caerleon Antiquarian Association.
MONNIER, MARC (1827-1885), French writer, was born at
Florence on the 7th of December 1827. His father was French,
and his mother a Genevese; he received his early education
in Naples, he then studied in Paris and Geneva, and he completed
his education at Heidelberg and Berlin. He became professor
of comparative literature at Geneva, and eventually vice-rector
of the university. He died at Geneva on the i8th of April
1885. He wrote a series of short, satirical, dramatic sketches
collected as Theatre de marionettes (1871), and stories, notably
Nouvelles napolilaines (1879), numerous works on Italian history,
a translation of Goethe's Faust, Geneve et ses poetes (1873), &c.
The first volume of his Histoire de la litterature moderne, La
Renaissance, de Dante a Luther (1884), was crowned by the
French Academy.
See E. Rambert, ficrivains nationaux suisses, vol. i. (Geneva,
1874).
MONNIKENDAM, a fishing village of Holland, in the province
of North Holland, on an inlet of the Zuider Zee known as
the Gouw Zee, 12 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam, with which it is
connected by steam tramway. It was once a flourishing town,
but its quietness now is only disturbed by the advent of the
numerous tourists who visit it in the summer, crossing hence
to the island of Marken. Among the notable buildings are
the weigh-house (nth century), the bell-tower (1591), formerly
attached to the town-hall before this was destroyed in the i8th
century, and the church of St. Nicholas, with its beautiful
massive tower. Mention is made of this church in a document of
1356, but it was not completed until the beginning of the isth
century. It contains some fine carvings, many interesting
old tombs, and a monument of Jan Nieuwenhuizen, the founder
of the Society for Public Welfare (Tot Nut van het Algemeen)
in 1785.
MONOCHORD (Gr. novbxopSov, KOLVUV jMiw/c6s): med. Lat.
monochordum), an instrument having a single string, used
73
MONOD, A. MONOGENISTS
by the ancient Greeks for tuning purposes and for measuring
the scale arithmetically. The monochord, as it travelled
westwards during the middle ages, consisted of a long board,
or narrow rectangular box, over which was stretched the single
string'; along the edge of the sound-board was drawn a line
divided according to simple mathematical ratios to show all
the intervals of the scale. A movable bridge was so contrived
as to slide along over the string and stop it at will at any of
the points marked. The vibrating length of string, being thus
determined as on the guitar, lute, violin, &c., yielded a note
of absolutely correct pitch on being twanged by fingers or
plectrum. In order the better to seize the relation of various
intervals, a second string tuned to the same note, but out of
reach of the bridge, was sometimes added to give the funda-
mental. (K. S.)
MONOD, ADOLPHE (1802-1856), French Protestant divine,
was born on the 2ist of January 1802, in Copenhagen, where
his father was pastor of the French church. He was educated
at Paris and Geneva, and began his life-work in 1825 as founder
and pastor of a Protestant church in Naples, whence he removed
in 1827 to Lyons. Here his evangelical preaching, and especially
a sermon on the duties of communicants (" Qui doit com-
munier "?), led to his deposition by the Catholic Minister of
education and religion. Instead of leaving Lyons he began
to preach in a hall and then in a chapel. In 1836 he took a
professorship in the theological college of Montauban, removing
in 1847 to Paris as preacher at the Oratoire. He died on the
6th of April, 1856. Monod was undoubtedly the foremost
Protestant preacher of 19th-century France. He published
three volumes of sermons in 1830, another, La Credulite de
I'incredule in 1844, and two more in 1855. Two further volumes
appeared after his death. His elder brother Frederic (1794-1863),
who was influenced by Robert Haldane, was also a distinguished
French pastor, who with Count Gasparin founded the Union
of the Evangelical Churches of France; and Frederic's son
Theodore (b. 1836) followed in his footsteps.
MONOD, GABRIEL (1844- ), French historian, was born
at Havre on the 7th of March, 1844. Adolphe Monod (q.v.)
was his uncle. Having studied at Havre, he went to Paris to
complete his education, and whilst there lived with the family
of De Pressense. The influence of Edmond de Pressense, a
pastor and large-minded theologian, and of Madame de Pressense,
a woman of superior intellect and refined feeling, who devoted
her life to educational works and charity, made a great impres-
sion on him. In 1865 he left the ecole nor male superieure, and
went to Germany, where he studied at Gottingen and Berlin.
The teaching of George Waitz definitely directed his studies
towards the history of the middle ages. Returning to France
in 1868 he was nominated by V. Duruy to give lectures on history,
following the method used in German seminaries, at the ecole
des hautes etudes. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out,
Gabriel Mcnod, with his cousins, Alfred and Sarah Monod,
organized an ambulance with which he followed the whole
campaign, from Sedan to Mans. He wrote a small book of
memoirs of this campaign, Allemands et fran$ais (1871), in
which he spoke of the conquerors without, bitterness; this
attitude was all the more praiseworthy as his mother was an
Alsatian, and he was unable to resign himself to the loss of
Alsace and Lorraine. The war being over he returned to
teaching. At this period of his life he wrote Gregoire de Tours
et Marius d'Avenche (1872); Fredegaire, whose history, taken
from original MSS., he published in 1885; a translation of a
book of W. Junghans, Histoire critique des regnes de Childerich
et de Chlodovech, with introduction and notes (1879); tudes
critiques sur les sources de Vhistoire carolingienne (1898, ist part
only published); and Bibliographie de I'hisloire de France (1888).
He himself said that his pupils were his best books; he intended
to teach them not so much new facts as the way to study,
endeavouring to develop in them an idea of criticism and truth.
They showed their gratitude by dedicating a book to him in
1896, Etudes d'histoire du moyen Age, and after his retirement
in 1905 by having his features engraved on a slab (see A Gabriel
Monod, en souvenir de son enseignement: ecole pratique des hautet
etudes, 1868-1905, ecole normale superieure, 1880-1904. May
26, 1907). In 1875 he founded the Revue Historique, which
rapidly became a great authority on scientific education. Some
of his articles in this and other periodicals have been put
together in book form, Les Maltres de I'histoire: Renan, Taine,
Mkhelet (1894); Portraits et souvenirs (1897: on Hugo, Fustel
de Coulanges, V. Duruy, &c.).
MONODELPHIA (i.e. " single uterus," in allusion to the
fusion of at least the basal portions of this organ, and in con-
tradistinction to their duality in the Didelphia, or Marsupialia),
Cuvier's name for the group which includes all the orders of
mammals (See MAMMALIA) except the Marsupialia and Mono-
tremata; other titles for this group being Placentalia and
Eutheria. With the Monotremata (q.v.) this group has no
near affinity; and while more nearly related to the Marsupialia
(q.v.), in which an imperfect allantoic placenta is sometimes
developed, it is broadly distinguished therefrom by the invariable
presence of a functional placenta by the aid of which the foetus
is nourished throughout the greater portion of intra-uterine
life. Other distinctive features by which marsupials are
separated from monodelphians or placentals will be found
in the article last mentioned. (R. L.*)
MONOGENISTS, the term applied to those anthropologists
who claim that all mankind is descended from one original
stock (jibvos single, and ytvos, race), and general'y from a
single pair; while polygenists (iro\us, many) contend that
man has had many original ancestors. Of the older school
of scientific monogenists J. F. Blumenbach and J. C. Prichard
are eminent representatives, as is A. de Quatrefages of the more
modern. The great problem of the monogenist theory is to
explain by what course of variation races of man so different
have sprung from a single stock. In ancient times little diffi-
culty was felt in this, authorities such as Aristotle and Vitruvius
seeing in climate and circumstance the natural cause of racial
differences, the Ethiopian having been blackened by the tropical
sun, &c. Later and closer observations, however, have shown
such influences to be, at any rate, far slighter in amount and
slower in operation than was supposed. M. de Quatrefages
brings forward (Unite de I'espece humaine, Paris, 1861, ch. 13)
his strongest arguments for the variability of races under change
of climate, &c. (action du milieu), instancing the asserted
alteration in complexion, constitution, and character of negroes
in America, and Englishmen in America and Australia. But
although the reality of some such modification is not disputed,
especially as to stature and constitution, its amount is not enough
to countervail the remarkable permanence of type displayed
by races ages after they have been transported to climates
extremely different from that of their former homes. Moreover,
physically different races, such as the Bushmen and the pure
negroid types in Africa, show no signs of approximation under
the influence of the same climate: on the other hand, the coast
tribes of Tierra del Fuego and forest tribes of tropical Brazil
continue to resemble each other, in spite of extreme differences of
climate and food. Darwin, than whom no naturalist could be
more competent to appraise the variation of a species, is moderate
in his estimation of the changes produced on races of man by
climate and mode cf life within the range of history (Descent
of Man, pt. i. chs. 4 and 7). The slightness and slowness of
variation in human races having been acknowledged, a great
difficulty of the monogenist theory was seen to lie in the shortness
of the chronology with which it was formerly associated. Inas-
much as several well-marked races of mankind, such as the
Egyptian, Phoenician and Ethiopian, were much the same
three or four thousand years ago as now, their variation from
a single stock in the course of any like period could hardly be
accounted for except by a miracle. This difficulty was escaped
by the polygenist theory (see Georges Pouchet, Plurality of
the Human Race, 1858, 2nd ed., 1864, Introd.). Two modern
views have, however, intervened which have tended to restore,
though under a new aspect, the doctrine of a single human
stock. One has been the recognition of the fact that man has
MONOGRAM MONOMOTAPA
existed during a vast period of time, which has made it easier
to assume the continuance of vfery slow natural variation of
races. The other view is that of the evolution or development
of species. It does not follow necessarily from a theory of
evolution of species that mankind must have descended from
a single stock, for the hypothesis of development admits of the
argument that several simian species may have culminated
in several races of man (Vogt, Lectures on Man, London, 1864,
p. 463). The general tendency of the development theory,
however, is against constituting separate species where the
differences are moderate enough to be accounted for as due to
variation from a single type. Darwin's summing up of the
evidence as to unity of type throughout the races of mankind
is as distinctly a monogenist argument as those of Blumenbach,
Prichard or Quatrefages:
" Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as
in colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if
their whole organization be taken into consideration they are found
to resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of
these are so unimportant, or of so singular a nature, that it is ex-
tremely improbable that they should have been independently
acquired by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark
holds good with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous
points of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man.
. . . Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous
small details of habits, tastes and dispositions, between two or
more domestic races, or between nearly allied natural forms, they
use this fact as an argument that all are descended from a common
progenitor who was thus endowed, and, consequently, that all
should be classed under the same species. The same argument
may be applied with much force to the races of man." (Descent of
Man, pt. i. ch. 7.)
A suggestion by A. R. Wallace ha,s great importance in the
application of the development theory to the origin of the various
races of man; it is aimed to meet the main difficulty of the
monogenist school, how races which have remained comparatively
fixed in type during the long period of history, such as the white
man and the negro, should have, in even a far longer period,
passed by variation from a common original. Wallace's view
is substantially that the remotely ancient representatives of
the human race, being as yet animals too low in mind to have
developed those arts of maintenance and social ordinances by
which man holds his own against influences from climate and
circumstance, were in their then wild state much more plastic
than now to external nature; so that *' natural selection " and
other causes met with but feeble resistance in forming the
permanent varieties or races of man, whose complexion and
structure still remain fixed in their descendants (Contributions
to the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 319).
MONOGRAM (from Late Lat. monogramma, in Late Gr.
HovcypaiJ.iJ.ov, from fj.6vos, single, 7p<zju/ia, letter), originally a
cipher consisting of a single letter, now a design or mark
consisting of two or more letters intertwined together. The
letters thus interlaced may be either all the letters cf a name,
or the initial letters of the Christian and surnames of a person
for use upon note-paper, seals, &c. Many of the early Greek
and Roman coins bear the monograms of rulers for whom or
the towns in which they were struck. The Late Latin and
Greek words were first applied to the signatures, which took this
form, of the emperors of the Eastern Empire. The signatures
of the Prankish kings also took the form of a
monogram. The accompanying monogram, from
a coin of Charles the Bald, is a good example
i of a " perfect " monogram, in which all the
letters of the name Karolus can be traced
(see DIPLOMATIC and AUTOGRAPH). The most
famous of monograms is that known as the
" Sacred Monogram," formed by the conjunction of the two
initial letters of Xpjoros, Christ. The most usual form of
this is the symbol ^, and sometimes the o (alpha) and
u> (omega) of the Apocalypse were placed on either side
of 'it. The symbol was incorporated in the Labarum (q.v.)
when the imperial standard was Christianized. The interlaced
I.H.S. (also called " The Sacred Monogram ") apparently
possesses no great antiquity; it is said to have been the
creation of St Bernard of Siena in the middle of the
century. Monograms or ciphers were often used by the early
printers as devices, and are of importance in fixing the identity
of early printed books. Similar devices have been used by
painters and engravers. The middle ages were, indeed, extremely
prolific in the invention of ciphers alike for ecclesiastical, artistic
and commercial use. Every great personage, every possessor of
fine taste, every artist, had his monogram. The mason's mark also
was, in effect, a cipher. As the merchant had as a rule neither
right nor authority to employ heraldic emblems, he therefore fell
back upon plain simple letters arranged very much in monogram
form. These " merchants' marks " generally took the form of a.
monogram of the owner's initials together with a private device.
They nearly always contain a cross, either as a protection against
storms or other catastrophes, or as a Christian mark to dis-
tinguish their goods from Mahommedan traders in the East.
There is a fine example of a i6th century gold ring with a
merchant's mark in the British Museum. One of the most
famous of secular monograms is the interlaced " H.D." of
Henri II. and Diane de Poitiers. Upon every building which
that king erected it was sown profusely; it was stamped upon
the buildings in the royal library, together with the bow, the
quiver and the interlocked crescents of Diana. It has been
argued that " H.D." is a misreading of " H.C.," which would
naturally point to husband and wife; but the question is set at
rest by the fact that Henri II. sometimes signed his letters to
Diane with this very monogram. Henri IV. invented a punning
cipher for his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrees, the surname being
represented by a capital S. with a trait, or stroke through it.
See F. Builliot, Dictionnaire dzs monogrammes (1832-1834, 3 parts) ;
G. K. Nagler, Die Monogrammisten (1857-1876, 5 parts); Ris-Paquot,
Dictionnaire encyclopedique des marques et monogrammes, chiffres, &c.
(}8<J3); also Du Cange, Clossarium (s.v. Monogramma), with plates
giving examples of the monograms of early popes, the emperors of
the Western Empire, and of other kings.
MONOLOGUE (from Gr. /x6vos, alone, and \oyos, speech), a
passage in a dramatic piece in which a personage holds the
scene to himself and speaks unconsciously aloud. The theory
of the monologue is that the audience overhears the thoughts of
one who believes himself to be alone, and who thus informs them
of what would otherwise be unknown to them. The word is
also used in cases when a character on the stage speaks at great
length, even though not alone, but is listened to in silence by the
other characters. The old-fashioned tragedies of the I7th and
1 8th centuries greatly affected this convention of the monologue,
which has always, however, been liable to ridicule. There is
something of a lyrical character about the monologue in verse;
and this has been felt by some of the classic poets of France
so strongly, that many of the examples in the tragedies of
Corneille are nothing more or less than odes or cantatas. The
monologues of Shakespeare, and those of Hamlet in particular,
havs a far more dramatic character, and are, indeed, essential
to the development of the play. Equally important are those
of Racine in Ph'edre and in Athalie. The French critics record,
as the most ambitious examples of the monologue in two cen-
turies, that of Figaro in Beaumarchais's Le Manage de Figaro
and that of Charles V. in Victor Hugo's Hernani, the latter ex-
tends to 1 60 lines. In the Elizabethan drama, the popularity of
Kyd's Spanish Tragedy, in which Hieronymo spouts intermin-
ably, set a fashion for ranting monologues, which are very
frequent in Shakespeare's immediate predecessors and contem-
poraries. After 1600 the practice was much reduced, and the
tendency of solitary heroes to pour forth columns of blank
verse was held in check by more complex stage arrangements.
After the Restoration the classic tragedies of the English play-
wrights again abused the privilege of monologue to such a
degree that it became absurd, and fell into desuetude.
MONOMOTAPA. In old maps of south-east Africa, derived
originally from Portuguese and from Dutch sources, an extensive
region on the Cuama or Zambezi and to the south of it is styled
re.gnum monomotapae. The precise character of the kingdom
or empire to which allusion is made has been the subject of
much discussion, and some modern historians have gone so far
732
MONONGAHELA MONOPHYSITES
as to relegate the monomotapa to the realm of myth. But
such scepticism is unjustifiable in view of the perfect una-
nimity with which, in spite of variations of detail, all Portuguese
writers from the beginning of the i6th century onwards reiter-
ated the assertion that there was a powerful rule known far and
wide by that title.
The word " monomotapa " is of Bantu origin and has been
variously interpreted. Father J. Torrend, Comparative Grammar
of the South African Bantu Languages (p. 101) renders it " Lord
of the water-elephants," and remarks that the hippopotamus
is even to the present day a sacred animal among the Karanga.
The earliest recorded bearer of the name is Mokomba Menamo-
tapam, mentioned by Diogo de Alcacova in 1506 as father of
the Kwesarimgo Menamotapam who ruled at that date over
Vealanga, a large kingdom that included Sofala. His capital
was called Zumubany, an obvious corruption of the term
" Zimbabwe," regularly used to describe the residence of any
important chief. The title is still found during the i8th century,
but had probably become extinct by the beginning of the igth
if not earlier. Possibly its use was not confined to a single
tribal section, occurring as it does in conjunction with the distinct
dynastic names of Mokomba and Mambo, but the Karanga
is the only tribe to which the Portuguese chroniclers attribute
it. The latter, indeed, not only refer to the territory and the
people of the monomotapa as " Mocaranga " (i.e. of the Karanga
tribe), but explicitly assert that the " emperor " himself was a
" Mocaranga." Consequently, he must have been a negro,
and the Dominican who records the baptism of Dom Filippe
by a friar of the order in the middle of the I7th century actually
states that this " powerful king " was a black man (" com as
carnes pretas "). This alone would be sufficient to controvert
the baseless assumption that there existed in southern Rhodesia
a ruling caste of different racial origin from the general Bantu
population. The events following on the murder of the Jesuit
father Dom Goncalo da Silveira (cf. Lusiads X. 93) sufficiently
demonstrate that the monomotapa, though susceptible to
the persuasion of foreigners, was an independent potentate
in the i6th century. The state and ceremony of his court,
the number of his wives, and the order and organization of his
officials, are described by several of the chroniclers.
It is difficult to arrive at an estimate of the extent of territory
over which this great negro chief exercised direct or indirect
control. The most extravagant theory is naturally that which
was expressed by the Portuguese advocates in connexion with
the dispute as to the ownership of Delagoa Bay. The crown of
Portugal based its case against England on the cession of territory
contained in a well-known treaty with the monomotapa (1629),
and stated that this monarch's dominions then extended nearly
to the Cape of Good Hope. A more moderate and usual view
is given by Diogo de Couto, who in 1616 speaks of "a dominion
over all Kaffraria from the Cabo das Correntes to the great
river Zambezi." Several 17th-century writers extend the
" empire " to the north of the Zambezi, Bocarro giving it
in all " a circumference of more than three hundred leagues."
It was " divided among petty kings and other lords with fewer
vassals who are called inkosis or fumos." According to these
authors, however, including Dos Santos, the paramountcy of
the monomotapa was impaired in the I7th century by a series
of rebellions. His Zimbabwe, wherever it may have been in
earlier days, was now .fixed near the Portuguese fort of Masapa,
only a short distance south of the Zambezi. A Portuguese
garrison was maintained in it, and the monarch himself from
the year 1607 onwards was little more than a puppet who
was generally baptized by the Dominicans with a Portuguese
name.
The only authorities of value are the original Portuguese docu-
ments collected, translated and edited by G. McC. Theal under the
title Records of South Eastern Africa (9 vols., London, 1898-1903).
Reference may be made to A. Wilmot's Monomotapa (London, 1896),
which is, however, to a large extent superseded by Theal's far richer
collection of material. (D. R.-M.)
MONONGAHELA, a city of Washington county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 31 m. by rail S. of
Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 4096; (1900), 5173 (711 foreign-born
and 345 negroes); (1910) 7598. It is served by the
Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways,
and by electric railways to Pittsburg and Washington, Pa.
Monongahela is in a coal region, and the mining of coal is its
principal industry. It was laid out as a town in 1792 by Joseph
Parkinson, and named by him Williamsport; but it was com-
monly known as Parkinson's Ferry until 1833, when it was
incorporated as a borough. Four years later the present name
was adopted, and in 1873 Monongahela was chartered as a city.
It was here that the Whisky Insurrection convention met on
the i4th of August 1794.
MONOPHYSITES (Gr. /iwo^uoTrat) , the name given to those
who hold the doctrine that Christ had but one (fj&vos) composite
nature (4>vcns), and especially to those who maintained this
position in the great controversies of the sth and 6th centuries.
The synod of Chalcedon (q.v.) in 451, following the lines of
Pope Leo I.'s famous letter, endeavoured to steer a middle
course between the so-called Nestorian and Eutychian positions.
But the followers of Cyril of Alexandria, and with them those
of Eutyches, saw in the Chalcedon decree of two natures only
another form of the " Nestorian " duality of persons in Christ,
and rose everywhere in opposition. For a century they were
a menace not only to the peace of the Church but to that of
the empire.
The first stage of the controversy covers the seventy-five
years between the council of Chalcedon and the accession of
Justinian in 527. In Palestine the fanatical monks led by
Theodosius captured Jerusalem and expelled the bishop, Juvenal.
When he was restored, after an exile of twenty months, Theodo-
sius fled to Sinai and continued his agitation among the monks
there. In Alexandria an insurrection broke out over the super-
session of the patriarch Dioscurus by the orthodox Proterius,
who was killed during the struggle. Timothy Aelurus was
chosen bishop, and a synod which he called was so powerful
as to impress even the emperor Leo I. at Constantinople, who,
however, deposed him as well as Peter Fullo, who at Antioch had
usurped the see of the orthodox bishop Martyrius. The short
reign of Basiliscus (474-476) favoured the Monophysites, but
the restoration of the rightful emperor Zeno marked an attempt
at conciliation. On the advice of Acacius, the energetic patriarch
of Constantinople, Zeno issued the Henotikon edict (482), in
which Nestorius and Eutyches were condemned, the twelve
chapters of Cyril accepted, and the Chalcedon Definition ignored.
This effort to shelve the dispute was quite in vain. Pope
Felix III. saw the prestige of his see involved in this slighting
of Chalcedon and his predecessor Leo's epistle. He condemned
and deposed Acacius, a proceeding which the latter regarded
with contempt, but which involved a breach between the two
sees that lasted after Acacius's death (489), through the long and
troubled reign of Anastasius, and was only healed by Justin I.
in 519. The monophysite cause reached its crowning point
in the East when Severus was made bishop of Antioch in 513.
This man was the stormy petrel of the period. A law student
who had been converted from paganism, he became a mono-
physite monk at Alexandria. Expelled from that city in 513,
he went with his followers to stir up strife in Constantinople,
and succeeded in bringing about the deposition of the orthodox
bishop, Macedonius, and of Flavian, bishopj of Antioch. But
Severus himself was deprived in 518: he went back to Alex-
andria, and became leader of the Phthartolatrai (see below), a
subsection of the Monophysites.
Justin I. was only a tool in the hands of his nephew Justinian,
who sided with the orthodox and brought about the recon-
ciliation between Rome and Constantinople. In Jerusalem,
Tyre, and other centres also, orthodoxy was re-established. In
Egypt, however, monophysitism was as strong as ever, and
soon at Constantinople the arrogance of Rome caused a reaction,
led by Theodora, the wife of the new emperor Justinian (527-
565). Justinian himself, with the aid of Leontius of Byzantium
(c. 485-543), a monk with a decided turn for Aristotelian logic
and metaphysics, had tried to reconcile the Cyrillian and
MONOPOLI MONOPOLY
733
Chalcedonian positions, but he inclined more and'more towards the
monophysite view, and even went so far as to condemn by edict
three teachers (Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, the opponent
of Cyril, and Ibas of Edessa) who were offensive to the monophy-
sites. The Eastern bishops subscribed these edicts, and even
Pope Vigilius yielded, in spite of the protests of the Western
bishops, and at the sth General Council (Constantinople, 553)
agreed to the condemnation of the "three chapters" 1 and
the anathematizing of any who should defend them by
an appeal to the Definitions of Chalcedon. In the last
years of his life (565) the emperor adopted the extreme
Aphthartodocetae position, and only his sudden death pre-
vented this being forced on the Church. His successor, Justin II.
took no action either way for six or seven years, and then in-
stituted a quiet but thorough system of suppression, closing
monophysite churches and imprisoning their bishops and
priests.
Meanwhile monophysitism had split into several factions.
Of these that represented by Severus stood nearest to the
Christology of Cyril. Their objection to Chalcedon was
that it was an innovation, and they fully acknowledged the
distinctness of the two natures in Christ, insisting only that
they became indissolubly united so that there was only one
energy (nia Kaivri 6tav8pi,Kfi kvkpyeia) of Christ's will. Thus, as
Harnack points out, " there is no trace of a theological differ-
ence between Severus and Leontius," only a difference of termin-
ology and of degree of willingness to assent to the formula of
Chalcedon. Severus laid such stress on the human infirmities
of Christ as proving that His body was like ours, created and
corruptible (fydaprbv) that his opponents dubbed him and
his followers Phthartolatrae worshippers of the corruptible. 2
The school of Themistius of Alexandria extended the argu-
ment to Christ's human soul, which they said was, like ours,
limited in knowledge. Hence their name Agnoetae and their
excommunication.
An opposite tendency was that of the Aphthartodocetae or
Phantasiastae, represented by Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus,
and, in his closing days, by Justinian. They held that Christ's
body was so inseparably united with the Logos as not to be
consubstantial with humanity; its natural attributes were so
heightened as to make it sinless and incorruptible. An extreme
school, the Aktistetae or Gaianists (Gaianus was bishop of
Alexandria c. 550) even held that from the moment the Logos
assumed the body the latter was uncreated, the human being
transmuted into the divine nature; and the Adiaphorites went still
further, denying, like Stephen Barsudaili, an Edessan abbot, all
distinction of essence not even between the manhood and the
Godhead in Christ, but between the divine and the human, and
asserting that " all creatures are of the same essence with the
Creator."
A third variety of monophysitism was that known as Theopas-
chitism, a name given to those who accepted the formula that
in the death of Christ " God had suffered and been crucified."
Peter Fullo introduced these words into the Trishagion, and
after much controversy the council of Constantinople (553), while
disallowing this, gave its sanction to the similar statement
unum crucifixum esse ex sancta el consubstantiali Triniiale. The
development of this line of thought led in some thinkers like
John Philoponus to a kind of tritheism.
There is no doubt that the disintegration caused by mono-
physitism largely facilitated the rapid and easy victory of
Islam in Syria and Egypt. The " ethical complement " of
monophysitism is monothelitism (see MONOTHELITES).
See the Histories of Dogma by A. Harnack, F. Loofs and R.
Seeberg; also R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the- Incarnation.
MONOPOLI, a seaport town and episcopal see of Apulia,
Italy, in the province of Bari, from which it is 25 m. S.E. by
rail, 30 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 22,616. The medieval
1 I.e. (i) The person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia,
(2) the writings of Theodoret in defence of Nestorius, (3) the letter
written by Ibas to the Persian Maris.
s, corruptible, from <jiOeipei.v, destroy.
walls are preserved and the castle dates from 1 552. The harbour
is small, the principal trade being in agricultural products.
Close to it are rock-hewn tombs, possibly belonging to the
ancient Gnathia (q.v.).
MONOPOLY (Gr. juoiwraoMa. or novovuihov, exclusive sale,
from ijbvos, alone, and irw\iiv, to sell), a term which, though
used generally in the sense of exclusive possession, is more
accurately applied only to grants from the Crown or from
parliament, the private act of an individual whereby he
obtains control over the supply of any particular article,
being properly defined as "engrossing." It was from the
practice of the sovereign granting to a favourite, or as a
reward for good service, a monopoly in the sale or manufacture
of some particular class of goods that the system of protecting
inventions arose, and this fact lends additional interest to the
history of monopolies (see PATENTS). When the practice of
making such grants first arose it does not appear easy to say.
Sir Edward Coke laid it down that by the ancient common law
the king could grant to an inventor, or to the importer of an
invention from abroad, a temporary monopoly in his invention,
but that grants in restraint of trade were illegal. Such, too. was
the law laid down in the first recorded case, Darcy v. Allen (the
case of monopolies, 1602), and this decision was never overruled,
though the law was frequently evaded. The patent rolls of
the Plantagenets show few instances of grants of monopolies
(the earliest known is temp. Edw. III.), and we come down to
the reign of Henry VIII. before we find much evidence of this
exercise of the prerogative in the case of either new inventions
or known articles of trade. Elizabeth, as is well known, granted
patents of monopoly so freely that the practice became a grave
abuse, and on several occasions gave rise to serious complaints
in the House of Commons. Lists prepared at the time show
that many of the commonest necessaries of life were the subjects
of monopolies, by which their price was grievously enhanced.
That the queen did not assume the right of making these grants
entirely at her pleasure is shown, not only by her own statements
in answer to addresses from the house, but by the fact that the
preambles to the instruments conveying the grants always
set forth some public benefit to be derived from their action.
Thus a grant of a monopoly to sell playing-cards is made, because
" divers subjects of able bodies, which might go to plough,
did employ themselves in the art of making of cards "; and one
for the sale of starch is justified on the ground that it would
prevent wheat being wasted for the purpose. Accounts of
the angry debates in 1565 and 1601 are given in Hume and
elsewhere. The former debate produced a promise from the
queen that she would be careful in exercising her privileges; the
latter a proclamation which, received with great joy by the
house, really had but little effect in stopping the abuses
complained of.
In the first parliament of James I. a " committee of griev-
ances " was appointed, of which Sir Edward Coke was chairman.
Numerous monopoly patents were brought up before them, and
were cancelled. Many more, however, were granted by the king,
and there grew up a race of " purveyors," who made use of the
privileges granted them under the great seal for various purposes
of extortion. One of the most notorious of these was Sir Giles
Mompesson, who fled the country to avoid trial in 1621. After
the introduction of several bills, and several attempts by James
to compromise the matter by orders in council and promises,
the Statute of Monopolies was passed in 1623. This made all
monopolies illegal, except such as might be granted by parliament
or were in respect of new manufactures or inventions. Upon
this excepting clause is built up the entire English system of
letters patent for inventions. The act was strictly enforced,
and by its aid the evil system of monopolies was eventually
abolished. Parliament has, of course, never exercised its power
of granting to any individual exclusive privileges of dealing in
any articles of trade, such as the privileges of the Elizabethan
monopolists; but the licences required to be taken out by dealers
in wine, spirits, tobacco, &c., are lineal descendants of the
old monopoly grants, while the quasi-monopolies enjoyed by
734
MONOTHELITES MONOTREMATA
railways, canals, gas and water companies, &c., under acts of
parliament, are also representative of the ancient practice.
See W. H. Price, The English Patents of Monopoly (1906).
MONOTHELITES (fiavo0e\fJTai,, monothelilae, from Gr.
only, 6e\eii>, to will), 1 in Church history, the name given
to those who, in the 7th century, while otherwise orthodox
maintained that Christ had only one will. Their effort, as
defined by Dormer, was " an attempt to effect some kind ol
solution of the vital unity of Christ's person, which had been
so seriously proposed by monophysitism, on the basis of the
now firmly-established doctrine of the two natures." The
controversy had its origin in the efforts of the emperor Heraclius
to win back for the church and the empire the excommunicated
and persecuted Monophysites or Eutychians of Egypt and
Syria. In Egypt especially the monophysite movement had
assumed a nationalistic, patriotic character. It was in Armenia,
while on his expedition against Persia, in 622 that, in an inter-
view with Paul, the head of the Severians (Monophysites) there,
Heraclius first broached the doctrine of the (da. tvepyeia of
Christ, i.e. the doctrine that the divine and human natures,
while quite distinct in His one person, had but one activity and
operation. 2 At a somewhat later date he wrote to Arcadius of
Cyprus, commanding that " two energies" should not be spoken
of; and in 626, while in Lazistan (Colchis), he had a meeting
with the metropolitan, Cyrus of Phasis, during which this com-
mand was discussed, and Cyrus was at last bidden to seek further
instruction on the subject from Sergius, patriarch of Constanti-
nople, a strong upholder of the fiio. tvfpytia, and the emperor's
counsellor with regard to it. So well did he profit by the teach-
ing he received in this quarter that, in 630 or 631, Cyrus was
appointed to the vacant patriarchate of Alexandria, and in
633 succeeded in reconciling the Severians of his province
on the basis of (iia dtavdpiKr) evepytia (one divine -human
energy). He was, however, opposed by Sophronius, a monk
from Palestine, who, after vainly appealing to Cyrus, actually
went to Constantinople to remonstrate with Sergius himself.
Shortly afterwards Sergius wrote to Pope Honorius, and
received a friendly reply. 3 Sophronius, however, who mean-
while had been made patriarch of Jerusalem (634), refused
to be silenced, and in his Epistola synodica strongly insisted
on the " two energies." So intense did the controversy now
become, that at last, towards the end of 638, Heraclius published
an Ecthesis, or Exposition of the Faith (composed by Sergius),
which prohibited the use of the phrase " one energy," because
of its disquieting effects on some minds, as seeming to militate
against the doctrine of the two natures; while, on the other
hand, the expression " two energies " was interdicted because
it seemed to imply that Christ had two wills. That Christ
had but one will was declared to be the only orthodox doctrine,
and all the faithful were enjoined to hold and teach it without
addition or deduction. The document was not acceptable,
however, to Popes Severinus and John IV., the immediate
successors of Honorius; and Maximus, the confessor, succeeded
in stirring up such violent opposition in North Africa and Italy
that, in 648, Constans II. judged it expedient to withdraw his
grandfather's edict, and to substitute for it his own Typus
or Precept (TWTOS irepi Trtorecos), forbidding all discussion of
the questions of the duality or singleness of either the energy
or the will of Christ. The scheme of doctrine of the first four
general councils, in all its vagueness as to these points, was to
be maintained; so far as the controversy had gone, the disputants
on either side were to be held free from censure, but to resume it
1 The name seems to occur first in John of Damascus.
* Paul, speaking for the monophysite bishops, had said that what
was particularly repugnant in the definition of Chalcedon (q.v.) was
the implication of two wills in Christ. See Hefele, Conciliengesch.
iii. 124 seq. (1877), who also traces the previous history of the expres-
sions p.la ivipjeia, 6(avSpucli ivkpytia, especially as found in the writings
of the Pseudo-Dionysius Areopagita, which first appeared in Eeypt
in the 5th century.
' In two letters Honorius expressed himself in accord with the
monothelite view, for which he was denounced as heretical by the
Sixth General Council and anathematized by Pope Leo II.
would involve penal consequences. The reply of the Western
Church was promptly given in the unambiguously dyothelite
decrees of the Lateran synod held by Pope Martin I. in 649;
but the cruel persecutions to which both Martin and Maximus
were exposed, and finally succumbed, secured for the imperial
Typus the assent at least of silence. With the accession of
Constantine Pogonatus in 668 the controversy once more revived,
and the new emperor resolved to summon a general council.
It met at Constantinople in 680, having been preceded in 679
by a brilliant synod under Pope Agatho at Rome, where it had
been agreed to depart in nothing from the decrees of the Lateran
synod. The will, Agatho said, is a property of the nature,
so that as there are two natures there are two wills; but the
human will determines itself ever conformably to the divine
and almighty will.
See R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation (pt. vii. 5, 6, 7) ;
A. Harnack, History of Dogma, iv. 252-267 ; art Monotholeten "
in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklop. fur prot. Theologie (vol. 13) by
W. Moller and G. Kriiger.
MONOTREMATA (a name referring to the single outlet for
all the excretory channels of the body), the lowest subclass
of the Mammalia, represented at the present day solely by the
platypus and the echidnas. It has been proposed to replace this
name, when used as a subclass, by Prototheria; but it is perhaps
on the whole preferable to retain it both for the subclass and
for the single order by which it is now represented, distinguish-
ing the latter as Monotremata Vera.
Existing monotremes are characterized by the following
features. In the first place they differ broadly from all other
mammals in being oviparous, or possibly in the case of one
family ovoviviparous; and also in the absence of mammae, or
teats, the milk-glands opening on the surface of the skin of the
breast by means of a number of fine pores. Moreover, the
milk-glands themselves are commonly believed to represent
sweat-glands and not those of other mammals, although it has
been suggested that this distinction may not prove to be valid.
In the strict sense of the term monotremes are not, therefore,
mammals at all. Another feature in which these creatures
differ from all other living mammals is the presence of a pair
of coracoid bones, which articulate with the sternum, or breast-
bone, as well as of paired precoracoids, or epicoracoids, and
an unpaired T-shaped interclavicle, the arms of which overlie
the clavicles or collar-bones. In all these respects monotremes
closely resemble many reptiles. The brain lacks a corpus
callosum, or band of nerve-tissue connecting the two hemispheres.
Again, the bodies of the vertebrae are for the most part without
terminal caps, or epiphyses; and each rib articulates to the
vertebral column solely by its head or capitulum, instead of
by a capitulum and a tuberculum. More important is the
circumstance that the testes, which remain throughout life
within the abdominal cavity, do not discharge by means of
their ureters into a urinary bladder, but into a urino-genital
sinus, which is in close communication with the lower end of the
alimentary canal, so that the genital and waste products of the
body are discharged by means of a common tube, or cloaca
another reptilian feature, although met with in certain other
mammals. As regards other soft parts, the heart has the valve
dividing the right auricle and ventricle incomplete and to a great
extent fleshy a feature which may, in some degree, account for 1
:he lower temperature of monotremes as compared with higher
mammals. The presence of an anterior abdominal vein, or
at least its supporting membrane, running right through the
abdominal cavity, is another distinctive feature of the group.
Df less importance is the presence of a pair of epipubic, or
marsupial, bones attached to the front edge of the pelvis. The
"emales have a complete or rudimentary pouch on the abdomen.
In the presence of hair, the relatively high temperature of the
)lood, the absence of nuclei to the red blood-corpuscles, and the
existence of only the left aortic arch, as well as in the absence of a
separate quadrate-bone, and the simple structure of the lower jaw,
monotremes conform to the ordinary mammalian type. On the
>ther hand the skull of the platypus possesses a peculiar " dumb-
)ell bone," bpUever} to represent the reptilian prevomer.
MONOTRIGLYPH MONOTYPIC
The females produce their young from eggs, which are relatively
large, and develop in the same manner as those of birds and reptiles,
a portion only of the yolk segmenting to form the embryo, while the
remainder serves for the nutriment of the latter. In the case of
Ornithorhynchus it has been said that two eggs are laid in the chamber
at the end of the burrow, 1 but those of the Echidnidae are carried
about in the pouch on the abdomen of the female, which becomes
enlarged during the time of incubation. In the adult state neither
of the living groups of Monotremata have teeth ; but this is evidently
only a specialized feature, the young platypus having functional
teeth. In the latter, three pairs of these teeth are developed in the
upper, and three in the lower jaw; but after being for some time in
use, they gradually become worn away, and are finally shed. Under
and around the teeth are developed the horny plates, or " cornules,"
which gradually grow round them and assume their function, the
hollows on the surface of the cornules indicating the positions of
the teeth. In form these teeth make a distant approximation to the
molars of some of the extinct Multituberculata (q.v.).
A peculiarity of the males is the presence in the hind-limb of an
additional, flat, curved ossicle on the hinder and tibial side of the
plantar aspect of the tarsus, articulating chiefly to the tibia, support-
ing in the adult a sharp-pointed perforated horny spur, with which
is connected the duct of a gland situated beneath the skin of the back
of the thigh. (A rudimentary spur is found in the young female
Ornithorhynchus, but this disappears when the animal becomes adult.)
The stomach is sub-globular and simple; the alimentary canal has
no ilep-caecal valve, or marked distinction between large and small
intestine, but is furnished with a small, slender vermiform caecum
with glandular walls. The liver is divided into the usual number of
lobes, and is provided with a gall-bladder.
The trunk-vertebrae are nineteen in number. The transverse
processes of the cervical vertebrae are independently developed, and
remain suturally connected with the bodies of the vertebrae until
the animal is full-grown. Though in this respect monotremes pre-
sent an approximation to reptiles, they differ in that there is not a
gradual transition from these transverse processes of the neck-verte-
brae (or cervical ribs, as they may be considered) into the thoracic
ribs, for in the seventh vertebra the costal elemenc is much smaller
than in the other, indicative of a very marked separation of neck
from thorax, not seen in reptiles. The sternal ribs are well ossified,
and there are distinct, partly ossified, intermediate ribs. The brain-
cavity, unlike that of the lower marsupials or reptiles, is large and
hemispherical, flattened below, arched above, and about as broad
as long. The cribriform plate of the ethmoid is nearly horizontal.
The cranial walls are very thin, and smoothly rounded externally,
and the sutures become completely obliterated in adults. The
broad occipital region slopes upwards and forwards, and the face
is produced into a long depressed beak. The bony palate is pro-
longed backwards, so that the posterior nares are nearly on a level
with the glenoid fossa. The lower jaw, or mandible, is without
distinct ascending ramus; the coronoid process and angle being
rudimentary, and the two halves loosely connected at the symphysis.
The fibula has a broad, flattened process, projecting from its upper
extremity above the articulation, like an olecranon.
The first family, Ornithorhynchidae, is represented solely by the
duck-billed platypus, or platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), in
which the hemispheres of the brain are relatively small and
smooth, while the muzzle is expanded to form a spatula-like
beak, covered during life with a delicate sensitive skin, which
dries in museum-specimens to a horny consistency. Although,
as mentioned above, functional teeth are developed in the young,
in the adult their function is discharged by " cornules," or
horny stuctures elongated, narrow and sharp-edged, along
the anterior part of the sides of the mouth, and broad, flat-
topped or molariform behind. The legs are short and adapted
for swimming; the feet webbed, each with five well-developed
toes armed with large claws, and beyond which in the fore-feet
the interdigital membrane is extended. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 17,
L. 2, S. 2, Ca. 21. Acetabulum of pelvis not perforated. Tongue
not extensile. Mucous membrane of small intestine covered
with delicate, close-set transverse folds or ridges. Tail rather
short, broad, and depressed. Eyes very small. Fur close and
soft.
The platypus, or water-mole, is common to Australia and
Tasmania, and entirely aquatic in habits, diving freely, and
making its burrow in the river-banks. It feeds on insects,
snails, small bivalve molluscs, and worms. In the adult state
bivalves form its chief food; and it is believed that the sub-
stitution of horny plates for brittle teeth is an adaptation for
cracking the shells of these creatures. (See PLATYPUS.)
1 There does not appear to be authentic evidence that the eggs in
this genus are actually laid. (See PLATYPUS.)
735
The second family, Echidnidae, has a wider geographical
distribution, including Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea,
and is represented by two genera. The hemispheres of the
brain are large and convoluted; and the muzzle is produced
into a long, tapering, tubular beak, at the end of which the
nostrils are situated. The two branches of the lower jaw are
slender and rod-like. Opening of mouth small, and placed
below the extremity of the beak. No teeth, though the palate
and tongue are furnished with spines. Tongue very long,
vermiform, slender and protractile. Lining membrane of
small intestine villous, but without transverse folds. Feet with
long strong claws for scratching and burrowing. The hind-feet
with the ends of the toes turned outwards and backwards in
the ordinary position of the animal when on the ground. Tail
very short. Acetabulum with a large perforation. Calcaneal
spur and gland of the male much mailer than in Ornithorhynchus.
Fur intermixed with strong, sharp-pointed spines. Terrestrial
and fossorial in habits, feeding exclusively on ants.
The typical genus Echidna is represented by the echidna,
or porcupine-anteater (E. aculeata), which has a distribution
Bruijn's Echidna (Proechidna bruijni).
equivalent to that of the family, and includes several local
races. It is characterized by the presence of five claws to
each foot, the moderately long and straight beak, the tapering
tongue, with its spines restricted to the basal portion, and the
vertebrae numbering C. 7, D. 16, L. 3, S. 3, Ca. 1.2. In Proechidna,
represented by the larger P. bruijni and P. nigroaculeata, both
from New Guinea, on the other hand, terminal phalanges and
claws are present only on the three middle toes of each foot,
the tongue is somewhat spoon-shaped and carries three rcws
of spines along its upper surface, and there are 17 dorsal and
four lumbar vertebrae. (See ECHIDNA.)
At present no light is shed by palaeontology on the past
history of the Monotremata Vera. Species of Echidna and
Ornithorhynchus have indeed been described from the superficial
formations of Australia, but they apparently differ in no struc-
tural details from their existing representatives.
Possibly some of the extinct Jurassic mammals with a mar-
supial or insectivorous type of dentition referred to in the
article MARSUPIALIA may be monotremes, but there is no
definite evidence that this is the case. On the other hand,
there is a possibility that another extinct group of mammals,
dating from the Trias and continuing till the Lower Eocene,
may belong to the present subclass, of which they form a second
order. (See MULTITUBERCULATA.)
The most important recent information with regard to the Mono-
tremata will be found in Dr R. Semon's Reise in Australien, in the
Denkschrift of the Jena Natural History Society. (R. L.*)
MONOTRIGLYPH, in architecture, the interval of the inter-
colurrmiation of the Doric column, which is observed by the
intervention of one triglyph only between the triglyphs which
come over the axes of the columns. This is the usual arrange-
ment, but in the Propylaea at Athens there are two triglyphs
over the central intercolumniation, in order to give increased
width to the roadway, up which chariots and beasts of sacrifice
ascended.
MONOTYPIC (Gr. /MVOS, alone, single, and TVTTOS, a type),
a term used in biology, &c., for subjects having only one
exponent, for example a genus containing only one species.
736
MONREALE MONROE
HONREALE (contraction of monte-reale, so called from a palace
built here by Roger I.), a town of Sicily, in the province of
Palermo, 5 m. inland (W.S.W.) from it, on the slope of Monte
Caputo, overlooking the beautiful and very fertile valley called
"La Conca d'oro" (the Golden Shell), famed for its orange,
olive and almond trees, the produce of which is exported in
large quantities. Pop. (1901), 17,379 (town); 23,556 (commune).
The town, which for long was a mere village, owed its origin
to the founding of a large Benedictine monastery, with its
church, the seat of the metropolitan archbishop of Sicily. 1
This, the greatest of all the monuments of the wealth and
artistic taste of the Norman kings in northern Sicily, was begun
about 1170 by William II., and in 1182 the church, dedicated
to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, was, by a bull of Pope
Lucius III., elevated to the rank of a metropolitan cathedral.
The archiepiscopal palace and monastic buildings on the
south side were of great size and magnificence, and were sur-
rounded by a massive precinct wall, crowned at intervals by
twelve towers. This has been mostly rebuilt, and but little
now remains except ruins of seme of the towers, a great part
of the monks' dormitory and frater, and the splendid cloister,
completed about 1200. This last is well preserved, and is
one of the finest cloisters both for size and beauty of detail
now extant. It is about 170 ft. square, with pointed arches
decorated with diaper work, supported on pairs of columns in
white marble, 216 in all, which were alternately plain and
decorated by bands of patterns in gold and colours, made of
glass tesserae, arranged either spirally or vertically from end
to end of each shaft. The marble caps are each richly carved
with figures and foliage executed with great skill and wonderful
fertility of invention no two being alike. At one angle, a
square pillared projection contains the marble fountain or
monks' lavatory, evidently the work of Moslem sculptors.
The church is fortunately well preserved. In plan it is a curious
mixture of Eastern and Western arrangement. The nave is like
an Italian basilica, while the large triple-apsed choir is like one of
the early three-apsed churches, of which so many examples still
exist in Syria and other eastern countries. It is, in fact, like two
quite different churches put together endwise. The basilican nave
is wide, with narrow aisles. Monolithic columns of grey oriental
granite (except one, which is of cipollino), evidently the spoils of
older buildings, on each side support eight pointed arches much
stilted. The capitals of these (mainly Corinthian) are also of the
classical period. There is no triforium, but a high clerestoiy
with wide two-light windows, with simple tracery like those in the
nave-aisles and throughout the church, which give sufficient (if
anything too much) light. The other half, Eastern in two senses, is
both wider and higher than the nave. It also is divided into a
central space with two aisles, each of the divisions ending at the east
with an apse. The roofs throughout are of open woodwork very low
in pitch, constructionally plain, but richly decorated with colour,
now mostly restored. At the west end of the nave are two project-
ing towers, with a narthex-entrance between them. A large open
atrium, which once existed at the west, is now completely destroyed,
having been replaced by a Renaissance portico. The outside of the
church is plain, except the aisle walls and three eastern apses, which
are decorated with intersecting pointed arches and other ornaments
inlaid in marble. The outsides of the principal doorways and their
pointed arches are magnificently enriched with carving and coloured
inlay, a curious combination of three styles Norman-French,
Byzantine and Arab.
It is, however, the enormous extent (70,400 stj. ft.) and glittering
splendour of the glass mosaics covering the interior which make this
church so splendid. With the exception of a high dado, itself very
beautiful, made of marble slabs with bands of mosaic between them,
the whole interior surface of the walls, including soffits and jambs of
all the arches, is covered with minute mosaic-pictures in brilliant
colours on a gold ground. The mosaic pictures are arranged in
tiers, divided by horizontal and vertical bands. In parts of the choir
there are five of these tiers of subjects or single figures one above
another. The half dome of the central apse has a colossal half-
length figure of Christ, with a seated Virgin and Child below; the
other apses have full-length colossal figures of St Peter and St Paul.
Inscriptions on each picture explain the subject or saint represented ;
these are in Latin, except some few which are in Greek. The sub-
jects in the nave begin with scenes from the Book of Genesis, illus-
trating the Old Testament types of Christ and His scheme of redemp-
tion, with figures of those who prophesied and prepared for His
coming. Towards the east are subjects from the New Testament,
1 An earlier church appears to have existed at Monreale since the
6th century, but no traces of it now remain.
chiefly representing Christ's miracles and suffering, with apostles,
evangelists and other saints. The design, execution and choice
of subjects all appear to be of Byzantine origin, the subjects being
selected from the Menologium drawn up by the emperor Basilius
Porphyrogenitus in the loth century.
In the central apse at Monreale, behind the high altar, is a fine
marble throne for the archbishop. This position of the throne is a
survival of the early basilican arrangement, when the apse and
altar were at the west end. In that.case the celebrant stood behind
the altar at mass, and looked over it eastwards towards the people.
On the north side, in front of the high altar, is another somewhat
similar throne for the use of the king. The tomb of William I., the
founder's father a magnificent porphyry sarcophagus contemporary
with the church, under a marble pillared canopy and the founder
William II. 's tomb, erected in 1575, were both shattered by a fire,
which in 1811 broke out in the choir, injuring some of the mosaics,
and destroying all the fine walnut choir-fittings, the organs, and most
of the choir roof. The tombs were rebuilt, and the whole of the
injured part of the church restored, mostly very clumsily, a few
years after the fire. On the north of the choir are the tombs of
Margaret, wife of William I., and her two sons Roger and Henry,
together with an urn containing the viscera of St Louis of France,
who died in 1270. The pavement of the triple choir, though much
restored, is a very magnificent specimen of marble and porphyry
mosaic in opus alexandrinum, with signs of Arab influence in its
main lines. The pavement of the nave, on the other hand, is of the
1 6th century. Two baroque chapels were added in the 1 7th and
1 8th centuries, which are fortunately shut off from the rest of the
church.
Two bronze doors, those on the north and west of the church,
are of great interest in the history of art. They are both divided
into a number of square panels with subjects and single figures,
chiefly from Bible history, cast in relief. That on the north is by
Barisanus of Tram' in southern Italy, an artist probably of Greek
origin. It is inscribed BARISANUS TRAN. ME FECIT. The cathedrals
at Trani and Ravello also have bronze doors by the same sculptor.
The western door at Monreaie, inferior to the northern one both in
richness of design and in workmanship, is by Bonannus of Pisa, for
the cathedral of which place he cast the still existing bronze door
on the south, opposite the leaning tower. The one at Monreale is
inscribed A.D. MCLXXXVI IND. in. BONANNUS civis PISANVS ME FECIT.
It is superior in execution to the Pisan one. The door by Barisanus
is probably of about the same time, as other examples of his work
with inscribed dates show that he was a contemporary of Bonannus.
The effect of the facade is not improved by the Renaissance portico
that has been added to it. The monastic library contains some
valuable MSS., especially a number of bilingual documents in Greek
and Arabic, the earliest being dated 1144. The archbishop now
occupies the eastern part of the monastic buildings, the original
palace being destroyed.
See D. B. Gravina, II Duomo di Monreale (Palermo, 1859-1865).
(J. H. M.; T. As.)
MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905), English Homeric
scholar, was born in Edinburgh on the i6th of November 1836.
He was a grandson of Alexander Monro, tertius (1773-1859),
professor of anatomy in Edinburgh University, whose father,
Alexander Monro, secundus (1733-1817), and grandfather, Alex-
ander Monro, primus (1697-1767), both filled the same position.
He was educated at Glasgow University, and Brasenose and
Balliol Colleges, Oxford. In 1859 he was elected fellow, and
in 1882 provost of Oriel, which office he held till his death at
Heiden, Switzerland, on the 22nd of August 1905. He was
a man of varied attainments, an excellent linguist, and possessed
considerable knowledge of music, painting and architecture.
His favourite study was Homer, and his Grammar of the Homeric
Dialect (2nd ed., 1891) established his reputation as an authority
on that author. He also edited the last twelve books of the
Odyssey, with valuable appendices on the composition of the
poem, its relation to the Iliad and the cyclic poets, the history
of the text, the dialects, and the Homeric house; a critical
text of the poems and fragments (Homeri opera el reliquiae,
1896); Homeri opera (1902, with T. W. Allen, in Scriptorum
classicorum bibliotheca oxoniensis) ; and an edition of the Iliad
with notes for schools. His article on Homer, written for the
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, was revised by him
for this work before he died. Mention may also be made of
his Modes of Ancient Greek Music (1894), on which see Classical
Review for December 1894, with author's reply in the same
for February 1895.
See Memoir by J. Cook Wilson (Oxford, 1907).
MONROE, JAMES (1758-1831), fifth president of the United
States, was born on Monroe's creek, a tributary of the Potomac
MONROE
737
river, in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the a8th of April
1758. His father, Spence Monroe, was of Scotch, and his
mother, Elizabeth Jones, was of Welsh descent. At the age
of sixteen he entered the College of William and Mary, Williams-
burg, Virginia, but in 1776 he left college to take part in the
War for Independence. He enlisted in the Third Virginia
regiment, in which he became a lieutenant, and subsequently
took part in the battles of Harlem Heights, White Plains,
Trenton (where he was wounded), Brandywine, Germantown,
and Monmouth. In November 1777 he was appointed volunteer
aide-de-camp to William Alexander (" Lord Stirling "), with
the rank of major, and thereby lost his rank in the Continental
line; but in the following year, at Washington's solicitation,
he received a commission as lieutenant-colonel in a new regiment
to be raised in Virginia. In 1780 he began the study of law
under Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia, and between
the two there developed an intimacy and a sympathy that had
a powerful influence upon Monroe's later career.
In 1782 he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates, and
though only twenty-four years of age he was chosen a member of
the governor's council. He served in the Congress of the Con-
federation from 1783 to 1786 and was there conspicuous for his
vigorous insistence upon the right of the United States to the
navigation of the Mississippi River, and for his attempt, in 1785,
to secure for the weak Congress the power to regulate commerce,
in order to remove one of the great defects in the existing central
government. On retiring from Congress he began the practice
of law at Fredericksburg, Virginia, was chosen a member of
the Virginia House of Delegates in 1787, and in 1788 was a
member of the state convention which ratified for Virginia
the Federal constitution. In 1790 he was elected to the United
States senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of William
Grayson, and although in this body he vigorously opposed
Washington's administration, Washington on the 27th of May
1794 nominated him as minister to France. It was the hope
of the administration that Monroe's well-known French sym-
pathies would secure for him a favourable reception, and that
his appointment would also conciliate the friends of France
in the United States. His warm reception in France and his
enthusiastic Republicanism, however, displeased the Federalists
at home; he did nothing, moreover, to reconcile the French
to the Jay treaty (see JAY, JOHN), which they regarded as a
violation of the French treaty of alliance of 1778 and as a possible
casus belli. The administration therefore decided that he was
unable to represent his government properly and late in 1796
recalled him.
Monroe returned to America in the spring of 1797, and in
the following December published a defence of his course in
a pamphlet of 500 pages entitled A View of the Conduct of the
Executive in the Foreign A/airs of the United States, and printed
in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin Bache (1760-1798).
Washington seems never to have forgiven Monroe for this,
though Monroe's opinion of Washington and Jay underwent a
change in his later years. In 1799 Monroe was chosen governor
of Virginia and was twice re-elected, serving until 1802. At
this time there was much uneasiness in the United States as
a result of Spain's restoration of Louisiana to France by the
secret treaty of San Ildefonso, in October 1800; and the sub-
sequent withdrawal of the " right of deposit " at New Orleans
by the Spanish intendant greatly increased this feeling and led
to much talk of war. Resolved upon peaceful measures,
President Jefferson in January 1803 appointed Monroe envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to France to aid
Robert R. Livingston, the resident minister, in obtaining by
purchase the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi, including
the island of New Orleans, and at the same time authorized
him to co-operate with Charles Pinckney, the minister at
Madrid, in securing from Spain the cession of East and West
Florida. On the i8th of April Monroe was further commissioned
as the regular minister to Great Britain. He joined Livingston
in Paris on the i2th of April, after the negotiations were well
under way; and the two ministers, on finding Napoleon willing
xviii. 24
to dispose of the entire province of Louisiana, decided to exceed
their instructions and effect its purchase. Accordingly, on the
3oth of April, they signed a treaty and two conventions, whereby
France sold Louisiana to the United States (see LOUISIANA
PURCHASE). In July 1803 Monroe left Paris and entered upon
his duties in London; and in the autumn of 1804 he proceeded
to Madrid to assist Pinckney in his efforts to secure the definition
of the Louisiana boundaries and the acquisition of the Floridas.
After negotiating with Don Pedro de Cevallos, the Spanish
minister of foreign affairs, from January to May 1805, without
success, Monroe returned to London and resumed his negotia-
tions, which had been interrupted by his journey to Spain,
concerning the impressment of American seamen and the
seizure of American vessels. As the British ministry was
reluctant to discuss these vexed questions, little progress was
made, and in May 1806 Jefferson ordered William Pinkney of
Maryland to assist Monroe. The British government appointed
Lords Auckland and Holland as negotiators, and the result of
the deliberations was the treaty of the 3ist of December 1806,
which contained no provision against impressments and pro-
vided no indemnity for the seizure of goods and vessels. In passing
over these matters Monroe and Pinkney had disregarded their
instructions, and Jefferson was so displeased with the treaty
that he refused to present it to the senate for ratification, and
returned it to England for revision. Just as the negotiations
were re-opened, however, the questions were further complicated
and their settlement delayed by the attack of the British ship
" Leopard " upon the American frigate " Chesapeake." Monroe
returned to the United States in December 1807, and was elected
to the Virginia House of Delegates in the spring of 1810. In
the following winter he was again chosen governor, serving
from January to November 1811, and resigning to become
secretary of state under Madison, a position which he held until
the 3rd of March 1817. The direction of foreign affairs in the
troubled period immediately preceding and during the second
war with Great Britain thus devolved upon him. On the
27th of September 1814, after the disaster of Bladensburg and
the capture of Washington by the British, he was appointed
secretary of war to succeed General John Armstrong, and
discharged the duties of this office, in addition to those of the
state department, until March 1815.
In 1816 Monroe was chosen president of the United States;
he received 183 electoral votes, and Rufus King, his Federalist
opponent, 34. In 1820 he was re-elected, receiving all the
electoral votes but one, which William Plumer (1759-1850) of
New Hampshire cast for John Quincy Adams, in order, it is
said, that no one might share with Washington the honour of
a unanimous election. The chief events of his administra-
tion, which has been called the " era of good feeling,"
were the Seminole War (1817-18); the acquisition of the
Floridas from Spain (1819-21); the "Missouri Compromise"
(1820), by which the first conflict over slavery under the con-
stitution was peacefully adjusted; the veto of the Cumberland
Road Bill (1822)' on constitutional grounds; and most
1 The Cumberland (or National) Road from Cumberland, Mary-
land, to Wheeling, West Virginia, was projected in 1806, by an
appropriation of 1819 was extended to the Ohio River, by an act of
1825 (signed by Monroe on the last day of his term of office) was
continued to Zanesville, and by an act of 1829 was extended west-
ward from Zanesville. The appropriation of 1806 for the construc-
tion of the road had brought into national politics the question of
the authority of the Federal government to make " internal improve-
ments." The bill vetoed by Monroe would in effect have given to
the Federal government jurisdiction over the road; and in his
elaborate memorandum (May 4, 1822) accompanying his veto
message, Monroe discussed at length the constitutional questions
involved, argued that the Federal government _ was empowered
by the Constitution to appropriate money for " internal improve-
ments," and in concert with the states through which a road was to
pass might supervise the construction of such a road, but might not
exercise jurisdiction over it, and advocated the adoption of an
amendment to the constitution giving larger power to the Federal
government " confined to great national works only, since, if it were
unlimited it would be liable to abuse, and might be productive of
evil." For the history of the Cumberland Road, see Archer B.
Hulbert, The Cumberland Road (Cleveland, Ohio, 1904).
5
738
MONROE MONROE DOCTRINE
intimately connected with Monroe's name the enunciation in
the presidential message of the 2nd of December 1823 of what
has since been known as the Monroe Doctrine (q.v.), which has
profoundly influenced the foreign policy of the United States.
On the expiration of his second term he retired to his home at
Oak Hill, Loudoun county, Virginia. In 1826 he became a
regent of the university of Virginia, and in 1829 was a member
of the convention called to amend the state constitution.
Having neglected his private affairs and incurred large expendi-
tures during his missions to Europe, he experienced considerable
pecuniary embarrassment in his later years, and was compelled
to ask Congress to reimburse him for his expenses in the public
service. Congress finally (in 1826) authorized the payment of
$30,000 to him, and after his death appropriated a small amount
for the purchase of his papers from his heirs. He died in New
York City on the 4th of July 1831, while visiting his daughter,
Mrs Samuel L. Gouverneur. In 1858, the centennial year of his
birth, his remains were reinterred with impressive ceremonies
at Richmond, Virginia. Jefferson, Madison, John Quincy Adams,
Calhoun, and Benton all speak loudly in Monroe's praise; but he
suffers by comparison with the greater statesmen of his time.
Possessing none of their brilliance, he had, nevertheless, to
use the words of John Quincy Adams, " a mind . . . sound
in its ultimate judgments, and firm in its final conclusions."
Schouler points out that like Washington and Lincoln he was
" conspicuous . . . for patient considerateness to all sides."
Monroe was about six feet tall, but, being stoop-shouldered
and rather ungainly seemed less; his eyes, a greyish blue, were
deep-set and kindly; his face was delicate, naturally refined,
and prematurely lined. The best-known portrait, that by
Vanderlyn, is in the New York City Hall. Monroe was married
in 1786 to Elizabeth Kortwright (1768-1830) of New York, and
at his death was survived by two daughters.
See The Writings of James Monroe (7 vols., New York, 18981903),
edited by S. M. Hamilton; Daniel C. Gilraan, James Monroe (Boston,
1883), in the " American Statesman Series "; J. R. Irelan, History
of the Life, Administration and Times of James Monroe, being vol. v.
of his Republic (Chicago, 1887) ; John Quincy Adams, The Lives of
James Madison and James Monroe (Buffalo, 1850) ; B. W. Bond, jun.,
Monroe's Mission to France, 17941796 (Baltimore, 1907) ; Henry
Adams, History of the United States (9 vols., New York, 1889-1891),
containing a full but unsympathetic account of Monroe's career as a
diplomatist; and James Schouler, History of the United States, vols. ii.
and iii. (New York, 1894), which estimates his public services highly.
MONROE, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., the capital of Ouachita
parish, in the northern part of the state, on the east bank of the
Ouachita river, 72 m. W. of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and 96 m. E.
of Shreveport, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 3256; (1900), 5428
(2834 negroes); (1910), 10,209. It is served by the Arkansas,
Louisiana & Gulf, the Little Rock & Monroe, the Vicksburg,
Shreveport & Pacific (Queen & Crescent), and the St Louis,
Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by river steamers
plying between New Orleans and Camden, Arkansas. Across
the Ouachita is the town of West Monroe (pop. in 1910, 1127).
The improvement of the river, by the removal of snags and the
construction of dams and locks in order to give it a navigable
depth of 10 ft. at Monroe and 6| ft. beyond Camden, was nearly
completed by the United States government in 1909. Monroe
lies in a level valley, and has broad streets shaded by live oaks.
Among the public buildings are a handsome city-hall, a city
market-house, a charity hospital and a high school. There
are also a parish high school and St Hyacinth's Academy
(Roman Catholic). The leading industries are the manufacture
of lumber and cotton products.
In 1785, during the Spanish occupation of Louisiana, Juan
Filhiol, commandant of the district of Ouachita, founded a
settlement on the site of the present Monroe, which was called
Ouachita Post until 1790 and then Fort Mir6, in honour of the
governor-general. In 1819 the place was renamed Monroe, in
honour of President James Monroe, and in the following year
the town was incorporated. Monroe was chartered as a city
in 1871, and received a new charter in 1902.
MONROE, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Raisin river, 2 m. from Lake Erie,
near the south-eastern corner of the state. Pop. (1890), 5258;
(1900), 5043; (1904), 6128; (1910), 6893. It is served by the
Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the
Pere Marquette, and the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line railways,
and by electric lines to Detroit and Toledo. There is a
statue here (dedicated in 1910) of Gen. G. W. Custer. Monroe
has a German Altenheim and'St Mary's academy and college
for girls. The city has a large trade in farming-produce and fish,
and various manufactures. The place was settled in 1783 by
French Canadians and called Frenchtown. In January 1813
the inhabitants, fearing destruction from the British and their
Indian allies, pleaded to the Americans for protection, and
about 660 men from the army of General James Winchester
(1752-1826), sent from the rapids of the Maumee river, on the
1 8th of January drove a small British force from the village. Three
days later General Winchester arrived with 300 more men; but
at dawn on the 22nd Colonel Henry A. Proctor (1787-1859) with
a force of British and Indians surprised the Americans, defeated
their right wing, captured General Winchester and obtained
from him an order for the surrender of his entire force. In 1815
Monroe received its present name in honour of James Monroe.
In 1817 it was made the county-seat, and in 1827 it was incor-
porated as a village. It was chartered as a city in 1837
(being rechartered in 1874), and as a city of the fourth class
in 1895.
MONROE DOCTRINE. That the United States should avoid
entangling itself in the politics of Europe was a policy recom-
mended by Washington. The counterpart of this, that European
powers should be prevented from taking a controlling share in
the politics of the American continent, grew gradually as the
importance and influence of the United States increased. This
American attitude towards the European powers became
crystallized in what is known as the Monroe Doctrine, since
it was first announced officially in a concrete form, though not
originated, by President Monroe. His declaration was the
result of American apprehension that the combination of
European powers known as the Holy Alliance would interfere
in South America to restore the Spanish colonies, which had
asserted their independence, to the crown of Spain. To meet and
check this movement, in his message to Congress on the 2nd of
December 1823, Monroe made the following pronouncement:
In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to them-
selves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our
policy so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously
menaced that we resent injuries or make preparations for our
defence. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of neces-
sity more immediately connected, and by causes which must be
obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political
system of the allied powers is essentially different in this respect
from that of America. . . . We owe it, therefore, to candour, and
to the amicable relations existing between the United States and
those powers, to declare that we should consider any attempt on
their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere
as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies
or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and
shall not interfere. But with the governments who have declared
their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we
have on great consideration and on just principles acknowledged,
we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing
them or controlling in any other manner their destiny by any
European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an
unfriendly disposition towards the United States. ... It is impos-
sible that the allied powers should extend their political system to
any portion of either continent without endangering our peace and
happiness; nor can any one believe that our Southern brethren, if
left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is equally
impossible, therefore, that we should behold such interposition in
any form with indifference.
Earlier in the same message, while discussing negotiations
for the settlement of the respective claims of Russia, Great
Britain, and the United States in the north-west, Monroe also
said:
In the discussion to which this interest has given rise and the
arrangements by which they may terminate, the occasion has been
judged proper for asserting as a principle in which the rights and
interests of the United States are involved, that the American
continents, by the free and independent condition which they have
MONROSE MONSIGNOR
739
assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as
subjects for future colonization by any European powers.
With this message Great Britain was in hearty agreement.
Indeed it was Canning's policy, summed up three years later
by his famous reference to the necessity of calling the New
World into existence to restore the balance of the Old.
This announcement of policy, it will be noticed, involved,
firstly, a declaration aimed at foreign intervention in the political
affairs of independent American states; secondly, a warning
against future European colonization on the American continents.
The first was avowedly based on the right of self-defence; it
was a policy, not a law; it was not to constrain the minor
republics, but to protect them. The second, as explained by
John Quincy Adams, was intended to state the fact that the
American continent was occupied by contiguous states, leaving
no room for further colonization and introduction of foreign
sovereignty. No legislative sanction was given to Monroe's
statement of policy at the time, and in fact none was needed,
for the mere announcement served to prevent foreign action
in South America. It has never formed part of the body of
International Law, being unilateral. Nor has the United States
bound itself by compact with the other republics of the American
continent to protect them from European aggression. Thus
it hesitated to send delegates to the Panama Congress in 1826,
and took no part in any congress with the Latin American
states until 1889.
Nevertheless, on several occasions since its conception the
Monroe Doctrine has been enforced. Its spirit permeated the
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, in which Great Britain and the United
States, in 1850, mutually renounced the right of colonizing,
fortifying or occupying any porton of Central America. It
was enforced against Maximilian, who, by French intervention
in Mexico, had been made emperor, and until the close of the
American Civil War had perforce been left undisturbed. Its
applicability was urged when de Lesseps's Panama Canal was
thought possible of completion. Both Cuba and the Hawaiian
Islands at various periods have felt its influence, the general,
though not consistent policy of the United States being, while
disclaiming the desire of annexation itself, to deny the right of
any European power (except Spain in Cuba's case, until 1898)
to control them. And it was applied to the claims of British
Guiana to Venezuelan territory by President Cleveland's message
in 1895, which proposed a commission to settle the boundary
and threatened war if its line were not accepted. This com-
mission never reported, but the disputants finally agreed to
arbitrate, and the British claim was in the main upheld.
Between 1823 and 1895 the development and enlargement
of this policy on the part of the United States was very striking.
To prevent the overthrow of an independent republic is one
thing; to interfere in the settlement of a boundary dispute
between two states, also on the ground of self-defence, is quite
another. Yet Cleveland's doctrine met with general acceptance,
and in fact it had been in a sense anticipated by President Grant,
who, in urging the annexation of San Domingo upon the United
States Senate in 1870, used this language:
The Doctrine promulgated by President Monroe has been adhered
to by all political parties, and I now deem it proper to assert the
equally important principle that hereafter no territory on this
continent shall be regarded as subject of transfer to a European
power.
Never having been formulated as law or in exact language,
the Monroe Doctrine has meant different things to different
persons at different times. It has become deeply rooted in
the American heart, and a permanent part of the foreign policy
of the United States. It tends to change into the principle that
every portion of the American continent must be free from
European control. It is still coupled, however, with the converse
principle that America takes no part in European politics, as
the disclaimer of the American delegates to the first Peace
Conference at the Hague proved.
See Tucker's Monroe Doctrine ; Gilman's Life of Monroe ^Wharton's
International Law Digest (title, "Monroe Doctrine"); Snow's
American Diplomacy; also an article by Sir Frederick Pollock in the
Nineteenth Century and After (1902). (T. S. W.)
MONROSE (1783-1843), French actor, whose real name was
Claude Louis Seraphin Barizain, was born in Besancon on the
6th of December 1783, and was already playing children's
parts at the time of the Revolution. He was called to the
Comedie Francaise in 1815, and was received sociftaire in 1817.
A small, active man, with mobile and expressive features and
quick, nervous gestures, he was noted as the rascally servant
in such plays as Le Barbier de Seville and Les Fourberies de
Scapin. His son, Louis MARTIAL BARIZAIN (1800-1883), also
called Monrose, was also an actor. He succeeded Samson as
professor at the Conservatoire in 1866.
MONS (Flemish Bergen), a town of Belgium situated on a
small river called the Trouille in the province of Hainaut of
which it is the capital. Pop. (1904), 27,072. Mons was
the capital of the ancient countdom of Hainaut, well
known in English history from the marriage of Edward III.
with its Countess Philippa. The town was founded by the
Countess Waudru in the 8th century, whereupon Charlemagne
recognized it as the capital of Hainaut, and it has retained the
position ever since. It was only in the nth century, however,
that it became the fixed residence of the counts, who had
previously occupied the castle of Hornu, leaving Mons to the
abbey and the church of St Waudru. Regnier V. moved to
Mons at the beginning of that century, and his only child a
daughter Richilde, married Baldwin VI. of Flanders. The
junction of the two countdoms was only temporary, and they
again separated in the person of Richilde's sons. In this age
Hainaut was known as " the poor land of a proud people," and
it was not until the beginning of the i4th century that Mons
was converted into a trading town by the establishment of a
cloth market. At the same time the count transferred his
principal fortress from Valenciennes to Mons. When the
Hainaut title became merged in the duchy of Burgundy, Mons
was a place of considerable importance on account of its being
a stronghold near the French frontier. Its capture, defence
and surrender by Louis of Nassau in 1572 was one of the striking
incidents of the religious troubles. In the long wars of the
1 7th and i8th centuries Mons underwent several sieges, but
none of the same striking character as those of Namur. Several
times dismantled and refortified, Mons was finally converted
into an open town in 1862.
The most remarkable building in the city is the cathedral of
St Waudru, named after the first countess, which was begun
in the middle of the isth century, but not finished for more
than a century and a half later. It is a fine specimen of later
Gothic, and contains some good glass as well as a few pictures
by Van Thudden. The Hotel de Ville is about the same age as
the cathedral, having been commenced in 1458 and finished in
1606. The tower was added a century later. There is also a
fine belfry with a peal of bells. Mons is now a flourishing town
with a, good trade in cloth, lace, sugar refinery, &c.; but its chief
importance is derived from its proximity to the Borinage (place
of boring), district containing mines of the finest coal in Belgium.
The military engineering college for the Belgian army is here,
and not far from Mons are the battle-fields of Malplaquet (1709)
and Jemappes (1792).
MONSIEUR (Fr., formed from man, my, and sieur, lord),
the general title of address in France used vocatively in speaking
formally to any male person, like the English " sir " or prefixed
to the name like the English " Mr." It is, however, in France
also prefixed to nobiliary, official, and other titles, e.g. Monsieur
le president, Monsieur le due d'E., &c. It is abbreviated M.,
not Mons. As a specific title " Monsieur " (tout court) was
used from the time of Louis XIV. of the eldest brother of the
king, as " Monseigneur " was of the dauphin; as a general
title of address it was given to the princely members of a royal
house.
MONSIGNOR (It. monsignore, my lord), a title of honour
granted by the pope to bishops and to high dignitaries and
officials of the papal household. It is abbreviated M gr.
740
MONSON MONSTER
MONSON, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1569-1643), British admiral, was
the third son of Sir John Monson of South Carlton in Lincoln-
shire, where the family was of old standing. He matriculated
at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1581, but ran away to sea in 1585,
being then according to his own account sixteen. His first
services were in a privateer in an action with a Spanish ship in
the Bay of Biscay, of which he gives a somewhat Munchausen-
like account in his Naval Tracts. In the Armada year he served
as lieutenant of the " Charles," a small ship of the queen's.
There being at that time no regular naval service, Monson is
next found serving with the adventurous George Clifford, 3rd
earl of Cumberland (1558-1605), whom he followed in his
voyages of 1589, 1591 and 1593. During the second of these
ventures Monson had the ill-luck to be taken prisoner by the
Spaniards in a recaptured prize, and was for a time detained
at Lisbon in captivity. His cruises must have brought him
some profit, for in 1595 he was able to marry, and he thought
it worth while to take his M.A. degree. The earl offended him
by showing favour to another follower, and Monson turned
elsewhere. In the expedition to Cadiz in 1596, he commanded
the "Repulse" (50). From this time till the conclusion of
the war with Spain he was in constant employment. In 1602
he commanded the last squadron fitted out in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. In 1604 he was appointed admiral of the Narrow
Seas, the equivalent of the Channel squadron of modern times.
In 1614 he was sent to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland to
repress the pirates who then swarmed on the coast. Monson
claimed to have extirpated these pests, but it is certain that
they were numerous a generation later. After 1614 he saw no
further active service till 1635, when he went to sea as vice-
admiral of the fleet fitted out by king Charles I. with the first
ship-money. He spent the last years of his life in writing his
Tracts, and died in February 1643.
His claim to be remembered is not based on his services as
a naval officer, though they were undoubtedly honourable, but
on his Tracts. These treatises consist in part of historical
narratives, and in part of argumentative proposals for the reform
of abuses, or the development of the naval resources of the
country. They form by far the best account by a contemporary
of the naval life and transactions of the reign of Queen Elizabeth
and the beginning of the reign of King James. Monson takes
care to do himself full justice, but he is not unfair to his con-
temporaries. His style is thoroughly modern, and has hardly
a trace of the poetry of the Elizabethans. He was the first
naval officer in the modern sense of the word, a gentleman
by birth and education who was trained to the sea, and not
simply a soldier put in to fight, with a sailing-master to handle
the ship for him, or a tarpaulin who was a sailor only.
Monson's elder brother, Sir Thomas Monson (1564-1641),
was one of James I.'s favourites, and was made a baronet in
1611. He held a position of trust at the Tower of London, a
circumstance which led to his arrest as one of the participators
in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. He was, however, soon
released and he died in May 1641. His eldest son was Sir
John Monson, Bart. (1600-1683), a member of parliament under
Charles I., and another son was Sir William Monson (c. 1607-
1678), who was created an Irish peer as Viscount Monson of
Castlemaine in 1628. Having been a member of the court
which tried Charles I. the viscount was deprived of his honours
and was sentenced to imprisonment for life in 1661. Sir John
Monson's descendant, another Sir John Monson, Bart. (1693-
1748), was created Baron Monson in 1728. His youngest son
was George Monson (1730-1776), who served with the English
troops in India from 1758 to 1763. The baron's eldest son
was John, the 2ndbarqn (1727-1774), whose son William Monson
(1760-1807) served in the Mahratta War under General Lake.
William's only son William John (1796-1862) became 6th
Baron Monson in succession to his cousin Frederick John, the
5th baron, in October 1841. His son William John, the 7th
baron (1829-1898), was created Viscount Oxenbridge in 1886.
When he died without sons in 1898 the viscounty became extinct,
but the barony descended to his brother Debonnaire John
(1830-1900), whose son Augustus Debonnaire John (b. 1868)
became 9th Baron Monson in 1900. Another of Viscount
Oxenbridge's brothers was Sir Edmund John Monson, Bart,
(b. 1834), who, after filling many other diplomatic appointments,
was British ambassador in Paris from 1896 to 1904.
The one authority for the life of Sir William Monson is his own
Tracts, but a very good account of him is included by Southey in his
Lives of the Admirals, vol. v. The Tracts were first printed in the
third volume of Churchill's Voyages, but they have been edited for
the Navy Record Society by Mr Oppenheim.
MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season), the name given to
seasonal winds due to differences of pressure between areas of
land and sea, which are primarily caused by seasonal differences
of temperature. Monsoons may be regarded as the seasonal
analogue of the diurnal land and sea breezes. The term is,
however, also applied to seasonal winds which change in direction
on account of the migrations of wind-belts in the planetary
circulation. During the season of rising temperature the surface
of the land warms more quickly, and becomes hotter than that
of the sea, and during the season of falling temperature the
reverse is the case. Barometric pressure tends to be higher
over the colder region than over the warmer, and there is
accordingly a tendency for air to flow, in the lower levels of
the atmosphere, from the former towards the latter. Thus
there is in general a movement from land to sea during the
cold season, and from sea to land during the warm season.
Within a belt extending from 10 to 15 degrees on each side
of the equator, seasonal changes of temperature are insufficient
in range to permit of the occurrence of temperature differences
adequate to the development of true monsoons. In the higher
latitudes of the west wind-belt, and in the polar zones, the
generally low temperature does not favour the occurrence of
wide differences between land and sea. Thus the conditions
required for the occurrence of monsoonal winds are best satisfied
in intermediate latitudes in the neighbourhood of the tropics.
But, as in the case of land and sea breezes, the strength and
extension of the monsoon produced by the action described
depends to a large extent on the configuration of the land
surface. When the land area consists of a low plain, or of a
plateau having a steep coastal strip of small width, the circula-
tion upon it tends to be local, and to approximate to the typical
" continental " climate of the temperate zones. Where, on
the other hand, the land slopes upwards gradually to a central
massif or ridge the effect of the differences of temperature
is, as it were, cumulative, and the monsoons may extend over
large areas, affecting regions distant from those in which the
causes producing them are directly operative, and the monsoon
winds may develop great strength. Ferrel (Popular Treatise
on the Winds) has compared the conditions in the two cases
to those of a stove with a long horizontal flue and with a vertical
or inclined flue of the same length.
It is of course to be noted that the hot season monsoon is
in general of greater strength than that of the cold season,
because being usually a sea wind the air is fully charged with
moisture, condensation takes place .as ascensional movement
sets in on reaching the land, and the latent heat set free
strengthens the upward current.
The position, outline and relief of the continent of Asia
favour the development of monsoons to a much greater extent
than any other part of the world; so much so that the climate
of the whole of the southern and eastern parts is entirely
controlled by these winds, forming what is typically known as
" the monsoon region," a region having distinctly characteristic
products. Monsoons form an important element in the climate
of Australia, western and southern Africa, and the southern
part of the United States of America, but with a few exceptions
the monsoons of those regions are local in character, modifying
the prevailing winds of the planetary circulation (usually the
trade winds) for a longer or shorter period every year.
MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e.
something terrible or portentous). In zoology, monsters or
monstrous births are the subject of Animal Teratology, a
MONSTER
department of morphological science treating of deviations from
the normal development of the embryo. The term " embryo "
is conventionally limited, in human anatomy, to the ovum in
the first three months of its intra-uterine existence, while it
is still developing or acquiring the rudiments of its form, the
term " foetus " being applied to it in the subsequent months
during which the organism grows on the lines of development
already laid down. It is mostly in the first or embryonic period
that those deviations from the normal occur which present
themselves as monstrosities at the time of birth; these early
traces of deviation within the embryo may be slight, but they
" grow with its growth and strengthen with its strength," until
they amount to irreparable defects or accretions, often incom-
patible with extra-uterine life. The name of " teratology,"
introduced by Etienne Geoff roy St Hilaire (1822), is derived
from repas, the equivalent of monstrum; teratology is a term
new enough to have none but scientific associations, while the
Latin word has a long record of superstitions identified with
it. The myths of siren, satyr, Janus, cyclops and the like,
with the corresponding figures in Northern mythology, find a
remote anatomical basis in monstrosities which have, for the
most part, no life except in the foetal state. The mythology
of giants and dwarfs is, of course, better founded. The term
monster was originally used in the same sense as portent. Luther l
speaks of the birth of a monstrous calf, evidently the subject
of contemporary talk, as pointing to some great impending
change, and he expresses the hope that the catastrophe might
be the Last Day itself. The rise of more scientific views will
be sketched in the course of the article.
Although monstrosities, both in the human species and in
other animals, tend to repeat certain definite types of erroneous
development, they do not fall readily into classes. The most
usual grouping (originally suggested by G. L. L. Buffon, 1800)
is into monstra per excessum, monstra per defectum, and monstra
per fabricam alienam. It seems useful, however, to place the
more simple cases of excess and of defect side by side; and it
is necessary, above all, to separate the double monsters from the
single, the theory of the former being a distinct chapter in
teratology.
i. Monstrosities in a Single Body. The abnormality may
extend to the body throughout, as in well-proportioned giants
and dwarfs; or it may affect a certain region or member, as to
take the simplest case when there is a finger or toe too many
or too few. It is very common for one malformation to be
correlated with several others, as in the extreme case of acardiac
monsters, in which the non-development of the heart is associated
with the non-development of the head, and with other radical
defects.
Giants are conventionally limited to persons over 7 ft. in height.
The normal proportions of the frame are adhered to more or
less closely, except in the skull, which is relatively small; but
accurate measurements, even in the best-proportioned cases,
prove, when reduced to a scale, that other parts besides the
skull notably the thigh-bone and the foot may be undersized
though overgrown. In persons who are merely very tall the
great stature depends often on the inordinate length of the
lower limbs; but in persons over 7 ft. the lower limbs are not
markedly disproportionate. In many cases the muscles and
viscera are not sufficient for the overgrown frame, and the
individuals are usually, but not always, of feeble intelligence
and languid disposition, and short-lived. The brain-case especi-
ally is undersized the Irish giant in the museum of Trinity
College, Dublin, is the single exception to this rule but the
bones of the face, and especially the lower jaw, are on a large
scale. Giants are never born of gigantic parents; in fact,
sterility usually goes with this monstrosity. Their size is some-
times excessive at birth, but more often the indications of great
stature do not appear till later, it may be as late as the ninth
year; they attain their full height before the twenty-first year.
They have been more frequently male than female.
1 In a passage quoted by T. L. W. Bischoff from the igth volume
of Luther's works, Halle ed., p. 2416.
Dwarfs are conventionally limited to persons under 4 ft.
They are more likely than giants to have the modulus of the
body perfect. Where disproportion occurs in the true dwarf
it takes the form of a large-sized head, broad shoulders and
capacious chest, and undersized lower limbs. Dwarfs with
rickets are perhaps to be distinguished from true dwarfs; these
are cases in which the spine is curved, and sometimes the bones
of the limbs bent and the pelvis deformed. As in the case of
giants, dwarfs are seldom the progeny of dwarfs, who are, in
fact, usually sterile; the unnatural smallness may be obvious at
birth, but is more likely to make itself manifest in the years of
growth. Dwarfs are much more easily brought up than giants,
and are stronger and longer-lived; they have usually also strong
passions and acute intelligence. The legends of the dwarfs
and giants are on the whole well based on fact. (See DWARF
and GIANT.)
Redundancy and Defect in Single Parts. The simplest case
of this redundancy is a sixth digit, well formed, and provided
with muscles (or tendons), nerves, and bloodvessels like the
others; it is usually a repetition of the little finger or toe, and
it may be present on one or both hands, or on one or both feet,
or in all four extremities, as in the giant of Gath. The want of
one, two, or more digits on hand or foot, or on both, is another
simple anomaly; and, like the redundancy, it is apt to repeat itself
in the same family. J. F. Meckel saw a girl who had an extra
digit on each extremity, while a sister wanted four of the fingers
of one hand. Where the supernumerary digits are more than
one on each extremity, the whole set are apt to be rudimentary
or stunted; they look as if two or more of the embryonic buds
had been subject to cleavage down the middle and to arrest
of longitudinal growth. There are several authentic instances of
a whole lower limb appearing at birth as two withered halves,
as if from embryonic cleavage. Other redundancies of the
skeleton are extra vertebrae (sometimes the coccygeal, giving
the appearance of a rudimentary tail), or an extra rib. A
double row of teeth is occasionally met with ; the most interesting
case of this anomaly is that in which the rudiments of a double
row exist from the first, but the phenomenon is sometimes
produced by the milk teeth persisting along with the second
set. Among redundancies of the soft parts, by far the most
frequent relate to the mammary glands and especially to the
nipples. These organs are normally paired amongst mammals,
and the glands of each pair are placed symmetrically on a
curved line running from the axilla towards the pubes. When
many pairs occur, the glands of each pair diverge less from
the median line than those of the immediately anterior pair,
the abdominal glands lying close together, those towards the
axilla being farther apart. When only a single pair is normally
present, the pair is abdominal, pectoral or axillary; and whether
the normal be one pair or many pairs, additional glands are not
infrequent, but occupy the expected position on the mammary
lines. Accessory glands or nipples in human beings, if anterior
to the normal pair, lie farther from the median ventral line,
and vice versa. Among the sense-organs there is a remarkable
instance recorded of doubling of the appendages of the left eye,
but not of the eyeball itself; the left half of the frontal bone is
double, making two eye-sockets on that side, and the extra
orbit has an eyebrow and eyelid. The external ear (pinna)
has also been found double on one side and its orifice has
frequently been found doubled in man and lower animals, and
the additional ears lie in a definite relation to the branchial clefts
of the embryo. Doubling of any of the internal organs or parts
of organs may occur and innumerable cases have been recorded.
Montrosities from Defective Closure in the Middle Line. Under
this head come some of the commonest congenital malformations,
including slight deficiencies such as harelip, and serious defects
such as a gap in the crown of the head with absence of the
brain. The embryo is originally a circular flattened disk spread
out on one pole of the yolk, and it is formed into a cylindrical
body (with four appendages) by the free margins of the disk,
or rather its ventral laminae, folding inwards to meet in the
middle line and so close in the pelvic, abdominal, thoracic,
742
MONSTER
pharyngeal and oral cavities. Meanwhile, and indeed rather
earlier, two longitudinal parallel ridges on the top or along the
back of the disk have grown up and united in the middle line to
form the second barrel of the body the neural canal of small
and uniform width in the lower three-fourths or spinal region,
but expanding into a wide chamber for the brain. This division
into neural (dorsal) and haemal (ventral) canals underlies all
vertebrate development. Imperfect closure along either of
those embryonic lines of junction may produce various degrees of
monstrosity. The simplest and commonest form, hardly to be
reckoned in the present category, is harelip with or without cleft
palate, which results from defective closure of the ventral
laminae at their extreme upper end. Another simple form,
but of much more serious import, is a gap left in the neural
canal at its lower end; usually the arches of the lumbar vertebrae
are deficient, and the fluid that surrounds the spinal cord bulges
out in its membranes, producing a soft tumour under the skin
at the lower part of the back. This is the condition known
as hydrorhachis, depending on the osseous defect known as spina
bifida. More rarely the gap in the arches of the vertebrae is in
the region of the neck. If it extend all along the back, it will
probably involve the skull also. Deficiency of the crown of the
head, and in the spine as well, may be not always traceable to
want of formative power to close the canal in the middle line;
an over-distended condition of the central canal of the cord and
brain may prevent the closure of the bones, and ultimately lead
to the disruption of the nervous organs themselves; and injuries
to the mother, with inflammation set up in the foetus and its
appendages, may be the more remote cause. But it is by defect
in the middle line that the mischief manifests itself, and it is
in that anatomical category that the malformations are included.
The osseous deficiency at the crown of the head is usually
accompanied by want of the scalp, as well as of the brain and
membranes. The bones of the face may be well developed
and the features regular, except that the eyeballs bulge forward
under the closed lids; but there is an abrupt horizontal line above
the orbits where the bones cease, the skin of the brow joining on
to a spongy kind of tissue that occupies the sides and floor of
the cranium. This is the commonest form of an amncephalous
or brainless monster. There are generally mere traces of the
brain, although, in some rare and curious instances, the hemi-
spheres are developed in an exposed position on the back of
the neck. The cranial nerves are usually perfect, with the
exception sometimes of the optic (and retina). Vegetative
existence is not impossible, and a brainless monster has been
known to survive sixty-five days. The child is usually a very
large one.
Closely allied, as we have seen, to the anencephalous condition
is the condition of congenital hydrocephalus. The nervous
system at its beginning is a neural canal, not only as regards
its bony covering, but in its interior; a wide space lined by ciliated
epithelium and filled with fluid extends along the axis of the
spinal cord, and expands into a series of chambers in the brain.
As development proceeds the walls thicken at the expense of
the internal spaces, the original tubular or chambered plan of the
central nervous system is departed from, and those organs assume
the practically solid form in which we familiarly know them. If,
however, the spaces persist in their embryonic proportions
notwithstanding the thickening of the nervous substance forming
their walls, there results an enormous brain which is more than
half occupied inside with fluid, contained in spaces that corre-
spond on the whole to the ventricles of the brain as normally
bounded. A hydrocephalic foetus may survive its birth, and
will be more apt to be affected in its nutrition than in its intelli-
gence. In many cases the hydrocephalic condition does not
come on till after the child is born.
Returning to the ventral middle line, there may be defects of
closure below the lips and palate, as in the breast-bone (fissure
of the sternum), at the navel (the last point to close in any case),
and along the middle line of the abdomen generally. The
commonest point for a gap in the middle line of the belly is at
its lower part, an inch or two above the pubes. At that point in
the embryo there issues the allantois, a balloon-like expansion
from the ventral cavity, which carries on its outer surface blood-
vessels from the embryo to interdigitate with those of the mother
on the uterine surface. Having served its temporary purpose
of carrying the bloodvessels across a space, the balloon-like
allantois collapses, and rolls up into the rounded stem-like
umbilical cord through most of 'its extent; but a portion of the
sac within the body of the foetus is retained as the permanent
urinary bladder. That economical adaptation of a portion
of a vesicular organ, originally formed for purposes of com-
munication between the embryo and the mother, appears to
entail sometimes a defect in the wall of the abdomen just above
the pubes, and a defect in the anterior wall of the bladder itself.
This is the distressing congenital condition of fissure of the
urinary bladder, in which its interior is exposed through an
opening in the skin; the pubic bones are separated by an interval,
and the reproductive organs are ill-formed; the urachus is
wanting, and the umbilicus is always placed exactly at the upper
end of the gap in the skin. A monstrosity recalling the cloacal
arrangement of the bird is met with as a more extreme defect
in the same parts.
Hermaphroditism. Although this anomalous condition does
not fall under defective closure in the middle line, it may be
said to be due to a similar failure of purpose, or to an uncertainty
in the nisus formativus at a corresponding stage of development.
Strictly speaking, a hermaphrodite is a creature containing
ovaries and testes the essential organs of each sex. Evidence
accumulates, however, that at least in all the higher vertebrates,
including man, the sex is predetermined in the fertilized ovum,
and it is more than doubtful if true hermaphroditism occurs. On
the other hand, if there be no such double sex in the essential
organs (as in the majority of so-called hermaphrodites) there is a
great deal of doubling and ambiguity entailed in the secondary
or external organs and parts of generation. Those parts which
are rudimentary or obsolete in the male but highly developed in
the female, and those parts which are rudimentary in the female
but highly developed in the male tend in the hermaphrodite
to be developed equally, and all of them badly. Amongst
human beings the greater number of so-called hermaphrodites
are really females, in which there is an abnormal development
of the clitoris, but it also happens that true males may be born
with a small clitoris-like penis, with hypospadia that is to say,
with imperfect urethra, open on the ventral side, and with
undescended testes. Failure of the development of the testes
or ovary, or their removal in the adult condition induces an
ambiguous condition of the body in which the secondary sexual
characters approach those of the other sex. Experimental
removal of the ovaries or testes, followed by implantation
of organs of the other sex, has produced an inversion of the
secondary sexual characters.
Cyclops, Siren, &c. The same feebleness of the formative
energy which gives rise to some at least of the cases of defective
closure in the middle line, and to the cases of ambiguous sex,
leads also to imperfect separation of symmetrical parts. The
most remarkable case of the kind is the cyclops monster. At
a point corresponding to the root of the nose there is found a
single orbital cavity, sometimes of small size and with no eyeball
in it, at other times of the usual size of the orbit and containing
an eyeball more or less complete. In still other cases, which
indicate the nature of the anomaly, the orbital cavity extends
for some distance on each side of the middle line, and contains
two eyeballs lying close together. The usual nose is wanting
but above the single orbital cavity there is often a nasal process
on the forehead, with which nasal bones may be articulated, and
cartilages joined to the latter; these form the framework of a
short fleshy protuberance like a small proboscis. The lower
jaw is sometimes wanting in cyclopeans; the cheek-bones are
apt to be small, and the mouth a small round hole, or altogether
absent; the rest of the body may be well developed. The key to
the cyclopean condition is found in the state of the brain. The
olfactory nerves or lobes are frequently absent; the brain is
very imperfectly divided into hemispheres, and appears as a
MONSTER
743
somewhat pear-shaped sac with thick wallSj the longitudinal
partition of dura mater (falx cerebri) being wanting, the surface
almost unconvoluted, the corpus callosum deficient, the basal
ganglia rudimentary or fused. The optic chiasma and nerves
are usually replaced by a single mesial nerve, but sometimes
the chiasma and pair of nerves are present. The origin of this
monstrosity dates back to an early period of development, to
the time when the future hemispheres were being formed as
protrusions from the anterior cerebral vesicle or fore-brain;
it may be conceived that, instead of two distinct buds from
that vesicle, there was only a single outgrowth with imperfect
traces of cleavage. That initial defect would carry with it
naturally the undivided state of the cerebrum, and with the
latter there would be the absence of olfactory lobes and of a
nose, and a single eyeball placed where the nose should have
been. A cyclops has been known to live for several days. The
monstrosity is not uncommon among the domestic animals, and
is especially frequent in the pig.
Another curious result of defective separation of symmetrical
parts is the siren form of foetus, in which the lower limbs occur
as a single tapering prolongation of the trunk like the hinder
part of a dolphin, at the end of which a foot (or both feet) may
or may not be visible. The defects in the bones underlying
this siren form are very various: in some cases there is only
one limb (thigh and leg-bones) in the middle line; in others all
the bones of each limb are present in more or less rudimentary
condition, but adhering at prominent points of the adjacent
surfaces. The pelvis and pelvic viscera share in the abnormality.
A much more common and harmless case of unseparated sym-
metrical parts is where the hand or foot has two, three, or more
digits fused together. This syndactylous anomaly runs in
families.
Limbs Absent or Stunted. Allied to these fused or unseparated
states of the extremities, or of parts of them, are the class of
deformities in which whole limbs are absent, or represented
only by stumps. The trunk (and head) may be well formed,
and the individual healthy; all four extremities may be reduced
to short stumps either wanting hands and feet entirely, or with
the latter fairly well developed; or the legs only may be rudi-
mentary or wanting, or the arms only, or one extremity only.
Although some of these cases doubtless depend upon aberrant
or deficient formative power in the particular directions, there
are others of them referable to the effects of mechanical pressure,
and even to direct amputation of parts within the uterus.
Acardiac and Acranial Monsters. It sometimes happens in
a twin pregnancy that one of the embryos fails to develop a
heart and a complete vascular system of its own, depending
for its nourishment upon blood derived from the placenta of
its well-formed twin by means of its umbilical vessels. It grows
into a more or less shapeless mass, in which all traces of the
human form may be lost. Other viscera besides the heart
will be wanting, and no head distinguishable; the most likely
parts to keep the line of development are the lumbar region
(with the kidneys), the pelvis, and the lower limbs. The twin
of this monster may be a healthy infant.
Reversed Position of the Viscera. This is a developmental
error associated with the retention of the right aortic arch as
in birds, instead of the left as is usual in mammals. The position
of all the unsymmetrical viscera is transposed, the spleen and
cardiac end of the stomach going to the right side, the liver
to the left, the caecum resting on the left iliac fossa, and the
sigmoid flexure of the colon being attached to the right. This
condition of situs inversus mscerum need cause no inconvenience ;
and it will probably remain undetected until the occasion should
arise for a physical diagnosis or post-mortem inspection.
The causes of congenital anomalies are difficult to specify.
There is no doubt that, in some cases, they are present in the
sperm or germ of the parent; the same anomalies recur in
several children of a family, and it has been found pos-
sible, through a variation of the circumstances, to trace the
influence in some cases to the father alone, and in other
cases to the mother alone. The remarkable thing in this
parental influence is that the malformation in the child may
not have been manifested in the body of either parent, or
in the grandparents. More often the malformation is acquired
by the embryo and foetus in the course of development and
growth, either through the mother or in itself independently.
Maternal impressions during pregnancy have often been alleged
as a cause, and this causation has been discussed at great length
by the best authorities. The general opinion seems to be that it
is impossible to set aside the influence of subjective states of the
mother altogether, but that there is no direct connexion between
the cause of the subjective state and the resulting anomaly.
The doctrine of maternal impressions has often been resorted
to when any other explanation was either difficult or incon-
venient; thus, Hippocrates is said to have saved the virtue
of a woman who gave birth to a black child by pointing out
that there was a picture of a negro on the wall of her chamber.
Injuries to the mother during pregnancy have been unquestion-
ably the cause of certain malformations, especially of congenital
hydrocephalus. The embryo itself and its membranes may
become the subject of inflammations, atrophies, hypertrophies,
and the like; this causation is doubtless accountable for a good
many of them. But a very large residue of malformations must
still be referred to variation in the embryonic cells and cell-groups.
The nisus formativus of the fertilized ovum is always subject to
morphological laws, but, just as in extra-uterine life, there may
be deviations from the beaten track; and even a slight deviation
at an early stage will carry with it far-reaching consequences.
This is particularly noticeable in double monsters.
2. Double Monsters. Twins are the physiological analogy of
double monsters, and some of the latter have come very near
to being two separate individuals. The Siamese twins, who
died in 1874 at the age of sixty, were joined only by a thick
fleshy ligament from the lower end of the breast-bone (xiphoid
cartilage), having the common navel on its lower border; the
anatomical examination showed, however, that a process of
peritoneum extended through the ligament from one abdominal
cavity to the other, and that the blood-vessels of the two livers
were in free communication across the same bridge. There
are one or two cases on record in which such a ligament has
been cut at birth, one, at least, of the twins surviving. From
the most intelligible form of double monstrosity, like the Siamese
twins, there are all grades of fantastic fusion of two individuals
into one down to the truly marvellous condition of a small
body or fragment parasitic upon a well-grown infant the
condition known as foetus in foetu. These monstrosities are
deviations, not from the usual kind of twin gestation, but from
a certain rarer physiological type of dual development. In
by far the majority of cases twins have separate uterine appen-
dages, and have probably been developed from distinct ova;
but in a small proportion of (recorded) cases there is evidence,
in the placental and enclosing structures, that the twins had
b^en developed from two rudiments arising side by side on a
single blastoderm. It is to the latter physiological category
that double monsters almost certainly belong; and there is some
direct embryological evidence for this opinion. Allen Thomson
observed in the blastoderm of a hen's egg at the sixteenth or
eighteenth hour of incubation two "primitive traces "or rudi-
ments of the backbone forming side by side; and in a goose's
egg incubated five days he found on one blastoderm two embryos,
each with the rudiments of upper and lower extremities, crossing
or cohering in the region of the future neck, and with only one
heart between them. A very large number of similar observa-
tions have been published and appear to be found in all cases
where a large material is available. The developing ova of fish,
available in large numbers in hatcheries, and the laboratory
investigation of the chick and the frog have provided cases of
almost every degree of blending. The perfect physiological
type appears to be two rudiments on one blastoderm, whose
entirely separate development produces twins (under their rarer
circumstances), whose nearly separate development produces
such double monsters as the Siamese twins, and whose less
separate development produces the various grotesque forms
744
MONSTER
of two individuals in one body. There can be no question of
a literal fusion of two embryos; either the individuality of each
was at no time complete, or, if there were two distinct primitive
traces, the uni-axial type was approximately reverted to in the
process of development, as in the formation of the abdominal
and thoracic viscera, limbs, pelvis or head. Double monsters
are divided in the first instance into those in which the doubling
is symmetrical and equal on the two sides, and those in which
a small or fragmentary foetus is attached to or enclosed in a
foetus of average development the latter class being the
so-called cases of " parasitism."
Symmetrical Double Monsters are subdivided according to
the part or region of the body where the union or fusion exists
head, thorax, umbilicus or pelvis. One of the simplest
cases is a Janus head upon a single body, or there may be two
pairs of arms with the two faces. Again, there may be one
head with two necks and two complete trunks and pairs of
extremities. Two distinct heads (with more or less of neck)
may surmount a single trunk, broad at the shoulders but with
only one pair of arms. The fusion, again, may be from the
middle of the thorax downwards, giving two heads and two pairs
of shoulders and arms, but only one trunk and one pair of legs.
In another variety, the body may be double down to the waist,
but the pelvis and lower limbs single. The degree of union
in the region of the head, abdomen or pelvis may be so slight as
to permit of two distinct organs or sets of organs in the respective
cavities, or so great as to have the viscera in common; and
there is hardly ever an intermediate condition between those
extremes. Thus, in the Janus head there may be two brains,
or only one brain. The Siamese twins are an instance of union
at the umbilical region, with the viscera distinct in every respect
except a slight vascular anastomosis and a common process of
peritoneum ; but it is more usual for union in that region to be
more extensive, and to entail a single set of abdominal and
thoracic viscera. The pelvis is one of the commonest regions
for double monsters to be joined at, and, as in the head and
abdomen, the junction may be slight or total. The Hungarian
sisters Helena and Judith (1701-1723) were joined at the
sacrum, but had the pelvic cavity and pelvic organs separate;
the same condition obtained in the South Carolina negresses
Millie and Christina, known as the " two-headed nightingale,"
and in the Bohemian sisters Rosalie and Josepha. More usually
the union in the pelvic region is complete, and produces the
most fantastic shapes of two trunks (each with head and arms)
joining below at various angles, and with three or four lower
limbs extending from the region of fusion, sometimes in a
lateral direction, sometimes downwards. A very curious kind
of double monster is produced by two otherwise distinct foetuses
joining at the crown of the head and keeping the axis of their
bodies in a line. It is only in rare instances that double
monsters survive their birth, and the preserved specimens of
them are mostly of foetal size.
Unequal Double Monsters, Foetus in Foetu. There are some
well-authenticated instances of this most curious of all anomalies.
The most celebrated of these parasite-bearing monsters was a
Genoese, Lazarus Johannes Baptista Colloredo, born in 1716,
who was figured as a child by Licetus, and again by Bartholinus
at the age of twenty-eight as a young man of average stature.
The parasite adhered to the lower end of his breast-bone, and
was a tolerably well-formed child, wanting only one leg; it
breathed, slept at intervals, and moved its body, but it had no
separate nutritive functions. The parasite is more apt to be
a miniature acardiac and acephalous fragment, as in the case
of the one borne in front of the abdomen of a Chinaman figured
by I. Geoffrey St Hilaire. Sometimes the parasite is contained
in a pouch under the skin of the abdominal wall, and in another
class (of which there is a specimen in the Hunterian Museum)
it has actually been included, by the closure of the ventral
laminae, within the abdominal cavity of the foetus a true
foetus infoetu. Shapeless parasitic fragments containing masses
of bone, cartilage and other tissue are found also in the space
behind the breast-bone (mediastinal teratoma), or growing from
the base of the skull and protruding through the mouth C"epi-
gnathous teratoma," appearing to be seated on the jaw), and,
most frequently of all, attached to the sacrum. These last pass
by a most interesting transition into common forms of congenital
sacral tumours (which may be of enormous size), consisting
mainly of one kind of tissue having its physiological type in the
curious gland-like body (coccygeal gland) in which the middle
sacral artery comes to an end. The congenital sacral tumours
have a tendency to become cystic, and they are probably
related to the more perfect congenital cysts of the neck region,
where there is another minute gland-like body of the same
nature as the coccygeal at the point of bifurcation of the common
carotid artery. Other tumours of the body, especially certain
of the sarcomatous class, may be regarded from the point of
view of monstra per excessum; but such cases suggest not so
much a question of aberrant development within the blastoderm
as of the indwelling spontaneity of a single post-embryonic
tissue. (See TUMOUR AND PATHOLOGY.)
Monstrosities in man and animals have attracted attention
since the earliest times, and amongst primitive and uncivilized
peoples have been regarded as of supernatural origin. Aristotle
himself appears to have been the first to examine them as a
naturalist, and to explain that although they were outside
the usual course of nature they were in the strictest sense of
natural origin. Pliny described many well-known forms, but
did not distinguish between legendary and actual monstrosities.
In the middle ages they were treated in the fullest spirit of
superstition, and many relics from such a point of view still
survive. The human monstrosities were regarded as having
been engendered in women by the devil who had commerce
with them either in his own form or in the guise of some animal.
The belief still to be found amongst uneducated persons that
unnatural union between women and male animals, or between
men and female animals, may be fertile and produce monsters,
is an attenuated form of the satanic legend. The scientific
appreciation of monsters has grown with the study of embryology.
William Harvey in Exercitationes de generatione animalium (1651)
first referred monstrosities to their proper place as abnormalities
in embryonic reproduction. The doctrine of pre-formation
(see HEREDITY) obsessed biological science until 1759 when
C. F. Wolff overthrew it, and Harvey's advance was not pursued,
except that a number of anatomists published careful studies
and descriptions of monsters or monstrous organs. Those who
believed that the normal process of development was an unrolling
and expansion of a pre-formed miniature of the adult had to
apply a similar theory to monsters, and Sylvain Regis, a con-
temporary of Malbranche, obtained acceptance of his view that
monstrous germs as well as normal germs had been created at
the beginning of the world. A discussion almost as memorable
as that between E. G. St Hilaire and Cuvier on specific types
was pursued in the French Academy from 1724 to 1743, J. B.
Winslow, who supported the current pre-formationist view,
having the better of the argument with Louis Lemery, who was
almost alone in a rational interpretation of monstrosities. From
the time of Wolff it was accepted that normal and abnormal em-
bryos alike developed by processes of epigenetic change. Wolff
himself, however, and even J. F. Meckel at the beginning of
the i pth century, did not recognize the influence of physiological
causes in the production of abnormalities; they believed the
latter to proceed certainly in an orderly and natural way, but
from abnormal ova. E. G. St Hilaire was the first to attempt
experimental teratology and to lay down that many mon-
strosities were the result of influences causing deviations from
the normal course of embryonic development. I. G. St Hilaire,
the son of E. G. St Hilaire, carried the experimental method
little further, but published an elaborate descriptive treatise on
anomalies (Paris, 1832-1837) which remains one of the most
valuable records of the subject. A similar treatise with an
incomparable atlas of illustrations was issued by W. Vrolik, the
great Dutch anatomist, between 1840 and 1849, whilst A. Forster
issued in 1861 a valuable textbook with a very large number
of illustrations chiefly from preparations in the museum at
MONSTRANCE MONTAGU
745
Wurzburg. The great museums devoted much attention to
the collection and display of malformations, and no account of
the subject can be adequate which does not include reference
to the magnificent series in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons of England, with the descriptive catalogues of the
animal malformations written by B. T. Lowne (1893) and of the
vegetable malformations by M. T. Masters (1893).
The work hitherto referred to, as well as a vast bulk of
scattered contributions to teratology throughout the igih
century, was chiefly descriptive, anatomical and embryological
teratology, and carried the experimental side little beyond where
it had been left by the St Hilaires. In 1891 Canaille Dareste
published his Recherches sur la production artificielle des mon-
struosites, ou essais de teratoginie experimentale; his experiments,
chiefly on the developing egg of the fowl, not only showed the
probable cause of many of the most common abnormalities,
but practically created a new branch of science, experimental
embryology. Teratology has since become a side issue of the
general study of the inter-relations between the inherited
tendencies of the developing organism and the play of the
circumambient media, and must be studied in relation to the
work of O. Hertwig, W. Roux, H. Driesch, O. Biitschli, J. Loeb
and their school. J. Bland Button's popular Evolution and
Disease (1890) puts in a cogent way the relation between com-
parative anatomy and common abnormalities, whilst W. Bateson
in his Materials for the Study of Variation (1894) describes the
acquisition of new symmetries by abnormal organs, and discusses
the possible relation between abnormalities and the origin of
species.
E. Schwalbe's Morphologic der Missbildungen (1906-1909) is a very
complete study of the most modern developments of teratology, and
contains a careful and elaborate list of authorities from the earliest
times. (C. C.;P.C. M.)
MONSTRANCE (through the French from Lat. monstrare,
to show), a vessel used in the Roman Church for the exhibition
of the Host at Benediction (q.v.) and also when carried in
processions. Another name for the vessel is ostensorium, from
ostendere, to exhibit, show; whence the usual French name
ostensoir. The monstrance was formerly used of a reliquary,
exposing the sacred object to view. The earlier monstrances
followed the usual shape of these reliquaries, viz. a cylindrical
crystal case mounted in metal frames, elaborately ornamented
and jewelled. Such often took the form of a turret. There
is a i sth-century Italian example in South Kensington Museum
of a pilastered turret containing an oblong crystal case, the
whole resting on a stemmed base, and surmounted with a cupola.
In the 1 6th century the present shape was adopted, viz. a
crystal or glass circular disk, more suited to the shape of the
sacred wafer; this is mounted in a frame of golden rays, and
the whole is supported by a stem and bases. The exhibition
of the Host dates from the institution of the Festival of Corpus
Christi (q.v.) by Urban IV. in 1264.
MONSTRELET, ENGUERRAND DE (c. 1400-1453), French
chronicler, belonged to a noble family of Picardy. In 1436
and later he held the office of lieutenant of the gavenier (i.e.
receiver of the gave, a kind of church rate) at Cambrai, and he
seems to have made this city his usual place of residence. He
was for some time bailiff of the cathedral chapter and then
provost of Cambrai. He was married and left some children
when he died on the 2oth of July 1453. Little else is known
about Monstrelet except that he was present, not at the capture
of Joan of Arc, but at her subsequent interview with Philip the
Good, duke of Burgundy. Continuing the work of Froissart,
Monstrelet wrote a Chronique, which extends to two books and
covers the period between 1400 and 1444, when, according to
another chronicler, Matthieu d'Escouchy, he ceased to write.
But following a custom which was by no means uncommon in the
middle ages, a clumsy sequel, extending to 1516, was formed
out of various chronicles and tacked on to his work. Monstrelet's
own writings, dealing with the latter part of the Hundred Years'
War, are valuable because they contain a large number of
documents which are certainly, and reported speeches which
are probably, authentic. The author, however, shows little
power of narration; his work, although clear, is dull, and is
strongly tinged with the pedantry of its century, the most
pedantic in French history. His somewhat ostentatious asser-
tions of impartiality do not cloak a marked preference for the
Burgundians in their struggle with France.
Among many editions of the Chronique may be mentioned the
one edited for the Societe de Vhistoire de France by M. Douet d'Arcq
(Paris, 1857-1862), which, however, is not very good. See A. Molinier,
Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tomes iv. and v. (Paris, 1904).
MONTAGNAIS (Fr. " mountaineers "), the collective French
name (i) for a group of North American Indian tribes of Quebec
province, (2) for four tribes of the northern division of the
Athabascan stock of North American Indians in the interior
of British North America.
MONTAGU (Family). Dru of Montaigu or Montagud, the
ancestor of the Montagus, earls of Salisbury, came to England
with Robert, count of Mortain, half-brother of William the
Conqueror. He is found in Domesday among the chief tenants
of the count in Somerset, where Dru held the manor of Shepton,
afterwards called Shepton Montagu. Upon the hill of Lutgares-
burg, in Bishopston, Robert built the castle which he called
Montaigu but there is no reason for believing that Dru's surname
was derived from the castle, he being probably a Norman born
from Montaigu or Montaigu-les-bois, both in the neighbourhood
of Mortain. The Domesday holding of Dru is represented in the
return of 1166 by the ten knights' fee upon which his descendant,
another Dru, is assessed. William Montagu of Shepton is among
the knights summoned by Henry III. to the Gascon War and to
the Welsh border in 1257. His son Simon, the first of the family
to make a figure in history, followed Edward I. in 1277 against
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, being then, as it would appear, a minor,
and he served again in 1282, when Llywelyn's power was broken
for the last time. By a charter dated in 1290 his Somersetshire
manors and the manor of Aston Clinton were confirmed to him
by a grant from the Crown. In 1296 a ship under his command
broke the blockade of Bordeaux. In 1298 he was summoned
as a baron; and in 1301, as Simon lord of Montagu, he sealed the
famous letter of the barons to the pope with his seal of the arms
of Montagu, the counterseal showing a griffon. One of the
earliest examples of quartered arms seen in England was afforded
when Simon's banner displayed at Falkirk in 1298 quartered
this griffon, gold on a blue field, with the Montagu's indented
fesse of three fusils. He died in 1317 and was succeeded by his
son William (d. 1319), a favourite of Edward II., whose household
steward he became, and seneschal of Aquitaine and Gascony.
His eldest son, another William, came of age in 1322, and in 1330
led the young king's partisans by the secret way into Nottingham
Castle, and carried off the earl of March. The day before
Mortimer had denounced Montagu as a traitor, but Montagu
struck at once and his success was rewarded by grants from the
forfeited lands of March. In 1337 he was created earl of Salis-
bury, and on the death of Thomas of Brotherton in 1338 he was
made marshal of England. His king employed him in missions
to France, Scotland, Germany and Castile, but war was, as with
most of the men of his house, the chief business of his short life.
At some time between 1340 and 1342 he led an expedition of
his own against the Isle of Man, winning from the Scots the little
kingdom to which he had inherited a claim. His grandfather
Simon is said to have married a certain Auffray or " Aufrica,"
sometimes described as " daughter of Fergus and sister of
Orray, king of Man," and sometimes as the grand-daughter and
heir of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, whose wife
" Affreca " was sister of King Olaf II. John de Courcy, however,
died childless, and in 1287 Simon names his wife as Ha wise.
The second Aufrica or Affreca claimed the island as heir of
Magnus II. (d. 1265), a letter of Edward I. in 1293 citing John
of Scotland to answer her appeal to king John's suzerain. By her
charter of 1306 the same Aufreca, styling herself " Aufreca of
Counnoght, heir of the land of Man," granted the island to Simon,
and this grant, rather than the marriage universally asserted by
Simon's biographers, was probably the origin of the Montagu
746
MONTAGU, E. R. MONTAGU, LADY
claim. The first earl died in 1344 and was buried in the White-
friars Church in London. His wife, Katherine, daughter of
William de Graunson, and co-heir, in her issue, of her brothers,
is connected by a legend of no value with the foundation of
the Order of the Garter. Between William, his son and heir, the
second earl (1328-1397) and Joan of Kent, daughter of Edmund
of Woodstock, there was a contract of marriage which was made
null by the pope's bull in 1349. William was one of the knights-
founders of the Order of the Garter, fought at Crecy, and com-
manded the rearward battle at Poitiers. According to Froissart
he attended the young Richard in Smithfield when the king faced
the mob after the death of Wat Tyler. His only son was killed
in 1383 at a tournament, and in 1393 the earl sold the lordship
and crown of Man to William Scrope of Bolton. He was suc-
ceeded by his nephew John, the third earl (c. 1350-1400), son
of Sir John Montagu by Margaret, the heir of the barons of
Monthermer. The new earl was notorious as a Lollard, and was
accused, after Henry IV.'s accession, of a share in Gloucester's
death, from which he was to have cleared himself in combat with
the Lord Morley. But he joined- Kent, Huntingdon and Rutland
in their plot against Henry, and was beheaded with the earl of
Kent by the Cirencester mob. By his wife Maude, daughter of
Sir Adam Francis, he had Thomas (1388-1428), who was sum-
moned as an earl in 1499-, his father's dignities being restored to
him in 1421, by which time his services at Harfleur and Agin-
court had earned him Fren4 lordships, the lieutenant-general-
ship of Normandy and the*earldom of Perche. The last of a
race of warriors, he ended his service at the famous siege of
Orleans, a cannon-ball dashing into his face the stone and iron-
work of the window from which he was gazing at the city. By
his second wife, the daughter of Thomas Chaucer the Speaker,
he had no issue. By his first wife, Eleanor, daughter of Thomas
Holand, earl of Kent, he had an only daughter Alice, wife of
Richard Neville, a younger son of the first earl of Westmorland,
who claimed and was allowed the earldom of Salisbury in right
of his marriage. The famous " Richard Make-a-King," earl of
Warwick and Salisbury, was the grandson of the last of the
Montagu earls.
Sir Edward Montagu of Boughton, a chief justice of the king's
bench who died in 1557, was ancestor of three lines of peers, the
dukes of Montagu, the dukes of Manchester, and the earls of
Sandwich. These Montagus of Boughton claimed, by a false
pedigree, descent from the third earl of Salisbury. It is possible
that there may have been some kinship between the two families,
but none, apparently, that could justify the persistent quartering
by these later Montagus of the arms of Monthermer.
AUTHORITIES. Collinson's Somerset; G. E. C.'s Complete Peerage;
Victoria County History of Somerset (J. H. Round's introduction to
Domesday); Rymer's Foedera; Palgrave's Parliamentary Writs;
Rolls of Parliament; Ramsay's Lancaster and York; Gesta Henrici V.
(English Hist. Soc.) ; Chronicles of Walsingham, Knighton, Cap-
grave Wavrin, Frousart, Monstrelet, &c. Inquests, Post mortem,
Close, Patent, Charter and Fine Rolls; Dugdale's Monasticon Publi-
cations of Somerset Record Society; Charters in British Museum
and Public Record Office. (O. BA.)
MONTAGU, ELIZABETH ROBINSON (1720-1800), English
leader of society, was born at York on the 2nd of October 1720.
In 1742 she married Charles Montagu, cousin of Edward Wortley
Montagu and son of the earl of Sandwich a wealthy man,
considerably her senior. Thanks to her, his Mayfair house
became the social centre of intellectual society in London, and
her breakfast parties and evening conversaziones gained for her
from her admirers the title of " The Madame du Deffand of the
English capital." In other quarters the term " blue-stocking "
was applied to her guests. From her husband, who died in 1775,
she inherited a considerable fortune and large estates, in the
management of which she showed much ability. In 1781 she
built Sandleford Priory, near Newbury, and Montagu House,
now 22 Portman Square, London, the latter from designs by
James Stuart. With the colliers in the north she was extremely
popular, and every May-day she entertained the London chimney-
sweeps. She died on the 25th of August 1800. There is an
admirable portrait of her by Reynolds.
See Elizabeth Montagu, the Queen of the Blue Stockings: Her Corre-
spondence from 1720 to 1761, edited by E. J. Climenson (2 vols., 1906) ;
and R. Huchon, Mrs Montagu and her Friends, 1720-1800 (Eng.
trans., 1907).
MONTAGU, LADY MARY WORTLEY (1680-1762), English
letter-writer, eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, afterwards
duke of Kingston, was baptized at Covent Garden on the 26th
of May 1689. Her mother, who died while her daughter was
still a child, was a daughter of William Feilding, earl of Denbigh.
Her father was proud of her beauty and wit, and when she was
eight years old she is said to have been the toast of the Kit-Kat
Club. He took small pains with the education of his children,
but Lady Mary was encouraged in her self-imposed studies by
her uncle, William Feilding, and by Bishop Burnet. She formed
a close friendship with Mary Astell, who was a champion of
woman's rights, and with. Anne Wortley Montagu, grand-
daughter of the first earl of Sandwich. With this lady she carried
on an animated correspondence. The letters on Anne's side,
however, were often copied from drafts written by her brother,
Edward Wortley Montagu, and after Anne's death in 1709 the
correspondence between him and Lady Mary was prosecuted
without an intermediary. Lady Mary's father, now marquess
of Dorchester, declined, however, to accept Montagu as a son-
in-law because he refused to entail his estate on a possible heir.
Negotiations were broken off, and when the marquess insisted on
another marriage for his daughter the pair eloped (1712). The early
years of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's married life were spent
in rigid economy and retirement in the country. Her husband
was M.P. for Westminster in 1715, and shortly afterwards was
made a commissioner of the treasury. When Lady Mary joined
him in London her wit and beauty soon made her a prominent
figure at court. Early in 1716 Montagu was appointed
ambassador at Constantinople. Lady Mary accompanied him to
Vienna, and thence to Adrianople and Constantinople. He was
recalled in 1717, but they remained at Constantinople until 1718.
The story of this voyage and of her observations of Eastern life
is told in a series of lively letters full of graphic description.
From Turkey she brought back the practice of inoculation for
small-pox. She had her own children inoculated, and encoun-
tered a vast amount of prejudice in bringing the matter forward.
Before starting for the East she had made the acquaintance of
Alexander Pope, and during her absence he addressed to her a
series of extravagant letters, which appear to have been chiefly
exercises in the art of writing gallant epistles. Very few letters
passed after Lady Mary's return, and various reasons have been
suggested for the subsequent estrangement and violent quarrel.
Mr Moy Thomas suggests that the cause is to be found in the last
of the " Letters during the embassy to Constantinople." It is
addressed to Pope and purports to be dated from Dover, the ist
of November 1718. It contains a parody on Pope's " Epitaph
on the Lovers struck by Lightning." The MS. collection of these
letters was passed round a considerable circle, and Pope may
well have been offended at the circulation of this piece of satire.
Jealousy of her friendship with Lord Hervey has also been
alleged, but Lady Louisa Stuart says Pope had made Lady Mary
a declaration of love, which she had received with an outburst
of laughter. In any case Lady Mary always professed complete
innocence of all cause of offence in public. She is alluded to in
the Dunciad in a passage to which Pope affixed one of his insult-
ing notes. A Pop upon Pope was generally supposed to be
from her pen, and Pope thought she was part author of One
Epistle to Mr A. Pope (1730). Pope attacked her again and
again, but with especial virulence in a gross couplet in the " Imi-
tation of the First Satire of the Second Book of Horace," as
Sappho. She asked a third person to remonstrate, and received
the obvious answer that Pope could not have foreseen that she
or any one else would apply so base an insult to herself. Verses
addressed to an Imitator of Horace by a Lady (1733), a scurrilous
reply to these attacks, is generally attributed to the joint efforts
of Lady Mary and her sworn ally, Lord Hervey. She had a
romantic correspondence with a Frenchman named R6mond,
who addressed to her a series of excessively gallant letters before
MONTAGU, DUKE OF
747
ever seeing her. She invested money for him in South Sea
stock at his desire, and as was expressly stated, at his own risk.
The value fell to half the price, and he tried to extort the original
sum as a debt by a threat of exposing the correspondence to her
husband. She seems to have been really alarmed, not at the
imputation of gallantry, but lest her husband should discover
the extent of her own speculations. This disposes of the second
half of Pope's line " Who starves a sister, or forswears a debt "
(Epilogue to the Satires, i. 1 13), and the first charge is quite devoid
of foundation. She did in fact try to rescue her favourite sister,
the countess of Mar, who was mentally deranged, from the
custody of her brother-in-law, Lord Grange, who had treated
his own wife with notorious cruelty, and the slander originated
with him.
In 1739 she went abroad, and although she continued to write
to her husband in terms of affection and respect they never
met again. At Florence in 1740 she visited Horace Walpole,
who cherished a great spite against her, and exaggerated her
eccentricities into a revolting slovenliness (see Letters, ed.
Cunningham, i. 59). She lived at Avignon, at Brescia, and at
Lovere, on the Lago d'Iseo. She was disfigured by a painful
skin disease, and her sufferings were so acute that she hints at
the possibility of madness. She was struck with a terrible " fit
of sickness " while visiting the countess Palazzo and her son,
and perhaps her mental condition made restraint necessary.
As Lady Mary was then in her sixty-third year, the scandalous
interpretation put on the matter by Horace Walpole may safely
be discarded. Her husband spent his last years in hoarding
money, and at his death in 1761 is said to have been a million-
aire. His extreme parsimony is satirized in Pope's Imitations of
Horace (2nd satire of the 2nd book) in the portrait of Avidieu and
his wife. Her daughter Mary, countess of Bute, whose husband
was now prime minister, begged her to return to England. She
came to London, and died in the year of her return, on the 2ist
of August 1762.
Her son, EDWARD WORTLEY MONTAGU (1713-1776), author
and traveller, inherited something of his mother's gift and more
than her eccentricity. He twice ran away from Winchester
School, and the second time made his way as far as Oporto.
He was then sent to travel with a tutor in the West Indies,
and afterwards with a keeper to Holland. He made, however,
a serious study of Arabic at Leiden (1741), and returned twenty
years later to prosecute his studies. His father made him a
meagre allowance, and he was heavily encumbered with debt.
He was M.P. for Huntingdon in 1747, and was one of the secre-
taries at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1751 he was
involved in a disreputable gaming quarrel in Paris, and was
imprisoned for eleven days in the Chatelet. He continued to
sit in parliament, and wrote Reflections on (he Rise and Fall of
the Antienl Republics . . . (1759). His father left him an
annuity of 1000, the bulk of the property going to Lady Bute.
He set out for extended travel in the East, and George
Romney describes him as living in the Turkish manner at
Venice. He had great gifts as a linguist, and was an excellent
talker. His family thought him mad, and his mother left
him a guinea, but her annuity devolved on him at her death
He died at Padua on the 29th of April 1776.
Lady Mary's " Town Eclogues " were published in a piratec
edition as Court Poems in 1716. Of he famous Letters from the
East she made a copy shortly after her return to England. She gave
the MS. to Benjamin Sowden, a clergyman of Rotterdam, in 1761
After Lady Mary's death this was recovered by the earl of Bute
but meanwhile an unauthenticated edition, supposed to have beer
prepared by John Cleland, appeared (1763), and an additiona
volume, probably spurious, was printed in 1767. The rest of the
correspondence printed by Lord Wharncliffe in the edition of her
letters is edited from originals in the Wortley ^correction. This
edition (1837) contained " Introductory Anecdotes " by Lady Bute s
v. u .... u .i (1837) contained ., - -
daughter, Lady Louisa Stuart. A more critical edition of the text
with the " Anecdotes," and a " Memoir " by W. Moy Thomas
appeared in 1 86 1. A selection of the letters arranged to give a
continuous account of her life, by Mr A. R. Ropes, was published in
1892 ; and another by R. Brimley Johnson in " Everyman s Library
in 1906. See also George Paston, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and
her Times (1907), which contains some hitherto unpublished letters
t ady Mary's journal was preserved by her daughter, Lady Bute,
ill shortly before her death, when she burnt it on the ground that it
contained much Scandal and satire, founded probably on insufficient
evidence, about many distinguished persons. There is a full and
amusing account of Edward Wortley Montagu in Nichols's Anecdotes
of Literature, iv. 625-656.
MONTAGU, RALPH, IST DUKE OF (c. 1638-1709), English
diplomatist, was the second son of Edward, 2nd Baron Montagu
of Boughton (1616-1684), whose peerage was one of several
panted in the i7th century to different members of the Montagu
'amily (q.v.). Sir Edward Montagu, chief justice of the king's
Dench in the time of Henry VIII., was grandfather of the first
earl of Manchester (see MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF),
and of Edward, ist Baron Montagu of Boughton (1562-1644),
who was imprisoned in the Tower by the parliament on account
of his loyalty to Charles I. The eldest son of the latter, Edward,
who succeeded him as 2nd baron, took the side of the parlia-
ment in the Civil War, and was one of the lords who conducted
the king from Newark to Holmby House after his surrender
by the Scots in January 1647. He had two sons, of whom
Ralph was the younger. The eldest son, Edward, was master of
the horse to Queen Catherine, wife of Charles II., a post from
which he is said to have been dismissed by the king for showing
attention to the queen of too ardent a nature. Catherine imme-
diately appointed the younger brother, Ralph, to the vacant
situation, and the latter soon acquired a reputation for gallantry
at the court of Charles II. He took an active part in the nego-
tiations in which Louis XIV. purchased the neutrality of England
in the war between France and Holland. Having quarrelled
with Danby and the duchess of Cleveland, who denounced him
to the king, Montagu was elected member of parliament for
Northampton in 1678, with the intention of bringing about
the fall of Danby; but, having produced letters seriously com-
promising the minister, the dissolution of parliament placed
him in such danger of arrest that he attempted to fly to France.
Foiled in this design, he continued to intrigue against the govern-
ment, supporting the movement for excluding the duke of York
from the succession and for recognizing Monmouth as heir to
the crown. His elder brother having predeceased his father,
Ralph became Baron Montagu of Boughton on the death of the
latter in 1684. Notwithstanding his former intrigues he gained
the favour of James II. on his accession to the throne; but
this did not deter him from welcoming William of Orange, who
created him Viscount Monthermer and earl of Montagu in 1689.
Montagu was no less avaricious than unscrupulous. In 1673
he had married the wealthy widow of the earl of Northumberland,
Elizabeth Wriothesley, daughter of the earl of Southampton,
who brought him a large fortune; and after her death in 1690 he
married the still more wealthy Elizabeth Cavendish, daughter of
the duke of Newcastle, and widow of Christopher Monk, 2nd
duke of Albemarle. Montagu's position was further strength-
ened in 1705 by the marriage of his son and heir to Mary,
daughter of the great duke of Marlborough. In the same year
he was raised to the dukedom as duke of Montagu and marquess
of Monthermer. He died on the gth of March 1709. His
London residence, Montagu House, Bloomsbury, was bought by
the government in 1753 to hold the national collection of antiqui-
ties, and on its site was built the British Museum.
The duke was succeeded by his son John, 2nd duke of Montagu
(1689-1749), who in 1745 raised a cavalry regiment known as
Montagu's Carabineers, which, however, was disbanded after
Culloden. He was made a K.G. in 1719, and was a fellow of the
Royal Society. As neither of his two sons survived him the
title became extinct at his death in 1749, but in 1730 his daughter
Mary married George Brudenell, 4th earl of Cardigan (1712-1 790),
who on his father-in-law's death assumed the name and arms
of Montagu, and in 1766 was created duke of Montagu. On
his death, in 1790, this second dukedom of Montagu also
became extinct; his only son, who was created Baron Montagu
of Boughton, having predeceased him. His daughter Elizabeth
married Henry, 2nd duke of Buccleuch, who thus acquired all
the unentailed property of the dukes of Montagu, the entailed
portion passing to the earls of Cardigan.
MONTAGU, R. MONTAIGNE
See Abel Boyer, History of the Reign of Queen Anne, vol. viii.
(n vols., London, 1703-1713) ; Sir J. B. Burke, Genealogical History
of Dormant (&c.) Peerages (London, 1883).
MONTAGU (or MOUNTAGUE), RICHARD (1577-1641), English
divine, was born at Dorney, Buckinghamshire, and educated
at Eton and Cambridge. In 1613 he was elected fellow of Eton
and became rector of Stanford Rivers, Essex. He was appointed
to the deanery of Hereford in 1616, but exchanged it next year
for a canonry of Windsor, which he held with the rectory of
Petworth, Sussex. He was also chaplain to James I. Like
Laud, he disliked the extremes of Calvinism and Romanism,
and this attitude constantly involved him in difficulties. About
1619 he came into collision with some Roman Catholics in his
parish, and Matthew Kellison (i56o?-i642) attacked him in a
pamphlet entitled The Gagg of the Reformed Gospell (Douai,
1623). Montagu replied with A Gagg for the New Gospell? No.
A New Gagg for an Old Goose (London, 1624). The publication
of the Immediate Addresse unto God alone (London, 1624)
incensed the Puritans, who appealed to the House of Commons,
but Montagu was protected by the king. After the appearance
of his famous Appello Caesarem (London, 1625), his case fre-
quently came before parliament and conferences of bishops, but
his influence at court and with Laud enabled him to hold his
ground. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1628, and
became bishop of Norwich in 1638. He died on the I3th of
April 1641.
MONTAIGNE, MICHEL DE (1533-1592), French essayist, was
born, as he himself tells us, between eleven o'clock and noon on
the 28th of February 1533. The patronymic of the Montaigne
family, who derived their title from the chateau at which the
essayist was born and which had been bought by his grandfather,
was Eyquem. It was believed to be of English origin, and the
long tenure of Gascony and Guienne by the English certainly
provided abundant opportunity for the introduction of English
colonists. But the elaborate researches of M. Malvezin (Michel
de Montaigne, son origine et safamille, 1875) proved the existence
of a family of Eyquems or Ayquems before the marriage of
Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II. of England, though no
connexion between this family, who were sieurs de Lesparre,
and the essayist's ancestors can be made out. Montaigne is not
far from Bordeaux, with which the Eyquem family had for some
time been connected. Pierre Eyquem, Montaigne's father, had
been engaged in commerce (a herring-merchant Scaliger calls
him, and his grandfather Ramon had certainly followed that
trade), had filled many municipal offices in Bordeaux, and had
served under Francis I. in Italy as a soldier. He married
Antoinette de Louppes (Lopez), descended from a family of
Spanish Jews. The essayist was the third son. By the death of
his elder brothers, however, he became head of the family. He
had also six younger brothers and sisters. His father appears,
like many other men of the time, to have made a hobby of educa-
tion. Montaigne was not only put out to nurse with a peasant
woman, but had his sponsors from the same class, and was
accustomed to associate with it. He was taught Latin orally by
servants (a German tutor, Horstanus, is especially mentioned),
who could speak no French, and many curious fancies were tried
on him, as, for instance, that of waking him every morning by
soft music. But he was by no means allowed to be idle. A plan
of teaching him Greek by some kind of mechanical arrangement
is not very intelligible, and was quite unsuccessful. These
details of his education (which, like most else that is known about
him, come from his own mouth) are not only interesting in them-
selves, but remind the reader how, not far from the same time,
Rabelais, the other leading writer of French during the Renais-
sance, was exercising himself, though not being exercised, in plans
of education almost as fantastic. At six years old Montaigne
was sent to the college de Guienne at Bordeaux, then at the
height of its reputation. Among its masters were Buchanan,
afterwards the teacher of James I., and Muretus, one of the first
scholars of the age. At thirteen Montaigne left the college de
Guienne and began to study law, it is not known where, but
probably at Toulouse. In 1548 he was at Bordeaux during one
of the frequent riots caused by the gabelle, or salt-tax. Six
years afterwards, having attained his majority, he was made a
counsellor in the Bordeaux parlement. In 1558 he was present at
the siege of Thionville, in 1559 and 1561 at Paris, and in 1562
at the siege of Rouen. He was also much about the court, and
he admits very frankly that in his youth he led a life of pleasure,
if not exactly of excess. In 1565 he married Francoise de la
Chassaigne, whose father was, like himself, a member of the
Bordeaux parlement. Three years later his father died, and he
succeeded to the family possessions. Finally, in 1571, as he
tells us in an inscription still extant, he retired to Montaigne
to take up his abode there, having given up his magistracy the
year before. His health, never strong, had been further
weakened by the hard living which was usual at the time. He
resolved, accordingly, to retire to a life of study and contempla-
tion, though he indulged in no asceticism except careful diet.
He neither had nor professed any enthusiastic affection for his
wife, but he lived on excellent terms with her, and bestowed
some pains on the education of the only child (a daughter,
Leonore) who survived infancy. In his study a tower of refuge,
separate from the house, which he has minutely described he
read, wrote, dictated, meditated, inscribed moral sentences
which still remain on the walls and rafters, annotated his books,
some of which are still in existence, and in other ways ave
himself up to a learned ease.
He was not new to literature. In his father's lifetime, and
at his request, he had translated the Theologia naturalis of
Raymund de Sabunde, a Spanish schoolman (published 1569).
On first coming to live at Montaigne he edited the works of his
deceased friend Etienne de la Boetie, who had been the comrade
of his youth, who died early, and who, with poems of real pro-
mise, had composed a declamatory and school-boyish theme on
republicanism, entitled the Contr' un, which is one of the most
over-estimated books in literature. But the years of his studious
retirement were spent on a work of infinitely greater importance.
Garrulous after a fashion as Montaigne is, he gives us no clear
idea of any original or definite impulse leading him to write the
famous Essays. It is very probable that if they were at first
intended to have any special form at all it was that of a table-
book or journal, such as was never more commonly kept than
in the loth century. It is certainly very noticeable that the
earlier essays, those of the first two books, differ from the later
in one most striking point, in that of length. Speaking gener-
ally, the essays of the third book average fully four times the
length of those of the other two. This of itself would suggest
a difference in the system of composition. These first two
books appeared in 1580, when their author was forty-seven
years old.
They contain, as at present published, no fewer than ninety-three
essays, besides an exceedingly long apology for the already men-
tioned Raymund Sabunde, in which some have seen the kernel of
Montaigne's philosophy. The book begins with a short avis (address
to the reader), opening with the well-known words, " C'est icy un
livre de bonfoy, lecteur,' and sketching in a few lively sentences the
character of meditative egotism which is kept up throughout. His
sole object, the author says, is to leave for his friends and relations
a mental portrait of himself, defects and all; he cares neither for
utility nor for fame. The essays then begin, without any attempt
to explain or classify their subjects. Their titles are of the most
diverse character. Sometimes they are proverbial sayings or moral
adages, such as " Par divers moyens on arrive a pareille fin,"
" Qu'il ne faut juger de ngtre heur qu'apres la mort," Le profit de
Ton est le dommage de 1'aultre." Sometimes they are headed
like the chapters of a treatise on ethics: " De la tristesse," " De
I'oisivet6," " De la peur," " De I'amiti6." Sometimes a fact of some
sort which has awaked a train of associations in the mind of the
writer serves as a title, such as " On est puni de s'opiniastrer une
place sans raison." " De la bataille de Dreux," &c. Occasionally
the titles seem to be deliberately fantastic, as " Des puces," " De
1'usage de se vestir." Sometimes, though not very often, the sec-
tions are in no proper sense essays, but merely commonplace book
entries of singular facts or quotations, with hardly any comment.
These point to the haphazard or indirect origin of them, which has
been already suggested. But generally the essay-character that is
to say, the discussion of a special point, it may be with wide digres-
sions and divergences displays itself. The digressions are indeed
constant, and sometimes have the appearance of being absolutely
wilful. The nominal title, even when most strictly observed, is
MONTAIGNE
rarely more than a starting-point ; and, though the brevity of these
first essays for the most part prevents the author from journeying
very far, he contrives to get to the utmost range of his tether.
Quotations are very frequent.
In 1571 he had received the order of Saint-Michel; in 1574
was with the army of the duke de Montpensier; two years later
was made gentleman-in-ordinary to Henry III., and next year
again to Henry of Navarre. He visited Paris occasionally, and
travelled for health or pleasure to Cauterets, Eaux Chaudes
and elsewhere. But his health grew worse and worse, and he
was tormented by stone and gravel. He accordingly resolved
to journey to the baths of Lucca. Late in the i8th century a
journal was found in the chateau of Montaigne giving an account
of this journey, and it was published in 1774; part of it is written
in Italian and part dictated in French, the latter being for the
most part the work of a secretary or servant. Whatever may
be the biographical value of this work, which has rarely been
reprinted with the Essays themselves, and the MS. of which
disappeared early, it is almost entirely destitute of literary
interest. The course of the journey was first northwards to
Plombieres, then by Basel to Augsburg and Munich, then through
Tirol to Verona and Padua in Italy. Montaigne visited most of
the famous cities of the north and centre, staying five months
at Rome, where he had an audience of the pope and was made a
Roman citizen, and finally establishing himself at the baths of
Lucca for nearly as long a time. There he received news of his
election as mayor of Bordeaux with a peremptory royal
endorsement enjoining residence, and after some time journeyed
homewards. The tour contains much minute information about
roads, food, travelling, &c., but the singular condition in which
it exists and the disappearance of the MS. make it rather
difficult to use it as a document. The best argument in its
favour is the improbability of anybody having taken the trouble
to forge so bald and awkward a heap of details. Of the fact of
the journey there is no doubt whatever.
Montaigne was not altogether delighted at his election to
the mayoralty, which promised him two years of responsible
if not very hard work. The memory of his father, however, and
the commands of the king induced him to accept it; and he
seems to have discharged it neither better nor worse than an
average magistrate. Indeed, he gave sufficient satisfaction to
the citizens to be re-elected at the close of his term, and it may
be suspected that the honour of the position, which was really
one of considerable dignity and importance, was not altogether
indifferent to him. Unfortunately, it cannot be said that
" nothing in his office became him like the leaving of it." It
was his business, if not exactly his duty, to preside at the formal
election of his successor, the marechal de Matignon; but there
was a severe pestilence in Bordeaux, and Montaigne writes to
the jurats of that town, in one of the few undoubtedly authentic
letters which we possess, to the effect that he will leave them to
judge whether his presence at the election is so necessary as to
make it worth his while to expose himself to the danger of going
into the town in its then condition, " which is specially dangerous
for men coming from a good air, as he does." It may be urged
in his favour that the general circumstances of the time, where
they did not produce reckless and foolhardy daring, almost
necessarily produced a somewhat excessive caution. However
this may be, Montaigne had difficulty enough during this
turbulent period, all the more so from his neighbourhood to the
chief haunts and possessions of Henry of Navarre, who actually
visited him at Montaigne in 1584. He was able, despite the
occupations of his journey, his mayoralty, and the pressure
of civil war and pestilence, which was not confined to the town,
to continue his essay-writing. His second term of office termi-
nated in 1585; and in 1588 after a visit of some length to Paris,
the third book of the Essays was published, together with the
former ones considerably revised. The new essays, as has been
remarked, differ strikingly from the older ones in respect of
length; and the whimsical unexpectedness of the titles reappears
in but two of them: " Des Coches " and " Des Boiteux." They
are, however, identical with the earlier ones in spirit, and make
749
with them a harmonious whole a book which has hardly been
second in influence to any of the modern world.
This influence is almost equally remarkable in point of matter
and in point of form. The latter aspect may be taken first. Mon-
taigne is one of the few great writers who have not only perfected
but have also invented a literary kind. The essay as he gave it had no
forerunner in modern literature and no direct ancestor in the litera-
ture of classical times. It has been suggested that the form which
the essays assumed was in a way accidental, and this of itself pre-
cludes the idea of a definite model, even if such a model coula be
found. Beginning with the throwing together of a few stray thoughts
and quotations linked by a community of subject, the author by
degrees acquires more and more certainty of hand, until he produces
such masterpieces of apparent desultoriness and real unity as the
essay " Sur des yers de Virgile." In matter of style and language
Montaigne's position is equally important, but the ways which led
him to it are more clearly traceable. His favourite author was be-
yond all doubt Plutarch, and his own explicit confession makes it
undeniable that Plutarch's translator, Jacques Amyot, was his master
in point of vocabulary and (so far as he took any lessons in it) of style.
Montaigne, however, followed with the perfect independence that
characterized him. He was a contemporary of Ronsard, and his first
essays were published when the innovations of the Plemde had fully
established themselves. He adopted them to a great extent, but with
much discrimination, and he used his own judgment in latinizing
when he pleased. In the same way he retained archaic and provin-
cial words with a good deal of freedom, but by no means to excess.
In the arrangement, as in the selection, of his language he is equally
original. He has not the excessive classicism of style which mars
even the fine prose of Jean Calvin, and which makes that of some
of Calvin's followers intolerably stiff. As a rule he is careless of
definitely rhythmical cadence, though his sentences are always
pleasant to the ear. But the principal characteristic of Montaigne's
prose style is its remarkable ease and flexibility. A few years after
Montaigne's death a great revolution, as is generally known, passed
over France. The criticism of Malherbe, followed by the establish-
ment of the Academy, the minute grammatical censures of Claude
Favre Vaugelas, and the severe literary censorship of Boileau, turned
French in less than three-quarters of a century from one of the
freest languages in Europe to one of the most restricted. During
this revolution only two writers of older date held their ground, and
those two were Rabelais and Montaigne Montaigne being of his
nature more generally readable than Rabelais. All the great prose
writers of France could not fail to be influenced by the racy phrase,
the quaint and picturesque vocabulary, and the unconstrained
constructions of Montaigne.
It would be impossible, however, for the stoutest defender of the
importance of form in literature to assign the chief part in Mon-
taigne's influence to style. It is the method, or rather the manner
of thinking, of which that style is the garment, which has in reality
exercised influence on the world. Like all the greatest writers
except Shakespeare, Montaigne thoroughly and completely exhibits
the intellectual and moral complexion of his own time. When he
reached manhood the French Renaissance was at high water,
and the turn of the tide was beginning. Rabelais, who died when
Montaigne was still in early manhood, exhibits the earlier and rising
spirit, though he needs to be completed on the poetical side. With
Montaigne begins the age of disenchantment. By the time at least
when he began to meditate his essays in the retirement of his country
house it was tolerably certain that no golden age was about to
return. As the earlier Renaissance had specially occupied itself with
the practical business and pleasures of life, so the later Renaissance
specially mused on the vanity of this business and these pleasures.
The predisposing circumstances which affected Montaigne were thus
likely to incline him to scepticism, to ethical musings on the vanity of
life and the like. But to all this there had to be added the peculiarity
of his own temperament. This was a decidedly complicated one,
and neglect of it has led some readers to adopt a more positive idea
of Montaigne's scepticism than is fully justified by all the facts.
The attitude which he assumed was no doubt ephectic and critical
chiefly. In the " Apologie de Raymund Sabunde, ' he has apparently
amused himself with gathering together, in the shape of quota-
tions as well as of reflections, all that can be said against certainty
in aesthetics as well as in dogmatics. It is even said by some who
have examined the original (vide infra) that the text and altera-
tions show a progressively freethinking attitude, side by side with a
growing tendency to conceal it by ambiguity and innuendo. But
until all the documents are accessible this must remain doubtful.
The general tenor of the essays is in complete contrast with this
sceptical attitude, at least in its more decided form, and it is worth
notice that the motto " Que scai-je? " does not appear on the title-
page till after the writer's death. Montaigne is far too much occu-
pied about all sorts of the minutest details of human life to make it
for a moment admissible that he regarded that life as a whole but
as smoke and vapour. And it is almost certainly wrong, though
M. Brunetiere may have given countenance and currency to the idea,
to regard his philosophy as in the main intended as a succour against
the fear of death. The reason of the misapprehension of him which
is current is due very mainly to the fact that he was eminently a
750
MONTALBAN
humorist. Perhaps the only actual parallel to Montaigne in literature
is Lamb. There are differences between them, arising naturally
enough from differences of temperament and experience; but both
agree in their attitude an attitude which is sceptical without being
negative and humorous without being satiric. There is hardly any
writer in whom the human comedy is treated with such completeness
as it is in Montaigne. There is discernible in his essays no attempt
to map out a complete plan, and then to fill up its outlines. But
in the desultory and haphazard fashion which distinguishes him
there are few parts of life on which he does not touch, if only to
show the eternal contrast and antithesis which dominate it. The
exceptions are chiefly to be found in the higher and more poetical
strains of feeling to which the humorist temperament lends itself
with reluctance and distrust, though it by no means excludes them.
The positiveness of the French disposition is already noticeable in
Rabelais; it becomes more noticeable still in Montaigne. He is
always charming, but he is rarely inspiring, except in a very few
passages where the sense of vanity and nothingness possesses him
with unusual strength. As a general rule, an agreeable grotesque
of the affairs of life (a grotesque which never loses hold of good
taste sufficiently to be called burlesque) occupies him. There is a
kind of anticipation of the scientific spirit in the careful zeal with
which he picks up odd aspects of mankind and comments upon
them as he places them in his museum. Such a temperament is
most pleasantly shown when it is least personal. A dozen genera-
tions of men have rejoiced in the gentle irony with which Montaigne
handles the ludicrum humani saeculi, in the quaint felicity of his
selection of examples, and in the real though sometimes fantastic
wisdom of his comment on his selections.
Montaigne did not very long survive the completion of his
book. On his way to Paris for the purpose of getting it printed
he stayed for some time at Blois, where he met De Thou. In
Paris itself he was for a short time committed to the Bastille by
the Leaguers, as a kind of hostage, it is said, for a member of
their party who had been arrested at Rouen by Henry of Navarre.
But he was in no real danger. He was well known to and
favoured by both Catherine de' Medici and the Guises, and was
very soon released. In Paris, too, at this time he made a
whimsical but pleasant friendship. Marie de Jars de Gournay
(1565-1645), one of the most learned ladies of the i6th and
1 7th centuries, had conceived such a veneration for the author of
the Essays that, though a very young girl and connected with
many noble families, she travelled to the capital on purpose to
make his acquaintance. He gave her the title of his " fille
d'alliance " (adopted daughter), which she bore proudly for the
rest of her long life. She lived far into the I7th century, and
became a character and something of a laughing-stock to the new
generation; but her services to Montaigne's literary memory
were, as will be seen, great. Of his other friends in these last
years of his life the most important were fitienne Pasquier and
Pierre Charron. The latter, indeed, was more than a friend, he
was a disciple; and Montaigne, just as he had constituted
Mile de Gournay his " fille d'alliance," bestowed on Charron
the rather curious compliment of desiring that he should
take the arms of the family of Montaigne. It has been thought
from these two facts, and from an expression in one of the later
essays, that the marriage of his daughter Leonore to Gaston de
La Tour had not turned out to his satisfaction. But family
affection, except towards his father, was by no means Montaigne's
strongest point. When Henry of Navarre came to the throne
of France, he wished Montaigne, whom he had again visited in
1587, to come to court, but the essayist refused. It would seem
that he returned from Paris to his old life of study and medita-
tion and working up his Essays. No new ones were found after
his death, but many alterations and insertions. His various
maladies grew worse; yet they were not the direct cause of his
death. He was attacked with quinsy, which rapidly brought
about paralysis of the tongue, and he died on the i3th of
September 1592, in circumstances which, as Pasquier reports
them, completely disprove any intention of displaying anti-
Christian or anti-Catholic leanings. He was buried, though not
till some months after his death, in a church in Bordeaux, which
after some vicissitudes became the chapel of the college. During
the Revolution the tomb, and as it was supposed the coffin, were
transferred with much pomp to the town museum; but it was
discovered that the wrong coffin had been taken, and it was
afterwards restored to its old position. Montaigne's widow
survived him, and his daughter left posterity which became
merged in the noble houses of Segur and Lur-Saluces. But it
does not appear that any male representative of the family
survived.
When Mile de Gournay heard of the death of Montaigne
she undertook with her mother a visit of ceremony and condolence
to the widow, which had important results for literature. Mme
de Montaigne gave her a copy of the edition of 1588 annotated
copiously; at the same time, apparently, she bestowed another
copy, also annotated by the author, on the convent of the Feuillants
in Bordeaux, to which the church in which his remains lay was
attached. Mile de Gournay thereupon set to work to produce
a new and final edition with a zeal and energy which would have
done credit to any editor of any date. She herself worked with her
own copy, inserting the additions, marking the alterations and
translating all the quotations. But when she had got this to press
she sent the proofs to Bordeaux, where a poet of some note, Pierre
de Brach, revised them with the other annotated copy. The edition
thus produced in 1595 has with justice passed as the standard,
even in preference to those which appeared in the author's lifetime.
Unluckily, Mile de Gournay's original does not appear to exist
and her text was said, until the appearance of MM. Courbet
and Rover's edition, to have been somewhat wantonly corrupted,
especially in the important point of spelling. The Feuillants copy
is in existence, being the only manuscript, or partly manuscript,
authority for the text; but access to it and reproduction of it are
subjected to rather unfortunate restrictions by the authorities, and
until it is completely edited students are rather at the mercy of
those who have actually consulted it. It was edited in 1803 by
Naigeon, the disciple of Diderot; but, according to later inquiries,
considerable liberties were taken with it. The first edition of 1580,
with the various readings of two others which appeared during the
author's lifetime, was reprinted by MM. Dezeimens and Burckhausen
in 1870. That of Le Clerc (3 vols., Paris, 1826-1828) and in a more
compact form that of Louandre (4 vols., Paris, 1854) have been most
useful; but that of MM. Courbet and Royer (1872-1900) is at present
the standard. The Journal, long neglected and still (vide supra)
doubtful, was re-edited by Professor A. d'Ancona (Citta di Castello,
1895) and translated into English by W. G. Waters (1903). The
editions of Montaigne in France and elsewhere, and the works upon
him during the past three centuries, are innumerable. The most
recent books of importance are P. Bonnefon's Montaigne, I'homme et
I'ceuire (1893) and P. Stapfer's Montaigne (1895) in the Grands
ecrivains, the latter a book of remarkable excellence. Edm<5
Champion's Introduction aux essais may also be noticed, and Pro-
fessor Dowden's Montaigne (1905), which has an excellent biblio-
graphy. The somewhat earlier Montaigne of M. E. Lowndes (Cam-
bridge, 1898) is noteworthy in especial for its attention to his life
and character. In England Montaigne was early popular. It was long
supposed that the autograph of Shakespeare in a copy of Florio's
translation showed his study of the Essays. The autograph has
been disputed, but divers passages, and especially one in The Tempest,
show that at first or second hand the poet was acquainted with the
essayist. The book best worth consulting on this head is J. Feis's
Shakespeare and Montaigne (1884). Towards the latter end of the
I7th century, Cotton, the friend of Isaac Walton, executed a com-
plete translation, which, though not extraordinarily faithful, pos-
sesses a good deal of rough vigour. It has been frequently reprinted
with additions and alterations. Reprints of Florio are also numer-
ous. One in the " Tudor Translations " (1893) has an introduction
by G. Saintsbury. An English biography of Montaigne by Bayle
St John appeared in 1858, and Walter Pater's unfinished Gaston de
Latour borrows from Montaigne and his story. The most note-
worthy critical handling of the subject in English is unquestionably
Emerson's in Representative Men. (G. SA.)
MONTALBAN, JUAN PEREZ DE (1602-1638), Spanish drama-
tist, poet and novelist, was born at Madrid in 1602. At the age
of eighteen he became a licentiate in theology, was ordained
priest in 1625 and appointed notary to the Inquisition. In
1619 he began writing for the stage under the guidance of
Lope de Vega, who is said to have assisted him in composing
El Orfeo en lengua castellana (1624), a poem obviously intended
to compete with Jauregui's Orjeo, published earlier in the same
year. The prose tales in Sucesos y prodigies de amor (1624) and
Para todos (1632) were very popular. Montalban's father, a
publisher at Madrid, issued a pirated edition of Quevedo's
Busc6n, which roused an angry controversy. The violence of
these polemics, the strain of overwork, and the death of Lope de
Vega so affected Montalban that he became insane; he died at
Madrid on the 25th of June 1638. His last work was a eulogistic
biography of Lope de Vega in the Fama pdstuma (1636). His
plays, published in 1635-1638, are all in the manner of that
great dramatist, and were represented with much success,
but, with the exception of Los Amantes de Teruel, are little
MONTALEMBERT
more than clever improvizations. A libellous attack on
Quevedo. entitled El Tribunal de la justa venganza (1635),
is often ascribed to him.
MONTALEMBERT, CHARLES FORBES RENE! DE (1810-
1870), French publicist and historian, was born on the isth of
March 1810. The family was a very ancient one, belonging
to Poitou, or rather to Angoumois. Direct descent is said to
be traced back to the i3th century, and charters carry the
history of the house two centuries further. For some genera-
tions before the historian the family had been distinguished,
not merely in the army, but for scientific attainments. Mont-
alembert's father, Marc Rene, emigrated, fought under Conde,
and subsequently served in the English army; he married Elise
Rosee Forbes, and his eldest son, Charles, was born in London.
At the Restoration of 1814 Marc Rene returned to France, was
raised to the peerage in i8iq, and became ambassador to Sweden
(where Charles completed his education) in 1826. He died in
1831, a year after the overthrow of the legitimate monarchy.
Charles de Montalembert was too young to take his seat as a peer
(twenty-five being the necessary age), but he retained other
rights, and this, combined with his literary and intellectual
activity, made him a person of some importance. He was a
Liberal, in the English sense, and had he not resolutely separated
himself from the new regime on the religious question he would
have approved of the policy of the golden mean represented by
Louis Philippe. He wished to see the Church free from the
control of the state, and passionately attacked the monopoly
of public instruction by which the monarchy fortified its position.
This latter scheme first brought Montalembert into notice, as
he was formally charged with unlicensed teaching. He claimed
the right of trial by his peers, and made a notable defence, of
course with a deliberate intention of protest (1832). On the
other hand, he thought that the Church should not obstinately
oppose new ideas. He had eagerly entered into the plans of
his friends, Lamennais and Lacordaire, and collaborated with
them in the newspaper I'Avenir. The Ultramontane party was
roused by their boldness, and Montalembert and his two friends
then left for Rome. This famous pilgrimage proved useless to
mitigate the measures which the Roman curia took against the
I'Avenir. Its doctrines were condemned in two encyclicals
(Mirari vos, 1832, and Singulari vobis, 1834), and Montalembert
submitted. He still clung to his early Liberalism, and in 1848
saw without regret the end of a government towards which he
had always been hostile. He had a seat in the Chamber of
Deputies till 1857, but to his great regret was then obliged to
retire into private life. He was still, however, recognized as one
of the most formidable opponents of the empire. Meanwhile his
Liberal ideas had made him some irreconcilable enemies among
the Ultramontanes. Louis Veuillot, in his paper, L'Univers,
fought desperately against him. Montalembert answered by
reviving a review which had for some time ceased publication,
the Correspondant (1855), in which he set himself to fight both
against the fanatical party of Pius IX. and the Syllabus, and the
more or less free-thinking Liberals of the Revue des deux mondes.
He took great interest in the debuts of the Liberal empire, whilst
trying to parry the blow which the Ultramontanes were preparing
to deal to Liberal ideas by proclaiming in the Vatican council
the dogma of papal infallibility. But once again he would not
allow himself to be seduced from obedience to the pope; he now
severed his connexion with Pere Hyacinthe (Loison) as he had
with Lamennais, and made the submission expected of him to
the council. It was his last fall. Broken down by the trial
of these continued fights against people of his own religion, he
died prematurely on the I3th of March 1870.
In addition to being an eloquent orator, Montalembert wrote
a style at once picturesque, fiery and polished. He was an
ardent student of the middle ages, but his medieval enthusiasm
was strongly tinctured with religious sentiments. His first
historical work, La Vie de Ste Elisabeth de Hongrie (1836), is not
so much a history as a religious manifesto, which did much to
restore the position of hagiography. It met with great success;
but Montalembert was not elected a member of the Academic
Francaise till later, after the fall of the July monarchy (Jan. 9,
1851). From this time he gave much of his attention to a great
work on monachism in the West. He was at first attracted by
the figure of St Bernard, and devoted one volume to him; this
was, however, afterwards withdrawn on the advice of his friend
Dupanloup, and the whole edition was destroyed. He then
enlarged his original plan and published the first volumes of
his Moines d' accident (1860), an eloquent work which was
received with much admiration in those circles where language
was more appreciated than learning. The work, which was un-
finished at the time of the author's death, was completed later
from some long fragments found among his papers (vols. vi. and
vii., 1877).
Montalembert married Mile de Merode, sister of one of
Pius IX. 's ministers. His daughter married the vicomte de
Meaux, a Roman Catholic statesman and distinguished writer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Mrs Oliphant, Memoir of Count de Montalembert,
peer of France, deputy for the department of Doubs (Edinburgh, 1872).
Mrs Oliphant, who has also translated into English Moines d' accident,
has given a most charming account of the youth of Montalembert,
and especially the first years passed at Stanmore. See also the
vicomte de Meaux, Montalembert (1897) ; see also L. R. P. Lecanuet,
Montalembert, d' aprks son journal et sa correspondence (3 vols., 1895-
1902) a work filled with important documents; and Ldon Letebure,
Portraits de croyants au XIX m siecle: Montalembert, Auguste Cochin,
Francois Rio (who was Montalembert's professor of philosophy);
A. Guthlin (1905); and Lettres d'Alphonse d'Herbelot a Charles de
Montalembert et a Leon Cornudet (1828-1830).
MONTALEMBERT, MARC RENE, MARQUIS DE (1714-1800),
French military engineer and writer, was born at Angouleme
on the i6th of July 1714, and entered the French Army in 1732.
He fought in the War of the Polish Succession on the Rhine
C 1 733-34) > and in the War of the Austrian Succession made the
campaigns of 1 742 in Bohemia and Italy. In the years preceding
the Seven Years' War, Montalembert (who had become an asso-
ciate member of the Academic des Sciences in 1747) devoted
his energies to the art of fortification, to which Vauban's Traiti
de I'attaque attracted him, and founded the arsenal at Ruelle,
near his birthplace. On the outbreak of war he became French
commissioner with the allied army of Sweden, with the rank
of brigadier-general. He constructed the field fortifications of
Anklam and Stralsund. In 1761 he was promoted marechal
de camp, and began the works on which his fame rests. Monta-
lembert's fortress has been aptly described by an English
author as an " immense battery." The intricacies of trace by
which Vauban and Cormontaigne sought to minimize the power
of the attack, are abandoned in favour of a simple tenaille plan
so arranged that the defenders can bring an overwhelming fire
to bear on the works of the besieger. Montalembert, who him-
self drew his idea from the practice of Swedish and Prussian
engineers, furnished the German constructors of the early igth
century with the means of designing entrenched camps suitable
to modern conditions of warfare. The " polygonal " method
of fortification is the direct outcome of Montalembert's systems.
In his own country the caste-spirit of the engineer corps was
roused to defend Vauban, and though Montalembert was allowed
to construct some successful works at Aix and Oleron, he was
forbidden to publish his method, and given but little opportunity
for actual building. After fifteen years of secrecy he published
in Paris (1776-1778) the first edition of La Fortification perpen-
diculaire. At the time of the Revolution he surrendered a
pension, which had been granted him for the loss of an eye,
although he was deeply in debt, particularly on account of his
Ruelle foundry, on which 6000 livres were due to him from the
state, which he never received. Persuaded by his wife, he joined
in the emigration of the noblesse, and for a time lived in England.
All his possessions were thereupon sequestrated by the republi-
can government. He very soon returned, divorced his wife, and
married again. He obtained the annulment of the sequestration.
Carnot often called him into consultation on military affairs, and,
in 1792, promoted him general of division. Proposed as a
member of the Institut in 1797, he withdrew his candidature in
favour of General Bonaparte. He died at Paris on the 29th of
March 1800. His wife, Marie Josephine de Comarieu, was the
75 2
MONT ALIVET MONTANA
hostess of one of the best-known salons of Louis XVI.'s time.
She wrote two novels of merit, Elise Dumesnil (1798) and Horace
(1822). She died in 1832.
Besides his masterpiece, he wrote L'Art defensive superieure a
I'offensif (1793; in reply to attacks made upon his earliest work,
La Fortification perpendiculaire, of which in later editions it forms
part); Memoire historique sur le fonte des canons (Paris, 1758), and
other works on the same subject; Correspondence pendant la guerre
de 1757-1760 (London, 1777); Rotation des boidets (Acad., 1755);
and Relations du siege de S. Jean d 'Acre (Paris, 1789). He also wrote
short stories and verse, as well as comedies. He also modelled a
complete course of Fortification (92 models), which he offered to the
Committee of Public Safety. His bust was sculptured by Bonvallet.
Montalembert's position in the history of fortification may be
summed up as a realization of his own wish to do for the defence
what Vauban had done for the attack. It was the inability of his
contemporaries to see that Vauban's strength lay in his parallels and
batteries and not in his bastions that vitiated their methods, and it
was Montalembert's appreciation of this fact which made him the
father of modern fortification. See Tripier, La Fortification deduite
de son histoire (Paris, 1866).
MONTALIVET, MARTHE-CAMILLE BACHASSON, COMTE DE
(1801-1880), French statesman, was born at Valence on the 25th
of April 1801, the second son of Jean Pierre Bachasson, comte
de Montalivet (1766-1823), who had been made a peer of France
in 1819. Both his father and his elder brother Simon Pierre
Joseph (1799-1823) had been engineer officers, and he was edu-
cated at the ficole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Fonts et
Chaussees. Under Louis Philippe he occupied the ministry of
the interior from, with short intervals, 1830 to 1840. After 1840
he was intendant of the civil list, occupying himself with the
museums of Versailles and the Louvre, and the restoration of
the palaces of Fontainebleau and Saint-Cloud. In 1847 he
tried to induce Louis Philippe to adopt electoral reform, and
after the catastrophe of the next year undertook the defence of
the July monarchy in two works, Le Roi Louis Philippe et la lisle
civile (1851) and Rienl Dix annees de gouvernemenl parlemen-
laire (1862). He had become a member of the Academy of
Fine Arts in 1840 and in 1843 grand cross of the Legion of
Honour. The attitude of the comte de Chambord after 1870
led him to accept the republic, and he entered the Senate a
year before his death, on the 4th of January 1880.
MONTANA, a north-western state of the United States,
situated between latitudes 44 26' and 49 N., and between
longitudes 27 and 39 W. from Washington. It is bounded
N. by the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta and
Assiniboia; E. by North Dakota and South Dakota; S. by
Wyoming and Idaho; W. by Idaho. Montana has an area
of 146,572 sq. m., 796 sq. m. of which are water surface.
(For map, see IDAHO.)
Physical Features. The Rocky Mountains cross the state
from north-west to south-east, and with their spurs and outlying
ranges occupy nearly one-third of its area in the west and south-
west; the remaining portion is occupied chiefly by the Great
Plains. The main range of the Rockies follows the boundary
line between Montana and Idaho west and north-west from
Yellowstone Park in Wyoming to Ravalli county, then turns east-
north-east to Lewis and Clark county, and from there extends
north-north-west into Canada. From where the main range
turns east from the Idaho boundary line the crest of the Bitter
Root Mountains continues on that line with a downward slope
to within one degree of latitude from the Canadian border. This
range of mountains, which was formed by a great fault, has
a maximum elevation at its southern end of about 9000 ft.
above the sea. On its slope, which rises abruptly from the
Bitter Root Basin, glaciers have cut canons between high and
often precipitous walls, and between these canons are steep and
rocky ridges having peaked or saw-toothed crest lines. To the
east and north-east of the Bitter Root Mountains is a consider-
able basin or peneplain dissected by short ranges having a north-
west and south-west trend. To the south-east of this basin
are the greatest mountain masses of the state; lofty and rugged
ranges radiate in all directions, and in many instances rise to
heights of 10,000-11,000 ft., the highest peak in the state being
Granite Peak (12,834 ft.) in Carbon county. Deep and narrow
canons are common, and, at higher levels, glaciers, carved out
amphitheatres, or " cirques " and " U "-shaped troughs. In
the north the Rocky Mountains consist principally of two parallel
ranges, the Lewis and Clark Range to the east, and the Living-
ston Range to the west, which were formed by a great over-
thrust; between them is the Waterton-McDonald valley, 8-15 m.
wide. The east slope of the Lewis and Clark range is marked by
long high spurs, and the valleys 'between them end in radiating
canons that are crowned with bold cliffs. On the higher sum-
mits the range rises to 8500-10,400 ft. above the sea, but in
the wind-gaps only to 5500-6500 ft. The Livingston range is
less rugged and more massive. Like the Lewis and Clark range,
its crest is broken by numerous U-shaped wind-gaps and its west
slope is cut by glacial troughs containing long narrow lake basins.
Extending far to the eastward, especially in the south of the
state, are isolated mountain groups. Among these are the
Bear Paw Mountains, in the north central part, which
occupy a tract 40 m. long and 20 m. wide that on the western
side rises abruptly from the plains and reaches an elevation in
Bear Paw Peak of 7040 ft. above the sea. The Great Plains
in Montana slope from about 4000 ft. (above the sea), at the foot-
hills of the mountains, to 2000 ft. in the north-east of the state.
The valleys of the principal streams are deeply eroded; bluffs
are common along their borders, and buttes elsewhere on the
plains. The main range of the Rocky Mountains separates
that part which is drained west into the Columbia river and the
Pacific Ocean from that which is drained east into the Missouri
and Mississippi rivers and the Gulf of Mexico, and from a very
small part which is drained north-east into Hudson Bay; the
water-parting which in Montana separates the drainage into
Hudson Bay from the drainage into the Gulf of Mexico crosses
only the north-west of Teton county. The principal rivers
east of the Rockies are the Missouri and three of its tributaries;
the Yellowstone in the south-east, the Musselshell in the middle,
and the Milk in the north. The Missouri is formed by a union
of the Jefferson, the Madison and the Gallatin. It flows first
east-north-east and then nearly east until it passes into North
Dakota. Its channel is generally erratic and constantly shifting;
its bed is sandy and its water muddy. In contrast, the Yellow-
stone is a stream of bright clear water running over a gravelly
bed and among numerous forest-clad islands. The Missouri
is navigable for small boats to Fort Benton in Chouteau county,
but farther upstream near Great Falls, Cascade county, to which
it is navigable at high water, it falls 512 ft. in 10 m. The
Yellowstone is navigable for about 300 m. The principal rivers
west of the Main Divide of the Rockies are the Clark Fork of the
Columbia and its principal tributary, the Flathead, which rises
in British Columbia. Montana has a few mineral springs, the
best known being the Lissner Springs at Helena. Small lakes
and waterfalls, the result of glacial action, are numerous in the
mountains. There is, however, only one large lake in the state
Flathead (or Selish) Lake, which may be regarded as an enlarge-
ment of Flathead river; it is 27 m. long, has an average width of
12 m., and a depth of more than 1000 ft.
Geology. In the Great Plains region the geological structure is
very simple, consisting of nearly horizontal strata of Cretaceous
rock in the middle and western portions, and of Tertiary rock on the
eastern border, but in the mountain region the rocks have been
folded and faulted until the structure is intricate and obscure. Some
of the deeper canons show rocks of nearly all ages. The higher
elevations are mostly either Archean or Paleozoic formations
projecting above Tertiary deposits. In the Bitter Root Valley is a
large deposit of Quaternary. Fossil remains of mammals, fish and
reptiles found in the Tertiary deposits of south-western Montana are
preserved in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and
m the museum of the university of Montana. They include the
mandible of a mastodon and a portion of a vertebra of a large fish,
both found in the Lower Madison Valley; the skull and other parts
of a dog (Mesocyon drummondanus), found near Drummond, Granite
county; the skull of a Poatrephes paludicola, found near New Chicago,
Granite county; a portion of the skull of a Mesohippus latidens,
found near the confluence of the three forks which form the Missouri
river; and a portion of the skull of a Hyrachyus priscus, found near
Lima, Beaverhead county. In the region east of the Crazy Moun-
tains, in Sweetgrass county, are marine beds of upper Cretaceous,
or lower Tertiary formation containing fossils of Dinosaurs and
MONTANA
Mosasaurs, and in the museum of the university of Montana is the
greater part of the skeleton of a Dinosaur which was found here.
Interesting fossil remains have also been, found in Carboniferous
formations in the south-west of the state.
Fauna. The native fauna is not sharply distinguished from that
of the surrounding states. The bison, which once ranged the plains
in large herds, have been exterminated ; the moose and the elk are
found only occasionally in the wilder regions; mountain sheep,
antelopes, black and grizzly bears, wolves, coyotes and lynx (" wild
cats ") are also becoming rare. Black-tailed and mule deer are still
favourite game for sportsmen. Geese, ducks and grouse are numer-
ous about the lakes and rivers. Several kinds of fish, among which
are trout, salmon, grayling and white fish, inhabit many of the lakes,
rivers and mountain streams, and a government fish hatchery at
Bozeman, Gallatin county, restocks waters in which the supply has
been diminished.
Flora. The Great Plains are covered for the most part only with
bunch grass which grows in tufts, leaving the ground visible between,
and except in May and June presents a yellow and withered appear-
ance. Mixed with the bunch grass are occasional patches of sage
brush. Most of the bluffs along the principal river valleys, espe-
cially those in the south-east, are entirely bare of vegetation, but on
the bottom lands along the rivers and streams considerable patches
of cottonwood and willows are common. The mountain valleys are
covered with little except grasses; on the higher parts of the moun-
tains there are barren rocks or only a scant growth of timber; but
many of the lower mountain slopes, especially those along the
western border, are clothed with heavy timber, yellow pine, red fir
and tamarack being the principal species.
Climate. The climate is generally dry, although less so on the
mountains and in the Flathead river basin than on the Great
Plains, and is subject to sudden changes and to great extremes of
temperature; but the temperature varies more than the amount of
precipitation. In the west the climate is generally delightful, it
being there greatly affected by the warm, dry " Chinook " wind
which blows from the Pacific Ocean; to some extent the wind
modifies the temperature nearly to the eastern border. It is the
prevailing wind of winter in the mountains and in consequence the
periods of cold, though often severe, are short. In the east the
winters are often long and very cold, and the summers dry and hot.
The mean annual temperature ranges from 37 F. in the north-east to
47 in the sheltered valleys among the mountains. On the Great
Plains a range of extremes within a year from 40 F. to 100 is
not unusual, but in the mountain valleys the range is rarely greater
than from 20 to 90. The records from 1880 to 1907 show a
maximum range from 117 at Glendive, near the eastern border, in
July 1893, to 63 at Poplar, about 80 m. north by west of Glendive,
in January 1885. The amount of precipitation is greater in the
north-west and on the mountains, because in the one case the
mountains of lower elevation are a less obstruction to the moisture-
bearing winds from the west, and in the other the mountains con-
dense the moisture; the mountains which stand in isolated groups
upon the plains are frequently in summer the focus of local thunder
showers. The average annual precipitation ranges from 10 to 15 in.
on the Great Plains to 20 in. or more in the north-west, and over
limited areas in the higher mountain region. Nearly one-half of
the rain falls during the four months from May to August inclusive.
Storms endangering life and property occur only in the east, caused
by a high north wind with snow or rain and a low temperature.
Soil. In the river bottoms the soil is for the most part a black
clayey loam lacking in natural drainage, but on the " bench lands "
higher up there is a deep layer of sandy loam beneath which is a bed
of gravel. Some of the best soil is in the mountain valleys, for these
valleys were once lakes and rich deposits of alluvium were made in
them. The mountain slopes are often bare or covered only with a
thin layer of mould.
Agriculture. The rainfall is sufficient for good grazing, but
except in the Flathead valley cultivation was long considered to
be dependent on irrigation; and consequently farming was only
incidental to stock raising and mining until after 1870, and as late
as 1900 the ratio of improved farm land to the total land area was less
than in any other state or territory except New Mexico, Wyoming,
Arizona and Hawaii. In 1906 the farm area was almost equally
divided between " dry " farming and farming under irrigation,
three-fourths of the wheat produced was grown without irrigation,
and the dry farming was very successful with the comparatively
new and valuable crops of durum, or macaroni wheat, and Russian
barley, which is used in straw for winter feed to sheep and neat
cattle. The counties where dry farming had been carried on on the
largest scale were Missoula, Ravalli, Flathead, Cascade, Fergus
and Gallatin, where cereal yields, though not nearly so large as from
irrigated lands, were high compared with the average for the country.
But even where dry farming was successful, the increase of crops
made possible by cheap irrigation seemed to be inducing farmers
to abandon it. Among the larger privately irrigated tracts are:
16,000 to 18,000 acres in Yellowstone county, fed by a canal built
by the Billings Land & Irrigation Company ; about 35,000 acres of
orchard land in the Bitter Root Valley, in Ravalli county, irrigated
by canals from Lake Como, a natural reservoir; and 100,000 acres
in Missoula county, to be watered from a 28 ft. dam across the Clark
753
Fork (or Missoula River) at Bonner. Private irrigation by pumping
was first successfully introduced about 1901, and in 1906 a state
report estimated that 125 pumping irrigation plants were in use
in the state. Boring for underground water supply to be used in
irrigation was tried on a small scale. An area of 16,000 acres in
Missoula county is watered by a ditch 10 m. long built in 1002-1905
by the co-operative Grass Valley-Frenchtown Irrigation Company,
and the Teton Co-operative Canal Company in 1906 began work
on a diversion canal from the Teton River, whose waters are to be
stored by a dam 62 ft. high and 2100 ft. long. But more important
than private and co-operative undertakings are the Federal irrigation
projects. In 1894 Congress passed the Carey Act, under which
Montana received title to 1,000,000 acres of arid land on condition
that the state would reclaim it by providing an adequate supply
of water; the state accepted the offer, created an irrigation commis-
sion, and provided means for securing the necessary funds. Further-
more, Congress in 1902 appropriated the receipts from the sales of
public lands in the state to the construction of irrigation work. In
1899 there were 6812 m. of irrigation canals and large ditches in the
state; the irrigated acreage had increased from 350,582 acres in 1889
to 951,154 acres in 1899, when about 84% of the irrigated area was
in the south-west. The great Federal projects were not begun until
after 1900. Among them are: the Huntley project in Yellowstone
county, begun in 1904 and practically completed in 1908, covering
land formerly in the Crow Indian reservation, the irrigable area
being 28,921 acres; the Lower Milk river project (ana the sub-
sidiary St Mary project), in Chouteau, Valley and Teton counties, by
which the water of St Mary river * is stored and diverted to the
headquarters of the Milk river to irrigate an area of 300,000 acres;
the Sun river project (Teton, Lewis and Clark, Chouteau and Cas-
cade counties), by which, as the ordinary flow of that river is already
utilized for irrigation, the flood waters are stored and carried to
the higher bench lands of the district; in Montana (Dawson county)
and North Dakota (McKenzie county), the Lower Yellowstone
project; and the Blackfeet project, to irrigate the Blackfeet reser-
vation in Teton county.
In 1900, 11,844,454 acres, or 12-7% of the area, was included in
farms; of this, 1,736,701 acres, or 14-7%, was improved; 54-7%
of the improved farm land was irrigated; 79-4% of the irrigated
land was used for growing crops and 20-6% for pasturage; the total
acreage of all crops was 1,151,674, and of this 755,865, or 65-6%,
was irrigated. In the same year there were 13,370 farms exclusive
of those on Indian reservations; of these, 6665 contained less than
175 acres each; 1289 contained more than 1000 acres each; 8043
contained some irrigated land, the average amount being 118 acres;
11,592 were worked by owners or part owners, 624 by cash tenants,
and 606 by share tenants.
Of the total acreage of all crops in 1899, 8 75,7I2 acres, or 76%,
were hay and forage, and 254,231 acres, or 22-1 %, were cereals; of
the cereal acreage 52-7% was oats, 36-2% was wheat, 9% was
barley, and 1-3% was Indian corn. In 1909 the oat crop was
I 5i39, oo bushels from 300,000 acres; the acreage of wheat in 1909
was 350,000 and the production 10,764,000 bushels; the acreage
of barley, in 1909 was 50,000 acres, and 1,900,000 bushels were
raised; the acreage of Indian corn in 1909 was 5000 acres, and
175,000 bushels were grown.
Sugar beets were first grown in Montana at Evans, Cascade
county, in 1893 without irrigation. In 1906 a refinery (with a daily
slicing capacity of 1200 tons) was built at Billings, Yellowstone
county. Russians, with experience in beet-growing, and Japanese
are furnished by the sugar company to the growers for the bunching,
thinning, hoeing and toppfng of the beets. In 1906 sugar refineries
were projected at Hamilton, Kalispell, Chinook, Laurel, Missoula,
Dillon and Great Falls; and in 1907 the crop was so large that 12,000
freight cars were needed to carry it and the railways had a car and
coal" famine."
The east is devoted chiefly to stock raising; for cattle, horses and
sheep thrive well on the bunch grass except when it is covered with
snow. The principal sheep-raising counties are Custer, Yellowstone,
whither many sheep are brought to be fattened, Rosebud, Beaver-
head, Valley, and Meagher. In 1909 the number of sheep in Montana
was 5,747,000, being exceeded only by the number in Wyoming; the
number of cattle was 922,000, only 80,000 being milch cows, and the
number of horses 319,000.
Lumber. -The woodland area was estimated in 1900 at 42,000
sq. m., much of which had been burned over. It is confined mainly
to the mountain slopes, and in March 1909 31,858-9 sq. m., more
than three-fourths of this total, had been set apart in the following
"national forests": Absaroka (980,440 acres), Beartooth (685,293
acres), Beaverhead (1,506,680 acres in Montana; and a smaller area
in Idaho), Bitterroot (1,180,900 acres), Blackfeet (1,956,340 acres),
1 The St Mary and both forks of the Milk river flow northward
into the Dominion of Canada, and as there has been much private
irrigation both north and south of the international boundary, the
present Federal project and other undertakings in the same region
necessitate an international agreement as to the division of the
waters, especially of the St Mary, and commissioners representing
the Canadian government and the United States conferred in regard
to it in May 1908.
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MONTANA
Cabinet (1,020,960 acres), Custer (590,720 acres), Deerlodge
( i, 080,220 acres), Flathead (2,092, 785 acres), Gallatin (907,1 60 acres),
Helena (930,180 acres), Jefferson (1,255,320 acres), Kootenai
(1,661,260 acres), Lewis and Clark (844,136 acres), Lolo (1,211,680
acres), Madison (1,102,860 acres), Missoula (1,237,509 acres) and
Sioux (145,253 acres in Montana; 104,400 acres in SouthDakota).
A large part of the woodland contains no trees fit for lumber; never-
theless the value of the lumber was $3,024,674 in 1905. More than
one-half of the product is yellow pine and the remainder is princi-
pally red fir and tamarack. There is scarcely any hardwood timber
in the state.
Minerals and Mining. Mining has been the leading industry of
Montana ever since the discovery of gold in 1862. It contains the
largest copper producing district in the world, and in 1907 mined
more copper than any other state or territory except Arizona; this
metal constituted nearly three-fourths in value of the state's mining
products in 1907, the total value being $60,663,51 1 and that of copper
$44,852,758. The most important copper mines are in Silverbow,
Broadwater, Jefferson and Beaverhead counties. Gold was dis-
covered in Deerlodge county as early as 1852 but very little mining
was done until ten years later. In 1863 the famous Alder Gulch in
Madison county was discovered and in the next year, Last Chance
Gulch in the south of Lewis and Clark county. In 1865 the product
reached its maximum, as the value of gold and silver combined (the
value of the silver being relatively small) was $18,000,000; the pro-
duction then decreased and in 1903 the value of the gold was only
$1,800,000. Then copper mining rapidly developed and consider-
able gold was obtained from copper ores. Until the development
of copper mining, silver was produced only in small quantities along
with gold, but as much more silver than gold was obtained from the
copper ores the value of the silver product increased from $2,630,000
in 1881 to $24,615,822 in 1892. The product then fell off, but in
1907, when it amounted to 9, 31 7, 605 fine ounces, valued at $6,149,619,
more than nine-tenths of it was derived from the copper ores in
Silverbow county. It was in 1882 while Marcus Daly was sinking
a shaft at Anaconda in preparation for milling gold and silver ores
that he discovered the first rich copper ledge. Other discoveries
about Butte followed, and the output of copper increased from
II, on long tons in 1883 to 129,805 long tons in 1906, more than
99-6% from Silverbow county. The industrial and political life
of Montana have been strongly influenced by the copper industry
and by the tremendous wealth controlled by the copper interests;
in the industry three men were long dominant Marcus Daly,
William A. Clark and F. Augustus Heinze; later the Amalgamated
Copper Company gained control of a large part of the mines.
Coal was discovered in Montana before 1880, when 224 tons were
mined. In 1907 the output was 2,016,857 tons, and in 1908
1,920,190 tons. The coal underlying the east half of the state, the
" Great Plains," is lignitic and of inferior quality, but that in the
mountain districts is bituminous and generally suitable for coking.
The principal fields are: the isolated Bull Mountain deposit, 45 m.
north-east of Billings, in Yellowstone county; the large Clark Fork
field in Meagher, Sweet Grass, Yellowstone and Carbon counties; the
small but valuable Rocky Fork field in the south central part of
Carbon county; the Red Lodge field in Carbon county; the Yellow-
stone field, chiefly in Gallatin and Park counties; the Trail Creek
deposits, 10 m. south of Bozeman; the Cinnabar field in south Park
county; the Great Falls field in Cascade county; and the West
Gallatin, the Toston and the Ruby valley fields. The output
steadily increased until 1895 when it was 1,504,193 short tons;
but from then to 1905, when it was 1,643,832 short tons, the quantity
varied little from year to year. From 1905 to 1907, when the
output was valued at $3,907,082, the increase in production was
steady.
Granite, sandstone and limestone are abundant in the state, but
have been little developed. Granite was quarried in 1907 to the
value of $102,050. Limestone quarried in the same year was worth
$124,690; and sandstone was valued at $39,216. Some light grey
sandstone found in Rocky Canon, Gallatin county, looks much like
the Berea (Ohio) sandstone; and a sandstone quarried at Columbus,
Yellowstone county, was manufactured into grindstones equal to
those made from the Berea stone. Gypsum in Carbon county and
in Cascade county is worked for plaster. Sapphires are found in
several gulches, especially on Yogo Creek, 16 m. from Utica, Fergus
county, where blue stones are found, and on Rock and Cottonwood
creeks, where green, yellow, red and blue sapphires have been
found. Many of the sapphires are shipped to Switzerland for watch
jewels and for bearings. In 1907 the total value of precious stones
was $229,800.
Manufactures. With the exception of the smelting and refining
of copper, manufacturing is in Montana a decidedly minor industry.
In 1905 the total value of the " factory " product was $66,415,452,
and the value of the copper (by state reports) was $48,165,277.
Lumber and timber products, which ranked second, increased in
value from $2,846,268 in 1900, to $3,024,674 in 1905. Flour and
grist mill products rose during that period from $937,462 to
$2,003,136; and malt liquors increased in value from $1,267,331 to
$1,731.691. In 1905 the value of the products of the factories of
Anaconda and Great Falls was 63-5 % of that for the entire state.
Transport. Montana is served by three transcontinental railways:
the Great Northern' traversing the north, the Northern Pacific
traversing the south-east, south and south-west portions, and, north
of the Northern Pacific, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, an
extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul to Seattle and
Tacoma, practically completed in 1909; branch lines of the Great
Northern, from the north, connect with the Northern Pacific and
the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound at Butte, and with the
Northern Pacific at Laurel. The Oregon Short Line from the south
connects with the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound at Butte, and the Burlington
system, also from the south, connects with the Northern Pacific
at Billings, Yellowstone county. The Butte, Anaconda & Pacific
railway carries ore from the mines at Butte to the smelters at
Anaconda. The first railway was the Oregon Short Line, which was
completed by the Union Pacific Company from Ogden, Utah, to
Butte in 1881. The Northern Pacific reached Helena two years
later and the railway mileage in the state increased from 106 m. in
1880 to 4012-62 m. in 1909. River transport has been of relatively
little importance since the advent of railways.
Population. The population of the state increased from
39,159 in 1880 to 243,329 in 1900, and to 376,053 in 1910. In
1900, 67,067 were foreign-born, 11,343 were Indians, 2441
Japanese, 1739 Chinese and 1523 negroes; most numerous among
the foreign-born were 13,826 Canadians, 9436 Irish, 8077
English, 7162 Germans and 5346 Swedes. The Indians are
mostly members of the following tribes: the Piegan, the Crow,
the Salish (or Flathead), the Sioux, the Assiniboin, the Arapaho
Atsina (miscalled Grosventres) and the Northern Cheyenne.
The Piegans, with small remnants of a few other tribes, number-
ing (1900) about 2060, occupy the Blackfeet reservation
in the north-west of Teton county, the Crows, numbering
1857, occupy the Crow reservation in the south central part of
the state; the Salish, with small remnants of the Pend Oreille,
the Spokan, the Lower Kalispell and the Kutenai, numbering
1837, occupy the Flathead reservation in the north of Missoula
and the south of Flathead county; Assiniboins and others of
Sioux stock, numbering about 1793, occupy Fort Peck reserva-
tion in the south-east of Valley county: Atsina and Assiniboins,
numbering about 1429, occupy Fort Belknap reservation in the
east of Chouteau county; and the Northern Cheyennes, number-
ing about 1357, occupy Northern Cheyenne reservation in the
south-east of Rosebud county. Many of the Indians are engaged
in stock-raising; the Crows have an irrigation system and are
extensively engaged in farming. Roman Catholics are more
numerous in Montana than Protestants, having 72,359communi-
cantsoutof a total of 98,984 of all denominations in 1906, when
there were 7022 Methodists, 4096 Presbyterians, 3290 Protestant
Episcopalians and 2029 Baptists. In 1900 the urban population
{i.e. population of places having 40x30 inhabitants or more) was
69,989; the semi-urban (i.e. population of incorporated places
having less than 4000 inhabitants) was 30,270; and the rural
(i.e. population outside of incorporated places) was 143,070.
The rural population was therefore in that year 58-8% of the
total, and the urban was only 28-7% of the total, but from 1890
to 1900 the urban increased 185% while the rural increased
only 55-6%. The principal cities are: Butte, whose population
increased from 10,723 in 189010 30,470 in 1900 and to 39,165 in
1910; Great Falls (1910) 13,948; Helena, the capital, (1910)
12,515; and Anaconda (1910) 10,134.
Administration. The state is governed under a constitution
adopted in 1889, a month before Montana's admission into the
Union. The requirements for amending this constitution are:
an affirmative vote in each house of the legislature of two-thirds
of its members, followed, not less than three months later, by
an affirmative vote of a majority of the electors voting thereon
at a general election; or, by a like vote of each house of the legis-
lature and of the electorate, a convention may be called to revise
or amend it, a revision or amendment in this manner requiring
the ratification of the electorate not less than two months nor
more than six months after the adjournment of the convention.
General suffrage is conferred on every male citizen of the United
States who is twenty-one years of age and who has lived in the
state one year, and in the county thirty days immediately
preceding an election, the only exceptions being idiots or insane
persons; a woman who has the qualifications for suffrage that
are required of a man, may vote at any school district election
MONTANA
755
and if a tax-payer she may vote on all questions submitted
to the tax-payers of the state or of any political division
thereof.
The officers of the executive department are the governor,
lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, attorney-general,
treasurer, auditor and superintendent of public instruction,
each of whom is elected for a term of four years. No person is
eligible to any of these offices who shall not have lived within
the state for two years next preceding the election; no person
is eligible to the office of governor, lieutenant-governor, attorney-
general or superintendent of public instruction who is not thirty
years of age; no person is eligible to the office of secretary of
state, treasurer or auditor who is not twenty-five years of age;
no person is eligible to the office of attorney-general who has not
been admitted to practice in the supreme court of the state ; and
the treasurer is ineligible to his office for the immediately suc-
ceeding term. The governor's powers are limited. As in other
states he is commander-in-chief of the militia. With the advice
and consent of the senate he appoints various administrative
officers. With the approval of the majority of a board of pardons
(composed of the secretary of state, attorney-general and auditor),
he may pardon offences or commute punishment, and remit fines
and forfeitures. He may veto any bill passed by the assembly,
or in the case of a bill making appropriations of money he may
veto any item of it, and no bill or item of an appropriation
bill which he vetoes within five days (Sunday excepted)
after it has been presented to him, can become a law or part of a
law unless passed over his veto in each house by a two-thirds
vote of the members present. Under an amendment to the
Constitution adopted in 1906 his veto power does not extend
to measures referred to the people by the legislative assembly
or by initiative and referendum petitions. Without his ap-
proval, also, no order or resolution of either House, other than
to adjourn or relating solely to the business of the assembly, can
take effect until passed again by a two-thirds vote as in case
of a bill.
The legislature consists of a senate and a house of represen-
tatives. Except when called in special session by the governor
it meets (at Helena) on the first Monday of January in odd num-
bered years only, and the length of its session is limited by the
constitution to sixty days. Senators are elected, one from each
county, for a term of four years; representatives are elected, one
or more from each county according to population, for a term of
two years. The qualifications for a senator are that he be at
least twenty-four years of age and have resided in his county or
district at least one year next preceding his election; for a repre-
sentative there are no qualifications other than those required
for suffrage. The action of the legislature is much restricted
by the constitution: a long list of cases is named in which that
body is prohibited from passing any local or special laws; it is
prohibited from delegating to any special commission power to
perform any municipal functions whatever; from making any
appropriations for charitable, industrial, educational or benevo-
lent purposes to any person, corporation or community not
under the absolute control of the state; and from authorizing
the state to contract any debt or obligation in the construction
of any railway, or to lend its credit in aid of such railway con-
struction. In 1906 an amendment to art. 5, sec. i of the state
constitution, authorized the initiative and referendum, but two-
fifths of the entire number of counties must each furnish for
initiative petitions signatures amounting in number to_8% of
the whole number of votes cast for governor at the election last
preceding the filing of the petition; for referendum petitions
two-fifths of the counties must each furnish as signers 5 % of the
legal voters; and any measure referred to the people shall be in
full force unless the petition for the referendum be signed by 15%
of the legal voters (whose number is that of the total votes cast
for governor, &c., as above) of a majority of the whole number
of counties, but that in such case the law to be referred shall be
inoperative until it is passed at the popular election.
The administration of justice is intrusted to a supreme court,
an increasing number of district courts, and at least two justices'
courts in each organized township, besides police and municipal
courts. The supreme court is composed of a chief justice and
two associate justices elected for a term of six years. It holds
four sessions a year at Helena and has both original and appellate
jurisdiction. For most district courts there is only one judge,
but for the more populous there are two; they are all elected for
four years. These courts have original jurisdiction in cases at
law and in equity in which the value in controversy exceeds
$50, in criminal cases amounting to felony, in all matters
of probate, in actions for divorce, &c., and appellate jurisdiction
in cases arising in the inferior courts. Justices of the peace are
elected for two years and have civil jurisdiction in several
classes of actions in which the amount demanded does not
exceed $300, and in such cases as petit larceny, assault in the
third degree and breach of the peace.
For purposes of local government the state is divided into
counties; each county into townships, school districts and road
districts; and there are incorporated cities and towns. The
county officers are a board of three commissioners, a treasurer,
a sheriff, a county clerk, a clerk of the district court, an attorney,
a surveyor, a coroner, a public administrator, an assessor, a
superintendent of schools, and in some instances, an auditor.
The commissioners are elected for six years, the other officers,
for two years. Among the commissioners' powers and duties
are: the management of county property; the levying of taxes;
the equalizing of assessments; the division of the county into
townships, school districts and road districts; the laying out
and management of public highways and ferries, and the care
of the poor. The township is of minor importance, its principal
officers being two justices of peace and two constables. Muni-
cipal corporations are classified according to population; those
having 10,000 inhabitants or more are cities of the first class;
those having less than 10,000 but more than 5000 inhabitants,
cities of the second class; those having less than 5000 but more
than looo inhabitants, cities of the third class, and those having
less than 1000 but more than 300 inhabitants towns. In a
city of the first class, a mayor, two aldermen from each ward, a
police judge, and a treasurer who may be ex officio tax-collector
are elected, and an attorney, a clerk, a chief of police, an assessor,
a street commissioner, a jailer, a surveyor, and, where there is a
paid fire department, a chief engineer with one or more assis-
tants, may be appointed by the mayor with the consent of the
council. The officers of cities of the second and third class are
the same, except that the clerk is ex officio assessor. In towns
only a mayor and aldermen are elected, and the mayor with the
consent of the council appoints a clerk who is ex officio assessor,
a treasurer who is ex officio collector, and a marshal who may
be ex officio street commissioner. The principal municipal
officers hold office for two years.
A wife may hold property and make contracts as if she were single,
and neither husband nor wife is accountable for the acts of the other.
The husband is required to support himself and his wife if he is
able to do so; if he is unable, his wife is required to assist him. On
the death of either husband or wife at least one-third of his or her
property passes to the other. Recognized causes for divorce are
adultery, extreme cruelty, wilful desertion, wilful neglect, habitual
intemperance or conviction for felony. The homestead of a head
of a family consisting either of a farm not exceeding 160 acres or
$2500 in value, or of a house and lot the lot not exceeding J acre,
and the house and lot not exceeding $2500 in value is secured
against debtors except in case of judgments obtained before the
homestead was recorded as such, in case of labourers', mechanics'
or vendors' liens, and in case of a debt secured by mortgage; if the
owner is a married person the homestead cannot be mortgaged
without the consent of both husband and wife. For the settlement
of disputes between labourers and employers there is a state board,
appointed by the governor and consisting of an employer of labour,
a labourer and a disinterested citizen. Upon application of either
or both of the parties, provided the employees be not less than
twenty, this board is required to inquire into the cause of the dispute,
with the aid of two expert assistants, who shall be nominated by the
parties, and to render a decision, which is binding for at least six
months upon the parties to the application.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. These are a state prison at
Deer Lodge, managed by contract; a reform school at Miles _City,
an industrial school at Butte, an orphans' home at Twin Bridges,
the soldiers' home at Columbia Falls, a school for deaf and blind
75 6
MONTANA
at Boulder, and an insane asylum at Warm Springs, managed by
contract. They are all under the supervision of a state board of
charities and reform. The state also has a bureau of child and
animal protection.
Education. The public school system is administered by state,
county and district officers. The common school of each district
is under the immediate supervision of a board of trustees; but a state
text-book commission determines what text-books shall be used
in these schools; the state superintendent of public instruction
prepares the questions that are used in examining applicants to teach,
passes judgment on publications for use in school libraries, and
advises with the county superintendent of schools. A county board
of education examines applicants for teachers' positions and pupils
applying to enter high schools. The county superintendent advises
the teachers, and holds teachers' institutes. Each school district
is required by law to keep its school open at least three months a
year and all children between the ages of eight and fourteen are
required to attend for the full term ; if unemployed they are required
to continue in school until they have attained the age of sixteen.
In 1908 fifteen of the counties had a county high school, and there
were also 10 accredited city high schools in 1908. The state educa-
tional institutions are the university of Montana (1895), at Missoula,
the normal college at Dillon, the college of agriculture and mechanic
arts (1893) at Bozeman; and the school of mines (IQOO) at
Butte. They are all under the supervision and control of the state
board of education, which consists of the governor, the state super-
intendent, the attorney-general and eight other members appointed
by the governor for a term of four years, two retiring annually.
The entire educational system is maintained very largely out of
funds derived from lands appropriated by Congress for that
purpose.
Finance. About one-half of the revenue for state and county
purposes is derived from a general property tax. All taxable
property in each county except that of railways in more than one
county is assessed at its full value by the county assessor. The
franchise, roadway, roadbed, rails and rolling stock of railways
in more than one county are assessed at their full value by the state
board of equalization. The assessment rolls of the county assessor
are subject to alteration by the board of county commissioners
sitting as a county board of equalization and the assessments as
between counties are subject to alteration by the state board of
equalization. The state legislature biennially fixes the rate of
taxes for state purposes; the amount of this levy is now limited by
the Constitution to 2j mills on the dollar. The board of county
commissioners fixes the rate of county taxes and levies those taxes;
and the county treasurer collects the taxes of the state and those of
the county. Among the other sources of revenue are a poll-tax of
two dollars on each man between the ages of twenty-one and sixty,
licences, an inheritance tax, rent of state lands and the income
from invested funds received from the sale of state lands.
The state had a bonded debt in 1909 of $384,000, authorized
by popular vote in November 1908 ; by the constitution the aggregate
indebtedness of the state was limited to $100,000 except in case of
war, invasion or insurrection, or in case a measure authorizing a
greater indebtedness should be submitted by the legislature to the
electorate and should receive a majority of the votes cast. The
constitution limits the indebtedness of a county to 5 % of the value
of its taxable property and that of a city, town or school district
to 3%, except that the question may be submitted to a vote of
the tax-payers affected when it is deemed necessary to construct a
sewerage system or procure a water supply.
History. The first exploration within the borders of Montana
was made in 1743 by Sieur de la Verendrye, who in that year
led an expedition up the Missouri river to the Great Falls and
near where Helena now stands; the first exploration in that part
of the state which lies west of the main range of the Rocky
Mountains was made by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark
in 1805. That part which lies east of the mountains was
included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and became succes-
sively a part of Missouri Territory in 1812, of Nebraska Territory
in 1854, of Dakota Territory in 1861 and of Idaho Territory in
1863; that which lies west of the mountains became successively
a part of Oregon Territory in 1848, of Washington Territory in
1853 and of Idaho Territory in 1863. In 1864 Montana Terri-
tory was created, and in 1889 this Territory was admitted to
statehood. The report of Lewis and Clark attracted many
traders and trappers, and within a few years the Missouri Fur
Company, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, the Hudson Bay
Company and the American Fur Company had established
fortified trading posts on the Missouri, the Yellowstone, the
Marias, the Milk and other rivers; the most prominent among
these was Fort Benton, which was established in 1846 at the
head of navigation on the Missouri, and was made the head-
quarters of the American Fur Company. In 1841 Father
Peter John De Smet (1801-1872), a Belgian Jesuit missionary
established Saint Mary's Mission in Bitter Root Valley, but, as
the Indians repeatedly attacked the mission, it was abandoned
in 1850. Fort Owen was, however, established in its place and
continued for several years the chief settlement west of the
mountains.
The development of Montana, was scarcely begun when the
discoveries of gold were made at Bannack, Beaverhead Valley,
in 1862, at Virginia city, Alder Gulch, in 1863 and at Helena,
Last Chance Gulch, in 1864. Several thousand people now
rushed in, and before the Territorial government was created, the
gold districts and the roads thereto suffered from a reign of law-
lessness. The citizens organized a " vigilance committee " and
hanged many of the outlaws. Many traders and trappers were
butchered by the Indians, who became still more troublesome
after the invasion of the Territory by the gold-seekers, and the
surveying of railway routes had been undertaken. Treaties
and military operations were at first of no avail, but in 1876 the
United States government took steps to reduce them to sub-
mission, and Generals George Crook (1828-1890), Alfred Howe
Terry (1827-1890) and John Gibbon (1827-1896), with 2700
troops (besides the Crow scouts) were sent against the Sioux
under Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and others. On the I7th of
June General Crook with 1000 men defeated a large force of the
Indians near the Rosebud river. On the 22nd of June General
George A. Custer was sent up the Rosebud, and on the morning
of the 25th passed over the divide of the Little Big Horn, where
the Sioux were soon discovered. Custer divided his regiment
into four commands, his own comprising 262 men. Continuing
a few miles down stream, he came upon what was supposed to be
a single Sioux village; the Indians, however, proved to number
from 8000 to 10,000, including 2500 to 3000 warriors. Custer
was soon completely surrounded and the entire command, save
a single Crow scout, was slaughtered. This was, however, the
beginning of the end of the Indian troubles. On the 29th of
September a band under American Horse was defeated and their
leader killed; in October some 5000 Indians surrendered; and on
the 22nd of April 1877, 2000 more under Crazy Horse laid down
their arms. General Crook and Colonel Nelson A. Miles especi-
ally distinguished themselves. In October 1877 the Nez Perces
under Chief Joseph after a masterly retreat from Idaho of over
1000 m., probably unequalled in Indian warfare, were hemmed
in by greatly superior forces and captured in the Bear Paw
Mountains in Chouteau county.
In most of the territorial or state elections the Democrats,
or the Democrats and Populists united, have been triumphant,
a Republican governor having been elected only in 1892; but
the contests have often been ardent and bitter. In 1889 the
Democrats were charged with fraud in the 34th election precinct
of Silverbow county, and, the dispute remaining unsettled,
two legislatures were seated. Each legislature elected two sena-
tors to the United States Senate, which, having a Republican
majority, seated the Republicans. More notable, however,
was the feud between W. A. Clark and Marcus Daly, both Demo-
crats. William Andrews Clark (b. 1839) removed in 1856 from
Pennsylvania to Iowa, in 1862 to Colorado and in 1863 to Mon-
tana, where he became the wealthiest mine-owner. Marcus
Daly (1842-1900) went from Ireland about 1857 to New York
City, and thence to California and Nevada, and in 1876 reached
Butte, Montana. In 1882 he discovered one of the richest copper
deposits. in the world. Clark aspired to be a United States
senator, but by ridiculing Daly, provoked a powerful opposition.
Clark was one of the two Democratic claimants who had been
denied a seat in the senate in 1890. Three years later he was
again nominated, but Daly prevented his election. Clark
secured his election to the senate in 1899, but Daly furnished to
the Committee on Elections and Privileges such evidence of
bribery and fraud that it decided against seating him. Daly
died on the I2th of November 1900, and in 1901 Clark
was elected senator for the full term, which expired in 1907,
when he was succeeded by Joseph Moore Dixon (b. 1867), a
Republican.
MONTANELLI MONTANISM
757
The governors of Montana have been as follows:
Territorial.
Sidney Edgerton 1864-186,,
Thomas Meagher (acting) 1865-1866
Green Clay Smith 1866-1869
James Monroe Ashley 1869-1870
Benjamin F. Potts 1870-1883
John Schuyler Crosby 1883-188;
B. Platt Carpenter 1884-188;
Samuel Thomas Hauser 1885-1887
Preston Hopkins Leslie 1887-1889
Benjamin F. White 1889-
State.
oseph Kemp Toole . . Democrat
ohn Ezra Rickards
obert Burns Smith
Joseph Kemp Toole
Edwin L. Morris
Republican
1889-1893
1893-1897
Democrat and Populist 1897-1901
Democrat 1901-1909
1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. United. States Geographical and Geological Survey
of the Territories (Washington, 1872-1874); material indexed in the
various bibliographies (e.g. Bulletin 301) of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey; Annual Reports of the Bureau of Agriculture, Labor and Industry
of the State of Montana; Samuel Fortier, Irrigation in Montana
(Washington, 1906), being Bulletin No. 172 (revised) of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, office of Experiment Stations; the
Reports of the United States Census; H. H. Bancroft, The History
of Washington, Idaho and Montana (San Francisco, 1890); Joaquin
Miller, An Illustrated History of the State of Montana (Chicago, 1894) ;
M. A. Lersen (ed.) History of Montana (Chicago, 1885); Alice
Harriman, Pacific History Stories, Montana Edition (San Francisco,
1903); Robert Vaughn, Then and Now; or Thirty-six Years in the
Rockies (Minneapolis, 1900); T. J. Dinsdale, The Vigilantes of Mon-
tana (Virginia City, 1866), and the Contributions to the Historical
Society of Montana (Helena, 1876 sqq.).
MONTANELLI, GIUSEPPE (1813-1862), Italian statesman
and author, was born at Fucecchio in Tuscany, and in 1840
was appointed law professor at Pisa. He contributed to the
Antologia, a celebrated Florentine review, and in 1847 founded
a newspaper called L' Italia, the programme of which was
" Reform and Nationality." In 1848 Montanelli served with
the Tuscan student volunteers at the battle of Curtatone, where
he was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians. On
being liberated he returned to Tuscany, and the grand duke
Leopold II, knowing that he was popular with the masses, sent
him to Leghorn to quell the disturbances. In October, Leopold,
much against his inclinations, asked him to form a ministry.
He accepted, and on the loth of January 1849, induced the
grand duke to establish a national constituent assembly. But
Leopold, alarmed at the turn affairs were taking, fled from
Florence, and Montanelli, Guerrazzi and Mazzini were elected
" triumvirs " of Tuscany. Like Mazzini, Montanelli advocated
the union of Tuscany with Rome. But after the restoration
of the grand duke, Montanelli, who was in Paris, was tried and
condemned by default; he remained some years in France,
where he became a partizan of Napoleon III. On the formation
of the kingdom of Italy he returned to Tuscany and was elected
member of parliament; he died in 1862. He was an enthusiastic,
but a fickle and ambitious demagogue, and he achieved a better
reputation as a writer.
His most important literary work is his Memorie sull' Italia
e specialmenle sulla Toscana dal 1814 al 1850, in 2 vols. (Turin, 1853) ;
he also wrote // Partita nazionale italiano (Turin, 1856), L Impero,
il papato, e la democrazia in Italia (Florence, 1859) : and Dell' ordina-
mento nazionale in Italia (Florence, 1862). His dramatic poem La
Tentazione and his tragedy Camma achieved some success in their
day. See Assunta Marradi, G. Toscanelli e la Toscana dal 1815 al
1862 (Rome, 1909).
MONTAftES, JUAN MARTINEZ (c. 1580-1649), Spanish
sculptor, was born at Alcala-la-real, in the province of Granada.
His master was Pablo de Roxas, his first known work (1607)
being a boy Christ, now in the sacristy of the capella anligua
in the cathedral of Seville. The great ' altar at Santiponce
near Seville, was completed in 1812. Montanes executed most
of his sculpture in wood, covered with a surface of polished gold,
and coloured. Other works were the great altars at Santa
Clara in Seville and at San Miguel in Jerez, the Conception
and the realistic figure of Christ crucified, in the Seville cathedral;
the figure of St John the Baptist, and the St Bruno (1620);
a tomb for Don Perez de Guzman and his wife (1619); the St
Ignatius and the St Francis of Borja in the university church
of Seville. Montanes died in 1649, leaving a large family.
His works are more realistic than imaginative, but this, allied
with an impeccable taste, produced remarkable results. The
equestrian statue of King Philip IV., caste in bronze by Pietro
Tacca in Florence and now in Madrid, was modelled by Montanes.
He had many imitators, his son Alonzo Martinez, who died
in 1668, being among them.
See B. Haendeke, Studien zur Geschichle der spanischen Plastik
(Strassburg, IQOO); F. Gomez, Historia de la escultura en Espana
(Madrid, 1885).
MONTANISM, a somewhat misleading name for the movement
in the 2nd century which, along with Gnosticism, occupied the
most critical period in the history of the Early Church. It was
the overthrow of Gnosticism and Montanism that made the
" Catholic " Church. The credit of first discerning the true
significance of the Montanistic movement belongs to Ritschl. 1
In this article an account will be given of the general significance
of Montanism in relation to the history of the Church in the
2nd century, followed by a sketch of its origin, development
and decline.
i. From the middle of the 2nd century a change began to
take place in the outward circumstances of Christianity. The
Christian faith had hitherto been maintained in a few small
congregations scattered over the Roman Empire. These con-
gregations were provided with only the most indispensable
constitutional forms (" Corpus sumus de conscientia religionis,
de unitate disciplinae, de spei foedere "). This state of things
passed away. The Churches soon found numbers within their
pale who stood in need of supervision, instruction and regular
control. The enthusiasm for a life pf holiness and separation
from the world no longer swayed all minds. In many cases
sober convictions or submissive assent supplied the want of
spontaneous enthusiasm. There were many who did not become,
but who were, and therefore remained, Christians. Then, in
addition to this, Christians were already found in all ranks
and occupations in the Imperial palace, among the officials,
in the abodes of labour and the halls of learning,. amongst slaves
and freemen. Should the Church take the decisive step into
the world, conform to its customs, and acknowledge as far as
possible its authorities? Or ought she, on the other hand,
to remain a society of religious devotees, separated and shut
out from the world? That this was the question at issue is
obvious enough now, although it could not be clearly perceived
at the time. It was natural that warning voices should then
be raised in the Church against secular tendencies, that the well-
known counsels about the imitation of Christ should be held
up in their literal strictness before worldly Christians. The
Church as a whole, however, under pressure of circumstances
rather than by a spontaneous impulse, decided otherwise. She
marched through the open door into the Roman state, and
settled down there to Christianize the state by imparting to
it the word of the Gospel, but at the same time leaving it every-
thing except its gods. On the other hand, she furnished herself
with everything of value that could be taken over from the
world without overstraining the elastic structure of the organiza-
tion which she now adopted. With the aid of its philosophy
she created her new Christian theology; its polity furnished
ler with the most exact constitutional forms; its jurisprudence,
ts trade and commerce, its art and industry, were all taken
nto her service; and she contrived to borrow some hints even
'rom its religious worship. With this equipment she undertook,
and carried through, a world-mission on a grand scale. But
jelievers of the old school protested in the name of the
rospel against this secular Church. They joined an enthusiastic
movement which had originated in a remote province, and had
at first a merely local importance. There, in Phrygia, the cry
or a strict Christian life was reinforced by the belief in a new
and final outpouring of the Spirit a coincidence which has
>een observed elsewhere in Church history as, for instance,
among the early Quakers and in the Irvingite movement. These
1 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, 2nd ed. Bonn. (1857).
758
MONTANISM
zealots hailed the appearance of the Paraclete in Phrygia, and
surrendered themselves to his guidance. In so doing, however,
they had to withdraw from the Church, to be known as " Mon-
tanists," or " Kataphrygians," and thus to assume the character
of the sect. Their enthusiasm and their prophesyings were
denounced as demoniacal; their expectation of a glorious earthly
kingdom of Christ was stigmatized as Jewish, their passion
for martyrdom as vainglorious and their whole conduct as
hypocritical. Nor did they escape the more serious imputation
of heresy on important articles of faith; indeed, there was a
disposition to put them on the same level with the Gnostics.
The effect on themselves was what usually follows in such
circumstances. After their separation from the Church, they
became narrower and pettier in their conception of Christianity.
Their asceticism degenerated into legalism, their claim to a
monopoly of pure Christianity made them arrogant. As for
the popular religion of the larger Church, they scorned it as an
adulterated, manipulated Christianity. But these views found
very little acceptance in the 3rd century, and in the course of
the 4th they died out.
2. Such is, in brief, the position occupied by Montanism in
the history of the ancient Church. The rise and progress of the
movement were as follows.
At the close of the reign of Antoninus Pius probably in
the year 156 (Epiphanius) Montanus appeared at Ardabau
in Mysia, near the Phrygian border, bringing revelations of the
" Spirit " to Christendom. Montanus claimed to have a pro-
phetic calling in the very same sense as Agabus, Judas, Silas, the
daughters of Philip, Quadratus and Ammia, or as Hermas at
Rome. At a later time, when the validity of the Montanistic
prophecy was called in question, the adherents of the new move-
ment appealed explicitly to a sort of prophetic succession, in
which their prophets had received the same gift which the
daughters of Philip, for example, had exercised in that very
country of Phrygia. The burden of the new prophecy seems to
have been a new standard of moral obligations, especially with
regard to marriage, fasting and martyrdom. But Montanus had
larger schemes in view. He wished to organize a special com-
munity of true Christians to wait for the coming of their Lord.
The small Phrygian towns of Pepuza and Tymion were selected
as the headquarters of his church. Funds were raised for the
new organization, and from these the leader and missionaries,
who were to have nothing to do with worldly life, drew their
pay. Only two women, Prisca and Maximilla, were moved
by the Spirit; like Montanus, they uttered in a state of frenzy
the commands of the Spirit, which urged men to a strict and holy
life. This does not mean that visions and significant dreams may
not have been of frequent occurrence in Montanistic circles. 1
For twenty years this agitation appears to have been confined
to Phrygia and the neighbouring provinces. But after the
year 177 a persecution of Christians broke out simultaneously
in many provinces of the Empire. Like every other persecution
it was regarded as the beginning of the end. It would seem that
before this time Montanus had disappeared from the scene; but
Maximilla, and probably also Prisca, were working with redoubled
energy. And now, throughout the provinces of Asia Minor,
in Rome, and even in Gaul, amidst the raging of persecution,
attention was attracted to this remarkable movement. The
desire for a sharper exercise of discipline, and a more decided
renunciation of the world, combined with a craving for some
plain indication of the Divine will in these last critical times, had
prepared many minds for an eager acceptance of the tidings
from Phrygia. And thus, within the large congregations where
there was so much that was open to censure in doctrine and
constitution and morals, conventicles were formed in order
that Christians might prepare themselves by strict discipline
for the day of the Lord.
1 Theodotus, " the first steward of the New Prophecy," was a
fellow- worker with Montanus, and almost certainly a prophet.
Later on, Firmilian, writing to Cyprian, mentions a prophetess
who appeared in Cappadocia about A.D. 236, and Epiphanius (Haer.
49) tells of another called Quintilla. (Eo.)
Meanwhile in Phrygia and its neighbourhood especially in
Galatia, and also in Thrace a controversy was raging between
the adherents and the opponents of the new prophecy. Between
150 and 176 the authority of the episcopate had been immensely
strengthened, and along with it a settled order had been intro-
duced into the Churches. As a rule, the bishops were resolute
enemies of the Montanistic enthusiasm. It disturbed the peace
and order of the congregations, and threatened their safety.
Moreover, it made demands on individual Christians such as
very few could comply with. But the disputation which Bishops
Zoticus of Cumana and Julian of Apamea arranged with Maxi-
milla and her following turned out disastrously for its promoters.
The " spirit " of Maximilla gained a signal victory, a certain
Themiso in particular having reduced the bishops to silence.
Solas bishop of Anchialus attempted to refute Prisca, but with
no better success (Eusebius, Hist. ecd. v. 19). These proceedings
were never forgotten in Asia Minor, and the report of them
spread far and wide. In after times the only way in which the
discomfiture of the bishops could be explained was by asserting
that they had been silenced by fraud or violence. This was
the commencement of the excommunication or secession of
the Montanists in Asia Minor. Not only did an extreme party
arise in Asia Minor rejecting all prophecy and the Apocalypse
of John along with it, but the majority cf the Churches and
bishops in that district appear (c. 178) to have broken off all
fellowship with the new prophets, while books were written
to show that the very form of the Montanistic prophecy was
sufficient proof of its spuriousness. 2 In Gaul and Rome the
prospects of Montanism seemed for a while more favourable.
The confessors of the Gallican Church at Lyons were of opinion
that communion ought to be maintained with the zealots of
Asia and Phrygia; and they addressed a letter to this effect to the
Roman bishop, Eleutherus. There was a momentary vacillation
even in Rome. Nor is this to be wondered at. The events
in Phrygia could not appear new and unprecedented to the
Roman Church. If we may believe Tertullian, it was Praxeas
of Asia Minor, the relentless foe of Montanism, who succeeded
in persuading the Roman bishop to withhold his letters of
conciliation. 3
Early in the last decade of the 2nd century two considerable
works 4 appeared in Asia Minor against the Kataphrygians. The
first, by a bishop or presbyter whose name is not known, is
addressed to Abircius bishop of Hierapolis, and was written
in the fourteenth year after the death of Maximilla i.e. appa-
rently about the year 193. The other was written by a certain
Apollonius forty years after the appearance of Montanus,
consequently about 196. From these treatises we learn that
the adherents of the new prophecy were very numerous in
Phrygia, Asia and Galatia (Ancyra), that they had tried to
defend themselves in writing from the charges brought against
them (by Miltiades), that they possessed a fully developed
independent organization, that they boasted of many martyrs,
and that they were still formidable to the Church in Asia Minor.
Many of the small congregations had gone completely over to
Montanism, although in large towns, like Ephesus, the opposite
party maintained the ascendancy. Every bond of intercourse
was broken, and in the Catholic Churches the worst calumnies
were retailed about the deceased prophets and the leaders of
the societies they had founded. In many Churches outside of
Asia Minor a different state of matters prevailed. Those who
accepted the message of the new prophecy did not at once leave
the Catholic Church in a body. They simply formed small
conventicles within the Church. Such, for example, appears
to have been the case in Carthage (if we may judge from the
Acts of the martyrs Perpetua and Felicitas) at the commence-
ment of the persecution of Septimius Severus about the year
202. But even here it was impossible that an open rupture
2 Miltiades, vepl TOV fuj Sflv vpo4>riTriv iv knarliati XoXeii'. At the
same time as Miltiades, if not earlier, Apollinaris of Hierapolis also
wrote against the Montanists.
8 It was Zephynnus in A.D. 202 who took the decisive step of
refusing to communicate with the Asiatic Montanists. (Eo.)
4 Quoted in Eusebius, Hist. Ecd. v. 16-18.
MONTANISM
759
should be indefinitely postponed. The bishops and their flocks
gave offence to the spiritualists on so many points that at last
it could be endured no longer. The latter wished for more
fasting, the prohibition of second marriages, a frank, courageous
profession of Christianity in daily life, and entire separation
from the world; the bishops, on the other hand, sought to make
it as easy as possible to be a Christian, lest they should lose the
greater part of their congregations. And lastly, the bishops
were compelled more and more to take the control of discipline
into their own hands, while the spiritualists insisted that God
Himself was the sole judge in the congregation. On this point
especially a conflict was inevitable. It is true that there was
no rivalry between the new organization and the old, as in Asia
and Phrygia, for the Western Montanists recognized in its main
features the Catholic organization as it had been developed
in the contest with Gnosticism; but the demand that the
" organs of the Spirit " should direct the whole discipline
of the congregation contained implicitly a protest against the
actual constitution of the Church. Even before this latent
antagonism was made plain there were many minor matters
which were sufficient to precipitate a rupture in particular
congregations. In' Carthage, for example, it would appear that
the breach between the Catholic Church and the Montanistic
conventicle was caused by a disagreement on the question
whether or not virgins ought to be veiled. For nearly five years
(202-207) the Carthaginian Montanists strove to remain within
the Church, which was as dear to them as it was to their oppo-
nents. But at length they quitted it, and formed a congregation
of their own.
It was at this juncture that Tertullian, the most famous
theologian of the West, left the Church whose cause he had so
manfully upheld against pagans and heretics. He too had come
to the conviction that the Church had forsaken the old paths and
entered on a way that must lead to destruction. The writings
of Tertullian afford the clearest demonstration that what is
called Montanism was, at any rate in Africa, a reaction against
secularism in the Church. There are other indications that
Montanism in Carthage was a very different thing from the
Montanism of Montanus. Western Montanism, at the beginning
of the 3rd century, admitted the legitimacy of almost every
point of the Catholic system. It allowed that the bishops were
the successors of the apostles, that the Catholic rule of faith
was a complete and authoritative exposition of Christianity, and
that the New Testament was the supreme rule of the Christian
life. Montanus himself and his first disciples had been in quite
a different position. In his time there was no fixed, divinely
instituted congregational organization, no canon of New Testa-
ment Scriptures, no anti-Gnostic theology, and no Catholic
Church. There were simply certain communities of believers
bound together by a common hope, and by a free organization,
which might be modified to any required extent. When Montanus
proposed to summon all true Christians to Pepuza, in order to
live a holy life and prepare for the day of the Lord, there was
nothing whatever to prevent the execution of his plan except
the inertia and lukewarmness of Christendom. But this was
not the case in the West at the beginning of the 3rd century.
At Rome and Carthage, and in all other places where sincere
Montanists were found, they were confronted by the imposing
edifice of the Catholic Church, and they had neither the courage
nor the inclination to undermine her sacred foundations. This
explains how the later Montanism never attained a position
of influence. In accepting, with slight reservations, the results
of the development which the Church had undergone during
the fifty years from 160 to 210 it reduced itself to the level of
a sect. Tertullian exhausted the resources of dialectic in the
endeavour to define and vindicate the relation of the spiritualists
to the " psychic " Christians; but no one will say he has succeeded
in clearing the Montanistic position of its fundamental incon-
sistency.
Of the later history of Montanism very little is known. But
it is at least a significant fact that prophecy could not be
resuscitated. Montanus, Prisca, and Maximilla were always
recognized as the inspired authorities. At rare intervals a vision
might perhaps be vouchsafed to some Montanistic old woman,
or a brother might now and then have a dream that seemed to be
of supernatural origin; but the overmastering power of religious
enthusiasm was a thing of which the Montanists knew as little
as the Catholics. Their discipline was attended with equally
disappointing results. In place of an intense moral earnestness,
we find in Tertullian a legal casuistry, a finical morality, from
which no good could ever come. It was only in the land of its
nativity that Montanism held its ground till the 4th century.
It maintained itself there in a number of close communities,
probably in places where no Catholic congregation had been
formed; and to these the Novatians at a later period attached
themselves. In Carthage there existed down to the year 40x3
a sect called Tertullianists; and in their survival we have a
striking testimony to the influence of the great Carthaginian
teacher. On doctrinal questions there was no real difference
between the Catholics and the Montanists. The early Montanists
(the prophets themselves) used expressions which seem to indi-
cate a Monarchian conception of the person of Christ. After
the close of the 2nd century we find two sections amongst the
Western Montanists, just as amongst the Western Catholics
there were some who adopted the Logos-Christology, and others
who remained Monarchians. 1
SOURCES. The materials for the history of Montanism, although
plentiful, are fragmentary, and require a good deal of critical
sifting. They may be divided into four groups: (i) The utterances
of Montanus, Prisca and Maximilla 2 are our most important sources,
but unfortunately they consist of only twenty-one short sayings.
(2) The works written by Tertullian after he became a Montamst
furnish the most copious information not, however, about the
first stages of the movement, but only about its later phase, alter
the Catholic Church was established. (3) The oldest polemical
works of the 2nd century, extracts from which have been preserved,
especially by Eusebius (Hist. Eccles. bk. v.), form the next group.
These must be used with the utmost caution, because even the
earliest orthodox writers give currency to many misconceptions
and calumnies. (4) The later lists of heretics, and the casual notices
of Church fathers from the 3rd to the 5th century, though not
containing much that is of value, yet contain a little.*
1 It is evident that Montanism was by no means homogeneous.
Too often the primitive " heresy of the Phrygians " has been studied
in the light of the matured system of Tertullian. One great diver-
gence is manifest : Tertullian never himself deviated from orthodoxy
and vehemently asserts the orthodoxy of all Montanists, but both
Montanus (" I am the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost ")
and Maximilla (" I am Word and Spirit and Power ") used language
which has a distinctly " monarchian " flavour. There were really
divided views on the question of the Divine Monarchy among the
Montanists as among the Catholics. The orthodox party were known
as the Cataproclans, the heterodox as Cataeschinites, and both
appealed to the oracles of their prophets. Other influences tending
to diversity were the rise of later prophets and visionaries, the per-
sonality of prominent members of the sect (like Tertullian himself,
who gave to Montanism much more than he received from it), and the
power of local environment. An examination of Phrygian as dis-
tinct from African Montanism leads to the following conclusions:
(l) The Phrygians claimed to have received the prophetic gift
by way of succession just as the bishops traced their office back to the
apostles; Tertullian seems to ignore the intermediate steps between
the apostles and Montanus; (2) the " ecstasy '" of the African section
was much more restrained than the ravings of the Phrygians; (3)
the original Montanists followed the example of the Phrygian native
cults in assigning a prominent place to women, Tertullian on the
other hand (De virg. vel. 9) says, "It is not permitted to a woman
to speak in church, nor yet to teach, nor to baptize, nor to offer, nor
to assume any office which belongs to a man, least of all the priest-
hood; " (4) while both sections gave to prophets the power of
absolution, the Phrygians extended it to martyrs also at Carthage
the Catholics did this contrary to the views of Tertullian. There
is also good reason to doubt whether the Phrygian Montanists were
anything like so ascetic and desirous of martyrdom as has been
generally considered. Apollonius (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. v. 16)
accuses them of coyetousness and tells us that Themiso purchased
his freedom from imprisonment by a considerable payment. Sir
William Ramsay has also shown that martyrdoms in Phrygia were
rare during the end of the 2nd and the whole of the 3rd century,
a spirit of religious compromise prevailing between the Christian and
pagan populations (see a paper by H. J. Lawlor in the Journal
of Theological Studies for July, 1908, vol. ix. 481).
* Collected by Munter and by Bonwetsch, Geschichte des Montan-
ismus, p. 197.
3 On the sources see Bonwetsch, pp. 16-55.
y6o
MONTARGIS MONTAUSIER
LITERATURE. Ritschl'sinvestigations.ref erred toabove.supersede
the older works of Tillemont, Wernsdorf , Mosheim, Walch, Neander,
Baur and A Schwegler (Der Montanismus und die chnstltche Kirche
des 2ten Jahrhunderts, Tubingen, 1841). The later works, of which
the best and most exhaustive is that of N. Bonwetsch, Die Geschichte
des Montanismus (1881), all follow the lines laid down by KitKU.
See also Gottwald, De montanismo Tertulham (1862); Reville,
" Tertullien et le montanisme " in the Revue des deux mondes
(Nov. I, 1864); Stroelin, Essai sur le montanisme (1870); |De
Soyre's Montanism and the Primitive Church (London, 1878);
W. Cunningham, The Churches of Asia (London, 1880) ; Renan,
" Les Crises du Catholicisme Naissant " in Rev. d. deux mondes
(Feb IS 1881); H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen 'des Geistes und der
Geisier im nachapostol. Zeitalter (Freiburg, 1899); G. G. Selwyn,
The Christian Prophets (London, 1900) ; Bonwetsch, art. " Montan-
ismus " in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklopadie. Special points of
importance in the history of Montanism have been investigated by
Lipsius, Overbeck, Weizsacker (Theol. Lit.-Zeitung, Nov. 4, 1882),
Harnack, Das Monchthum, seine Ideale und seine Geschichte, 2nd
ed., 1882; Eng. trans., 1901; and Z. /. Kirchengesch. iii. 369-408),
and H. J. Lawlor. Weizsacker's short essays are extremely valu-
able, and have elucidated several important points previously
overlooked. (A. HA.)
HONTARGIS, a town of central France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Loiret, 47 m. E.N.E. of Orleans
by rail. Pop. (1906), 11,038. The town is traversed by the
Vernisson, by numerous arms of the Loing, and by the Briare
canal, which unites with the canal of Orleans a little below it.
It has a church (Ste Madeleine), dating in part from the izth
century and including a fine choir of Renaissance architecture,
and still preserves portions of its once magnificent castle (i2th
to isth centuries), which, previous to the erection of Fontaine-
bleau, was a favourite residence of the royal family. A hand-
some modern building contains the town-hall, public library,
and museum; in the courtyard is a bronze group, " The Dog
of Montargis "; the town has a statue of Mirabeau, born in the
neighbourhood. Montargis is the seat of a sub-prefecture, and
has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and colleges for
both sexes. It manufactures paper, gold chains, rubber, tar,
asphalt, chemical manures, woodwork and leather. The town
is an agricultural market, and its port has trade in coal,
timber, sheep and farm produce.
Montargis was formerly the capital of the Gatinais. Having
passed in 1188 from the Courtenay family to Philip Augustus,
it long formed part of the royal domain. In 1528 Francis I.
gave it as dowry to Renee d'Este, daughter of Louis XII., the
famous Huguenot princess; from her it passed to her daughter
Anne, and through her to the dukes of Guise; it was repurchased
for the Crown in 1612. From 1626 till the Revolution the
territory was the property of the house of Orleans. Montargis
was several times taken or attacked by the English in the 1 5th
century, and is particularly noted for its successful defence
in 1427. Both Charles VII. and Charles VIII. held court in
the town; it was the latter who set the famous Dog of Montargis
to fight a duel with his master's murderer whom he had tracked
and captured.
MONTAUBAN, ARTHUR DE (d. 1479), French magistrate
and prelate, belonged to one of the great families of Brittany.
To satisfy a private grudge against Gilles, brother of Duke
Francis II. of Brittany, he intrigued to such good purpose
that Gilles was arraigned for treason, and finally assassinated
in prison in 1450. When Montauban's duplicity was discovered
he was deprived of his office of bailli of Cotentin and banished.
He then turned monk, and through the support of his brother,
John de Montauban (1412-1466), Louis XL's favourite, obtained
the archbishopric of Bordeaux in 1468. He died in Paris on
the gth of March 1479.
MONTAUBAN, a town of south-western France, capital of
Tarn-et-Garonne, 31 m. N. of Toulouse by the Southern railway.
Pop. (1906), town, 16,813; commune, 28,688. The town, built
mainly of a reddish brick, stands on the right bank of the Tarn
at its confluence with the Tescou. Its fortifications have been
replaced by boulevards beyond which extend numerous suburbs,
while on the left bank of the Tarn is the suburb of Villebo.urbon,
which is connected with the town by a remarkable bridge of the
early i4th century. It is a brick structure over 200 yds. in
length, and though its fortified towers have disappeared it is
otherwise in good preservation. The h&tel de ville, on the site of
a castle of the counts of Toulouse and once the residence of the
Dishops of Montauban, stands at the east end of the bridge. It
aelongs chiefly to the I7th century, but some portions are much
older, notably an underground chamber known as the Hall
of the Black Prince. Besides the municipal offices it contains
a valuable library, and a museum with collections of antiquities
and pictures. The latter comprise most of the work (including
bis " Jesus among the Doctors ") of Jean Ingres, the celebrated
painter, whose birth in Montauban is commemorated by an
elaborate monument. The Place Nationale is a square of the
1 7th century, entered at each corner by gateways giving access
to a large open space surrounded by houses carried on double
rows of arcades. The prefecture, the law-courts and the remaining
public buildings are modern. The chief churches of Montauban
are the cathedral, remarkable only for the possession of the
Vow of Louis XIII.," one of the masterpieces of Ingres, and
the church of St Jacques (i4th and isth centuries), the facade
of which is surmounted by a handsome octagonal tower. Mont-
auban is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assize.
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce and a board of trade arbitration, lycees and a
training college, schools of commerce and viticulture, a branch of
the Bank of France, and a faculty of Protestant theology. The
commercial importance of Montauban is due rather to its trade
in agricultural produce, horses, game and poultry, than to its
industries, which include nursery-gardening, cloth-weaving,
cloth-dressing, flour-milling, wood-sawing, and the manufacture
of furniture, silk-gauze and straw hats. The town is a junction
of the railways of the Southern and Orleans companies, and
communicates with the Garonne by the Canal of Montech.
With the exception of Mont-de-Marsan, Montauban is the
oldest of the baslides of southern France. Its foundation dates
from 1144 when Alphonse Jourdain, count of Toulouse, granted
it a liberal charter. The inhabitants were drawn chiefly from
Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neighbour-
ing monastery of St Theodard. In the i3th century the town
suffered much from the ravages of the Albigensians and from the
Inquisition, but by 1317 it had recovered sufficiently to be
chosen by John XXII. as the head of a diocese of which the
basilica of St Theodard became the cathedral. By the treaty
of Bretigny (1360) it was ceded to the English; but in 1414 they
were expelled by the inhabitants. In 1560 the bishops and
magistrates embraced Protestantism, expelled the monks,
and demolished the cathedral. About ten years later it became
one of the Huguenot strongholds, and formed a small independent
republic. It was the headquarters of the Huguenot rebellion
of 1621, and was vainly besieged by Louis XIII. for eighty-six
days; nor did it submit until after the fall of La Rochelle in
1629, when its fortifications were destroyed by Richelieu. In
the same year the plague cut off over 6000 of its inhabitants.
The Protestants again suffered persecution after the repeal of
the Edict of Nantes.
MONTAUSIER, CHARLES DE SAINTE-MAURE, Due DE
(1610-1690), French soldier, was born on the 6th of October
1 6 10, being the second son of Leon de Sainte-Maure, baron de
Montausier. His parents were Huguenots, and he was educated
at the Protestant College of Sedan under Pierre du Moulin.
He served brilliantly at the sie!ge of Casale in 1630. Becoming
marquis de Montausier by the death of his elder brother in 1635,
he was the recognized aspirant for the hand of Mme de
Rambouillet's daughter Julie Lucine d'Angennes (1607-1671).
Having served under Bernard of Saxe- Weimar in Germany in
1634 he returned to the French service in 1636, and fought
in the Rhenish campaigns of the following years. He was
taken prisoner at Rantzau in November 1643, and only ransomed
after ten months' captivity. On his return to France he became
a lieutenant-general. On the isth of July 1645 he married
" the incomparable Julie, " thus terminating a courtship
famous in the annals of French literature because of the
Guirlande de Julie, a garland of verse consisting of madrigals
by Montausier, Jean Chapelain, Guillaume Colletet, Claude de
MONTBELIARD MONTCALM DE SAINT VERAN
761
Malleville, Georges de Scudery, Pierre Corneille (if M. Uzanne
is correct in the attribution of the poems signed M.C.), Philippe
Hubert, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne, 1 Jean Desmarests de
Saint Sorlin, Antoine Gombaud (t,e nain de la Princesse Julie)
and others. It was copied by the famous calligraphist N.
Jarry in a magnificent MS., on each page of which was painted
a flower, and was presented to Julie on her fete day in 1641.
The MS. is now in possession of the Uzes family, to whom it
passed by the marriage of Julie's daughter to Emmanuel de
Crussol, due d'Uzes.
Montausier had bought the governorship of Saintonge and
Angoumois, and became a Roman Catholic before his marriage.
During the Fronde he remained, in spite of personal grievances
against Mazarin, faithful to the Crown. On the conclusion of
peace in 1653 the marquis, who had been severely wounded
in 1652, obtained high favour at court in spite of the roughness
of his manners and the general austerity which made the Parisian
public recognize him as the original of Alceste in the Misanthrope.
Montausier received from Louis XIV. the order of the Saint
Esprit, the government of Normandy, a dukedom, and in 1668
the office of governor of the dauphin, Louis. He initiated the
series of classics Ad usum Delphini, directed by the learned Huet,
and gave the closest attention to the education of his charge,
who was only moved by his iron discipline to a hatred of learning.
Court gossip assigned some part of Montausier's favour to the
complaisance of his wife, who, appointed lady-in-waiting to
the queen in 1664, favoured Louis XIV.'s passion for Louise
de la Valliere, and subsequently protected Mme de Montespan,
who found a refuge from her husband with her. He died on the
1 7th of November 1690.
See Pere Nicolas Petit, Vie du due de Montausier (1729); Puget
de Saint Pierre, Histoire du due de Montausier (1784); AmexJee
Roux, Un Misanthrope a la- cour de Louis XIV. Montausier (1860);
O. Uzanne, La Guirlande de Julie (1875); E. Fl&hier, Oraisons
funebres du due et de la duchesse de Montausier (Paris, 1691); and
contemporary memoirs.
MONTBELIARD, a town of eastern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Doubs, 49 m. N.E. of Besangon
on the Paris-Lyon line between that town and Belfort. Pop.
(1906), town, 8723; commune, 10,455. Montbeliard is situated
1050 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Allaine at its
junction with the Luzine (Lizaine or Lisaine). It is an impor-
tant point in the frontier defences of France since 1871. Forts
on outlying hills connect it with Belfort on the one side and
(through Blamont and the Lomont fortifications) with Besancon
on the other. The old castle of the counts of Montbeliard is
now used as barracks; its most conspicuous features, the Tour
Bossue and the Tour Neuve, date respectively from 1425 and
1594. Most of the inhabitants are Protestant, and the church
of St Martin, built early in the i7th century, now serves as a
Protestant place of worship. The old market-hall and some
old houses of the i6th century also remain. A bronze statue
of George Cuvier, the most illustrious native of Montbeliard,
and several fountains adorn the town. Montbeliard is the
seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a
board of trade-arbitrators, a communal college, a practical
school of industry, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a
museum of natural history. Since 1870 a considerable impetus
has been given to its prosperity by the Alsatian immigrants.
Its industries include watch and clock making and dependent
trades, cotton spinning and weaving, the manufacture of hosiery,
textile machinery, tools, nails and wire, and brewing. There
is commerce in wine, cheese, wood and Montbeliard cattle.
After belonging to the Burgundians and Franks, Montbeliard
(M'ons Peligardi) was, by the treaty of Verdun (843), added to
Lorraine. In the nth century it became the capital of a count-
ship, which formed part of the second kingdom of Burgundy
and latterly of the German Empire. Its German name is
Mompelgard. In 1397 it passed by marriage to the house of
Wiirttemberg, to whom it belonged till 1793. It resisted the
attacks of Charles the Bold (1473), and Henry I. of Lorraine,
1 (1618-1699), a son of Arnauld d'Andelly and minister of foreign
affairs in succession to Lionne.
(1587 and 1588), duke of Guise, but was taken in 1676 by Marshal
Luxemburg, who razed its fortifications. The tolerance of the
princes of Wiirttemberg attracted to the town at the end of
the i6th century a colony of Anabaptists from Frisia, and their
descendants still form a separate community in the neighbour-
hood. In 1793 the inhabitants voluntarily submitted to annex-
ation by France. In 1871 the battle of the Lisaine between the
French and Germans was fought in the neighbourhood and
partly within its walls.
MONTBRISON, a town of oast-central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Loire, France, 21 m. N.W.
of St Etienne, on the railway from Clermont to St Etienne.
Pop. (1906), 6564. It is situated on a volcanic hill overlooking
the Vizezy, a right-hand affluent of the Lignon du Nord. The
principal buildings are the once collegiate church of Notre-
Dame d'Esperance, founded about 1220 but not finished till
the isth century, and the 14th-century edifice known as the
Salle de la Diana (Decana), which was restored by Viollet-le-
Duc. There is a statue of the poet Victor de Laprade (d. 1883),
a native of the town. Montbrison is the seat of a sub-prefect,
of a court of assize and of a tribunal of first instance. There
are liqueur-distilleries and flour-mills, and silk ribbons are
manufactured; there is considerable commerce in grain.
Montbrison belonged to the counts of Forez during the middle
ages. In 1801 it became the capital of its department in place
of Feurs, but in 1856 the more important town of St. Etienne
was substituted for it.
MONTBRUN, LOUIS PIERRE, COUNT (1770-1812), French
cavalry general, served with great distinction in the cavalry
arm throughout the wars of the Revolution and the Consulate,
and in 1800 was appointed to command his regiment, having
served therein from trooper upwards. At Austerlitz (Dec. 2,
1805) he was promoted general of brigade. He earned further
distinction in Germany and Poland as a dashing leader of
horse, and in 1808 he was sent into Spain. Here occurred
an incident which unfavourably influenced his whole career.
He found himself obliged to overstay his leave of absence in
order to protect the lady who afterwards became his wife.
Napoleon was furious, and deprived him of his command, and
Montbrun was awaiting his master's decision when an oppor-
tunity came to retrieve his reputation. Some doubt exists as .
to the events of the famous cavalry charge at the Somosierra,
but Montbrun's share in it was most conspicuous. Soon after-
wards he was promoted to be general of division, and in 1809
his cavalry took no inconsiderable part in the victories of
Eckmiihl and Raab. He was employed in the Peninsula, 1810-
1811. He was killed, when commanding a cavalry corps, at the
beginning of the battle of Borodino (Sept. 7, 1812). Mont-
brun was considered, as a leader of heavy cavalry, second only
to Kellermann of all the generals of the First Empire.
MONTCALM DE SAINT VERAN, LOUIS JOSEPH, MARQUIS
DE (1712-1759), French soldier, was born at Condiac near
Nimes on the 28th of February I7i2, 2 and entered the army
in 1721, becoming captain in 1727. He saw active service
under Berwick on the Rhine in 1733, and in 1743, having become
a colonel of infantry, he served in Bohemia under Maillebois,
Broglie and Belleisle. He became intimate with Francois de
Chevert (1695-1769), the gallant defender of Prague, and in
Italy repeatedly distinguished himself, being promoted brigadier
in 1747, shortly before the disastrous action of Exilles, in which
he was severely wounded. In 1749 he received the colonelcy
of a cavalry regiment, and in 1756, with the rank of marechal
de camp, he was sent to command the French troops in Canada.
In the third year of his command, having been meanwhile
promoted lieutenant-general, he defended Quebec (q.v.) against
General Wolfe. The celebrated siege ended with the battle
2 A younger brother, Jean Louis Pierre (or Philippe) Elizabeth
Montcalm de Condiac (1719-1726), was a child of astonishing pre-
cocity. At the age of four he read Latin; at six he understood
Greek and Hebrew. It was for his benefit that the bureau lypo-
graphique a mechanism for teaching children reading, writing
and arithmetic at the same time that it amused them was contrived
by their tutor Louis Dumas (1676-1744).
762
MONTCEAU-LES-MINES MONTDIDIER
of the Heights of Abraham (Sept. 12, 1759), in which Wolfe was
killed and Montcalm mortally wounded. The French com-
mander died two days later, while the place, with which his
name and Wolfe's are for ever associated, was still in the hands
of the garrison.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See CANADA : History ; and SEVEN YEARS' WAR,
also Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe. The chief French authorities
are Pinard, Chronologie militaire, \. 616 (1762); Montcalm et le
Canada Jrangais, by F. Joubleau (Paris, 1874) and C. de Bonne-
chose (Paris, 1877); Le Moine, La Memoire de Montcalm vengee
(Montreal, 1889).
MONTCEAU-LES-MINES, a town of east-central France, in
the department of Saone-et-Loire, 14 m. S. by W. of Le Creusot
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 9701; commune,
26,305. Its importance is due chiefly to its position as the
centre of the Blanzy coal basin, on the Canal du Centre, which,
is connected with the coalfield by numerous lines of railway.
Its manufacturing establishments include weaving and spinning
factories, iron and copper foundries, and engineering work-
shops.
MONT CENIS, a pass (6893 ft.) in Savoy (France) which forms
the limit between the Cottian and Graian Alps. A carriage
road was built across it between 1803 and 1810 by Napoleon,
while a light railway (named after its inventor, Mr. Fell, and
worked by English engine-drivers) was opened alongside the
road in 1868, but was destroyed in 1871, on the opening of the
tunnel. This tunnel (highest point 4249 ft.) is really 17 m. west
of the pass, below the Col de Frejus. From Chambery the line
runs up the Isere valley, but soon bears through that of the
Arc or the Maurienne past St Jean de Maurienne to Modane
(61 m. from Chambery). The tunnel is 8 m. in length, and
leads to Bardonneche, some way below which, at Oulx (18 m.
from Modane) the line joins the road from the Mont Genevre.
Thence the valley of the Dora Riparia is followed to Turin
(64! m. from Modane). The carriage road mounts the Arc
valley for 16 m. from Modane to Lanslebourg, whence it is 8 m.
to the hospice, a little way beyond the summit of the pass.
The descent' lies through the Cenis valley to Susa (37 m. from
Modane) where the road joins the railway. Tc the south-west of
the Mont Cenis is the Little Mont Cenis (7166 ft.) which leads
from the summit plateau (in Italy) of the main pass to the
Etache valley on the French slope and so to Bramans in the
Arc valley (7 m. above Modane). This pass was crossed in
1689 by the Vaudois, and by some authors is believed to have
been " Hannibal's Pass." (W. A. B. C.)
MONTCHRETIEN, ANTOINE DE (1575 or 1576-1621), French
dramatist and economist, son of an apothecary at Falaise named
Mauchrestien, was born about 1576. In one of his numerous
duels he had the misfortune to kill his opponent. He con-
sequently took refuge in England, but through the influence of
James I., to whom he dedicated his tragedy, L'Ecossaise, he
was allowed to return to France, and established himself at
Auxonne-sur-Loire, where he set up a steel foundry. In 1621
he abandoned this enterprise to serve on the Huguenot side
in the civil wars. He raised troops in Maine and Lower Nor-
mandy, but was killed in a skirmish near Tourailles on the
8th of October 1621. There is no evidence that he shared the
religious opinions of the party for which he fought, and in
any case he belonged to the moderate party rallied round
Henry IV. In 1615 he published a valuable Traite de Veconomie
politique, based chiefly on the works of Jean Bodin. He had the
good fortune to write before the pruning processes of Vaugelas
and Balzac had been applied to the language, and M. Lanson
praises him as one of the best prose-writers of his time.
His dramas are Sophonisbe (1596), afterwards remodelled
as La Cartaginoise; L'Ecossaise, Les Lacenes, David, Aman
(in 1601); Hector (1604). As plays they have little technical
merit, but they contain passages of great lyrical beauty. In
L'Ecossaise Elizabeth first pardons Mary Queen of Scots, and
no explanation is given of the change that leads to her execution.
Aman has been compared not too unfavourably with Esther,
and the hatred of Haman for Mordecai is expressed with more
vigour than in Racine's play. All Montchretien's heroes 'face
death without fear. M. Petit de Julleville finds the character-
istic note of his plays in the same cult of heroism which was
later to inspire the plays of Corneille. Poet, economist, iron-
master, and soldier, Montchretien represents the many-sided
activity of a time before literature had become a profession,
and before its province had been restricted in France to polite
topics.
The tragedies were edited in 1901 by M. Petit de Julleville with
notice and commentary; the Traite de I' economic politiqiie in 1889
by Th. Funck Brentano, whose estimate of Montchretien is severely
criticized by W. I. Ashley in the Eng. Hist, Rev. (Oct. 1891). See
also Emile Faguet, La Tragedie au XVI me siecle, ch. xi. (1883);
G. Lanson, Revue des deux mondes (Sept. 1891).
MONTCLAIR, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
5 m. N.N.W. of Newark. Pop. (1910 census) 21,550. It is
served by the Erie and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
railways, and by electric lines to Caldwell and Newark. It is
situated at the base and on the slopes of the Orange Mountains
(its altitude above the sea varying from 217 to about 665 ft.),
has an irregular street plan, and is a residential suburb of New
York and other neighbouring cities. Montclair has excellent
public schools. Among the town's institutions are the Moun-
tainside hospital, a state normal school (1908), Montclair
academy (1887), a public library, and two orphan asylums.
An annual Bach festival was first held here in June 1905. The
lower part of Montclair was settled about 1675 and gradually
became known as Cranetown, which name it retained until
1812. In that year Bloomfield, including Cranetown, was
organized as a separate township. In 1868 Cranetown, then
popularly known as West Bloomfield, with the addition of
the Dutch-settled Speertown, was incorporated as Montclair.
Montclair became a town in 1894.
See Henry Whittemore, History of Montclair (New York, 1894).
MONT-DE-MARSAN, a town of south-west France, capital of
the department of Landes at the confluence of the Midou and
the Douze, 92 m. S. of Bordeaux on the Southern railway between
Morcenx and Tarbes. Pop. (1906), 9059. Most of the buildings
are in the older quarter, on the peninsula between the two
rivers forming the Midouze. La Pepiniere, a beautiful public
garden, extends along the right bank of the Douze. A keep
of the i4th century, now used for military purposes, was built
by Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix, to overawe the inhabitants,
and goes by the name of Nou-li-Bos (in modern French " Tu
ne 1'y veux pas "). The finest of the modern buildings is an
officers' club, which contains a small museum. A court of
assizes sits in the town; the local institutions comprise a tribunal
of first instance, a branch of the Bank of France, and a lycee.
The industries include distillation of turpentine and resinous
oils, tanning, the founding and forging of metal, wood-sawing,
and manufactures of machinery and straw envelopes for bottles.
There is trade in resin, wine, brandy, timber, cattle, horses and
other live stock.
Mont-de-Marsan, the first of the Bastides (q.v.) of the middle
ages, dates from 1141, when it was founded by Pierre, vicomte
de Marsan, as the capital of his territory. In the i3th century
it passed to the viscounts of Beam, but the harsh rule of Gaston
Phoebus and some of his successors induced the people to
favour the English. The territory was united to the French
Crown on the accession of Henry IV.
MONTDIDIER, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Somme, 23 m. S.E. of Amiens by
rail. Pop. (1906), 4159. The town, situated on an eminence on
the right bank of the Don, dates from the Merovingian period,
and perhaps owes its name to the imprisonment of the Lombard
king Didier in the 8th century. The church of St Pierre,
dating chiefly from the isth century, has a beautiful portal
of the i6th century and contains the tomb of Raoul III., count
of Cr6py (i2th century), fonts of the nth century and other
works of art. The church of St Sepulcre belongs, with the
exception of the modern portal, to the isth and i6th centuries.
In the interior there is a well-known " Holy Sepulchre " of the
MONT-DORE-LES-BAINS MONTE CORVINO, G. DI 763
latter period. The law-court, once the castle, partly dating
from the izth century, possesses fine tapestries of the i7th
century. A statue commemorates the birth at Montdidier of
Antoine Parmentier (1737-1813), with whose name are con-
nected the beginnings of potato-culture in France. The town
has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance; its
industries include tanning and the manufacture of zinc-white.
Held first by its own lords, afterwards by the counts of Crepy
and Valois, Montdidier passed to the Crown in the i2th century,
at the end of which it was granted a charter of liberties. The
town offered a brave and successful resistance to the Spanish
troops in 1636.
MONT-DORE-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of central France
in the department of Puy-de-D6me, situated at a height of
3440 ft., on the right bank of the Dordogne not far from its
source, and 31 m. by road S.W. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop.
(1906), 1677. The Monts Dore close the valley towards the
south. The thermal springs of Mont Dore, now numbering
twelve, were known to the Romans. Bicarbonate of soda, iron
and arsenic are the principal ingredients of the waters, which are
used both for drinking and bathing, baths of high temperature
being characteristic of the treatment; they are efficacious in cases
of pulmonary consumption, bronchitis, asthma, and nervous
and rheumatic paralysis. From the elevation and exposure
of the valley, the climate of Mont-Dore-les-Bains is severe,
and the season only lasts from the isth of June to the isth of
September. The bath-house was rebuilt in 1891-1894. In
the " park," along the Dordogne, relics from the old Roman
baths have been collected. The surrounding country, with its
fir woods, pastures, waterfalls and mountains, is very attrac-
tive. To the south is the Puy de Sancy (6188 ft.), the loftiest
peak of central France.
MONTEAGLE, THOMAS SPRING-RICE, ist BARON (1790-
1866), English statesman, son of S. E. Rice and Catherine
Spring, came of a Limerick family, whose ancestor was Sir
Stephen Rice (1637-1715), chief baron of the Irish exchequer
and a leading Jacobite. In 1820 he became Whig member for
Limerick (from 1832 member for Cambridge); and after holding
minor offices became secretary for war and the colonies in 1834
and in 1835-1839 chancellor of the exchequer. He was dis-
appointed in not obtaining the speakership, but in 1839 was
created Baron Monteagle of Brandon (a title intended earlier
for his ancestor Sir Stephen Rice), and made controller of the
exchequer. He differed from the government as regards the
exchequer control over the treasury, and the abolition of the
old exchequer (q.v.) was already determined upon when he died
on the 7th of February 1866. His eldest son, Stephen Edmund
Spring-Rice (1814-1865), deputy chairman of the board of
customs, having predeceased him, he was succeeded in the title
by his grandson, Thomas, 2nd baron (b. 1849). Another son
was father of S. E. Spring-Rice (1856-1902), of the treasury,
and of Sir Cecil A. Spring-Rice (b. 1859), the diplomatist.
MONTEAGLE, WILLIAM PARKER, 4TH BARON, and IITH
BARON MORLEY (1575-1622), was the eldest son of Edward
Parker, loth Baron Morley (d. 1618), and of Elizabeth, daughter
and heiress of William Stanley, 3rd Baron Monteagle (d. 1581).
When quite a youth he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir
Thomas Tresham, and was styled Lord Monteagle in right of
his mother. He was allied with many Roman Catholic families,
and during the reign of Elizabeth was in sympathy with their
cause. He received knighthood when with Essex in Ireland
in 1599, and in 1601 took part in the latter's rebellion in London,
when he was punished by imprisonment and a fine of 8000.
He subsequently in 1602 joined in sending the mission to Spain
inviting Philip III. to invade England. He was intimate with
Catesby and others, and according to Father Garnet expressed
an opinion some few months before gunpowder plot that the
Romanists had a good opportunity of making good their claims
by taking up arms against the king. It is certain that he was
one of those who acquiesced in James I.'s accession and assisted
Southampton in securing the Tower for the king. He was
taken into favour, and received a summons to attend the parlia-
ment of the sth of November 1605 as Lord Monteagle. On
the 26th of October 1605, while sitting at supper at Hoxton,
he received the celebrated letter giving warning of the gun-
powder plot, probably written by Francis Tresham. After having
caused it to be read aloud by Ward, a gentleman in his service
and an intimate friend of Winter, one of the chief conspirators,
he took it to Whitehall and showed it to Lord Salisbury and
other ministers. On the 4th of November he accompanied
Lord Suffolk, the lord chamberlain, in his visit to the vault
under the parliament house, where Guy Fawkes was found.
Monteagle received 700 a year for his services in averting the
disaster. In 1609 he was chosen a member of the council of
the Virginia Company and subscribed to its funds. The same
year " disorders in his house " are reported, probably referring
to his harbouring of Roman Catholic students from St Omer
(Cal. of St Pap: Dom: 1603-1610, p. 533). In 1618, on the death
of his father, he was summoned to parliament as Baron Morley
and Monteagle. He died on the ist of July 1622 at Great
Hallingbury, Essex, where he was buried. By his marriage
with Elizabeth Tresham he had, besides daughters, three sons,
the eldest of whom, Henry, (d. 1655) succeeded him as I2th
Baron Morley and 5th Baron Monteagle. These baronies fell
into abeyance when Henry's son Thomas died about 1686.
MONTE CASSINO, an isolated hill overhanging the town of
Cassinum, about midway between Rome and Naples. Hither
St Benedict migrated from Subiaco in the early years of the
6th century, and established the monastery that became the
metropolis of Western monachism. About 580-500 it was sacked
by the Lombards, and the monks fled to Rome, where they were
established at the Lateran basilica. The monastery was rebuilt
in 720, again destroyed by the Saracens in 884, and restored
seventy years later. It reached its highest point of prosperity
and influence from 1059 to 1105, under Desiderius (who became
Pope Victor III. in 1087) and Oderisius. The abbot became
overlord of an extensive territory and bishop of several dioceses:
now, though not a bishop, he is ordinary of seven dioceses.
At the dissolution of monasteries in 1866 Monte Cassino was
spared, owing mainly to a remonstrance by English well-wishers
of United Italy. The monastery became a national monument
and the monks were recognized as custodians. There is a large
secondary school with 250 boys, and rich archives.
See L. Tosti, Sloria delta badia di M.C. (1841; 2nd ed., 1888);
Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) and Herzog, Realencyklo-
pddie (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.)
MONTECATINI, two much-frequented mineral baths of
Tuscany, Italy, (i) Montecatini in Val di Cecina, in the province
of Pisa, 5 m. W. of Volterra. Pop. (1901), 5009. The water
is saline, with a temperature of 78-8 F. There are copper
mines, which have been worked since the isth century, 1358 ft.
above sea-level. (2) Montecatini in Val di Nievole, in the
province of Lucca, 7 m. W. by S. of Pistoja, 105 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1901), 3048 (Bagni di Montecatini); 2856 (Monte-
catini). The springs, which number ten, are saline, and range
in temperature from 82-4 to 86 F. The water is both drunk
and used for bathing by some 40,000 visitors annually, and is
exported in bottles. There is also a natural vapour bath
(8o-95 F.) in the Grotta Giusti (so-called from the satirist
Giuseppe Giusti, a native of the place), at Monsummano near
by, discovered in 1849. Another attraction of the place is the
gardens of Collodi. At the town of Montecatini, on the hill
above (951 ft.), the Florentines were defeated by Uguccione
della Faggiuola of Pisa in 1315.
MONTE CORVINO, GIOVANNI DI (c. 1247-1328), Franciscan
missionary, traveller and statesman, founder of the earliest
Roman Catholic missions in India and China, and archbishop
of Peking. In 1272 he was commissioned by the emperor
Michael Palaeologus, to Pope Gregory X., to negotiate for the
reunion of Greek and Latin churches. From 1275 to 1289 he
laboured incessantly as a missionary in the Nearer and Middle
East. In 1 289 he revisited the Papal Court, and was sent out
as Roman legate to the Great Khan, the Ilkhan of Persia, and
other leading personages of the Mongol world, as well as to the
MONTECRISTO MONTECUCCULI
" emperor of Ethiopia " or Abyssinian Negus. Arriving at
Tabriz, then the chief city of Mongol Persia, and indeed of all
Western Asia, Monte Corvino moved down to India to the
Madras region or " Country of St Thomas, " from which he wrote
home, in December 1291 (or 1292), the earliest noteworthy
account of the Coromandel coast furnished by any Western
European. He next appears in " Cambaliech " or Peking,
and wrote letters (of Jan. 8, 1305, and Feb. 13, 1306), describing
the progress of the Roman mission in the Far East, in spite of
Nestorian opposition; alluding to the Roman Catholic community
he had founded in India, and to an appeal he had received to
preach in " Ethiopia " and dealing with overland and oversea
routes to " Cathay," from the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf
respectively. In 1303 he received his first colleague, the Fran-
ciscan Arnold of Cologne; in 1307 Pope Clement V. created
him archbishop of Peking, and despatched seven bishops to
consecrate and assist him; three only of these arrived (1308).
Three more suffragans were sent out in 1312, of whom one at
least reached East Asia. A Franciscan tradition maintains that
about 1310 Monte Corvino converted the Great Khan (i.e.
Khaishan Kuluk, third of the Yuen dynasty; 1307-1311) : this
has been disputed, but he unquestionably won remarkable suc-
cesses in North and East China. Besides three mission stations
in Peking, he established one near the present Amoy harbour,
opposite Formosa. At his death, about 1328, heathen vied
with Christian in honouring him. He was apparently the only
effective European bishop in the Peking of the middle ages.
The MSS. of Monte Corvino's Letters exist in the Laurentian
Library, Florence (for the Indian Epistle) and in the National
Library, Paris, 5006 Lat. viz. the Liber de aetatibus, fols. 170,
V.-I72, r. (for the Chinese). They are printed in Wadding, Annales
minorum (A.D. 1305 and 1306) vi. 69-72, 91-92 (ed. of 1733, &c.), and
in the Munchner gelehrte Anzeigen (1855), No. 22, part iii. pp. 171-
175. English translations, with valuable comments, are in
Sir H. Yule's Cathay, i. 197-221. See also Wadding, Annales, v.
195-198, 199-203, vi. 93, &c., 147, &c., 176, &c., 467, &c.;
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 162-178, 206-210;
Sir H. Yule, Cathay, i. 165-173. (C. R. B.)
MONTECRISTO, (anc. Oglasa), an island of Italy, belonging
to the province of Leghorn, 25 m. S. of Elba. Its highest point
is 2126 ft. above sea-level, and its area about 6 sq. m. It
contains the ruins of a Camaldulensian monastery, founded in
the i3th century and destroyed in the i6th, and is the private
property of the king of Italy, who has a shooting-lodge there.
The fame of the island is due to the novel, Le Comte de Monte-
cristo, by the elder Dumas.
MONTECUCCULI (MONTECUCCOLI), RAIMONDO, COUNT OF
(1609-1680), prince of the holy Roman Empire and Neapolitan
duke of Melfi, Austrian general, was born on the 2ist of
February 1608/9, af - the castle of Montecucculo in Modena. His
family was of Burgundian origin and had settled in north Italy
in the loth century. At the age of sixteen Montecucculi began
as a private soldier under his uncle, Count Ernest Montecucculi,
a distinguished Austrian general (d. 1633). Four years later,
after much active service in Germany and the Low Countries,
he became a captain of infantry. He was severely wounded
at the storming of New Brandenburg, and again in the same year
(1631) at the first battle of Breitenfeld, where he fell into the
hands of the Swedes. He was again wounded at Liitzen in
1632, and on his recovery was made a major in his uncle's
regiment. Shortly afterwards he became a lieutenant-colonel of
cavalry. He did good service at the first battle of Nordlingen
(1634), and at the storming of Kaiserslautern in the following
year won his colonelcy by a feat of arms of unusual brilliance,
a charge through the breach at the head of his heavy cavalry.
He fought in Pomerania, Bohemia and Saxony (surprise of
Wolmirstadt, battles of Wittstock and Chemnitz), and in 1639
he was taken prisoner at Melnik and detained for two and a half
years in Stettin and Weimar. In captivity he studied, not only
military science, but also geometry in Euclid, history in Tacitus,
and architecture in Vitruvius, and planned his great work on
war. On his release he distinguished himself again in Silesia.
In 1643 he went to Italy, by the emperor's request, and made a
successful campaign in Lombardy. On his return to Germany
he was promoted lieutenant-field-marshal and obtained a seat
in the council of war. In 1645-46 he served in Hungary against
Prince Rakoczy of Transylvania, on the Danube and Neckar
against the French, and in Silesia and Bohemia against the
Swedes. The victory of Triebel in Silesia won him the rank of
general of cavalry, and at the battle of Zusmarshausen in 1648
his stubborn rearguard fighting rescued the imperialists from
annihilation. For some years after the peace of Westphalia
Montecucculi was chiefly concerned with the business of the
council of war, though he went to Flanders and England as the
representative of the emperor, and to Sweden as the envoy of the
pope to Queen Christina, and at Modena his lance was victorious
in a great tourney. In 1657, soon after his marriage with
Countess Margarethe Dietrichstein, he took part in, and after
a time commanded, an expedition against Rakoczy and the
Swedes who had attacked the king of Poland. He became field-
marshal in the imperial army, and with the Great Elector of
Brandenburg completely defeated Rakoczy and his allies (peace
of Oliva, 1660). From 1661 to 1664 Montecucculi with inferior
numbers defended Austria against the Turks; but at St Gotthard
Abbey, on the Raab, he defeated the Turks so completely that
they made a truce for twenty years (Aug. i, 1664). He was
given the Golden Fleece, and became president of the council
of war and director of artillery. He also devoted much time
to the compilation of his various works on military history and
science. He opposed the progress of the French arms under
Louis XIV., and when the inevitable war broke out received
command of the imperial forces. In the campaign of 1673 he
completely out-manoeuvred his great rival Turenne on the Neckar
and the Rhine, and secured the capture of Bonn and the junction
of his own army with that of the prince of Orange on the lower
Rhine. He retired from the army when, in 1674, the Great
Elector was appointed to command in chief, but the brilliant
successes of Turenne in the winter of 1674 and 1675 brought him
back. For months the two famous commanders manoeuvred
against each other in the Rhine valley, but on the eve of a
decisive battle Turenne was killed and Montecucculi promptly
invaded Alsace, where he engaged in a war of manoeuvre with
the great Conde. The siege of Philipsburg was Montecucculi's
last achievement in war. The rest of his life was spent in military
administration and literary and scientific work at Vienna. In
1679 the emperor made him a prince of the empire, and shortly
afterwards he received the dukedom of Melfi from the king of
Naples. Montecucculi died at Linz on the i6th of October
1680, as the result of an accident. With the death of his only
son in 1698 the principality became extinct, but the title of
count descended through his daughters to two branches, Austrian
and Modenese. As a general, Montecucculi shared with Turenne
and Conde the first place amongst European soldiers of his time.
His Memorie delta guerra profoundly influenced the age which
followed his own; nor have modern conditions rendered the
advice of Montecucculi wholly valueless.
AUTHORITIES. The Memorie della guerra, &c., was published at
Venice in 1703 and at Cologne in the following year. A Latin
edition appeared in 1718 at Vienna, a French version at Paris in
1712, and the German Kriegsnachrichten des Fursten Raymundi
Montecuccoli at Leipzig in 1736. Of this work there are MSS.
in various libraries, ana many memoirs on military history, tactics,
fortification, &c., written in Italian, Latin and German, remain still
unedited in the archives of Vienna. The collected Opere di Rai-
mondo Montecuccoli were published at Milan (1807), Turin (1821)
and Venice (1840), and include political essays and poetry.
See Campori, Raimondo Montecuccoli (Florence, 1876); Spenholtz,
Aureum vellus seu catena, &c. (Vienna, 1668) ; memoir prefaced to the
Memorie (Cologne edition) ; this appears also in v. der Groeben's
Neuer Kriegsbibliothek, vi. 230 (Breslau, 1777); Morgenstern, Oester-
reichs Helden (St Polten, 1782); Schweigerd, Oesterreichs Helden
(Vienna, 1853); Paradisi, Elogio storico del conte Raimondo Monte-
cucculi (Modena, 1776); Schels, Oesterreichische militarische Zeit-
schrift (Vienna, 1818, 1828 and 1842); Pezzl, Lebensbeschreibung
Montecucculis (Vienna, 1792); Hormayr, Oesterreichischer Plutarch,
XIII. (Vienna, 1808); Reifly, Biographie der beriihmtesten Feldherrn
Oesterreichs (Vienna, 1813); Wiirzbach, Biographisches Lexikon des
Kaiserthums, &c., pt. 19 (Vienna, 1868) ; Teuffenbach, Vaterldnd-
isches Ehrenbuch (Vienna and Teschen, 1877); Die Hofkriegsraths,
prasidenten (Vienna, 1874); Weingartner, Heldenbuch (Teschen,
1882); Grossmann, Archiv fur ost. Geschichte (Vienna, 1878); also
MONTEFALCO MONTEIL
765
supplement to Militar. Wochenblatt (Berlin, 1878); Organ des militar-
wissenschaftl. Vereins (Vienna, 1881); Reale institute veneto di
scienze, viii. 5, 6 (Venice, 1881); Rivista militare Italiana (March
and April 1882); Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, vol. xxii. (Leipzig,
1885). Important controversial works are those of Turpin and
Warnery, two distinguished soldiers of the l8th century (Commen-
taires sur les memoires, &c. (Paris), 1769, and Commentaires sur les
comm. . . . du comte Turpin, Breslau, 1777). A critical estimate of
Montecucculi's works will be found in Johns Gesch. der Kriegs-
wissenschaften, ii. 1162-1178 (Leipzig, 1890).
MONTEFALCO, a town of the province of Perugia, Italy,
6 m. S.W. of Foligno, situated on a hill, 1550 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 3397 (town); 5726 (commune). Its churches con-
tain a number of pictures of the Umbrian school; S. Francesco
has good frescoes (scenes from the life of S. Francis) of 1452,
by Benozzo Gozzoli, in the choir. There is also a communal
picture-gallery in the picturesque Palezzo Comunale.
MONTEFIASCONE, a town and episcopal see of the province
of Rome, Italy, built on a hill (2077 ft-) on the S.E. side of the
Lake of Bolsena, 70 m. by rail N.W. of Rome. Pop. (1901),
3041 (town); 9731 (commune). The cathedral (1519) is one of
the earliest structures by Sammicheli, S. Maria della Grazie is
also by him. The town has in San Flaviano (built in 1032,
repaired and enlarged in the Gothic style late in the i4th century) ,
a curious double church of importance in the history of architec-
ture (cf. G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell' architettura lombarda, i. 326
sqq.) ; in its interior some 14th-century frescoes were discovered
in 1896. In the crypt is the grave of a traveller, who succumbed
to excessive drinking of the local wine known as Est, est, est.
The story is that his valet who preceded him wrote " est " on
the doors of all the inns where good wine was to be had, and that
here the inscription was thrice repeated. It is possible that
Montefiascone occupies the site of the Fanum Voltumnae, at
which the representatives of the twelve chief cities of Etruria
met in the days of their independence; while under the Empire
the festival was held near Volsinii.
MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784-1885), Jewish
philanthropist, eldest son of Joseph Elias Montefiore, a London
merchant, and of Rachel, daughter of Abraham Lumbroso de
Mattos Mocatta, was born at Leghorn, on the 24th of October
1784. His paternal ancestors were Jewish merchants who settled
at Ancona and Leghorn in the i7th century, whilst his grand-
father, Moses Haim Montefiore, emigrated from the latter town
to London in 1758. Montefiore entered the Stock Exchange, his
uncle purchasing for him at a cost of 1200 the right to practise
as one of the twelve Jewish brokers licensed by the city of
London. Although belonging to the Sephardic or " Spanish "
congregation of Jews, he married in 1812 Judith, a daughter of
Levi Barent Cohen, of the " German " Jews, another of whose
daughters was the wife of Nathan Mayer Rothschild, the head
of the great banking firm; this relationship led to a close con-
nexion in business between Montefiore and that house, and his
brother Abraham married Henrietta Rothschild, a sister of the
financier. In 1824 Montefiore, having amassed a fortune,
retired from the Stock Exchange. From his forty-third year
Montefiore devoted all his energies to ameliorating the lot of his
co-religionists. His first pilgrimage to Palestine was undertaken
in 1827, and resulted in a friendship with Mehemet Ali which
was to lead to much practical good. Immediately on his return,
Montefiore began to take an active part in the struggle which
British Jews were then carrying on to obtain full political and
civic rights. In 1837 he became the city of London's second
Jewish sheriff, and was knighted. In 1838, accompanied by
Lady Montefiore, he started on a second voyage to Palestine,
in order to submit to Mehemet Ali a scheme for Jewish coloni-
zation in Syria. Though political disturbances rendered his
efforts again unsuccessful, the year 1840 brought Montefiore
once moie before Mehemet, this time to plead the cause of some
Jews imprisoned at Damascus on a charge of ritual murder.
He obtained their release, and on his way back wrung from the
Porte a decree giving Jews throughout Turkey the utmost
privileges accorded to aliens. In 1846 the threatened re-issue
in Russia of an Imperial ukase (first promulgated in 1844)
ordering the withdrawal of all Jews from within 50 versts of the
German and Austrian frontiers, caused Montefiore to proceed
to St Petersburg, where in an interview with the tsar he suc-
ceeded in getting the ukase rescinded. On his return, Queen
Victoria, on the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel, made him a
baronet. In 1859 a case of injustice which attracted the atten-
tion of all Europe brought Sir Moses to the gates of the Vatican.
A Jewish child named Mortara had been secretly baptized by
its nurse and stolen from its mother, who died of grief. Cardinal
Antonelli, in the name of the pope, refused to give up the boy,
who became a priest. In 1863 we find Montefiore on a mission
in Constantinople to obtain from the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, the
confirmation of his predecessor's decrees in favour of the Jews;
in 1864 in Morocco to combat an outbreak of anti-Semitism; in
1866 in Syria, relieving the distress resulting from a plague of
locusts and an epidemic of cholera; and in 1867 in Rumania,
once more pleading the cause of the oppressed Jews with Prince
Charles. In 1872 Montefiore was deputed by the British Jews
to present to Alexander II. their congratulations on the bicen-
tenary of the birth of Peter the Great, and was received by the
tsar with great honour at the Winter Palace. His seventh and
last pilgrimage to the Holy Land was made in 1875, of which he
wrote an account in his Narrative of a Forty Days' Sojourn in the
Holy Land, published in that year. The last decade of his life
was passed in comparative quiet upon his estate near Ramsgate,
in Kent; and there, after having received general congratulations
on the completion of his hundredth year, he passed peacefully
away on the 28th of July 1885. Sir Moses Montefiore was a
strictly orthodox Jew, scrupulously observant of both the
spirit and the letter of the Scriptures; in his grounds he had a
synagogue built where services are still held twice a day, a
college where ten rabbis live and expound the Jewish law,
and a mausoleum that contains the remains of himself and
of Lady Montefiore, who died in 1862.
MONTEFRIO, a town of southern Spain, in the province of
Granada, on the river Bilano. Pop. (1900), 10,725. Montefrio
is largely Moorish in character, and dominated by a Moorish
castle. Being built midway between the Sierra de Priego and
Sierra Parapanda, and commanding the open valley between
these ranges, it became one of the chief frontier fortresses of the
Moors in the isth century. Its industries include manufactures
of cotton stuffs, alcohol and soap.
MONTtGUT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH 1JMILE (1825-1895),
French critic, was born at Limoges on the i4th of June 1825.
He began to write for the Revue des deux mondes in 1847,
contributing between 1851 and 1857 a series of articles on the
English and American novel, and in 1857 he became chief literary
critic of the review. Emile Montegut translated Essais de
p/iilosophie americaine (1850) from Emerson; Revolution de 1688
(2 vols. 1853) from Macaulay's History; and also produced the
(Euvres completes (10 vols. 1868-1873) of Shakespeare. Among
his numerous critical works are Ecrivains modernes d'Angleterre
(3rd series, 1885-1892) and Heures de lecture d'un critique (1891),
studies of John Aubrey, Pope, Wilkie Collins and Sir John
Mandeville. Montegut died in Paris on the nth of December
1895.
MONTEIL, AMANS ALEXIS (1769-1850), French historian,
was born at Rodez in 1769, and died at Cely (Seine-et-Marne)
in 1850. His tastes were historical, and he taught history at
Rodez, at Fontainebleau and at St Cyr. He held that a dis-
proportionate importance had been given to kings, their ministers
and generals, and that it was necessary rather to study the
people. In his Histoire des franc,ais des divers etats, ou histoire
de France aux cinq derniers siecles (10 vols., 1828-1844) he
undertook to describe the different classes and occupations of
the community. For this he made a collection of manuscripts,
which he sold in 1835 (many of them passed into the library of
Sir Thomas Philipps), drawing up a catalogue under the singular
title of Traite de mattriaux manuscrits de divers genres d'histoire.
He boasted of having been the first to write really " national "
history, and he wished further to show this in a memoir entitled
L'Influence de I'histoire des divers etats, ou comment fut allte la
France si elle eut eu cette histoire (1840; reprinted in 1841 under
7 66
MONTEITH MONTENEGRO
the title: Les Fran^ais pour la. premiere fois dans I'histoire de
France, ou poetique de I'histoire des divers etats). Monteil did
not invent the history of civilization, but he was one of the
first in France, and perhaps in Europe, to point out its extreme
importance. He revised the third edition of his history himself
(5 vols., 1848) ; a fourth appeared after his death with a preface
by Jules Janin (5 vols., 1853).
MONTEITH, the name given to a large bowl, often made of
silver, with a movable rim and scalloped edges, from which
wine glasses, punch ladle, &c., could be hung, so that they
might be cooled in the water with which it was filled. According
to Anthony Wood (Life and Times, iii. 84, quoted in the New
English Dictionary) the name was given to the bowl from a
" fantastical Scot . . . Monsieur Monteigh who . . . wore the
bottome of his cloake or coate so notched," i.e. scalloped.
MONTELEONE CALABRO, a city of Calabria, Italy, in the
province of Catanzaro, beautifully situated on an eminence
gently sloping towards the Gulf of Sta Eufemia, 1575 ft. above
sea-level, 70 m. N.N.E. of Reggio di Calabria by rail. Pop.
(1901), 10,066 (town); 13,481 (commune). It was almost
totally destroyed by earthquake in 1783, but under the French
occupation it was rebuilt and made the capital of a province.
It suffered, however, considerably in the earthquake of 1905.
The castle was built by Frederick II. The principal church
contains some sculptures by the Gagini of Palermo.
Monteleone is identical with the ancient Hipponium, said to
be a Locrian colony and first mentioned in 388 B.C., when its
inhabitants were removed to Syracuse by Dionysius. Restored
by the Carthaginians (379), occupied by the Bruttii (356), held
for a time by Agathocles of Syracuse (294), and afterwards again
occupied by the Bruttii, Hipponium ultimately became as Vibo
Valentia a flourishing Roman colony, founded in 239 or 192 B.C.
It was important as the point where a branch from Scolacium
(Squillace) on the east coast road joined the Via Popillia. The
harbour established by Agathocles proved of great service as a
naval station to Caesar and Octavian in their wars with Pompeius
Magnus and Sextus Pompeius, and remains of its massive
masonry still exist at the village of Bivona on the coast, while
the fort occupies the site of a temple. Its tunny-fish were
famous. In the town itself there are remains of a theatre, of
Roman baths (?), a mosaic pavement in the church of St Leoluca
(patron saint of Monteleone), and some Latin inscriptions. The
town walls too of the Greek city can be traced for their whole
extent, about 4 m. They are well constructed of regular
parallelograms of a sandy tufa, laid in headers and stretchers.
The Roman town occupied only a part of the Greek site, the
portion occupied by the modern town, the streets of which still
preserve the Roman arrangement. It was supplied with
water by an aqueduct, the reservoir of which is situated at the
village of Papaglionti. The Capialbi and Cordopatri families
have private collections of antiquities.
See V. Capialbi in Mem. Inst. (Rome, 1832), pp. 159 sqq.; F.
Lenormant, La Grande-Grece (Paris, 1882), iii. 155 sqq. (T. As.)
MONTELIMAR, a town of south-eastern France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Dr6me, near the left
bank of the Rhone, 93 m. S. of Lyons on the railway to Marseilles.
Pop. (1906), town, 9162; commune, 13,554. The ancient castle
is now used as a prison. Remains of the ramparts and four old
gates are also preserved. The chief public institutions are the
sub-prefecture, the tribunal of first instance and the communal
college. The industries include flour-milling, silk-throwing and
spinning, and the manufacture of hats, lime, farming implements,
preserved foods and nougat.
Montelimar was called by the Romans Acunum. At a later
period it belonged to the family of Adhemar and received the
name Monteil d'Adhemar, whence the present name. Towards
the middle of the i4th century it was sold by them partly to the
dauphins of Viennois and partly to the pope, and in the next
century it came into the possession of the Crown. During the
religious wars it valiantly resisted Gaspard de Coligny in 15 70,
but was taken by the Huguenots in 1587.
MONTEMAYOR (or MONTEM6R), JORGE (i52o?-is6i),
Spanish novelist and poet, of Portuguese descent, was born
about 1520 at Montem6r o Velho (near Coimbra), whence he
derived his name, the Spanish form of which is Montemayor.
He seems to have studied music in his youth, and to have'
gone to Spain in 1543 as chorister in the suite of the
Portuguese Infanta Maria, first wife of Philip II. In 1552
he went back to Portugal In the suite of the Infanta
Juana, wife of D. Joao, and on the death of this prince
in 1554 returned to Spain. He is said to have served in
the army, to have accompanied Philip II. to England in 1555,
and to have travelled in Italy and the Low Countries; but it is
certain that his poetical works were published at Antwerp in
1554, and again in 1558. His reputation is based on a prose
work, the Diana, a pastoral romance published about 1559.
Shortly afterwards Montemayor was killed in Piedmont, appar-
ently in a love affair; a late edition of the Diana gives the exact
date of his death as the 26th of February 1561. The Diana is
generally stated to have been printed at Valencia in 1542; but,
as the Canto de Orfeo refers to the widowhood of the Infanta
Juana in 1554, the book must be of later date. It is important
as the first pastoral novel published in Spain; as the starting-
point of a universal literary fashion; and as the indirect
source, through the translation included in Googe's Eglogs,
epytaphes and sonnets (1563), of an episode in the Two Gentlemen
of Verona. Though Portuguese was Montemayor's native
language, he only used it for two songs and a short prose passage
in the sixth book of the Diana. His mastery of Spanish is
amazing, and even Cervantes, who judges the verses in the
Diana with unaccustomed severity, recognizes the remarkable
merit of Montemayor's prose style. That he pleased his own
generation is proved by the seventeen editions and two
continuations of the Diana published in the i6th century, by
parodies, imitations and renderings in French and English.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Schonherr, Jorge de Montemayor, sein Leben
und sein Schafroman (Halle, 1886); D. Garcia Peres, Caidlogo razon-
ado biogrdfico y bibliogrdfico de los autores Portugueses que escribieron
en castellano (Madrid, 1890) ; Hugo A. Rennert, The Spanish Pastoral
Novel (Baltimore, 1892); J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, " The Bibliography
of the Diana " in the Revue hispanique (1895) ; R. Tobler, " Shake- .
speare's Sommernachtstraum unn Montemayor's Diana " in the
Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft (1898) ; M. Men6ndez
y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905).
MONTENEGRO, a country of south-eastern Europe, forming
an independent kingdom situated upon the western side of the
Balkan Peninsula, and possessing a small coast-line on the
Adriatic Sea. The name is the Venetian variant of the Italian
Monte Nero, and together with the Albanian Mai Esiya, the
Turkish Kara-dagh, and the Greek Mavro Vouno, reproduces the
native, or Serb, Tzrnagora, "the Black Mountain"; it is derived
from the dark appearance of Mount Lovchen, the culminating
summit of Montenegro proper, of which the northern and eastern
declivities, those which are viewed from the country itself, are
in shadow for the greater part of the day. 1 The dusky pine
forests, which once clothed the mountain and of which remnants
exist on its northern slope, contributed to its sombre aspect.
Up to the end of the isth century, when its territory became
restricted to the mountainous districts immediately north and
east of Mount Lovchen, the kingdom was known as the Zenta
or Zeta, but the name Tzrnagora was probably used locally in
this region from the time of the earliest Slavonic settlements.
Montenegro extends between 41 55' and 43 21' N., and
between 18 30' and 20 E.; its greatest length from north to
south is about 100 m.; its greatest breadth from east
to west about 80 m. It is bounded by the Adriatic Boundaries.
on the S., the seaboard extending for 28 m.; by
the Primore, a strip of the Dalmatian littoral, on the S.W.
and W.; by the Austrian (formerly Turkish) provinces
1 Cf. the similarly-named Tzrna Planina in eastern Montenegro,
Tcherni Vrkh, the culminating summit of Mount Vitosh in Bulgaria,
and Mavro Vouno in the island of Salamis. Various other e^plana-
tions of the name Montenegro, mostly of a fanciful character, have
been put forward : see Kurt Hassert, " Der Name Montenegro " in
Globus, No. 67, pp. 111-113 (Leipzig, 1895).
MONTENEGRO
767
of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the N.W. and N.; by
the Ottoman empire both in the sanjak of Novibazar, on
the N. and N.E., and also in the vilayets of Kossovo and
Scutari on the N.E., E. and S.E. Its area, as officially
estimated after the treaty of Berlin had been enforced in
1880, amounts to 3255 sq. m., or considerably less than half
the size of Wales. The present frontier, which was not finally
delimited till 1881, ascends the Boyana river from its mouth as
far as Lake Sass (Shas), then follows the river Megured to the
summit of Mount Bratovitza, reaching Lake Scutari at a spot
opposite the island of Goritza Topal. Crossing the lake north-
east to a point a little south-east of Plavnitza,- and leaving the
territory of the Hoti and Klementi tribes to the south, and the
districts of Kutchka Kraina to the north, it passes north of
the districts of Plava and Gusinye and reaches the western end
of the Mokra Planina, where it turns to the north-west. After
crossing the Lim at its junction with the Skula, it coincides with
the old frontier for some distance; then reaching the Tara at
Maikovatz, it follows the course of that river to its junction with
the Piva: turning southwards, it reaches the old frontier once
.more at Klobuk, and, passing between the district of Grahovo
and the Krivoshian Mountains, approaches to within a few miles
of the Bocche di Cattaro: then, following the maritime mountain
ridges for a considerable distance, it rejoins the coast a little
south of Spizza.
Physical Features. Montenegro, which forms the meeting-point
of the Dalmatian, Bosnian and Albanian ranges, seems at first a
mere chaos of mountains. It is, however, naturally divided into
three parts, each with its own character. (l) Fertile and well-
watered plains, not unlike those of Lombardy, border the river
Zeta, and after its junction with the Moratcha extend along the
course of that river to Lake Scutari. A fringe .of similar lowland
forms the maritime plain extending between the Sutorman range
and the mouth of the Boyana. (2) Westward, under the shadow of
Lovchen, is the Katunska, or " Shepherds' Huts," the cradle of
Montenegrin liberty. This region presents a surface of hard crystal-
line rock, bare and calcined, with strata sinking to the south-west
_at an angle often of 70. The rocks have been split by atmospheric
agencies into huge prismatic blocks, and the cracks have been
gradually worn into fissures several fathoms deep. In some places
the interior of the stony mass is hollowed out into galleries and
caves, some of great length; during the rainy season subterranean
landslips frequently produce local earthquakes, extending over an
area of 10 or 12 m. The small basins of Cettigne and Niegush are
practically the only cultivable districts in this region. (3) Over the
entire north stretch the massive mountain chains which jink the
Herzegovinian Alps to those of Albania, the scenery recalling that
of Switzerland or the Tirol. In the north-west there are finely
wooded tracts extending north of Nikshitch to the Dormitor moun-
tain group. The Dormitor district contains rich grassy uplands
dotted with numerous small lakes, from which it derives its name
of Yezera (the lakes) ; the rivers Tara and Piva flow through magnifi-
cent gorges clothed with rich forests, and unite near the extreme
north of the frontier. On the north-east are the high but rounded
Brda Mountains, covered with virgin forest or Alpine pastures,
and broken here and there by jagged dolomitic peaks. In the
district of the Vasoyevitchi, which surrounds the little town of
Andriyevitza, is the fine double peak of Kom, and, a little to the
south-west, the summit of Maglitch, commanding a magnificent
view over the wooded valley of Gusinye to the great Prokletia range
in Albania. 1 The contrast between the rich undulating landscape of
the northern regions and the sterile calcined rocks of Montenegro
proper is very remarkable.
The Montenegrin mountain system is divided into four masses: (l)
the group enclosed by the Tara and Piva rivers with Dormitor, one of
the highest mountains in the peninsula (9146 ft.), Yablo-
Mouataia nov Vrkh ( 7I , 3 ft )_ and the Vrkhove Pochoratz (6601
Systemandfr ). ( 2 ) the between the Zeta and the Moratcha
Geological with Ostri . Kuk ( 754<5 ft.), Vlasulya (7533 ft.), Brnik
Formation. ( 6g6o ft ^ and M a g amk ( 662I ft ) . ( 3 ) tne ranges between
the Moratcha and Tara with Stp (7323 ft.) and Gradishte (7156 ft.) ;
and (4) those between the upper Tara and the upper Lim with Kom,
the second highest mountain in the country (Kom Kutchki, 8032 ft.,
Kom Vasoyevitchki, 7946 ft.), separating the districts of the Vasoye-
vitchi on the north-east from that of the Kutchi on the south-west,
and Visi tor (6936 ft.) on the frontier. In Montenegro proper the
-only prominent summit is Lovchen (5653 ft.), between Cettigne
and the western frontier. Between Lake Scutari and the sea is the
Sutorman range with the fine pyramidal summit of Rumiya (5148 ft.)
1 This mountain must be distinguished from the higher Maglitch
(7699 ft.), on the northern frontier, near the junction of the rivers
Tara and Piva.
overhanging Antivari. The prevailing formations of the north and
east are Palaeozoic sandstones and schists, with underlying trap
Throughout Montenegro the following have been identified: (l)
Palaeozoic schists, (2) Wirfen strata of Lower Trias, (3) Trap of the
Palaeozoic and Wirfen strata, (4) Triassic limestone, (5) Jurassic
limestone, (6) Cretaceous limestone, (7) Flysch, in part certainly
Eocene, (8) Neogenic or younger Tertiary formations.
The watershed between the Adriatic and the Black Sea crosses the
country from west to east in a very irregular line, the southern
districts being drained by the Zeta-Moratcha river
system, which finds its way to the Adriatic by Lake
Scutari and the Boyana, while the streams from the Lakes -
northern districts form the headwaters of the Drina, which reaches
the Danube by way of the Save. The Zeta, rising in Lake Slano,
near Nikshitch, is remarkable for its subterranean passage beneath
a mountain range 1000 ft. high. At Ponor, not far from that
MONTENEGRO
Scale; 1:1,500.000
English Miles
Emery U'-lkcr K.
town, the water vanishes in a deep chasm, reappearing at a
distance of several miles on the other side of the mountains.
Its whole course to its junction with the Moratcha is about
30 m. Rising in the Yavorye Planina, the Moratcha sweeps
through mountain gorges till it reaches the plain of Podgoritza;
then for a space it almost disappears among the pebbles and other
alluvial deposits, nor does it again show a current of any considerable
volume till it approaches Lake Scutari. In the neighbourhood
of Dukle 2 and Leskopolye it flows through a precipitous ravine from
50 to 100 ft. high. In the dry season it is navigable from the lake
to Zhabliak. The whole course is about 60 m. Of the left-hand
-tributaries of the Moratcha the Sem or Tzem deserves to be men-
tioned for the magnificent canon through which it flows between
Most Tamarui and Dinosha. On the one side rise the mountains of
the Kutchi territory on the other the immense flanks of the Prokletia
range the walls of the gorge varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. of
vertical height. Lower down the stream the rocky banks approach
so close that it is possible to leap across without trouble. The Sem
rises in northern Albania, and has a length of 70 m. The Rieka
issues full-formed from an immense cave south-east of Cettigne and
falls into Lake Scutari. The three tributaries of the Drina which
belong in part to Montenegro are the Piva, the Tara, and the Lim,
respectively 55, 95 and 140 m. in length. The Tara forms the
northern boundary of the kingdom for more than 50 m., but the
Lim flows beyond the border after the first 30 m. of its course. The
western half of Lake Scutari, or Skodra, belongs to Montenegro;
2 Duklea is the name still borne by the ruins of the Roman Doclea,
often, but wrongly, written Dioclea, from its association with the
Emperor Diocletian.
768
MONTENEGRO
the eastern, with Scutari itself, to Albania. It is a magnificent sheet
of water, measuring about 135 sq. m., with an average depth of two
to three fathoms. The northern end is studded with picturesque
islands. The level of Lake Scutari underwent several changes in
the I gth century; notably when the Drin, an Albanian river, which
before 1830 entered the Adriatic near San Giovanni di Medua,
changed its course so as to join the Boyana just below its exit from
the lake. This raised the level of the lake, flooding the lower valleys
of its tributary streams and permanently enlarging its area. A few
small lakes are scattered among the mountains, and it is evident
that their number was formerly much greater. Montenegro proper
(i.e. the departments of Katunska, Rietchka and Lieshanska) is
almost absolutely waterless, the only stream being the Rieka, which
probably drains the Cettigne basin by an underground outlet. Its
lower course is practically an inlet from Lake Scutari, and is navigable
up to the town of Rieka. The upland plain of Cettigne, now water-
less, was doubtless the bed of a lake at no very distant (geological)
period ; it is still sometimes flooded after heavy rains. The scarcity
of water largely contributed to the successful defence of the country
against Turkish invasion : the few springs are hidden in deep crannies
among the rocks, and the inhabitants are accustomed to preserve
melted snow for use during the summer. On the other hand, the
Brda 1 and north-eastern districts are abundantly watered. The
maritime district possesses two small streams.
Climate. The climate generally resembles that of northern
Albania ; it is severe in the higher regions, and comparatively mild in
the valleys, while in the maritime districts of Antivari and Dulcigno
it may be compared with that of central Italy. The mean annual
temperature is about 58 F. Snow lies for most of the year on many
heights, and in some of the darker gorges it is never thawed. The
high basin of Cettigne (2093 ft.) is deeply covered with snow during
the winter months, and the capital is sometimes almost inaccessible ;
in summer the days are hot, but the nights are cool and frequently
chilly. The climate is generally healthy except in a few marshy
districts.
Flora and Fauna. The Alpine vegetation of the summits gives
way to pine forests in the sub-Alpine zone (about 6000 ft.) ; below
these the beech, and then the oak, the walnut, the wild pear, and
wild plum make their appearance; the fig-tree, the mulberry, and the
vine grow in the middle Zeta and Moratcha valleys, the myrtle,
orange, laurel and olive in the lower Moratcha region, and more
abundantly in the Tzrmnitza and maritime districts. In the forest
districts the beech is the prevailing tree up to a height of about
5000 ft. The chestnut forms little groves in the country between
the sea and Lake Scutari but never ascends more than 1000 ft.
Pomegranate bushes grow wild, and in many parts of the south
cover the foot of the hills with dense thickets, the crimson blossoms
of which are one of the special charms of the spring landscapes.
The leaves of the sumach (Rhus cotinus), which flourishes in the
warmer districts, are exported for use in dye-works; the Pyrethrum
cinerariaefolium supplies material for the manufacture of insect-
powder; the fruit of the wild plum (Cornus mascula), as well as the
grape, is employed for the production of raki or rakiya, a mild
spirit, which is a favourite beverage with the people. Bears are
still found in the higher forests; wolves, and especially foxes, over a
much wider area. A few chamois still roam on the loftiest summits,
the roebuck is not infrequent in the backwoods, the wild boar may
be met with in the same district, and the hare is abundant "wherever
the ground is covered with herbage. There are one or two species
of snakes in the country, including the poisonous Illyrian viper
(Vipera ammodytes). Esculent frogs, tree frogs, the common tor-
toise, and various kinds of lizards are all common. Scorpions and
numerous reptiles infest the arid rocks of the Katunska. The list
of birds includes golden eagles and vultures, twelve species of
falcons, several species of owls, nightingales, larks, buntings, hoo-
poes, partridges, herons, pelicans, ducks (ten species), nightjars, &c.
Immense flocks of water-fowl haunt the upper reaches of Lake
Scutari. The rivers abound with trout, tench, carp and eels; the
trout of the Moratcha are especially fine. More important from an
economic point of view is the scpranze (Leuciscus alburnus:
Servian uklieva), a kind of sardine, which supplies an article of food
and merchandise to a considerable portion of the population. The
fish, which enter the Rieka inlet of Lake Scutari during the winter,
are taken with nets during a few weeks in the spring, when the fishing
season is inaugurated with a religious service; they are salted and
exported in large quantities to Trieste and the Dalmatian coast.
The annual take is valued at 4000. The sea-fisheries are of less
value. As regards mineral resources, traces of iron, copper and
coal are said to exist ; there is a natural petroleum spring in the
neighbourhood of Virbazar.
Agriculture and Stock-farming. Except in the lowlands, which
serve as the granary of Montenegro, furnishing wheat, maize, barley,
rye, potatoes and capsicums, there is little tillage. Methods and
implements are alike primitive. In the Katunska the peasants are
glad to enclose the smallest spaces of the fertile red soil which is
1 The name Brda (literally " mountains ") signifies in ordinary
speech the mountain-group east of the Zeta which was incorporated
in the principality in 1796. It figures in the prince's title, but is not
otherwise used in official documents.
left after rain in the crevices of the rocks, and one may see harvests
only a few yards square. The vineyards produce excellent grapes,
but wine production, which might become an important industry,
is at present limited to home consumption. Tobacco is largely
cultivated, especially in the neighbourhood of Podgoritza ; the annual
produce amounts to 550,000 Ib. Stock-raising is more largely carried
on than agriculture. In the north droves of swine fatten on the
mast of the beech woods; goats % and large flocks of sheep, cele-
brated for their thick fleeces, thrive on the high pastures, and the
lower slopes afford excellent grazing for larger stock. The native
breed of cattle is small, but among other efforts made to improve
it a stock-farm is maintained by Prince Nicholas near Nikshitch.
The horses, as elsewhere in the Balkan Peninsula, are diminutive,
wiry and intelligent. Bee-keeping is practised in the Kutchi
districts, and mulberries are grown for silkworms.
Commerce and Industries. The exports, valued at 80,265 ' n
1906, include cattle (large and small), smoked and salted meat
known as castradina, cheese, undressed hides, scoranze, sumach,
pyrethrum, tobacco and wool. The imports, valued in the same year
at 239,505, consist mainly of manufactured articles, such as iron
utensils and weapons, soap, candles, &c., and colonial products.
In 1904, when Montenegro renounced its commercial treaties, the
old 8 % ad valorem duty levied on imports was in many cases raised to
25 %. This caused much discontent among the people, who had been
growing steadily poorer since 1900; and many families emigrated.
The exportation of cattle is greatly hindered by the high tariff
imposed on the Austrian frontier, which is productive of much illicit
trading. There are practically no manufactures: the men disdain
industrial employment, while the women are occupied by household
duties or work in the fields. A brewery and a cloth factory,
however, exist at Nikshitch, a soda-water factory at Cettigne, and
an olive-oil refinery at Antivari. The coarser cloth worn by the
peasants is home-made; the finer kind worn by the wealthier class
is imported.
Communications. The progress of trade and the development
of the natural resources of the country must largely depend on
improved means of communication. In this direction considerable
progress has already been achieved. Montenegro possessed in 1907
228 m. of excellent carriage roads, admirably engineered and main-
tained. The remarkable zigzag road from Cattaro to Niegush and
Cettigne was completed in 1881; it was afterwards prolonged to
Rieka, Podgoritza, Danilovgrad (where a fine bridge across the Zeta
was erected in 1870), and Nikshitch. Another road connects
Podgoritza with its port, Plavnitza, on Lake Scutari; a third runs
from Antivari to Rieka, and unites the sea-coasts with the richest
districts of the interior. The ports of Antivari and Dulcigno are
insufficiently sheltered, but are capable of considerable improve-
ment ; both are places of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and a
regular service between Antivari and Bar! on the Italian coast is
maintained by the " Puglia " Steamship Company. The Boyana
is navigable by sea-going vessels as far as Oboti (l2j m. from its
mouth), where cargoes from Scutari must be transferred to small
river craft. Important harbour works were inaugurated in 1905
at Antivari by the Italo-Montenegrin Compagnia d' Antivari, which in
the same year began the construction of a railway from that port
to Virbazar on Lake Scutari. Four steamers belonging to the same
company ply on the lake. Postal and telegraphic communication
is fairly complete. There were, in 1906, 16 post offices and 20
telegraph stations, with 412 miles of wire. The number of letters
posted in that year was 91,250. The telegraph is much used by the
people: the number of telegrams sent in 1906 was 54,750.
Population. In 1882 the population of Montenegro was esti-
mated as low as 160,000 by Schwartz. A more usual estimate
is 230,000. According, however, to information officially fur-
nished at Cettigne, the total number of inhabitants in 1900 was
311,564, of whom 293,527 belonged to the Orthodox Church;
12,493 were Moslems and 5544 were Roman Catholics; 71,528,
or 23%, were literate and 240,036, or 77%, were illiterate.
The total number in 1907 was officially given as 282,000. The
population is densest in the fertile eastern districts; Montenegro
proper is sparsely inhabited. Emigration is greatly increasing,
especially to America; the number of emigrants is given as 6674
in 1905 and 4346 in 1906. The bulk of the inhabitants belongs
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race. There were
about 5000 Albanians resident in the country in 1900, besides a
small colony of gipsies, numbering about 800, a few of whom
have abandoned their nomadic life and settled on the soil. The
Moslems, whose thrift and industry have won encouragement
from the Crown, greatly decreased for some years after 1880
owing to emigration. The capital of Montenegro is Cettigne
(3200 inhabitants in 1900, 5138 in 1907). The chief commercial
centres are Podgoritza (12,347) and Nikshitch (6872), with the
ports of Antivari (2717) and Dulcigno (5166). These towns are
described under separate headings. Danilovgrad (1226) on the
MONTENEGRO
769
Zeta was founded in 1871 by Prince Nicholas and named after
his predecessor, Danilo II. In the vicinity is Orialuka, the
prince's palace, with its mulberry nurseries. Spuzh (1000), a
little lower on the east bank of the Zeta, possesses a fortified
acropolis. Niegush or Nyegosh ( 1 893) , on the road from Cettigne
to Cattaro, is the ancestral abode of the ruling family, which
originally came from Niegush in Herzegovina. Zhabliak (1200),
near Lake Scutari, was the capital until late in the i5th century.
It was a Venetian stronghold. Rieka (1768), near the northern
end of Lake Scutari, derives some commercial importance from
its position. Grahovo (1000), in the extreme west, is famous for
the Turkish defeats of 1851 and 1876. Other small towns are
Kolashin, Virbazar and Andriyevitza.
The Montenegrins present all the characteristics of a primitive
race as yet but little affected by modern civilization. Society
National is still in that early stage at which personal valour
Character- is regarded as the highest virtue, and warlike prowess
titles. constitutes the principal, if not the only, claim to
pre-eminence. The chiefs are distinguished by the splendour of
their arms and the richness of their costume; women occupy a
subject position; the physically infirm often adopt the profession
of minstrels and sing the exploits of their countrymen like
the bards of the Homeric age. A race of warriors, the Monte-
negrins are brave, proud, chivalrous and. patriotic; on the other
hand, they are vain, lazy, cruel and revengeful. They possess
the domestic virtues of sobriety, chastity and frugality, and are
well-mannered, affable and hospitable, though somewhat con-
temptuous of strangers. They are endowed in no small degree
with the high-flown poetic temperament of the Serb race, and
delight in interminable recitations of their martial deeds, which
are sung to the strains of the gusla, a rudimentary one-stringed
fiddle. Dancing is a favourite pastime. Two characteristic
forms are the slow and stately ring-dance (kolo), 1 in which women
sometimes participate, though it is usually performed by a circle
of men; and the livelier measure for both sexes (oro), in which the
couples face one another, leaping high into the air, while each
man encourages his partner by rapid revolver-firing. The oro
is the traditional dance in the Katunska district. Women chant
wild dirges, generally improvised, over the dead; mourners try
to excel one another in demonstrations of grief; and funerals
are celebrated by an orgy very like an Irish " wake." Like
most imaginative peoples, the Montenegrins are extremely
superstitious, and belief in the vampire, demons and fairies is
almost universal. Among the mountains they can converse
fluently at astonishing distances. The physical type contrasts
with that of the northern Serbs: the features are more pro-
nounced, the hair is darker, and the stature is greater. The men
are tall, often exceeding 6 ft. in height, muscular, and wonder-
fully active, displaying a cat-like elasticity of movement when
scaling their native rocks; their bearing is soldier-like and manly,
though somewhat theatrical. The women, though frequently
beautiful in youth, age rapidly, and are short and stunted,
though strong, owing to the drudgery imposed on them from
childhood; they work in the fields, carry heavy burdens, and
are generally treated as inferior beings. Like the Albanians,
the Montenegrins take great pride in personal adornment. The
men wear a red waistcoat, embroidered with gold or black braid,
over which a long plaid is sometimes thrown in cold weather; a
red girdle, in the folds of which pistols and yataghans are placed ;
loose dark-blue breeches and white stockings, which are generally
overed with gaiters. The opanka, a raw-hide sandal, is worn
stead of boots; patent leather long boots are sometimes worn
by military officers and a few of the wealthier class. The head-
dress is a small cap (kapa), black at the sides, in mourning for
Cossovo; red at the top, it is said, in token of the blood shed
lien and afterwards. On the top near the side, five semicircular
bars of gold braid, enclosing the king's initials, are supposed
represent the five centuries of Montenegrin liberty. There
1 The ring-dance, known as the kolo (literally, " wheel ") in all
_erb countries, corresponds with the Bulgarian horo (to be dis-
tinguished from the Montenegrin oro), and is almost universal
hroughout the Balkan Peninsula; it is seldom, however, danced in
he rocky Katunska district, where level spaces are rare.
xvin. 25
is little authority, however, for this and other fanciful interpre-
tations of the pattern, which was adopted in the reign of Peter I.;
the red fez, from which the kapa probably derives its colour,
was previously worn. A blue or green mantle is sometimes
worn in addition by the chiefs. The poorer mountaineers are
often dressed in coarse sacking, but all without exception carry
arms. The women, as befits their servile condition, are generally
clothed in black, and wear a black head-dress or veil; on Sundays
and holidays, however, a white embroidered bodice, silver girdle,
and bright silk skirt are worn beneath an open coat. Over this
is placed a short, sleeveless jacket of red, blue, or violet velvet,
according to the wearer's age. Unmarried girls are allowed to
wear the red kapa, but without the embroidered badge. The
Vasoyevitch tribe retain the Albanian costume, in which white
predominates. Turkish dress is often seen at Antivari, Dulcigno
and Podgoritza. The dwelling-houses are invariably of stone,
except in the eastern districts, where wooden huts are found.
As a rule, only the mansions of cattle-owners have a second
storey: the ground floor, which is dark and un ventilated, is
occupied by the animals; the upper chambers, in which the
family reside, are reached by a ladder or stone staircase. Chim-
neys are rare, and the smoke of the fireplace escapes through the
windows (if any exist) or the open doorway. The principal
food of the people is rye or maize cake, cheese, potatoes and
salted scoranze; their drink is water or sour milk; meat is seldom
tasted, except on festive occasions, when raki and red wine are
also enjoyed. The Montenegrins are great smokers, especially
of cigarettes; in the districts which formerly belonged to Turkey
the men, whose dignity never permits them to carry burdens,
may be seen going to market with the chibuk, or long pipe, slung
across their backs. The mother possesses little influence over
her sons, who are trained from their earliest infancy to cultivate
warlike pursuits and to despise the weaker sex. Betrothals
often take place in early childhood. Young men who are
attached to each other are accustomed to swear eternal brother-
hood (pobratimstvo) ; the bond, which receives the sanction of
the Church, is never dissolved. Marriages between Montenegrins
and converted Turkish girls are a common source of blood-feuds.
The zadruga, or house-community, under the rule of a stareshina,
or house-father, is found in Montenegro as in other Slavonic
lands (see SERVIA). The tribal system still exists, but possesses
less significance than in Albania, owing to the centralization
of authority at Cettigne. The tribe (pleme, pi. plemena) is
subdivided into clans (bratstva).
Constitution and Government. Notwithstanding the creation
of an elective senate in 1831, the grant of a so-called constitution
in 1868, and the establishment of a responsible ministry in 1874,
the government remained autocratic till 1905, the whole power,
even the control of religion and finance, which the consti-
tution of 1868 had conceded to the senate, being centred in the
hands of the prince, who in 1910 assumed the title of king. The
senate, instituted by Peter II. with the object of limiting the
power of the tribal chieftains, was in 1881 merged in a council of
state, the members of which, six in number, were nominated and
dismissed by the prince. The council supervises measures to be
laid before the Skupshtina, or national assembly, and exercises
a disciplinary control over officials. The ministry comprises six
departments: (i) the interior, with separate sections for public
works, posts and telegraphs, commerce and industry, shipping,
sanitary service and agriculture; (2) foreign affairs; (3) war;
(4) finance; (5) justice; and (6) education. On the i9th of
December 1905 a new constitution was proclaimed by Prince
Nicholas. A Skupshtina was instituted, consisting of 62 elected
deputies, '9 ex officio members (the higher ecclesiastical and
civil dignitaries), and 3 generals nominated by the prince.
The Skupshtina is elected by manhood suffrage for a period of
four years, and is summoned annually on the 3ist of October.
In conjunction with the Crown it exercises the legislative power;
the ministers are responsible to it as well as to the Crown. The
constitution affords financial supervision to the Skupshtina,
which elects a board of control and votes an annual budget; it
guarantees liberty of the person, of religious belief, and of the
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MONTENEGRO
press, together with the right of public meeting, and abolishes
the death penalty for political offences.
Administration and Justice. For purposes of local administra-
tion the country is divided into 5 departments (oblasti), each
governed by a prefect (upravitel) , and 56 districts (kapetanati) ,
each under an official styled kapetan. The prefects and kapetans
are nominated by the king on the recommendation of the
minister of the interior. Rural communes, each under an
elected kmet, or mayor, exist in Montenegro as in all Slavonic
countries. The kmets act as justices of the peace, and there is
an appeal from their decisions to the courts of first instance
(kapetanski sudove), of which there is one in each district, the
kapetan acting as judge. In each of the five departments there
is a superior court (oblasni sud), with a president and two judges;
at Cettigne there is a high court of justice (veliki sud), which is
the final court of appeal. The ultimate appeal to the prince
was abolished in 1902, when Prince Nicholas laid aside his
judicial functions, retaining only the prerogative of pardon.
The judges, who are removable, are nominated by the king on
the recommendation of the minister of justice. With a single
exception there are no professional advocates in Montenegro;
each man is his own counsel, bringing his own witnesses. The
local gendarmerie, numbering 150 men, is distributed in the five
departments. The kapetanati have replaced the former local
divisions according to plemena; in each of the communes
there is one or more of the bratstva. The codification of the
law, which had previously been administered according to un-
written custom, was first undertaken by Peter I. in 1796. An
improved code, issued by Danilo II. in 1855, still contained many
quaint enactments. The excellent code drawn up by Professor
Bogishitch, a native of Ragusa, in 1888, was revised and enlarged
in 1899. It contains elements from various foreign systems
scientifically adapted to national usages and requirements. A
large number of judicial reforms were carried out by Count
Volnovitch, who succeeded Professor Bogishitch in 1899; in 1905
a new code of civil procedure was promulgated, and a criminal
code in the following year. The only prison is at Podgoritza.
In the old prison at Cettigne, closed after 1902, many of the
inmates were free to walk in and out at pleasure. Some were
burdened with fetters, rather as a punishment than for restraint.
Until the completion of an asylum in 1903, dangerous lunatics
were confined in prison. The commonest offences are murder
and robbery; despite vigorous measures taken by the king and
his predecessors, the blood-feud, or vendetta, cannot be stamped
out, being approved, and even enforced, by public sentiment.
Only women are held exempt from the duty of avenging their
next-of-kin; they have been known, however, to undertake it,
disguising themselves in male attire. A man who kills his
slanderer, or otherwise avenges his honour, often receives a
nominal term of imprisonment. Robbery, if practised by means
of raids across the frontier, is popularly regarded as a venal
offence. Other forms of crime are rare, and foreigners may
traverse all parts of the kingdom, except the neighbourhood
of the Albanian border, in perfect safety. The death penalty
was first introduced by Peter I. Executions are carried out
by a firing party selected from the various tribes, in order to
prevent the relatives of the criminal from exacting vengeance.
Exceptional severity is shown in the treatment of political
offenders, who in some instances have been subjected to solitary
confinement for years without trial.
Finance. Financial statistics are not published. The total
receipts were estimated in 1907 at 2,773,690 Austrian krone, 1 the
principal sources of income being the taxes on land, houses and cattle,
the monopolies of tobacco, salt, petroleum and alcohol, and the
customs dues._ The total expenditure was estimated at 2,730,994
krone, the principal items being: civil list, &c., 189,586 krone;
ministry of interior, 574,822 krone; of foreign affairs, 144,547
krone; of justice, 232,710 krone; of finance, 592,561 krone; of war,
1 33.1696 krone; of worship and education, 269,208 krone; service of
national debt,_ 244,500 krone. The public debt is under 300,000.
The contribution of Montenegro to the Ottoman debt has not been
fixed. From time to time considerable subventions have been
1 The krone = lod. English.
received from Russia and Austria. The annual Russian subsidy,
mainly for military and educational purposes, is stated to be about
40,000. Montenegro has no mint; Austrian paper money and
coins are generally employed together with Montenegrin nickel and
bronze coins struck in Austria. Turkish gold and silver are also
in circulation. The former Turkish and Venetian weights and
measures have been superseded by the French.
Defence. The Montenegrin is a born warrior; his weapons, which
he never lays aside, are his most precious possession, and distinction
in battle is the sole object of his ambition. Persons of all classes
wear a revolver in the kolan or waistband. " You might as well
take from me my brother as my rifle," says a native proverb ; and
rifles are almost universally carried near the Albanian frontier,
where the tribesmen on either side are in a state of chronic hostility.
Brave to a fault, an unerring marksman, hardy, agile, crafty and
enduring, the Montenegrin has few rivals in the practice of guerrilla
warfare. The traditional method of fighting is by ambuscade;
the enemy is enticed into some intricate defile, surrounded, and
harassed by rifle-fire; then the mountaineers, throwing aside their
firearms, deliver a swift attack with the hanjar, or yataghan, which
they wield with terrific effect. A number of heads cut off in battle
adorned the parapet of a small tower outside Cettigne, called the
" Turks' Tower," as late as 1850. When reduced to extremity the
Montenegrins often committed suicide rather than fall into the hands
of the enemy, the last cartridge being reserved for this purpose;
disabled comrades who could not be removed used to be beheaded ,
in 1876 a Montenegrin offered to perform this kindly service for a
Russian officer who was wounded at Klobuk. Savage methods of
warfare, however, have been strongly discountenanced by King
Nicholas and his predecessor. Till the middle of the igth century
the forces of the principality consisted of undisciplined bands of
tribesmen under local chiefs, whose rivalries often proved injurious
to the national cause. The supreme command, however, always
rested with the prince. The nucleus of a permanent corps was
created by Peter II., who formed a bodyguard of picked men known
as perianiki, from the feathers (pera) which adorned their caps.
The name is still borne by a small corps (20 men in 1907) which
guards the residences of the king and his sons, but the feathers
are no longer worn. In 1853 Danilo II. ordered the enrolment of all
persons capable of bearing arms, and instituted a military hierarchy
of voievodes (generals), sirdars (colonels) and kapetans; the organiza-
tion, which was based on the tribal system, was remodelled by
Servian officers in 1870, when the chiefs were brought to Cettigne
to receive military instruction. In the same year arms of precision
were introduced : the cost and complex structure of the new weapons
threatened to cause serious difficulty, but Russian aid was soon
forthcoming. Since 1870, though arms and ammunition are manu-
factured on a small scale within the kingdom, the chief supplies
have come from Russia. In 1895 the tsar presented Prince Nicholas
with 30,000 Berdan rifles, besides ordnance and other war material,
and in 1898 sent a further gift of 35,000 Moskovska rifles. Every
able-bodied citizen must serve in the army, except Moslems, who are
exempt on payment of a capitation tax. The military organization
has undergone a gradual transformation under Prince Nicholas
in conformity with the changed circumstances of the country and
the requirements of modern warfare. The militia system on the
tribal basis is maintained, but in 1896 a permanent battalion of
500 men was established at Cettigne, and two years later another
at Podgoritza, each under a komandir, or major, 4 captains and 15
lieutenants. A permanent brigade of artillery was formed at Nik-
shitch in 1897. In 1905 these were abolished through motives of
economy. There is a standing corps of officers, but no standing
army. All young men of military age go through an obligatory
period of twelve days' service at the various local military centres.
Candidates for a commission afterwards proceed to a military
school at Podgoritza for one year; the best and most promising
then receive commissions as pod-ofizieri or sous-officiers, and are
sent for a further course of instruction of two years to military schools
either at Cettigne for the infantry, or at Nikshitch for the artillery.
They then receive full commissions and are sent to the local centres
to superintend the training of the militia, thus gradually superseding
the old militia officers, and replenishing the standing corps of officers
of the regular army. Officers who have completed a course of
study abroad are allowed to wear a distinctive emblem on the kapa.
The war strength is estimated at from 38,000 to 42,000 men, the
infantry being composed of about 32,000 men of the first ban and of
5000 or 6000 of the second or reserve (which, however, would
scarcely be employed in the field), the artillery of about 1500. Con-
siderable deduction must be made from these numbers in view of the
emigration of recent years; according to some authorities between
20,000 and 22,000 men of military age are absent in America and
elsewhere. It is expected, however, that many of these would
return should the country become involved in war. The infantry
is divided into II brigades, each containing from 4 to 6 battalions;
the total number of battalions is 56. The battalion is composed of
a varying number of tchete, or companies, each of which belongs
to a separate clan and has its own bairaktar, or standard-bearer.
The younger men of the first ban are occasionally exercised in the
neighbourhood of their homes on Sundays and holidays. They are
armed with the Moskovska (repeating) rifle, but a Berdan rifle is
MONTENEGRO
771
also kept in each household. The artillery was composed in 1910 of
18 siege, 25 field and 38 mountain guns, with 4 howitzers, 15 mortars
and 18 machine-guns (6 Catling and 12 Maxim-Nordenfeldt) ; the
principal arsenal is at Spuzh, where the heavier guns are kept, the
others are distributed among 8 of the II local brigades. The
perianiki, whose numbers were increased by Prince Danilo, were
disbajided in 1898, when steps were taken to form a bodyguard
of 3000 picked men under Prince Mirko, King Nicholas's second
son, but the project was abandoned in view of the jealousies to
which the selection gave rise. Owing to the lack of open country
there is no cavalry. In 1894 the sultan presented Prince Nicholas
with equipment for a small mounted body-guard (32 men), and
offered the services of three instructors. This corps, however,
ceased to exist in 1898. About 20,000 men can concentrate at a
given spot within 48 hours. The signal for mobilization is mainly
given by telegraph; bonfires, trumpet-calls and volley-firing are
also employed. The warriors were formerly summoned by sten-
torian couriers, who shouted from the tops of the mountains. An
ambulance corps has been formed. Transport is deficient, all
draught animals, however, in the country have been registered
and a few carts have been provided. The wives and daughters of
the troops provide the commissariat, and carry the ammunition.
Religion. The Montenegrin Church is an autocephalous branch
of the Eastern Orthodox communion. In 1894 it formally vin-
dicated its independence against the claims of the Russian synod.
The vladikas, or prince-bishops, formerly depended on the patriarch-
ate of Ipek. The theocratic system of government which existed from
1516 to 1851 tended to unite the patriotic and the religious instincts
of the people. Since the separation of the spiritual and temporal
powers in 1851, the see of Cettigne, in which the diocese of Ostrog
is included, has been occupied by a metropolitan (metropolit)^ who
possesses a nominal jurisdiction over Scutari and the Primore.
In judgments relative to divorce his verdicts may be reversed
by the king. Otherwise he is supreme in matters spiritual. There
are 159 parishes of the Orthodox Church, 10 Roman Catholic
parishes under the archbishop of Antivari and 10 Mahommedan
parishes under a mufti. The churches are 'small unpretending
structures, almost all exactly alike; a handsome cathedral, however,
has been erected at Nikshitch. The principal monasteries, in
addition to the convent at Cettigne, are those of St Nicholas, on the
Moratcha, and of St Basil at Ostrog. The monastic order is almost
extinct; the parochial clergy, who numbered about 400 in 1900,
are only distinguishable from the laity by their beards; they wear
the national costume, carry weapons, take part in warfare, and
follow the ordinary avocations of the peasantry. Even the old
vladikas discarded the episcopal robe, except when engaged in
sacerdotal duties. The clergy are still for the most part extremely
ignorant.
Education. The Bogoslovia, a seminary for the instruction of
the young priests and schoolmasters, was established at Cettigne
in 1869. It is maintained by a subvention from the emperor of
Russia, while the empress supports the Zhenski Tzrnogorski
Institut, an excellently managed school for girls (98 pupils in 1907).
Government lecturers go on circuit to instruct the older men. They
may be seen on Sundays, not only distributing general information,
but teaching the shepherds how to safeguard their flocks from
disease, and the lowland cultivators how to tend their vines and
tobacco crops. An agricultural college at Podgoritza supplements
their work. Primary education is compulsory. In the rural dis-
tricts it is free; in the towns a small fee is charged. In 1906 there
were 112 primary schools in the principality with 150 teachers
and 9756 pupils; and two secondary schools (at Cettigne and
Podgoritza) with 21 professors and about 1000 pupils; the Mos-
lems and Roman Catholics have separate schools. There are also
gymnasia, or high schools, at Cettigne and Podgoritza, with about
700 pupils. Students desirous of higher education proceed abroad,
for the most part to the university in Belgrade. The progress of
education under Prince Nicholas was very remarkable. In the time
of his predecessor, Danilo II., who taught the sons of his chieftains
in the palace, there were only three schools in the principality.
In 1876, at the beginning of the war, there were 52 schools, with 62
teachers and 3159 pupils. The schools were closed during the war,
and at its conclusion only 22 could be reopened, owing to want of
funds. Elementary education was reorganized in 1878.
Language and Literature. The Montenegrin language is practically
identical with the Serbo-Croatian: it exhibits certain dialectical
variations, and has borrowed to some extent from the Turkish and
Italian. Existing manuscripts and printed books, chiefly psalters
and gospels, bear witness to a period of literary culture among the
clergy contemporaneous with the activity of the printing-press at
Obod. This was established in 1493, a few years after Caxton set
up his first press in Westminster. It was destroyed by the Turks
in 1566, after sending out copies of the gospel into all Slavonic
countries. The folk-songs, however, of which the first collection was
made in the reign of Peter II., constitute the bulk of the national
literature. The poems of that ruler are accounted among the classics
of the Servian language, especially his Gorski Vienatz, or " Mountain
Wreath," a drama describing the massacre of the Montenegrin
Moslems by their Christian kinsmen in 1702. The reigning family
has produced a succession of poets; the songs of Mirko Petrovitch,
the father of Prince Nicholas, and the lyrics and dramas of Prince
Nicholas himself enjoy great celebrity. The Grlitze, or " Turtle-
doves," a kind of almanac published at Cettigne by Milakovitch
between 1835 and 1839, contained poems, tales, statistics and an
abridgment of the Montenegrin annals down to 1830 ; it was succeeded
in the time of Danilo II. by the Orlitch, or " Eaglet." The first
Montenegrin newspaper, the Tzrnogoratz, or Montenegrin,"
founded in 1870, was prohibited on the Austrian frontier, and soon
disappeared; it was replaced by the Glas Tzrnogortza, or " Voice
of the Montenegrin," a semi-official publication. There were in
1910 three other journals in the kingdom.
Antiquities. In Montenegro, as in Albania, the monuments of
early civilization bear witness to Roman rather than to Greek
influence. Roman remains occur in many parts of the country
east of the Zeta, and early Latin churches exist at Dulcigno
( Ulcinium) and other places. " The organization and forms of
the churches, the architecture and ornamentation, point to the
West and not to the East." It is evident that Latin civilization
was firmly planted in Illyria before the barbarian incursions of the
6th century. Latin sepulchral inscriptions and some finely cut
marble blocks have been found at Berane, a little beyond the eastern
frontier, and at Budimlye in its neighbourhood. Especially interest-
ing and important are the extensive ruins of Doclea, now known
as Dukle, the birthplace of the Emperor Diocletian. The city,
which received the franchise under the Flavian emperors, occupied
a remarkable site at the junction of the rivers Zeta and Moratcha.
The outer 'walls are standing in many places, and excavations
carried out in 1893 by M. Rovinski and Messrs J. A. R. Munro,
Milne and Anderson revealed a considerable portion of the ground-
plan, including several streets and a forum. Among the buildings
are a fine civil basilica, with a great inscription on the architrave,
two small temples, an early Christian basilica, and a later church;
several inscriptions, columns, richly worked capitals and tracery,
and mosaic pavements have been brought to light. At Medun
there are remnants of polygonal masonry. Illyrian forts are found
in many parts of the country. The ravages of the Turks obliterated
almost every trace of medieval culture. The fortress of Obod, the
site of the famous printing-press, is a heap of ruins; a fragment of
one of the first missals printed here is shown at Cettigne; it bears
the date 1494. Other editions are preserved at the monastery of
Tza'initza, on the Bosnian side of the frontier, and at Moscow. The
precious books and relics stored in the monastery of Ivan the Black
at Cettigne perished with the destruction of the monastery in 1687.
The building, the home of the reigning vladikas, had been previously
sacked by the Turks in 1623, and was again destroyed by them in
1714. In the fortress-monastery of St Nicholas (founded in 1252),
which overlooks the headwaters of the Moratcha, are some interest-
ing and well-preserved frescoes which date from the I3th century.
The monastery of Ostrog, about twelve miles from Nikshitch, is a
comparatively recent foundation, dating from the i8th century.
It has been styled " the Lourdes of the Balkans," owing to its reputa-
tion for miraculous cures, and is visited annually by thousands of
Orthodox pilgrims, and even by Roman Catholics and Moslems.
The upper portion, situated in the cleft of a precipitous rock, was
in 1768 and again in 1862 successfully defended by a handful of
men against the Turks.
History. The history of Montenegro as an independent state
begins with the battle of Kossovo (1389), but the country had
enjoyed periods of independence or semi-independence at various
epochs before that event. It formed a portion of the district
of Praevalitana in the Roman province of Illyria, and, lying on
the borderland of the empires of .the West and East, it alternately
shared the fortunes of either till the close of the $th century. It
was then conquered by the Ostrogoths (A.D. 493), but half a cen-
tury later definitely passed under Byzantine rule, having already
acknowledged the ecclesiastical authority of Constantinople,
a circumstance which determined the course of its subsequent
history. Illyria and Dalmatia succumbed to the great Serbo-
Croat invasion of the 6th and 7th centuries; the Serb race by
which Montenegro is now inhabited occupied the country about
the middle of the 7th century. A confederacy of Serb states
was formed under zhupans, or feudal princes, dependent on the
grand zhupan, who was nominally the vassal of the Greek
emperor. The Serb principality of the Zeta, or Zenta, originally
included the Herzegovina, Cattaro and Scutari, as well as the
Montenegro of to-day, and was ruled by a zhupan resident at
Doclea. The principality, though retaining its zhupans, was
practically united with the Servian kingdom between 1159 and
1356 under the Nemanya dynasty, which sprang from Doclea.
After the death of the great Servian tsar Dushan in 1356 the
feudatory princes of his empire became more or less independent ,
and the powerful family of Balsha established a dynasty in the
Zeta, eventually transferring its capital from Doclea to Scutari.
772
MONTENEGRO
After the fatal defeat of Kossovo, which extinguished the inde-
pendence of Servia for more than four centuries (see SERVIA),
George Balsha, the ruling prince of the Zeta, withdrew to the
mountainous portion of his realm, which became an asylum for
many of the Servian nobles and for others who had been outlawed
or persecuted by the Turkish conqueror. The principality now
owned no suzerain, and the history of its heroic struggle with
the Turks began. The long record of warfare is varied by
conflicts with the Venetians, who at times allied themselves
with the mountaineers, but usually deserted them in the hour
of need. The Balsha family became extinct in 1421, and a new
dynasty was founded by StephjuxTzernoyevitch, or Tzernovitch,
who fixed his capital at ZhabTiak on the north-east side of Lake
Scutari, and joined with his relative, the famous Scanderbeg
(q.v.) in many campaigns against the Turks. After the Turkish
conquest of Bosnia in 1463, of the Herzegovina in 1476 and of
Albania in 1478, and the surrender of Scutari by the Venetians
in 1479, the Montenegrins found themselves surrounded on all
sides by the Ottoman power, and the struggle was henceforth for
existence. Abandoned by Venice and unable to obtain succour
from any Christian state, Ivan the Black, the son and successor
of Stephan, set fire to Zhabliak in 1484, and withdrew with his
people to the mountain village of Tzetinye (Cettigne) which has
ever since been the capital of the little principality. Here he
founded the famous monastery and created a bishopric in order
to establish the spiritual power at the seat of government. Ivan
was one of the greatest heroes of Montenegrin history: according
to the national legend, he still sleeps in a cave near his fortress
of Obod to awake when the hour arrives for the expulsion of
the Turks from Europe.
The Tzernoyevitch dynasty came to an end in 1516, and from
this date till 1696 the mountaineers were ruled by the vladikas
or bishops of Cettigne, elected by assemblies of the
iefs and people, and consecrated by the patriarch
of Ipek. The elective vladikas were aided in matters
relating to national defence by a civil governor. The institution
of a theocratic sovereignty probably saved the country from
absorption in the Turkish Empire, the supreme power being
vested in a sacrosanct person, whose position was unattainable by
ambitious chieftains, and whose holy office precluded the possi-
bility of his defection to Islam. The earlier vladikas were left
comparatively unmolested by the Turks, and were enabled to
devote their attention to the issue of numerous psalters, missals
and gospels from the printing-press at Obod. But the beginning
of the 1 7th century was marked by renewed Turkish aggression.
Cettigne was taken in 1623 and again in 1687, when the monas-
tery of Ivan the Black was blown up by the monks; a tribute
was for a time imposed on the mountaineers, but the bolder
spirits maintained their resistance in the heights, and the
invading armies found it impossible to prolong their stay in
these inhospitable regions.
In 1696 it was decided to continue the hereditary principle
with the theocratic system, and Danilo Petrovitch of Niegush,
the first ruler of the present reigning family, was
ofPetro- nominated vladika with power to select his successor
vitch. from among his relatives. The succession was
henceforth regularly from uncle to nephew, owing
to the rule of celibacy imposed on the monastic order. The
reign of Danilo I. was memorable for the massacre of the Moslems
settled in the principality (the " Montenegrin vespers ") on
Christmas Eve 1702, the great defeat of the Turkish invaders
at Tzarevlatz (1712), the capture of Cettigne by the Turks and
the destruction for the third time of its monastery (1714), and
the inauguration of the intimate relations which have ever since
existed with Russia by the visit of the vladika to Peter the Great
in 1715. With Russian aid Danilo was enabled in some degree
to repair the ruin which had overtaken his little realm. In
the time of his successor Sava (1737-1782) an impostor named
Stephan Mali, who represented himself as the Russian emperor
Peter III., won the confidence of the Montenegrins, and governed
the country with ability for several years (1768-1773), the
mountaineers defeating the combined efforts of the Turks and
Venetians to remove him. He was eventually assassinated by
a Greek suborned by the pasha of Scutari. Peter I. (1782-1830),
the greatest of the vladikas, took part in the war of Austria and
Russia against Turkey (1788-92), but was abandoned by his
allies in the treaties of Sistova and Jassy. He nevertheless
completely routed the Turks in the battle of Krussa (1796),
annexed the Brda region to the principality, and obtained a
formal recognition of Montenegrin independence from the sultan
in 1799. In concert with the Russians he besieged the French
in Ragusa (1806), and in 1813-14 expelled them from the
Bocche di Cattaro with the aid of a British fleet under Admiral
Fremantle. The much-coveted seaport, however, was almost
immediately occupied by an Austrian force. Peter I. reor-
ganized the internal administration and promulgated the first
Montenegrin code of laws. After his death he was canonized
as a saint by the people. His successor Peter II. (1830-1851),
a poet, statesman and reformer, as well as a capable military
chief, instituted a senate (1831), abolished the office of civil
governor (1832), revived the national printing-press, and did
much to educate and civilize his people. He was buried by his
desire on the summit of Mount Lovchen that his spirit might
survey his beloved land. He was the last of the vladikas; his
nephew Danilo II. (1851-1860) at once declined the ecclesiastical
dignity, and assuming the title of gospodar, or prince, settled
the succession on his direct male descendants. He defeated
the Turks near Ostrog in 1853, but refrained from attacking
them during the Crimean War. His pacific policy produced
much discontent among the warlike mountaineers, which culmi-
nated in an open revolt. His demand for the recognition of
Montenegrin independence and other claims were set aside by
the Congress of Paris. In 1858 his brother Mirko, " the Sword
of Montenegro," routed the Turks with great slaughter at
Grahovo. In 1855 Danilo II. promulgated a new code, assuring
civil and religious liberty to his subjects. On the nth of August
1860 he was shot at Persano on the Bocche di Cattaro by a
Montenegrin whom he had exiled after the revolt, and died two
days afterwards. He left no male offspring, and was succeeded
by Nicholas, the son of his brother Mirko.
Shortly after the accession of Prince Nicholas (Aug. 13,
1860), an insurrection broke out in Herzegovina, and the sym-
pathy which the mountaineers displayed with their
Christian kinsmen led to a rupture with Turkey
(1862). Notwithstanding the heroic defence of
Ostrog by the prince's father, Mirko, the war proved disastrous,
owing to the superior armament and discipline of the Turkish
troops, and severe terms were imposed on the principality by
the convention of Scutari (Aug. 31). During the fourteen
years of peace which followed, the country suffered greatly from
pestilence and famine. Within this period a series of reforms
were carried out by the prince: the army was rearmed and reor-
ganized, an educational system was initiated, and a constitution
under which the prince surrendered various prerogatives to
the Senate was granted. In 1869 the Krivoshians, or Serb
inhabitants of the northern shores of the Bocche di Cattaro,
rose against the Austrian government; the excitement in
Montenegro was intense, but the prince succeeded in checking
the warlike ardour of his subjects. The revolt in Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 1875 had more important consequences for the
principality. On the 2nd of July 1876 Prince Nicholas, in
alliance with Prince Milan of Servia, declared war against
Turkey and invaded Herzegovina. A victory was gained at
Vuchidol (July 28), and Medun was captured; but the Servian
army suffered reverses, and an armistice was arranged in
November. In the following spring the determination of Russia
to take the field against Turkey encouraged the Montenegrins
to renew the war. The Turks succeeded in occupying Ostrog,
but were subsequently repulsed; the greater part of their forces
was soon withdrawn to Bulgaria, and Prince Nicholas captured
successively Nikshitch, Antivari and Dulcigno. The recovery of
the seaboard, which had belonged to Montenegro in the middle
ages, ws perhaps the principal achievement of the war. The
enlargement of territory stipulated for by Russia under the treaty
MONTE OLIVETO MAGGIORE MONTEREY
773
of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) would have brought Montenegro
into close contiguity with Servia, thus facilitating the eventual
union of the Serb race and closing the path of Austria towards
the Aegean. The Berlin Treaty (article xxviii.) gave to Monte-
negro Nikshitch, Spuzh, Podgoritza, Plava, Gusinye and Antivari,
but restored Dulcigno to Turkey. The resistance of the Moslem
inhabitants of Plava and Gusinye to annexation led to long
negotiations, and eventually the " Corti Compromise " was
agreed to by a conference of the Powers at Constantinople
(April 1 8, 1880). Plava and Gusinye were to be restored to
Turkey, while the Montenegrin frontier was extended so as to
include the Hoti and the greater part of the Klementi tribes.
This arrangement, which could hardly have proved successful,
was not carried out by Turkey, and the Powers subsequently
decided to annex Dulcigno to Montenegro in exchange for Plava
and Gusinye. The Porte interposed delays, though consenting
in principle, and the Albanian League (see ALBANIA) assumed a
menacing attitude. On the 28th of September the fleets of the
Powers under Admiral Seymour appeared off Dulcigno, and the
British government shortly afterwards proposed to occupy
Smyrna. On the nth of November the Porte yielded; on the
22nd the Turkish troops defeated the Albanians, and on the 2$th
Montenegro obtained possession of Dulcigno. The present fron-
tier, as already described, was shortly afterwards delimited by an
international commission. With the exception of some frontier
troubles, the years since 1880 have been spent in peace, and the
country has advanced in prosperity under the autocratic but
enlightened rule of Prince Nicholas. The relations with Turkey,
the traditional foe, have improved, while those with Austria
have become less friendly. In July 1893 the four-hundredth
anniversary of the foundation of the printing-press at Obod was
celebrated at Cettigne, several foreign universities and learned
bodies being represented at the festivities. In September 1896
the bi-centenary of the Petrovitch dynasty was commemorated.
The marriage in the same year of Princess Helen, fourth daughter
of Prince Nicholas, with the crown prince of Italy, subsequently
King Victor Emmanuel III., led to an increase of Italian influence
in the principality. In December 1900 Prince Nicholas assumed
the title " Royal Highness." In October 1906 the first Monte-
negrin parliament assembled at Cettigne; and on the 28th of
August 1910, Prince Nicholas (q.v.) assumed the title of king.
AUTHORITIES. Milutinovitch, History of Montenegro (in Russian),
(St Petersburg, 1835) ; Wilkinson, Dalmatia and Montenegro (London,
1848); Vuk Karajich, Montenegro und die Montenegriner (Stutt-
gart, 1857); Kallay, Geschichte der Serben von den dltesten Zeiten bis
1815 (trans, from the Hungarian by J. H. Schwicker; Buda-
pest, 1885), Servian trans., Istoria Srpskoga naroda, (Belgrade,
1876); Frilley and Wlahowitj, Le Montenegro contemporain (Paris,
1876); Rash, Montenegro (Leipzig, 1877); Milakovitch, Storia del
Montenegro (Ragusa, 1877) ; Gopchevitch, Montenegro und die
Montenegriner (Leipzig, 1877); Yriarte, Les Bords de I'Adriatique
et le Montenegro (Paris, 1878); Stefanovitch yon Viloyo, Wander-
ungen durch Montenegro (Vienna, 1880); Chiudina, Storia del Monte-
negro (Spalato, 1882); Tietze, Geologische Uebersicht von Montenegro
(Vienna, 1884); Rovinsky, Tchernagora, (in Russian; St Petersburg,
1888); Duchitch, Tzernagora (in Servian; Belgrade, 1891); Meda-
kovitch, Pietro II. Petrovic Niegus (Neusatz, 1892); Hassert, Reise
durch Montenegro (Vienna, 1893); Coquelle, Histoire du Montenegro
et de la Bosme (Paris, 1895); Miller, The Balkans, pp. 353-468
(London, 1896); Mantegazza, Al Montenegro (Florence, 1896);
Tomanovitch, Petar Drugi Petrovich Niegosh (Cettigne, 1896);
Antonio Martini, // Montenegro (Turin, 1897) ; Bourchier, " Monte-
negro and her Prince," in Fortnightly Review (December, 1898);
Rouvaratz, Montenegrina (in Servian; Semlin, 1899); Gelchitch,
La Zedda e la dinastia dei Balsidi (Spalato, 1899); R. Wyon and G.
Prance, The Land of the Black Mountain (London, 1903). The best
map is that of the Austrian staff. (J. D. B.)
MONTE OLIVETO MAGGIORE, a monastery of Tuscany,
Italy, 6 m. S. of Asciano. It was founded in 1320, and is mainly
celebrated for the beautiful frescoes in the monastery court,
which are by Luca Signorelli (1497-1498) and Antonio Bazzi,
called Sodoma (1505), representing scenes from the legend of
St Benedict. The church and library contain fine inlaid wood-
work by Fra Giovanni da Verona.
MONTEPULCIANO, a town and episcopal see of the province
of Siena, Tuscany, Italy, 44 m. S.E. of Siena by rail. Pop.
(1901), 6288 (town); 15,384 (commune). The town, 6 m. W. of
the station, crowns the summit of a hill (1984 ft.), and is
surrounded by medieval walls. It is not traceable in history
before A.D. 715. It was under the protection of Siena till 1202,
when it declared for Florence and thenceforward passed from
one mistress to the other, until early in the i6th century when
it finally became Florentine. In 1561 it became an episcopal
see. Most of the buildings belong to the Renaissance; except
the castle, the 14th-century Palazzo Pubblico, and the portals
of two or three churches, especially that of S. Maria (i3th
century). There are a number of fine private houses, some
built by Antonio da Sangallo the elder (1455?-! 534) and
Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536) and others by Vignola (1507-
!573)- The beautiful church of the Madonna di S. Biagio
probably Sangallo's masterpiece was built in 1518-1537. The
cathedral built by Bartolommeo Ammanati (1570), modified
by Ippolito Scalza, and completed in 1680 (with the exception
of the facade, which is still unfinished) contains a large altar-piece
by Taddeo di Bartolo of Siena, and the fragments of an imposing
monument erected in 1427-1436 by the Florentine architect
Michelozzo in honour of Bartolommeo Aragazzi, secretary of
Pope Martin V., which was taken down in the i8th century.
The fagade of S. Agostino is probably also Michelozzo's work.
Montepulciano is famous for its wine, and was the birthplace
of the scholar and poet Angelo Anbrogini (1454-1494), generally
known as Poliziano (Politian) and of Cardinal Bellannine
(1542-1621).
See F. Bargagli-Petrucci, Montepulciano, Chiusi, &c. (Bergamo,
1907).
MONTEREAU, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine-et-Marne at the confluence of the Yonne with the Seine,
21 m. S.E. of Melun by rail. Pop. (1906), 7870. The church
dates from the I3th century, with a facade of the Renaissance
period. The industries include the manufacture of porcelain,
fire-proof and decorative bricks, boots and shoes and agricultural
machines and colours, varnish, &c. Among the institutions
are a tribunal of commerce and a chamber of arts and manu-
factures.
Montereau was in the beginning of the isth century a place
of some importance. Here, on the bridge over the Yonne,
Jean Sans-Peur, duke of Burgundy was assassinated in the
presence of the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., in 1419.
In 1438 the town was captured by Charles VII., and during
the wars of religion it was several times taken and retaken.
In 1814 Napoleon gained a victory at Montereau over the
Wurttemberg troops under Schwarzenberg, and in memory of
this his statue has been erected on the bridge.
MONTEREY, a city of Monterey county, California, U.S.A.,
on the Pacific coast, about 90 m. in a straight line S. by E.
from San Francisco, at the S.E. extremity of the Gulf of Monterey,
a great open bay 22m. wide from headland to headland and
facing S.W. The harbour is protected by a peninsula extend-
ing N.W. Pop. (1900), 1748, largely of Spanish descent; (1910)
4923^ It is served by the Southern Pacific railroad, and for freight
by the Pacific Coast Steamship Co. It is built in an amphi-
theatre formed by gently sloping pine-clad hills. In 1881 the
Southern Pacific Company erected the Del Monte hotel, with
beautiful grounds several miles in extent, and since then the
city has come to be one of the favourite resorts of the Pacific
coast. The difference between the mean temperatures of the
coldest and warmest months of the year (rarely below 47 or
above 66 F. respectively) is from 10 to 20; while the ther-
mometer rarely registers below freezing or above 80 F. Within
the city limits there is a United States Army post, the Presidio
of Monterey, with a musketry school. There are sardine
canneries here and good salmon and other fishing; some salmon
are shipped to Germany to be smoked. In 1907 the south
side of the Gulf of Monterey was made by the state legislature
into a preserve for squid and other food for salmon. To San
Francisco, Hawaii, Alaska, and elsewhere, Monterey ships
annually about 60,000 tons of crude oil, piped here into great
steel tanks from the Coalinga oil fields 112 m. away. Sand
lime brick is manufactured here.
774
MONTERREY MONTE SANT' ANGELO
Before the coming of the Americans, Monterey was the gayest
and most ambitious city of California. It was discovered by
Sebastian Vizcaino in December 1602, and was named in honour
of the then viceroy of New Spain. For a time all trace was
lost of Monterey, but in May 1770 the bay was found again by
Junipero Serra and Captain Caspar de Portola. The San Carlos
mission of the Franciscans was founded on the 3rd of June
1770, and a presidio was completed in 1778. Near Monterey,
in Carmel Valley, whither the mission was almost immediately
removed, Father Junipero built a church, in which his remains
now rest. In 1891 a statue, representing Junipero stepping
from a boat, was erected on the site of the old Mexican fort,
on a hill near the landing-place of both Vizcaino and Junipero.
Monterey necessarily played a prominent part in the jealousies
that divided the north and south; the rivalry of Los Angejes
for the dignity of capital being a powerful influence in politics
from 1827-1846. In 1845 Los Angeles gained the prize, but
in 1847 the American authorities again made Monterey the
capital. Even in these years the treasury, custom-house and
military headquarters had remained at Monterey. In 1818
it was captured and momentarily held by a Buenos Aires
privateer. Here, in 1842, Commodore T. ap C. Jones raised
the flag of the United States for a day, and here on the 7th of
July 1846, Commodore J. D. Sloat again raised the same flag,
which this time was not to come down again. The first American
newspaper on the Pacific coast was published at Monterey;
and the convention that framed the first constitution of the
state met here in September 1849 in Colton Hall, still standing
and originally built for a schoolhouse by Walter D. Colton,
the first alcalde under American rule. Monterey was never
the capital of the new state, and its importance declined after
the discovery of gold near Sacramento, San Francisco becoming
the leading city. In 1872 the county-seat was removed from
Monterey to Salinas. For many years Monterey remained one
of the most Spanish towns of California, and though tourists
have somewhat disturbed its peace and checked its decay, it
still retains much of the quaint aspect and the drowsy content-
ment of spirit of Mexican days. Since 1900 the population has
considerably increased.
MONTERREY (usually spelled Monterey in English), a city
of Mexico and capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, 606 m. by
the old wagon road, and 671 m. by the Mexican National railway
N. by W. of the city of Mexico, in lat. 25 40' N., long. 100 25'
W. Pop. (1900), 62,266. Railway communications are pro-
vided by the Mexican National with the United States, with the
national capital and southern Mexico, and with Matamoros,
and by the Belgian line with Tampico on the Gulf coast, and
with Trevino, or Venadito, on the Mexican International line,
which gives access to the iron deposits of Durango. The city
stands 1624 ft. above sea-level, between two spurs of one of the
Sierra Madre ranges the Cerro de la Silla (4149 ft.) on the east,
and the Cerro de las Mitras (3618 ft.) on the west. The Santa
Catarina river furnishes water-power for some of its industries.
The surrounding district is fertile, and the rainfall about 22 in.
The climate is dry and mild, and the city is frequented in winter
by invalids from the United States. Monterrey is laid out with
broad, straight streets crossing each other at right angles, and
spreads over a large area. It is the see of the bishop of
Linares, and has a large cathedral, a bishop's palace and
numerous churches. Among the public edifices are the govern-
ment palace, municipal hall, national college, girls' college,
medical school, public hospital, theatre and penitentiary. Its
public works include an interesting old reservoir, called the
" Ojo de Agua," and the " Puente Nuevo " (new bridge).
Monterrey is the most important centre of northern Mexico,
and large sums of foreign capital have been invested in its
industries. Among its manufactories are woollen mills, smelting
works, brass and iron foundries, a steel producing plant, saw-
mills, flour-mills, breweries, and a carriage and wagon factory.
Monterrey was founded in 1560 under the name of Santa
Lucia de Leon; and in 1596, as Monterrey, was raised to the
dignity of a city. In 1777 it became the see of a bishop, now
suffragan to the archbishop of Guadalajara. During the war
between Mexico and the United States General Zachary Taylor
arrived before the city on the igth of September 1846, with
about 6600 men. Monterrey was defended by a Mexican force
of about 10,000 under General Pedro de Ampudia. On the
20th Colonel John Garland (1792-1861) assaulted the lower
(north-eastern) part of the cityj'he was driven back, but captured
one of the forts. The attacks on the ether forts on the east
were unsuccessful. On the 2ist and 22nd General W. J. Worth
carried the forts west of Monterrey, and on the 23rd attacked
the western part of the city, the troops slowly working their
way toward the central plaza. On the same day American
troops again advanced from the east, and were again forced
back. On the morning of the 24th the terms of a capitulation
were agreed upon the Mexicans were permitted to retire,
retaining their small arms and one field battery of six pieces
with twenty-one rounds of ammunition, and an armistice of
eight weeks was arranged. A disastrous flood, caused by heavy
rains and the sudden overflow of the Santa Catarina river on
the 28th of August 1909, swept away about one-fourth of the
city, drowning 1200-1400 persons, and destroying about
$12,000,000 (Mex.) worth of property.
MONTE SAN GIULIANO, a town and episcopal see of Sicily,
in the province of Trapani, 2 m. E.N.E. of Trapani, on the summit
of an isolated bare-hill, 2465 ft. above the sea. Pop. of commune
(1901), 28,939; of town, about 3000. The town occupies the
site of the ancient Eryx, a city of the Elymi, a people who claimed
to be sprung from a mixed settlement of Trojans and Phocians
after the fall of Troy (E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, i. 195,
542), but regarded as |3dp/3apoi by the Greeks. The city was
famous for the temple of Venus Erycina, to the foundations of
which a wall of 12 courses of masonry in the castle probably
belongs. The worship was a relic of the Phoenician cult of
Astarte. In 415 B.C. the Athenian envoys were shown the
treasure of the temple at Eryx as available for the expenses of
the war, which treasure turned out to be only silver-gilt and
not of solid gold (Thucydides vi. 46). The town must have
become a part of the Carthaginian dominion in 405 B.C. It
was seized by Pyrrhus in 278 B.C., and was ceded to Rome at
the end of the First Punic War. In Roman times the temple
(like that of Diana Tifatana, near Capua) possessed territory
of its own, being dependent neither on the state nor on any
neighbouring town, and a considerable number of female
slaves. The place was the residence of the quaestor in charge
of the western half of the island, ard Verres, as praetor, seems
to have spent a good deal of time here. Considerable portions
of the city wall are preserved on the north-west ; on the east and
south the precipitous cliffs formed a sufficient defence. The
remains date from a reconstruction of Roman times, 1 in
which the material of two earlier periods has been used: the
large blocks belonging to the original fortifications bear
Phoenician masons' marks; but the long line of towers at regular
intervals is a thoroughly Roman characteristic. The castle,
dating from the middle ages, with three lofty towers guarding
the entrance, occupies the south-eastern extremity of the
town. The cathedral, founded in 1314, has a fine porch and
Gothic facade.
MONTE SAN SAVINO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the
province of Arezzo, from which it is 12 m. S.W. by road, 1083 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4810 (town); 8408 (commune).
It was the birthplace of the sculptor and architect Andrea
Contucci, generally known as Sansovino (1460-1529), and there
are various works in the town by him, a loggia opposite the
Palazzo Municipale (itself by Antonio da Sangallo the elder
and one of his best works), the monastery courts of S. Agostino
and S. Giovanni Battista, and some sculptures.
MONTE SANT' ANGELO, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the pro-
vince of Foggia, 10 m. N. of Manfredonia by road, 2765 ft. above
sea-level, on the southern slopes of Monte Gargano. Pop. (1901),
J 7>369 (town); 21,997 (commune). It has a castle and a famous
1 This has been demonstrated by O. Richter, fiber anlike Stein-
metzzeichen (Berlin, 1885), pp. 43-51.
MONTESPAN MONTESQUIEU
775
sanctuary of S. Michele, founded in 491 over a cave in which
the archangel is said to have appeared to S. Laurentius, arch-
bishop of Sipontum; the bronze doors, made in Constantinople,
bear the date 1076. The octagonal campanile dates from 1273.
The portal of S. Maria Maggiore is noteworthy. The Tomba
di Rotari is a domed building of the Norman period. To the
north lies the highest point of the Monte Gargano (3460 ft.).
Strabo speaks of an oracle of Calchas on the top of the
mountain, and a healing spring at Podalirius at the bottom,
12 m. from the sea.
See S. Beltrame'li, // Gargano (Bergamo, 1907).
MONTESPAN, FRANQ01SE-ATHENAIS DE PARDAILLAN,
MARQUISE DE (1641-1707), mistress of Louis XIV., was born
at the chateau cf Tonnay-Charente (Charente-Inferieure), the
daughter of Gabriel de Rochechouart, due de Mortemart. She
was educated at the Convent of St Mary at Saintes, and when
she was twenty she became maid-of-honour to Queen Maria
Theresa. She married in January 1663 L. H. de Pardaillan de
Gondrin, marquis de Montespan, who was a year younger than
herself. By him she had two children, L. H. Pardaillan de
Gondrin, due d'Antin, born in 1665, and a daughter. Her
brilliant and haughty beauty was only one of the Montespan's
charms; she was a cultivated and amusing talker who won
the admiration of such competent judges as Saint-Simon and
Mme de Sevigne. Nevertheless she was a profound believer
in witchcraft; and La Reynie, the chief judge of the court before
which the famous poisoning cases were brought, places her
first visits to La Voisin (q.v.) in 1665. She received from the
sorceress love powders concocted of abominable ingredients
for Louis XIV., and in 1666 the " black mass " was said by the
priest Etienne Guibourg over her with the usual horrible cere-
monial. In 1667 she gained her end, becoming Louis XIV.'s
mistress in July. Montespan astounded the court by openly
resenting his wife's position. He made a scandal by accusing
Mme de Montausier of acting as go-between in order to secure
the governorship of the dauphin for her husband. He even
wore mourning for his wife. Montespan was arrested, but
released after a few days' imprisonment. The first of the seven
children whom Mme de Montespan bore to the king was born
in March 1669, and was entrusted to Mme Scarron, the future
Mme de Maintenon, who acted as companion to Mme de
Montespan while the king was away at the wars. Her children
were legitimatized in 1673 without mention of the mother's
name for fear that Montespan might claim them. The eldest,
Louis Auguste, became due de Maine, the second, Louis
Cesar, comte de Vexin, and the third, Louise Franchise,
demoiselle de Nantes (afterwards duchess of Bourbon). Mean-
while Montespan had been compelled to retire to Spain, and in
1674 an official separation was declared by the procurew '-general
Achille de Harlay. assisted by six judges at the Chatelet. When
Louis's affections showed signs of cooling, Mme de Montespan
had recourse to magic. In 1675 absolution was refused to the
king, with the result that his mistress was driven from the court
for a short time. It has been thought that she had conceived
the intention of poisoning even as early as 1676, but in 1679
Louis's intrigue with Angelique de Fontanges and her own
relegation to the position of superintendent of the queen's
household brought matters to a crisis. Mile de Fontanges
died a natural death in 1681, though poisoning was suspected.
Meanwhile suspicion was thrown on Mme de Montespan's
connexion with La Voisin and her crew by the frequent recur-
rence of her maid's name, Mile Desoeillets, in the evidence
brought before the Chambre Ardente. From the end of 1680
onwards Louvois, Colbert and Mme de Maintenon all helped
to hush up the affair and to prevent further scandal about
the mother of the king's legitimatized children. Louis XIV.
continued to spend some time daily in her apartments, and
apparently her brilliance and charm in conversation mitigated
to some extent her position of discarded mistress. In 1691 she
retired to the Convent of St Joseph with a pension of half a
million francs. Her father was governor of Paris, her brother,
the due de Vivonne, a marshal of France, and one of her sisters,
Gabrielle, whose vows were but four years old, became abbess
of the wealthy community of Fontevrault. Besides the expenses
of her houses and equipage Mme de Montespan spent vast
sums on hospitals and charities. She was also a generous
patron of letters, and befriended Corneille, Racine and La
Fontaine. The last years of her h'fe were given up to penance.
When she died at Bourbon 1'Archambault on the 27th of May
1707 the king forbade her children to wear mourning for her.
Real regret was felt for her by the duchess of Bourbon and by her
younger children Franchise Marie, Mile de Blois (1677-1749),
married in 1692 to the future regent Orleans, then due de
Chartres, and Louis Alexandre, comte de Toulouse (1678-1737).
See P. Clement, Madame de Montespan et Louis XIV. (Paris,
1869); monographs by Arsene Houssaye (1865) and by H. Williams
(1903); also J. Jair, Louise de la Valliere (Eng. trans., 1908); F.
Funck-Brentano, Le Drame des poisons (1899); A. Durand, " Un
Episode du grand rfigne " in Rev. des questions hist. (Paris, 1668) ;
the contemporary memoirs of Mme de SeVigne 1 , of Saint-Simon,
of Bussy-Rabutin and others; also the proceedings of the Chambre
Ardente preserved in the Archives de la Bastille (Arsenal Library)
and the notes of La Reynie preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale.
She figured in V. Sardou's play, L' Affaire des poisons (1907).
MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES LOUIS DE SECONDAT, BARON
DE LA BREDE ET DE (1689-1755), French philosophical his-
torian, was born at the chateau of La Brede, about 10 m.
south-east of Bordeaux, in January 1689, and was baptized
on the 1 8th of that month. His mother was Marie Francoise
de Penel, the heiress of a Gascon-English family. She had
brought La Brede as a dowry to his father, Jacques de Secondat,
a member of a good if not extremely ancient house, which
seems first to have risen to importance in the early days of the
i6th century. The title of Montesquieu came from his uncle,
Jean Baptiste de Secondat, " president a mortier " in the
parliament of Bordeaux an important office, which, as well as
his title, he left to his nephew. Montesquieu was in his youth
known as M. de la Brede. His mother died when he was seven
years old, and when he was eleven he was sent to the Oratorian
school of Juilly, near Meaux, where he stayed exactly five
years, and where, as well as afterwards at Bordeaux, he was
thoroughly educated. The family had long been connected
with the law, and Montesquieu was destined for that profession.
His father died in 1713, and a year later Montesquieu was
admitted counsellor of the parliament. In little more than
another twelvemonth he married Jeanne Lartigue, an heiress
and the daughter of a knight of the order of St Louis, but
plain, somewhat ill-educated, and a Protestant. Montesquieu
does not seem to have made the slightest pretence of affec-
tion or fidelity towards his wife, but there is every reason to
believe that they lived on perfectly good terms. In 1716 his
uncle died, leaving him his name, his important judicial office
and his whole fortune.
He continued to hold his presidency for twelve years, and
took part in the proceedings of the Bordeaux Academy, to which
he contributed papers on philosophy, politics and natural
science. He also wrote much less serious things, and it was
during the earlier years of his presidency that he finished, if
he did not begin, the Lettres persanes. They were completed
before 1721, and appeared in that year anonymously, with
Cologne on the title-page, but they were really printed and
published at Amsterdam. In the guise of letters written by
and to two Persians of distinction travelling in Europe, Montes-
quieu not only satirized unmercifully the social, political,
ecclesiastical and literary follies of his day in France, but
indulged in a great deal of the free writing which was charac-
teristic of the tale-tellers of the time. But what scandalized
grave and precise readers naturally attracted the majority,
and the Lettres persanes were very popular, passing, it is said,
through four editions within the year, besides piracies. Then
the vogue suddenly ceased, or at least editions ceased for nearly
nine years to appear. It is said that a formal ministerial
prohibition was the cause of this, and it is not improbable; for,
though the regent and Guillaume Dubois must have enjoyed
the book thoroughly, they were both shrewd enough to per-
ceive that underneath its playful exterior there lay a spirit of
MONTESQUIEU
very inconvenient criticism of abuses in church and state.
The fact is that the Lettres persanes is the first book of what
is called the Philosophe movement. It is amusing to find
Voltaire describing the Lettres as a " trumpery book," a
" book which anybody might have written easily." It is not
certain that, in its peculiar mixture of light badinage with not
merely serious purpose but gentlemanlike moderation, Voltaire
could have written it himself, and it is certain that no one
else at that time could.
The reputation acquired by this book brought Montesquieu
much into the literary society of the capital, and he composed
for, or at any rate contributed to, one of the coteries of the day
the clever but rather rhetorical Dialogue de Sylla et d'Eucrale,
in which the dictator gives an apology for his conduct. For
Mile de Clermont, a lady of royal blood, a great beauty and
a favourite queen of society, he wrote the .curious prose-
poem of the Temple de Gnide. This is half a narrative, half
an allegory, in the semi-classical or rather pseudo-classical
taste of the time, decidedly frivolous and dubiously moral, but
of no small elegance in its peculiar style. A later jeu d'esprit
of the same kind, which is almost but not quite certainly Montes-
quieu's, is the Voyage a Paphos, in which his warmest admirers
have found little to praise. In 1725 Montesquieu was elected
a member of the Academy, but an almost obsolete rule requiring
residence in Paris was appealed to, and the election was annulled.
It is doubtful whether a hankering after Parisian society, or an
ambition to belong to the Academy, or a desire to devote himself
to literary pursuits of greater importance, or simple weariness
of not wholly congenial work determined him to give up his
Bordeaux office. In 1726 he sold the life-tenure of his office,
reserving the reversion for his son, and went to live in the capital,
returning, however, for half of each year to La Brede. There
was now no further formal obstacle to his reception in the
Academic Franchise, but a new one arose. Ill-wishers had
brought the Lettres persanes specially under the minister Andre
Hercule de Fleury's attention, and Fleury, a precisian in many
ways, was shocked by them. There are various accounts of the
way in which the difficulty was got over, but all seem to agree
that Montesquieu made concessions which were more effectual
than dignified. He was elected and received in January 1728.
Almost immediately afterwards he started on a tour through
Europe to observe men, things and constitutions. He travelled
through Austria to Hungary, but was unable to visit Turkey
as he had proposed. Then he made for Italy, where he met
Chesterfield. At Venice, and elsewhere in Italy, he remained
nearly a year, and then journeyed by way of Piedmont and the
Rhine to England. Here he stayed for some eighteen months,
and acquired an admiration for English character and polity
which never afterwards deserted him. He returned, not to
Paris, but to La Brede, and to outward appearance might have
seemed to be settling down as a squire. He altered his park
in the English fashion, made sedulous inquiries into his own
genealogy, arranged an entail, asserted, though not harshly,
his seignorial rights, kept poachers in awe and so forth. But
these matters by no means engrossed his thoughts. In his
great study at La Brede (a hall rather than a study, some 60 ft.
long by 40 wide) he was constantly dictating, making abstracts,
revising essays, and in other ways preparing his main book.
He may have thought it wise to soften the transition from the
Lettres persanes to the Esprit des lois, by interposing a publication
graver than the former and less elaborate than the latter. The
Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la decadence des
Remains appeared in 1734 at Amsterdam, without the author's
name. This, however, was perfectly well known; indeed,
Montesquieu formally presented a copy to the French Academy.
But the author's reputation as a jester stuck to him, and the
salons affected to consider the Lettres persanes and the new book
respectively as the " grandeur " and the " decadence de " M. de
Montesquieu; but more serious readers at once perceived its
extraordinary merit, and it was eagerly read abroad. A copy
of it exists or existed which had the singular misfortune to be
annotated by Frederick the Great, and to be abstracted from
the Potsdam library by Napoleon. It is said, moreover, by
competent authorities to have been the most enduringly popular
and the most widely read of all its author's works in his own
country, and it was certainly been the most frequently and
carefully edited. Merely scholastic criticism may of course
object to it, as to every other book of the time, the absence of
the exactness of modern critical inquiry into the facts of history;
but the virtue of Montesquieu's book is in its views, not in its
facts. It is (putting Bossuet and Giovanni Vico aside) almost
the first important essay in the philosophy of history. The
point of view is entirely different from that of Bossuet, and it
seems entirely improbable that Montesquieu knew anything of
Vico. In the Grandeur et decadence the characteristics of the
Esprit des lois appear with the necessary subordination to a
narrower subject. Two things are especially noticeable in it :
a peculiarity of style, and a peculiarity of thought. The style
has a superficial defect. The page is broken up into short
paragraphs of but a few lines each, which look very ugly, which
irritate the reader by breaking the sense, and which prepare
him to expect an undue and ostentatious sententiousness. On
the other hand, the merits of the expression are very great. It is
grave and destitute of ornament, but extraordinarily luminous
and full of what would be called epigram, if the word epigram
had not a certain connotation of flippancy about it. It is a
very short book; for, printed in large type with tolerably
abundant notes, it fills but two hundred pages in the standard
edition of Montesquieu's works. But no work of the century,
except Turgot's second Sorbonne Discourse, contains, in pro-
portion to its size, more weighty and original thought on
historical subjects, while Montesquieu has over Turgot the
immense advantage of style.
Although, however, this ballon d'essai, in the style of his great
work, may be said to have been successful, and though much
of that work was, as we have seen, in all probability already
composed, Montesquieu was in no hurry to publish it. He
went on " cultivating the garden " diligently both as a student
and as an improving landowner. He wrote the sketch of
Lysimaque for Stanislaus Leczinski; he published new and final
editions of the Temple de Gnide, of the Lettres persanes, of Sylla
et Eucrate (which indeed had never been published, properly
speaking). After allowing the Grandeur et decadence to be
reprinted without alterations some half-dozen times, he revised
and corrected it. He also took great pains with the education
of his son Charles and his daughter Denise, of whom he was
extremely fond. He frequently visited Paris, where his favourite
resorts were the salons of Mme de Tencin and Mme
d'Aiguillon. Yet it seems that he did not begin the final task
of composition till 1743. Two years of uninterrupted work at
La Brede finished the greater part of it, and two more the rest.
It was finally published at Geneva in the autumn of 1748, in
two volumes quarto. The publication was, however, preceded
by one of those odd incidents which in literature illustrate
Clive's well-known saying about courts-martial in war. Monte-
squieu summoned a committee of friends, according to a very
common practice, to hear and give an opinion on his work.
It was an imposing and certainly not an unfriendly one, con-
sisting of Charles Jean Franfois Renault, Helvetius, the financier
Etienne de Silhouette, the dramatist Joseph Saurin, Crebillon
the younger, and, lastly, Fontenelle in fact, all sorts and
conditions of literary men. They unanimously advised the
author not to publish a book which has been described as " one
of the most important books ever written," and which may be
almost certainly ranked as the greatest book of the French
1 8th century.
Montesquieu, of course, did not take his friends' advice. In
such cases no man ever does, and in this case it was certainly
fortunate. The Esprit des lois represents the reflections of a
singularly clear, original, and comprehensive mind, corrected
by forty years' study of men and books, arranged in accordance
with a long deliberated plan, and couched in language of re-
markable freshness and idiosyncrasy. In the original editions
the full title runs L' Esprit des lois: ou du rapport qut les lois
MONTESQUIEU
777
doivent avoir msec la constitution de chaque gouvernement, les
masurs, le climat, la religion, le commerce, 6*c. It consists of
thirty-one books, which in some editions are grouped in six
parts. Speaking summarily, the first part, containing eight
books, deals with law in general and with forms of government;
the second, containing five, with military arrangements, with
taxation, &c.; the third, containing six, with manners and
customs, and their dependence on climatic conditions; the
fourth, containing four, with economic matters; and the fifth,
containing three, with religion. The last five books, forming
a kind of supplement, deal specially with Roman, French, and
feudal law. The most noteworthy peculiarity of the book to
a cursory reader lies in the section dealing with effects of climate,
and this indeed was almost the only characteristic which the
vulgar took in, probably because it was easily susceptible
of parody and reductio ad absurdum. The singular spirit
of moderation which distinguishes its views on politics and
religion was indeed rather against it than in its favour in
France, and Helvetius, who was as outspoken as he was
good-natured, had definitely assigned this as the reason of his
unfavourable judgment. On the other hand, if not destructive
it was sufficiently critical, and it thus raised enemies on more
than one side. It was long suspected, but is now positively
known, that the book (not altogether with the goodwill of the
pope) was put on the Index, and the Sorbonne projected, though
it did not carry out, a regular censure. To all these objectors
the author replied in a masterly defense; and there seems to be
no foundation for the late and scandalous stories which represent
him as having used Mme de Pompadour's influence to suppress
criticism. The fact was that, after the first snarlings of envy
and incompetence had died away, he had little occasion to
complain. Even Voltaire, who was his decided enemy, was
forced at length to speak in public, if not in private, com-
plimentarily of the Esprit, and from all parts of Europe the
news of success arrived.
Montesquieu enjoyed his triumph rather at La Brede than at
Paris. He was becoming an old man, and, unlike Fontenelle,
he does not seem to have preserved in old age the passion for
society which had marked his youth. He certainly spent much
of his later years in the country, though he sometimes visited
Paris, and on one visit procured the release of his admirer
Laurent Angliviel de La Beaumelle from an imprisonment
which La Beaumelle had suffered at the instance of Voltaire.
He is said also to have been instrumental in obtaining a pension
for Alexis Piron. Nor did he by any means' neglect literary
composition. The curious little romance of Arsace et Isminie,
a short and unfinished treatise on Taste, many of his published
PensSes, and much unpublished matter date from the period
subsequent to the Esprit des lois. He did not, however, live
many years after the appearance of his great work. At the
end of 1754 he visited Paris, with the intention of getting rid
of the lease of his house there and finally retiring to La Brede.
He was shortly after taken ill with an attack of fever, which
seems to have affected the lungs, and in less than a fortnight
he died, on the loth of February 1755, aged sixty-six. He was
buried in the church of St Sulpice with little pomp, and the
Revolution obliterated all trace of his remains.
The literary and philosophical merits of Montesquieu and his
position, actual and historical, in the literature of France and of
Europe, are of unusual interest. At the beginning of the next
century the vicomte de Bonald classed him with Racine and
Bossuet, as the object of a " religious veneration " among
Frenchmen. But Bonald was not quite a suitable spokesman
for France, and it may be doubted whether the author of the
Esprit des lois has ever really occupied any such position in his
own country. For a generation after his death he remained
indeed the idol and the great authority of the moderate reforming
party in France. Montesquieu is not often quotable, or quoted,
at the present day, and the exact criticism of our time challenges
the accuracy of his facts. Although he was really the founder,
or at least one of the founders, of the sciences of comparative
politics and of the philosophy of history, his descendants and
followers in these sciences think they have outgrown him. In
France his popularity has always been dubious and contested.
It is a singular thing that for more than a century there was
no properly edited edition of his works, and nothing even
approaching a complete biography of him, the place of the
latter being occupied by the meagre and rhetorical Eloges of the
last century.. According to his chief admirers, he is hardly
read at all in France to-day, and they attempt to explain the
fact by confessing that Montesquieu, great as he is, is not
altogether great according to French principles. It is not only
that he is an Anglo-maniac, but that he is rather English than
French in style and thought. He is almost entirely dispassionate
in politics, but he lacks the unswerving deductive consistency
which Frenchmen love in that science. His wit, it is said, is
quaint and a little provincial, his style irregular and in no
definite genre.
Some of these things may be allowed to exist and to be
defects in Montesquieu, but they are balanced by merits which
render them almost insignificant. It is on his three principal
works that his fame does and must rest. Each one of these
is a masterpiece in its kind. It is doubtful whether the Letlres
persanes yield at their best either in wit or in giving lively pictures
of the time to the best of Voltaire's similar work, though they
are more unequal. There is, moreover, the great difference
between Montesquieu and Voltaire that the former is a rational
reformer, and not a mere persifleur or frondeur, to whom fault-
finding is more convenient than acquiescence for showing off
his wit. Of course this last description does not fully or always
describe Voltaire, but it often does. It is seldom or never
applicable to Montesquieu. Only one of Voltaire's own charges
against the book and its author must be fully allowed. He is
said to have replied to a friend who urged hira to give up his habit
of sneering at Montesquieu, " II est coupable de lese-poesie," and
this is true. Not only are Montesquieu's remarks on poetry
childish (he himself occasionally wrote verses, and very bad
ones), but he is never happy in purely literary appreciation.
The Considerations are noteworthy, not only for the complete
change of style (which from the light and mocking tone of the
Leltres becomes grave, weighty and sustained, with abundance
of striking expression), but for the profundity and originality of
the views, and for the completeness with which the author carries
out his plan. These words except, perhaps the last clause
apply with increasing force to the Esprit des lois. The book
has been accused of desultoriness, but this arises, in part at
least, from a misapprehension of the author's design. At the
same time, it is impossible to deny that the equivocal meaning
of the word " law," which has misled so many reasoners, has
sometimes misled Montesquieu himself. For the most part,
however, he keeps the promise of his sub-title (given above)
with fidelity, and applies it with exhaustive care. It is only
in the last few books, which have been said to be a kind of
appendix, that something of irrelevancy suggests itself. The
real importance of the Esprit des lois, however, is not that of a
formal treatise on law, or even on polity. It is that of an
assemblage of the most fertile, original and inspiriting views
on legal and political subjects, put in language of singular
suggestiveness and vigour, illustrated by examples which are
always apt and luminous, permeated by the spirit of temperate
and tolerant desire for human improvement and happiness,
and almost unique in its entire freedom at once from doctrin-
airism, from visionary enthusiasm, from egotism, and from an
undue spirit of system. As for the style, no one who does
not mistake the definition of that much used and much misused
word can deny it to Montesquieu. He has in the Esprit little
ornament, but his composition is wholly admirable. Yet
another great peculiarity of this book, as well as of the Considera-
tions, has to be noticed. The genius of the author for generali-
zation is so great, his instinct in political science so sure, that
even the falsity of his premises frequently fails to vitiate his
conclusions. He has known wrong, but he has thought right.
The best edition of Montesquieu is that of Edouard Laboulaye
(7 vols., Paris, 1875-1879), the best biography that of Louis Vian
778
MONTESQUIOU-FEZENSAC MONTEVIDEO
(Paris, 2nd ed., 1879). The bibliography of Montesquieu was dealt
with by L. Dangeau in 1874. There is known to exist at La Brede
a great mass of MS. materials for the Esprit des lots, additional
Lettres persanes, essays, and fragments of all kinds, diaries, letters,
notebooks and so forth. The present possessors, however, who
represent Montesquieu, long refused permission to examine these
to all editors and critics, and they were chiefly known by a paper
contributed in 1834 to the Transactions of the Academy of Agen.
At last in 1801 Baron Charles de Montesquieu published Deux
opuscules of his ancestors, and in 1899 Baron Gaston de Montes-
quieu added Pensees, &c. Nothing, however, of much interest has
yet appeared. For a thorough student L' Esprit de Montesquieu by
A. Charaux (1885) has value, for it is written, with some ability,
from a point of view now very uncommon, that of a convinced
Roman Catholic, anti-parliamentarian and anglophobe critic, who
regards Montesquieu as an " evangelist of social atheism " and
the like. The view is quite untenable but useful as a corrective.
An article by Churton Collins on " Montesquieu in England "
(Quarterly Review, No. 394, April 1903) may be also consulted.
(G. SA.)
MONTESQUIOU-FEZENSAC, ANNE PIERRE, MARQUIS DE
(1739-1798), French general and writer, was born in Paris on
the 1 7th of October 1739, of an ancient family of Armagnac.
He was brought up with the children of the king of France,
and showed some taste for letters. He entered the army in
1754, was successively colonel of the Grenadiers and the Royal-
Vaissaux regiment, and in 1780 was made marechal-de-camp.
Some pieces of verse and several comedies gained him admission
to the French Academy in 1784. He was elected deputy to the
states general of 1789 by the nobles of Paris, and, animated
by Liberal ideas, he soon joined the Third Estate, and seconded
Necker's financial schemes. He served on the committee
charged with the issue of assignats, and was named president
of the Constituent Assembly on the i4th of March 1791. In
May 1791 he was promoted lieutenant-general, served under
Lafayette, and in February 1792 was given the command of
the Army of the South. In September of the same year he
completed the conquest of Savoy, but in November 1792 he
was accused of royalist leanings, and had to take refuge in
Switzerland. In 1795 his name was erased from the list of
Emigres and he returned to Paris, where he died on the 3oth of
December 1 798.
See P. L. Roederer, Eloge de Montesquieu, reprinted in Roederer's
Works (1853-1859).
MONTESSON, CHARLOTTE JEANNE BERAUD DE LA
HAVE DE RIOU, MARQUISE DE (1737-1805), was born in Paris
of an old Breton family. About 1754 she married Jean Baptiste,
marquis de Montesson, who died in 1769. Her beauty and
intelligence attracted the attention of Louis Philippe, duke
of Orleans, whom she secretly married in 1773 with the authori-
zation of the king. For her husband's amusement she set up
a little theatre and wrote several plays, in the acting of which
she herself took part. She was imprisoned for some time during
the Terror, but was released after the fall of Robespierre, became
the friend of the empress Josephine, and was a prominent
figure at the beginning of the empire.
The best edition of her works appeared under the title of (Euvres
anonymes in 1782-1785. See Charles Colle', Journal (1868); the
Memoirs of St Simon, Madame de Genlis, the duchesse d'Abrantes
and Mme de Levis; G. Strenger, " La Societe 1 de la marquise de
Montesson," in the Nouvelle revue (1902); J. Turquan, Madame de
Montesson douairikre d'Orleans (Paris, 1904); and G. Capon and
R. Ive-Plessis, Les Theatres clandestins du xviii* siecle (1904).
MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (1567-1643), Italian priest and
musician, was born at Cremona in May 1567; he was engaged
at an early age as violist to the duke of Mantua, and studied
composition under Ingegneri, the duke's maestro di capella.
His bold experiments, while bringing upon him the attacks of
Artusi and Banchieri (q.v.), led to discoveries which exercised
a lasting influence upon the progress of musical art. He was
the first to make deh'berate use of unprepared dissonances,
or what are now known as fundamental discords. These dis-
cords constituted a revolution against the laws of i6th century
music. He employed them first in his madrigals, where they
are a sign of decadence, but afterwards introduced them into
music of another kind with such excellent effect that their
value was universally recognized. Before 1595 Monteverde
was married to the singer Claudia Cattaneo, who died in 1607.
In 1602 he succeeded Ingegneri as maestro di capella; and in
1607 he produced, for the marriage of Francesco Gonzaga, his
first opera, Ariana, in which he employed the newly-discovered
discords with irresistible effect. Though he did not invent the
lyric drama Peri's Euridice having been produced at Florence
in 1600 he raised it to a level which distanced all contemporary
competition. His second opera, Orfeo, composed in 1608, was
even more successful than Ariana. In 1613 Monteverde was
invited to Venice, as maestro di capella at St Mark's, with a
stipend of 300 ducats, which in 1616 was raised to 400. Here
he composed much sacred music, the greater part of which is
lost. In 1630 he wrote another grand opera, Proserpina rapila.
He did not become a priest until 1632. In 1639 he produced
L'Adone, and in 1641 Le Nozze di Enea and // Ritorno d'Ulisse.
He died in Venice on the 29th of November 1643. Monteverde's
harmonic innovations and power of musical rhetoric seemed
to put an end to the school of Palestrina, and led the way to
modern music. (See Music.)
MONTEVIDEO, SAN FELIPE Y SANTIAGO DE, capital and
chief port of Uruguay, and capital of the department of Monte-
video, on the northern shore of the Rio de la Plata estuary,
120 m. E.S.E. of Buenos Ayres, in lat. 34 54' 33* S., long.
56 12' 18" W. Pop. (1908, estimate), 312,946. The old city
(ciudad vieja) occupies a low rocky headland that projects
westward between the estuary and an almost circular bay
which forms the harbour; it was once enclosed with walls and
defended by small forts, all of which have been removed. The
new city (ciudad nueva and ciudad novtsima) extends eastward
over a beautiful tract of rolling country and is extending north-
ward around the eastern shore of the bay. The site of the old
city resembles a whale's back in shape; it slopes gently to its
western extremity at Punta Sarandi and to the water's edge on
either side. The general plan is that of rectangular squares,
except at the western extremity of the old city and its union
with the newer or extra-mural city, on the line of the old ram-
parts, known as Calle de la Ciudadela. The streets are well
paved and have sufficient slope at all points to give easy surface
drainage; Montevideo has the reputation of being one of the
cleanest cities of the world. The rainfall is ample (about 44 in.
a year), and the prevailing winds help to clean the streets. The
westerly winds, however, sometimes bring across the bay the
offensive smells of the great abattoirs and meat-curing establish-
ments (saladeros) at the foot of the Cerro. The mean annual
temperature is about 62 F. An abundant water supply is
brought from the Santa Lucia River, 32m. distant, with a receiv-
ing reservoir at Piedras, 100 ft. above the level of the Plaza de
la Independencia. The ciudad vieja is largely devoted to com-
mercial, shipping and financial interests. The government
edifices, large retail shops and most of the fine urban residences
are in the ciudad nueva, while most of the urban industries,
the railway stations and the dwellings of the poorer classes
are in the ciudad novfsima. Beyond these is a fringe of
suburbs (La Union and Paso Molino), and on the western side
of the bay is the straggling suburb of Cerro, largely industrial
in character. In 1908 eight tramway lines (ah 1 electric but
one) extended out to these suburbs, some of the lines extending
to the bathing resorts of Ramirez and Pocitos and the Buceo
cemeteries on the eastern coast.
The principal street, which is considered one of the finest
boulevards in South America, is the Calle 18 de Julio, extending
eastward from the Plaza de la Independencia to the suburb of
Cordon; one of its features is its Sunday morning market,
occupying the whole street from the Plaza de la Independencia
to the Plaza Libertad, a distance of half a mile a survival of
the old market that existed here at the fortified entrance to
the walled town in the earlier years of its history. There are
seven plazas, or squares, within the urban limits: Zabala or
Rincon, Constituci6n or Matriz, Independencia, Libertad or
Cagancha, Treinte y Tres, Flores and Frutos; and two suburban
parks or public gardens: the Paseo del Prado and Parque
MONTE VULTURE
779
Urbano. The Plaza de la Independencia stands at the junction
of the old and new towns and is the centre of the city's political
and social life. This square is distinguished for a uniform and
nearly completed line of colonnades in front of the buildings
surrounding it. The Paseo del Prado, which ranks high among
the public gardens of South America, is beautifully situated
beyond the suburb of Paso Molino, 3 m. from the city. The
Paseo was originally the quinla of a German of cultivated tastes
named Joseph Buschenthal, who spent a fortune in its adorn-
ment. The Parque Urbano, at the Playa Ramirez bathing
resort, is a modern creation. The buildings of Montevideo
are chiefly of brick and broken stone, covered outside with
plaster and stucco, of one to three storeys, with flat roofs,
usually surmounted by a square tower, or mirador. The roofs,
or azaleas, are largely used for domestic purposes, or roof gardens.
The city contains a large number of handsome edifices, both
public and private, among which are the Bolsa, Government
House, municipal hall, cathedral, Cabildo, Hospital de Caridad,
insane asylum, Italian hospital, Teatro Solis, Athenaeum, and
the Club Uruguayo. The Bolsa (exchange), custom-house,
cathedral, and Cabildo are in the old town; the Bolsa is a copy
of the Bordeaux exchange. The cathedral faces on the Plaza
de la Constitucion. Its two square towers rise 133 ft. above
the pavement, and these, with the large dome behind, rise far
above the surrounding buildings and make a very conspicuous
landmark. The church was consecrated in 1804, and in 1869
was raised to the dignity of a cathedral. Montevideo is now
the seat of a small archiepiscopal see with only two suffragan
dioceses. Directly across the plaza is the old Cabildo, a plain,
heavy-looking two-storeyed edifice of the colonial period, the
seat of municipal administration during Spanish rule, but now
occupied by the two chambers of the Uruguayan Congress and
by the higher police authorities of the city.
The people of Montevideo maintain more than forty charitable
associations, including the Caridad (charity) hospital on Calle
25 de Mayo, and the insane asylum in the suburb of La Union,
both built and largely supported from the proceeds of frequent
lottery drawings. They also maintain a beggars' asylum and
a foundlings' asylum. The national museum (founded in 1830)
and public library (founded 1833) are in one wing of the Solis
theatre. There are a British hospital (founded 1857, the present
edifice dating from 1867) chiefly for the use of sailors, an Anglican
church in Calle Santa Teresa dating from 1847, and a handsome
Italian hospital of modern construction. The university, in
Calle Uruguay, has faculties of law, medicine, letters, mathe-
matics, engineering, and some minor groups of studies, including
agriculture and veterinary science. The government maintains
two normal schools, a school of arts and trades (artes y oficios),
and a military school.
The harbour of Montevideo consists of a shallow bay, circular
in shape and about 25 m. from shore to shore, and an outer
roadstead exposed to the violent winds of this latitude, where
the larger ocean-going steamers were compelled to anchor
before the construction of the new port works. In 1899
the Uruguayan government entered into a contract for the
dredging of the bay, the construction of two long breakwaters,
the dredging of a channel to deep water, and the construction
of a great basin and docks in front of the city. Surtaxes were
imposed on imports and exports to meet the expenditure, and
work was begun in 1901. In 1908 the breakwaters and the
greater part of the dredging had been completed, and the en-
trance channel, with a minimum depth of 24^ ft., permitted the
admission of large steamers. Another important improvement,
for which a concession was given to an English syndicate and
work was begun in 1909, is the construction of an embankment
and new shore line on the south side of the city, to be finished
in five years at a cost of $7,211,116. There are three large
dry docks connected with the port, known as the Maua (275 ft.
long, inside) and the Gounouilhou (300 ft.) on the east side of
the bay, and Jackson & Cibils (450 ft.) on the west side at the
foot of the Cerro. Four railways terminate at Montevideo,
one of them (the Central Uruguay) extending to the Brazilian
frontier. In 1908 20 lines of ocean-going steamers mad*}
regular calls at the port and several lines of river steamers ran
to Buenos Aires and the ports of the Parana, Paraguay and
Uruguay rivers. The exports consist chiefly of livestock, jerked
beef, hides, wool, and other animal products, wheat, flour, corn,
linseed, barley, hay, tobacco, sealskins, fruit, vegetables, and
some minor products. Manufactures exist only to a limited
extent and chiefly for domestic consumption.
The suburbs of Montevideo include the fashionable bathing
resorts of Playa Ramirez and Pocitos on the coast east of the
city, the inland suburbs of Paso Molino and La Union, and
the industrial town of Cerro, across the bay. The Flores Island
quarantine station is 12 m. east of the city. The station was
formerly on Rat Island (within the bay), which is now used as
a public deposit for inflammables. The chief point of interest
in this suburb is the conical hill known as the Cerro, or " mount,"
from which the city takes its name, on which stands an old
Spanish fort, sometimes garrisoned and sometimes used for the
incarceration of political prisoners. Its elevation is 486 ft.
(Reclus), and a lighthouse rises from within the fort carrying a
revolving light that can be seen 25 m. at sea.
Montevideo was founded in 1726 through the efforts of Don
Mauricio Zabala, governor of Buenos Aires, who wished to check
the advance of the Portuguese on this side of the La Plata. A
small military post had existed there since 1717, but efforts to
create a town had been fruitless until Zabala offered to make
hidalgos of the first settlers and to give them cattle and sheep.
The first families to accept this offer came from the Canary
Islands in 1726 under the direction of Don Francisco Alzeibar;
they were followed by others from Andalusia and some of the
SpanishrAmerican settlements. Its growth at first was slow,
but on the abolition of the Cadiz monopoly in 1778 it became
a free port and its trade increased so rapidly that it soon became
one of the chief commercial centres of South America. The
city was captured in 1807 by a British expedition under Sir
Samuel Auchmuty, but was abandoned when the expedition
against Buenos Aires under General Whitelocke was defeated.
In 1808 the governor of Montevideo established an independent
junta, but after the Buenos Aires declaration of independence
in 1810 the Spanish forces were concentrated in Montevideo
and held it until expelled in 1814 by the Argentine land and
sea forces under General Alvear and Admiral Brown. The
dissensions following the expulsion of the Spanish and the
rivalries of Argentina and Brazil over the possession of
Uruguay, then commonly termed the "Banda Oriental,"
greatly reduced the population of the city and partially destroyed
its trade. It was made the capital of the republic in 1828 and
had partially recovered its population and trade when the disas-
trous struggle with Rosas, dictator of Buenos Aires, broke out
and the city was subjected to a nine years' siege (1843-52),
the investment being conducted by General Oribe, and the
defence by General Paz. In 1864-1865 Brazil intervened in
the affairs of the republic, blockaded the port, and reinstated
ex-president Flores. The war with Paraguay that followed,
which lasted until 1870, made Montevideo the base of supplies
for the Brazilian army and navy and added largely to its trade
and wealth. The valuation of the city and suburbs, which was
$14,156,000 in 1860, was $74,000,000 in 1872. In addition to
the reckless speculation of this period, there were continued
political dissensions, repeated dictatorships and financial mis-
management on the part of the government. Not the least
of these burdens were the personal and irregular drafts of some
of the executives upon the treasury and revenue officers, particu-
larly the custom-house of this port, upon which the republic
depended for the major part of its revenue. The commercial
and financial collapse that followed lasted through the greater
part of the last three decades of the century; but settled govern-
ment and improved finances subsequently contributed to a slow
but steady recovery in the trade and industrial activities of
the city.
MONTE VULTURE (anc. Vultur), a mountain of Basilicata,
Italy, in the province of Potenza, the summit of which is about
780
MONTFAUCON MONTFLEURY
5 m. S. of Melfi. It is an extinct volcano rising to 4365 ft. above
sea-level, belonging in Roman times to Apulia, and lying on
the boundary between it and Lucania. The crater is densely
overgrown with oaks and beeches which harbour wild boars
and wolves. There are two small lakes. On the banks of the
upper lake stand the Capuchin monastery of San Michele and
the picturesque ruined church of Sant' Ippolito. The city of
Rionero in Volture is pleasantly situated 27 m. by rail N. of
Potenza, at the foot of Monte Vulture. Pop. (1901), 11,834.
It does not seem to be older than the first half of the lyth
century. In 1851 it suffered severely from an earthquake.
See G. de Lorenzo, Venosa e la regione del Vulture (Bergamo,
1906).
MONTFAUCON, BERNARD DE (1655-1741), French scholar
and critic, was born at the chateau of Soulage (now Soulatge,
in the department of Aube, France), on the i3th of January
1655. Belonging to a noble and ancient line, and destined for
the army, he passed most of his time in the library of the family
castle of Roquetaillade, devouring books in different languages
and on almost every variety of subject. In 1672 he entered
the army, and in the two following years served in Germany
under Turenne. But ill-health and the death of his parents
brought him back to his studious life, and in 1675 he entered
the cloister of the Congregation of St Maur at La Daurade,
Toulouse, taking the vows there on the i3th of May 1676.
He lived successively at various abbeys at Soreze, where he
specially studied Greek and examined the numerous MSS. of
the convent library, at La Grasse, and at Bordeaux; and
in 1687 he was called to Paris, to collaborate in an edition of
Athanasius and Chrysostom, contemplated by the Congregation.
From 1698 to 1701 he lived in Italy, chiefly in Rome, in order
to consult certain manuscripts, those available in Paris being
insufficient for the edition of Chrysostom. After a stay of three
years he returned to Paris, and retired to the abbey of St-Ger-
main-des-Pres, devoting himself to the study of Greek and Latin
MSS. and to the great works by which he established his
reputation. He died suddenly OP. the 2ist of December 1741.
His first publication, in which he was assisted by Jacques
Loppin and Antoine Pouget, was the first volume of a never-
completed series of previously unpublished Analecta graeca
(1688). In 1690 appeared La Virile de I'histoire de Judith.
Athanasii opera omnia, still the best edition of that Father,
was issued with a biography and critical notes in 1698. In
connexion with this may be mentioned Collectio nova patrum
et scriplorum graecorum (1706), containing some newly dis-
covered works of Athanasius, Eusebius of Caesarea, and the
Topographia Christiana of Cosmas Indicopleustes. His copious
Diarium italicum (1702) gives an account of the principal
libraries of Italy and their contents; this work has been translated
into English by J. Henley (1725). The Palaeographia graeca
(1708), illustrating the whole history of Greek writing and the
variations of the characters, has not yet been superseded; in
its own field it is as original as the De re diplomatica of Mabillon.
In 1713 Montfaucon edited Hexaplorum origenis quae supersunt,
not superseded till the work of Field (1875); and between 1718
and 1738 he completed his edition of Joannis Chrysoslomi opera
omnia. His L'Antiquite expliquee et representee en figures (1719)
laid the foundation of archaeological knowledge. It was
continued by him in Les Monumens de la monarchic framboise,
1729-1733. Both these works have been translated into English.
Montfaucon's Bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptarum (1739)
is a list of the works in MS. in the libraries with which he was
acquainted.
A list of his works will be found in Bibliotheque des ecrivains de
la congregation de Saint-Maur, by C. de Lame (1882), and in the
article in the Nouvelle biographic generate, which gives an account
of their scope and character; see also Emmanuel de Broglie, La
Societe de I'abboye de St-Germain-des-Pres au 18* siecle: Bernard de
Monlfaucon et les bernardins (2 vols., Paris, 1891).
MONTFERRAT, COUNT OF, a title derived from a territory
south of the Po and east of Turin, and held by a family who were
in the I2th century one of the most considerable in Lombardy.
In 1147 a count of Montferrat took part in the Second Crusade;
but the connexion with the Holy Land begins to be intimate
in 1176. In that year William Longsword, eldest of the five
sons of Count William III., came to the kingdom of Jerusalem,
on the invitation of Baldwin IV. and the baronage, and married
the heiress of the kingdom, Sibylla. He died within a few
months; but his wife bore a posthumous son, who became
Baldwin V. Count William III. himself (uncle to Philip of
France and brother-in-law to Conrad III.) afterwards came to
the Holy Land to watch over the interests of his grandson;
and he was among the prisoners taken by Saladin at Hittin
in 1187. Shortly after the battle of Hittin there appeared in
Palestine the ablest and most famous of the family, Count
William's second son, Conrad. Conrad, following the family
tradition, and invited by the emperor Isaac Angelus, had gone
to serve at the court of Constantinople. He soon became a
considerable person; married Isaac's sister, and defeated and
killed a usurper; but he was repaid by ingratitude and suspicion,
and fled from Constantinople to Palestine in 1187. Putting
into Tyre he was able to save the city from the deluge of Mahom-
medan conquest which followed Saladin's victory at Hittin.
He established himself firmly in Tyre (refusing admission to
Guy, the king of Jerusalem); and from it he both sent appeals
for aid to Europe which largely contributed to cause the Third
Crusade and despatched reinforcements to the crusaders,
who, from 1188 onwards, were engaged in the siege of Acre.
His elder brother had been the husband of the heiress Sibylla;
and on the death of Sibylla, who had carried the crown to Guy
de Lusignan by her second marriage, Conrad married her
younger sister, Isabella, now the heiress of the kingdom, and
claimed the crown (1190). The struggle between Conrad and
Guy paralysed the energies of the Christians in 1191. While
Richard I. of England espoused the cause of Guy, who came
from his own county of Poitou, Philip Augustus espoused that of
Conrad. After the departure of Philip, Conrad fomented the
opposition of the French to Richard, and even intrigued with
Saladin against him. But he was the one man of ability who
could hope to rule the debris of the kingdom of Jerusalem with
success; he was the master of an Italian statecraft which gave
him the advantage over his ingenuous rival; and Richard was
finally forced to recognize him as king (April 1192). In the very
hour of success, however, Conrad was struck down by the
emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain (the chief of the
Assassins).
Still another son or Count William III. achieved distinction.
This was Boniface of Montferrat, the younger brother of Conrad,
who was chosen leader of the Fourth Crusade in 1201, on the
death of Theobald of Champagne. In the winter of 1 201-1 202 he
went to Germany to visit Philip of Swabia; and there it has
been suggested, he arranged the diversion of the Fourth Crusade
to Constantinople (see CRUSADES). Yet in the course of the
crusade he showed himself not unsubmissive to Innocent III.,
who was entirely opposed to such a diversion. After the capture
of Zara, however, he joined the crusaders, and played a great
part in all the events which followed till the capture of Constanti-
nople by the Latins in 1204. But Baldwin of Flanders was
elected emperor over his head; and his irritation was not wholly
allayed by the grant of Macedonia, the north of Thessaly, and
Crete (which he afterwards sold to Venice). In 1207 he died,
killed in battle with the Bulgarians. He left a son Demetrius,
who assumed the title of king of Thessalonica, which the father
had never borne (cf. Luchaire, Innocent III.: La question
d 'Orient, p. 190). In 1222 Demetrius lost his kingdom to Theo-
dore Angelus, and the house of Montferrat its connexion with
the East.
Sec Savio, Studi storici sul marchese Guglielmo III. di Monferrato
(Turin, 1885); Ilgen, Markgraf Konrad von Montferrat (1880); and
also the works of Cerrato (Turin, 1884) and Desimoni (Genoa, 1886).
MONTFLEURY (d. 1667), French actor, whose real name
was Zacharie Jacob, was born in Anjou during the last years
of the i6th century. He was enrolled as one of the pages to
the due de Guise, but he ran away to join some strolling players,
MONTFORT MONTFORT, SIMON DE
781
assuming the name of Montfleury. About 1635 he was a valued
member of the company at the H6tel de Bourgogne, and he was
in the original cast of the Cid (1636) and of Horace (1640).
Richelieu thought highly of him, and when in 1638 Montfleury
married the actress Jeanne de la Chalpe (d. 1683), the cardinal
desired the ceremony to take place at his own country house
at Rueil. Montfleury died in Paris from the rupture of a blood-
vessel, while playing the part of Orestes in Andromaque, in
December 1667. He was the author of a tragedy, La Mart
d'Asdrobal, performed in 1647.
MONTFORT, the name of a famous French family long seated
at Montfort 1'Amauri, near Paris, descended from a certain
William, a descendant of the counts of Flanders, who flourished
during the latter part of the loth century, and who built a
castle at Montfort l'Amauri. Until 1209, when Simon IV.
took the title of count, William and his successors were known
as barons de Montfort. This Simon IV. de Montfort (c. 1160-
1218), a son of Simon III. (d. 1181), is chiefly known for the
very active part which he took in the crusade against the Albi-
genses. Twice he went to Palestine as a crusader, and in 1209,
answering the call of Pope Innocent III., he joined the host
which marched against the enemies of the Church in Languedoc.
He became vicomte of Beziers and of Carcassonne, and was
soon the leader of the crusaders. He took place after place,
defeated Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, at Castelnaudary,
and about a year later (September 1213) gained a victory over
Raymond's ally, Peter II., king of Aragon, under the walls of
Muret. Simon then turned his attention to administering and
organizing Languedoc. After a lively discussion in the Lateran
Council of 1215, the pope, somewhat reluctantly, confirmed
him in the possession of the greater part of the lands of the count
of Toulouse, and after two more years of warfare he was killed
whilst besieging the city of Toulouse on the 25th of June 1218.
The count's eldest son, Amauri de Montfort (1192-1241), was
unable to hold his own, although Philip Augustus sent some
troops to his assistance in 1222. He abandoned his interests
in the south of France in favour of the new king Louis VIII.,
and in 1239 he went on crusade to the Holy Land, dying soon
afterwards at Otranto. In 1230 Amauri was made constable
of France. Simon IV. had a brother, Guy de Montfort (d. 1228),
who shared his military exploits both in Asia and in Europe,
and who was afterwards employed by Louis VIII. to negotiate
with the pope at Rome. He was killed before Vareilles on the
3ist of January 1228. In 1294 Yolande (d. 1322), the heiress
of the Montforts, married Arthur II., duke of Brittany, and the
county of Montfort became part of this duchy. Their son,
John, count of Montfort, claimed Brittany in opposition to
Charles, count of Blois, and at length secured the duchy. Except
for one interval his descendants held it until it was united with
the French crown at the end of the 1 5th century.
See A. Molinier, Catalogue des actes de Simon et d'Amaury de
Montfort (1873); and C. Douais, La Soumission de la vicomte de
Carcassonne par Simon de Montfort et la croisade centre Raimond VI.
(1884).
MONTFORT, SIMON DE, EARL OF LEICESTER (d. 1265),
English statesman and soldier, was born in France about the
year 1200. He was the fourth and youngest son of Simon IV.
de Montfort (see above), the leader of the Albigensian crusade,
by Alicia de Montmorenci. Simon IV., whose mother was
an heiress of the Beaumont family, claimed in her right, and
received from King John, the earldom of Leicester (1207), only
to lose it again through espousing the French side in the wars
between that sovereign and Philip Augustus. The young
Simon, of whose youth and education nothing is recorded,
came to England in 1230 and attached himself to Henry III.,
obtaining with the consent of his sole surviving brother Amauri
a re-grant of the family earldom. Simon was for a time unpopu-
lar with the English and closely attached to the royal party.
He gave, however, an early proof of religious fervour, and of
an unbending harshness, by the expulsion of all the Jews who
had settled in his borough of Leicester to practise usury. In
1238 he obtained the hand of the king's sister Eleanor, the widow
of the younger William Marshal. The king approved of the
match, but it was resented by his brother Richard of Cornwall
and the baronage, and objections were raised on the ground
that Eleanor had previously taken vows of chastity. With
some difficulty Earl Richard was pacified; and Montfort
obtained the pope's confirmation of the marriage by a
personal visit to Rome. In 1239, however, the influence of
detractors and a quarrel over some obscure financial trans-
actions in which he appears to have used Henry's name without
a formal warrant led to a breach between himself and the
king. The earl and his wife went for a time to France; and,
though a nominal reconciliation with the king was soon effected,
both departed on crusade with Richard of Cornwall in 1240.
Eleanor was left behind in Apulia while her husband proceeded
to the Holy Land. He acquitted himself with distinction,
and there was some thought among the Prankish barons of
appointing him to act as regent of the Latin kingdom of Jeru-
salem. But he returned in 1241, took part in Henry's disastrous
French expedition of 1242, and was readmitted to full favour.
Between 1243 and 1248 he received many gifts from the king;
he stood forward in parliament as a mediator between the court
party and the opposition; it is only from the correspondence
of his friends Grosseteste and Adam de Marsh that we learn
of his dissatisfaction with the condition of church and state.
He was keenly interested in Grosseteste's proposals for ecclesi-
astical reformation, and was considered the mainstay of the
reforming party. In 1 248 he again took the cross, with the idea
of following Louis IX. to Egypt. But, at the repeated requests
of the king and council, he gave up this project in order to act
as governor in the unsettled and disaffected duchy of Gascony.
Bitter complaints were excited by the rigour with which the
earl suppressed the excesses of the seigneurs and of contending
factions in the great communes. Henry yielded to the outcry
and instituted a formal inquiry into the earl's administration.
Montfort was formally acquitted on the charges of oppression,
but his accounts were disputed by the king, and he retired
in disgust to France (1252). The nobles of France offered
him the regency of the kingdom, vacant by the death of the
Queen-mother Blanche of Castile, but he preferred to make his
peace with Henry (1253), in obedience to the exhortations of the
dying Grosseteste. He helped the king in dealing with the
disaffection of Gascony; but their reconciliation was a hollow one,
and in the parliament of 1254 the earl led the opposition in
resisting a demand for a subsidy. In 1256 and 1257, when the
discontent of all classes was coming to a head, Montfort nominally
adhered to the royal cause. He undertook, with Peter of
Savoy, the queen's uncle, the difficult task of extricating the
king from the pledges which he had given to the pope with
reference to the crown of Sicily; and Henry's writs of this date
mention the earl in friendly terms. But at the " Mad Parlia-
ment " of Oxford (1258) Montfort appeared side by side with
the earl of Gloucester at the head of the opposition. It is said
that Montfort was reluctant to approve the oligarchical constitu-
tion created by the Provisions of Oxford, but his name appears
in the list of the Fifteen who were to constitute the supreme
board of control over the administration. There is better
ground for believing that he disliked the narrow class-spirit
in which the victorious barons used their victory; and that he
would gladly have made a compromise with the moderate
royalists whose policy was guided by the Lord Edward, Henry's
eldest son. But the king's success in dividing the barons and in
fostering a reaction rendered such projects hopeless. In 1261
Henry revoked his assent to the Provisions, and Montfort left
the country in despair.
He returned in 1263, at the invitation of the barons, who were
now convinced of the king's hostility to all reform; and raised
a rebellion with the avowed object of restoring the form of
government which the Provisions had ordained. For a few
weeks it seemed as though the royalists were at his mercy; but
he made the mistake of accepting Henry's offer to abide by the
arbitration of Louis IX. of France. At Amiens, in January 1 264,
the French king decided that the Provisions were unlawful and
782
MONTGAILLARD MONTGELAS
invalid. Montfort, who had remained in England to prepare
for the worst, at once resumed the war, and thus exposed himself
to accusations of perjury, from which he can only be defended
on the hypothesis that he had been led to hope for a genuine
compromise. Though merely supported by the towns and a few
of the younger barons, he triumphed by superior generalship
at Lewes (May 14, 1264), where the king, the Lord Edward, and
Richard of Cornwall fell into his hands. Montfort used his
victory to set up the government by which his reputation as
a statesman stands or ialls The weak point in his scheme
was the establishment ot a triumvirate (consisting of himself,
the young earl of Gloucester, and the bishop of Chichester) in
which his colleagues were obviously figureheads. This flaw,
however, is mitigated by a scheme, which he simultaneously
promulgated, for establishing a thorough parliamentary control
over the executive, not .excepting the triumvirs. The parliament
which he summoned in 1265 was, it is true, a packed assembly;
but it can hardly be supposed that the representation which
he granted to the towns (see PARLIAMENT and REPRESENTATION)
was intended to be a temporary expedient. The reaction
against his government was baronial rather than popular; and
the Welsh Marchers particularly resented Montfort's alliance
with Llewellyn of North Wales. Little consideration for English
interests is shown in the treaty of Pipton which sealed that
alliance (June 22, 1265). It was by the forces of the Marchers
and the strategy of Edward that Montfort was defeated at
Evesham (Aug. 4) . Divided from the main body of his supporters,
whose strength lay in the east and south, the earl was out-
numbered and surrounded before reinforcements could reach
him. For years after his death he was revered by the commons
as a martyr, and the government had no little difficulty in
reducing the remnants of his baronial supporters. His character
has suffered in the past from indiscriminate eulogy as much
as from detractors. He was undoubtedly harsh, masterful,
impatient and ambitious. But no mere adventurer could have
won the friendship of such men as Marsh and Grosseteste;
their verdict of approval may be the more unhesitatingly
admitted since it is not untempered with criticism.
The original authorities are those for the reign of Henry III.
The best biographies are those by R. Pauli (trans. C. M. Goodwin,
London, 1876); G. W. Prothero (London. 1877); C. Bemont (Paris,
1884). See also the letters of Adam de Marsh in J. S. Brewer's
Monumenta franciscana, vol. i (Rolls series, 1858); H. R. Luard,
Episiolae Roberti Grosseteste (Rolls, series, 1861); F. S. Stevenson,
Robert Grosseteste (London, 1899)- W. H. Blaauw, The Barons' War
(Cambridge, 1871). (H. W. C. D.)
MONTGAILLARD, JEAN GABRIEL MAURICE ROQUES,
COMTE DE (1761-1841), French political agent, was born at
Montgaillard, near Villefranche (Haute Garonne), on the i6th
of November 1761. His parents belonged to the minor nobility,
and he was educated at the military school of Soreze, where
he attracted the notice of the comte de Provence (afterwards
Louis XVIII.). After serving for some years in the West Indies
Maurice de Roques returned to France. In 1789 he was estab-
lished in Paris as a secret diplomatic agent, and though he
emigrated to England after the loth of August 1792, he returned
six weeks later to Paris, where his security was most probably
purchased by services to the revolutionary government. He
was again serving the Bourbon princes when he met Francis II.
of Austria at Ypres in 1794 and saw Pitt in London, where he
published his tal de la France au mois de mai 1794, predicting
the fall of Robespierre. He was employed by Louis XVIII.
to secure Austrian intervention on behalf of Mme Royale
(afterwards duchess of Angouleme), still a prisoner in the Temple,
and he drew up the proposition made by the prince to Charles
Pichegru, the details of which appear in his " Memoire sur la
trahison de Pichegru " (Moniteur, April 18, 1804). In June
1796 he made a journey to Italy in the hope of opening direct
relations with Bonaparte. On his return to the princes at
Blankenburg he was regarded with suspicion, and he departed
for Paris to await events. He is thought to have indicated
the possession by the comte d'Antraigues, agent of the princes,
of documents compromising Pichegru. In April 1798 he
surrendered to Claude Roberjot, the Hamburg minister of the
Directory, further papers relating to the matter. He followed
Roberjot to Holland, and there wrote a memorandum to prove
that the only hope for France lay in the immediate return of
Bonaparte from Egypt, followed by assumption of the supreme
power. This note reached Alexandria by way of Berlin and
Constantinople. When he ventured to return to Paris in the hope
of recognition from the First Consul he was imprisoned, and
on his release he was kept under police supervision. Napoleon,
who appreciated his real insight into European politics and
his extraordinary knowledge of European courts, attached him
to his secret cabinet in spite of his intriguing and mendacious
character. He received a salary of 14,000 francs, reduced
later to 6000, for reports on political questions for Napoleon's
use, and for pamphlets written to help the imperial policy. He
tried to dissuade Napoleon from the Austrian marriage and the
Russian campaign, and counselled the limitation of the empire
within the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees. The Bourbon
restoration made no change in his position; he was maintained
as confidential adviser on foreign and home politics, and gave
shrewd advice to the new government. His career ended with
the old monarchy, and he died in obscurity at Chaillot on the
8th of February 1841.
His Souvenirs, which must be read with the utmost caution,
were edited by C16ment de Lacroix (3rd ed., 1895); his Memoires
diplomatiques (1805-1819) were published by the same editor in
1896. His Etat de la France was translated into English by Edmund
Burke. His other writings include Ma conduite pendant le cours de
la revolution frangaise (London, 1795); Hisloire secrete de Coblentz
dans la revolution des franfais (London, 1795); De La France et de
I'Europe sous le gouvernement de Bonaparte (Lyons, 1904); Situation
de I'Angleterre en 1811 (Paris, 181 1) ; De la restauration de la monarchie
des Bourbons et du retour a I'ordre (Paris, 1814); and Histoire de
France depuis 1825 jusqu'a 1830 (Paris, 1839).
MONTGELAS, MAXIMILIAN JOSEF GARNERIN, COUNT
VON (1759-1838), Bavarian statesman, came of a noble family
in Savoy. His father John Sigmund Garnerin, Baron Mont-
gelas, entered the military service of Maximilian Joseph III.,
elector of Bavaria, and married the countess Ursula von Trauner.
Maximilian Josef, their eldest son, was born on the loth of
September 1759. He was educated successively at Nancy,
Strassburg and Ingolstadt. Being a Savoyard on his father's
side, he naturally felt the French influence, which was then strong
in Germany, with peculiar force. To the end of his life he spoke
and wrote French more correctly and with more ease than
German. In 1779 he entered the public service in the depart-
ment of the censorship of books. The elector Charles Theodore,
who had at first favoured him, became offended on discovering
that he was associated with the Illuminati, the supports of
the anti-clerical movement called the Aufkldrung. Montgelas
therefore went to Zweibriicken, where he was helped by his
brother Illuminati to find employment at the court of the duke,
the head of a blanch of the Wittelsbach familj . From this
refuge also he was driven by orthodox enemies of the Illuminati.
The brother of the duke of Zweibriicken Maximilian Joseph
took him into his service as private secretary. When his
employer succeeded to the duchy Montgelas was named minister,
and in that capacity he attended the conference of Rastadt
in 1798, where the reconstruction of Germany, which was the
consequence of the French Revolution, wa? in full swing. In
1799 the duke of Zweibriicken succeeded to the electorate of
Bavaria, and he kept Montgelas as his most trusted adviser.
Montgelas was the inspirer and director of the policy by which
the electorate of Bavaria was turned into a kingdom, and
was very much increased in size by the annexation of church
lands, free towns and small lordships. As this end was achieved
by undeviating servility to Napoleon, and the most cynical
disregard of the rights of Bavaria's German neighbours, Mont-
gelas became the type of an unpatriotic politician in the eyes
of all Germans who revolted against the supremacy of France.
From his own conduct and his written defence of his policy it
is clear that such sentiments as theirs appeared to be merely
childish to Montgelas. He was a thorough politician of the
MONT GENEVRE MONTGOMERY, J.
783
18th-century type, who saw and attempted to see nothing
except that Bavaria had always been threatened by the house of
Habsburg, had been supported by Prussia for purely selfish
reasons, and could look for useful support against these two
only from France, who had selfish reasons of her own for wishing
to counterbalance the power both of Austria and Prussia in
Germany. As late as 1813, when Napoleon's power was visibly
breaking down, and Montgelas knew the internal weakness of
his empire well from visits to Paris, he still continued to
maintain that France was necessary to Bavaria. The decision
of the king to turn against Napoleon in 1814 was taken under
the influence of his son and of Marshal Wrede rather than of
Montgelas, though the minister would not have been influenced
by any feeling of sentimentality to adhere to an ally who had
ceased to be useful. In internal affairs Montgelas carried out a
policy of secularization and of administrative centralization
often by brutal means, which showed that he had never wholly
renounced his opinions of the time of the Enlightenment move-
ment. His enemies persuaded the king to dismiss him in 1817,
and he spent the remainder of his life in retirement till his
death in 1838. He had married the countess von Arco in 1803,
and had eight children; in 1809 he was made a count.
See Denkwurdigkeiten des bayr. Staatsministers Maximilian Graf
von Montgelas, a German version of the French original, ed. by
Ludwig Graf v. Montgelas (Stuttgart, 1887); Briefe des Stadts-
ministers Graf en Montgelas, ed. by Julie von Zerzog (Regensburg,
1853); Dumoulin Eckart, Bayern unter dem Ministerium Montgelas
(Munich, 1894).
MONT GENEVRE, a very easy and remarkable pass (6083 ft.)
between France and Italy, which is now considered by high
authorities to have been crossed by Hannibal, as it certainly
was by Julius Caesar, Charles VIII., and in the war of 1859.
An excellent carriage-road mounts in 7 m. from Brianjon,
at the very head of the Durance valley, to the pass. On the
French side of the divide is the village of Bourg Mont Genevre,
and on the Italian side that of Clavieres, both inhabited all
the year round, as the pass runs east and west, and is thus
sheltered from the north wind. A descent of 5 m. leads down to
Cesanne in the Doria Riparia valley, which is followed for
5 m. more to Oulx (17 m. from Brianfon), on the Mont Cenis
railway.
MONTGOMERIE, ALEXANDER (c. isso-c. 1610), Scottish
poet, was the second son of Hugh Montgomerie of Hessilhead,
Ayrshire, and was born about the middle of the i6th century. 1
He spent some part of his youth in Argyleshire and afterwards
lived for a time at Compston Castle, in Galloway. He was in
the service of the regent Morton; thereafter, on the regent's
demission of office in 1578, in that of the king, James VI. In
1583 the grant by the Crown of a pension of 500 marks was
confirmed; and three years later he set out on a tour through
France, Flanders and other countries. He appears to have
got into trouble, to have been imprisoned abroad, and to have
lost favour at the Scottish court, and (for a time) his pension.
We have no record of his closing years.
Montgomerie's chief poem is the Cherry and the Slae, first
printed in 1597 (two impressions). It was frequently reprinted
in the I7th and i8th centuries, and appeared twice in Latin
guise in 1631, in Dempster's Cerasum et syhestre prunum, opus
poematicum. It is included in the collected edition of
Montgomerie's Poems, by David Irving (1821), and by James
Cranstoun, for the Scottish Text Society (1887). The text in the
latter is a composite of 930 lines from the second impression of
1597 (u.s.) and 666 lines from the version in Allan Ramsay's
(q.v.) Ever Green (1724); but a better text, from a MS. in the
Laing collection in the university of Edinburgh, has been
prepared (1907) for the Scottish Text Society by Mr George
Stevenson. The poem, written in the complicated alliterative
fourteen-lined stanza, is a confused allegory the confusion
'Alexander's brother, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1609), was made
bishop or archbishop, of Glasgow, in 1581, an appointment which
was strongly objected to by the General Assembly. The long
struggle which ensued was only terminated by Montgomerie's
resignation of the see in 1587.
being due to the fact that sections of the poem were written
at different times on Youth's choice between a richly laden
cherry-tree on a high crag and a sloe " bush " at his feet. His
other poems are: The Flyting betwixt Montgomery and Polwart
(1629; ist ed., 1621), which reproduces the literary habit
of the Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie; a series of 70
sonnets; a large number of miscellaneous poems, amatory
and devotional; and The Mindes Melodie, Contayning certayne
Psalmes of the Kinglie Prophete Dayvid, applyed to a new pleasant
tune (Edinburgh, 1605). The formal value of Montgomerie's verse
was fittingly acknowledged by James VI. in his early critical
essay A ne Schorl Treatise conteining some reulis and caulelis to be
obseriiil and eschewit in Scotlis Poesie, where the author makes
three quotations from Montgomerie's poems, then in circulation
in manuscript. Montgomerie had written a sonnet to his majesty,
which is prefixed to the Essayes of a Prentise.
Montgomerie stands apart from the courtier-poets Ayton,
Stirling, and others, who write in the literary English of the
South. He carries on the Middle Scots tradition, and was
not without influence in the vernacular revival, in Allan Ramsay
and his successors. (G. G. S.)
MONTGOMERY, GABRIEL, SEIGNEUR DE LORGES,
COMTE DE (c. 1530-1574), French soldier, became a lieutenant
in the king of France's Scottish guards, of which his father
was captain, and engaged in police operations against the
Protestants. Having inadvertently caused the death of King
Henry II. in a tournament (June 30, 1559) he was disgraced
and retired to his estates in Normandy. He studied theological
questions and espoused the cause of the Reformers. In 1562
he allied himself with the prince of Conde, took Bourges, and
defended Rouen from September to October 1562 against the
royal army. In the third War of Religion he occupied
Beam and Bigorre (1569). Escaping from the massacre of
St Bartholomew, he went to England and returned with a fleet
for the relief of La Rochelle (1573), but soon had to withdraw
to Cornwall. Returning to Normandy in 1574, he defended
Domfront, which was being besieged by Marshal de Matignon,
but was forced to capitulate on the 25th of May. He was
sentenced to death by the parlement, and beheaded in Paris
on the 26th of June 1574.
See L. Marlet, Le Comte de Montgomery (Paris, 1890).
MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771-1854), British 'poet and
journalist, son of a Moravian minister, was born on the 4th of
November 1771, at Irvine in Ayrshire, Scotland. Part of his
boyhood was spent in Ireland, but he received his education
in Yorkshire, at the Moravian school of Fulneck near Leeds.
He edited the Sheffield Iris for more than thirty years. When
he began his career the position of a journalist who held
pronounced views on reform was a difficult one, and he twice
suffered imprisonment (in 1795 and 1796). His Wanderer of
Switzerland (1806), describing the French occupation, attracted
considerable attention. The author was described by Lord
Byron in a footnote to English Bards and Scotch Reviewers,
as " a man of considerable genius," whose Wanderer of Switzer-
land was worth a thousand " Lyrical Ballads." The book had
been mercilessly ridiculed by Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review
(1807), but in spite of this Montgomery achieved a wide popu-
larity with his later volumes of verse: The West Indies (1810);
The World Before the Flood (1812); Greenland (1819); Songs of
Zion (1822); The Pelican Island (1826). On account of the
religious character of his poetry, he is sometimes confounded
with Robert Montgomery, very much to the injustice of his
reputation. His verses were dictated by the inspiring force
of humanitarian sentiment, and he was especially eloquent
in his denunciation of the slave trade. The influence of
Campbell is apparent in his earlier poems, but in the Pelican
Island, his last and best work as a poet, he evidently took Shelley
as his model. His reputation now rests chiefly on his hymns,
about a hundred of which are still in current use. His Lectures
on Poetry and General Literature (1833) show considerable
breadth of sympathy and power of expression. A pension of
7 8 4
MONTGOMERY, R. MONTGOMERY
150 was bestowed on him by Sir Robert Peel in 1835. He died
at Sheffield on the 3oth of April 1854.
His poems were collected and edited by himself in 1841. The
voluminous Memoirs, published in seven volumes (1856-1858) by
John Holland and James Everett, contain valuable information on
English provincial politics.
MONTGOMERY, RICHARD (1736-1775), American soldier,
was born in Co. Dublin, Ireland, in 1736. Educated at
St Andrew's and at Trinity College, Dublin, he entered the
British army in 1756, becoming captain six years later. He saw
war service at Louisbourg in 1757 and in the Lake Champlain
expedition of 1759, and as adjutant of his regiment (the i7th
foot) he shared in the final threefold advance upon Montreal.
Later he was present at Martinique and Havana. In 1772 he left
the army, settled in New York, and married a daughter of
Robert R. Livingston. Three years later he was a delegate
to the first provincial congress of New York, and became
brigadier-general in the Continental army. He was sent with
Schuyler on the Canadian expedition, and, on Schuyler's falling
ill, the command devolved upon him. Hampered by the in-
clemency of the season and the gross indiscipline of the troops,
he went forward, gaining a few minor successes and capturing
the colours of the 7th (Royal) Fusiliers, and met Benedict
Arnold's contingent at Point aux Trembles. They pushed on
to Quebec barely 800 strong, but an assault was made on the
3ist of December 1775, and almost at the first discharge
Montgomery was killed. The body of the American general
was honourably interred by the Quebec garrison. Congress
caused a memorial to be erected in St Paul's church, New York,
and in 1818 his remains were conveyed thither from Quebec.
MONTGOMERY, ROBERT (1807-1855), English poet, natural
son of Robert Gomery, was born at Bath in 1807. He was
educated at a private school in Bath, and founded an unsuc-
cessful weekly paper in that city. In 1 8 28 he published TheOmni-
presence of the Deity, which hit popular religious sentiment so
exactly that it ran through eight editions in as many months.
In 1830 followed The Puffiad (a satire), and Satan. An exhaustive
review in Blackwood by John Wilson, followed in the thirty-first
number by a burlesque of Satan, and two articles in the first
volume of Fraser, ridiculed Montgomery's pretensions and the
excesses of his admirers. But his name was immortalized by
Macaulay's famous onslaught in the Edinburgh Renew for April
1830. As a poet, he deserved every word of Macaulay's severe
censure, though the brutality of the attack cannot be defended.
This exposure did not, however, diminish the sale of his poems;
The Omnipresence of the Deity reached its 28th edition in 1858.
In 1830 Montgomery entered Lincoln College, Oxford, graduating
B.A. in 1833 and M.A. in 1838. Taking holy orders in 1835
he obtained a curacy at Whittington, Shropshire, which he
exchanged in 1836 for the charge of the church of St Jude,
Glasgow. In 1843 he removed to the parish of St Pancras,
London, when he was minister of Percy Chapel. He died at
Brighton in 1855. He also wrote The Messiah (1832), Woman,
the Angel of Life (1833), Oxford (1831), and many devotional
and theological works.
MONTGOMERY, a city of Alabama, U.S.A., the capital of
the state and the county-seat of Montgomery county, situated
(about 162 ft. above the sea) S.E. of the centre of the state,
on the left bank of the Alabama river, which is here navigable.
Pop. (1900), 30,346, of whom 17,229 were of negro descent and
666 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 38,136, Montgomery
is served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio,
the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Central of
Georgia, and the Western of Alabama railways, and by freight
steamers plying between Montgomery and Mobile. Among
the principal buildings are the state capitol, near which is a
Confederate soldiers' monument (erected by the women of
Alabama), the county court-house, the Federal building, the
Carnegie library, the masonic temple and the First National Bank
and Bell buildings. The public institutions include the city
infirmary and St Margaret's hospital, the latter under the direc-
tion of the Sisters of Charity. The city has about 100 acres
of parks, Oak Park being the most important. Situated in
the " Cotton Belt " of Alabama, Montgomery handles 160,000-
200,000 bales annually. Truck-gardening is an important
industry. The Alabama state fair is held here annually.
Among the manufactures are fertilizers, machine-shop products,
cotton goods, lumber products, cigars, harness, beer, stone-
ware, and bricks. The value of the factory products in 1905
was $3,877,653 (an increase of 31-7% over that in 1900). The
leading newspapers are the Montgomery Advertiser (morning)
and the Montgomery Journal (evening).
The site of Montgomery was once occupied by an Indian
village known as Ecunchatty. The first permanent white
settlement was made in 1814 by Arthur Moore. In 1817 Samuel
Dexter of Massachusetts laid out a town and named it New
Philadelphia. In 1819 it was united with East Alabama Town,
an adjoining settlement on the river, under the present name
(in honour of General Richard Montgomery), and a third settle-
ment, Alabama Town, later became a part of Montgomery.
Montgomery was first incorporated in 1837. The place soon
became the commercial emporium of the Alabama " Cotton
Belt." In 1847 it became the capital of the state instead of
Tuscaloosa. On the 7th of January 1861, the State Convention
through which Alabama seceded from the Union met in the
capitol; at the same place delegates from six states met, on the
4th of February, and organized the Confederate States of
America. Montgomery was the capital of the new government
(hence the popular name " Cradle of the Confederacy ") until
May 1 86 1, when that honour was transferred to Richmond,
Virginia. It was the seat of Confederate military factories, and
on the 1 2th of April 1865 it was captured by Federal troops.
Montgomery received a new city charter in 1905.
MONTGOMERY, a town and district of British India, in the
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town has a station on the
North-Western railway about half-way between Lahore and
Multan. Pop. (1901), 6602. It was founded in 1864 on the
opening of the railway, and called after Sir Robert Montgomery,
then lieutenant-governor. It is situated in a desolate upland,
and though not unhealthy is singularly comfortless..
The DISTRICT OF MONTGOMERY lies in the Ban Doab, or
tract between the Sutlej and the Ravi, extending also across
the latter river. Area, 4771 sq. m.. In the former tract a
fringe of cultivated lowland skirts the bank of either river, but
the whole interior upland consists of a desert plateau partially
overgrown with brushwood and coarse grass, and in places with
impenetrable jungle. On the farther side of the Ravi, again,
the country at once assumes the same desert aspect. The
population in 1901 was 463,586, showing an apparent decrease
of 0-4 % in the decade due to emigration to the Chenab Colony.
The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and fodder.
Camels are bred for export. The leading manufactures are of
cotton and silk, and lacquered woodwork, and there are factories
for ginning and. pressing cotton. The district is traversed by
the main line of the North-Western railway, from Lahore to
Multan, and is irrigated by the Upper Sutlej inundation canal
system, and also from the Ravi.
From time immemorial the Rechna Doab has formed the home
of a wild race of pastoral Jats, who have constantly maintained
a sturdy independence against the successive rulers of northern
India. The sites of Kot Kamalia and Harappa contain large
mounds of antique bricks and other ruins, while many other
remains of ancient cities or villages lie scattered along the
river bank, or dot the now barren stretches of the central waste.
The pastoral tribes of this barren expanse do not appear to
have paid more than a nominal allegiance to the Moslem rulers,
and even in later days, when Ranjit Singh extended the Sikh
supremacy as far as Multan, the population for the most part
remained in a chronic state of rebellion. British influence was
first exercised in the district in 1847, when an officer was deputed
to effect a summary settlement of the land revenue. Direct
British rule was effected on the annexation of the Punjab in 1849.
There was a general rising of the wild clans during the Mutiny
of 1857, several actions being fought before order was restored.
MONTGOMERY MONTH
785
MONTGOMERY ( Tre' Faldwyn),a. municipal and parliamentary
borough, market town, and the county town of Montgomery-
shire, Wales, situated on a wooded hill near the east bank of
the Severn, 7 m. S. of Welshpool (Cambrian railway). Pop.
(1901), 1034. The principal feature of the town is the ruined
castle. Not far off are the traces of an extensive British fort,
and, about a mile east, the line of Offa's Dyke, forming the
Shropshire boundary. The borough was incorporated by
Henry III., when the castle was enlarged, and was the scene of
frequent contests between that king and Llewelyn the Great.
In the i4th century the castle was held by the Mortimers,
from whom it passed to the Yorkists. The Crown gave it, in the
1 5th century, to the Herberts of Cherbury, one of whom, in 1644,
surrendered it to the Parliamentarians, who dismantled it.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE (Welsh Swydd Tre' Faldwyn, Bald-
wyn's town shire), a county of Wales, bounded N. by Denbigh,
N.E. and E. by Shropshire, S. by Radnor and Cardigan, W.
and N.W. by Merioneth. Its length from S.E. to N.W. is
about 30 m. ; N.E. to S.W. it measures about 35 m. The surface
is broken, though the highest hills are only round the county
borders to the north Berwyn (stretching into Denbighshire) ;
to the south-west Plinlimmon (q.v.); east, the Breidden hills;
south, the Kerry hills. The principal rivers and streams are:
the Severn, flowing east and north; the Wye, farther south;
the Dyfi, Vyrnwy (Fyrnwy), Clywedog, Tanat and Rhiw.
Except the Wye and Dyfi, the principal streams are tributaries
of the Severn. Lake Vyrnwy, formed in 1888, is the chief
water-supply of Liverpool. The Montgomeryshire canal, some
24 m. long, is connected with the Shropshire Union and
Ellesmere canals, The county was formerly a recognized source
of oak timber for the navy.
Geologically, the county is occupied almost exclusively by
Ordovician and Silurian rocks. The latter, mainly Wenlock beds
bordered by a fringe of Llandovery rocks, lie in the form of a com-
plex syncline down the centre of the county from a few miles north
of Lake Vyrnwy through Llangadfan, Llanfyllin, Llanfair, Welsh-
pool, Montgomery and Newtown. The boundary is very irregular.
Between Newtown and Kerry hill Ludlow beds come in, and on the
edge of the forest of Clun the Old Red Sandstone just crosses the
boundary into this county. North and south of the Silurian tract
the Ordovician- rocks occupy the remaining area; they contain
bands of andesite and felsite in the Berwyn hills, also east of Criggion
and south-west of Corndon. In the last-named hill there is a large
laccolitic mass of dolerite and a similar rock occurs at Criggion.
At Machynlleth slate is worked in the Ordovician, and numerous
metalliferous mines exist in the neighbourhood of Newtown from
which lead, silver and zinc are obtained. Glacial deposits are
prevalent over much of the county.
The climate is mild, and the soil generally fertile, especially
in the Severn valley, though towards Merionethshire there
are heath and moss. Small holdings (under about 50 acres)
tend to diminish The hardy, small, mountain pony is still
to be found here. Hunters and cart-horses are bred. Sheep-
breeding is practised, and Shropshire downs are superseding
the little duns. Of the relatively few green crops potatoes are
the most important; oats are the principal grain. Permanent
pasture covers a large area. Hill pasture is also extensive.
Woollen cloth and flannel manufacture have revived con-
siderably.
The Cambrian railway, entering Montgomeryshire in the
north-east, by Llanymynech, crosses it to the south-west with
branches to Llanfyllin, Westbury and Van. There is also a
branch from Caersws to Glandyfi (Glandovey) junction, with
the coastwise branch of the same company.
The area of the ancient and administrative counties is 510,111
acres, or 797 sq. m., with a population of 54,901 in 1901. Many
of the people know no English, and Welsh is everywhere the
favourite speech. The county returns one member to parliament,
and includes the Montgomery district of parliamentary boroughs :
Llanfyllin (pop. 1632), Llanidloes (2770), Montgomery (1034),
Machynlleth, Newtown and Welshpool (6121). The first three
and last of these are municipal boroughs. The urban districts
are: Newtown and Llanllwchaiarn (6500), and Machynlleth
(2038). The county is in the North Wales and Chester circuit,
assizes being held alternately at Newtown and Welshpool.
Welshpool borough has a separate commission of the peace,
but no separate court of quarter sessions. The ancient county
(in Bangor, Hereford, and St Asaph dioceses) has 59 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, with parts of n others.
History and Antiquities. The Welsh name of Baldwyn's
town shire is taken from a Norman who did homage to William
the Conqueror for this division of Wales. The English name
is from Roger de Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury (temp. William
Rufus). At the coming of the Romans this county was part
of the Ordovices' territory (Britannia secunda), and there are
remains of Roman encampments and fortifications at Caersws,
Mathrafal, and near Montgomery. The roads connecting these
stations can often be traced. Vestiges of a Roman camp are
visible near Welshpool. Machynlleth was perhaps the Roman
Maglona. Remains of old British camps are to be seen at
Dolarddyn, on Breidden hill and at Caereinion. There are
many cairns and barrows. Crossing the county was the Via
Devana, joined by other roads. From the Roman evacuation
under Flavius Honorius (d. A.D. 423) little is known of
Montgomery until Wales was subdivided into three districts at
the death of Rhodri Fawr, when Montgomery was included in
Powys (Powys Gwewwynwyn, Upper Powys). Powys Castle was
founded in 1108. About the end of the nth century, probably,
was built Baldwyn's Castle, taken later by the Welsh and
retaken by Roger de Montgomery. In 1345 Roger Mortimer
held it. At Carno, n m. from Newtown and 17 from Machynll-
eth, a battle decisive of North Wales sovereignty was fought in
946, and in 1081 the rightful heir, Gruffydd ab Cynan, together
with Rhys ab Tudur, prince of South Wales, here killed in battle
Trahaern ab Caradoc, the usurper, and most of his men. At
Machynlleth is seen O wen Glendower's senate house (1402) where
he was crowned prince of Wales.
MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du.
maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr.
liriv, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family;
all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in
nearly all those languages), originally the period between two
returns of the new moon; generally called a lunar and sometimes
a synodic or illuminative month. The anomalistic month is the
mean time taken by the moon in passing from one perigee to
the next; the sidereal month is the mean time in which the moon
makes a circuit among the stars; the tropical month is the mean
time in which the moon traverses 360 of longitude; the nodical
or draconic month is the mean time taken by the moon in passing
from one rising node to the next; the solar month is one- twelfth
of a tropical year. The lengths of the various months are:
synodic = 29-53059 days; anomalistic = 27-55460, sidereal =
27-32166, tropical = 27-32156, nodical = 27-21222, solar=
30-43685. (For the calendar months see CALENDAR.)
In law a month may mean either a lunar month, that is, a
period of twenty-eight days, or a calendar month. At common
law, " month " generally means a lunar month, although in
mercantile matters it has been generally understood to mean
a calendar month, but there is no general exception giving it
that meaning in commercial documents. It can only have
that meaning where according to the ordinary rules of construc-
tion a secondary meaning can be admitted (Bruner v. Moore,
1904, i Ch. 305). In bills of exchange or promissory notes
month means a calendar month (Bills of Exchange Act, 1882,
s. 14 [4]). Where a servant is engaged subject to a month's
notice or payment of a month's wages month is interpreted
as a calendar month (Gordon v. Potter, i F. & F. 644). In acts
of parliament passed before the year 1850 month, unless other-
wise specially interpreted, means lunar month, but in all acts
passed since that date, month, unless words be added showing
that lunar month was intended, means calendar month (Inter-
pretation Act 1889, s. 3). In the rules of the supreme court
and in the county court rules month means a calendar month.
In mercantile contracts in computing the period of a month
the day from which the time is to begin to run is excluded,
but in sentences of imprisonment the day on which the sentence
begins is included, so that the numerically corresponding
7 86
MONTHOLON MONTLUC
day in the month in which the sentence expires would be
excluded.
MONTHOLON, CHARLES TRISTAN, MARQUIS DE (1782-
1853), was born at Paris. He was trained for a military career,
and in his tenth year shared in the expedition of Admiral Truguet
to the coast of Sardinia. Entering the army in 1798, he rose
with rapidity and avowed himself, when chef d'escadron in Paris
at the time of the coup d'etat of Brumaire (November 1799),
entirely devoted to Bonaparte. He served with credit in the
ensuing campaigns, and distinguished himself at the battle
of Aspern-Essling (May 1809) where he was wounded. At the
end of that campaign on the Danube he received the title of
count and remained in close attendance on Napoleon, who
confided to him several important duties, among others, a
mission to the Archduke Ferdinand at Wtirzburg. At the time
of the first abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau (April n,
1814), Montholon was one of the few generals who advocated
one more attempt to rally the French troops for the overthrow
of the allies. After the second abdication (June 22, 1815)
he with his wife accompanied the emperor to Rochefort, where
Napoleon and his friends finally adopted the proposal, which
emanated from Count Las Cases (?..), that he should throw
himself on the generosity of the British nation and surrender
to H.M.S. " Bellerophon." Montholon afterwards, at Plymouth,
asserted that the conduct of Captain Maitland of the
" Bellerophon " had been altogether honourable, and that the re-
sponsibility for the failure must rest largely with Las Cases. Mon-
tholon and his wife accompanied the ex-emperor to St Helena.
To Montholon chiefly, Napoleon dictated the notes on his career
which form so interesting, though far from trustworthy, a
commentary on the events of the first part of his life. Mon-
tholon is known to have despised and flouted Las Cases, though
in later writings he affected to laud his services to Napoleon.
With Gourgaud, who was no less vain and sensitive than himself,
there was a standing feud, which would have led to a duel but
for the express prohibition of Napoleon. Las Cases left the
island in November 1816, and Gourgaud in January 1818; but
Montholon, despite the departure of his wife, stayed on at
Longwood to the end of the emperor's life (May, 1821). In
a letter written to his wife he admitted that Napoleon died
of cancer, though he afterwards encouraged the belief that death
was due to a liver complaint aggravated by the climate and
by the restrictions to which Napoleon was subjected. After
that event Montholon and Bertrand became reconciled to Sir
Hudson Lowe (q.v.) ; but this did not prevent him, on his return
to France, from vilifying that much abused man. Colonel
Basil Jackson found him very frank as to the polilique de Long-
wood which aimed at representing Napoleon as a martyr, and
Sir Hudson Lowe as his persecutor. Montholon admitted that
an " angel from heaven as governor would not have pleased
them." Montholon had to spend many years in Belgium;
and in 1840 acted as " chief of staff " in the absurd " expedition "
conducted by Louis Napoleon from London to Boulogne. He
was condemned to imprisonment at Ham, but was released in
1847; he then retired to England and published the Recits de
la captivite de Napoleon a Sle Helene. In 1849 he became one
of the deputies for the Legislative Assembly under the Second
French Republic. He died on the 2ist of August 1853.
See Recueil de pieces authentiques sur le captif de Ste Helene:
suivi de lettres de MM . . . . le General Montholon, &c. (Paris,
1821); Memoires pour servir a I'histoire de France sous Napoleon
(ed. Gourgaud and Montholon, Paris, 1823; Eng. ed., London,
1823; new ed., Paris, 1905); Recits de la captivite de Vempereur
Napoleon a Ste Helene (2 vols., Paris, 1847). Also the Marquise
de Montholon's Souvenirs de Ste Helene, 1815-16 (Paris, 1901). Of
Montholon's own writings the only one of note is De VArmee
franfaise (1834). For the conversations of Montholon with Basil
Jackson in 1828, see Lieut.-Colonel Basil Jackson, Notes and
Reminiscences of a Staff Officer (London, 1903). (J. HL. R.)
MONTH'S MIND, in medieval and later England a service
and feast held one month after the death of anyone in his or her
memory. Bede speaks of the day as commemorationis dies.
These " Minding days " were of great antiquity, and were sur-
vivals of the Norse minne or ceremonial drinking to the dead.
"Minnying Days," says Blount, " from the Saxon Lemynde,
days which our ancestors called their Monthes mind, their Year's
mind and the like, being the days whereon their souls (after their
deaths) were had in special remembrance, and some office or
obsequies said for them, as Orbits, Dirges." The phrase is still
used in Lancashire. Elaborate instructions for the conduct of
the commemorative service were often left in wills. Thus, one
Thomas Windsor (who died in 1479) orders that " on my moneth's
minde there be a hundred children within the age of sixteen years,
to say for my soul," and candles were to be burned before the
rood in the parish church and twenty priests were to be paid by
his executors to sing Placebo, Dirige, &c. In the correspondence
of Thomas, Lord Cromwell, one in 1536 is mentioned at which
a hundred priests took part in the mass. Commemorative
sermons were usually preached, the earliest printed example
being one delivered by John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, on
Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, in 1509.
MONTILLA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of
Cordova, 32 m. S. of the city of Cordova, by the Cordova-
Bobadilla railway. Pop. (1900), 13,603. The oil of the district
is abundant and good; and it is the peculiar flavour of the pale
dry light wine of Montilla that gives its name to the sherry known
as Amontillado. Montilla was the birthplace of " The Great
Captain," Gonzalo or Gonsalvo of Cordova (1453-1515), and
contains the ruined castle of his father, Pedro Fernandez de
Cordova.
MONTLOSIER, FRANCOIS DOMINIQUE DE REYNAUD,
COMTE DE (1755-1838), French publicist, was born at Clermont-
Ferrand (Puy-de-D6me) on the i6th of April 1755, the youngest
of a large family belonging to the poorer nobility. He was
returned in 1791 to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat on
the Royalist side, and he emigrated on its dissolution in Sep-
tember 1791. He was received into the emigrant army at Cob-
lenz after some protest against the Liberal leanings he had shown
in the Assembly. After the cannonade of Valmy, he withdrew
to Hamburg, and thence to London, where he avoided English
society, moving exclusively among the French exiles. In his
Courrier de Londres, published in London, he advocated modera-
tion and the abandonment by the exiles of any idea of revenge.
He was recalled to Paris in 1801, with permission to publish his
paper in London. The Courrier was soon suppressed, neverthe-
less, its editor being compensated by a comfortable sinecure in
the ministry of foreign affairs. Next year he sold his pen to the
government to edit the violent anti-English Bulletin de Paris.
At Napoleon's request he undertook an account of the ancient
monarchy of France, which should serve as a justification for
the empire. After four years' labour Montlosier submitted
his work to a specially appointed committee, by which it was
rejected because of the stress laid on the feudal limitations
of the royal authority. The work De la monarchic franc.aise
. . . ou recherches sur les anciennes institutions franfaises . . .
el sur les causes qui ont amene la revolution . . . appeared in
1814 in three volumes, a fourth and supplementary volume
in the next year containing a preface hostile to Napoleon.
His views were no more acceptable to Louis XVIII. than they
had been to the emperor, and he devoted himself to agriculture
until he was roused by the clerical and reactionary policy of
Charles X. His anti-clerical Memoire a consulter sur un systeme
religieux, polilique . . . (1826) rapidly passed through eight
editions. He had no part in the revolution of 1830, but
supported Louis Philippe's government and entered the
House of Peers in 1832. He died on the gth of December
1838 at Blois. Ecclesiastical burial was denied him because he
had refused to abjure his anti-clerical writings.
Among his works should be mentioned : Mtmoires sur la revolution
franfaise, le consulat, Vempire, la restoration, et les principaux
evenements qui I'ont suivie (2 vols., 1829).
MONTLUC (or MONLUC), BLAISE DE LASSARAN-MASSEN-
, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1502-1577), marshal of France, was
born about 1502, at the family seat near Condom in the modern
department of Gers. He was the eldest son, and his family
was a good one, but. like most gentlemen of Gascony, he had to
MONTLUCON MONTMORENCY
787
trust to his sword. He served first as a private archer and
man-at-arms in Italy, with Bayard for his captain, fought all
through the wars of Francis I., and was knighted on the field of
Cerisoles (1544), to which victory he had brilliantly contributed
as adviser to the young duke of Enghien. Having apparently
enjoyed no patronage, he was by this time a man of middle age.
Thenceforward, however, his merits were recognized. His chief
feat was the famous defence of Siena (1555), which he has told so
admirably. When the religious wars broke out in France, Montluc,
a staunch royalist, held Guyenne for the king. Henry III.
made him in 1574 marshal of France, an honour which he
had earned by nearly half a century of service and by numerous
wounds. He died at Estillac near Agen in 1577. Montluc's
eminence above other soldiers of his day is due to his Commen-
taires de Messire Blaise de Montluc (Bordeaux, 1592), in which
he described his fifty years of service (1521-1574). This book,
the " soldier's Bible " (or " breviary," according to others), as
Henry IV. called it, is one of the most admirable of the many
admirable books of memoirs produced by the unlearned gentry
of France at that time. It is said to have been dictated, which
may possibly account in some degree for the singular vivacity
and picturesqueness of the style.
The Commentaires are to be found conveniently in the collection
of Michaud and Poujoulat, but the standard edition is that of the
Societe de I'histoire de France, ed. by M. de Ruble (5 vols., 1865-
1872). See Riistow, Militarische Biographien, v. i. (Zurich, 1858).
MONTLUCON, a town of central France, capital of an arron-
dissement, and the most important industrial centre in the
department of Allier. Pop. (1906), 31,888. It is situated on the
Cher, 50 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. The
upper town, on an eminence on the right bank, consists of steep,
narrow, winding streets, and preserves several buildings of the
iSth and i6th centuries; the lower town, traversed by the Cher,
is the seat of the industries, which embrace the manufacture of
glass, chemicals, mirrors, sewing-machines, and iron and steel
production. The Commentry coal-mines and Neris, a town
with thermal springs, are a few miles distant to the south-east.
Of the churches, Notre-Dame is of the isth century, St Pierre
partly of the i2th and St Paul modern. The town-hall, with a
library, occupies the site of an old Ursuline convent, and two
other convents are used as college and hospital. Overlooking
the town is the castle rebuilt by Louis II., duke of Bourbon,
and taken by Henry IV. during the religious wars; it serves as
a barracks. Montlugon is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade
arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a lycee. The town,
which formed part of the duchy of Bourbon, was taken by the
English in 1171, and by Philip Augustus in 1181; the English
were beaten under its walls in the i4th century.
MONTMORENCY, the name of one of the oldest and most
distinguished families in France, derived from Montmorency,
now in the department of Seine-et-Oise, in the immediate
neighbourhood of Enghien and St Denis, and about 9 m.
N.N.W. of Paris. The family, since its first appearance in
history in the person of BOUCHARD I., sire de Montiorency
in the loth century, has furnished six constables and twelve
marshals of France, several admirals and cardinals, numerous
grand officers of the Crown and grand masters of various knightly
orders, and was declared by Henry IV. to be, after that of the
Bourbons, the first house in Europe, MATTHIEU I., sire de
Montmorency, received in 1138 the post of constable, and died in
1160. His first wife was Aline, the natural daughter of Henry I.
of England; his second, Adelaide or Alice of Savoy, widow of
Louis VI. and mother of Louis VII., and according to Duchesne,
he shared the regency of France with Suger, during the absence
of the latter king on the second crusade. MATTHIEU II. had an
important share in the victory of Bouvines (1214), and was made
constable in 1218. During the reign of Louis VIII. he distin-
guished himself chiefly in the south of France (Niort, La Rochelle,
Bordeaux). On the accession of Louis IX. he was one of the
chief supports of the queen-regent Blanche of Castile, and was
successful in reducing all the vassals to obedience. He died in
1230. His younger son, Guy, in right of his mother, became
head of the house of Montmorency-Laval. ANNE de Mont-
morency (q.v.), so named, it is said, after his godmother Anne
of Brittany, was the first to attain the ducal title (1551). His
eldest son, FRANCOIS de Montmorency (1530-1579), was married
to Diana, natural daughter of Henry II. ; another son, HENRI I.
de Montmorency (1534-1614), who became due de Montmorency
on his brother's death in 1579, had been governor of Languedoc
since 1563. As a leader of the party called the Politiques he
took a prominent part in the French wars of religion. In 1593
he was made constable, but Henry IV. showed some anxiety
to keep him away from Languedoc, which he ruled like a sover-
eign prince. HENRY II. (1595-1632), son of duke Henry I.,
succeeded to the title in 1614, having previously been made grand
admiral. He also was governor of Languedoc. In 1625 he
defeated the French Protestant fleet under Soubise, and seized
the islands of "Re and Oleron, but the jealousy of Richelieu
deprived him of the means of following up these advantages.
In 1628-1629 he was allowed to command against the duke of
Rohan in Languedoc; in 1630 he defeated the Piedmontese, and
captured Prince Doria, at Avigliana, and took Saluzzo. In
the same year he was created marshal. In 1632 he joined the
party of Gaston, duke of Orleans, and placed himself at the head
of the rebel army, which was defeated by Marshal Schomberg at
Castelnaudary (Sept. i, 1632); severely wounded, he fell into
the enemy's hands, and, abandoned by Gaston, was executed
as a traitor at Toulouse on the 3oth of October. The title
passed to his sister CHARLOTTE-MARGUERITE, princess of
Conde.
From the barons of Fosseux, a branch of the Montmorency
family established in Brabant in the isth century, sprang the
seigneurs de Boutteville, among whom was the duellist Francois
de Montmorency-Boutteville, who was beheaded in 1627. His
son, Francois Henri, marshal of France, became duke of Piney-
Luxemburg by his marriage with Madeleine Charlotte Bonne
Therese de Clermont, daughter of Marguerite Charlotte de
Luxemburg, duchesse de Piney. Charles Franfois Frederic,
the son of the marshal, was created duke of Beaufort in 1688
and duke of Montmorency in 1689. In 1767 the title of duke
of Beaufort-Montmorency passed by marriage to another branch
of the Montmorency-Fosseux. This branch becoming extinct
in 1862, the title was taken by the due de Valen^ay, who be-
longed to the Talleyrand-Perigord family and married one of the
two heiresses of this branch (1864). There were many other
branches of the Montmorency family, among others that of the
seigneurs of Laval (q.v.), a cadet branch of which received the
title of duke of Laval and settled on the estate of Magnac in
1758. It is to this branch that Mathieu, due de Montmorency
(1767-1826), diplomatist and writer, and tutor of Charles X.'s
grandson, Henri, duke of Bordeaux, belonged.
MONTMORENCY, ANNE, Due DE (1493-1567), constable of
France, was born at Chantilly, and was brought up with the
future King Francis I., whom he followed into Italy hi 1515,
distinguishing himself especially at Marignano. In 1516 he
became governor of Novara; in 1520 he was present at the
Field of Cloth of Gold, and afterwards had charge of important
negotiations in England. Successful in the defence of Mezieres
(1521), and as commander of the Swiss troops in the Italian
campaign of the same year, he was made marshal of France in
1522, accompanied Francis into Italy in 1524, and was taken
prisoner at Pavia in 1525. Released soon afterwards, he was one
of the negotiators of the treaty of Madrid, and in 1530 recon-
ducted the king's sons into France. On the renewal of the war by
Charles V.'s invasion of France in 1536, Montmorency compelled
the emperor to raise the siege of Marseilles; he afterwards
accompanied the king of France into Picardy, and on the ter-
mination of the Netherlands campaign marched to the relief of
Turin. In 1538, on the ratification of the ten years' truce, he
was rewarded with the office of constable, but in 1541 he fell
into disgrace, and did not return to public life until the accession
of Henry II. in 1547. In 1548 he repressed the insurrections in
the south-west, particularly at Bordeaux, with great severity.
7 88
MONTMORENCY MONTPELIER
and in 1549-50 conducted the war in the Boulonnais, negotiating
the treaty for the surrender of Boulogne on the 24th of
March 1550. In 1551 his barony was erected into a duchy.
Soon afterwards his armies found employment in the north-east
in connexion with the seizure of Metz, Toul and Verdun by the
French king. His attempt to relieve St Quentin resulted in his
defeat and captivity (Aug. 10, 1557), and he did not regain his
liberty until the peace of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. Supplanted
in the interval by the Guises, he was treated with coldness by
the new king, Francis II., and compelled to give up his master-
ship of the royal household his son, however, being appointed
marshal by way of indemnity. On the accession of Charles IX.
in 1560 he resumed his offices and dignities, and, uniting with
his former enemies, the Guises, played an important part in
the Huguenot war of 1562. Though the arms of his party were
victorious at Dreux, he himself fell into the hands of the enemy,
and was not liberated until the treaty of Amboise (March 19,
1563). In 1567 he again triumphed at St Denis, but received
the death-blow of which he died at Paris, on the I5th of
March, 1567.
See F. Decrue, Anne de Montmorency (Paris, 1885), and Anne, due
de Montmorency (Paris, 1889).
MONTHORENCY, MATHIEU JEAN FELICITY DE MONT-
MORENCY-LAVAL, Due DE (1766-1826), French politician,
was born in Paris on the zoth of July 1766. He served with his
father, the vicomte de Laval, in America, and returned to France
imbued with democratic opinions. Mathieu de Montmorency
was governor of Compiegne when he was returned as deputy to
the states-general in 1789, where he joined the Third Estate
and sat on the left of the Assembly. He moved the abolition
of armorial bearings on the igth of June 1790. The dissolution
of the Constituent Assembly in September 1791 set him free to
join Liickner's army on the frontier early in the next year.
After the revolution of the loth of August he abandoned his
revolutionary principles; and he took no part in politics under
the empire. At the Restoration he was promoted marechal de
camp, and accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent during the
Hundred Days. At the second restoration he was made a peer
of France, and two years later received the title of viscount.
He adopted strong reactionary and ultramontane views, and
became minister of foreign affairs under Villele in 1821. He
recommended armed intervention in Spain at the Congress of
Verona in October 1822, but he resigned in December, being
compensated by the title of duke and the cross of the Legion of
Honour in the next year. He was elected to the French Academy
in 1825, though he appears to have had small qualifications for
the honour, and in the next year became tutor to the six-year-old
Henri, duke of Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de
Chambord). He died two months after receiving this last
appointment, on the 24th of March 1826.
See Vetillard, Notice sur la vie de M. le due Mathieu de Mont-
morency (Le Mans, 1826), and, for his curious relations with Mme
de Stael, P. Gautier, Mathieu de Montmorency et Mme de Stael,
d'apres les lettres inedites de M. de Montmorency a Mme Necker de
Saussure (1908).
MONTMORENCY, a town of northern France in the department
of Seine-et-Oise, i\ m. from the right bank of the Seine and 1 1 m.
N. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 5723. In the middle ages it
was the seat of the family of Montmorency. There is a church
built for the most part in the i6th century by Anne de Mont-
morency. The town is a well-known resort of Parisians. To
the north-east lies the fine forest of Montmorency. Bleaching
and dyeing and the manufacture of lime plaster, bricks and tiles
are carried on. About a mile south-west lies Enghien-les-Bains
(pop. 4925), the waters of which are used in cases of catarrh and
skin disease.
MONTMORILLON, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, on the Gartempe,
34 m. E.S.E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906), 3924. The
ecclesiastical seminary occupies a building of the i2th century,
formerly an Augustinian convent. The convent church is
Romanesque in style and there is a curious two-storied chapel
of octagonal form, of the same period. The church of Notre-
Dame is a combination of Romanesque and Gothic, dating from
the 1 2th and i3th centuries.
MONTMORIN DE SAINT HEREM, ARMAND MARC, COMTE
DE (1745-1792), French statesman, belonged to a cadet branch
of a noble family of Auvergne. He was gentleman-in-waiting
to Louis XVI. when dauphin, and was subsequently appointed
ambassador at Madrid. From Madrid he was suddenly
summoned to the governorship of Brittany, and in 1787 was
appointed by the king to succeed Vergennes in the ministry
of foreign affairs. Montmorin was a devoted admirer of Necker,
whose influence at the court he was mainly instrumental in
maintaining. He retired when Necker was dismissed on the
1 2th of July 1789, but on Necker's recall after the taking of the
Bastille again resumed his office, which he continued to hold
till October 1791. Mirabeau (q.v.) had approached him so early
as December 1788, with a plan for the policy to be pursued by
the court towards the new states general; but Montmorin,
offended by Mirabeau's attacks on Necker and by his Histoire
secrete de la cour de Berlin, refused to see him. With the progress
of the Revolution, however, this attitude was changed. The
comte de la Marck was exerting himself to bring Mirabeau into
touch with the court (see MIRABEAU), and for this purpose it
was important to secure the assistance of Montmorin. The
convenience of an understanding between the two men was
obvious; and they were soon on the closest terms. While
Montmorin continued minister in name, Mirabeau became so
in fact. Montmorin did not dare to come to a decision without
consulting his masterful friend, but on the other hand neither
Mirabeau nor La Marck were under any illusions as to the broken
character of the reed on which they had perforce to lean. Mira-
beau complained bitterly that Montmorin was " slack " (flasque)
and a " poltroon " (gavacke). On the other hand, La Marck
thought that Montmorin's feebleness was occasionally useful
in restraining Mirabeau's impetuosity. The death of Mirabeau
in April 1791 was a severe blow to Montmorin, the difficulty of
whose position was enormously increased after the flight of
the royal family to Varennes, to which he was not privy. He was
forced to resign office, but still continued to advise Louis, and
was one of the inner circle of the king's friends, called by the
revolutionists "the Austrian Committee." In June 1792 his
papers were seized at the foreign office, without anything in-
criminating being discovered; in July he was denounced, and
after the loth of August was proscribed. He took refuge in the
house of a washerwoman, but was discovered, haled before the
Legislative Assembly, and imprisoned in the Abbaye, where he
perished in the September massacres. His relative, Louis Victor
Henri, marquis de Montmorin de Saint Herem, head of the
elder branch, also perished in the massacre.
See A. Bardoux, Pauline de Montmorin, comtesse de Beaumont:
Etudes sur la fin du XVIII' ime siecle (Paris, 1884), for a defence of
Montmorin's policy ; F. Masson, Le Departement des affaires etrangeres
pendant la revolution, 1787-1804, ch. ii. (Paris, 1877) ; A. de Bacourt,
Correspondance entre Mirabeau et le comte de La Marck, 17891791
(3 vols., Paris, 1851), contains many letters of Montmorin; " Corre-
spondence of the Comte de Moustier with the Comte de Montmorin,"
in the Amer. Hist. Rev., vol. viii. (1902-1903).
MONTORO, a town of southern Spain, in the province of
Cordova, 27 m. E. by N. of the city of Cordova, on the Madrid-
Cordova railway. Pop. (1900), 14,581. Montoro was the Epora
of the Romans, and became an important Moorish fortress in the
middle ages, but it has been largely modernized. It stands on a
rocky peninsula on the south bank of the Guadalquivir, here
crossed by a fine bridge of four arches dating from the i6th
century. Oil is largely manufactured, and there is considerable
trade in timber, agricultural produce and livestock.
MONTPELIER, a city, the capital of Vermont, U.S.A., and
the county-seat of Washington county, on the Winooski river,
40 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Burlington. Pop. (1900), 6266 (952
foreign-born); (1910), 7856. Montpelier is served by the Central
Vermont and the Montpelier & Wells River railways. Barre
granite is mined extensively in the vicinity, and the city manu-
factures marble and granite products, flour, lumber, saddlery
MONTPELLIER MONTPENSIER
789
hardware and wood-working machinery. The principal building
is the state house, crowned by a statue of Agriculture by
Larkin G. Mead. The state house was first occupied in 1836.
It was almost completely destroyed by fire in 1857, and was
subsequently rebuilt and enlarged. Other prominent features
of the city are the United States government building, the
county court house, the Montpelier seminary and the Wood
art gallery, a collection consisting principally of paintings by
Thomas Waterman Wood (1823-1903), a native of Montpelier.
The township of Montpelier, named from the city in France, was
granted to a company of sixty proprietors in 1780. The first
permanent settlement was made in 1787; and the township was
organized in 1791 under a charter of 1781, replaced by another
in 1804. In 1805 it was selected as the capital of the state,
and in 1808 the legislature met here for the first time. At
first the township was a part of Orange county, but in 1810
Washington county was created, and in 1811 Montpelier became
the seat of government of the new county. In 1849 East
Montpelier was set apart as a separate township, and in 1894
the township of Montpelier was chartered as a city.
MONTPELLIER, a town of southern France, capital of the
department of Herault, about 7 m. from the Mediterranean, and
31 m. S.W. of Mimes on the Paris-Lyon railway between that
town and Cette. Pop. (1906), 65,983. Montpellier, the seat of a
university and the principal place of lower Languedoc, is situated
in a fruitful plain less than a mile from the right bank of the
small river Lez. Composed for the most part of narrow winding
streets, the town has at the same time several spacious thorough-
fares and some fine squares and promenades, notably the much-
frequented Place de la Comedie, the Esplanade and the Peyrou.
The last . terminates in a terrace commanding a magnificent
view of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and of the Pyrenees
and Alps. On the terrace is situated the reservoir of the town,
the water being brought from a distance of about 8 m. by an
aqueduct. In the centre of the square is an equestrian statue
of Louis XIV., while opposite the entrance is the Porte de
Peyrou, a triumphal arch erected at the end of the 1 7th century to
commemorate the achievements of Louis XIV. The Boulevard
Henri IV. to the north leads past the botanical garden, founded
in 1593 and thus the oldest in France, the medical college, and
the cathedral; to the east the Rue Nationale leads to the palace
of justice, the prefecture, and the citadel. The cathedral
(i4th century), which until 1536 was the church of a Benedictine
monastery, suffered severely during the religious wars, and
about the middle of the igth century the choir and one of the
four towers at the angles of the nave were rebuilt in the style
of the I3th century. The monastery, after being converted
into the bishop's palace, has since 1795 been occupied by the
famous medical school. A gallery devoted to the portraits of
professors since 1239 contains one of Rabelais. Close to the
medical school is the Tour des Pins, the chief relic of the medieval
fortifications. The museum (Musee Fabre) contains rich collec-
tions of Italian, Flemish, Dutch and modern French paintings
and of French sculptures. Its nucleus was the collection given
to it by the painter F. X. P. Fabre (1766-1837), born at Mont-
pellier. The principal public buildings are the palace of justice
a modern structure, the theatre and the prefecture, also modern.
Montpellier possesses old houses of the isth and i6th centuries.
The Lez is canalized so as to connect Montpellier with the canal
du Midi and with the sea at Palavas. The town has a consider-
able trade in wine, brandy, fruit and silk. The principal indus-
trial establishment is a manufactory for candles and soap.
There are also tanneries, distilleries and manufactories of cotton
and woollen goods, chemicals, casks, hosiery and chocolate.
The town is the centre of an acad&mie (educational division)
and has long been renowned as a seat of learning. Montpellier
university comprises faculties of medicine, law, science and
letters, and a higher school of pharmacy. Montpellier is also
the seat of a bishop and a prefect, of courts of appeal and
assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
commerce, a board of trade arbitration, and headquarters of
the XVI. army corps.
Montpellier first rose into importance after the destruction of
Maguelonne by Charles Martel in 737. In the loth century it
consisted of two portions, Montpellier and Montpellieret, held
from the bishops of Maguelonne by the family of Guilhem.
The Guilhems were succeeded, through marriage, by the house
of Aragon, a member of which in 1349 sold his rights to Philip
of Valois, Montpellieret having already in 1292 been ceded to the
Crown by the bishops. In 1141 Montpellier acquired a charter
afterwards materially extended, and the same century saw the
rise of its school of medicine. Several of the ablest teachers of
that school were members of an important Jewish colony estab-
lished in the town. It had a school of law in 1 160, and a univer-
sity was founded by Pope Nicholas IV. towards the close of the
1 3th century. Louis IX. granted to Montpellier the right of
free trade with the whole of the kingdom, a privilege which
greatly increased its prosperity. The importance of the town
was enhanced when the bishopric of Maguelonne was transferred
thither in 1536. During the wars of religion the town was a
stronghold of the Protestants, who captured it in 1567. It
strenuously supported the duke of Rohan in his revolts and in
1622 only succumbed to Louis XIII. after a siege of eight
months. In 1628 the duke was defeated there and the walls
of the town razed, the royal citadel built in 1624 being, however,
spared. Louis XIII. made Montpellier the seat of one of the
gtneralites of Languedoc, and the states of that province met
there during the I7th and i8th centuries.
See A. C. Germain, Hisloire du commerce de Montpellier anterieure-
ment <i I'ouverture du port de Cette (2 vols., Montpellier, 1861), and
Histoire de la commune de Montpellier (3 vpls., Montpellier, 1851);
Aigrefeuille, Histoire de la ville de Montpellier (4 Vols., Montpellier,
1875-1882).
MONTPENSIER, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The French
lordship of Montpensier (department of Puy-de-D6me), which
became a countship in the i4th century, was sold in 1384 by
Bernard and Robert de Ventadour to John, duke of Berry, whose
daughter Marie brought the countship to her husband, John I.,
duke of Bourbon, in 1400. The countship was subsequently held
by Louis de Bourbon, younger son of Duke John, and by his
descendants up to Charles de Bourbon-Montpensier, the famous
constable, who became duke of Bourbon by his marriage with
his cousin, Suzanne de Bourbon, in 1505. Confiscated by King
Francis I., the countship was restored in 1538 to Louise de
Bourbon, sister of the constable, and widow of the prince de
La Roche-sur-Yon, and to her son Louis (1513-1582), and was
erected into a duchy in the peerage of France (duchi-pairie)
in 1539. Marie, daughter and heiress of Henri de Bourbon,
duke of Montpensier, brought the duchy to her husband Gaston,
duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., whom she married in
1626, and their daughter and heiress (see below), known as
" La Grande Mademoiselle," was duchess of Montpensier. The
title subsequently remained in the Orleans family, and was
borne in particular by Antoine Philippe (1775-1807), son of
Philippe " Egalit6," and Antoine Marie Philippe Louis (1824-
1890), son of King Louis Philippe and father-in-law of King
Alphonso XII. of Spain.
MONTPENSIER, ANNE MARIE LOUISE D'ORLEANS,
DUCHESSE DE (1627-1693), French memoir-writer, was born at
the Louvre on the 2gth of May 1627. Her father was Gaston of
Orleans, " Monsieur," the brother of Louis XIII. Her mother
was Marie de Bourbon, heiress of the Montpensier family.
Being thus of the blood-royal of France on both sides, and heiress
to immense property, she appeared to be very early destined to a
splendid marriage. It was perhaps the greatest misfortune of
her life that " la grande mademoiselle " was encouraged to look
forward to the throne of France as the result of a marriage with
Louis XIV., who was, however, eleven years her junior. Ill-
luck, or her own wilfulness, frustrated numerous plans for marry-
ing her to persons of exalted station, including even Charles II.
of England, then prince of Wales. She was just of age when the
Fronde broke out, and, attributing as she did her disappointments
to Mazarin, she sympathized with it not a little. In the new or
second Fronde she not only took nominal command of one of the
790
MONTREAL
armies on the princes' side, but she literally and in her own person
took Orleans by escalade. However, she had to retreat to Paris,
where she practically commanded the Bastille and the adjoining
pai. of the walls. On the 2nd of July 1652, the day of the battle
of the Faubourg Saint Antoine, between the Frondeurs under
Cond6 and the royal troops under Turenne, Mademoiselle saved
Condi and his beaten troops by giving orders for the gates under
her control to be opened and for the cannon of the Bastille to
fire on the royalists. In the heat of the imeute which followed
she installed herself in the H6tel de Ville, and played the part
of mediatrix between the opposed parties. Her political impor-
tance lasted exactly six months, and did her little good, for it
created a lifelong prejudice against her in the mind of her
cousin, Louis XIV. She was for some years in disgrace, and
resided on her estates. It was not till 1657 that she reappeared
at court, but, though projects for marrying her were once more
set on foot, she was now past her first youth. She was nearly
forty, and had already corresponded seriously with Mme
de Motteville on the project of establishing a ladies' society
" sans mariage et sans amour," when a young Gascon gentleman
named Puyguilhem, afterwards celebrated as M. de Lauzun (<?..),
attracted her attention. It was some years before the affair
came to a crisis, but at last, in 1670, Mademoiselle solemnly
demanded the king's permission to marry Lauzun. Louis, who
liked Lauzun, and who had been educated by Mazarin in the
idea that Mademoiselle ought not to be allowed to carry her vast
estates and royal blood to anyone who was himself of the blood-
royal, or even to any foreign prince, gave his consent, but it
was not immediately acted on, as the other members of the
royal family prevailed with Louis to rescind his permission.
Not long afterwards Lauzun, for another cause, was imprisoned
in Pignerol, and it was years before Mademoiselle was able to
buy his release from the king by settling no small portion of her
estates on Louis's bastards. The elderly lovers (for in 1681,
when Lauzun was released, he was nearly fifty, and Mademoiselle
was fifty-four) were then secretly married, if indeed they had not
gone through the ceremony ten years previously. But Lauzun
tyrannized over his wife, and it is said that on one occasion he
addressed her thus, "Louise d'Orleans, tire-moi mes bottes,"
and that she at once and finally separated from him. She lived
for some years afterwards, gave herself to religious duties,
and finished her Memoires, which extend to within seven years
of her death (April 9, 1693), and which she had begun when she
was in disgrace thirty years earlier. These Memoires (Amster-
dam, 1729) are of very considerable merit and interest, though,
or perhaps because, they are extremely egotistical and often
extremely desultory. They are to be found in the great
collection of Michaud and Poujoulat, and have been frequently
edited apart. Her Eight Beatitudes has been edited by E.
Rodocanachi as Un Ouvrage de pitle inconnu (1908).
See the series of studies on La Grande Mademoiselle, by " Arvede
Barine " (1902, 1905). (G. SA.)
MONTREAL, a city of the Dominion of Canada, its leading
seat of commerce and principal port of entry, as well as the centre
of many of its important industries. It is situated on the south-
east of the island of Montreal, at the confluence of the Ottawa
and St Lawrence rivers, in the county of Hochelaga and province
of Quebec. The observatory in the grounds of McGill Univer-
sity, in the city, has been determined to be in 45 30' 17* N. lat.,
and 73 34' 40-05" W. long. The city holds a fine position at
the head of ocean navigation, nearly a thousand miles inland,
and at the foot of the great system of rivers, lakes and canals
upon which the commerce of the interior is carried to the Atlantic
seaboard. The ship channel below Montreal permits the passage
of ocean vessels drawing 30 ft. at low water. The deepening
of the channel, largely due to the initiative of Montreal
merchants, was begun in 1844 by the government of Canada.
The work was transferred to the Harbour Commissioners of
Montreal in 1850. The depth of the channel was then n ft.
Fifteen years later it had gradually been increased to 20 ft.;
and in 1888, when the work was taken over by the Dominion
government, the depth was 27 ft. 6 in. The Lachine canal,
with the chain of artificial waterways that succeeded it, opened
the way for the shipping of the Great Lakes. The first sod in
the digging of the Lachine canal was turned in July 1821 by
John Richardson of Montreal. The same public-spirited mer-
chant presided in April of the following year at the preliminary
meeting which led to the formation of the committee of trade,
itself the forerunner of Montreal's indispensable board of trade.
Even before the close of the French regime in Canada efforts
had been made to cut a canal across the island of Montreal,
and M.de Catalogne succeeded in building a waterway practicable
for the canoes of the fur-traders. The more ambitious canal
commenced in 1821 was completed four years later, at a cost
of $440,000. Before its completion, however, the increasing
draught of inland shipping made it practically useless, and in
1843 work was begun on an enlargement. Since then the canal
has been repeatedly deepened, to keep pace with the require-
ments of lake shipping, until to-day a i4-ft. channel is available.
In the meantime the rival method of rail transportation was
taking shape, and in 1836 the first Canadian railway was opened,
between Laprairie, opposite Montreal and St Johns, in the eastern
townships. In 1848 a second railway, from Longueuil to St
Hyacinthe, was opened; both these projects owing their exis-
tence to the enterprise of Montreal citizens. The broad St
Lawrence, however, still lay between the city and the outside
world. In 1854 work was commenced upon the famous Victoria
tubular bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson and A. M. Ross.
The bridge was opened by King Edward VII., then prince of
Wales, in 1860. In 1898 it was replaced by the Victoria Jubilee
bridge, built on the piers of the old bridge. At the foot of Lake
St Louis, some distance above the Victoria Jubilee bridge, the
Canadian Pacific railway crosses the river on a graceful cantilever
bridge with two central spans each 408 ft. long. Montreal is on
the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk, Intercolonial, Canadian
Northern, New York Central, Rutland, Central Vermont and
Delaware & Hudson railways. During the season of navigation
several lines of well-appointed steamers maintain communication
with Liverpool, London, Glasgow, Bristol and other British and
European ports, as well as the principal ports on the river and
gulf of St Lawrence and the Great Lakes. A system of electric
railways covers every section of the city and affords easy
communication with the suburbs and neighbouring towns.
Built originally along the water-front, Montreal has in the
course of years swept back over a series of terraces f ormer levels
of the river or of a more ancient sea to the foot of Mount Royal.
Held there, it has been forced around the mountain on either
side. Mount Royal, from which the city derives its name and
so much of its natural beauty, is a mass of trap-rock thrown up
through the surrounding limestone strata to a height of 753 ft.
above the level of the sea. Under the direction of Frederick
Law Olmsted, it was converted into a magnificent park. Be-
tween mountain and river the Lachine canal winds through
the plain. In the middle of the river lies the beautifully wooded
St Helen's island, rising to a height of 150 ft. above the water,
and itself commanding an excellent view of the city. The island,
named after Helen Boulle, wife of Champlain, belonged at one
time to the barons of Longueuil. The British government pur-
chased it for military purposes, and it still contains a battery
of guns and barracks, the latter tenantless, since the island has
been loaned to the city for use as a public park.
The city is substantially built, grey limestone, quarried from
the mountain, predominating in the public and many of the
private edifices. On the south of the Place d'Armes, a small
enclosure covering the site of an ancient bury ing-ground, stands
the parish church of Notre Dame, whose Gothic outlines form one
of the striking features of the city. Designed by James O'Don-
nell, the church was built in 1824 to take the place of an earlier
structure dating back to 1672. The existing church is 255 ft.
long and 134 ft. wide, and accommodates 10,000 worshippers.
Its twin towers (227 ft.) contain ten bells, one of which, known
as " Le Gros Bourdon," weighs 24,780 R>, the largest in America.
Two others weigh respectively 6041 and 3633 Ib. Beside the
church stands the historic seminary of St Sulpice, one of the
MONTREAL
791
few remaining relics of the days of French rule. This ancient
building is now used for the offices of the Order of Sulpicians,
founded by the Abbe Olier in the early half of the I7th century.
This zealous enthusiast had sent out Paul de Chomedy, sieur de
Maisonneuve, in 1641 to establish the missionary enterprise
which afterwards developed into the city of Montreal, and six
years later the Abbe de Quelus, with three devoted companions,
landed at Ville-Marie de Montreal 1 and laid the foundations of
the future powerful Order of Sulpicians. The seigneury of
Montreal, acquired by Olier in 1640, is still held by the Sulpi-
cians, and as they have retained large blocks of land in the heart
of the city as well as elsewhere on the island, these "Gentlemen
of the Seminary," as they were locally called, rank among the
wealthiest societies in America. The head offices of the Bank
of Montreal face Notre Dame church, on the north of the Place
d'Armes, and several other of the leading banking institutions
of the city have their quarters in the immediate neighbourhood.
In the Place d'Armes itself stands a striking figure in bronze
erected to the memory of the founder of Montreal, Maisonneuve.
At the base are a series of bas-reliefs setting forth historical
incidents connected with the early history of the town. The
monument is the work of a Canadian sculptor, Louis Philippe
Hebert, C.M.G. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St James
stands upon Dominion Square. It is an almost exact reproduc-
tion, reduced to one-half the scale, of St Peter's at Rome. The
building, projected by the late Archbishop Bourget to replace
the old church on St Denis street destroyed in the great fire
of 1852, was begun in 1868. On the west of the square stand
the Windsor Street station of the Canadian Pacific railway;
St George's (Anglican) church, which possesses a fine chime of
bells; and the Windsor Hotel. A statue of Sir John Macdonald
occupies the centre of the square. Close to the historic Bon-
secours Market stands the church of Notre Dame de Bonsecours,
founded by Sister Marguerite Bourgeois in 1673 as a sanctuary
for a miraculous statue of the Virgin. The original church was
burned in 1754, and the present building, erected in 1771, an
example of Norman architecture transplanted to the New World,
narrowly escaped destruction to make room for a railway
station. Curiously enough, it remained for a number of English
Protestants to secure the preservation of this relic of the French
period. Jacques Cartier Square, adjoining Bonsecours Market,
is notable for its column and statue of Nelson, erected in 1808.
As the Roman Catholic cathedral owes its existence to the
energy and enthusiasm of Archbishop Bourget, so Christ Church
cathedral must always be associated with the name of the first
resident Anglican bishop of Montreal, Dr Fulford. The church
is a fine example of the Early English style of architecture.
Beside it stands a memorial of Bishop Fulford, modelled after
the famous Martyr's Memorial at Oxford.
The mixture of races and creeds, which is so striking a charac-
teristic of Montreal life, has not only endowed the city with many
beautiful churches, but also with varieties of philanthropic insti-
tutions. Each of the several national societies St George's,
St Andrew's, St Patrick's, and that of the French-Canadian
patron saint, St Jean Baptiste, to mention no others looks after
the welfare of its own adherents. Of the several hospitals, the
most venerable is the Hotel Dieu, founded in 1644 by Mme de
Bouillon, a French lady of high rank. The original building,
in the early days of Ville Marie, stood without the fort, and was
fortified to withstand the attacks of the Iroquois. The site is
now covered by a block of warehouses on St Paul Street. The
present buildings, completed in 1861, contain both a hospital
and nunnery. The Order of the Grey Nuns, founded by a
Canadian lady, Mme d'Youville, in 1737, cares for hundreds
of foundlings and aged and infirm people in the great hospital
in Guy Street. The Montreal General hospital was founded in
1819 by public subscriptions, and the Royal Victoria hospital
is a monument to the generosity of Lord Strathcona and Lord
Mount-Stephen. Besides these should be mentioned the
Notre Dame, the Western and the Children's Memorial hospitals.
Separate hospitals for contagious diseases are maintained both
by the Roman Catholics and Protestants.
Montreal provides for the education of its young people through
two distinct systems of public schools, one for Roman Catholics,
the other for Protestants, each governed by a board of commis-
sioners. The schools are maintained by an annual tax based
upon the assessment, two-fifths of i % being levied upon the
Protestant section of the community for the support of the
Protestant schools, and one-quarter of i % upon the Catholics
for their schools. Unlike the neighbouring provinces of Ontario,
Quebec makes no provision for a state university. But James
McGill (1744-1813) left property, valued at the time of his death
at 30,000, for the foundation of a university, one college of
which was to bear his name. A royal charter conferring uni-
versity powers was obtained in 1821. During early years slow
progress was made, but with the appointment of Sir William
Dawson as principal, in 1855, the institution entered on a career
of prosperity. It now embraces five faculties: arts, applied
science, law, medicine, agriculture, and comprises the following:
McGill College, Montreal, the original foundation; the Royal
Victoria College for Women, Montreal, built and endowed by
Lord Strathcona; four affiliated theological colleges in Montreal;
the Macdonald College, erected and endowed by Sir William
C. Macdonald, at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. from the city;
the McGill University College of British Columbia, Van-
couver, B.C.; and three affiliated colleges: Stanstead Wesleyan
College, Stanstead,P.Q.; Victoria College, Victoria, B.C.; Alberta
College, Edmonton. The finely-equipped Macdonald scientific
laboratories, with the Redpath Museum and University Library
(114,000 vols. in 1907), form part of a noble group of buildings
on the campus in Montreal. Disastrous fires in April 1907
wiped out two buildings and destroyed the splendid medical
museum, but the plans for rebuilding provided for further
extension and improvement. Previous to the fires the property
of the university in buildings in Montreal, including equipment
and endowment, was valued at $6,000,000.
The French university of Laval, the chief seat of which is in the
city of Quebec, also maintains a branch at Montreal, established
in 1877. It embraces the faculties of arts, law, medicine and
theology, the latter conducted through the Seminary of St
Sulpice. The college library has been enriched by a rare collec-
tion of Canadian books and manuscripts, bequeathed by Judge
Louis Francois Georges Baby (1834-1906), of Montreal. The
medical school, which now occupies a portion of the university
building, formerly held its sessions in the historic Chateau de
Ramesay, built by the Chevalier de Ramesay, governor of
Montreal, in 1704, and occupied after the conquest by the British
governors of Canada, until the stoning of Lord Elgin and the
burning of the Parliament Buildings in 1849 brought about the
removal of the seat of government from Montreal. The Chateau
de Ramesay is now the fitting home of a public collection of
historic relics. Of other educational institutions in the city the
most important is St Mary's College, founded in 1848 by the
Jesuits, and removed to the present building in 1855. The
archives boast a notable collection of early Canadian manu-
scripts, upon which Francis Parkman drew in preparing his
histories of New France.
Montreal's position as the chief doorway of the outgoing and
incoming trade of the Dominion is largely due to the foresight of
her great merchants. With the gradual opening up of means
of communication by land and water, and the development of
her facilities for handling the exports and imports of the country,
the city has increased rapidly in importance, until to day one-
third of the imports of the Dominion come through Montreal,
and nearly 30 % of the exports. In shipments of grain Montreal
has outstripped all her rivals on the continent except New
York and New Orleans, and the building of the Georgian Bay
canal will, by materially shortening the distance between the
western grainfields and European markets, give her a very
considerable advantage ovej both these ports. In dairy produce
she is already the chief export centre of the continent. Montreal is
also the financial centre of Canada, and in it are to be found the
head offices of more than 25 important banks, of the leading insur-
ance companies, and of the two greatest railways of the country.
792
MONTRESOR MONTROND
Montreal is governed by a mayor and 36 aldermen, elected
every two years. The city returns 5 members to the Dominion
House of Commons and 6 to the Provincial Legislature of
Quebec.
The population of Montreal, according to the census of 1901,
was 266,826. With the suburbs, it was estimated in 1907 at
over 405,000, about three-fifths French.
The history of the town is steeped in romance. From that first
remarkable scene, so graphically described by Francis Parkman,
when, on the i8th of May 1642, Maisonneuve and his little band
of religious enthusiasts landed upon the spot where the Montreal
Custom House now stands, and planted, in the words of the
saintly Dumont, a grain of mustard seed destined to overshadow
the land, the history of the town was to be intimately associated
with missionary enterprise and such missionary heroism as the
world has rarely seen. Montreal began as a religious colony,
but its very situation, on the outer confines of civilization and at
the door of the Iroquois country, forced it to become a military
settlement, a fortified town with a military garrison. Similarly
its position, even then an ideal one from a commercial point of
view, made it the dominating centre of the fur-trade. For a
hundred years after its foundation these three influences held
sway, more or less mutually antagonistic, the streets of Montreal
presenting an animated picture of sombre priests and jovial
soldiers, savage hunters in their native finery and more
than half-savage fur traders. Within another hundred years,
although both priests and soldiers were still to be seen on
her streets, they had become but atoms in a larger and more
varied population. The fur trader of New France, merged after
the conquest in the fur trader of the North West Company
which had its origin in Montreal remained for a time the one
picturesque survival of earlier and more romantic days. Finally,
he too disappeared in the multiform and strenuous life of the
modern city.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Francis Parkman, Jesuits in North America
and The Old Regime in Canada (Boston, new ed., 1902) ; Newton Bos-
worth, Hochelaga depicta (Montreal, 1846; repr. Toronto, 1901); A.
Sandham, Montreal Past and Present (Montreal, 1870); W. D.
Lighthall, Montreal after Two Hundred and Fifty Years (Montreal,
1892); N. M. Hinshelwood, Montreal and Vicinity (Montreal, 1904);
S. E. Dawson, Handbook for the City of Montreal (Montreal,
1888); A. Leblond de Brumath, Histoire populaire de Montreal
(Montreal, 1890); H. Beaugrand, Le Vieux Montreal (Montreal,
1884) ; Dollier de Casson, Histoire du Montreal, 1640-1672 (Mont-
real, 1868); J. D. Borthwick, Montreal, its history, &c. (Montreal,
1875). (L.J. B.)
MONTRESOR, CLAUDE DE BOURDEILLE, COMTE DE (c. 1606-
1663), French intriguer and memoir- writer, was the grand-
nephew of Pierre de Brant&me. He was the second favourite
of Gaston, duke of Orleans, the weak brother of Louis XIII.,
succeeding Antoine de Laage, due de Puylaurens, in this position
in 1635. He planned the assassination of Cardinal Richelieu at
the camp of Amiens in 1636, a plan which failed through the
cowardice of Orleans. Montresor was obliged to spend the next
six years on his estate, but in 1642 he entered into the plot of
Cinq Mars against Richelieu. On its failure he escaped to
England, but his estates were confiscated. Returning after
Richelieu's death, he entered into the intrigues of the period
just preceding the Fronde, and was imprisoned in the Bastille,
then in Vincennes, having risked his safety by coming back from
exile in Holland to aid the duchess of Chevreuse. Mazarin
attempted to win him over in vain, but in 1653 he made his
submission to the victorious minister, and from that time on
played no part in public life. He had three children by Mile de
Guise, with whom he had a lasting liaison.
His Memoires have preserved his name from the oblivion other-
wise awaiting such intriguers; they are written with naive frankness
and are extremely interesting. They are printed by A. Petitot
and Monmerque in Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire
de France (Pans, 1876).
MONTREUIL, GERBERT DE (fl. i 3 th century), French
trouvere, author of the Roman de la violette. He dedicated his
poem (c. 1221) to the Countess Marie of Ponthieu, wife of Simon,
count of Dammartin and a niece of Philip Augustus. The count
Gerard de Nevers of the story stakes his domains on the fidelity
of his wife Euriant. Lisiard by calumniating Euriant wins the
wager, but in the end the traitor is exposed, and, after many
adventures, Euriant is reinstated. Another version of the story
is given in the Roman du comte de Poitiers and in the tale in the
Decameron (ii. 9) en which Shakespeare founded Cymbeline.
Lyrics are inserted in the narrative of the Roman de la violette,
as they had been in the Conte de la rose (1200), known also as
Guillaume de Dole. A prose version, dating from the early i5th
century, provided Wilhelmine de Ch6zy with the material for her
libretto of Weber's opera, Euryanthe (1823).
See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii. 782, xviii. 760, xxii. 826; Le
comte de Poitiers (ed. F. Michel, 1831); Le Roman de la violette (ed.
F. Michel, 1834); Le Conte de la rose (ed. Servois, 1893); F. Kraus,
ffber Gerbert de Montreuil (Erlangen, 1897); Rudolf Ohle, Shake-
speares Cymbeline und seine romanischen Vorlaufer (Berlin, 1890).
MONTREU1L-SOUS-BOIS, a town of northern France in the
department of Seine, 5 m. E. of Paris, on the slope and summit
of a hill, about i m. N. of Vincennes. Pop. (1906), 35,831.
Montreuil is specially noted for its extensive peach orchards.
The manufactures include paint, oils and varnish, glass and
chemical products.
MONTREUIL-SUR-MER, a town of northern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m.
S. by E. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906), 2883. The town with
its old citadel and ramparts, due largely to Vauban, is prettily
situated on an eminence on the left bank of the Canche 10 m.
from the English Channel. The chief buildings are the church
of St Saulve (i2th, i3th and i6th centuries), and a hospital
founded in 1200 and rebuilt in the igth century, with a fine
chapel in the Flamboyant style. The buildings of the old abbey
of Ste Austreberthe, founded originally in the nth century, still
remain. Montreuil is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal
of first instance and a preparatory infantry school. The town
owes its origin to a monastery established in the 7th century by
St Saulve, bishop of Amiens.
MONTREUX, the general name applied to the villages situated
along the shore at the east of the Lake of Geneva in Switzer-
land, from Clarens to Veytaux: sometimes the name is specially
given to Vernex only. These villages form part of 3 communes,
those of Le Chatelard (including Clarens and Vernex) and of Les
Planches (including Territet), while a bit (not Chillon) of that of
Veytaux is alone included. The total population of this " agglo-
meration " was 14,144 in 1900, mostly French-speaking, while
there were 9730 Protestants to 4301 Romanists and 55 Jews.
There are railway stations at Clarens (15 m. south-east of Lau-
sanne), at Vernex (J m. on), and Territet (i m. on, or \ m. from
Veytaux, which is ij m. north of Villeneuve), as well as an
electric tramway along the shore of the lake, and frequent com-
munication over the lake by steamer. From Territet there is a
mountain railway past Glion and Caux nearly to the top of the
Rochers de Naye (6710 ft.), while from Vernex the Montreux-
Bernese-Oberland railway mounts past Les Avants, pierces the
ridge of the Col de Jaman by a tunnel, and so reaches (14 m.)
Montbovon in the Gruyere portion of the upper Sarine valley.
At first foreigners were attracted by the cheapness and good air of
the region, added to the grape cure. As the delights of clear,
cold weather in winter and of tobogganing (here called " luging ")
and skiing became appreciated, the higher hotels (such as Les
Avants, Caux, Glion) were frequented at that season, as well as at
other times. It is stated that in 1902 31,473 foreigners (in
1903, 39,493) visited Montreux, 7634 being Germans, 7327
English, and 5651 French. Montreux was not a Roman
settlement, but otherwise its history is similar to that of
Vevey.
MONTROND, CASIMIR, COMTE DE (1768-1843), French
diplomatic agent, was the son of a military officer; his mother,
Angelique Marie d'Arlus, comtesse de Montrond (d. 1827), was a
royalist writer, said to be the author of the Troubadour btarnois,
a song which has the refrain " Louis, lefils de Henri, Est prisonnier
dans Paris." Casimir was imprisoned in 1794 in St Lazare,
where he met the divorced duchesse de Fleury (nee Franquetot de
MONTROSE, MARQUESSES OF
793
Coigny), the " jeune captive " of Andre Chenier's famous verses.
He bought her freedom and his own with 100 louis. They
married and crossed to London, but the union proved unhappy,
and they were divorced on their return to Paris.
Turning to the fashionable world, Casimir de Montrond
became famous for his successes. He was the confidant and
political agent of Talleyrand, and his inside knowledge of politics
enabled him to make a large fortune on the Bourse. In 1809 he
was disgraced for some imprudent comments on the imperial
system, and exiled from Paris. After spending some time at
Antwerp he removed to Spa, where he was on intimate terms with
Pauline Borghese, and in 1811 he returned to Antwerp; here he
was arrested by Napoleon's orders and sent to the fortress of
Ham. After a month's imprisonment he received permission to
reside, under police supervision, at Chatillon-sur-Seine, whence
he presently escaped to England. He returned to France at the
first Bourbon restoration, and during the Hundred Days was
entrusted with a mission to Vienna to convert Talleyrand to
Napoleon's interests, to see Metternich and Nesselrode, and to
bring back if possible Marie Louise and the king of Rome. The
second restoration restored him to his social triumphs, though he
was always under police supervision, and on Talleyrand's fall
he accompanied him to Valenfay and continued to help with
his intrigues. He followed Talleyrand to London in 1832.
Montrond returned to Paris some time before his death in
1843.
See H. Welschinger, " L'Ami de M. de Talleyrand," in the Revue
de Paris (Feb. 1895); Lanzac de Laborie, La Domination fran-
faise en Belgique (1895) ; and Amedee Pichot, Souvenirs sur M. de
Talleyrand (1870).
MONTROSE, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. David Lind-
say, 5th earl of Crawford (c. 1440-1495), was created duke of
Montrose in 1488 (the first dukedom conferred in Scotland on a
person not of royal blood), as a reward for remaining loyal to
James III. during the rebellion of Angus and Prince James.
Montrose was deprived of his dukedom by James IV., but it was
restored in 1489 for life only. On his death in 1495 the title
therefore became extinct.
In 1505, William, 4th Lord Graham, whose wife Annabella
Drummond was the duke's niece, was created earl of Montrose;
and this title was held by his descendants till 1644, when James
Graham, sth earl, was created marquess of Montrose and earl of
Kincardine. This was the celebrated marquess of Montrose (q.v.)
of the Civil War, whose son and successor, James (c. 1631-1669),
was known as " the Good Marquess." The latter refused to vote
at the trial of his hereditary enemy the marquess of Argyll in
1661, admitting that he could not act impartially in such a
matter; and the two noblemen afterwards became firm friends.
The good marquess died in 1669, and was succeeded by his son
James, 3rd marquess of Montrose (d. 1684). The 4th marquess,
son of the last mentioned, who was also named James (d. 1742),
was lord high admiral of Scotland in 1705, and lord president of
the council in 1706. He was an ardent supporter of the Hano-
verian succession; he also favoured the union of Scotland with
England, for his services in regard to which he was created duke
of Montrose and marquess of Graham in 1707, becoming in the
same year one of the first representative peers of Scotland in the
parliament of Great Britain. He was one of the regents of the
kingdom on the death of Queen Anne, and was appointed a
secretary of state by George I. He took an active part in suppress-
ing the Jacobite rising in 1715, after which he was made keeper
of the great seal in Scotland. He died in 1742. During his life-
time his son David was raised to the peerage of Great Britain
with the title of Earl Graham; and on David's death without
issue in 1731 this earldom passed under a special remainder to his
brother William (c. 1710-1790), who on his father's death in 1742
succeeded to the dukedom also. William's son James, 3rd duke
of Montrose (1755-1836), held office in Pitt's administrations in
1783 and 1804, and in that of the duke of Portland in 1807. He
obtained the annulment of the law prohibiting Highlanders from
wearing the kilt. He was succeeded by his son James (1799-1874),
who held office under the earl of Derby in 1852, and again in 1858
and 1866, and was father of Douglas Beresford Malise Ronald,
5th duke (b. 1852). In 1853 James Lindsay, 24th earl of Craw-
ford, claimed the title of duke of Montrose on the ground that
the patent granted to his ancestor David Lindsay in 1488 (see
above) had not been effectively rescinded, but his petition was
dismissed by the House of Lords.
MONTROSE, JAMES GRAHAM, MARQUESS CF (1612-1650),
was born in 1612, and became 5th earl of Montrose (see above) by
his father's death in 1626. He was educated at St. Andrews, and
at the age of seventeen married Magdalene Carnegie, daughter
of Lord Carnegie (afterwards earl of Southesk). Not long after
the outbreak of the Scottish troubles in 1637 he joined the party
of resistance, and was for some time one of its most energetic
champions. He had nothing puritanical in his nature, but he
shared in the ill-feeling aroused in the Scottish nobility by the
political authority given by Charles to the bishops, and by
Hamilton's influence with the king, and also in the general
indignation at the scheme of imposing upon Scotland a liturgy
which had been drawn up at the instigation of the English court
and corrected by Archbishop Laud. He signed the Covenant,
and was told off to suppress the opposition to the popular cause
which arose around Aberdeen and in the country of the Gordons.
Three times, in July 1638, and in March and June 1639, Montrose
entered Aberdeen, where he succeeded in effecting his object,
on the second occasion carrying off the head of the Gordons, the
marquess of Huntly, as a prisoner to Edinburgh, though in so
doing, for the first and last time in his life, he violated a safe-
conduct.
In July 1639, after the signature of the treaty of Berwick,
Montrose was one of the Covenanting leaders who visited Charles.
This change of policy on his part, frequently ascribed to the
fascination of the king's conversation, arose in reality from the
nature of his own convictions. He wished to get rid of the
bishops without making presbyters masters of the state. His was
essentially a layman's view of the situation. Taking no account
of the real forces of the time, he aimed at an ideal form of society
in which the clergy should confine themselves to their spiritual
duties, and the king, after being enlightened by open communi-
cation with the Scottish nation, should maintain law and order
without respect of persons. In the Scottish parliament which
met in September, Montrose found himself in opposition to
Argyll, who had made himself the representative of the Presby-
terian and national party, and of the middle classes. Montrose,
on the other hand, wished to bring the king's authority to bear
upon parliament to defeat this object, and offered him the
support of a great number of nobles. He failed, because
Charles could not even then consent to abandon the bishops,
and because no Scottish party of any weight could be formed
unless Presbyterianism were established ecclesiastically.
R.ather than give way, Charles prepared in 1640 to invade
Scotland. Montrose was of necessity driven to play something
of a double part. In August 1640 he signed the Bond of Cumber-
nauld as a protest against the " particular and direct practising
of a few," in other words, against the ambition of Argyll. But
he took his place amongst the defenders of his country, and in the
same month he displayed his gallantry in action at the forcing
of the Tyne at Newburn. After the invasion had been crowned
with success, Montrose still continued to cherish his now hopeless
policy. On the 27th of May 1641 he was summoned before the
Committee of Estates charged with intrigues against Argyll, and
on the nth of June he was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle.
When Charles visited Scotland to give his formal assent to the
abolition of Episcopacy, Montrose communicated to him his
belief that Hamilton was a traitor. It had indeed been alleged,
on Clarendon's authority, that he proposed to murder Hamilton
and Argyll; but this is in all probability only one of Clarendon's
many blunders. (See S. R. Gardiner, Hist, of England, 1603-1642,
x. 26). Upon the king's return to England Montrose shared
in the amnesty which was tacitly accorded to all Charles's
partisans.
For a time Montrose retired, perforce, from public life. After
the Civil War began in England (see GREAT REBELLION) he
794
MONTROSE MONT ST MICHEL
constantly pressed Charles to allow him to make a diversion in
Scotland. Hamilton's impracticable policy of keeping Scotland
neutral for long stood in the way of Charles's consent. But in
1644, when a Scottish army entered England to take part against
the king, Montrose, now created a marquess, was at last allowed
to try what he could do. He set out to invade Scotland with
about 1000 men. But his followers deserted, and his condition
appeared hopeless. Disguised as a groom, he started on the i8th
of August with only two gentlemen to make his way to the
Highlands. Highlanders had never before been known to com-
bine together, but Montrose knew that most of the clans detested
Argyll, and the clans rallied to his summons. About 2000
disciplined Irish soldiers had crossed the sea to assist him.
In two campaigns, distinguished by rapidity of movement, he
met and defeated his opponents in six battles. At Tippermuir
and Aberdeen he routed Covenanting levies; at Inverlochy he
crushed the Campbells, at Auldearn, Alford and Kilsyth his
victories were obtained over well-led and disciplined armies.
At Dundee he extricated his army from the greatest peril, and
actually called his men off from the sack that had begun a feat
beyond the power of any other general in Europe. The fiery
enthusiasm of the Gordons and other clans often carried the day,
but Montrose relied more upon the disciplined infantry which had
followed Alastair Macdonald from Ireland. His strategy at
Dundee and Inverlochy, his tactics at Aberdeen, Auldearn and
Kilsyth furnished models of the military art, but above all his
daring and constancy marked him out as the greatest soldier of
the war, Cromwell alone excepted. His career of victory was
crowned by the great battle of Kilsyth (Aug. 15, 1645). Now
Montrose found himself apparently master of Scotland. In the
name of the king, who now appointed him lord-lieutenant and
captain-general of Scotland, he summoned a parliament to meet
at Glasgow on the 2oth of October, in which he no doubt hoped
to reconcile loyal obedience to the king with the establishment of a
non-political Presbyterian clergy. That parliament never met.
Charles had been defeated at Naseby on the I4th of June, and
Montrose must come to his help if there was to be still a king to
proclaim. David Leslie, the best of the Scottish generals, was
promptly despatched against Montrose to anticipate the in-
vasion. On the 1 2th of September he came upon Montrose,
deserted by his Highlanders and guarded only by a little group
of followers, at Philiphaugh. He won an easy victory. Mon-
trose cut his way through to the Highlands; but he failed to
organize an army. In September 1646 he embarked for Norway.
Montrose was to appear once more on the stage of Scottish
history. In June 1649, burning to revenge the death of the
king, he was restored by the exile Charles II. to the now nominal
lieutenancy of Scotland. Charles however did not scruple
shortly afterwards to disavow his noblest supporter in order to
become a king on terms dictated by Argyll and Argyll's adherents.
In March 1650 Montrose landed in the Orkneys to take the com-
mand of a small force which he had sent on before him. Crossing
to the mainland, he tried in vain to raise the clans, and on the
27th of April he was surprised and routed at Carbiesdale in
Ross-shire. After wandering for some time he was surrendered
by Macleod of Assynt, to whose protection, in ignorance of
Macleod's political enmity, he had entrusted himself. He was
brought a prisoner to Edinburgh, and on the aoth of May
sentenced to death by the parliament. He was hanged on the
2ist, with Wishart's laudatory biography of him put round his
neck. To the last he protested that he was a real Covenanter
and a loyal subject.
The principal authorities for Montrose's career are Wishart's
Res gestae, &c. (Amsterdam, 1647); Patrick Gordon's Short Abridg-
ment of Britane's Distemper (Spalding Club) ; and the comprehensive
work of Napier, Memorials of Montrose, is abundantly documented,
containing Montrose's poetry, in which is included his celebrated
lyric " My dear and only love."
MONTROSE, a royal, municipal, and police burgh and seaport
of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated 30$ m. N.E. of Dundee
by the North British railway and is also connected with the
Caledonian railway company's system by a branch to Dubton.
Pop. (1901), 12,427. The town occupies a considerable area on a
sandy peninsula, and is bounded on the E. by the North Sea, on
the N. by the North Esk, on the S. by the South Esk, and on the
W. by Montrose Basin, a large depression, about 7 m. in circuit.
The reclamation of the Basin has been attempted, but an
embankment constructed by Dutch dikers for this purpose
was demolished in a few hours by a storm. In the mouth
of the channel of the South, Esk lies the island of Rossie,
or Inchbrayock (pop. 160), which in 1829 was connected with
the burgh by means of a suspension bridge 432 ft. long and by
a drawbridge with the south bank near the fishing village of
Ferryden (pop. 1330). The harbour lies between the suspension
bridge and the sea, and is provided with a wet dock. The links
form one of the best golf-courses in Scotland and are played over
by several clubs. Besides the staple industry of flax-spinning,
there are manufactures of linen, canvas, sheetings, starch, soap,
chemicals, rope and manures, while iron-founding, tanning and
brewing are also carried on. The fisheries are of very consider-
able importance and the shipping is usually brisk. There is a
large trade, especially in timber (the chief import), mainly with
Baltic ports and Canada. The parish church is a plain structure,
but has a handsome steeple 200 ft. high. The principal buildings
include the town-hall, the academy on the links, dating from
1820, though its predecessor belonged to the i6th century; the
museum, Dorward's house of refuge, erected in 1839; the
infirmary and the royal asylum at Sunnyside on the outskirts to
the north-west. Panmure barracks are not far from the wet
dock. In High Street are statues to Sir Robert Peel and Joseph
Hume. Montrose is governed by a provost, bailies and council,
and unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Inverbervie (the
Montrose burghs) in returning, one member to parliament, a
district group that was represented for many years by John
Morley. Montrose received its charter from David I., and was
made a royal burgh in 1352. It was destroyed by fire in 1244.
Here Edward I. accepted John Baliol's surrender of the kingdom
on the loth of July 1296. Sir James Douglas sailed from the
port in 1330 bound for the Holy Land with the heart of Robert
Bruce; and here, too, the Old Pretender embarked in 1716 for
France after the failure of his cause. In 1745 the town threw in
its lot with the Hanoverians, a fact which lent zest to the daring
capture of the " Hazard " sloop of war off Ferryden, by Captain
David Ferrier of Brechin, a thorough-going Jacobite.
MONT ST MICHEL, a rocky islet of western France, off the
coast of the department of Manche, some 6 m. N. of Pontorson.
Pop. (1906), 238. It forms a towering mass of granite about
3000 ft. in circumference and 165 ft. in height, rising near the
mouth of the Couesnon nearly a mile from the shore, to which
it is united by a causeway. The fortress-abbey to which
Mont St Michel owes its fame stands upon the more precipitous
side of the islet towards the north and west, the sloping
portion towards the east and south being occupied by
houses. A strong machicolated and turreted wall surrounds
the rock, running along its base on the south, ascending half-
way up the cliff on the north, on which side it stands close
to the abbey wall, and again descending on the west. The
northern and oldest portion of the ramparts dates from the
I3th century; the single gateway by which they are pierced
is on the south and is a good example of the military architec-
ture of the 1 5th century. The single street of the island
curves from the gateway up to the abbey, ending in flights of
steps leading to the donjon or chatelet. It is bordered by old
houses, among which is one built by Bertrand du Guesclin in
1366, and contains a parish church of the 15th century. The
abbey itself consists of an assemblage of buildings in three
storeys upon massive foundations around the church, the most
important portion, the Merveille, extending to the north. The
floor of the church, built partly on the rock, partly upon founda-
tions, and, at the east end, over a crypt, is on a level with the
uppermost storey of the monastic buildings. To the north of and
below the apse lies the group of buildings known as the Belle-
Chaise. It comprises the chatelet (isth century), a square
entrance structure strengthened by flanking turrets and machico-
lation, the adjoining guard-room (i3th century) with the salle
MONTSERRAT
795
des officiers above it, and behind all the Tour Perrine. The
Merveille (1203-1264) consists of two continuous buildings of
three storeys, that on the east containing, one above the other,
the hospitium (aumonerie), refectory and dormitory, that on the
west the cellar, knights' hall (salle des chevaliers) and cloister.
Of the apartments, all of the finest Gothic architecture, the chief
are the refectory, divided down the centre by columns and lighted
by large embrasured windows, and the knights' hall, a superb
chamber, the vaulting of which is supported on three rows of
cylindrical pillars. The cloister, one of the purest and most
graceful works of the i3th century, is surrounded by double
lines of slender columns carrying pointed arcades, between which
delicate floral designs are carved. The exterior wall of the
Merveille is of remarkable boldness; reaching a height of 108 ft.,
it is supported by twenty buttresses and pierced with a variety of
openings. The church, which rises high above the buildings
clustering round it, consists of transepts and four bays of the
nave of Romanesque architecture and of a fine choir (1450-1521)
in the Flamboyant Gothic style with a triforium surmounted by
lofty windows. This choir replaced one which collapsed in 1431.
In 1776 three of the seven bays of the nave were pulled down,
and soon after the incongruous western front was added. The
finest part of the exterior is the choir, which is ornamented with
a profusion of carved pinnacles and balustrading. The central
tower terminates in a Gothic spire surmounted by a gilded bronze
statue of St Michael.
Mont St Michel was a sacred place from the earliest times. In
the 8th century an oratory was established there by St Aubert,
bishop of Avranches, in obedience to the commands of an appari-
tion of St Michael. The place soon became a noted resort of
pilgrims, not only from all parts of France, but also from Great
Britain, Ireland and Italy. In 966 Richard L, duke of Normandy,
founded in place of the oratory a Benedictine monastery, which
in the succeeding century received a considerable share of the
spoils of the conquest of England. In 1203 the monastery was
burnt by the troops of Philip Augustus, who afterwards furnished
large sums for its restoration (La Merveille). St Louis made a
pilgrimage to Mont St Michel, and afterwards supplied funds
which were spent on the fortifications. A garrison and military
governor subordinate to the abbot were also installed. During
the last thirty years of the Hundred Years' War the abbey offered
a persistent resistance to the English. In 1469 Louis XI.
instituted the Order of St Michel, which held its meetings in the
salle des chevaliers. During the Wars of Religion, the Hugue-
nots repeatedly made unsuccessful attempts to seize the fortress,
which opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1595 after his abjuration.
In 1622 the Benedictine monks of Mont St Michel were replaced
by monks of the Congregation of St Maur. In the i8th and igth
centuries the abbey was used as a prison for political offenders,
serving this purpose until 1863, when an extensive restoration,
begun in 1838, was resumed. The building is the property of the
Commission of Historical Monuments, which has carried on the
work of restoration with great architectural and antiquarian
ability.
MONTSERRAT, or MONSERRAT, a remarkable mountain and
monastery in north-east Spain, 30 m. N.W. of Barcelona. The
mountain is of grey conglomerate; its main axis trends from
W.N.W. to E.S.E., and its circumference is about 18 m. The
loftiest point is the Turo de San Jeronimo, also called Mirador and
La Miranda (4070 ft.), which commands a view of the Pyrenees,
and the Mediterranean Sea as far as the Balearic Islands. On the
east the base of the Montserrat is washed by the river Llobregat.
The Montserrat consists of jagged pinnacles and spires (penascos)
rising abruptly from the base of the mass, which is cloven by
many ravines, and abounds with steep precipices. It is the
mons serratus of the Romans, the monte serrado of the Spaniards,
and is thus named either in allusion to its jagged appearance,
like the teeth of a saw, or because it is split, as if sawn by the
vast fissure of the Valle Malo, which extends from north-west
to east. This occurred, say the Spanish legends, at the time of
the Crucifixion, when the rocks were rent. In medieval German
legends, which located here the castle of the Holy Grail, the
mountain is called Monsalwatsch, a name analogous to the
modern Catalan form Montsagrat " sacred mountain." From
Monistrol, a village on the north-east, with a station on the
Barcelona-Lerida railway, the monastery can be reached either
by the carriage road built in 1857, or by the mountain railway
opened in 1892. The ascent is also frequently made by a bridle
path from the village of Collbato, on the south-west, where there
are some interesting caverns.
The monastery stands 2910 ft. above sea-level upon a narrow
platform on the edge of the Valle Malo. It owes its existence
to an image of the Virgin, said to have been carved by St Luke,
and brought to Barcelona by St Peter in A.D. 30. When the
Moors invaded the province in 717 the image was taken to
Montserrat, where a Benedictine convent appears to have already
existed, and hidden in a cave. In 880 Gondemar, bishop of
Vich, was attracted to the cave by sweet sounds and smells,
and there found the image, which he determined to take to
Manresa. But at a certain spot on the mountain the image
refused to proceed farther; there it was consequently deposited,
and a chapel was erected to contain it. Round the chapel a
nunnery was built, and in 976 this was enlarged and converted
into a second Benedictine convent. The old monastery (monas-
terio antiguo) is chiefly in ruins. The cloisters, belfry and part
of the church were Gothic of the isth century. The church of
the new monastery (monasterio actual) was built in Renaissance
style under Philip II. (i 560-1 592) ; in 181 1 it was partially burned,
and in 1880 a Romanesque apse was added. New buildings for
the monks were erected under Ferdinand VII. (1784-1833), but
left partly unfinished. During the Napoleonic wars (1808-14)
it was despoiled of the vast treasures which had accumulated
during the middle ages. In 1835, as a result of the Carlist
insurrection, the convent was deprived of its estates and the
number of monks reduced to about twenty. The monks are
largely occupied by the management of a school of sacred music.
In 1874 the convent, which by a grant of Pope Benedict XIII.
had been an independent abbey since 1410, was made subject to
the bishops of Barcelona.
Nuestra Senora de Montserrat, Patrona de Cataluna (" Our
Lady of Montserrat, Patron Saint of Catalonia "), is one of the
most celebrated images in Spain, and her church is visited annually
by more than 60,000 pilgrims. The image is small, black, and
carved of wood, but possesses magnificent robes and jewels. In
September 1881 it was solemnly crowned by Leo XIII., who sent
a crown from Rome for that purpose. As the celebrity and sanctity
of Montserrat increased, so did the number of devotees. Ignatius
Loyola (1491-1556) laid his sword upon the altar of the Virgin,
and, placing himself under her protection, started from Mont-
serrat to begin his new life. Many eminent Spaniards, weary of
the world, have retired to this monastery to end their days. Some
preferred solitary hermitages perched among the rocks. Of these
there were fifteen, eleven of which once formed a via sacra, ending
at the summit of San Jeronimo. They were destroyed by the
French, but the ruins of some remain. There are also caves in the
mountain, some of which were formerly occupied by monks. The
most celebrated of these are the cave of the Virgin, in which the
santa imagen remained hidden until found by Gondemar, and the
cave of Fray Juan Garin, a notorious sinner, who ended his days
in the practice of revolting penances at Montserrat.
MONTSERRAT, an island in the British West Indies, one of
the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
Pop., mostly negroes (1901), 12,215. It lies 27 m. S.W. of
Antigua, in 16 45' N. and 62 7' W.; is n m. long and 7 m.
broad, and has a total area of 325 sq. m. The island is a cluster
of rugged volcanic peaks rising from the Caribbean Sea, their
summits clothed with forests; the still active Soufriere (3000 ft.)
in the south being the highest point. The average temperature
is 81 F., the hottest weather being usually tempered by cool
sea breezes; the rainfall averages 94 in. per annum. There is a
plentiful supply of water, and the roads are macadamized and
well drained. The principal products are sugar and raw and
concentrated lime-juice. Minerals are also found. Montserrat
has a local legislature of six members, nominated by the Crown,
and sends representatives to the general legislative council of
the colony. Education is compulsory, and the majority of the
schools are managed by the Church of England, to which most
of the islanders belong; but the Wesleyans and the Roman
79 6
MONTT MONUMENT
Catholics also support schools. Plymouth (pop. 1461), the chief
town, stands on an open roadstead on the south-west coast.
The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, who named it
after Monserrado, a mountain in Spain. It was colonized by
the British under Sir Thomas Warner in 1632, and was taken by
the French in 1664. Restored to the British in 1668, it capitu-
lated to the French in 1782, but was again restored in 1784.
MONTT, MANUEL (1809-1880), Chilean statesman, was born
on the sth of September 1809. He had a distinguished career
as a scholar, and was introduced into public life during the
presidency (1831-1841) of Arieto by Diego Portales. Montt
distinguished himself by his courage in the crisis that followed
upon Portales' assassination in 1837, though only holding a sub-
ordinate post in the government, and afterwards he held several
ministerial offices, and during the presidency (1841-1851) of
Bulnes he became minister of justice and public instruction, and
later of the interior. He was elected president in 1851 and again
in 1856, and though the Liberals chafed under his rule, and two
revolutions, in 1851 and 1859, took place during his administra-
tion, he governed Chile with an energy and wisdom that laid the
foundation of her material prosperity. He was ably assisted by
his minister of the interior Antonio Varas, and it was from the
union of the two statesmen that the well-known ultra-conserva-
tive faction, the Montt- Varistas, took their name. His presid-
ency was marked by the establishment of railways, telegraphs,
banks, schools and training-colleges. On giving up his post in
1861 he became president of the Supreme Court of Justice, a
position which he held up to his death on the 2oth of September
1880. His son Jorje (b. 1846) was president of Chile in 1891-
1896, and a younger son, Pedro (d. 1910), in 1906-1910.
See P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biografico de Chile, 1550-1887
(Santiago, 1888); and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos biograficos de hombres
notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886).
MONTUCLA, JEAN ETIENNE (1725-1799), French mathe-
matician, was born at Lyons on the 5th of September 1725. In
1754 he published an anonymous treatise entitled Histoire des
recherches sur la quadrature du cercle, and in 1758 the first part of
his great work, Histoire des mathematiques, the first history of
mathematics worthy of the name. He was appointed intendant-
secretary of Grenoble in 1758, secretary to the expedition for
colonizing Cayenne in 1 764, and " premier commis des bailments"
and censor-royal for mathematical books in 1765. The Revolu-
tion deprived him of his income and left him in great destitution.
The offer in 1795 of a mathematical chair in one of the schools of
Paris was declined on account of his infirm health, and he was
still in straitened cirumstances in 1798, when he published a
second edition of the first part of his Histoire. In 1778 he
re-edited Jacques Ozanam's Recreations mathematiques, after-
wards published in English by Charles Hutton (4 vols., London,
1803). He died on the i8th of December 1799. His Histoire
was completed by J. J. Le F. de Lalande, and published at Paris
in 1799-1802 (4 vols.).
MONTYON, ANTOINE JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT AUGET,
BARON DE (1733-1820), French philanthropist, was born in
Paris on the 23rd of December 1733. His father was a maltre
des comptes; he was educated for the law, and became advocate
at the Chatelet in 1755, master of requests to the council of state
in 1760, and intendant successively of Auvergne, Provence and
La Rochelle. He had repeatedly shown great independence of
character, protesting against the accusation of Caradeuc de La
Chalotais in 1766, and refusing in 1771 to suppress the local
courts of justice in obedience to Maupeou. He was made a
councillor of state in 1775 by the influence of Louis de Bourbon,
duke of Penthievre, and in 1780 he was attached to the court in
the honorary office of chancellor to the comte d'Artois (after-
wards Charles X.). He followed the princes into exile, and lived
for some years in London. During the emigration period he
spent large sums on the alleviation of the poverty of his fellow
immigrants, returning to France only at the second restoration.
Between 1780 and 1787 he had founded a series of prizes, the
awards to be made by the French academy and the academies
of science and medicine. These prizes fell into abeyance during
the revolutionary period, but were re-established in 1815.
Montyon died on the 29th of December 1820, bequeathing
10,000 francs for the perpetual endowment of each of the
following prizes: for the discovery of the means of rendering
some mechanical process less dangerous to the workman; for
the perfecting of any technical improvement in a mechanical
process; for the book which during the year rendered the
greatest service to humanity; the " prix de vertu " for the
most courageous act on the part of a poor Frenchman the
awards being left as before to the learned academies. He also
left 10,000 francs to each of the Parisian hospitals.
Montyon wrote a series of works, chiefly on political economy :
loge de Michel de I'hdpital (Paris, 1777) ; Recherches el considerations
sur la population de la France (1778), a share of which is attributed
to his secretary, Moheau ; Rapport fait a Louis X VIII. (Constance,
1796), in which he maintained in opposition to Calonne's Tableau
de I'Europe that France had always possessed a constitution,
which had, however, been violated by the kings of France ; L'etat
statistique du Tunkin (1811); and Particularites . . . sur les minis-
tres des finances en France (1812).
See Lacretelle,. " Discours sur M. Montyon," in the Recueil de
Vacademie (1820-1829) ; Querard, La France litteraire, vol. vi. (1834) ;
and, further, F. Labour, M. de Montyon d'apres des documents
inedits (Paris, 1880); G. Dumoulin, Montyon (Paris, 1884); and
especially L. Guimbaud, Auget de Montyon (1909).
MONUMENT (Lat. monumenlum or monimenlwm; from monere,
to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is
Denkmal), literally that which serves to keep alive the memory
of a person, an event, or a period. The word is thus applied to a
column, statue, or building erected for that particular purpose,
as " The Monument " (i.e. of the Great Fire) in London; to all
the various memorials which man throughout the ages has
raised over the buried dead, the barrows and cairns of pre-
historic times, the representation of the living figure of the dead,
brasses, busts, &c., or the varying forms, allegorical or otherwise,
taken by the tombstones of the modern cemetery. In a wider
sense " monument " is used of all survivals of a past age, in
which sense it may include all the vestiges of prehistoric man,
dolmens, menhirs, remains of lake-dwellings, stone-circles, and
the like, buildings large and small, cities, castles, palaces, and
examples of domestic architecture, which have any interest,
historic or artistic, as well as movable artistic or archaeological
treasures, which exist in private or public collections, or which
are discovered by excavation, &c. In a more restricted sense
the word " monument " is also applied to a comprehensive
treatise on any particular subject such as the Monumenla
lypographica, or an historical collection such as the Monumenla
Germaniae historica. In the English law of conveyancing a
" monument " is an object fixed in the soil, whether natural or
artificial, and referred to in a document, and used as evidence for
the delineation of boundaries or the situation of a particular plot
of land, &c.
For a description of various kinds of monuments see such
articles as ARCHAEOLOGY; STONE MONUMENTS; EFFIGIES,
MONUMENTAL; BRASSES; SCULPTURE; many particular monu-
ments, such as Stonehenge, are treated under their respective
names, or in the articles on the towns, &c., in which they stand.
The present article deals with the preservation, by government
action, local or central, of the evidences and remains of past
history and civilization, and, incidentally, with similar action
extended to sites and places of natural beauty and interest, which
the Germans call Naturdenkmiiler, natural monuments. The
important work of G. Baldwin Brown, The Care of Ancient Monu-
ments, published in 1905, is practically the only book in English
on this subject. It contains a most ample bibliography for each
country and gives many references to various periodicals in
different languages. In 1897 was issued a report (C. 8443,
Miscell. Reports, 2) from British representatives abroad as to
" the statutory provisions existing in foreign countries for the
preservation of historical buildings." Reference also should
be made to The Care of Natural Monuments (1909), by H. Con-
wentz, Prussian State Commissioner for the Care of Natural
Monuments.
The chief question at issue is, how far does the national
i
MONUMENT
797
artistic or historic interest of a monument, in the widest sense of
the word, justify the interference of the state with the right of a
private owner, whether corporate body or individual, to do what
he likes with his own? Nearly every European country other
than the United Kingdom has given a decided answer to this
question. It may be noticed, as showing the extreme reluctance
to state interference in the United Kingdom, that a clause,
laying on an owner of a monument, scheduled under the Monu-
ment Act 1882, the obligation of offering it for purchase to the
state if he wished to destroy it, was struck out of that act.
The main lines followed by legislation or regulation for the
preservation of monuments may be briefly indicated. Central
organizations of commissions and conservators, with a staff of
architects, inspectors, and archaeological or artistic experts for
consultation, are established. These may have large legal
powers of enforcing their decisions, or may act chiefly by advice
or persuasion. The national treasures are catalogued and
scheduled, and the value estimated in an exhaustive inventory, in
many cases supplemented by local inventories. In many cases,
unfortunately, a valuable monument has been destroyed through
ignorance of its value. A special form of inventory, carrying with
it legal consequences, is that known as the classement system;
of this form the French is the typical example. In this only the
outstanding monuments find a place, and such either become
national property altogether, or the protection and preservation
is undertaken by the state, or may be left in the hands of the
private owner; but in any case the monument cannot be
destroyed, restored or repaired without the consent of the
central authority. The classement system has been criticized
as tending to depreciate the consideration paid to such monu-
ments as do not appear in the list monuments non-classis.
The British Monument Acts adopt a narrow kind of classe-
ment in the schedule attached to the 1882 act. Most states have
powers of expropriation or compulsory purchase of private
property on grounds of public utility, and English law is no
exception as in the case of the compulsory purchase of land
for railways. The majority of states have made the pro-
tection of monuments such a matter of public utility. Further,
the exportation of artistic or historic treasures, i. e. movable
monuments, has been controlled by the state, notably in the case
of Italy and Greece, Turkey and Egypt. Connected with this
side of the question is the control by the state of excavations
undertaken by private persons, even on their own property. In
Germany considerable protection is effected by the powers given
to municipalities to make by-laws, respecting not only the
preservation of the monuments, but also the erection of new
buildings that may interfere with the monuments or with the
general characteristic appearance (Stadtbild) of the town. This
is also the case in Italy, where there are frequent regulations
as to town-planning (piano regolamento) .
The following is a brief account of the measures adopted in
the principal countries of the world for the preservation and
protection of their artistic and historic treasures.
United Kingdom. There are four acts: the Ancient Monu-
ments Protection Acts of 1882, 1900 and 1910, and the Ancient
Monuments Protection (Ireland) Act 1892. The act of 1882,
due primarily to Lord Avebury, then Sir John Lubbock, provided
that a list of monuments 1 in Great Britain and Ireland should
be made to which the act was to apply; the number of these
monuments was sixty-eight, all being of the kind known as
prehistoric (barrows, stone-circles, dolmens, &c.). An owner
of one of these scheduled monuments may by deed place
it in the guardianship of the commissioners of works, who
are then responsible for its preservation and can protect it
even against the owner. The commissioners may purchase
any of the scheduled monuments, but only by agreement,
the compulsory clauses of the Lands Clauses Consolidation
Acts being expressly excluded, though any purchase is to
be made under those acts. An owner of any monument other
1 The names of the monuments so scheduled are given in an
appendix to Sir R. Hunter's Lecture on the Preservation of Flaxes
of Interest and Beauty (1907).
than those scheduled may place it in the care of the com-
missioners. The funds for the working of the act are to be
provided by parliament, and an inspector of ancient monu-
ments was appointed. General Pitt-Rivers, the first inspector
appointed, found that without compulsory powers the act was
useless, and for many years did not draw his official salary. After
his death in 1900 the office was left unfilled until 1910. The
act of 1892 applied to Ireland only, and is supplementary to
that of 1882, which applied to the whole of the United Kingdom.
The Irish act gave to the commissioners of public works in
Ireland powers only to be exercised with the consent of the
owner of applying the act of 1882 to any monument possessing
such public interest as might render it worthy of preservation.
It is to be noticed that after the disestablishment of the Irish
Church certain unused churches of artistic or historic interest
were placed in the charge of the commissioners as national
monuments, with a sum of 50,000 to defray expenses. The
Irish commissioners have therefore monuments in their care
other than those scheduled in the acts, and may apply towards
the expenses of the preservation of the scheduled monuments
any surplus over from the fund above mentioned. The act of
1900 applied the Irish act to Great Britain, but the powers have
not been exercised by the first commissioner of works. The act
also gave the powers of the act of 1892 to county councils, allowed
the authorities, local or central, to make arrangements for the
preservation of monuments with owners or others, including
societies, and to receive subscriptions for the same object, and
also provided for public access to such monuments as are in the
guardianship of the commissioners under the act. The acts of
1892 and 1900, though allowing buildings of historic or other
interest to be placed under the care of the commissioners, exclude
buildings occupied as a dwelling-place by any person other
than a caretaker and his family. The act of 1910 gives to the
commissioners of works power to acquire by bequest buildings of
historic or architectural interest. The act of 1900 had given
power to acquire such by gift or purchase, and the act of 1882
had given power by bequest also, but only referred to prehistoric
remains. The London County Council possesses powers of
purchasing by agreement any building of historic or other interest
under a General Powers Act of 1898, and exercised these in 1900
by purchasing a i7th century house in Fleet Street (known as
Cardinal Wolsey's palace). It will be seen that the United
Kingdom possesses no official commission, no conservators, no
consultative official body, and no compulsory powers of expro-
priation. The acts dealing with the subject are entirely permis-
sive. Towards the making of a national inventory the first step
taken was the appointment in 1908 of three royal commissions,
for England, Scotland and Wales respectively, " to make an
inventory of the ancient and historical monuments and construc-
tions connected with or illustrative of the contemporary culture,
civilization and conditions of life of the people from the earliest
times ": to the year 1700 in the case of England; 1707 in that
of Scotland; for Wales no date is specified; and " to specify those
which seem worthy of preservation." The Housing, Town Plan-
ning, &c. Act 1909. 45, and the Development and Road Im-
provement Funds Act, 1909, excepts the sites of ancient monu-
ments or of other objects of historical interest from compulsory
acquisition for the purposes of those acts. The Finance Act 1896,
20, granted a qualified exemption from estate duty to pictures,
prints, books, MSS., works of art, scientific collections and other
things not yielding income, as appear to the Treasury to be of
national, scientific or historic interest; this exemption only ex-
tends where such property is settled to be enjoyed in kind in
succession by different persons; if the property is sold or is in the
possession of a person competent to dispose of it, it becomes liable
to estate duty. The Finance Act 1909 extends the exemption to
legacy and succession duty, removes the restriction to settled
property, and adds " artistic " to " national and historic interest."
The Committee for the Survey of the Memorials of Greater
London, supported by the London County Council, has begun
a complete register and survey of the historic buildings of
London. Apart from the numerous national and archaeological
MONUMENT
societies, whose proceedings contain invaluable accounts of
practically every monument of interest throughout the kingdom,
there are two societies directly formed with the object of
monument preservation in its widest sense, the Society for
the Protection of Ancient Buildings, founded in 1877, and the
National Trust for Places of Historic Interest and Natural
Beauty, constituted in 1894 under the Joint Stock Companies
Acts for the purchase and preservation of sites and buildings,
which it can hold in perpetuity for the benefit of the public. In
1907 the latter was dissolved and re-incorporated as a statutory
body by the National Trust Act 1907. It possesses twenty-
eight properties, amounting to 2000 acres, and twelve interesting
buildings.
India. The Archaeological Survey of Upper India was estab-
lished in 1862, with a director-general at its head, and surveys
for other parts of India were also begun later. The chief object
of these was the making of an inventory, and the preservation
of the monuments was neglected. In 1878 a curator of ancient
monuments was appointed. A period of activity with regard
to monument preservation set in during the viceroyalty of Lord
Curzon; this culminated in the Ancient Monuments Preservation
Act of 1904. The main provisions are as follows: The local
government of any province may declare any monument to be a
" protected monument within the meaning of the act," and when
so declared no one may injure, remove or alter it under penalty
of a fine or imprisonment. This, however, does not apply to
the owner, except when the government has, by purchase or gift,
or by taking over the guardianship of the monument, assumed
the duty of preserving it. This assumption of guardianship is by
agreement with the owner. Power of expropriation under the
Land Acquisition Act 1894 is given if a monument protected
under the act is threatened with destruction or injury, or if an
owner refuse to come to an agreement with the authority for its
guardianship. The act includes movable antiquities, and the
governor-general in council can prohibit their exportation.
Control over excavations is also given.
Egypt. A Commission of Egyptology (Comite permanent
d'Sgyptologie) has the care of the monuments of early Egyptian
civilization. The monuments of the Arab occupation are in
the charge of a separate commission (Comite de conservation
des monuments de I' art arabe). The Commission of Egyptology
acts under khedival decrees of 1883, 1897 and 1891. By the
first the state claims control over all antiquities and declares the
contents of the Giza (Gizeh) Museum, now the National Museum
of Egyptian Antiquities, and of any future collection, to be the
property of the state and inalienable. The second decree penal-
izes any injury to monuments or attempt to appropriate a
monument belonging to the state. The third deals with excava-
tions; permission must be granted by the director-general of
museums; objects discovered belong to the state and must go to
the museum, but a part of the objects will be granted to the
discoverer under special regulations, the government reserving
the right to special objects with compensation for the expense
of excavation.
France. The Commission des monuments kistoriques was
established in 1837. It is attached to and acts through the
department of the minister of public instruction and of the fine
arts, who is the president of the commission. There are thirty
members, partly nominated by the minister out of names selected
by the commission, partly ex officio, such as the directors of civil
buildings and national palaces and of public worship. The
buildings which these officials control are, however, not directly
under the commission. The presence of a certain number of
deputies on the commission secures its representation in the
legislature. Upon the commission fall the following duties: (a)
The classement or selection of the monuments of national interest,
artistic, historic, or both, for the schedule of protected monu-
ments. A particular portion of a building, such as a door,
window, &c., may be alone protected, (b) The restoration and
repair of the monuments so classed, (c) A general power of
giving advice and watching the monuments of the country as a
whole. The commission has the charge of the Muse Cluny, and
is also the centre for all inquiries, reports, &c. The official
staff of the commission consists of four general inspectors, one of
whom, since the Monument Act of 1887, has charge of the movable
monuments, and of forty architects, who have a subordinate staff
of inspectors of works. Since 1830 a sum has been voted yearly
for the finances of the commission. The largest sum (i 20,000)
that has appeared in the budget was voted in 1896; there are,
however, other sources of revenue available.
The Monument Act of 1887. This, together with certain
administrative decrees, gave legal powers to the commission,
which it had hitherto lacked, or had only been able to enforce by
a difficult process of expropriation if owners, whether private or
public, of monuments classes objected to the work of the com-
mission. If a monument classe belong to the state or is under
the administration of a minister other than the minister of public
instruction and fine arts, or if it belong to any public body, such
as a department or commune in whose hands the churches mainly
lie, the consent of these controlling bodies must be given, other-
wise the decision is left to the conseil d'etat. If the owner be a
private person, his consent is also necessary to the classement.
If he refuses, the minister may expropriate the monument by
compulsory purchase, which must have the consent of the
conseil d'etat. Once a monument has been classe, it cannot be
destroyed even partially, and no repairs or other work can be
effected upon it without the consent of the minister. An action,
for damages only, lies against a person infringing the law in this
respect. The act deals also with the classement and protection of
movable objects of national interest, historic or artistic, but only
if they belong to the state, when they cannot be alienated, or to
public bodies, when the consent of the minister is required for
repairs or alienation. The act does not affect movables belonging
to private persons. Owing to the numerous thefts from churches,
museums, and other places, which attracted particular attention
in 1907, proposals have been made for the better protection of
such objects, as well as of those in private collections, by gather-
ing together the objects at present scattered in churches, &c.,
into provincial and local museums, and also by charging an
entrance fee for museums, &c. With regard to the discovery
of monuments by excavation works or accident, the minister
must receive immediate notice from the mayor of the commune
through the prefect of the department, and will decide what is to
be done. If such discovery is on private property he may
proceed to expropriation. The act applies to Algeria. Here all
objects of archaeological or artistic interest are reserved to the
state, if on ground belonging to the government or granted by it
to public bodies or private persons or in military occupation.
The act is similarly extended to all French protectorates. Tunis
has more stringent regulations; for by a decree of the bey, 1886,
the consent of the owner to the classement of a monument is not
required, and penalties under the French penal code attach to
infringements.
There is a strong feeling in France as to the protection and
preservation of sites of natural beauty. A Societe pour la pro-
tection des pay sages was founded in 1901, and in 1904 the minister
of public works issued a circular to the government engineers
emphasizing the obligation of preserving and, if possible, enhanc-
ing the natural beauties of any locality in which public works were
being carried out. An act (Loi organisant la protection des sites et
monuments naturels de caractere arlislique) was adopted in 1906,
extending a protection to such sites analogous to that under the
Monument Act (Appendix B in Sir R. Hunter's Lecture, already
cited, gives the regulations under this measure).
A law of 1910 prohibits the affixing of bills or advertisements
on monuments and sites officially recognized as historical and in
sites recognized as picturesque by the law of 1906. The prefect
also fixes a zone near such sites or monuments within which
advertisement is prohibited.
Societies, both national and local, are numerous and active in
France, but the centralizing policy does not favour any close
working with the commission. The most important are the
Socitle nationale des antiquaires de France, founded in 1804, and
the Societe fran(aise d'archtologie pour la conservation et
MONUMENT
799
description des monuments historiques, founded in 1834, by the
archaeologist Arcisse de Caumont (1802-1873). Its publication,
the Bulletin monumental, is extremely valuable. In 1887 was
founded the Comile des monuments fran^ais, which confines
itself more particularly to the practical side of monument
preservation and protection, and publishes an illustrated
periodical, L 'Ami des monuments. Of the numerous local
societies the semi-official Commission du vieux Paris and the
private Societe des amis des monuments parisiens and the
Commission municipale du vieux Lyon may be mentioned.
Germany. Legislation and administration with regard to
monuments and their protection are not imperial, but are matters
for the various states. Of these Hesse-Darmstadt alone has
a Monument Act (1902), but in nearly all the states the system
adopted for monument preservation and protection has been the
appointment of conservators (Denkmalpfleger) , with commissions
attached, and a careful system of inventory. There are also in
many of the states decrees and administrative orders. In
Prussia provincial conservators and commissions, appointed in
1891, assist the central conservator. The general absence
of special legislation leaves private owners of monuments
amenable only to advice and persuasion and to the pressure of
public opinion. The official and legal control exercised by the
conservators and commissions is restricted to those monuments
which belong to the state. The wide powers, however, given to
local and municipal authorities in Germany, enable much to be
done without state legislation. Many towns have powers to
make by-laws regulating building and street-planning with a
view not only of the preservation of the actual monuments but
also of what is known as Stadtbild, the characteristic appearance
given to a town by its ancient buildings, walls, gateways, &c.
The regulations of many of the Bavarian towns are excellent
examples of what can be done in this way.
The final control of the monuments of Hesse-Darmstadt is in
the hands of the minister of the interior, who presides over a
Denkmalrat, or council on monuments, consisting of owners of
historical monuments, members of societies interested in such
objects, and representatives of the Catholic and Protestant
Churches. There is also a general conservator. The act protects
Naturdenkm filer, such as water-courses, rocks, and even trees.
No excavations can be carried on without permission, and all
finds must be reported to the local authority.
The principal German society is the Gesamtiierein der deutschen
Geschichts- und Alterlumsverein, founded in 1852. This is a
general association of all the various societies throughout
Germany. There are also many societies in the various towns,
as well as local associations more directly concerned with the
practical protection and preservation of monuments. The chief
periodical perhaps the most important of any dealing with the
subject in Europe is Die Denkmalpflege, published first in 1899.
It is connected with the society known as Heimatschulz, the
" defence of home."
[Italy. There is a long history of monument regulation,
dating back to a provision against the destruction of monuments
in the statutes of the city of Rome of the i4th century and to
the appointment of Raphael by Leo X. as controller of the city's
monuments. Throughout the various states of Italy during the
1 7th, i8th and igth centuries till the unification of the kingdom,
stringent regulations by decree or statute were in force to
preserve the relics of the past in which the country is so peculiarly
rich. Mariotti (La Legislazione delle belle arti, 1892) gives a
full account of many of these regulations. It must suffice here to
mention the Doria Pamphili Edict of 1802 and the Pacca Edict
of 1820, named after the two Cardinal-Camerlenghi subscribing
the same. It was not until 1902 that an act was passed for the
whole of Italy. This act, with a supplementary act of 1903, and
the code of regulations (Regolamento) of 1904, has been superseded
by the acts of 1907 and 1909 and the Regolamento of 1910, which
constitute the whole body of the provisions in force for the
protection of monuments. The minister of public instruction
is the final authority, and under him the director-general of
antiquities and fine arts.
The Superior Council of Antiquities and Fine Arts, created
by the law of 1907, consists of 21 members; it is divided into
three sections of 7 members each for antiquities, medieval and
modern art, and contemporary art respectively. All the members
of each are nominated by royal decree, and so are thre^ members
of the third, being elected, one by the architects, one by the
sculptors, and one by the painters of Italy. This is an advisory
body. The minister presides, and the director-general can be
present and has a vote. The administrative organization under
the director-general consists of the divisional superintendencies
(each having a group of provinces under it) divided into three
categories: (a)i8 superintendencies of monuments (preservation,
administration, and surveillance of monuments even in private
hands); (b) 14 superintendencies of archaeological excavations
and museums (with control of objects in private hands and of the
offices for exportation); (c) 15 superintendencies of galleries,
medieval and modern museums and objects of art. Under each
superintendent is a staff of directors of monuments, museums and
galleries, of inspectors, architects, secretaries, custodians, &c.
The nominations to the superior grades are by competition.
There are offices for the examination of objects before exporta-
tion in those towns in which there reside a superintendent of
monuments or a director of a gallery or a museum in which it is
necessary. The official organizations are assisted by (a) honorary
inspectors, nominated by royal decree in any commune or
circondario where it may seera advisable; (b) provincial commis-
sions, meeting in the chief town of each province, composed of
not less than 7 members, nominated by royal decree, and
including of right the superintendents, and meeting normally
twice a year.
The monuments within the purview of the act of 1909
and its administration comprise all movable (including MSS.,
incunabula, rare engravings and coins) and immovable objects
of historical, archaeological, palaeo-ethnological or artistic value
and interest, so long as they are not less than fifty years old nor the
work of living persons. Such objects, if they belong to the state,
a province, a commune, a religious corporation or any recognized
corporation (ente morale), cannot be parted with at all, except as
from one such body to another, and this only with the leave of
the ministry; and the authorities of such bodies must present to
the ministry an inventory of such objects. Nor may repairs or
alterations be made to them without the consent of the ministry,
which has the right to interfere by regulations (such as, e.g., the
prohibition of the use of tapers, &c., which are liable to damage a
picture) for the preservation and restoration (and in extreme
cases even the removal) of such objects, .if necessary, the latter
being at the expense of the body to which they belong in so far
as it can afford it. Any private person owning or possessing any
object falling under the law, the importance and interest of
which has been notified to him as the regulations provide, cannot
transfer his property in or abandon his possession of it without
informing the ministry, which has the right of pre-emption within
two months (or four in case of financial pressure owing to many
simultaneous offers) at the price for which he has contracted to
sell it; and, if it is subject to damage and the proprietor will not
provide for its repair, it may be expropriated by the state, by a
province or commune or even by bodies which have legal
personality and aim at the preservation of such objects for the
public enjoyment. It has not yet been possible, however, to
secure the right of search nor of public access; so long as an
object is well kept up by the owner, he may refuse the right of
access except to the officials.
The exportation of objects of importance is forbidden, even if
their importance has not been notified to the owner, who is under
the obligation to advise the government of his intention to
export, it having the right of pre-emption within two or four
months, as the case may be; and even if the government does
not purchase the object, it may still return it to the proprietor,
forbidding him to export it. The objects exported are subject
to a progressive tax, with a maximun of 20%. Objects tempo-
rarily imported from foreign countries, and re-exported within
five years, are not subject to tax. Temporary exportation, if
8oo
MONUMENT
permitted, is allowed on deposit of the tax; and if objects of
importance are allowed to be sent from one part of Italy to
another (especially to the islands), this is done by the government
at the owner's expense.
As to excavations, in every case application to excavate must
be made to the minister, who has a general supervision over the
work and may stop it temporarily or assume the conduct of it.
The state can excavate on private ground, but pays compensation;
and can expropriate ground on which it wishes to excavate or on
which discoveries have been made, the " archaeological value "
not being reckoned. As to finds, if the state conducts the exca-
vation, the owner retains one-fourth of the value or of the objects
discovered at the choice of the state, the rest belongs to the state.
In other cases, and in the case of chance discoveries (notice of
which must be given immediately), the state takes one-half, but
if the excavation is conducted by foreign institutions or persons,
then the discoveries must be given to a public museum, or if part
is handed over to the finder, it must be kept in such a way
as to be accessible to the Italian public. The ministry gives
periodical reports of all work carried out by the authorities in the
Notizie degli Scam and the Bollettino d'arte, both of which appear
every month. The funds at the disposal of the ministry for
purchases include (a) a sum of 40,000 already invested, (b) the
interest upon 160,000 rentes regularly paid in, (c) other sums
from sales of publications, fines, &c. ; (d) an annual credit voted
in the budget (12,000 in 1909-1910), forming an account called
the monte di belle arti.
The regulations issued in 1910 for the execution of the new
law consist of some 200 articles in three divisions one dealing
with the artistic and historical patrimony of Italy and its internal
administration, a second with the question of exportation, and
the third with financial matters. (T. As.)]
Greece. The earliest regulations are those contained in the
law of 1837, promulgated by royal decree. This has been
replaced by the Monument Act of 1899, but the principles of
the earlier law remain, and the later act still lays down " the
most extensive claim that any state has ever put forward in
the matter of monuments," viz. that " all objects of antiquity
in Greece, as the productions of the ancestors of the Hellenic
people, are regarded as the common national possession of
all Hellenes." The department in charge of the administration
of the act. is that of the minister of religion and public instruction.
There is a central commission working with local commissions
and a body of conservators. The control of this executive is
in the hands of the ephor-general of antiquities. The act protects
medieval monuments as well as those of classical Greece. All
immovable monuments are public property, but compensation
is to be paid to private owners if such monuments are to be
preserved. Movable antiquities, if worthy of preservation by
the state, must be placed in public museums. If discovered
on private property the owner receives half the value, and
may keep those not removed to a museum; all, however, must
be registered. Excavations can be made anywhere by the
state, and permission for private work must be first obtained.
Expropriation is allowed. The export of antiquities is strictly
forbidden under severe penalties, and the infringement of the
various provisions of the act can be punished by heavy fines
or imprisonment.
Austria-Hungary. There is no legislation for the empire as
a whole. In Austria there is a central commission, established
1850, whose authority is regulated by rescripts of 1873 and
1899 of the minister of religion and education. It consists of
twenty members selected from experts in history, art and
archaeology; there is also a numerous body of conservators
who have districts covering the country assigned to them.
They have no executive powers, but report on all new works
likely to injure monuments, make inventories, influence public
opinion, and work with archaeological societies for the general
protection of ancient monuments. Hungary, on the other hand,
has a Monument Act of 1881. With regard to any existing
monument, the minister of religion and education decides
whether it is worth preserving. Then the owner, whether
public or private, must preserve it at his own cost. If that
is impossible the minister may expropriate it. Compulsory
purchase may also be resorted to for the purpose of excavation.
Belgium. There is no monument legislation, but there is
a royal commission, resembling that of Austria, founded in
1835, and a royal decree of 1824 prevents alienation of objects
of interest contained in churches or alienation or reconstruction
of churches without state permission. An inventory has been
in progress since 1861, and the commission publishes a Bulletin.
By a communal law of 1836 local administrations have to submit
proposals for the destruction or repair of monuments to the
committee of the provincial council, and must obtain royal
approval. Expropriation on the ground of public utility may
be resorted to for the protection of a threatened monument
in the hands of a private owner.
Holland. A state commission (Rijkscommissie) was estab-
lished in 1903, and began an inventory of all monuments,
movable and immovable. Any proposed alteration or demolition
of buildings of interest in a town must be reported by the
burgomaster to the minister of the interior. The annual budget
of the minister of the interior contains sums to be allotted for
the repair of specified monuments.
Switzerland. Legislation is in the hands of the cantons;
Vaud, Neuchatel and Bern have passed Monuments Acts,
modelled on that of France. The federal government may allot
an annual grant for the acquisition and upkeep of national
monuments and for excavations. There is a federal commission,
established in 1886, whose functions, mainly those of other
countries, are exercised by the Swiss Society for the Preservation
of Monuments of Historical Art.
The preservation of scenery and of natural monuments is
considered a matter of great importance, and in 1905 was
founded a Swiss society which has a branch in the United
Kingdom, La Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pitloresque
Die schweizerische Vereinigung fur Heimatschulz. The special
object of the society is the prevention of the defacement of
Alpine scenery by funicular and other railways, mountain-lifts,
power-stations, &c. It was successful in protecting the falls
of the Rhine at Schaffhausen from a Zurich eiectric-power
scheme.
Denmark. The means adopted are an excellent example of
what can be done without legislation by appeals made by a
central authority working with expert knowledge to an enlight-
ened public opinion and to national sentiment. The authority
consists of an inspector of ancient monuments and the directorate
of the Museum of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen, exercising
the functions of a royal commission that was established in 1807
and dissolved in 1849. The successful preservation of anti-
quities is also due to an old law, modified by royal decrees of
1737 and 1752, by which all finds of gold, silver and precious
objects belong to the state, and to a declaration of 1848 that all
monuments on the Crown domains are national property and are
to be specially reserved in case of sale. Many private owners
have followed the example of the Crown. G. Baldwin Brown
(op. cit. p. 1 88 seq.) gives some interesting examples of the
success of the directorate of the museum in preserving monu-
ments by appeals to ecclesiastical owners, projectors of railways
and other works, and companies engaged in reclaiming land.
Sweden. There is a state antiquary (Riksanlikvar) , appointed
first by Gustavus Adolphus; the functions of a commission
are exercised by the Royal Academy of Science, History and
Antiquities, founded in 1786. There is an elaborate and
stringent code of regulations protecting monuments, contained
in royal decrees of 1867, 1873 and 1886. These are based on
the edict of Charles XI. (1666), declaring all ancient monuments
under royal protection. Sweden possesses one of the fullest
inventories contained in the antiquarian topographical archives.
Norway. Here there is also a state antiquary, and a state-
subsidized society, Foreningen til norske Fortidsmindesmaerkers
Beiiaring, founded in 1844, which acts much as a commission,
and advises the state official.
Russia. The care of ancient monuments is in the charge
MONVEL MONZONITE
801
of the ministry of the imperial court, of which the Imperial
Archaeological Commission, founded in 1859, is a department.
The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts is joined in this charge
with the commission, whose duties resemble in the main those
of the commissions of other countries. By a circular of 1901
a complete inventory of the monuments of the country was
ordered to be made by the local authorities.
Spain. A monument commission was established in 1844;
it works under regulations issued in 1865. It is composed of
the Royal Academies of Fine Arts and of History, corresponding
members of which form commissions for the provinces of the
kingdom. A complete inventory of all monuments is being
made. The minister in charge is that of public instruction and
of the fine arts.
Portugal. A decree of John V. (1721) protected the monu-
ments of ancient times; in 1840 this protection was extended
to medieval monuments. An inventory was begun in 1841.
A council of national monuments was established in 1901 by
a royal decree, with a code of regulations. The French system
of classement is adopted, and the regulations under the French
act of 1887 are generally followed. The minister responsible
is that of public works, commerce and industry.
Turkey. The regulations, as embodied in an irade of 1884,
are very stringent, and the principle adopted is that of Greece,
that all objects of antiquity belong to the state. The private
owner of such has no power of disposition, and must not injure
nor destroy them. All excavations are under the control of the
government, and permission must be first obtained. The
exportation of finds is forbidden, and all movables discovered
belong to the Imperial Museum. If these finds are the result of
excavations, one-twentieth of the value goes to the discoverer; if
of accidental discovery, the owner of the soil and the state divide.
United States. With regard to the remains of prehistoric
man, earthworks, barrows, &c., some of those states, such as
Ohio, which are specially rich in such monuments, have par-
ticular laws protecting individual remains, e.g. the earthworks
in Warren county. The state exercises control over other
remains of interest, e.g. the Eagle earthworks in Licking county.
There is also an archaeological and historical society, partly
maintained by the state, with the object of the better preserva-
tion of the evidences of the prehistoric occupation. In North
Dakota a state historical commission was created in 1895 "to
collect and preserve the records and relics pertaining to the
early history, settlement and development of North Dakota."
The sites of the battle-fields, and statues, &c., erected in
commemoration of the War of Independence or the Civil War,
are preserved by various methods by state or municipal
regulations, by the action of incorporated bodies or trustees,
&c. Most of the states rely on statutory prohibitions of
malicious damage to protect their monuments and old
buildings, &c. (C. WE.)
MONVEL (1745-1812), French actor and dramatic writer,
whose real name was Jacques Marie Boutet, was born in Lune-
ville on the 2$th of March 1745. He was a small, thin man
without good looks or voice, and yet he became one of the greatest
comedians of his time. After some years of apprenticeship in
the provinces, he made his debut in 1 7 70 at the Comedie Frangaise
in Merope and Zenaide; he was received societaire in 1772. For
some reason unknown Monvel secretly left Paris for Sweden
about 1781, and became reader to the king, a post which he
held for several years. At the Revolution he returned to Paris,
embraced its principles with ardour, and in 1791 joined the
theatre in the rue Richelieu(the rival of the Comedie Francaise),
which, under Talma, with Dugazon, his sister Mme Vestris,
Grandmesnil (1737-1816) and Mme Desgarcins, was soon to
become the Theatre de la Republique. After the Revolution
Monvel returned to the reconstituted Comedie Francaise with
all his old companions, but retired in 1807. Monvel was made
a member of the Institute in 1795. He wrote six plays (four
of them performed at the Comedie Francaise), two comedies,
and fifteen comic operas, seven with music by N. Dezede (174-
1792), eight by Nicolas d'Alayrac (1753-1809. He also
XVIII. 26
published an historical novel, FridSgonde et Bruneftaut (1776).
He was professor of elocution at the Conservatoire. Monvel 's
two daughters, Miles Mars ainee and cadetle, were well-known
actresses.
MONZA (locally Monscia), a city of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Milan, 8 m. by rail N.N.E. of that city, with which
it is also connected by both steam and electric trams. It lies
on the Lambro, a tributary of the Po, 532 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1906), 32,000 (town); 53,33o(commune). Of the medieval
fortifications little remains save the Porta d'Agrate. Near it
is the nunnery in which the nun of Monza (see Manzoni's Pro-
messi sposi) was enclosed. The cathedral of St John Baptist
is the principal object of interest; Theodelinda's basilica of
590 was enlarged at the close of the I3th century by throwing
the atrium into the main building, and the present fine black-
and-white marble facade was erected about the middle of the
i4th by Matteo da Campione, and restored in 1899-1901. On
the left-hand side of the front rises an incongruous brick-built
tower, 278 ft. high, erected by Pellegrini in 1592-1606. Within
the church are the iron crown of Lombardy, supposed to have
been beaten out of one of the nails used at the Crucifixion,
and the treasury containing the relics of Theodelinda, comprising
her crown, fan and comb of gold, and the golden hen and seven
chickens, representing Lombardy and her seven provinces, and
crosses, reliquaries, &c., of the Lombard and Gothic periods.
The interior has been modernized; there is a fine relief by Matteo
da Campione in the organ-loft, representing the coronation of
a king, and some 15th-century frescoes with scenes from the
life of Theodelinda. Next to the cathedral in artistic importance
come the church of Santa Maria in Istrada, and the broletto
or old palace of the commune, usually styled the Arengario;
the former (founded in 1357) has a rich terra-cotta facade of
1393, and the latter is raised on a system of pointed arches,
and has a tall square tower terminating in machicolations
surrounding a sharp central cone. The royal palace of Monza
(built in 1777 for the archduke Ferdinand) lies not far from the
town on the banks of the Lambro. Cotton goods and felt hats
are the staple products of the flourishing Monza industry;
then dyeing, organ-building, and a publishing trade.
Monza (anc. Modicia) was not a place of consequence till it
attracted the eye of Theodoric; and its first important associa-
tions are with Theodelinda. During the period of the republics
Monza was sometimes independent, sometimes subject to Milan.
The Visconti, who ultimately became masters of the city, built
a castle in 1325 on the site now occupied by the Palazzo Durini.
In the course of its history Monza stood thirty-two sieges, and
was repeatedly plundered notably by the forces of Charles V.
The countship (1499-1796) was purchased in 1546 by the
wealthy banker Durini, and remained in his family till the
Revolution. At Monza King Humbert was assassinated on the
zgth of July 1900.
MONZONITE, the group-name of a type of rocks which have
acquired it from their most celebrated occurrence, that of
Monzoni in Tirol. The rocks are of granitic appearance, usually
rather dark grey in colour and fine to moderately coarse grained.
The special characteristic which distinguishes them from
granites and ordinary syenites is the presence of plagioclase
and orthoclase felspars in nearly equal amounts. Labradorite,
andesine and oligoclase are present, usually in well-shaped
crystals, often zoned; orthoclase forms large irregular plates
in which the other minerals are embedded. There is rarely any
considerable amount of quartz, though in a few of these rocks
this mineral occurs (the quartz-monzonites). Other features
are the abundance of augite, pale green or brownish green, and
of large bronze-coloured plates of biotite which are of quite
irregular shapes and full of enclosures. Hypersthene or bronzite
is less common, but dark brown and green hornblende are
sometimes abundant. Olivine also may be present; when the
rock contains this in notable quantity it may be called an
olivine monzonite. Numerous large prisms of apatite often
characterize micro-sections of monzonites, and zircon, iron ores
and pyrites are frequent accessory minerals.
802
MOOD MOON
The monzonites of Tirol show a great variability in appearance,
structure, and the relative proportions of their minerals. They
tend to pass into rocks which have been called diabases and
gabbros, and near the margins of the outcrop facies very rich
in pyroxene (pyroxenites) occur. Many authors believe that
this variety of types is associated with the fact that the
monzonites occupy a middle place as regards their chemical
composition between the acid and the basic igneous rocks, and
that such a magma is naturally somewhat unstable, and likely
to split up or differentiate into partial magmas of more siliceous
and less siliceous character. The monzonites in fact approach
rather closely to the calculated mean composition of the outer
portion of the earth's crust and from a molten magma of this
nature it is natural to suppose that all kinds of igneous rocks
have been derived.
Rocks of monzonitic facies occur also in Norway, where they
have been described as ikerites. They contain quartz, orthoclase
and plagioclase, augite and dark brown biotite; hornblende and
hypersthene also may be present. Some of them have porphyritic
rather than granitic texture, especially near the margins of the
laccolites. From a study of these and other occurrences Brogger
proposed to define the monzonites as orthoclase-plagioclase rocks
in which the two chief classes of felspar occur in nearly equal
quantities (as distinguished from the orthoclase rocks or granites
and syenites and the plagioclase rocks or diorites and gabbros).
At Yogo Peak and Beaver Creek in Montana, U.S.A., there are
masses of granitoid rock which bear a close resemblance to the
monzonites of Tirol. Two main types occur: (a) yogoite, which
differs little from monzonite, and (6) shonkinite, which is a more
basic rock richer in plagioclase and augite; this rock contains
olivine and in places passes into dark pyroxenites. In shonkinite
also a little nepheline may be present. In several places in the
west of Scotland (Argyllshire) intrusive bosses are known which
consist of an olivine-bearing rock closely related to monzonite. It
has been called kentallenite because it is quarried at Kentallen
in Argyllshire. Large crystals of pale green augite and irregular
plates of biotite which enclose idiomorphic plagioclase felspar are
conspicuous in micro-sections of this rock, and the abundance of
olivine is rather greater than is usual in the monzonites; it is
associated with diorites of lamprophyric character and dark
pyroxenites and peridotites.
The following analyses show the chemical peculiarities of the
principal rocks of the monzonite group :
SiOj A1 2 O, Fe 2 O 3 FeO MgO CaO K 2 O Na 2 O
Monzonite, Monzoni . 54-20 15-73 3-67 5-40 3-40 8-50 4-42 3-07
Yogoite, Yogo Peak . 54-42 14-28 3-32 4-13 6-12 7-72 4-22 3-44
Kentallenite,Argyllshire52-09 11-93 1-84 7-U 12-48 7-84 3-01 2-04
(J- S. F.)
MOOD, (i) (0. Eng. mdd, a word common to Teutonic lan-
guages; cf. Ger. Mut; Du. moed, mind, courage), a particular state
of mind or feeling. (2) (Adapted from Lat. modus, measure), a
grammatical term for one of the various forms into which the
conjugation is grouped, showing whether the verb is used as
a predicate, a wish, a command, &c. In syllogistic logic the
term is used of the various classes into which the " figures " of
valid syllogisms are divided. (See SYLLOGISM.)
MOODKEE, or MUDKI, a town in the Ferozepore district of
the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901), 2977. It is situated 26 m. S.
of the Sutlej, on the old road from Ferozepore to Karnal, and is
notable as the scene of the first battle (Dec. 18, 1845) in the first
Sikh war. (See SIKH WARS.)
MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN (RYTHER) (1837-1899), Ameri-
can evangelist, was born in the village of East Northfield
(Northfield township), Massachusetts, on the sth of February
1837. His father died in 1841, and young Dwight, a mis-
chievous independent boy, got a scanty schooling. In 1854
he became a salesman in a shoe-store in Boston; in 1855 he was
" converted "; and in 1856 he went to Chicago and started
business there. Beginning with a class gathered from the
streets, he opened (1858) a Sunday school in North Market
Hall, which was organized in 1863 as the Illinois Street Church,
and afterwards became the Chicago Avenue Church, of which
he was layman pastor. In 1860 he gave up business and devoted
himself to city missionary work. He was prominent in raising
money for Farwell Hall in Chicago (1867), and in 1865-1869
was president of the Chicago Young Men's Christian Association.
Ira David Sankey (1840-1908) joined him in Chicago in 1870
and helped him greatly by the singing of hymns; and in a series
of notable revival meetings in England (1873-1875, 1881-1884,
1891-1892) and America they carried on their gospel campaign,
and became famous for the Moody and Sankey Gospel Hymns.
In 1879 Moody opened the Northfield seminary for young
women, at Northfield, Mass., and in 1881 the adjacent Mount
Hermon school for boys; in each a liberal . practical education
centres about Bible training; the boys do farm-work and the
girls house-work. In 1889 he opened in Chicago the Bible
Institute, and there trained Christian workers in Bible study and
in practical methods of social reform; at Northfield in 1890
he opened a Training School in domestic science in the Northfield
Hotel, formerly used only in summer for visitors at the annual
conferences, of which the best known are the Bible (or Christian
Workers') Conference, first held at Northfield in 1880, and the
Students' (or College Men's) Conference, first held in 1887.
Moody died at Northfield on the 22nd of December 1899.
His sermons were colloquial, simple, full of conviction and point.
In his theology he laid stress on the Gospel and on no sectarian
opinions he was, however, a pre-millenarianite and he
worked with men as much more " advanced " than himself as
Henry Drummond, whom he eagerly defended against orthodox
attack, and George Adam Smith. Moody's sermons were sold
widely in English, and in German, Danish and Swedish versions.
See the (official) Life of Dwight L. Moody (New York, 1900), by his
son, W. R. Moody (b. 1869), and the estimate in Henry Drummond's
Dwight L. Moody: Impressions and Facts (New York, 1900), with an
introduction by George Adam Smith.
MOOLVIE (an Urdu variant of Arabic maulavi, a derivative
of mullah, a man learned in the law), the name used in India
of a man learned in Mahommedan law, and hence used generally
of a teacher or as a complimentary title of one learned in any
branch of knowledge.
MOON, SIR RICHARD, IST BARONET (1814-1899), English
railway administrator, was the son of a Liverpool merchant,
and was born on the 23rd of September 1814. The history
of his life is practically the history of the London & North-
Western railway for the period in which he lived. When he
first became a member of the board in 1847, the company had
just come into existence by the amalgamation of the London
& Birmingham, the Manchester & Birmingham, and the
Grand Junction lines, and it was during his long connexion
with it first as director and then (from 1862 to 1891) as chair-
man that its system was developed substantially into what
it is now. The Chester & Holyhead, the Lancaster &
Carlisle, and many smaller lines were gradually added to it,
either by leasing or by complete absorption, and finally in 1877
an act was obtained consolidating all into one homogeneous
whole. Throughout his career, Sir Richard Moon's powers
of organization and his genius for what may be called railway
diplomacy were of the greatest advantage to the company, and
to him it owed in very large measure its commanding position.
An extremely hard worker himself, he expected equal diligence
of his subordinates; but energy and capacity did not go unre-
warded, for he made promotions, not by standing or seniority,
but by merit. Sir Richard Moon, who was created a baronet
in 1887, died at Coventry on the I7th of November 1899.
MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan,
Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms
as Gr. firiv, Sans, mas, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna,
the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the
word in mensis, month; the ultimate root for "moon" and
" month " is usually taken to be me-, to measure, the moon
being a measurer of time), in astronomy, the name given to the
satellite of any planet, specifically to the only satellite of the
earth.
The subject of the moon may be treated as twofold, one
branch being concerned with the aspects, phases and consti-
tution of the moon; the other with the mathematical theory
of its motion. As the varying phenomena presented by the
moon grow out of its orbital motion, the general character
of the latter will be set forth in advance.
A luminous idea of the geometrical relations of the moon.
MOON
803
earth and sun will be gained from the figure, by imagining
the sun to be moved towards the left, and placed at a distance
of 20 ft. from the position of the earth, as represented at the
right-hand end of the figure. We have here eight positions of
the moon, MI, Mj, &c., as it moves round the earth E. The
general average distance of the sun is somewhat less than four
hundred times that of the moon. We have next to conceive
that, as the earth performs its annual revolution round the
sun in an orbit whose diameter, as represented on the diagram,
is nearly 40 ft., it carries the orbit of the moon with it. Con-
ceiving the plane of the earth's motion, which is that of the
ecliptic, to be represented by the surface of the paper, the orbit
of the moon makes a small angle of a little more than 5 with
this plane. Conceiving the line NN' to be that of the nodes
at any time, and the earth and lunar orbit to be moving in
the direction of the straight arrows, the earth will be on one
side of the ecliptic from M 2 to M 6 , and on the other side from
Me to Mi, intersecting it at the nodes. The absolute direction
of the line of nodes changes but slowly as the earth and moon
revolve; consequently, in the case shown in the figure, the line
M,
Hera intervenes a spaa eiuat to
about 190 times the distance , s
of nodes will pass through the sun after the earth has passed
through an arc nearly equal to the angle MI N. Six months
later the direction of the opposite node will pass through the
sun. Actually, the line of nodes is in motion in a retrograde
direction, the opposite of that of the arrows, by 19-3 per year,
thus making a revolution in 186 years, or 6,793-39 days. (See
ECLIPSE.)
The varying phases of the moon, due to the different aspects
presented by an opaque globe illuminated by the sun, are too
familiar to require explanation. We shall merely note some
points which are frequently overlooked: (i) the crescent
phase of the moon is shown only when the moon is less than
90 from the sun; (2) the bright convex outline of the crescent
is then on the side toward the sun, and that the moon is seen
full only when in opposition to the sun, and therefore rising
about the time of sunset. In consequence of the orbital motion
the moon rises, crosses the meridian, and sets, about 48 m. later
every successive day. This excess is, however, subject to wide
variation, owing to the obliquity of the ecliptic and of the lunar
orbit to the equator, and therefore to the horizon. The smaller
the angle which the orbit of the moon, when near the point of
rising, makes with the horizon the less will be the retardation.
Near the autumnal equinox this angle is at a minimum; hence
the phenomenon of the " harvest moon," when for several
successive days the difference of times of rising on one day
and the next may be only from 15 to 20 minutes. Near the
vernal equinox the case is reversed, the interval between two
risings of the nearly full moon being at its maximum, and between
two settings at its minimum. Generally, when the rising is
accelerated the setting is retarded, and vice versa.
The moon always presents nearly the same face to the earth,
from which it follows that, when referred to a fixed direction
in space, it revolves on its axis in the same time in which it
performs its revolution. Relatively to the direction of the
earth there is really no rotation. The rate of actual rotation
is substantially uniform, while the arc through which the moon
moves from day to day varies. Consequently, the face which
the moon presents to the earth is subject to a corresponding
variation, the globe as we see it slightly oscillating in a period
nearly that of revolution. This apparent oscillation is called
ration, and its amount on each side of the mean is commonly
etween 6 and 7. There is also a libration in latitude, arising
from the fact that the axis of rotation of the moon is not
precisely perpendicular to the plane of her orbit. This libration
is more regular than that in longitude, its amount being about
6 44' on each side of the mean. The other side of the moon
is therefore invisible from the earth, but in consequence of the
libration about six-tenths of the lunar surface may be seen
at one time or another, while the remaining four-tenths are for
ever hidden from our view.
It is found that the direction of the moon's equator remains
nearly invariable with respect to the plane of the orbit, and
therefore revolves with that plane in a nodal period of 18-6
years. This shows that the side of the moon presented to us
is held in position as it were by the earth, from which it also
follows that the lunar globe is more or less elliptical, the longer
axis being directed toward the earth. The amount of the
ellipticity is, however, very small.
Two phenomena presented by the moon are plain to the naked
eye. One is the existence of dark and bright regions, irregular
in form, on its surface; the other is the complete illumination
of the lunar disk when seen as a crescent, a faint light revealing
the dark hemisphere. This is due to the light falling from the
sun on the earth and being reflected back to the moon. To
an observer on the moon our earth would present a surface
more than ten times as large as the moon presents to us, con-
sequently this earth-light is more than ten times brighter than
our moonlight, thus enabling the lunar surface to be seen by us.
The surface of the moon has been a subject of careful tele-
scopic study from the time of Galileo. The early observers
seem to have been under the impression that the dark regions
might be oceans; but this impression must have been corrected
as soon as the telescope began to be improved, when the whole
visible surface was found to be rough and mountainous. The
work of drawing up a detailed description of the lunar surface,
and laying its features down on maps, has from time to time
occupied telescopic observers. The earliest work of this kind,
and one of the most elaborate, is the Sdenographia of Hevelius, a
magnificent folio volume. This contains the first complete map
of the moon. Names borrowed from geography and classical
mythology are assigned to the regions and features. A system
was introduced by Riccioli in his Almageslum novum of desig-
nating the more conspicuous smaller features by the names of
eminent astronomers and philosophers, while the great dark
regions were designated as oceans, with quite fanciful names:
M are imbrium, Oceanus proccllarum, &c. More than a century
elapsed from the time of Hevelius and Riccioli when J. H.
Schroter of Lilienthal produced another profusely illustrated
description of lunar topography.
The standard work on this subject during the igth century was
long the well-executed description and map of W. Beer and J. H.
Madler, published in 1836. It was the result of several years'
careful study and micrometric measurement of the features shown
by the moon. The volume of text gives descriptive details and
measurement of the spots and heights of the mountains.
In recent times photography has been so successfully applied
to the mapping of our satellites as nearly to supersede visual
observation. The first photograph of the moon was a daguerreo-
type, made by Dr J. W. Draper of New York in 1840; but it
was not possible to do much in this direction until the more
sensitive process of photographing on glass was introduced
instead of the daguerreotype. The taking of photographs
of the moon then excited much interest among astronomical
observers of various countries. Bond at the Harvard obser-
vatory, De la Rue in England, and Rutherford in New York,
produced lunar photographs of remarkable accuracy and beauty.
The fine atmosphere of the Lick observatory was well adapted
to this work, and a complete photographic map of the moon
on a large scale was prepared which exceeded in precision of
detail any before produced. The most extended and elaborate
work of this sort yet undertaken is that of Maurice Loewy
(1833-1907) and Pierre Puiseux at the Paris observatory, of
which the first part was published in 1895.
The broken and irregular character of the surface is most
evident near the boundary between the dark and illuminated
portions, about the time of first quarter. The most remarkable
804
MOON
feature of the surface comprises the craters, which are scattered
everywhere, and generally surrounded by an approximately
circular elevated ring. Yet another remarkable feature com-
prises bright streaks, branching out in various directions and
through long distances from a few central points, especially
that known as Tycho.
The height of the lunar mountains is a subject of interest.
It cannot be stated with the same definiteness that we can
assign heights to our terrestrial mountains, because there is
no fixed sea-level on the moon to which elevations can be
referred. The only determination that can be made on the
moon is that of the height above some neighbouring hollow,
crater or plain. The most detailed measures of this sort were
made by Beer and Madler, who give a great number of such
heights. These generally range between 500 and 3000 toises,
or 3000 and 20,000 English feet. The highest which they
measured was Newton, 3727 toises, or 24,000 ft.
The general trend of lunar investigation has been against
the view that there is any resemblance between the surfaces
of the moon and of the earth, except in the general features
already mentioned. No evidence has yet been found that the
moon has either water or air. The former, if it existed at all,
could be found only in the more depressed portions; and even
here it would evaporate under the influence of the sun's rays,
forming a vapour which, if it existed in considerable quantity,
would in some way make itself known to our scrutiny. The
most delicate indication of an atmosphere would be through
the refraction of the light of a star when seen coincident with
the limb of the moon. Not the slightest change in the direction
of such a star when in this position has ever been detected, and
it is certain that if any occurs it can be but a minute fraction
of a second of arc. As an atmosphere equal to ours in density
would produce a deviation of an important fraction of a degree,
it may be said that the moon can have no atmosphere exceeding
in density the 5 gVff that of the earth.
Devoid of air and atmosphere, the causes of meteorological
phenomena on the earth are non-existent on the moon. The
only active cause of such changes is the varying temperature
produced by the presence or absence of the sun's rays. The
range of temperature must be vastly wider than on the earth,
owing to the absence of an atmosphere to make it equable.
Elaborate observations of the heat coming from the moon at
its various phases were made and discussed in 1871-1872 by
Lord Rosse. Among his results was that during the progressive
phases from before the first quarter till the full moon the heat
received increases in a much greater proportion than the light,
from which it followed that the former was composed mainly
of heat radiated from the moon itself in consequence of the
temperature which it assumed under the sun's rays. So far
as could be determined, 86% of the heat radiated was by the
moon itself, and 14% reflected solar heat. But it seems
probable that this disproportion may be somewhat too great.
Rosse's determinations, h'ke those of his predecessors, were
made with the thermopile. After S. P. Langley devised his
bolometer, which was a much more sensitive instrument than
the thermopile, he, in conjunction with F. W. Very, applied
it to determine the moon's radiation at the Allegheny observa-
tory. His results for the ratio of the total radiation of the full
moon to that of the sun ranged from i : 70,000 to i : 110,000,
which were in substantial agreement with those of Rosse, who
found i : 82,000. When Langley published his work the law of
radiation as a function of the temperature was not yet estab-
lished. He therefore wrongly concluded that the highest tem-
perature reached by the moon approximated to the freezing-
point of water. Stefan's law of radiation, on the other hand,
shows that the temperature must have been about the boiling-
point in order that the observed amount of heat might be
radiated. This is in fair agreement with the computed tempera-
ture due to the sun's radiation upon a perpendicular absorbing
surface when no temperature is lost through conduction to the
interior. The agreement thus brought about between the results
deduced from the law of radiation and the most delicate observa-
tions of the quantity of heat radiated is of great interest, as showing
that the theory of cosmicai temperature now rests upon a sound
basis. There is ; however, still room for improved determinations
of the moon's heat by the use of the bolometer in its latest form.
Possibility of Changes on the Moon. No evidence of life on
the moon has ever been brought out by the minutest telescopic
scrutiny, nor does life seem ppssible in the absence of air and
water. Some bright spots are visible by the earth-light when
the moon is a thin crescent, which were supposed by Herschel
to be volcanoes in eruption. But these are now known to be
nothing more than spots of unusual whiteness, and if any active
volcano exists it is yet to be discovered. Still, the question
whether everything on the moon's surface is absolutely unchange-
able is as yet an open one, with the general trend of opinion
toward the affirmative, so far as any actual proof from observa-
tion is concerned. The spot which has most frequently exhibited
changes in appearance is near the centre of the visible disk,
marked on Beer and Madler's map as Linne. This has been
found to present an aspect quite different from that depicted
on the map, and one which varies at different times. But the
question still remains open whether these variations may not
be due wholly to the different phases of illumination by the
sunlight as the latter strikes the region from various directions.
Intensity of Moonlight. An interesting and important quantity
is the ratio of moonlight to sunlight. This has been measured
for the full moon by various investigators, but the results are
not as accordant as could be desired. The most reliable deter-
minations were made by G. P. Bond at Harvard and F. Zollner
at Leipzig, in 1860 and 1864. The mean result of these two
determinations is the ratio i : 570,000. We may therefore
say that the intensity of sunlight is somewhat more than half
a million times that of full moonlight. A remarkable feature
of the reflecting power of the moon, which was made known by
Zollner's observations, is that the proportion of light reflected
by a region on the Toon is much greater when the light falls
perpendicularly, which is the case near the time of full moon,
and rapidly becomes less as the light is more oblique. This
result was traced by Zollner to the general irregularity of the
lunar surface, and the inference was drawn that the average
slope of the lunar elevation amounts to 47.
Motion of the Moon. The orbit of the moon around the earth,
though not a fixed curve of any class, is elliptical in form,,
and may be represented by an ellipse which is constantly
changing its form and position, and has the earth in one of its
foci. The eccentricity of the ellipse is in the general average
about 0-055, whence the moon is commonly more than yV
further from the earth at apogee than at perigee. The line of
apsides is in continual motion, generally direct, and performs
a revolution in about 12 years. The inclination to the ecliptic
is a little more than 5, and the line of nodes performs a revolu-
tion in the retrograde direction in 18-6 years. The parallax
of the moon is determined by observation from two widely
separated points; the most accurate measures are those made
at Greenwich and at the Cape of Good Hope. The distance
of the moon can also be computed from the law of gravity, the
problem being to determine the distance at which a body
having the moon's mass would revolve around the earth in the
observed period. The measures of parallax agree perfectly
with the computed distance in showing a mean parallax of
57' 2-8", and a mean distance of 238,800 miles. The period of
revolution, or the lunar month, depends upon the point to
which the revolution is referred. Any one of five such direc-
tions may be chosen, that of the sun, the fixed stars, the equinox,
the perigee, or the node. The terms synodical, sidereal, tropical,
anomalistic, nodical, are applied respectively to these months,
of which the lengths are as follow:
Synodic month
Sidereal month
Tropical month
Anomalistic month
Nodical month
Length.
29-53059 days.
27-32166
27-32156
27-55460
27-21222
Deviation from
sidereal month.
+2-20893 days.
o-ooooo
o-oooio
+0-23294
-0-10944 ..
MOON
PT.ATE I.
THE MOON (Age I4d. ih.), 1890, October 27.
By permission of Lick Observatory.
Maria or Seas.
A. Mare Crisium.
B. Foecunditatis.
C. Nectaris.
D. Tranquillitatis
E. Serenitatis.
F. Lacus Somniorum.
G. Mortis.
H. Mare Frigoris.
J. Sinus Roris.
K. Mare Imbrium.
L. Oceanus Procellarum.
M. Mare Vaporum.
N. Humorum.
O. Nubium.
Mountains.
(a) Caucasus.
(6) Apennines.
(c) Alps.
(d) Carpathians.
Volcanoes.
1. Apollonius.
2. Firmicus.
3. Taruntius.
4. Secchi.
5. Macrobius.
6. Vitruvius.
7. Posidonius.
8. Plato.
9. Aristillus.
10. Autolycus.
11. Archimedes.
12. Julius Caesar.
13. Boscovich.
14. Copernicus.
15. Herodotus.
1 6. Kepler.
17. Borda.
18. Bohnenberger.
19. Tycho.
This diagram is a key to some of the features reproduced in the photograph.
XVIII. 804.
PLATE II.
MOON
< : , ,t;C, .;
^,\
'< <
, , *i*v
O: j .i .^
;iil
( ' <'Lr : V- ' t. ;
i. TYCHO, THEOPHILUS, 1900, October 12
2. MARE NUBIUM, &c., 1901, November 21.
3. MARE SERENITATIS, 1901, August 3.
4. BULLIALDUS, COPERNICUS, 1901, November 20.
By permission of Ycrkes Observatory.
MOON
Other numerical particulars relating to the moon are :
Mean distance from the earth (earth's radius as I) . . 60-263
Mean apparent diameter 31' Si-
Diameter in miles 2159-6
Moon's surface in square miles 14,600,000
Diameter (earth's equatorial diameter as i) 0-2725
Surface (earth's as I) 0-0742
Volume (earth's as i) . 0-0202
Ratio of mass to earth's mass l i : 81-53=1= -047
Density (earth's as i) 0-60736
Density (water's as I, and earth's assumed as 5) . . . . 3-46
Ratio of gravity to gravity at the earth's surface . . . i : 6
Inclination of axis of rotation to ecliptic .... i 30' 11-3*
The Lunar Theory.
The mathematical theory of the moon's motion does not yet
form a well-defined body of reasoning and doctrine, like other
branches of mathematical science, but consists of a series of
researches, extending through twenty centuries or more, and
not easily welded into a unified whole. Before Newton the
problem was that of devising empirical curves to formally
represent the observed inequalities in the motion of the moon
around the earth. After the establishment of universal gravi-
tation as the primary law of the celestial motions, the problem
was reduced to that of integrating the differential equations of
the moon's motion, and testing the completeness of the results
by comparison with observation. Although the precision of
the mathematical solution has been placed beyond seiious
doubt, the problem of completely reconciling this solution with
the observed motions of the moon is not yet completely solved.
Under these circumstances the historical treatment is that best
adopted to give a clear idea of the progress and results of
research in this field. Modern researches were developed so
naturally from the results of the ancients that we shall begin
with a brief mention of the work of the latter.
It is in the investigation of the moon's motion that the merits
of the ancient astronomy are seen to the best advantage. In the
hands of Hipparchus the theory was brought to a degree of precision
which is really marvellous when we compare it either with other
branches of physical science in that age or with the views of contem-
porary non-scientific writers. The discoveries of Hipparchus were :
i . The Eccentricity of the Moon's Orbit. He found that the moon
moved most rapidly near a certain point of its orbit, and most slowly
near the opposite point. The law of this motion was such that the
phenomena could be represented by supposing the motion to be
actually circular and uniform, the apparent variations being ex-
plained by the hypothesis that the earth was not situated in the
centre of the orbit, but was displaced by an amount about equal to
one-twentieth of the radius of the orbit. Then, by an obvious law
of kinematics, the angular motion round the earth would be most
rapid at the point nearest the earth, that is at perigee, and slowest
at the point most distant from the earth, that is at apogee. Thus
the apogee and perigee became two definite points of the orbit, indi-
cated by the variations in the angular motion of the moon.
These points are at the ends of that diameter of the orbit which
passes through the eccentrically situated earth, or, in other words,
they are on that line which passes through the centre of the earth
and the centre of the orbit. This line was called the line of apsides.
On comparing observations made at different times it was found
that the line of apsides was not fixed, but made a complete revolu-
tion in the heavens, in the order of the signs of the zodiac, in about
nine years.
2. The Numerical Determination of the Elements of the Moon's
Motion. In order. that the two capital discoveries just mentioned
should have the highest scientific value, it was essential that the
numerical values of the elements involved in these complicated
motions should be fixed with precision. This Hipparchus was
enabled to do by lunar eclipses. Each eclipse gave a moment at
which the longitude of the moon was 1 80 different from that of
the sun. The latter admitted of ready calculation. Assuming the
mean motion of the moon to be known and the perigee to be fixed,
three eclipses, observed in different points of the orbit, would give
as many true longitudes of the moon, which longitudes could be
employed to determine three unknown quantities the mean longi-
tude at a given epoch, the eccentricity, and the position of the
perigee. By taking three eclipses separated at short intervals,
both the mean motion and the motion of the perigee would be
known beforehand, from other data, with sufficient accuracy to
reduce all the observations to the same epoch, and thus to leave
only the three elements already mentioned unknown. The same
three elements being again determined from a second triplet of
eclipses at as remote an epoch as possible, the difference in the
'A. R. Hinks, " Mass of the Moon, from Observations of Eros,
1900-1901," M. N. Roy. Ast. Soc., 1909, Nov., p. 73.
805
longitude of the perigee at the two epochs gave the annual motion
ot that element, and the difference of mean longitudes gave the
mean motion.
The eccentricity determined in this way is more than a degree in
error, owing to the effect of the evection, which was unknown to
Hipparchus. The result of the latter inequality is brought out
when it is sought to determine the eccentricity of the orbit from the
observations near the time of the first and last quarter. It was
thus found by Ptolemy that an additional inequality existed in
the motion, which is now known as the evection. The relations
of the quantities involved may be shown by simple trigonometric
formulae. If we put g for the moon's anomaly or distance from the
perigee, and D for its elongation from the sun, the inequalities in
question as now known are
6-29 sin g (equation of centre)
+ 1-27 sin (2D-g) (evection).
During a luna'r eclipse we always have D = i8o, very nearly, and
20 = 360 . Hence the evection is then - 1-2 sin g, and con-
sequently has the same argument g as the equation of centre, so that
it is confounded with it. The value of the equation of centre
derived from eclipses is thus
6-29 sin -1-27 sin g = 5-02 sin g.
Therefore the eccentricity found by Hipparchus was only 5, and
was more than a degree less than its true value. At first quarter
we have 0=90 and 2D = i8o. Substituting this value of 2D
in the last term of the above equation, we see that the combined
equation of the centre and evection are, at quadrature
6-29 sin +1-27 sin 2 = 7-56 sin g.
Thus, in consequence of the evection, the equation of the centre
comes out 2 30' larger from observations at the moon's quarters
than during eclipses.
The next forward step was due to Tycho Brahe. He found
that, although the two inequalities found by Hipparchus and
Ptolemy correctly represented the moon's longitude near con-
junction and opposition, and also at the quadratures, it left a large
outstanding error at the octants, that is when the moon was 45
or 135 on either side of the sun. This inequality, which reaches
the magnitude of nearly I , is known as the variation. Although
Tycho Brahe was an original discoverer of this inequality, through
whom it became known, Joseph Bertrand of Paris claimed the
discovery for Abu '1-Wefa, an Arabian astronomer, and made it
appear that the latter really detected inequalities in the moon's
motion which we now know to have been the variation. But he
has not shown, on the part of the Arabian, any such exact descrip-
tion of the inequality as is necessary to make clear his claim to the
discovery. We may conclude the ancient history of the lunar
theory by saying that the only real progress from Hipparchus to
Newton consisted in the more exact determination of the mean
motions of the moon, its perigee and its line of nodes, and in the
discovery of three inequalities, the representation of which re-
quired geometrical constructions increasing in complexity with
every step.
The modern lunar theory began with Newton, and consists in
determining, the motion of the moon deductively from the theory
of gravitation. But the great founder of celestial mechanics em-
ployed a geometrical method, ill-adapted to lead to the desired
result ; and hence his efforts to construct a lunar theory are of more
interest as illustrations of his wonderful power and correctness in
mathematical reasoning than as germs of new methods of research.
The analytic method sought to express the moon's motion by integ-
rating the differential equations of the dynamical theory. The
methods may be divided into three classes:
1. Laplace and his immediate successors, especially G. A A.
Plana (1781-1864), effected the integration by expressing the time
in terms of the moon's true longitude. Then, by inverting the
series, the longitude was expressed in terms of the time.
2. By the second general method the moon's co-ordinates are
obtained in terms of the time by the direct integration of the
differential equations of motion, retaining as algebraic symbols the
values of the various elements. Most of the elements are small
numerical fractions: e, the eccentricity of the moon's orbit, about
0-055; '. the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, about 0-017: y, the
sine of half the inclination of the moon's orbit, about 0-046; m, the
ratio of the mean motions of the moon and earth, about 0-075.
The expressions for the longitude, latitude and parallax appear as
an infinite trigonometric series, in which the coefficients of the sines
and cosines are themselves infinite series proceeding according to
the powers of the above small numbers. This method was applied
with success by Pontecoulant and Sir John W. Lubbock, and after-
wards by Delaunay. By these methods the series converge so
slowly, and the final expressions for the moon's longitude are so
ong and complicated, that the series has never been carried far
enough to ensure the accuracy of all the terms. This is especially
he case with the development in powers of m, the convergence of
which has often been questioned.
3. The third method seeks to avoid the difficulty by_ using the
numerical values of the elements instead of their algebraic symbols.
This method has the advantage of leading to a more rapid and certain
8o6
MOON
determination of the numerical quantities required. It has the
disadvantage of giving the solution of the problem only for a
particular case, and of oeing inapplicable in researches in which the
general equations of dynamics have to be applied. It has been
employed by Damoiseau, Hansen and Airy.
The methods of the second general class are those most worthy
of study. Among these we must assign the first rank to the method
of C. E. Delaunay, developed in his Theorie du mouvement de la
lune (2 vols., 1860, 1867), because it contains a germ which may
yet develop into the great desideratum of a general method in
celestial mechanics.
Among applications of the third or numerical method, the most
successful yet completed is that of P. A. Hansen. His first work,
Fundamenta nova, appeared in 1838, and contained an exposition
of his ingenious and peculiar methods of computation. During
the twenty years following he devoted a large part of his energies
to the numerical computation of the lunar inequalities, the redeter-
mination of the elements of motion, and the preparation of new
tables for computing the moon's position. In the latter branch of
the work he received material aid from the British government,
which published his tables on their completion in 1857. The com-
putations of Hansen were published some seven years later by the
Royal Saxon Society of Sciences.
It was found on comparing the results of Hansen and Delaunay
that there are some outstanding discrepancies which are of sufficient
magnitude to demand the attention of those interested in the mathe-
matical theory of the subject. It was therefore necessary that the
numerical inequalities should be again determined by an entirely
different method.
This has been done by Ernest W. Brown, whose work may be
regarded not only as the last word on the subject, but as embody-
ing a seemingly complete and satisfactory solution of a problem
which has absorbed an important part of the energies of mathe-
matical astronomers since the time of Hipparchus. We shall try
to convey an idea of this solution. We have just mentioned the
four small quantities e, e' , y and m, in terms of the powers and pro-
ducts of which the moon's co-ordinates have to be expressed. Euler
conceived the idea of starting with a preliminary solution of the
problem in which the orbit of the moon should be supposed to lie
in the ecliptic, and to have no eccentricity, while that of the sun
was circular. This solution being reached, the additional terms
were found, which were multiplied by the first power of the several
eccentricities and of the inclination. Then the terms of the second
order were found, and so on to any extent. In a series of remark-
able papers published! in 1877-1888 Hill improved Euler's method,
and worked it out with much more rigour and fullness than Euler
had been able to do. His most important contribution to the
subject consisted in working out by extremely elegant mathe-
matical processes the method of determining the motion of the
perigee. John Couch Adams afterwards determined the motion
of the node in a similar way. The numerical computations were
worked out by Hill only for the first approximation. The subject
was then taken up by Brown, who in a series of researches pub-
lished in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society and in
the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society extended
Hill's method so as to form a practically complete solution of the
entire problem. The principal feature of his work was that the
quantity m, which is regarded as constant, appears only in a
numerical form, so that the uncertainties arising from development
in a series accruing to its powers is done away with.
The solution of the main mathematical problem thus reached is
that of the motion of three bodies only the sun, earth and moon.
The mean motion of the moon round the earth is then invariable,
the longitude containing no inequalities of longer period than that
of the moon's node, 18-6 y. But Edmund Halley found, by a
comparison of ancient eclipses with modern observations, that the
mean motion had been accelerated. This was confirmed by Richard
Dunthorne (1711-1775). Corresponding to this observed fact was
the inference that the action of the planets might in some way
influence the moon's motion. Thus a new branch of the lunar
theory was suggested the determination by theory of the effect of
planetary action.
The first step in constructing this theory was taken by Laplace,
who showed that the secular acceleration was produced by the
secular diminution of the earth's orbit. He computed the amount
as about 10" per century, which agreed with the results derived
by Dunthorne from ancient eclipses. Laplace's immediate suc-
cessors, among whom were Hansen, Plana and Pontecoulant,
found a larger value, Hansen increasing it to 12-5", which he intro-
duced into his tables. This value was found by himself and Airy
to represent fairly well several ancient eclipses of the sun, notably
the supposed one of Thales. But Adams in 1853' showed that the
previous computations of the acceleration were only a rude first
approximation, and that a more rigorous computation reduced the
result to about one-half. This diminution was soon fully con-
firmed by others, especially Delaunay, although for some time
Pontecoulant stoutly maintained the correctness of the older
result. But the demonstration of Adam's result was soon made
1 Philosophical Transactions, 1853.
conclusive, and a value which may be regarded as definitive has
been derived by Brown. With the latest accepted diminution of
the eccentricity, the coefficient is 5-91*.
The question now arose of the origin of the discrepancy between
the smaller values by theory, and the supposed values of 12" derived
from ancient eclipses. In 1856 William Ferrel showed that the action
of the moon on the ocean tidal waves would result in a retardation
of the earth's rotation, a result, at first unnoticed, which was inde-
pendently reached a few years 'later by Delaunay. The amount of
retardation does not admit of accurate computation, owing to the
uncertainty both as to the amount of the oceanic friction from which
it arises and of the exact height and form of the tidal wave, the
action of the moon on which produces the effect. But any rough
estimate that can be made shows that it might well be supposed
much larger than is necessary to produce the observed differences
of 6* per century. It was therefore surprising when, in 1877,
Simon Newcomb found, by a study of the lunar eclipses handed
down by Ptolemy and those observed by the Arabians data
much more reliable than the vague accounts of ancient solar eclipses
that the actual apparent acceleration was only about 8-3*. This
is only 2-4" larger than the theoretical value, and it seems difficult
to suppose that the effect of the tidal retardation can be as small as
this. This suggests that the retardation may be in great part
compensated by some accelerating cause, the existence of which is
not yet well established. The following is a summary of the
present state of the question:
The theoretical value of the acceleration, assuming
the day to be constant, is 5'9l r
Hansen's value in his Tables de la lune is . . . . 12-19
Hansen's revised, but still theoretically erroneous,
result is 12-56
The value which best represents the supposed eclipses
(l) of Thales, (2) at Larissa, (3) at Stikkelstad
is about 11-7
The result from purely astronomical observation is 8-3
Inequalities of Long Period. Combined with the question of
secular acceleration is another which is still not entirely settled
that of inequalities of long period in the mean motion of the moon
round the earth. Laplace first showed that modern observations
of the moon indicated that its mean motion was really less during
the second half of the l8th century than during the first half, and
hence inferred the existence of an inequality having a period of
more than a century.
The existence of one or more such inequalities has been fully
confirmed by all the observations, both early and recent, that
have become available since the time of Laplace. It is also found
by computation from theory that the planets do produce several
appreciable inequalities of long period, as well as a great number of
short period, in the motion of the moon. But the former do
not correspond to the observed inequalities, and the explanation
of the outstanding differences may be regarded to-day as the most
perplexing enigma in astronomy. The most plausible explana-
tion is that, like the discrepancy in the secular acceleration, the ob-
served deviation is only apparent, and arises from slow fluctuations
in the. earth's rotation, and therefore in our measure of time pro-
duced by the motion of great masses of polar ice and the variability
of the amount of snowfall on the great continents. Were this the
case a similar inequality should be found in the observed times of
the transits of Mercury. But the latter do not certainly show any
deviation in the measure of time, and seem to preclude a deviation
so large as that derived from observations of the moon. This
suggests that inequalities in the action of the planets may have
been still overlooked, the subject being the most intricate with
which celestial mechanics has to deal. But this action has been
recently worked up with such completeness of detail by Radau,
Newcomb and Brown, that the possibility of any unknown term
seems out of the question. The enigma therefore still defies
solution.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Works on selenography: ' Hevelius, Seleno-
graphia sive lunae descriptio (Danzig, 1647); Riccioli, Almageslum
novum (Bologna, 1651); J. H. Schroeter, Selenotopographische
Fragmente zur genauern Kenntniss der Mondflache (Lilienthal,
1791); W. Beer and J. H. Madler, Der Mond nach seinen kosmischen
und individuellen Verhdltnissen, oder Allgemeine vergleichende Seleno-
graphie (Berlin, 1837); Richard A. Proctor, The Moon (London,
1873; the first edition contains excellent geometrical demonstra-
tions of the inequalities produced by the sun in the moon's motion,
which were partly omitted in the second edition); J. Nasmyth and
J. Carpenter, The Moon, Considered as a Planet, a World and a
Satellite (London, 1903; fine illustrations); E. Nelson (now Neville),
The Moon and the Conditions and Configurations of its Surface
(London, 1876); M. Loewy and P. Puiseux, Atlas photographique de
la lune (Imprimerie Royale, Paris, 1896-1908); W. H. Pickering, The
Moon, from photographs (New York, 1904) ; G. P. Serviss, The Moon
(London, 1908), a popular account illustrated by fine photographs.
On the subject of lunar geology, see N. S. Shaler in Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xxxiv. No. 1438, and P. Puiseux,
" Recherches sur 1'origine probable des formations lunaires," in
Annales de I'obsenatoire de Paris, Memoires, tome xxii.
MOONSEED MOORE, A. J.
807
The following are among the works relating to the motion of the
moon, which are of historic importance or present interest to the
student: Clairaut, Theorie de la lune (2nd ed., Paris, 1765); L.
Euler, Theoria motuum lunae nova methodo pertractata (Petropolis,
I77 2 ) ! G. Plana, Theorie du mouvement de la lune (3 vols., Turin, 1832) ;
P. A. Hansen, Fundamenla nova investigationis orbitae verae quam
luna perlustrat (Gotha, 1838) ; Darlegung der theoretischen Berechnung
der in den Mondtafeln angewandten Storungen (Leipzig, 1862);
C. Delaunay, Theorie du mouvement de la lune (2 vols., Paris, 1860-
1867); F. F. Tisserand, Traite de mecanique celeste, tome iii.,
Expose de Vensemble des theories relatives au mouvement de la lune
(Paris, 1894); E - W - Brown, " Theory of the Motion of the Moon,"
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, various vols.; also
Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, vols. iv. and vi. ;
E. W. Brown, Introductory Treatise on the Lunar Theory (Cam-
bridge University Press, 1896); Hansen, Tables de la lune (London,
1857) (Admiralty publication); W. Ferrel, "On the Effect of the
Sun and Moon on the Rotary Motion of the Earth," Astron. Jour.,
vol. iii. (1854); S. Newcomb, " Researches on the Motion of the
Moon " (Appendix to Washington Observations for 1875, discussion
of the moon's mean motion); S. Newcomb, "Transformation of
Hansen's Lunar Theory," Ast. Papers of the Amer. Ephemeris,
vol. i.; R. Radau, " Inegalites planetaires du mouvement de la lune "
(Annales, Paris Observatory, vol. xxi.); S. Newcomb, "Action of
the Planets on the Moon, Ast. Papers of the Amer. Ephemeris,
vol. v., pt. 3 (1896). Also, Publication 72 of the Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington (1907); E. W. Brown, Inequalities in the Moon's
Motion produced by the Action of the Planets (the Adams prize essay
for 1907). (S. N.)
MOONSEED, in botany, a common name for Menispermum, a
genus of climbing deciduous shrubs, containing one species in
North America and another in Eastern Asia. The former,
M. canadense, is a handsome plant, suited to damp and shady
walls, with large reniform peltate leaves and yellowish flowers
borne in profusion on long pendulous racemes.
MOONSTONE, a variety of felspar, showing in certain direc-
tions a bluish opalescence, whence its value as an ornamental
stone. When cut with a convex surface it displays a soft milky
reflection, forming a luminous band, but not sharply defined
as in cat's-eye. The ordinary moonstone is a translucent
variety of orthoclase known as adularia (see ORTHOCLASE),
whence the peculiar sheen has been
called " adularescence." The effect is
probably caused by interference from
twin lamellae, or by numerous enclo-
sures of microscopic laminae, definitely
orientated, and it has been suggested
that these may often be flakes of
kaolin due to incipient decomposi-
tion of the felspar. Practically all the
moonstone of commerce comes from
Ceylon, principally from the Dumbara
district of the Central Province. It
occurs as pebbles and irregular masses
in the gem-gravels and clay-deposits,
and is also obtained by quarrying an
adularia leptynite, as described by Dr.
A. K. Coomaraswamy. Very similar
in some respects to moonstone is the
chatoyant soda-felspar which was
called by T. Sterry Hunt peristerite,
from Gr. Trepiorepd, a dove, in allusion
to the resemblance of its lustre to that
of the bird's neck. The original peri-
sterite was from Bathurst, near Perth,
Lanark county, Ontario, but it occurs
also at Macomb, St Lawrence county,
New York.
MOONWORT, or MOON-FERN, in
botany, the popular name of a small
fern (Botrychium Lunaria}, belonging
to the order Ophioglossaceae (see
FERNS). It has a tuberous root-stock
and a stout fleshy glabrous frond 3 to
6 in. long, with a sterile and fertile
portion; the former bears several pairs
of close-set, semi-circular or moon-shaped pinnae, the latter
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch
der Rotanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.
Botrychium Lunaria
(J nat. size).
is pinnately branched and covered, on the face opposed to
the sterile portion, with small globose spore-cases which burst
transversely. It is a widely distributed plant in the north and
south temperate and cold zones, and is found in pastures and
grassy banks in Britain.
MOOR, (i) A heath, an unenclosed stretch of waste or
uncultivated land, covered with heather; also such a heath
preserved for game-shooting, particularly for the shooting of
grouse. The O. Eng. mdr, bog, moor, is represented in other
Teutonic languages; cf. Dan. mor, Ger. Moor, O. Du. moer, &c.;
from an O. Du. adjectival form moerasch comes Eng. morass, a
bog. Probably mere, marsh, are not to be connected with these
words. (2) The verb " to moor," to fasten a ship or boat to
the shore, to another vessel, or to an anchor or buoy, by cables,
&c., is probably from the root seen in mod. Du. meren, which
also gives the English nautical term " marline," small strands of
rope used for lashings or seizings, and " marline-spike," a small
iron tool for separating the strands of rope, &c.
MOORCROFT, WILLIAM (c. 1770-1825), English traveller,
was born in Lancashire, about 1770. He was educated as a
surgeon in Liverpool; but on completing his course he resolved
to devote himself to veterinary surgery, and, after studying the
subject in France, began practice in London. In 1795 he
published a pamphlet of directions for the medical treatment
of horses, with special reference to India, and in 1800 a Cursory
Account of the Methods of Shoeing Horses. Having been offered
by the East India Company the inspectorship of their Bengal
stud, Moorcroft left England for India in 1808. Under his
care the stud rapidly improved; in order to perfect the breed
he resolved to undertake a journey into Central Asia to obtain
a stock of Turkoman horses. In company with Captain William
Hearsey, and encumbered with a stock of merchandise for the
purpose of establishing trade relations between India and
Central Asia, Moorcroft left Josimath, well within the mountains,
on the 26th of May 1812. Proceeding along the valley of the
Dauli, they reached the summit of the frontier pass of Nili
on the ist of July. Descending by the towns of Darba and
Gartok, Moorcroft struck the main upper branch of the Indus
near its source, and on the 5th of August arrived at the sacred
lake of Manasarowar. Returning by Bhutan, he was detained
some time by the Ghurkas, and reached Calcutta in November.
This journey only served to whet Moorcroft's appetite for more
extensive travel, for which he prepared the way by sending out
a young Hindu, who succeeded in making extensive explora-
tions. In company with him and George Trebeck, Moorcroft
set out on his second journey in October 1819. On the i4th of
August the source of the Beas (Hyphasis) was discovered, and
subsequently that of the Chenab. Leh, the capital of Ladakh,
was reached on the 24th of September, and here several months
were spent in exploring the surrounding country. A com-
mercial treaty was concluded with the government of Ladakh,
by which the whole of Central Asia was virtually opened to
British trade. Kashmir was reached on the 3rd of November
1822, Jalalabad on the 4th of June 1824, Kabul on the aoth of
June, and Bokhara on the 25th of February 1825. At Andkhui,
in Afghan Turkestan, Moorcroft was seized with fever, of which
he died on the 27th of August 1825, Trebeck surviving him
only a few days. But according to the Abbe Hue, Moorcroft
reached Lhasa in 1826, and lived there twelve years, being
assassinated en his way back to India in 1838. In 1841 Moor-
croft's papers were obtained by the Asiatic Society, and pub-
lished, under the editorship of H, H. Wilson, under the title of
Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Punjab,
in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz and
Bokhara, from 1819 to 1825.
See Graham Sandberg, The Exploration of Tibet (1904).
MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841-1893), English decorative
painter, was born at York on the 4th of September 1841. He was
the youngest of the fourteen children of the artist, William Moore,
of York who in the first half of the igth century enjoyed a
considerable reputation in the North of England as a painter of
portraits and landscape. In his childhood Albert Moore showed
8o8
MOORE, E. MOORE, H.
an extraordinary love of art, and as he was encouraged in
his tastes by his father and brothers, two of whom after-
wards became famous as artists John Collingham Moore, and
Henry Moore, R.A. he was able to begin the active exercise of
his profession at an unusually early age. His first exhibited
works were two drawings which he sent to the Royal Academy in
1857. A year later he became a student in the Royal Academy
schools; but after working in them for a few months only
he decided that he would be more profitably occupied in inde-
pendent practice. During the period that extended from 1858
to 1870, though he produced and exhibited many pictures and
drawings, he gave up much of his time to decorative work of
various kinds, and painted, in 1863, a series of wall decorations
at Coombe Abbey, the seat of the earl of Craven; in 1865
and 1866 some elaborate compositions: " The Last Supper " and
" The Feeding of the Five Thousand " on the chancel walls of
the church of St Alban's, Rochdale; and in 1868 " A Greek
Play," an important panel in tempera for the proscenium of
the Queen's Theatre in Long Acre. His first large canvas,
" Elijah's Sacrifice," was completed during a stay of some five
months in Rome at the beginning of 1863, and appeared at the
Academy in 1865. A still larger picture, " The Shunamite
relating the Glories of King Solomon to her Maidens," was
exhibited in 1866, and with it two smaller works, " Apricots "
and " Pomegranates." In these Albert Moore asserted plainly
the particular technical conviction which for the rest of his
life governed the whole of his practice, and with them he first
took his place definitely among the most original of British
painters. Of his subsequent works the most notable are " The
Quartette " (1869), " Sea Gulls " (1871), " Follow-my-Leader "
(1873), " Shells " (1874), " Topaz " (1879), " Rose Leaves "
(1880), " Yellow Marguerites " (1881), " Blossoms " (1881),
"Dreamers" (1882), "Reading Aloud" (1884), "Silver"
(1886), "Midsummer" (1887), "A River Side" (1888), "A
Summer Night " (1890), " Lightning and Light " (1892), " An
Idyll " (1893), and " The Loves of the Winds and the Seasons,"
a large picture which was finished only a few days before his
death. He died on the 25th of September 1893, at his studio
in Spenser Street, Westminster. Several of his pictures are
now in public collections; among the chief are " Blossoms,"
in the National Gallery of British Art; " A Summer Night "
in the Liverpool Corporation Gallery; " Dreamers " in the
Birmingham Corporation Gallery; and a water-colour, " The
Open Book," in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Ken-
sington. In all his pictures, save two or three produced in his
later boyhood, he avoided any approach to story-telling, and
occupied himself exclusively with decorative arrangements of
lines and colour masses. The spirit of his art is essentially
classic, and his work shows plainly that he was deeply influenced
by study of antique sculpture; but he was not in any sense an
archaeological painter, nor did he attempt reconstructions of the
life of past centuries. Artistically he lived in a world of his
own creation, a place peopled with robust types of humanity of
Greek mould, and gay with bright-coloured draperies and
brilliant-hued flowers. As an executant he was careful and
certain; he drew finely, and his colour-sense was remarkable for
its refinement and subtle appreciation. Few men have equalled
him as a painter of draperies, and still fewer have approached
his ability in the application of decorative principles to pic-
torial art.
MOORE, EDWARD (1712-1757), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, the son of a dissenting minister, was
born at Abingdon, Berkshire, on the 2 2nd of March 1712. He
was the author of the domestic tragedy of The Gamester, originally
produced in 1753 with Garrick in the leading character of
Beverley the gambler. As a poet he produced clever imitations
of Gay and Gray, and with the assistance of George, ist Lord
Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield and Horace Walpole, conducted
The World (1753-1757), a weekly periodical on the model of the
Rambler. Moore collected his poems under the title of Poems,
Fables and Plays in 1756. He died in Lambeth on the ist of
March 1757. His Dramatic Works were published in 1788.
MOORE, GEORGE (1853- ), Irish novelist and poet, was
born in Ireland, son of George Henry Moore, M.P., a well-
known orator and politician. He studied art in London and
finished his education in Paris. He was a regular contributor
to various London magazines when he published his first volume,
in verse, The Flowers of Passion (1877). A second, Pagan
Poems, appeared in 1881. As a novelist he followed the
French school of Flaubert and Zola, and became prominent for
deliberate realism. His powerful Mummer's Wife (1885) had
decidedly repulsive elements. But Zolaism meanwhile was a
thing to which the reading public was gradually becoming
acclimatized. George Moore's Esther Waters (1894), a strong
story with an anti-gambling motive, had a more general success,
and was followed by Evelyn Innes (1898), a novel of musical
life, and its sequel, Sister Teresa (1901). He interested himself
in the Irish Gaelic revival, and was one of the founders of the
Irish Literary Theatre. His play, The Strike at Arlingford
(three acts, in prose, 1893), was written for the Independent
Theatre, and his satirical comedy, The Bending of the Bough
(1900), dealing with Irish local affairs, was played by the Irish
Literary Theatre in Dublin. His Diarmuid and Crania, written
with Mr. W. B. Yeats, was produced by Mr. F. R. Benson's
company at the same theatre in 1901. The Unfilled Field
(1903) and The Lake (1905) are romantic pictures of Irish life.
Moore had originally come to the front in London about 1888
as an art critic, and his published work in that line includes
Impressions and Opinions (1891) and Modern Painting (1893,
2nd ed., 1897). Among his other books are A Drama in Muslin,
(1886), A Mere Accident (1887), Parnell and His Island (1887),
Mike Fletcher (1887), Spring Days (1888), Vain Fortune (1890),
Celibates (1895), Confessions of a Young Man (1888), and Memoirs
of My Dead Life (1906).
MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851- ), American Biblical
scholar, was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, on the isth of
October 1851, the son of William Eves Moore (1823-1899), a
prominent Presbyterian minister, long the permanent clerk of
the Presbyterian General Assembly. The son graduated at
Yale in 1872 and at Union Theological Seminary in 1877, was
ordained in 1878, and from 1878 to 1883 was pastor of the
Putnam Presbyterian Church, Zanesville, Ohio. He was
Hitchcock professor of the Hebrew language and literature in
Andover Theological Seminary in 1883-1902, and was president
of its faculty in 1899-1901; in 1902 he became professor of
theology and in 1904 professor of the history of religion at
Harvard University. His chief critical work dealt with the
Hexateuch, and more particularly the Book of Judges (Com-
mentary, 1895; text, translation and notes, 1898; text with
critical notes, 1900).
MOORE, HENRY (1831-1895), English painter, the ninth son
of William Moore, of York, and brother of Albert Joseph Moore,
was born in that city on the 7th of March 1831. His artistic
education was chiefly supervised by his father, but he also
attended the York School of Design, and worked for a short
time in the Royal Academy Schools. He first exhibited at the
Academy in 1853, and was a constant contributor to its exhibi-
tions till his death. At the outset of his career he occupied
himself mostly with landscapes and paintings of animals,
executed with extraordinary detail in imitation of the prevailing
taste of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood; but in 1857, while on
a visit to the West of England, he made his first attempts as a
sea-painter. His success was immediate, and it had the effect
of diverting him almost entirely from landscapes. Among
his most important canvases must be reckoned " The Pilot
Cutter" in 1866, "The Salmon Poachers" in 1869, "The
Lifeboat " in 1876, " Highland Pastures " in 1878, " The
Beached Margent of the Sea " in 1880, " The Newhaven Packet "
(bought by the Birmingham Corporation), and " Catspaws off
the Land " (bought by the Chantrey Fund trustees); in 1885,
" Mount's Bay " (bought by the Manchester Corporation) in
1886, " Nearing the Needles " in 1888, " Machrihanish Bay,
Cantyre," in 1892, " Hove-to for a Pilot " in 1893, and " Glen
Orchy," a landscape, in 1895. He was elected an associate
MOORE, J. MOORE, SIR JOHN
809
of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1876, and
a full member in 1880; an associate of the Royal Academy in
1885, and an academician in 1893; and at Paris, in 1887, where
he exhibited " The Newhaven Packet " and " The Clearness
after Rain," he received a grand prix and was made a knight
of the Legion of Honour. He died at Margate on the 22nd of
June 1895. His works are marked by admirable appreciation
of nature, and by a rare understanding of wave-form and colour
and of the subtleties of atmospheric effect; and as a sea-painter
he may fairly be regarded as almost without a rival.
MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802), Scottish physician and writer,
was born at Stirling in 1729, the son of a clergyman. After
taking his medical degree at Glasgow, he served with the army
in Flanders, then proceeded to London to continue his studies,
and eventually to Paris, where he was attached to the household
of the British ambassador. His novel Zeluco (1789), a close
analysis of the motives of a selfish profligate, produced a great
impression at the time, and indirectly, through the poetry of
Byron, has left an abiding mark on literature. Byron said
that he intended Childe Harold to be " a poetical Zeluco," and
the most striking features of the portrait were undoubtedly
taken from that character. Moore's other works have a less
marked individuality, but his sketches of society and manners
in France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and England furnish
valuable materials for the social historian. In 1792 he accom-
panied Lord Lauderdale to Paris, and witnessed some of the
principal scenes of the Revolution. His Journal during a Resi-
dence in France (1793) is the careful record of an eye-witness,
and is frequently referred to by Carlyle. He died in London
on the 2ist of January 1802, leaving five sons, the eldest of
whom was General Sir John Moore. James Moore (1763-1834),
who wrote Sir John's Life, was also the author of some important
medical works, and Sir Graham Moore (1764-1843), saw much
active naval service and became an admiral.
MOORE. SIR JOHN (1761-1809), British general, the son
of John Moore, was born at Glasgow on the i3th of November
1761. From his early years he intended to become a soldier,
learned the Prussian firing exercise, and was " always operating
in the field and showing how Geneva could be taken." By the
duke of Hamilton's influence he obtained an ensigncy in the sist
foot (1776), learned his drill at Minorca, and in 1778 was ap-
pointed captain-lieutenant in a new regiment raised by Hamilton
for service in the American War. Moore remained in America
to the peace of 1783, after which the Hamilton regiment was
disbanded. In 1784 he was returned by the Hamilton interest
as member of parliament for the united boroughs of Lanark,
Selkirk, Peebles and Linlithgow. In parliament, though he
never spoke, he seems to have taken his duties very seriously,
and to have preserved an independent position, in which he won
the friendship of Pitt and the respect of Burke, and (more
important still) the friendship of the duke of York. In 1787
he became major in the 6oth (now King's Royal Rifles), but
in the following year he was transferred to his old corps, the
Sist. In 1792 Moore sailed with his corps to the Mediterranean.
He was too late to assist at Toulon, but was engaged throughout
the operations in Corsica, and won particular distinction at
the taking of Calvi, where he was wounded. Soon after this
he became adjutant-general to Sir Charles Stuart, with whom
he formed a close friendship. After the expulsion of the French
Moore became very intimate with many of the leading Corsican
patriots, which intimacy was so obnoxious to Sir Gilbert Elliot
(later Lord Minto) that Moore was eventually ordered to leave
the island in forty-eight hours, though Elliot wrote in warm
terms of his ability. Pitt and the duke of York thought still
more highly of Colonel Moore, who was soon sent out to the
West Indies in the local rank of. brigadier-general. Here he
came under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, whose
most valued adviser and subordinate Moore soon became.
In the Santa Lucia expedition he won further distinction by
his conduct at the capture of the Vigie and Morne Fortune,
and when Sir Ralph left the island he appointed Moore governor
and military commander. In 1 798 he accompanied Abercromby
to Ireland as a major-general, and during the rebellion was
actively engaged in command of a corps in the south, defeating
a large force of the Irish, and saving Wexford from destruction
after the battle of Vinegar Hill (June 21). His services were in
universal request, and Abercromby had him appointed to the
command of a brigade destined for the expedition to Holland.
At the action of Egmont-op-Zee, on the 2nd of October 1799,
his brigade lost very heavily, and he himself was wounded for
the fourth time, on this occasion severely. On his return from
Holland he was made colonel of the 52nd regiment, with which
he was connected for the rest of his career, and which under his
supervision became one of the finest regiments in Europe.
Throughout the Egyptian expedition he commanded the
reserve. The 28th and 42nd regiments in this corps gained
great distinction at the battle of Alexandria, where Moore
himself was again wounded. He returned to duty, however,
before the surrender of the French forces to General Hutchinson,
and added so much to his reputation by his conduct in this
brilliant campaign that after the short peace came to an end he
was appointed to command the force assembled at Shornch'ffe
camp (1803) as a part of the army intended to meet the projected
invasion of Napoleon. Here were trained some of the best
regiments of the service, amongst others the 43rd, 52nd and
95th Rifles, the regiments which afterwards formed the famous
" Light Division " and won in the Peninsula an unsurpassed
reputation, not only for the skilful performance of the duties
of light troops, but also for invincible steadiness in the line of
battle. These corps (now represented in the army by the ist
and 2nd battalions of the Oxfordshire Light Infantry and the
Rifle Brigade) bore the impress of Moore's training for thirty
years and more, and as early as 1804, on account of the " superior
state " of the 52nd, the king granted the officers exceptional
promotion (August 29, 1804). The system of light infantry
tactics taught at Shorncliffe was not invented by Moore; but
he had always advocated the creation of these troops, and he
supervised the training which produced such great results.
While at Shorncliffe he renewed his intimacy with Pitt, who
was then residing at Walmer Castle, and his close friendship
with Lady Hester Stanhope led to the erroneous belief that
he was betrothed to her. On his return to office Pitt caused
Moore to be made a Knight of the Bath, and about the same
time came his promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general.
Fox, when he succeeded to office, showed the same appreciation
of Moore, and in 1806 sent him to the Mediterranean as second-
in-command to his brother, General H. E. Fox. In the various
minor expeditions of the time Moore had a share, at first as a
subordinate, but soon, when Fox went home on account of ill-
health, as commander-in-chief of the British army employed
in the Mediterranean. About this time he formed an attachment
for Caroline Fox (afterwards the wife of Sir William Napier),
to whom, however, he did not offer marriage, fearing to " influence
her," by his high position and intimacy with her father, " to an
irretrievable error for her own future contentment " (Life of
Sir C. Napier, i. 39). In 1808 Moore was ordered to the Baltic,
to assist Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, against Russia, France
and Denmark. The conduct of the king, who went so far as to
place Sir John Moore under arrest when he refused to acquiesce
in his plans, ruined any chance of successful co-operation, and
the English general returned home, making his escape in disguise.
He was at once ordered to proceed with his division to Portugal,
where he was to be under the command of Sir Hew Dalrymple
and Sir Harry Burrard. To Moore, as a general of European
reputation, who had held a chief command, the appointment of
two senior officers to be over him appeared as a bitter insult,
though his resentment did not divert him from his duty. He
met his reward, for when, in the excitement caused by the con-
vention of Cintra, Dalrymple and Burrard were ordered home,
Moore was left in command of the largest British army that
had been employed since the commencement of the war.
Wellesley, who returned home with the other generals, showed
his appreciation of Moore, and in an interesting letter (Wellington
Despatches, Oct. 8, 1808) expressed his desire to use his own
8io
MOORE, THOMAS
great political influence to effect a reconciliation between Moore
and the ministers.
It was not long before the Spaniards summoned Sir John
Moore's army to assist them against the advance of Napoleon,
and the troops were marched into Spain, Salamanca being
their rendezvous. There Moore remained for a month, calling
up Sir David Baird's corps from Corunna to assist him. Soon,
however, the overwhelming success of the emperor's attack
threatened to isolate Moore, and it was then that he formed
the magnificent resolution of marching northwards against the
French line of retreat. The bold and skilful operations which
followed this step will be found outlined in the article PENINSULAR
WAR. Moore's advance paralysed the Emperor's victorious
armies. Napoleon himself turned against the British army,
which was soon in grave danger, but Spain was saved. Under
these circumstances took place the famous retreat on Corunna.
The indiscipline of a large proportion of the troops made it painful
and almost disastrous, but the reserve under Edward Paget,
in which served Moore's old Shorncliffe regiments, covered itself
with glory in the ceaseless rearguard fighting which marked
every step of the retreat. The march ended with the glorious
battle of Corunna (Jan. 16, 1809), where, early in the day, Sir
John Moore received his death wound. He would not suffer his
sword to be unbuckled, though the hilt galled his wound, and
so he was borne from the field. His last hours were cheered by
the knowledge of victory, and his only care was to recommend
his friends, and those who had distinguished themselves, to
the notice of the government. He died with the name of Lady
Hester Stanhope on his lips. By his own wish he was buried,
before dawn on the i7th, in the ramparts of Corunna. Marshal
Soult designed that a monument should be erected, with an
inscription framed by himself, and the Spanish general La
Romana afterwards carried out Soult's wishes. The temporary
monument thus erected was made permanent in 1811 by Sir
Howard Douglas, acting for the prince regent. The duke of
York issued to the army on the ist of February a noble order
in which reference was made to the services of the general, and,
above all, to the fact that " the life of Sir John Moore was spent
among the troops." A memorial was erected in St Paul's
Cathedral by order of parliament early in 1809, and his native
city of Glasgow erected in George Square a bronze statue by
Flaxman. The poem by the Rev. Charles Wolfe, " The Burial
of Sir John Moore," became one of the most popular in the
language. The best-known portrait of Sir John Moore is that
by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A.
For many years controversy, largely political, raged over
the events of the Corunna campaign, and only at a later period
has any examination of Sir John Moore's merits and services
been made in a dispassionate spirit. Mistakes were doubtless
made in the retreat, but it is sufficient to accept Napoleon's
view that they were probably inseparable from the difficulties
with which Moore was surrounded. His greatest claim to
renown is, however, independent of his conduct of armies in
the field. He was the finest trainer of men that the British
army has ever known. He had the true gift of the great man,
judgment of character. While Wellington, whose work would
have been vain but for Moore's achievements, perpetually
complained of his officers and formed no school, Moore's name is
associated with the career of all who made their mark. The
history of the Light Division is sufficient in itself to indicate
the results of Moore's training on the rank and file. In opposi-
tion to the majority, who regarded the lash and the gallows as
the source of discipline, he sought always and by every means
to develop the moral qualities no less than the physical. Of
the senior officers Hope, Graham, Edward Paget, Hill and
Craufurd all felt and submitted to his ascendancy. The flower
of the younger generation, Colborne, Hardinge and the Napiers,
even though they gained their laurels under Wellington and in
chief command, were ever proud to call themselves " Sir John
Moore's men."
See, besides the works mentioned in the article PENINSULAR
WAR, J. C. Moore, Life of Sir John Moore (1833) ; Sir J. F. Maurice,
Sir John Moore's Journal (1904); and the Records of the ,52nd
(Oxfordshire Light Infantry). A shorter memoir will be found in
Twelve British Soldiers (London, 1899).
MOORE, THOMAS (1770-1852), Irish poet, was born in
Dublin on the 28th of May 1779. His father was John Moore, a
prosperous grocer and wine merchant, and his mother's maiden
name was Anastasia Codd. In 1793 Tom Moore's name first
appeared in print, as a contributor of some verses " To Zelia,"
to a Dublin periodical, the Anthologia Hibernica. In the same
year Roman Catholic students began to be admitted to Trinity
College, Dublin, and in 1794 Moore's name was entered on the
books, curiously enough, as a Protestant. At Trinity he made
friends with Robert Emmet, and was nearly dragged into the
plots of the United Irishmen. The events of 1798 and the
execution of Emmet in 1803 made a deep impression on him.
The words of Emmet's address to his judges, asking the charity
of silence " Let no man write my epitaph " are enshrined by
Moore in one of his lyrics, "Oh, breathe not his name!" (Irish
Melodies, 1808). The next song in the same collection " When
he who adores thee " also owes its inspiration to Emmet's
fate, and the conscientious Orientalism of Lalla Rookh does
not conceal the pre-occupation of the writer with the United
Irishmen when he writes of " The Fire Worshippers," and with
Emmet and Sarah Curran when he describes the loves of Hafed
and Hinda, especially in the well-known song, " She is far from
the Land where her young Hero sleeps." In 1798 Moore
graduated, and in the next year left for England to keep his
terms at the Middle Temple.
He rapidly became a social success in London. Joseph
Atkinson, secretary in Ireland to the ordnance board, had been
attracted to Moore in Dublin at first by his gifts as a singer.
He now gave him an introduction to Francis Rawdon-Hastings,
2nd earl of Moira, who invited him to his country seat at Doning-
ton Park, Leicestershire. Here Moore became a ffequent guest.
He had brought with him from Ireland a translation of the
Odes of Anacreon, and the prince of Wales consented to have
the volume dedicated to him. It was issued in 1800 with notes
and a list of distinguished subscribers. His social successes
involved him in expenses far beyond his means. His publisher
had advanced him money, and he resolved to pay his debt by
the anonymous publication of his juvenile poems, The Poetical
Works of the Late Thomas Little, Esq. (1801), a collection of
love poems which Moore afterwards regretted. Through Lord
Moira's influence he was, in 1803, appointed registrar of the
admiralty prize-court at Bermuda. He went there to take
possession of the post, but soon tired of the monotonous life,
and in 1804, after appointing a deputy, returned to England
by way of the United States and Canada. In 1806 he published
Epistles, Odes and other Poems, chiefly dealing with his im-
pressions of travel. The volume contained the " Canadian
Boat Song " (" Faintly as tolls the evening chime "), and
some love poems of the same kind as those connected with the
name of " Mr Little." Jeffrey made an unjustifiable onslaught
on this collection in the Edinburgh Review for July 1806. Moore
was in his view " the most licentious of modern versifiers, and
the most poetical of those who, in our time, have devoted their
talents to the propagation of immorality," and the book was
a " public nuisance." Moore challenged Jeffrey, and a duel
was arranged at Chalk Farm. The police interrupted the
proceedings. Jeffrey's pistol was found to be unloaded, and
the ludicrous affair ended in a fast friendship between them.
The success of the satirical epistles in the 1806 volume
encouraged Moore to produce further work of a similar kind,
Corruption and Intolerance, Two Poems (1808), and The Sceptic:
a Philosophical Satire (1809), but the heroic couplet and the
manner of Pope did not suit his talents. At the end of 1806
he went to Dublin, and, with the exception of about six months
in 1807 spent at Donington Park, the next three years were
spent in Ireland. Here he met Miss Elizabeth Dyke, an actress,
who became his wife in March 1811. They lived at first in
London, but soon removed into the country, to Kegworth,
near Lord Moira's seat, and then to Mayfield Cottage, near
MOORHEAD
811
Ashbourne, Derbyshire. Moore had to spend much of his time
in London, for the popularity of his songs led to an agreement
with his publisher to increase the success of these by singing
them himself at great houses. The inception of his Irish
Melodies dates from 1807, and many of the best were written
during the three years of his Irish visit. He had already
published separate songs, some of them set to music of his
own, when William Power suggested to him in 1807 the task
of fitting words to a series of Irish airs supplied by Sir John
Stevenson. He could not have found a task more exactly suited
to his powers, and for a quarter of a century he enjoyed a regular
income of 500 a year from Power for writing words to music.
The first number of the Irish Melodies appeared in 1808, and
contained some of his best and most popular work. The rest
appeared between 1808 and 1834. In 1816 Stevenson and Moore
published Sacred Songs, followed by a second number in 1824.
In 1818 they began to adapt melodies from other nations.
The first number of National Airs appeared in 1818, and was
followed by others in 1820, 1822, 1826, and 1827.
After 1812 he broke ground in a new field political squib-
writing. His first butt was the prince regent, once his friend
and patron, whose foibles, fatness, love for cutlets and curafoa,
for aged mistresses and practical jokes, were ridiculed with the
lightest of clever hands. His earlier political poems appeared
in the Morning Chronicle, but in 1813 he published a thin volume
of Intercepted Letters: The Twopenny Post Bag. Other volumes
of squibs, most of which passed through several editions, followed:
The World at Westminster (1816), The Fudge Family in Paris
(1818), The Journal of a Member of the Pococurante Society (1820),
Fables for the Holy Alliance (1823), Odes on Cash, Corn, Catholics,
and other Matters (1828), The Fudge Family in England (1835).
The only failure among his satirical writings was Tom Crib's
Memorial to Congress (1819) for which he had made an elaborate
study of thieves' argot.
In 1814 he contracted with the firm of Longmans to supply
a metrical romance on an Eastern subject, which should contain
at least as many lines as Scott's Rokeby, the publishers bind-
ing themselves to pay 3000 guineas on delivery. Moore had
begun Lalla Rookh two years before. He was a careful and
laborious writer, and retired to a cottage in the neighbourhood
of Donington Park, where with the help of Lord Moira's library
he read himself slowly into familiarity with Eastern scenery
and manners. He was already far advanced in his work when
Byron in The Giaour and again in The Bride of A bydos largely
forestalled him. The depression following on the peace of 1815
deferred the publication of Lalla Rookh until 1817. It was
an immediate success. The Eastern local colouring which
dazzled Moore's contemporaries has, however, faded, and the
interest still existing in the poem is chiefly due to the under-
current of Irish patriotism which he cleverly worked into it.
Immediately after the completion of Lalla Rookh, Moore removed
with his family to Sloperton Cottage, Wiltshire, where he was
close to Bowood, Lord Lansdowne's country seat. Moore's
plans were interrupted by the embezzlement of some 6000
by the deputy he had left in Bermuda, for whose default he was
fully liable. To avoid a debtors' prison Moore retired to the
Continent. He visited Byron in Italy, and in October 1819
received from him the first part of the Memoirs. The con-
tinuation was sent to Moore in Paris the next year, with Byron's
suggestion that the reversion of the MS. should be sold. Moore
did not remain long in Italy, but made his home in Paris, where
he was joined by his wife and children. He was not able to
return to England until 1822, when the Bermuda affair was
compromised by a payment through Longmans of 1000.
Moore had had many offers of help, but preferred to be indebted
to his publishers only. During his exile he had written another
Oriental poem, The Loves of the Angels (1822), which was hardly
less popular than Lalla Rookh. He now became a contributor
of satirical verse to The Times, the connexion lasting until
1827. He now wrote his Memoirs of the Life of Sheridan, first
contemplated in 1814, which appeared, after some delay, in 1825.
The Memoirs of Captain Rock (1824), in which he gives a
humorous but convincing account of English misgovernment
in Ireland, was the result of a tour with Lord Lansdowne in
western Ireland. His prose tale, The Epicurean, appeared in
1827, and the Legendary Ballads in 1830. In 1831 he completed
his Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, probably his best
piece of prose work.
The death of Byron in 1824 raised the question of the publi-
cation of his Memoirs. Moore had parted with them in 1821 to
John Murray for 2000. After they had come into Murray's
possession. Moore began to have doubts about the propriety
of publishing them, and an arrangement was therefore made
that the 2000 should be regarded as a loan, to be repaid during
Byron's lifetime, and that the MS. should be retained as a security.
When Byron died the Memoirs were still unredeemed, and the
right of publication therefore rested with Murray. Moore now
borrowed the money from Longmans and induced Murray to
give up his claim. The money was paid, and, after a heated
discussion with Byron's executors, the MS. was burnt. It was
partly the pressure of the debt thus contracted, and partly
the expressed wish of Byron, that induced Moore to undertake
for Murray The Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices
of his Life (1830). The difficult task was executed with great
skill and tact, and it remains, with all its defects and omissions,
a valuable record.
Moore's countrymen desired him to accept a seat in parlia-
ment for Limerick. The offer was accompanied by a scheme
to present Moore with an estate in the county worth 300 a
year. It was made through the poet Gerald Griffin, who has
left on record an account of the interview. Moore declined
the honour. In 1830 he allowed himself to be drawn into a
project for writing a History of Ireland (4 vols., 1835, 1837,
1840 and 1846) for Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He hoped that by
writing the history of Ireland he might arouse in his own country-
men an interest in their past, and open the eyes of Englishmen
to the misgovernment of the country. He had neither the
historical training nor the despatch in writing which enabled
Scott to scribble off the companion volumes on Scotland, and
the history sat like a nightmare on him, and was left unfinished
on the melancholy collapse of his powers in 1845. He had,
however, the temper of the student, and was always a voracious
reader.
Moore's last years were harassed by pecuniary difficulties,
and by the weakness and misconduct of his sons, the elder of
whom retired from the English army to enter the foreign legion
of France. After the death of his last child in 1845, Moore
became a total wreck, but he lived until the 25th of February
1852. He left sufficient provision for his wife in the Diary which
he kept chiefly on her behalf.
His other works are, A Letter to the Roman Catholics of Dublin
(1810); A Melologue upon National Music (1811); an operetta,
M.P.or The Blue Stocking (i8n);A Set of Glees (1827); The Summer
Fete (1831); Evenings in Greece (1826-1832); Travels of an Irish
Gentleman in Search of a Religion; Alciphron, a Poem (1839).
See Memoirs, Journal and Correspondence of Thomas Moore
(8 vols., 1853-1856), ed. by Lord John Russell, which contains an
immense quantity of biographical material; The Poetical Works of
Thomas Moore, Collected by Himself (10 vols., 18401842); also
Notes from the Letters of Thomas Moore to his Music Publisher,
James Power (1854) ; and Prose and- Verse, Humorous, Satirical and
Sentimental, by Thomas Moore, with suppressed passages from the
Memoirs of Lord Byron . . . (1878), which includes Moore's con-
tributions to the Edinburgh Review (1814-1834). Among modern
editions of Moore's Poetical Works may be mentioned that by
Charles Kent (the Centenary ed., 1879), and that by W. M. Rossetti
(1880). Memoirs of Moore are prefixed to these editions. There
are many contemporary references to him, especially in the journals
and letters of Byron. There is an excellent life, by Stephen Gwynn,
Thomas Moore (1905), written for the " English Men of Letters Series."
See also monographs on Moore, by G. Vallat (1886 and 1895), an
essay on him as the poet " of Irish opposition and revolt " in Geprg
Brandes, Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature (vol. iv.,
1875; Eng. trans., 1905).
MOORHEAD, a city and the county-seat of Clay county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., opposite Fargo, North Dakota, on the E.
bank of the Red River and about 215 m. N.W. of Minne-
apolis. Pop. (1890), 2088; (1900), 3730; (1905), 4794; doio),
8l2
MOOR-HENMOORS
4840. Moorhead is served by the Great Northern and the
Northern Pacific railways. The city is the seat of one of the
state normal schools (1888) and of Concordia College (Norwegian
Lutheran; 1891), which in 1907-1908 had 500 students.
Moorhead, named in honour of James K. Moorhead (1806-
1884), a Republican representative in Congress from Pennsyl-
vania in 1859-1869, was settled in 1871, was incorporated as a
village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1881.
MOOR-HEN, 1 the name by which a bird, often called water-
hen and sometimes gallinule, is most commonly known in
England. An earlier name was moat-hen, which was appropriate
in the days when a moat was the ordinary adjunct of most
considerable houses in the country. It is the Gallinula chloropus
of ornithologists, about the size of a small bantam-hen, but
with the body much compressed (as is usual with members
of the family Rallidae, to which it belongs), its plumage above
is of a deep olive-brown, so dark as to appear black at a short
distance, and beneath iron-grey, relieved by some white stripes
on the flanks, with the lower tail-coverts of pure white these
last being very conspicuous as the bird swims. A scarlet frontlet,
especially bright in the spring of the year, and a red garter on
the tibia render it very showy. Though often frequenting the
neighbourhood of man, the moor-hen seems unable to overcome
the inherent stealthy habits of the Rallidae, and hastens to
hide itself on the least alarm; but under exceptional circum-
stances it may be induced to feed, yet always suspiciously,
with tame ducks and poultry. It appears to take wing with
difficulty, and may be often caught by an active dog; but, in
reality, it is capable of sustained flight, its longer excursions
being chiefly performed by night, when the peculiar call-note
it utters is frequently heard as the bird, itself invisible in the
darkness, passes overhead. The nest is a mass of flags, reeds,
or other aquatic plants, often arranged with much neat-
ness, almost always near the water's edge, where a clump of
rushes is generally chosen; but should a mill-dam, sluice-gate,
or boat-house afford a favourable site, advantage will be taken
of it, and not unfrequently the bough of a tree at some height
from the ground will furnish the place for a cradle. The eggs,
from seven to eleven in number, resemble those of the coot
but are smaller, lighter, and brighter in colour, with spots or
blotches of reddish-brown. The common moor-hen is exten-
sively spread throughout the Old World, being found also at
the Cape of Good Hope, in India and in Japan. In America it
is represented by a very closely allied form, G. galeata, so called
from its rather larger frontal helm, and in Australia by another,
G. tenebrosa, which generally wants the white flank-markings.
Both closely resemble G, chloropus in general habits, as does
also the G. pyrrhorrhoa of Madagascar, which has the lower
tail-coverts buff instead of white. Celebes and Amboyna possess
a smaller cognate species, G. haematopus, with red legs; tropical
Africa has the smallest of all, G. angulala. One of the most
remarkable varieties is the G. nesiotis of Tristan da Cunha, 2
which has wholly lost the power of flight. 3 Among other forms
are the common Gallinula (Erythra) phoenicura, and Gallicrex
cristata of India, as well as the South American species classed
in the genus Porphyriops, and the remarkable Australian genus
Tribonyx contains three species, 4 which seem to be more terres-
trial than aquatic in their haunts and habits.
Allied to all these is the genus Porphyrio, including the bird
so named by classical writers, and perhaps a dozen other species
often called sultanas and purple water-hens, for they all have
a plumage of deep blue some becoming violet, green, or black
in parts, but preserving the white lower tail-coverts, so generally
characteristic of the group; and their beauty is enhanced by
their scarlet bill and legs. Two, P. alleni of the Ethiopian
region and the South American P. parva, are of small size.
1 Not to be confounded with " Moor-cock " or " Moor-fowl,"
names formerly in general use for the red grouse.
2 Proc. Zool. Soc. (1861), p. 260, pi. xxx.
3 A somewhat intermediate form seems to be presented by the
moor-hen of the island of St Denis, to the north of Madagascar
(Free. Zool. Soc., 1867, p. 1036).
4 Ann. Nat. History, 3rd series, xx. 123.
Of the larger species, P. caerttleus is the " Porphyrio " of the
ancients, and inhabits certain localities on both sides of the
Mediterranean, while the rest are widely dispersed within the
tropics, and even beyond them, as in Australia and New Zealand.
But this last country has produced a more exaggerated form,
Notornis, which has an interesting and perhaps unique history.
First described from a fossil skull by Sir R. Owen, 6 and then
thought to be extinct, an example was soon after taken alive,'
the skin of which (with that of another procured like the first
by Walter Mantell) may be seen in the British Museum. Other
fossil remains were from time to time noted by Sir R. Owen 7 ; but
it began to be feared that the bird had ceased to exist, 8 until a
third example was taken about the year 1879, the skin and
most of the bones of which, after undergoing examination
in New Zealand by Sir W. Buller and T. J. Parker, 9 found their
way to the museum of Dresden, where A. B. Meyer discovered
the recent remains to be specifically distinct from the fossil,
and while keeping for the latter the name N. mantelli gives the
former that of N. hochstetteri. What seems to have been a
third species of Notornis formerly inhabited Lord Howe's Island,
but is now extinct. Whether the genus Aptornis, of which
Owen described the remains from New Zealand, was most nearly
allied to Notornis and Porphyrio cannot here be decided. T. J.
Parker considers it a " development by degeneration of an
ocydromine type." (See OCYDROME.) (A. N.)
MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Maupot, dark men), the name
which, as at present used, is loosely applied to any native of
Morocco, but in its stricter sense only to the townsmen of
mixed descent. In this sense it is also used of the Mahom-
medan townsmen in the other Barbary states. It has been by
some connected with the Hebrew and Phoenician mahur,
western. Wetzstein derives it from mahir, a corruption of
Amasir with its plurals Imazir and Masir, archaic forms of
the Berber native name Amazigh, the free. From Mauri, the
classic name for the north-western African tribes, the north-
western districts of that continent came to be called by the
Romans Mauretania. The term " Moors " has no real ethno-
logical value. The tribes known to the Romans by that name
were undoubtedly of Berber stock (see BERBERS). They first
appear in history at the time of the Jugurthine War (110-106
B.C.), when Mauretania west of the Mulucha was under the
government of a king called Bocchus, and appears to have
constituted a regular and organized state. It retained its
independence till the time of Augustus, who in 25 B.C. bestowed
the sovereignty of the previously existing kingdom upon
Juba II., king of Numidia, at the same time uniting it with the
western portion of Numidia, from the Mulucha to the Ampsaga,
which received the name of Mauretania Caesariensis, while the
province that had previously constituted the kingdom, or
Mauretania proper, came to be known as Mauretania Tingitana
(see MAURETANIA). With the rest of North Africa Mauretania
was overrun by the Arabs in the 7th century. The subsequent
conquest of Spain was effected chiefly by Berber tribes, but
the Moslems in the peninsula known to the Christian nations
as Moors always had a strong strain of Arab blood and in most
respects became Arabized. The race was also influenced con-
siderably by intermarriage with the natives of Spain, and when
the Moors were finally expelled from that country they had
become almost entirely distinct from their Berber kinsfolk, to
whom they were known as Andalusians. While the mountainous
parts of Morocco continued to be occupied by pure Berber
people, the ShMh or Shilluh, the Andalusian Moors flocked to
6 Proc. Zool. Soc., 1848, p. 7; Trans, iii. 336, pi. Ivi.
'Proc. 1850, pp. 209-214, pi. xxi. ; Trans, iv. 69-74, pi. xxv.
7 Thus the leg-bones and what appeared to him the sternum were
described and figured (Trans, iv. pp. 12, 17, pis. ii. iv.), and the
pelvis and another femur (vii. pp. 369, 373, pis. xlii., xliii.) ; but the
supposed sternum afterwards proved not to be that of Notornis,
and Owen (Proc. 1882, p. 689) rectified the error, to which his
attention had been drawn, and which he had already suspected
(Trans, yiii. 120).
8 Notwithstanding the evidence, which presented some incon-
gruities, offered by Mr Mackay (Ibis, 1867, p. 144).
' Trans. N. Zeal. Inst. xiv. 238-258.
MOOSE MORA, J.
813
the coast towns and the plains of Morocco, occupied largely
by Arabs. The name Moor is however still applied to the
populations speaking Arabic who inhabit the country extending
from Morocco to the Senegal, and to the Niger as far east as
Timbuktu, i.e. the western Sahara. In this vast region and in
all the towns of Barbary many of the Andalusians settled.
The Moors are ethnically a very hybrid race with more Arab
than Berber blood. A common mistake is to regard them as
a black race, as indicated by the old English phrase " Black-a-
Moor," i.e. black as a Moor. They are a white race, though
often sunburnt and bronzed for generations, and both their
children and those who have lived in the cities might pass
anywhere as Europeans.
The typical Moors of Morocco are a handsome race, with skin
the colour of coffee-and-milk, with black eyes and black
silky hair, and the features of Europeans. They wear a full
beard, and are characterized by a marked dignity of demeanour.
There is a general tendency to obesity, which is much admired
by the Moors in their women, young girls being stuffed like
chickens, with paste-balls mixed with honey, or with spoonfuls of
olive oil and sesame, to give them the necessary corpulence.
The Moors are an intellectual people, courteous in manner
and not altogether unlettered; but they are cruel, revengeful
and bloodthirsty. Among the pirates who infested the
Mediterranean none were worse than the Moors.
They are fanatical Mahommedans, regarding their places
of worship as so sacred that the mere approach of a Jew or a
Christian is forbidden. The Moors are temperate in their
diet and simple in their dress, though among the richer classes
of the towns the women cover themselves with silks, gold and
jewels, while the men indulge to excess their love of fine horses
and splendid -arms. The national fault is gross sensuality.
The position of women is little better than a pampered slavery.
They are uneducated, indolent and vicious. Such education
as the children receive is of a superficial kind. Slavery flourishes,
and slave auctions, conducted like those of cows and mules,
take place on the afternoons of stated days, affording a lounge
for the rich Moors, who discuss the " goods " offered and seek
for bargains. This public sale of slaves was prohibited in the
coast towns, c. 1850, under pressure from European powers,
but means are found to evade the prohibition.
Of games the young Moors play a great number; the principal
one is a kind of football, more like that of Siam and Burma
than that of England; wrestling and fencing are popular, but
the chief amusement of the adult Moors is the " powder-play "
(laab el barud), which consists of a type of military tournament,
the horsemen going through lance and musket exercises or
charging in review fashion, firing volleys as they gallop. Other
recreations much in favour throughout Morocco are music,
singing, jugglery, snake-charming and acrobatic performances.
As professional story-tellers many Moors are remarkable, but
the national music is monotonous and not very harmonious.
See Dr Arthur Leared, Morocco and the Moors (1891);
Budgett Meakin, The Moorish Empire (1899) ; and The Moors
(1902); Frances Macnab, A Ride in Morocco (1902); and see under
MOROCCO; MAURETANIA; BERBERS, &c.
MOOSE, the North American Indian (Algonquian) name
of the North American representative of the European elk
(q.v.). The word is said to mean " cropper " or " trimmer,"
from the animal's habit of feeding on the branches of trees.
MOOT, a meeting or assembly, in O. Eng. mot, gemdt, a word
of which " to meet " is a derivative. " Moot " or its alternative
form " mote " is the common term for the assemblies of the
people of the hundred, burgh, &c., in the history of early English
institutions, and especially for the national assembly or council,
the Witenagemot. The name survives in " moot hall," the term
still given to town-halls and council buildings in some towns in
England, as at Aldeburgh. From its meaning of assembly,
the word was applied to a debate or discussion, especially of
the discussion of a hypothetical case by law students at the
Inns of Court. These moots are still carried on at Gray's Inn.
As an adjective, " moot " means doubtful, undecided.
MOP, a bunch of cloth, rags or coarse yarn, fastened to a
pole and serving as a broom or brush for swabbing up wet
floors or other surfaces and for cleaning generally. The word
is usually taken to be an adaptation of Lat. mappa, cloth,
napkin, cf. " map." A particular application of the term in
provincial English is to an annual hiring or statute-fair, a
" mop-fair," at which domestic and agricultural servants out
of places attended, carrying a broom, a mop or other implement
indicative of their calling.
MOPLAH (Malayalam mappila), a fanatical Mahommedan
sect found in Malabar. The Moplahs, who number upwards
of a million, are believed to be descended from Arab immigrants,
who landed on the western coast of India in the 3rd century
after the Hegira. They are remarkable for riie fanaticism
displayed in successive attacks upon the Hindus, and they
have several times resisted British troops. A regiment of the
Indian army was recruited among them, but the experiment
proved a failure, and the Moplah Rifles were disbanded in
April 1907.
MOPSUS, hi Greek legend, the name of two seers, (i) Son
of Ampyx (or Ampycus) and the nymph Chloris, a Lapith of
Oechalia in Thessaly. He took part in the Calydonian boar
hunt and accompanied the Argonauts as their prophet. He died
from the bite of a serpent which sprang from the blood of the
Gorgon Medusa. He is represented on the chest of Cypselus
as boxing with Admetus. He was afterwards worshipped as
a hero and an oracle was consecrated to him. (2) Son of Rhacius
(or Apollo) and Manto, daughter of Teiresias. The rival seer
Calchas is said to have died of chagrin because the predictions
of Mopsus were fulfilled, while his own proved incorrect.
Together with another seer, Amphilochus, Mopsus founded
Mallus in Cilicia after the return from Troy; and in a quarrel
for its possession both lost their lives. According to Pausanias
(vii. 3, 2) Mopsus expelled the native inhabitants of Caria, and
built the town of Colophon. Mopsus was worshipped as a god
by the Cilicians, and had two famous oracles at Colophon and
Mallus. His name survives in the town of Mopsuestia (Mo^ou
'Eorio.) and the spring of Mopsucrene. Mopsus appears to
be the incarnation of Apollo of Claros.
MOQUEGUA, a maritime province of southern Peru, bounded
N. by the departments of Arequipa and Puno, and S. by the
republic of Chile. Area, 5550 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate),
31,920. The province extends from the Pacific coast eastward
to the Cordillera Occidental, which forms the boundary line
with Puno and the republic of Bolivia. Eastern Moquegua is
volcanic, and is broken by the high range that forms the western
rim of the Titicaca basin. Among the volcanoes in the province
are Tutupacu, the last eruption of which occurred in 1802,
Huaynaputina and Hachalayhua, which were in violent eruption
in 1606, Coropuna, Ornate, Ubinas and Candarave the last
three still showing signs of activity. This region is also subject to
severe earthquake shocks. On the lower slopes of the Cordillera
there are fertile irrigated valleys which produce grapes and olives
for commercial purposes, and a considerable variety of fruits,
cereals and vegetables for local consumption. The best-known
grape-producing districts are Moquegua (capital) and Locumba
the product being converted into wine and brandy for export.
The capital is Moquegua (pop. about 5000 in 1906), in the upper
valley of the Ilo River, 4500 ft. above sea-level, and 65 m. by
rail from the small port of Ilo on the Pacific coast.
Moquegua was formerly one of the three provinces forming
a department of the same name. The other two provinces
(Tacna and Arica) were held for indemnity by Chile after the
war of 1870-1883 with the understanding (treaty of Ancon,
March 8, 1884) that at the expiration of ten years a plebiscite
should be taken in the two provinces to determine whether
they should remain with Chile, or return to Peru the country
to which they should be annexed to pay the other 10,000,000
pesos. Chile did not comply with this treaty agreement, and
in 1910 still held both provinces.
MORA, JOSfi (1638-1725), Spanish sculptor, was a pupil of
Alonzo Cano. He died in Granada in 1725 and was buried in
8 14
MORA MORADABAD
the Albaicin church. His work can be usefully studied in the
eight statues in the Capella del Cardenal in the Cordova Cathedral
and in the figures of St Bruno and St Joseph in the Cartuja
near Granada.
See B. Haendcke, Studien zur Geschichte der spanischen Plastik
(Strassburg, 1900).
MORA, or MORRA (Ital. delay), a game, universally popular
in Italy, in which one player endeavours to guess instantly the
number of fingers held up by the other. Ancient Egyptian
sculptors represent a game of this kind, and it was played by
the Romans, who called it micare digitis, or finger-flashing. It
is known to the Chinese and to certain tribes of the Pacific
Islands. There are several methods of playing mora, but in
the one most- common in Italy the two players, placed face
to face, throw out at the same instant one or more fingers of
one hand, each crying out simultaneously a number guessed to
be that of his adversary's exposed fingers. A correct guess counts
one; if both guess correctly or wrongly there is no score. The
game, which is generally five or nine points, is played for stakes,
and with extraordinary swiftness.
MORACEAE, in botany, an order of dicotyledons, belonging
to the series Urliciflorae, to which belongs also the nettle family
(Urticaceae, q.v). It contains about 60 genera with about
1000 species, mostly trees or shrubs, widely distributed in the
Fig (Ficus carica). Shoot bearing Leaves and Fruit, about
J nat. size.
1, Inflorescence cut lengthwise to show the numerous flowers
crowded on the inner surface.
2, A female flower, enlarged. 3, Fruit cut lengthwise, J nat. size.
warmer parts of the earth. The largest genus, Ficus (the fig, q.v.) ,
contains 600 species spread through tropical and sub-tropical
regions, and includes the common fig of the Mediterranean
region (Ficus carica) , the banyan (F. bengalensis) , and the india-
rubber plant (F. elastica); many of the species are epiphytic,
sometimes clinging so tightly round the host-plant with their
roots as to strangle it. Morus (mulberry, q.v.) contains ten species
of trees or bushes in north temperate regions and in the mountains
of the tropics. Artocarpus, including A. incisa (bread-fruit,
q.v.), and A. integrifolia (jack-tree), has forty species, chiefly
natives in the Indian Archipelago. The plants are rich in latex
which may be very poisonous as in Antiaris toxicaria, the Upas-
tree (q.v.) of Java, or sweet and nutritious as in Brosimum
galactodendron, the cow-tree (q.v.) of Venezuela. The latex
often yields caoutchouc as in species of Ficus (e.g. F. elastica),
Cecropia (q.v.), a tropical American genus with thirty to forty
species, and others.
End of Shoot showing Stipule, s, of India-rubber Plant (Ficus
elastica), 3 nat. size.
The leaves, which are entire or more or less divided, are stipulate,
the stipules being small and lateral as in Morus and allied general
or intrapetiolar, each pair uniting to form a cap round the younger
leaves, as in Ficus and allied genera, and very well shown in
F. elastica, the common india-rubber plant of greenhouses. The
plants are monoecious or dioecious, and the small unisexual flowers
are borne in cymose inflorescences which are condensed into ap-
parent racemes, spikes or heads. In the fig they coalesce to form
a fleshy hollow axis on the inner face of which the flowers are
situated, while in Dorstenia they form a flat, often lobed, expansion
with the flowers sunk on the upper face. The flower resembles
Mulberry (Morus nigra), Shoot bearing Leaves and Fruit, nat. size.
1, Catkin of male flowers. 3, Spike of female flowers.
2, One male flower. 4, Single female flowers,
that of Urticaceae; there are generally four free or more or less
united perianth leaves, with, in the male flower, a stamen opposite
each perianth leaf; the filaments are incurved in the mulberry and
allied genera and straight in the fig and its allies. Artocarpus has
only one stamen. The female flower contains. two carpels in the
median plane, the posterior one of which is often more or less aborted.
Each developed ovary chamber contains a solitary pendulous more
or less curved ovule. The fruit is an achene or drupe, often sur-
rounded by the fleshy perianth and still further complicated by
the union of fruits of different flowers as in mulberry, the develop-
ment of a fleshy receptacle as in fig, or as in Artocarpus (bread-
fruit), by the union of fruits, perianth and axis into a solid fleshy
mass. The embryo is generally curved and surrounded by a fleshy
endosperm.
.From the evidence of leaf -fossils it is probable that the genus
Ficus existed as far north as Greenland in the Cretaceous era and
was generally distributed m North America and Europe in the
Tertiary period up to miocene times'.
MORADABAD, a city and district of British India, in the
Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The city is on the
MORAES MORAT
815
right bank of the river Ramganga, 655 ft. above sea-level, and
has a station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 868 miles
from Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 75,128. It was founded in 1625
by Rustam Khan, who built the fort which overhangs the river
bank, and the fine Jama Masjid or great mosque (1631). The
town forms a large centre of trade in country produce. It has
a special industry in ornamental brassware, sometimes plated
with lac or tin, which is then engraved. Cotton weaving and
printing is also carried on.
The DISTRICT OF MORADABAD lies east of the Ganges and west
of the native state of Rampur. Area, 2285 sq. m. It lies within
the great Gangetic plain, and is demarcated into three sub-
divisions by the rivers Ramganga and Sot. The eastern tract
consists of a submontane country, with an elevation slightly
greater than the plain below, and is traversed by numerous
streams descending from the Himalayas. The central portion
consists of a level central plain descending at each end into the
valleys of the Ramganga and Sot. The western section has
a gentle slope towards the Ganges, with a rapid dip into the
lowlands a few miles from the bank of the great river. In
addition to Moradabad the principal towns are Amroha (q.v.),
Sambhal (39,715) and Chaudansi (25,711).
For the early history of Moradabad see BAREILLY. It passed
into the possession of the British in 1801. The population in
1901 was 1,191,993, showing an increase of 1-1% in the decade.
Mahommedans are more numerous than in any other district
of the province, forming more than one-third of the total.
The principal crops are wheat, rice, millet, pulse, sugar-cane
and cotton. The main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway
traverses the district from south to north, with branches towards
Aligarh and Rampur. A third branch from Moradabad city
towards Delhi crosses the Ganges at Garhmukhteshwar by a
bridge of eleven spans of 200 ft. each.
MORAES, FRANCISCO DE (c. 1500-1572), Portuguese romance
writer, was probably born at the close of the i5th century.
We know very little of his life, except that he was treasurer
of the household to King John III., and he is first found in
Paris in the suite of the Portuguese ambassador, D. Francisco
de Noronha, who had gone there in 1 540. He was a commander
of the Order of Christ, and was called O Palmeirim on account
of his authorship of the famous romance of chivalry Palmeirim
de Inglaterra; in 1572 he was assassinated at Evora. He appears
to have written his book in France (perhaps in Paris) in 1544,
dedicating it to the Infanta D. Maria, daughter of King Manoel,
but the first extant Portuguese edition only came out in 1567.
A Spanish version was published as early as 1548, and on the
strength of this many critics have contended that the book was
originally written in that language and that Moraes only trans-
lated it into Protuguese. Both tradition and a critical exami-
nation of the Portuguese and Spanish texts, however, tell over-
whelmingly in favour of the first being the original with Moraes
as its author. The episode of the four French ladies shows
an intimate acquaintance with the court of Francis I., where
Moraes spent some years, and one of these ladies named Torsi is
the one he loved and to whom he addressed some verses entitled
" Desculpa de huns amores." The Palmeirim de Inglaterra belongs
to another branch of the same cycle as the Amadis de Gaula;
the two romances are the best representatives of their class, and
for their merits were spared from the auto daje to which Cervantes
condemned other romances of chivalry in D. Quixote. It has
a well-marked plot, clearly drawn characters, and an admirable
style, and has been reckoned a Portuguese classic from 'the
time of its issue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Palmerin of England, by W. E. Purser
(Dublin, 1904), contains an exhaustive study of the romance and
the controversy concerning its authorship, with a sketch of the plot.
The existing Portuguese editions bear the dates 1567, 1592, 1786
and 1852, while translations exist in Spanish, Italian and French.
An English version from the French by A. Mundayjwas first pub-
lished in 1609. In 1807 Robert Southey issued in 4 vols. 4to an
incomplete translation from the Portuguese which is really a revision
of Munday. In addition Moraes wrote some Dialogues, which were
published at Evora in 1624 and are incorporated in the last two
editions of Palmeirim de Inglaterra. (E. PR.)
MORAINE, a term adopted from the French for the rocky
material carried downwards on the outside of a glacier, and
deposited at its sides and foot. The position of the moraine
with regard to the glacier is indicated by the names applied
to it. The lateral moraine is the fringe of rock fragments at
the glacier side. The glacier is always slowly moving down
the valley. There are always points in the valley where rock
falls are more frequent than in other places. The glacier as
it moves forward catches this material and carries it onward
in a long heaped line distributing it evenly all down the valley
sides. When two glacial valleys converge into one valley two
lateral moraines unite at the point of junction and form a median
moraine in the resultant broader glacier, which now has two
lateral moraines and one median. All this material carried
by the glacier is deposited where the glacier ends, and forms
the terminal moraine, frequently in the form of a crescentic
dam across the valley. This material is carried farther down-
wards by stream action and distributed; otherwise the end
of all glacier valleys would be blocked with debris against which
the ice would be piled to a great height, and the glacier would
finally become stationary. The material pushed forward
beneath the glacier is sometimes called the ground moraine,
the part left beneath the ice the lodge moraine, that carried to
the edge and dropped the dump moraine, and that carried
forward the push moraine. (See GLACIER.)
MORAN, EDWARD (1829-1901), American artist, was born
at Bolton, Lancashire, England, on the igth of August 1829.
He emigrated with his family to America at the age of fifteen,
and subsequently settled in Philadelphia, where after having
followed his father's trade of weaver, he became a pupil of James
Hamilton and Paul Weber. In 1862 he became a pupil of the
Royal Academy in London; he established a studio in New York
in 1872, and for many years after 1877 lived in Paris. He was
a painter of marine subjects and examples of his work are in
many prominent collections. Among his canvases are thirteen
historical paintings, intended to illustrate the marine history of
America from the time of Leif Ericsson to the return of Admiral
Dewey's fleet from the Philippines in 1899. He died in New
York City on the 9th of June 1901. His sons (Edward) Percy
Moran (b. 1862) and Leon Moran (b. 1864), and his brothers
Peter Moran (b. 1842) and Thomas Moran (q.v.), also became
prominent American artists.
MORAN, THOMAS (1837- ), American artist, was born
at Bolton, Lancashire, England, on the I2th of January 1837,
and emigrated with his parents to America in 1844, the family
settling in Philadelphia. After having been apprenticed for
some years to a wood-engraver, he studied under his brother
Edward and under James Hamilton, in Philadelphia, and later
studied in London, Paris and Italy. In 1871 he accompanied
Professor F. V. Hayden's exploring expedition to the Yellowstone,
and in 1873 he went down the Colorado with Major J. W.
Powell's famous exploring party; and on these two trips he made
sketches for two large pictures, " The Grand Canon of the
Yellow-stone " and " Chasm of the Colorado River," both of
which were bought by the United States government and are
now in the Capitol at Washington. He became a member of the
National Academy of Design in 1884 and of the American Water
Color Society. His wife, Mary Nimmo Moran (1842-1899),
who was born in Strathaven, Scotland, and emigrated to America
in 1852, was also an artist, and was particularly prominent as an
etcher.
MORAR, a town of Central India, in the native state of Gwalior,
3 m. E. of Gwalior city. Pop. (1901), 19,179. It was formerly a
British military cantonment and residence of a political agent,
but in 1886, when the fortress of Gwalior was restored to Sindhia,
the troops at Morar were withdrawn to Jhansi, and the extensive
barracks were likewise made over to Sindhia. In the Mutiny
of 1857 Morar was the scene of the most serious uprising in
Central India. It is a centre for local trade, and has an
important tanning industry.
MORAT (Ger. Murten), a small town on the east shore of
the Lake of Moral, in the Swiss canton of Fribourg, and by rail
8i6
MORATA MORATORIUM
14 m. N. of Fribourg or i8j m. W. of Bern. In 1900 its
population was 2263, of whom 1840 were German-speaking and
1969 were Protestants. It is a most picturesque little town,
overlooked by the 13th-century castle and the quaint tower of
the Rathhaus, while it is still surrounded by its isth century
walls that are studded at intervals with watch towers. In 1264
it exchanged its position as a free imperial city (enjoyed since
1218) for the rule of the count of Savoy. In 1475 it was taken
by the Swiss at the commencement of their war with Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of
Savoy. But in 1476 it was besieged by Charles, though it held
out till the Swiss army arrived in haste and utterly defeated
(22nd June) the Burgundians. An obelisk a little way south-
west of the town stands on the site of the bone-house (destroyed
by the French in 1798, wherein the remains of many victims
had been collected. Morat was ruled in common from 1475 to
1798 by Bern and Fribourg, being finally annexed to Fribourg
in 1814. The Lake of Morat has an area of io| sq. m., and is
connected with that of Neuchatel by way of the Broye canal.
On its shores many lake dwellings have been found.
See F. L. Engelhard, Der Stadt Murten Chronik (Bern, 1828);
G. F. Ochsenbein, Die Urkunden der Belagerung u. Schlacht von
Murten (Freiburg, 1876); H. Wattelet, Die Schlacht bei Murten
(Fribourg, 1894). (W. A. B. C.)
MORATA, OLYMPIA FULVIA (1526-1555), Italian classical
scholar, was born at Ferrara. Her father, who had been tutor
to the young princes of the ducal house of Este, was on
intimate terms with the most learned men of Italy, and the
daughter grew up in an atmosphere of classical learning.
At the age of twelve she was able to converse fluently in Greek
and Latin. About this time she was summoned to the palace
as companion and instructress of the younger but equally gifted
Anne, daughter of Renee, duchess of Ferrara. Olympia's
father having died a convert to Protestantism, she met with
a cold reception at the palace, and withdrew to her mother's
house. Olympia now embraced the doctrines of Luther and
Calvin. About the end of 1550 she married a young student of
medicine and philosophy, Andrew Grunthler of Schweinfurt in
Bavaria. In 1554 she accompanied Grunthler to his native
place, where he had been appointed physician to the garrison of
Spanish troops. In 1553 the margrave Albert of Brandenburg
on one of his plundering expeditions took possession of Schwein-
furt, and was in turn besieged by the Protestants. At length
Albert evacuated the place, and Olympia and her husband made
their escape. They finally succeeded in reaching Heidelberg
(1554), where a medical lectureship had been obtained for
Grunthler through the influence of the Erbach family, by whom
they had been hospitably entertained during their flight. Here
she died on the 25th of October in the following year.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The scanty remains of her works letters, dia-
logues, Greek verses were collected and published by Celio Secundo
Curione (1558). Monographs by Caroline Bowles, wife of Robert
Southey the poet (1834.), J. Bonnet (1850; Eng. trans., Edinburgh,
1854), and R. Turnbull (Boston, 1846); see also Caroline Gearey,
Daughters of Italy (1886).
MORATALLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, 40 m. W.N.W. of the city of Murcia. Pop. (1900),
12,689. Moratalla is built on a mountainous peninsula, almost
surrounded by the Grande and Benamor, small rivers which meet
and flow eastward to join the Segura. The town is a labyrinth
of narrow, crooked streets, and some of its houses are Moorish
in character. Its chief buildings are the modern hospital and
theatre, and the 17th-century church. It has manufactures of
coarse cloth, spirits and soap. The nearest railway station is
Calasparra, 6 m. east, on the Murcia-Albacete railway.
MORATIN, LEANDRO ANTONIO EULOGIG MELITON
FERNANDEZ DE (1760-1828), Spanish dramatist and poet, the
son of N. F. de Moratin, was born at Madrid on the loth of
March 1760. Though his poetical tastes were early developed,
his father apprenticed him to a jeweller. At the age of eighteen
Moratin won the second prize of the Academy for a heroic poem
on the conquest of Granada, and two years afterwards he attracted
more general attention with his Leccidn poetica, a satire upon
the popular poets of the day. He was appointed secretary to
Cabarrus on a special mission to France in 1787. On his return
to Spain, Moratin was tonsured and presented to a sinecure
benefice in the diocese of Burgos, and in 1786 his first play, El
Viejo y la nina, was produced at the Teatro del Principe. Owing
to the opposition of the clerical party, it was speedily withdrawn.
The prose comedy, El Caje 6 la comedia nueva, given at the same
theatre six years afterwards, at once became popular. On the
fall of Florida Blanca, Moratin found another patron in Godoy,
who provided him with a pension and the means for foreign
travel; he accordingly visited England, where he began a prose
translation of Hamlet, printed in 1798 but never performed.
From England he passed to the Low Countries, Germany,
Switzerland and Italy, and on his return to the Peninsula in
1796 was appointed official translator to the foreign office. In
1803 he produced El Bardn in its present form; originally written
(1791) as a zarzuela, it was shamelessly plagiarized by Andres de
Mendoza, but the recast, a far more brilliant work, still keeps
the stage. It was followed in 1804 by La Mogigata, written
between 1797 and 1803. This piece was favourably received,
and an attempt to suppress it on religious grounds failed.
Moratin's crowning triumph in original comedy was El Si de las
Ninas (1806), which was performed night after night to crowded
houses, ran through several Spanish editions in a year, and
was soon translated into a number of foreign languages. In 1808
Moratfn was involved in the fall of Godoy, but in 1811 accepted
the office of royal librarian under Joseph Bonaparte a false
step, which alienated from him all sympathy and compelled
him to spend his last years in exile. In 1812 his Escuela de
los maridos, a translation of Moliere's Ecole des maris, was
produced at Madrid, and in 1813 El Medico a Palos (a translation
of Le Medecin malgre lui) at Barcelona. From 1814 to 1828
Moratfn lived in Italy and France, compiling a work on the
early Spanish drama (Origenes del tealro espanol). He died
at Paris on the 2ist of June 1828.
The most convenient edition of his works is that given in vol. ii.
of the Biblioteca de autores espanoles; this is supplemented by the
Obras postumas (3 vols., Madrid, 1867-1868).
MORATfN, NICOLAS FERNANDEZ DE (1737-1780), Spanish
poet and dramatist, was born at Madrid in 1737. He was
educated at the Jesuit College in Calatayud and afterwards studied
law at the university of Valladolid. In 1772 he was called to
the bar; four years afterwards he was nominated to the chair
of poetry at the imperial college. He died on the nth of May
1780. A partisan of French methods, Moratin published in 1762
his Desengano al tealro espanol, a severe criticism of the national
drama, particularly of the auto sacramental; and his protests
were partly responsible for the prohibition of autos three years
afterwards (June 1765). In 1762 he also published a play entitled
La Petimelra. Neither the Petimetra nor the Lucrecia (1763), an
original tragedy still more strictly in accordance with French
conventions, was represented on the stage, and two subsequent
tragedies, Hormesinda (1770) and Guzmdn el Bueno (1777), were
played with no great success. In 1764 Moratin published a
collection of pieces, chiefly lyrical, under the title of El Poeta,
and in 1765 a short didactic poem on the chase (Diana 6 arte de la
caza). His " epic canto " on the destruction of his ships by
Cortes (Las Naves de Cortes destruidas) failed to win a prize offered
by the Academy in 1777, and was published posthumously
(1785). But a better idea of Moratin's talent is afforded by his
anacreontic verses and by his Carta histdrica sobre el origen y
progresos de las fiestas de twos en Espana.
His works are included in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles,
vol. ii.
MORATORIUM (from Lat. morari, to delay), a term used to
express a legal authorization postponing for a specified time the
payment of debts or obligations. The term is also sometimes
used to mean the period over which the indulgence or period of
grace stretches, the authorization itself being called a moratory
law. A moratory law is usually passed in some special period
of political or commercial stress; for instance, on several occasions
during the Franco-German War the French government passed
MORAVIA
817
moratory laws. Their international validity was discussed at
length and upheld in Rouquette v. Overman, 1875, L. R. 10 Q. B.
525-
MORAVIA (Ger., Mahren; Czech, Morava), a margraviate
and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, S. by Lower
Austria, W. by Bohemia and N. by Prussian and Austrian
Silesia. Area, 8583 sq. m. Physically Moravia may be described
as a mountainous plateau sloping from north to south, just
in the opposite direction of the adjoining Bohemia plateau,
which descends from south to north, and bordered on three sides
by mountain ranges. On the north are the Sudetes, namely the
Altvater Gebirge, with the highest peaks the Grosser Schneeberg
(4664 ft.) and the Altvater (4887 ft.), which sink gradually
towards the west, where the valley of the Oder forms a break
between the German mountains and the Carpathians. The
latter separate Moravia from Hungary. Parallel to the Carpa-
thians are the Marsgebirge (1915 ft.) and its continuation,
the Steinitzer Wald (1450 ft.). On the west are the so-called
Bohemian-Moravian Mountains, forming the elevated east mar-
gin of Bohemia. The principal passes are those at Iglau and
Zwittau to Bohemia and the Wlara Pass to Hungary. Almost
the whole of Moravia belongs to the basin of the March or Morava,
from which it derives its name and which rises within its territory
in the Sudetes. It traverses the whole country in a course of
140 m., and enters the Danube near Pressburg. Its principal
tributaries are the Thaya, the Hanna, the Iglawa with the
Zwittawa and the Schwarzawa, &c. The Oder also rises among
the mountains in the north-east of Moravia, but soon turns to
the north and quits the country. With the exception of a
stretch of the March, none of the rivers are navigable. Amongst
the mineral springs worth mentioning are the sulphur springs at
Ullersdorf, the saline ones at Luhatschowitz and the alkaline
springs at Toplitz.
Owing to the configuration of the soil, the climate of Moravia
varies more than might be expected in so small an area, so that,
while the vine and maize are cultivated successfully in the south-
ern plains, the weather in the mountainous districts is somewhat
rigorous. The mean annual temperature at Brunn is 48 F.
Of the total area 54-8% is occupied by arable land, 7% by
meadows, 5-7% by pasturages, 1-2% by gardens, 0-5% by
vineyards, while 27-4% are forests. The principal products are
corn, oats, barley, potatoes, rye, beetroot, hemp, flax, hay and
other fodder. Forestry is greatly developed; the breed of sheep
in the Carpathians is of an improved quality, and the horses bred
in the plain of the Hanna are highly esteemed. The mineral
wealth of Moravia, consisting chiefly of coal and iron, is very
considerable. Coals are extracted at Neudorf, Lesitz, Ratisko-
witz and CeiC; lignite at Rossitz, Oslavan and Mahrisch-Ostrau.
Iron-ore is found at Zoptau, Blansko, Adamsthal, Witkowitz,
Rossitz and Stefanau. Other minerals found here are graphite,
alum, potter's clay and roofing-slate, and, besides, famous silver-
mines were worked at Iglau during the middle ages. From an
industrial point of view Moravia belongs to the foremost pro-
vinces of the Austrian Empire. The principal manufactures are
woollen, linen, cotton, cast-iron goods, beet-sugar, leather and
brandy. The cloth industry was introduced in the I4th century
at Iglau, where it soon obtained a great reputation; it developed
afterwards at Olmiitz, and since the middle of the i8th century
it has its principal centre at Brunn. The linen industry is con-
centrated at Schonberg, Mistek, Wiesenberg and Heidenpiltsch;
while the cotton industry has its principal seat at Sternberg.
The chief iron-foundries are to be found at Witkowitz, Stefanau,
Zoptau and Rossitz; while industrial machines are manufactured
at Brunn, Blansko and Adamsthal. Large works of earthenware
are established at Znaim and Frain.
Moravia had in 1900 a population of 2,433,081 inhabitants,
which is equivalent to 284 inhabitants per sq. m. It belongs
to the group of old Slavonic states which have preserved
their nationality while losing their political independence. Of
the total population 71-36% were Slavs, who were scarcely
distinguishable from their Bohemian neighbours. The name of
Czech, however, is usually reserved for the Bohemians, while
the Slavs of Moravia and West Hungary are called Moravians and
Slovacs. The Germans form 27-9% of the population, and are
found mostly in the towns and in the border districts. Fully
95% of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, under the ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction of the archbishop of Olmiitz and the bishop
of Brunn; 2-7% Protestants and 2% Jews. In educational
matters Moravia compares favourably with most of the Austrian
provinces. It is well provided with schools of every description,
and the number of illiterates is steadily decreasing. The local
diet is composed of 100 members, of which the archbishop of
Olmiitz and the bishop of Brunn are members ex officio. To the
Reichsrat at Vienna Moravia sends 36 members. For adminis-
trative purposes Moravia is divided into 34 districts and 6 towns,
with autonomous muncipalities: Briinn (pop., 108,944), the
capital, Iglau (24,387), Olmtitz (21,933), Znaim (16,261),
Kremsier (13, 991) and Ungarisch-Hradisch (5137). Other prin-
cipal towns are Konigsfeld (11,022), Coding (10,231), Mahrisch-
Ostrau (30,125), Witkowitz (19,128), Mahrisch-Schonberg
(11,636), Zwittau (9063), Neutitschein (11,891), Prerau (16,738),
Prossnitz (24,054), Sternberg (15,195) and Trebitsch (10,597).
History. At the earliest period of which we have any record
Moravia was occupied by the Boii, the Celtic race which has.
perpetuated its name in Bohemia. Afterwards it was inhabited
by the Germanic Quadi, who accompanied the Vandals in their
westward migration; and they were replaced in the sth century
by the Rugii and Heruli. The latter tribes were succeeded
about the year 550 A.D. by the Lombards; and these in their
turn were soon forced to retire before an overwhelming invasion
of Slavs, who on their settlement there took the name of
Moravians (German, Mehranen or Mahren) from the river
Morava. These new colonists became the permanent inhabitants
of this district, and in spite of the hostility of the Avars on
the east founded the kingdom of Great Moravia, which was
considerably more extensive than the province now bearing the
name. Towards the end of the Sth century they aided Charle-
magne in putting an end to the Avar kingdom, and were re-
warded by receiving part of it, corresponding to North Hungary,
as a fief of the German emperor, whose supremacy they also
acknowledged more or less for their other possessions. After
the death of Charlemagne the Moravian princes took advantage
of the dissensions of his successors to enlarge their territories
and assert their independence, and Rastislaus (c. 850) even
formed an alliance with the Bulgarians and the Byzantine
emperor. The chief result of the alliance with the latter was
the conversion of the Moravians to Christianity by two Greek
monks, Cyril and Methodius, despatched from Constantinople
(863) . Rastislaus finally fell into the hands of Louis the German,
who blinded him, and forced him to end his days as a monk;
but his cuccessor, Svatopluk (d. 894), was equally vigorous, and
extended the kingdom of Great Moravia to the Oder on the west
and the Gran on the east. At this period there seemed a strong
probability of the junction of the north-western and south-
eastern Slavs, and the formation of a great Slavonic power to
east of the German empire. This prospect, however, was dis-
sipated by the invasions of the Magyar hordes in the loth century,
the brunt of which was borne by Moravia. The invaders were
encouraged by the German monarchs and aided by the dis-
sensions and mismanagement of the successors of Svatopluk,
and in a short time completely subdued the eastern part of Great
Moravia. The name. of Moravia was henceforth confined to the
district to which it now applies. For about a century the
possession of this marchland was disputed by Hungary, Poland
and Bohemia, but in 1029 it was finally incorporated with
Bohemia, and so became an integral part of the German empire.
Towards the close of the 1 2th century Moravia was raised to the
dignity of a margraviate, but with the proviso that it should be
held as a fief of the crown of Bohemia. It henceforth shared
the fortunes of this country, and was usually assigned as an
apanage to younger members of the Bohemian royal house.
In 1410 Jobst, margrave of Moravia, was made emperor of
Germany, but died a few months after his election. In 1526, on
the death of Louis II. of Hungary Moravia came with the rest
8i8
MORAVIAN BRETHREN
of that prince's possessions into the hands of the Austrian house.
During the Thirty Years' War the depopulation of Moravia was
so great that after the peace of Westphalia the states-general
published an edict giving every man permission to take two wives,
in order to " repeople the country." After the Seven Years'
War Moravia was united in one province with the remnant of
Silesia, but in 1849 it was made a separate and independent
crownland. The most noticeable feature of recent Moravian
history has been the active sympathy of its inhabitants with
the anti-Teutonic home-rule agitation of the Bohemian Czechs.
See Die Lander Oesterreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild, vol. 8
(Vienna, 1881-1889, 15 vols.); Die osterreichisch-ungarische Mon-
archie in Wort und Bild, vol. 17 (Vienna, 1886-1902, 24 vols.);
B. Bretholz, Geschichte Mahrens (Briinn, 1893, &c.).
MORAVIAN BRETHREN, or MORAVIAN CHURCH, a Christian
communion founded in the east of Bohemia. For some years
after the death of John Huss (1415), the majority of his followers
were split into two contending factions: the Hussite Wars began;
and the net result of the conflict seemed to be that while the
Utraquists, content with the grant of the cup to the laity, were
recognized by the pope as the national Church of Bohemia (1433),
the more radical Taborites were defeated at the battle of Lipan
(1434) and ceased to exist. But with this result some of Huss's
followers, who wished to preserve his spiritual teaching, were not
content. They laid great stress on purity of morals; and con-
vinced that the Utraquist Church was morally corrupt, they
founded a number of independent societies, first at Kremsir
and Meseritsch in Moravia, and then at Wilenow, Diwischau
and Chelcic in Bohemia. At this crisis Peter of Chelcic became
the leader of the advanced reforming party. In ethics he
anticipated much of the teaching of Tolstoy; in doctrine he
often appealed to the authority of Wycliffe; and in some of
his views it is possible to trace the influence of the Waldenses.
He interpreted the Sermon on the Mount literally, denounced
war and oaths, opposed the union of Church and State, and
declared that the duty of all true Christians was to break away
from the national Church and return to the simple teaching of
Christ and His apostles. His followers were known as the
Brethren of Chelcic, and wore a distinctive dress. His most
noted supporter was John Rockycana, archbishop-elect of Prague.
He was pastor of the Thein Church (1444), preached Peter's
doctrines, recommended his works to his hearers, and finally,
when these hearers asked him to lead them, he laid their case
before King George Podiebrad, and obtained permission for
them to settle in the deserted village of Kunwald, in the barony
of Senftenberg. It was here that the new community was
founded (1457 or 1458). At their head was Gregory, the
patriarch; a layman, said later to be Rockycana's nephew; in
Michael Bradacius, the priest of Senftenberg, they found a
spiritual teacher; and fresh recruits came streaming in, not only
from the other little societies at Kremsir, Meseritsch, Chelcic,
Wilenow and Diwischau, but also from the Waldenses, the
Adamites, the Utraquist Church at Koniggratz, and the univer-
sity of Prague They called themselves Jednota Bratrska, i.e. the
Church or Communion of Brethren; and this is really the correct
translation of their later term, Unitas fratrum. At the Synod
of Lhota (14.67), they broke away entirely from the papacy,
elected ministers of their own, and had Michael Bradacius
consecrated a bishop by Stephan, a bishop of the Waldenses. At
the synod of Reichenau (1495), they rejected the authority of
Peter of Chelcic, and accepted the Bible as their only standard
of faith and practice. In doctrine they were generally broad
and radical. They taught the Apostles' Creed, rejected Purga-
tory, the worship of saints and the authority of the Catholic
Church practised infant baptism and confirmation, held a view
on the Sacrament similar to that of Zwingli, and, differing some-
what from Luther in their doctrine of justification by faith,
declared that true faith was " to know God, to love Him, to
do His commandments, and to submit to His will." With the
Brethren, however, the chief stress was laid, not on doctrine, but
on conduct. For this purpose they instituted a severe system of
discipline, divided their members into three classes the Perfect,
the Proficient, and the Beginners, and appointed over each
congregation a body of lay elders. For the same purpose they
made great use of the press. In 1501 Bishop Luke of Prague
edited the first Protestant hymn-book; in 1502 he issued a
catechism, which circulated in Switzerland and Germany and
fired the catechetical zeal of Luther; in 1565 John Blahoslaw
translated the New Testament into Bohemian; in 1570-1593 the
Old Testament was added; and the whole, known as the Kralitz
Bible, is used in Bohemia still. The constitution was practically
Presbyterian. At the head of the Church was a body of ten
elders, elected by the synod; this synod consisted of all the
ministers, and acted as the supreme legislative authority; and
the bishops ruled in their respective dioceses, and had a share
in the general oversight. The growth of the Brethren was rapid.
In 1549 they spread into Great Poland; in the latter half of the
century they opened many voluntary schools, and were joined
by many of the nobility; and the result was that by 1609, when
Rudolph II. granted the Letter of Majesty, they were half the
Protestants in Bohemia and more than half in Moravia.
At the very height of their power, however, they were almost
crushed out of existence. The cause was the outbreak of the
Thirty Years' War (1618). At the battle of the White Hill
(1620) the Bohemian Protestants were routed; the Brethren
were driven from their homes; the Polish branch was absorbed
in the Reformed Church of Poland ; and then many fled, some to
England, some to Saxony, and some even to Texas. For a
hundred years the Brethren were almost extinct. But their
bishop, John Amos Comenius (1592-1672), held them together.
With an eye to the future, he published their Ratio disciplinae,
collected money for the " Hidden Seed " still worshipping in
secret in Moravia, and had his son-in-law, Peter Jablonsky,
consecrated a bishop, and Peter passed on the succession to his
son Daniel Ernest Jablonsky.
The revival of the Moravian Brethren was German in origin.
Of the " Hidden Seed " the greater number were Germans; they
were probably descended from a colony of German Waldenses,
who had come to Moravia in 1480 and joined the Church of the
Brethren; and, therefore, when persecution broke out afresh
they naturally fled to the nearest German refuge. With Chris-
tian David, a carpenter, at their head, they crossed the border
into Saxony, settled down near Count Zinzendorf's estate at
Berthelsdorf, and, with his permission, built the town of Herrn-
hut (1722-1727). But under Zinzendorf the history of the
Moravians took an entirely new turn. He was a fervent Lutheran
of the Pietist type; he believed in Spener's " ecclesiola " concep-
tion; and now he tried to apply the conception to the Moravian
refugees. For some years he had a measure of success. Instead
of reviving Moravian orders at once, the settlers attended the
Berthelsdorf parish church, regarded themselves as Lutherans,
agreed to a code of " statutes " drawn up by the count, accepted
the Augsburg Confession as their standard of faith, and, joining
with some Lutheran settlers in a special Communion service
in Berthelsdorf (Aug. 13, 1727), had such a powerful unifying
experience that modern Moravians regard that day as the
birthday of the renewed Moravian Church. From that period
two conflicting ideals were at work among the Moravians.
In form the Moravian Church was soon restored. Before long
persecution broke out against Herrnhut; the count sent a band
of emigrants to Georgia; and as these emigrants would require
their own ministers, he had David Nitschmann consecrated a
bishop by Jablonsky (1735). In this way the Moravian orders
were maintained; the " ecclesiola " became an independent body,
and the British parliament recognized the Brethren as " an
ancient Protestant Episcopal Church " (1749, 22 Geo. II. cap.
120). And yet, on the other hand, Zinzendorf's conception
continued long in force. It hampered the Brethren's progress
in Germany, and explains the smallness of their numbers there.
Instead of aiming at Church extension, they built settlements on
the estates of friendly noblemen, erected Brethren's and Sisters'
houses, and cultivated a quiet type of spiritual life. It is true
that they evangelized all over Germany; but this part of their
work was known as the Diaspora (i Pet. i. i); and the idea
MORAY, EARL OF
819
underlying this word is that the Brethren minister to the
" scattered " in other Churches without drawing them into the
Moravian Church. In Germany, therefore, the importance of
the Moravians must be measured, not by their numbers, but
by their influence upon other Christian bodies. It was from the
Moravians that Schleiermacher learnt his religion, and they even
made a passing impression on Goethe; but both these men were
repelled by their doctrine of the substitutionary sufferings of
Christ.
In reply to the very natural question why the Moravians began
their work in England, the answer given by history is that John
Wesley, on his voyage to Georgia (1735) met some Moravian
emigrants; that on his return he met Peter Boehler, who was on
his way to North Carolina; that through Boehler's influence both
John and Charles Wesley were " converted " (1738). For a few
years they took an active share in the Evangelical Revival (1738-
1755); but Zinzendorf's " ecclesiola " policy prevented their
growth, and not till 1853 did the English Moravians resolve to
aim at " the extension of the Brethren's Church." In foreign
missions the distinctive feature about the Moravians is, not that
they were so early in the field (1732), but that they were the first
Protestants to declare that the evangelization of the heathen
was the duty of the Church as such. Hitherto it had been a
part of colonial policy. It was this that made their missions
so influential.
Present Condition. I. Enterprises: (i) Foreign missions in
Labrador, Alaska, Canada, California, West Indies, Nicaragua,
Demerara, Surinam, Cape Colony, Kaffraria, German East Africa,
North Queensland, West Himalaya. (2) Leper Home near Jerusalem
(1867). (3) Diaspora in Germany, Switzerland, France, Denmark,
Norway, Russia, Poland. (4) Church extension in Germany,
Great Britain, North America. (5) Boarding Schools: German
province, 14; British, 7; American, 5. (6) Church Revival in
Bohemia and Moravia, begun in 1869, and sanctioned by the
Austrian government (1880).
II. Orders and Constitution. The orders of the ministry are
bishops, presbyters, deacons. But the bishops have no dioceses.
Their chief function is to ordain, and to act as " intercessors."
The supreme legislative board is the General Synod. It consists
of delegates elected by each province, certain ex officio members,
and representatives from the mission field. At present the Moravian
Church is divided into four provinces, German, British, American
North and American South (North Carolina). In provincial matters
each province is independent, holds its own synods, makes its own
laws, and elects its own governing board; but the General Synod
meets, on the average, every ten years at Herrnhut, and its regula-
tions are binding in all the provinces. The foreign missions are
managed by a mission board, elected by the General Synod. There
is also a standing court of appeal, known as Unity's Elders'
Conference, and consisting of the Mission Board and four provincial
boards. It is the Church's representative in the eyes of the law.
In Germany the official title of the Church is Evangelische Bruder-
Unitdt; in Austria, Evangelische Briider-Kirche; in England and
America, Moravian Church.
III. Doctrine. At the last General Synod (1909) they repeated
their old fundamental principle that " the Holy Scriptures are our
only rule of faith and practice " ; but at the same time they declared
that their interpretation of Scripture agreed substantially with the
Nicene Creed, the Westminster and Augsburg Confessions, and the
Thirty-nine Articles. Since 1879 their leading doctrines have been
formulated as follows: (i) the total depravity of man; (2) the real
Godhead and real humanity of Christ; (3) justification and redemp-
tion through the sacrifice of Christ; (4) work of the Holy Spirit;
(.5) good works as fruits of the Spirit; (6) fellowship of believers;
(7) second coming of Christ ; (8) resurrection of the dead to life or
judgment.
IV. Ceremonies. At morning worship the service consists of a
litany, scripture lessons, sermon, singing, extempore prayer. At
the evening service a litany is rarely used. The Communion is
celebrated once a month. Infant Baptism is practised. There
are three modes of admission to membership: in the case of the
unbaptized, adult baptism (not immersion) ; in other cases confirma-
tion or reception. Members from other Churches are generally
admitted by reception.
V. Church Policy. It is now held by some Moravians that their
Church offers a via media between Anglicanism and Dissent. At the
last meeting of the Lambeth Conference (1907) some overtures, on
certain conditions, were made for (a) joint consecration of bishops,
(b) joint ordination of ministers, (c) interchange of pulpits. In
response the Moravians, at the General Synod (1909), welcomed the
offer, but also declared their wish (a) to preserve their independence
as a " Protestant Episcopal Church"; (b) to co-operate freely as
heretofore with other Evangelical Churches. On this question
negotiations are still in progress.
Province.
German .
British .
American (N.)
American (S.)
Bohemia
Foreign Field
Total
VI. Statistics /pop.
Congregations.
23
4?
96
26
12
245
Communicants.
6,213
3,782
13,932
4,019
684
33.466
444 62,096
LITERATURE. Gindely, Geschichte der Bohmischen-Bruder (1858) ;
Goll, Quellen u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch. d. Bohm.-Briider (1882) ;
Miiller, Das Bischofstum der Briider-Kirche (1888); Zinzendorf als
Erneuerer der alien Briider-Kirche (1900) ; Die deutschen Katechismen
d. Bohm.-Bruder (1887); Becker, Zinzendorf und sein Christentum
im Verhdltnis zum kirchlichen u. religiosen Leben seiner Zeit (1900) ;
Schulze, Abrisz einer Geschichte der Briider- Mission (1901) ; Seifferth,
Church Constitution of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren (1866) ;
De Schweinitz, History of the Unitas Fralrum (1885); Wauer, Begin-
nings of the Brethren's Church in England (1901) ; Hamilton, History
of the Moravian Church in the i8th and ipth Centuries (1900);
Hutton, History of the Moravian Church (1909) ; Moravian Church
Book (1902) ; Moravian Almanac (annual). For other sources see
articles " Bohmische-Bruder " and " Zinzendorf " in Hauck's
Realencyklopaedie; and for latest results of historical research,
Zeitschrift fur Brudergeschichte (half-yearly). (J. E. H.)
MORAY, 1 THOMAS RANDOLPH, IST EARL OF (d. 1332),
Scottish warrior and statesman, was the only son of Thomas
Randolph of Nithsdale, who had been chamberlain of Scotland,
and through his mother Lady Isabel Bruce he was nephew to
King Robert the Bruce. Randolph joined Bruce after the murder
of the Red C^myn, and was present at his coronation in 1306.
In June of that year he was captured by Aymer de Valence in a
fight at Methven, and saved his life by becoming Edward's man.
He joined in the hunt for Bruce, but in 1308 he was captured by
Sir James Douglas and imprisoned. He began by defying his
uncle, but presently made his submission, becoming the friendly
rival of the exploits of Sir James Douglas and the confidant of
Bruce's plans. In 1312 or 1314 the Scottish king made him earl
of Moray and lord of Man and Annandale, while the estates held
from Edward I. were confiscated. By a brilliant feat of arms he
captured and destroyed Edinburgh Castle early in 1314, scaling
the rock by a path pointed out by a certain William Francois
who had made use of it in a love intrigue. On the eve of Bannock-
burn Randolph was posted in a wood in charge of the van with
orders to prevent the English from throwing cavalry into
Stirling. On the approach of a body of three hundred English
horse under Sir Robert Clifford, Sir Henry de Beaumont and Sir
Thomas Gray, Randolph came out of cover, and his spearmen,
drawn up in a square, were vainly attacked on all sides by the
English, who were driven to retreat on the appearance of Sir
James Douglas with reinforcements; these, however, took no
share in the action, the site of which is still known as Randolph's
Field. The next day found Randolph in command of the centre
of the Scottish battle. He shared in Edward Bruce's expedition
to Ireland in 1315, and returned to Scotland in 1317 with Robert
Bruce. With Sir James Douglas Randolph was closely allied
and the two were associated in a series of brilliant exploits. In
1318 they seized the town of Berwick by escalade; being aided
by the treachery of one of the burgesses, Simon of Spalding, and
reinforced by Bruce they became masters of the castle some
months later. In the next spring they made a raid on the
northern English cbunties, laving waste the country as far as
York, where they hoped to seize the English queen. They routed
the militia hastily raised by William de Melton, archbishop of
York, in a fight known as the " Chapter of Myton " because of
the number of clerics who fell in the battle. Edward II., who
was laying siege to Berwick, sought in vain to intercept them on
their return journey. Later in the year the two Scottish nobles
again raided England, and at length Edward II. signed a truce
for two years. In 1322 Moray shared in Douglas's exploit at
Byland Abbey. In the next year he was one of the Scottish
ambassadors charged to conclude a truce with England, and was
further sent to Avignon to persuade the pope to acknowledge
1 In general, for " Moray " see MURRAY, the spelling having been
constantly interchangeable. The present earls keep the spelling
Moray.
820
MORBHANJ MORDVINIANS
Bruce's claims by addressing him as king of Scotland. In the
spring of 1326 he was again in France, when he concluded an
offensive and defensive alliance between France, and Scotland.
The death of Bruce in 1329 made Moray regent of Scotland and
guardian of the young king David II. in accordance with enact-
ments made by the Scottish parliaments of 1315 and 1318. He
died at Musselburgh on the aoth of July 1332, while preparing
to resist an invasion by the English barons. Allegations of
poisoning are made both by Barbour and Wyntoun, but without
substantial grounds.
Moray married Isabel, daughter of Sir John Stewart of Bonkyll.
His son Thomas, the 2nd earl, was killed at the battle of Dupplin
in 1332; his second son John, the 3rd earl, was killed at Neville's
Cross in 1346. The earldom then became extinct and the
estates passed to their sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369), countess of
Dunbar and March, known as " Black Agnes," and celebrated
for her gallant defence of Dunbar Castle in 1337 and 1338.
(See MARCH, EARLS OF.)
MORBHANJ, or MAYURBHANJ, a native state of India, in the
Orissa division of Bengal. Area 4243 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
610,383, showing an increase of 14-7% in the preceding decade;
revenue, 64,000. It contains a large proportion of mountain
and forest, where wild elephants are numerous, and also some of
the richest iron ores in India. The capital is BARIPADA (pop.
5613), which is connected by a narrow-gauge line with the
Bengal-Nagpur railway.
MORBIHAN, a department of western France on the Atlantic
seaboard, formed of part of Lower Brittany, and bounded S.E.
by the department of Loire-Inferieure, E. by that of Ille-et-
Vilaine, N. by C6tes-du-Nord, and W. by Finistere. Area, 2738
sq. m. Pop. (1906), 573,152. From the Montagues Noires on
the northern frontier the western portion of Morbihan slopes
southward towards the Atlantic, being watered by the Elle, the
Blavet with its affluent the Scorff, and the Auray; the eastern
portion, on the other hand, dips towards the south-east in the
direction of the course of the Oust and its feeders, which fall into
the Vilaine. Though the Montagnes Noires contain the highest
point (974 ft.) in the department, the most striking orographic
feature of Morbihan is the dreary, treeless, streamless tract
of moorland and marsh known as the Landes of Lanvaux,
which extends (W.N.W. to E.S.E.) with a width of from
i to 3 miles for a distance of 31 miles between the valley of
the Claie and that of the Arz (affluents of the Oust). A striking
contrast to this district is afforded by the various inlets of the
sea, whose shores are clothed with vegetation of exceptional
richness, large fig-trees, rose-laurels, and aloes growing as if in
Algeria. The coast-line is exceedingly irregular: the mouth of
the Vilaine, the peninsular of Ruis, the great gulf of Morbihan
(Inner Sea), from which the department takes its name, and the
mouth of the Auray, the long Quiberon peninsula attached to the
mainland by the narrow isthmus of Fort Penthievre, the deep-
branching estuary of Etel, the mouths of the Blavet and the
Scorff uniting to form the port of Loricnt, and, finally, on the
borders of Finistere the mouth of the Laita, follow each other in
rapid succession. Off the coast lie the islands of Groix, Belle-lie
(q.v.), Houat and Hoedik. Vessels drawing 13 ft. can ascend the
Vilaine as far as Redon; the Blavet is canalized throughout its
course through the department; and the Oust, as part of the
canal from Nantes to Brest, forms a great waterway by Redon,
Josselin, Rohan and Pontivy. The climate of Morbihan is
characterized by great moisture and mildness. Unproductive
heath occupies more than a quarter of the department, about
a third of which is arable land. Rye, buckwheat and wheat,
potatoes and mangels are the chief crops; hemp and flax are
also grown. Horned cattle are the chief livestock and bee-
keeping is extensively practised. The sea-ware gathered along
the coast helps greatly to improve the soil of the region bordering
thereon. Outside of Lorient (<?..), a centre for naval construc-
tion, there is little industrial activity in Morbihan. The catching
and curing of sardines and the breeding of oysters (Auray,
St Armel, &c.) form the business of many of the inhabitants of
the coast, who also fish for anchovies, lobsters, &c., for tinning.
The forges of Hennebont are of some importance for the produc-
tion of sheet-tin.
The department is served by the Orleans railway. It is
divided into four arrondissements Vannes, Lorient, Ploermel
and Pontivy with 37 cantons and 256 communes. The capital
Vannes is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Rennes. The
department belongs to the region of the Xlth army corps and
to the academic (educational division) of Rennes, where also is
its court of appeal. The principal places are Vannes, Lorient,
Ploermel, Pontivy, Auray, Hennebont, Carnac and Locmaria-
quer, the last two famous for the megalithic monuments in their
vicinity. Other places of interest are Erdeven and Plouharnel,
also well known for their megalithic remains; Elven, with two
towers of the isth century, remains of an old stronghold; Josselin
which has the fine chateau of the Rohan family and a church con-
taining the tomb (isth century) of Olivier de Clisson and his wife;
Guern with a chapel of the isth and i6th centuries and le
Faouet with a chapel of the isth century; Quiberon, which is
associated with the disaster of the French emigres in 1795;
Sarzeau, near which is the fortress of Sucinio (i3th and isth
centuries); Ste Barbe with a chapel, dating from about the end
of the isth century, finely situated, overlooking the Elle;
St Gildas-de-Ruis, with a ruined Romanesque church and other
remains of a Benedictine abbey of which Abelard was for a time
abbot. The principal pardons (religious festivals) of the depart-
ment are those of Ste Anne-d' Auray and St Nicolas-des-Eaux.
M OR CAR, EARL (ft. 1066), son of Earl jElfgar, brother of
Edwin, earl of the Mercians. They assisted the Northumbrians
to expel Tostig, of the house of Godwin, in 1065 and Morcar was
chosen earl by the rebels. Harold, Tostig's brother, consented
to this extension of the power of the Mercian house. In spite
of this concession, and the help which he gave them against
Tostig and Harold Hardrada, the two brothers left him to fight
alone at Hastings. After trying to secure the crown for their
own house, they submitted to. William, but lost their earldoms.
They attempted to raise the North in 1068, and failed ignomini-
ously. They were pardoned, but Morcar afterwards joined
Hereward in the Isle of Ely (1071), while Edwin perished in
attempting to raise a Welsh rebellion. Morcar died in prison;
at what date is unknown.
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest and William Rufus, vol. i.
MORDECAI BEN HILLEL, a German rabbi, who died as a
martyr at Nuremberg in 1298. His great legal (Halachic) work
is usually cited as " the Mordecai," and its value consists in its
thorough use of the medieval authorities. It acquired wide
authority, and was one of the sources of the Code of Joseph Caro.
Mordecai was also the author of Responsa.
See L. Ginzberg in Jew. Ency. ix. 1013.
MORDVINIANS, otherwise called MORDVA, MORDVS, or
MORDVINS, a people numbering about one million, belonging to
the Ural-Altaic family, who inhabit the middle Volga provinces
of Russia and spread in small detached communities to the south
and east of these. Their settlement in the basin of the Volga
is of high antiquity. One of the two great branches into which
they are divided, the Erzya, is perhaps the same as the Aorses
mentioned by Ptolemy as dwelling between the Baltic Sea and
the Ural Mountains. Strabo mentions also the Aorses as in-
habitants of the country between the Don, the Caspian Sea and
the Caucasus. The Russians made raids on the Mordvins in the
1 2th century, and after the fall of Kazan rapidly invaded and
colonized their country.
The Mordvins are now found in the governments of Simbirsk,
Penza, Samara and Nizhniy-Novgorod, as well as Saratov and
Tambov. But their villages are dispersed among those of the
Russians, and they constitute only 10 to 12% of the population
in the four first-named governments, and from 5 to 6% in the
last two. They are unequally distributed over this area in
ethnographical islands, and constitute as much as 23 to 44% of
the population of several districts of the governments of Tambov,
Simbirsk, Samara and Saratov, and only 2 or 3% in other
districts of the same provinces. They are divided into two great
MORE, HANNAH
821
branches, the Erzya (Erza, or Ersa) and the Moksha, differing
somewhat in their physical features and language. The southern
branch, or the Moksha, have a darker skin and darker eyes and
hair than the northern. A third branch, the Karatays, found in
Kazan, appears to be mixed with Tatars. The language is a
branch of the Western Finnish family, and most nearly allied
to the Cheremissian, though presenting many peculiarities
(see FINNO-UGRIC) . The Mordvins have largely abandoned their
own language for Russian; but they have maintained a good deal
of their old national dress, especially the women, whose profusely
embroidered skirts, original hair-dress large ear-rings which
sometimes are merely hare-tails, and numerous necklaces cover-
ing all the chest and consisting of all possible ornaments, easily
distinguish them from Russian women. They have mostly
dark hair, but blue eyes, generally small and rather narrow.
Their cephalic index is very near to that of the Finns. They are
brachycephalous or sub-brachycephalous, and a few are mesati-
cephalous. They are finely built, rather tail and strong, and
broad-chested. Their chief occupation is agriculture; they work
harder and (in the basin of the Moksha) are more prosperous
than their Russian neighbours. Their capacities as carpenters
were well known in Old Russia, and Ivan the Terrible used them
to build bridges and clear forests during his advance on Kazan.
They now manufacture wooden ware of various sorts. They are
also masters of apiculture, and the commonwealth of bees often
appears in their poetry and religious beliefs. They have a con-
siderable literature of popular songs and legends, some of them
recounting the doings of a king Tushtyan who lived in the time
of Ivan the Terrible. Nearly all are Christians; they received
baptism in the reign of Elizabeth, and the Nonconformists have
made many proselytes among them. But they still preserve
much of their own mythology, which they have adapted to the
Christian religion. According to some authorities, they have
preserved also, especially the less russified Moksha, the practice
of kidnapping brides, with the usual battles between the party of
the bridegroom and that of the family of the bride. The worship
of trees, water (especially of the water-divinity which favours
marriage), the sun or Shkay, who is the chief divinity, the moon,
the thunder and the frost, and of the home-divinity Kardaz-
serko still exists among them; and a small stone altar or flat stone
covering a small pit to receive the blood of slaughtered animals
can be found in many houses. Their burial customs seem founded
on ancestor-worship. On the fortieth day after the death of a
kinsman the dead is not only supposed to return home but a
member of his household represents him, and, coming from the
grave, speaks in his name.
The language is treated of in Ahlquist's Versuch einer Mokscha-
mordwinischen Grammatik nebst Texten und Worter-Verzeichniss
(St Petersburg, 1861), and their history, customs and religion by
Smirnov (trans, by Boyer), " Les Populations finnoises de la Volga "
(in Publications de I'ecole des langues orientates, vivantes, 1898).
Much valuable information respecting customs, religion, language
and folk-lore will be found in papers by Paasonen, Heikel, Ahlquist,
Mainof and others printed in the Journal de la Societe Finno-
Ougrienne and the Finnisch-ugrische Forschungen. (C. EL.)
MORE, HANNAH (1745-1833), English religious writer, was
born at Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 2nd of February 1745.
She may be said to have made three reputations in the course
of her long life: first, as a clever verse- writer and witty talker
in the circle of Johnson, Reynolds and Garrick; next, as a writer
on moral and religious subjects on the Puritanic side; and lastly,
as a practical philanthropist. She was the youngest but one
of the five daughters of Jacob More, who, though a member of a
Presbyterian family in Norfolk, had become a member of the
English Church and a strong Tory. He taught a school at
Stapleton in Gloucestershire. The elder sisters established a
boarding-school at Bristol, and Hannah became one of their
pupils when she was twelve years old. Her first literary efforts
were pastoral plays, suitable for young ladies to act, the first
being written in 1762 under the title of A Search after Happiness
(2nd e'd. 1773). Metastasio was one of her literary models; on
his opera of Attilio regulo she based a drama, The Inflexible
Captive, published in 1774. She gave up her share in the school
in view of an engagement of marriage she had contracted with a
Mr Turner. The wedding never took place, and, after much
reluctance, Hannah More was induced to accept from Mr Turner
an annuity which had been settled on her without her knowledge.
This set her free for literary pursuits, and in 1772 or 1773 she
went to London. Some verses on Garrick's Lear led to an
acquaintance with the actor-playwright; Miss More was taken up
by Elizabeth Montague ; and her unaffected enthusiasm.simplicity,
vivacity, and wit won the hearts of the whole Johnson set, the
lexicographer himself included, although he is said to have told
her that she should " consider what her flattery was worth before
she choked him with it." Garrick wrote the prologue and
epilogue for her tragedy Percy, which was acted with great
success at Covent Garden in December 1777. Another drama,
The Fatal Falsehood, produced in 1779 after Garrick's death, was
less successful. The Garricks had induced her to live with .them;
and after Garrick's death she remained with his wife, first at
Hampton Court, and then in the Adelphi. In 1781 she made the
acquaintance of Horace Walpole, and corresponded with him
from that time. At Bristol she discovered a poetess in Mrs
Anne Yearsley (1756-1806), a milkwoman, and raised a consider-
able sum of money for her benefit. " Lactilla," as Mrs Yearsley
was called, wished to receive the capital, and made insinuations
against Miss More, who desired to hold it in trust. The trust
was handed over to a Bristol merchant and eventually to the
poetess.
Hannah More published Sacred Dramas in 1782, and it rapidly
ran through nineteen editions. These and the poems Bas-Bleu
and Florio (1786) mark her gradual transition to mere serious
views of life, which were fully expressed in prose in her Thoughts
on the Importance of the Manners of the Great to General Society
(1788), and An Estimate of the Religion of the Fashionable World
(1790). She was intimate with Wilberforce and Zachary
Macaulay, with whose evangelical views she was in entire sym-
pathy. She published a poem on Slavery in 1788. In 1785 she
bought a house, at Cowslip Green, near Wrington, near Bristol,
where she settled down to country life with her sister Martha, and
wrote many ethical books and tracts: Strictures on Female Educa-
tion (1799), Hints towards forming the Character of a Young
Princess (1805), Coelebs in Search of a Wife (only nominally a
story, 1809), Practical Piety (1811), Christian Morals (1813),
Character of St Paul (1815), Moral Sketches (1819). The tone is
uniformly animated; the writing fresh and vivacious; her favour-
ite subjects the minor self-indulgences and infirmities. She was a
rapid writer, and her work is consequently discursive and form-
less; but there was an originality and force in her way of putting
commonplace sober sense and piety that fully accounts for her
extraordinary popularity. The most famous of her books was
Coelebs in Search of a Wife, which had an enormous circulation
among pious people. Sydney Smith attacked it with violence in
the Edinburgh Review for its general priggishness. It is interesting
to note that the model Stanley children have been said to be
dra\wn from T. B. Macaulay and his sister. She also wrote many
spirited rhymes and prose tales, the earliest of which was Village
Politics (1792), by "Will. Chip," to counteract the doctrines of
Tom Paine and the influence of the French Revolution. The
success of Village Politics induced her to begin the series of
" Cheap Repository Tracts," which were for three years produced
by Hannah and her sisters at the rate of three a month. Perhaps
the most famous of these is The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain,
describing a family of phenomenal frugality and contentment.
This was translated into several languages. Two million copies
of these rapid and telling sketches were circulated in one year,
teaching the poor in rhetoric of most ingenious homeliness to
rely upon the virtues of content, sobriety, humility, industry,
reverence for the British Constitution, hatred of the French,
trust in God and in the kindness of the gentry.
Perhaps the best proof of Hannah More's sterling worth was
her indefatigable philanthropic work her long-continued exer-
tions to improve the condition of the children in the mining
districts of the Mendip Hills near her home at Cowslip Green
and Barley Wood. The More sisters met with a good deal of
MORE, H. MORE, SIR THOMAS
822
opposition in their good works. The farmers thought that
education, even to the limited extent of learning to read, would
be fatal to agriculture, and the clergy, whose neglect she was
making good, accused her of Methodist tendencies. In her old
age philanthropists from all parts made pilgrimages to see the
bright and amiable old lady, and she retained all her faculties till
within two years of her death, dying at Clifton, where the last
five years of her life were spent, on the 7th of September 1833.
See The Life of Hannah More, with Notices of Her Sisters (1838), by
the Rev. Henry Thompson. The article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. is
by Sir Leslie Stephen. Some letters of Hannah More, with a very
slight connecting narrative, were published in 1872 by William
Roberts as The Life of Hannah More. See also Hannah More
(1888) by Charlotte M. Yonge, in the " Eminent Women " series,
and Hannah More (New York and London, 1900), by " Marion
Harland." Letters of Hannah More to Zachary Macaulay were edited
( 1 860) by Arthur Roberts. The contemporary opposition to her may
be seen in an abusive Life of Hannah More, with a Critical Review
of Her Writings (1802), by the " Rev. Archibald Macsarcasm "
(William Shaw, rector of Chelvey, Somerset).
MORE, HENRY (1614-1687), English philosopher of the
Cambridge Platonist school, was born at Grantham in 1614.
Both his father and his mother, he tells us, were " earnest
followers of Calvin," but he himself " could never swallow that
hard doctrine." In 1631 he was admitted at Christ's College,
Cambridge, about the time Milton was leaving it. He immersed
himself " over head and ears in the study of philosophy," and
fell for a time into a scepticism, from which he was delivered by a
study of the " Platonic writers." He was fascinated especially
by Neoplatonism, and this fascination never left him. The
Theologia germanica also exerted a permanent influence over
him. He took his bachelor's degree in 1635, his master's degree
in 1639, and immediately afterwards was chosen fellow of his
college. All other preferment he refused, with one exception.
Fifteen years after the Restoration he accepted a prebend in
Gloucester Cathedral, but only to resign it in favour of his friend
Dr Edward Fowler, afterwards bishop of Gloucester. He would
not accept the mastership of his college, to which, it is understood,
he would have been preferred in 1654, when Cud worth was
appointed. He drew around him many young men of a refined
and thoughtful turn of mind, but among all his pupils the most
interesting was a young lady of noble family. This lady, pro-
bably a sister of Lord Finch, subsequently earl of Nottingham,
a well-known statesman of the Restoration, afterwards became
Lady Conway, and at her country seat at Ragley in Warwick-
shire More continued at intervals to spend " a considerable part
of his time." She and her husband both appreciated him, and
amidst the woods of this retreat he composed several of his books.
The spiritual enthusiasm of Lady Conway was a considerable
factor in some of More's speculations, none the less that she
at length joined the Quakers. She became the friend not only
of More and Penn, but of Baron van Helmont and Valentine
Greatrakes, mystical thaumaturgists of the I7th century.
Ragley became a centre not only of devotion but of wonder-
working spiritualism. 1 From this, his genius suffered, and the
rationality which distinguishes his earlier is much less conspicu-
ous in his later works. He was a voluminous writer both in verse
and in prose, but his works, except the Divine Dialogues (1688)
are now of little interest. This treatise, animated and sometimes
brilliant, is valuable for modern readers in that it condenses his
general view of philosophy and religion.
Henry More represents the mystical and theosophic side of the
Cambridge movement. The Neoplatonic extravagances which
lay hidden in the school from the first came in his writings to a
head, and merged in pure phantasy. He can never be spoken
of, however, save as a spiritual genius and a significant figure in
British philosophy, less robust and in some respects less learnec
than Cudworth, but more interesting and fertile in thought, am
more genial in character. From youth to age he describes him
self as gifted with a buoyant temper. His own thoughts were
to him a never-ending source of pleasurable excitement. This
mystical elevation was the chief feature of his character, a certain
1 The place and its religious marvels are glanced at in the romance
of John Inglesant (ch. xv.).
adiancy of thought which carried him beyond the common life
without raising him to any artificial height, for his humility and
charity were not less conspicuous than his piety. The last ten
ears of his life were uneventful. He died on the ist of September
687, and was buried in the chapel of the college he loved.
Before his death More issued complete editions of his works, his
Opera theologica in 1675, and his Opera philosophica in 1678.
The chief authorities for his life are Ward's Life (1710) ; the prefatio
;eneralissima prefixed to his Opera omnia (1679); and also a
'eneral account of the manner and scope of his writings in an
Apology published in 1664. The collection of his Philosophical
oems (1647), in which he has " compared his chief speculations
and experiences," should also be consulted. An elaborate analysis
of his life and works is given in Tulloch's Rational Theology, vol. ii.
'1874) ; see also R. Zimmermann, Henry More und die vierte Dimen-
sion des Raums (Vienna, 1881). (For his ethical theory, as contained
n .the Enchiridion Ethicum, see ETHICS.)
MORE, SIR THOMAS (1478-1535), English lord chancellor,
and author of Utopia, was born in Milk Street in the city of
London, on the 7th of February 1478. He received the rudi-
ments of education at St Anthony's School in Threadneedle
Street, at that time under Nicolas Holt, held to be the best in the
city. He was early placed in the household of Cardinal Morton,
archbishop of Canterbury. Admission to the cardinal's family
was esteemed a high privilege, and was sought as a school of
manners and as an introduction to the world by the sons of the
best families in the kingdom. Young Thomas More obtained
admission through the influence of his father, Sir Thomas, then
a rising barrister and afterwards a justice of the court of king's
bench. The usual prognostication of future distinction is
attributed in the case of More to Cardinal Morton, " who would
often tell the nobles sitting at table with him, where young
Thomas waited on him, whosoever liveth to trie it shall see this
child prove a notable and rare man." 1 At the proper age young
More was sent to Oxford, where he is said vaguely to have had
Colet, Grocyn and Linacre for his tutors. 2 All More himself says
is that he had Linacre for his master in Greek. Learning Greek
was not the matter of course which it has since become. Greek
was not as yet part of the arts curriculum, and to learn it volun-
tarily was ill looked upon by the authorities. Those who did so
were suspected of an inclination towards novel and dangerous
modes of thinking, then rife on the Continent and slowly finding
their way to England. More's father, who intended his son to
make a career in his own profession, took the alarm ; he removed
him from the university without a degree, and entered him at
New Inn to commence at once the study of the law. After com-
pleting a two-years' course in New Inn, an inn of chancery,
More was admitted in February 1496 at Lincoln's Inn, an inn of
court. " At that time the Inns of Court and Chancery presented
the discipline of a well-constituted university, and, through
professors under the name of readers and exercises under the
name of mootings, law was systematically taught " (CAMPBELL).
In his professional studies More early distinguished himself,
so that he was appointed reader-in-law in Furnival's Inn; but
he would not relinquish the studies which had attracted him in
Oxford. We find him delivering a lecture to audiences of " all
the chief learned of the city of London." 3 The subject he chose
was a compromise between theology and the humanities, being
St Augustine's De civitate. In this lecture More sought less to
expound the theology of his author than to set forth the
philosophical and historical contents of the treatise. The
lecture-room was a church, St Lawrence Jewry, placed at his
disposal by Grocyn, the rector.
Somewhere about this period of More's life two things happened
which gave in opposite directions the determining impulse to his
future career. More's was one of those highly susceptible natures
which take more readily and more eagerly than common minds
the impress of that which they encounter on their first contact
with men. Two principal forms of thought and feeling were at
this date in conflict, rather unconscious than declared, on English
soil. Under the denomination of the " old learning," the senti-
ment of the middle ages and the idea of Church authority was
1 Life by B. R.
8 Ibid.
1 Roper, Life.
MORE, SIR THOMAS
823
established and in full possession of the religious houses, the
universities, and the learned professions. The foe that was
advancing in the opposite direction, though without the con-
science of a hostile purpose, was the new power of human reason
animated with the revived sentiment of classicism. In More's
mind both these hostile influences found a congenial home. Each
had its turn of supremacy, and in his early years it seemed as if
the humanistic influence would gain the final victory. About the
age of twenty he was seized with a violent access of devotional
rapture. He took a disgust to the world and its occupations,
and experienced a longing to give himself over to an ascetic life.
He took a lodging near the Charterhouse, and subjected himself
to the discipline of a Carthusian monk. He wore a sharp shirt
of hair next his skin, scourged himself every Friday and other
fasting days, lay upon the bare ground with a log under his head,
and allowed himself but four or five hours' sleep. This access of
the ascetic malady lasted but a short time, and More recovered to
all outward appearance his balance of mind. For the moment the
balance of his faculties seemed to be restored by a revival of the
antagonistic sentiment of humanism which he had imbibed from
the Oxford circle of friends, and specially from Erasmus. The
dates as regards More's early life are uncertain, and we can only
say that it is possible that the acquaintance with Erasmus might
have begun during Erasmus's first visit to England in 1499.
Tradition has dramatized their first meeting into the story given
by Cresacre More 1 that the two happened to sit opposite each
other at the lord mayor's table, that they got into an argument
during dinner, and that, in mutual astonishment at each other's
wit and readiness, Erasmus exclaimed, " Aut tu es Morus, aut
nullus," and the other replied, " Aut tu e&Erasmus, aut diabolus ! "
Rejecting this legend, which bears the stamp of fiction upon its
face, we have certain evidence of acquaintance between the
two men in a letter of Erasmus, with the date " Oxford, 29th
October 1499." If we must admit the correctness of the date of
Ep. 14 in the collection of Erasmus's Epistolae, we should have to
assume that their acquaintance had begun as early as 1497. It
rapidly ripened into warm attachment. This contact with the
prince of letters revived in More the spirit of the " new learning,"
and he returned with ardour to the study of Greek, which had
been begun at Oxford. The humanistic influence was sufficiently
strong to save him from wrecking his life in monkish mortifica-
tion, and even to keep him for a time on the side of the party of
progress. He acquired no inconsiderable facility in the Greek
language, from which he made and published some translations.
His Latin style, though wanting the inimitable ease of Erasmus
and often offending against idiom, is yet in copiousness and
propriety much above the ordinary Latin of the English
scholars of his time.
More's attention to the new studies was always subordinate
to his resolution to rise in his profession, in which he was stimu-
lated by his father's example. As early as 1502 he was appointed
under-sheriff of the city of London, an office then judicial and of
considerable dignity. He first attracted public attention by his
conduct in the parliament of 1504, by his daring opposition to the
king's demand for money. Henry VII. was entitled, according
to feudal laws, to a grant on occasion of his daughter's marriage.
But he came to the House of Commons for a much larger sum
than he intended to give with his daughter. The members,
unwilling as they were to vote the money, were afraid to offend
the king, till the silence was broken by More, whose speech is
said to have moved the house to reduce the subsidy of three-
fifteenths which the Government had demanded to 30,000. One
of the chamberlains went and told his master that he had been
thwarted by a beardless boy. Henry never forgave the audacity;
but, for the moment, the only revenge he could take was upon
More's father, whom upon some pretext he threw into the Tower,
and he only released him upon payment of a fine of 100. Thomas
More even found it advisable to withdraw from public life into
obscurity. During this period of retirement the old dilemma
recurred. One while he devoted himself to the sciences,
" perfecting himself in music, arithmetic, geometry and
1 Life, p. 93-
astronomy, learning the French tongue, and recreating his tired
spirits on the viol," 2 or translating epigrams from the Greek
anthology; another while resolving to take priest's orders.
From dreams of clerical celibacy he was roused by making
acquaintance with the family of John Colt of New Hall, in
Essex. The " honest and sweet conversation " of the three
daughters attracted him, and though his inclination led him
to prefer the second he married the eldest, Jane, in 1505, not
liking to put the affront upon her of passing her over in favour of
her younger sister. The death of the old king in 1509 restored
him to the practice of his profession, and to that public career
for which his abilities specially fitted him. From this time
there was scarce a cause of importance in which he was not
engaged. His professional income amounted to 400 a year,
equal to 4000 in present money, and, " considering the relative
profits of the law and the value of money, probably indicated
as high a station as 10,000 at the present day " (CAMPBELL).
It was not long before he attracted the attention of the young
king and of Wolsey. The spirit with which he pleaded before
the Star Chamber in a case of The Crown v. The Pope recom-
mended him to the royal favour, and marked him out for em-
ployment. More obtained in this case judgment against the
Crown. Henry, who was present in person at the trial, had
the good sense not to resent the defeat, but took the counsel to
whose advocacy it was due into his service. In 1514 More was
made master of the requests, knighted, and sworn a member
of the privy council. He was repeatedly employed on embassies
to the Low Countries, and was for a long time stationed at
Calais as agent in the shifty negotiations carried on by Wolsey
with the court of France. In 1519 he was compelled to resign
his post of under-sheriff to the city and his private practice at
the bar. In 1521 he was appointed treasurer of the exchequer,
and in the parliament of 1523 he was elected Speaker. The
choice of this officer rested nominally with the house itself,
but in practice was always dictated by the court. Sir Thomas
More was pitched upon by the court on this occasion in order
that his popularity with the Commons might be employed to
carry the money grant for which Wolsey asked. To the great
disappointment of the court More remained firm to the popular
cause, and it was greatly owing to his influence that its demands
were resisted. From this occurrence may be dated the jealousy
which the cardinal began to exhibit towards More. Wolsey
made an attempt to get him out of the way by sending him as
ambassador to Spain. More defeated the design by a personal
appeal to the king, alleging that the climate would be fatal to
his health. Henry, who saw through the artifice, and was
already looking round for a more popular successor to Wolsey,
made the gracious answer that he would employ More otherwise.
In 1 525 More was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster,
and no pains were spared to attach him to the court. The
king frequently sent for him into his closet, and discoursed
with him on astronomy, geometry and points of divinity.
This growing favour, by which many men would have been
carried away, did not impose upon More. He discouraged
the king's advances, showed reluctance to go to the palace,
and seemed constrained when there. Then the king began to
come himself to More's house at Chelsea, and would dine with
him without previous notice. William Roper, husband of
More's eldest daughter, mentions one of these visits, when the
king after dinner walked in the garden by the space of an hour
holding his arm round More's neck. Roper afterwards congratu-
lated his father-in-law on the distinguished honour which had
been shown him. " I thank our Lord," was the reply, " I find
his grace my very good lord indeed; and I believe he doth as
singularly favour me as any subject within this realm. Howbeit,
son Roper, I may tell thee I have no cause to be proud thereof,
for if my head would win him a castle in France it should not
fail to go." As a last resource More tried the expedient of silence,
dissembling his wit and affecting to be dull. This had the desired
effect so far that he was less often sent for. But it did not
alter the royal policy, and in 1529, when a successor had to be
1 Roper, Life.
824
MORE, SIR THOMAS
found for Wolsey, More was raised to' the chancellorship. The
selection was justified by More's high reputation, but it was
also significant of the modification which the policy of the court
was then undergoing. It was a concession to the rising popular
party, to which it was supposed that More's politics inclined
him. The public favour with which his appointment had been
received was justified by his conduct as judge in the court of
chancery. Having heard causes in the forenoon between
eight and eleven, after dinner he sat again to receive petitions.
The meaner the suppliant was the more affably he would speak
to him and the more speedily he would despatch his case. In
this respect he formed a great contrast to his predecessor,
whose arrears he soon cleared off. One morning being told by
the officer that there was not another cause before the court,
he ordered the fact to be entered on record, as it had never
happened before. He not only refused all gifts such as had
been usual himself, but took measures to prevent any of his
connexions from interfering with the course of justice. One
of his sons-in-law, Heron, having a suit in the chancellor's
court, and refusing to agree to any reasonable accommodation,
because the judge " was the most affectionate father to his
children that ever was in the world," More thereupon made a
decree against him.
Unfortunately for Sir Thomas More, a lord chancellor is
not merely a judge, but has high political functions to perform.
In raising More to that eminent position, the king had not merely
considered his professional distinction but had counted upon his
avowed liberal and reforming tendencies. In the Utopia, which,
though written earlier, More had allowed to be printed as late
as 1516, he had spoken against the vices of power, and declared
for indifference of religious creed with a breadth of philosophical
view of which there is no other example in any Englishman of
that age. At the same time, as he could not be suspected of
any sympathy with Lutheran or Wickliffite heretics, he might
fairly be regarded as qualified to lead the party which aimed
at reform in State and Church within the limits of Catholic
orthodoxy. But in the king's mind the public questions of
reform were entirely sunk in the personal one of the divorce.
The divorce was a point upon which Sir Thomas would not
yield. And, as he saw that the marriage with Anne Boleyn
was determined upon, he petitioned the king to be allowed to
resign the Great Seal, alleging failing health. With much
reluctance the royal permission was given and the resignation
accepted, on the loth of May 1532, with many gracious expres-
sions of goodwill on the part of the king. The promise held
out of future bounty was never fulfilled, and More left office,
as he had entered it, a poor man. His necessitous condition
was so notorious that the clergy in convocation voted him a
present of 5000. This he peremptorily refused, either for
himself or for his family, declaring that he " had rather see it
all cast into the Thames." Yet the whole of his income after
resigning office did not exceed 100 a year.
Hitherto he had maintained a large establishment, not on
the princely scale of Wolsey, but in the patriarchal fashion
of having all his sons-in-law, with their families, under his roof.
When he resigned the chancellorship he called his children and
grandchildren together to explain his reduced circumstances.
" If we wish to live together," said he, " you must be content
to be contributories together. But my counsel is that we fall
not to the lowest fare first: we will not, therefore, descend to
Oxford fare, nor to the fare of New Inn, but we will begin with
Lincoln's Inn diet, where many right worshipful men of great
account and good years do live full well; which if we find ourselves
the first year not able to maintain, then we will in the next year
come down to Oxford fare, where many great learned and ancient
fathers and doctors are continually conversant; while if our
purses stretch not to maintain neither, then may we after,
with bag and wallet, go a-begging together, hoping that for
pity some good folks will give us their charity."
More was now able, as he writes to Erasmus, to return to the
life which had always been his ambition, when, free from business
and public affairs, he might give himself up to his favourite
studies and to the practices of his devotion. Of the Chelsea
interior Erasmus has drawn a charming picture, which may
vie with Holbein's celebrated canvas, " The Household of Sir
Thomas More."
" More has built, near London, upon the Thames, a modest yet
commodious mansion. There he lives surrounded by his numerous
family, including his wife, his son, and his son's wife, his three
daughters and their husbands, with eleven grandchildren. There
is not any man living so affectionate to his children as he, and he
loveth his old wife as if she were a girl of fifteen. Such is the
excellence of his disposition that whatsoever happeneth that could
not be helped, he is as cheerful and as well pleased as though the
best thing possible had been done. In More's house you would
see that Plato's Academy was revived again, only, whereas in the
Academy the discussions turned upon geometry and the power of
numbers, the house at Chelsea is a veritable school of Christian
religion. In it is none, man or woman, but readeth or studieth
the liberal arts, yet is their chief care of piety. There is never any
seen idle; the head of the house governs it not by a lofty carriage
and oft rebukes, but by gentleness and amiable manners. Every
member is busy in his place, performing his duty with alacrity ; nor
is sober mirth wanting. ' l
But More was too conspicuous to be long allowed to enjoy the
happiness of a retired life. A special invitation was sent him by
the king to attend the coronation of Anne Boleyn, accompanied
with the gracious offer of 20 to buy a new suit for the occasion!
More refused to attend, and from that moment was marked
out for vengeance. A first attempt made to being him within
the meshes of the law only recoiled with shame upon the head
of the accusers. They were maladroit enough to attack him
on his least vulnerable side, summoning him before the privy
council to answer to a charge of receiving bribes in the adminis-
tration of justice. One,Parnell was put forward to complain
of a decree pronounced against him in favour of the contending
party Vaughan, who he said had presented a gilt cup to the
chancellor. More stated that he had received a cup as a New
Year's gift. Lord Wiltshire, the queen's father, exultingly cried
out, " So, did I not tell you, my lords, that you would find this
matter true ?" " But, my lords," continued More, " having
pledged Mrs Vaughan in the wine wherewith my butler had
filled the cup, I restored the cup to her." Two other charges
of a like nature were refuted as triumphantly. But the very
futility of the accusations must have betrayed to More the
bitter determination of his enemies to compass his destruction.
Foiled in their first ill-directed attempt, they were compelled
to have recourse to that tremendous engine of regal tyranny,
the law of treason. A bill was brought into parliament to attaint
Elizabeth Barton, a nun, who was said to have held treason-
able language. Barton turned out afterwards to have been an
impostor, but she had duped More, who now lived in a super-
stitious atmosphere of convents and churches, and he had given
his countenance to her supernatural pretensions. His name, with
that of Fisher, was accordingly included in the bill as an accom-
plice. When he canje before the council it was at once apparent
that the charge of treason could not be sustained, and the
efforts of the court agents were directed to draw from More
some approbation of the king's marriage. But to this neither
cajolery nor threats could move him. The preposterous charge
was urged that it was by his advice that the king had com-
mitted himself in his book against Luther to an assertion of
the pope's authority, whereby the title of " Defender of the
Faith " had been gained, but in reality a sword put into the
pope's hand to fight against him. More was able to reply that
he had warned the king that this very thing might happen,
that upon some breach of amity between the crown of England
and the pope Henry's too pronounced assertion of the papal
authority might be turned against himself, " therefore it were
best that place be amended, and his authority more slenderly
touched." " Nay," replied the king, " that it shall not; we
are so much bound to the see of Rome that we cannot do too
much honour unto it. Whatsoever impediment be to the
contrary, we will set forth that authority to the utmost; for we
have received from that see our crown imperial," " which,"
added More, " till his grace with his own mouth so told me
1 Ep. 426, Appendix.
MORE, SIR THOMAS
825
I never heard before." Anything more defiant and exasperating
than this could not well have been said. But it could not be
laid hold of, and the charge of treason being too ridiculous to
be proceeded with, More's name was struck out of the bill.
When his daughter brought him the news, More calmly said,
" I' faith, Meg. quod differtur, non aufertur: that which is
postponed is not dropt." At another time, having asked his
daughter how the court went and how Queen Anne did, he
received for answer, " Never better; there is nothing else but
dancing and sporting." To this More answered, " Alas, Meg, it
pitieth me to remember unto what misery, poor soul, she will
shortly come; these dances of hers will prove such dances that
she will spurn our heads off like footballs; but it will not be long
ere her head will dance the like dance." 1 So the speech runs
in the Life by More's great-grandson; but in the only trust-
worthy record, the life by his son-in-law Roper, More's reply
ends with the words, " she will shortly come." In this, as in
other instances, the later statement has the appearance of
having been an imaginative extension of the earlier.
In 1534 the Act of Supremacy was passed and the oath ordered
to be tendered. More was sent for to Lambeth, where he offered
to swear to the succession, but steadily refused the oath of supre-
macy as against his conscience. Thereupon he was given in
charge to the abbot of Westminster, and, persisting in his refusal,
was four days afterwards committed to the Tower. After a
close and even cruel confinement (he was denied the use of pen
and ink) of more than a year, he was brought to trial before
a special commission and a packed jury. Even so More would
have been acquitted, when at the last moment Rich, the solicitor-
general, quitted the bar and presented himself as a witness
for the Crown. Being sworn, he detailed a confidential con-
versation he had had with the prisoner in the Tower. He
affirmed that, having himself admitted in the course of this
conversation " that there were things which no parliament
could do e.g. no parliament could make a law that God
should not be God," Sir Thomas had replied, " No more could
the parliament make the king supreme head of the Church." By
this act of perjury a verdict of " guilty " was procured from
the jury. The execution of the sentence followed within the
week, on the yth of July 1535. The head was fixed upon
London Bridge. The vengeance of Henry was not satisfied
by this judicial murder of his friend and servant; he enforced
the confiscation of what small property More had left, expelled
Lady More from the house at Chelsea, and even set aside assign-
ments which had been legally executed by More, who foresaw
what would happen before the commission of the alleged treason.
More's property was settled on Princess Elizabeth, afterwards
queen, who kept possession of it till her death.
Sir Thomas More was twice married, but had children only
by his first wife, who died about 1511. His only son, John,
married an heiress, Ann Cresacre, and was the grandfather
of Cresacre More, Sir Thomas More's biographer. His eldest
daughter, Margaret (1505-1544), married to William Roper
(1406-1 578), an official of the court of king's bench and a member
of parliament under Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary,
is one of the foremost women in the annals of the country for
her virtues, high intelligence and various accomplishments.
She read Latin and Greek, was a proficient in music, and in
the sciences so far as they were then accessible. Her devotion
to her father is historical; she gave him not only the tender
affection of a daughter but the high-minded sympathy of a soul
great as his own.
More was not only a lawyer, a wit, a scholar, and a man of
wide general reading; he was also a man of cultivated taste,
who delighted in music and painting. He was an intimate
friend of Holbein, whose first introduction to England was as
a visitor to More in his house at Chelsea, where the painter
is said to have remained for three years, and where he probably
first met Henry VIII. Holbein painted portraits of Sir Thomas
and'his family. More was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886.
The Epistola ad Dorpium exhibits More emphatically on the
1 Cresacre More, p. 231.
side of the new learning. It contains a vindication of the study
of Greek, and of the desirability of printing the text of the Greek
Testament views which at that date required an enlightened
understanding to enter into, and which were condemned by the
party to which More afterwards attached himself. On the
other hand, he can at the most be doubtfully exculpated from
the charge of having tortured men and children for heresy.
It is admitted by himself that he inflicted punishment for
religious opinion. Erasmus only ventures to say in his friend's
defence " that while he was chancellor no man was put to death
for these pestilent opinions, while so many suffered death in
France and the Low Countries." His views and feelings con-
tracted under the combined influences of his professional practice
and of public employment. In the Utopia, published in Latin
in 1516 (ist English translation, 1551), he not only denounced
the ordinary vices of power, but evinced an enlightenment
of sentiment which went far beyond the most statesmanlike
ideas to be found among his contemporaries, pronouncing not
merely for toleration, but rising even to the philosophical con-
ception of the indifference of religious creed. It was to this
superiority of view, and not merely to the satire on the
administration of Henry VII., that we must ascribe the popu-
larity of the work in the i6th century. For as a romance the
Utopia has little interest either of incident or of character. It
does not, as has been said, anticipate the economical doctrines
of Adam Smith, and much of it is fanciful without being either
witty or ingenious. The idea of putting forward political and
philosophical principles under the fiction of an ideal state was
doubtless taken from Plato's Republic. The Utopia in turn
suggested the literary form adopted by Bacon, Hobbes, Filmer,
and other later writers; and the name of the book has passed into
the language as signifying optimistic but impracticable ideals of
reform.
For a bibliography of More's numerous works see the article in
the Diet. Nat. Biog. and the Catalogue of the Alfred Cock collection
of books and portraits of or relating to Sir Thomas More which is
preserved in the Guildhall Library, London. The more important
of his works and their editions are here given. Luciani dialogi
. . . compluria opuscula ab Erasmo Roterodamo et Thoma Moro . . .
traducta (Paris, 1506 and 1514; Venice, Aldus, 1516, &c.) was
accomplished by Erasmus and More in 1505. The Lyfe of John
Picus, earle of Mirandula . . . printed by Wynkyn de Worde in
1510, translated by More from the Venice ed. of 1498, was edited
by J. M. Rigg for the Tudor Library in 1890. Historic of the pittiful
Life and unfortunate Death of Edward the Fifth and the then Duke of
York with . . . Richard the Third was written, according to Rastelf,
in 1513, and first printed in a corrupt version in Grafton's continua-
tion of Harding in 1543; it is included by Rastell in his 1557 edition
of More's Wofkes, but it has been suggested that the Latin original
was by Cardinal Morton; as the History of King Richard III. it
was edited by J. R. Lumby for the Pitt Press in 1883. The Libellus
vere aureus . . . better known as Utopia, was printed at Louvain
in 1516, under the superintendence of Erasmus, and appeared in
many subsequent editions, many of them of great bibliographical
value, the finest being the Basel edition of 1518. It was translated
into the chief languages of Europe, and into English by Ralph
Robinson as A jruteful and Pleasaunt Worke of the best State of a
Publyque Weale, and of the newe Yle called Utopia (Abraham Nell,
1551); modern editions are by J. Dibdin (2 vols., 1808), Professor
E. Arber (English Reprints, 1869), by J. R. Lumby for the Pitt
Press (1879), by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press (1893), by
J. Churton Collins for the Clarendon Press (1904), by R. Steele for
the King's Classics (1908), &c. Other translations of Utopia are
by Gilbert Burnet (1684) and by A. Cayley (Memoirs of More,
2 vols., 1808). Against Luther and Tyndale Sir T. More wrote A
Dycloge of Syr Thomas More, Knt., written in 1528 and printed by
John Rastell in 1529; Sir Thomas More's Answere to the fyrste parte
of the Poyson'd book . . . The Souper of the Lorde (William Rastell,
1532) with a " Second Parte " in 1533. The Apologye of Syr
Thomas More, written in 1533, is a defence of his own polemical style
and of the treatment of heretics by the clergy. A Dyalpge of Comfort
against Tribulacion, printed by Rastell in 1533, was destined primarily
for More's family.
More's English works were collected by William Rastell and
published as The Worke of Sir Thomas More Knyght by Cawood,
Waly and Tottel in 1557; his Latin works Thomas Mori . . .
Lucubrationes were partially collected at Basel 1563 and in 1566
(omnia opera) at Louvain ; a fuller edition drawn chiefly from these
two appeared at Frankfort and Leipzig in 1689. Modern selections
were edited by W. J. Walter (Baltimore, 1841), by T. E. Bridgett
(Wisdom and Wit of Blessed Thomas More, London, 1891). His
826
MOREAS MOREAU, H.
correspondence with Erasmus is partly included in the editions of
the Letters of Erasmus, and much of his correspondence is calendared
in Gairdner's Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., the letters written
to his family in his last days being found in vol. viii.
The Mirror of Vertue in Worldly Greatness; or, the Life of Syr
Thomas More was written by his son-in-law William Roper about
the end of Mary's reign. It was preserved in MS. during the reign
of Elizabeth, and handed down in copies, many of which were
carelessly made. It was not given to the press till 1626, with the
date of Paris. Reprints were made by Hearne (Oxford, 1716), by
Lewis (1729, 1731), who added an appendix of documents, and by
Singer (1817, 1822) and for the King's Library (1902). Roper's Life
is the source of all the many subsequent biographies. More's Life
in MS. (Harleian 6253 and elsewhere), anonymous, but by Nicolas
Harpsfield, was also written in Mary's reign. All that is material
in this MS. is taken from Roper. Another anonymous Life, written
in 1599, printed in Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography, ii. 43-185,
is chiefly compiled from Roper and Harpsfield. The preface is signed
Ro. Ba. (Robert Barnstaple ?). William Rastell's Life of More, of
which fragments are preserved in the Arundel Coll. (Brit. Mus.), is, un-
happily, lost. Thomas Stapleton (Tres Thomae, s. res gestae S. Thomae
apostoli, S. Thomae archiepiscopi Cantuariensis, Thomae Mori (Douay,
1588; Cologne, 1612) and the Vila Thomae Mori (separately ),(Gratz,
1689) translates Roper, interweaving what material he could find
scattered through More's works and letters and the notices of him
in the writings of his contemporaries. Cresacre More, great-grand-
son of Sir Thomas, compiled a new life about the year 1627. It was
printed at Paris without date, but, according to the editor, J. Hunter,
in 1631. The title of this edition is. The Life and Death of Sir
Thos. More, Lord High Chancellour of England, and with new
title-page, 1642, 1726, 1828. This biography is cited by the subse-
quent biographers as an independent authority. But it is almost
entirely borrowed from Roper and Stapleton. The additions made
have sometimes the appearance of rhetorical amplifications of Roper's
simple statements. At other times, they are decorative miracles.
The whole is couched in that strain of devotional exaggeration in
which the lives of the saints are usually composed. The author
seems to imply that he had received supernatural communications
from the spirit of his ancestor. Already, only eighty years after
More's execution, hagiography had taken possession of the facts
and was transmuting them into an edifying legend. Cresacre More's
Life cannot be alleged as evidence for any facts which are not other-
wise vouched. It has been remarked by Hunter that More's life and
works have been all along manipulated for political purposes, and
in the interest of the holy see. In Mary's reign, and in the tide of
Catholic reaction, Roper and Harpsfield wrote lives of him; Ellis
Heywood dedicated his II More (Florence, 1556) a fanciful account
of More's life at Chelsea, to Cardinal Pole, and Tottell reprinted the
folio of his English works. Stapleton prepared his Tres Thomae in
1588, when the recovery of England to the see of Rome was looked
for by the Spanish invasion. In 1599, when there was a prospect
of a disputed succession, the anonymous Life by Ro. Ba was com-
posed ; and soon after Charles had allied himself with a Catholic,
the Life by Cresacre More issued from the press. Hunter might have
added that Stapleton was being reprinted at Gratz at the time when
the conversion of England was expected from James II. The later
lives of Sir Thomas More have been numerous, the best being those
by G. T. Rudhart Thomas Morus, aus den Quellen bearbeitet (Nurem-
berg, 1829) ; by T. E. Bridgett, Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More
(1891) ; and by W. H. Hutton, Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More
(1891). Other lives are by J. Hoddesdon (London, 1652, 1662);
by Sir A. Cayley (2 vols., London, 1808); by Sir J. Mackintosh,
Lardncr's Cab. Cyclop. (London, 1831, 1844); and in Mores Works
(London, 1845) ; by Lord Campbell in Lives of the Chancellors (vol. i..
1848-1850) ; by D. Nisard in Renaissance et Reforme (Pans, 1855) ; by
Baumstark (Freiburg, 1879) ; by F. Seebohm in the Oxford Reformers
of 1498 (London, 1867). A biographical study on More's Latin
poems is Philomorus, by J. H. Marsden (2nd ed., London, 1878).
Cf. John Bruce, " Inedited documents rel. to the imprisonment and
condemnation of Sir T. More," in Archaeologia xxvii. 361374) ;
Southey, Sir Thomas More, or Colloquies on the Progress and Prospects
of Society (London, 1829); Anne Manning, The Household of Sir
Thomas More (1851, reprinted in King's Novels, 1905): S. Lee,
Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century (1904). The tragedy
of Sir Thomas More, edited by A. Dyce for the Shakespeare Society
in 1844, and connected by some commentators with Shakespeare,
was written about 1590, and therefore gives a nearly contemporary
view of More. A later playwright, James Hurdis, made More's
career the subject of a play in 1792. (M. P.)
MOREAS, JEAN (1856-1910), French poet, born at Athens
on the 1 5th of April 1856, was the grandson of Papadiomonto-
poulos, one cf the heroes of Missolonghi. He was one of the
leaders of the symbolist movement in French poetry, advocating
a relaxation of the stringent rules governing French verse;
but his early volumes of poems, Les Syrles (1884), Les Cantilenes
(1886), and Le Pelerin passionne (1891) won recognition beyond
the limits of this school. In the XIX' siecle (August n,
1885) he formulated the principles of the symbolists, defending
them from the appellation of " decadent," and in the literary
supplement of the Figaro (Sep 18, 1886) he published a manifesto
justifying the innovations of the new school as the natural
development of the prosody of Baudelaire, Mallarme and
Verlaine. Le Pelerin passionne was sympathetically reviewed
by Anatole France. As time went on he repudiated the licence
claimed by the symbolists, and became the leader of an offshoot
from the main body known as the ecole romane, the chief members
of which are Raymond de la Tailhede, Maurice du Plessys, Ernest
Raynaud, and the critic Charles Maurras. Moreas and his
new followers returned to the traditional severity of French
versification, and to the classical and antique tradition. His
later volumes are Poesies, 1886-1896 (1898), and Stances
(6 vols., complete ed. 1905), Histoire de Jean de Paris, roi de
France (1902), Voyage en Grece en i8gj (1902), Conies de la
itieille France (1903), and a classic drama in verse, Iphigenie a
Aulis (1904), in close imitation of Euripides, which was repre-
sented on the 24th of August 1903 in the ancient theatre of
Orange, and subsequently at the Odeon in Paris. He died on
the 3ist of March 1910.
See Anatole France, La Vie litteraire (4th ser., 1892); A. van
Bever and P. Leautaud, Poetes d'aujourd'hui, 1880-1900 (nth ed.,
1905); P. Berthelot, art. " Symbolisme " in La Grande encyclopedic ;
and J. de Gourmont, Jean Moreas, biographie critique (1905).
MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826-1898), French painter, was born
in Paris on the 6th of April 1826. His father was an architect,
who, discerning the lad's promise, sent him to study under
Picot, a second-rate artist but clever teacher. The only influence
which really affected Moreau's development was that of the
painter Chasseriau (1819-1857), with whom he was intimate
when they both lived in the Rue Frochot, and of whom we find
reminiscences even in his later works. Moreau's first picture
was a " Pieta " (1852), now in the cathedral at Angouleme. In
the Salon of 1853 he exhibited a " Scene from the Song of Songs "
(now in the Dijon Museum) and the " Death of Darius " (in
the Moreau Gallery, Paris), both conspicuously under the
influence of Chasseriau. To the Great Exhibition of 1855
he sent the " Athenians with the Minotaur " (in the Museum
at Bourg-en-Bresse) and " Moses putting off his Sandals within
Sight of the Promised Land." " Oedipus and the Sphinx,"
begun in 1862, and exhibited at the Salon of 1864, marked the
beginning of his best period, during which he chose his subjects
from history, religion, legend and fancy. In 1865 he exhibited
" Medea and Jason " and " The Young Man and Death ";
in 1866, the " Head of Orpheus " (in the Luxembourg Gallery);
" Hesiod and the Muse," a drawing; and " The Peri," a drawing;
" Prometheus " (in the Moreau Gallery) ; " Jupiter and Europa,"
a ' Pieta," and " The Saint and the Poet," in 1869. After
working in obscurity for seven years, he reappeared at the Salon
in 1876 with " Hercules and the Hydra," " Saint Sebastian,"
" Salome Dancing " (presented to the Luxembourg by M.
Hayem); and in 1878 with "The Sphinx's Riddle solved."
" Jacob," and " Moses on the Nile." Moreau exhibited for the
last time at the Salon of 1880, when he contributed " Helen "
and " Galatea "; to the Great Exhibition of 1889 he again sent
the " Galatea " and " The Young Man and Death." He took
prize medals at the Salon in 1864, 1865, 1869 and 1878. He
was made knight of the Legion of Honour in 1875 and officer
in 1883. He succeeded Delaunay as professor at the Ecole
des Beaux Arts, and his teaching was highly popular. When
he died, on the i8th of April 1898, he bequeathed to the state
his house, containing about 8000 pictures, water-colours,
cartoons and drawings, which form the Moreau Gallery, one
of the best organized collections in Paris, arranged by M. Rupp,
his executor, and, together with Delaunay and Fromentin, one
of his closest friends.
See Ary Renan, Moreau (Paris, 1900) ; Paul Fiat, Le Musee Gustave
Moreau (Paris, 1900).
MOREAU, HEGESIPPE (1810-1838), French lyric poet, was
born in Paris on the gth of April 1810. In his early youth
his parents, who were poor, migrated to Provins, where the
MOREAU, J. V. M. MOREAU DE SAINT MERY
827
mother went into service and the father took the post of usher
in a public school. He went to Paris before 1830, and lived
a Bohemian life. He was habitually houseless, and exposed
himself to the dangers of a cholera hospital in the great epidemic
of 1832 simply to obtain shelter and food. Then he revisited
Provins and published a kind of satirical serial called Diogene.
Some years of this life entirely ruined his health, and it was
only just before his death that he succeeded in getting his
collected poems published, selling the copyright for 4 sterling
and 80 copies of the book. This volume, Myosotis, was received
not unfavourably, but the author's death on the zoth of
December 1838, in a refuge of the destitute, created an interest
in it which was proportionately excessive. Moreau's work has
a strong note of imitation, especially in his earlier songs, dis-
tinguished from those of his model, Beranger, chiefly by
their elegiac note. Some of his poems, such as the elegy La
Voulzie (1837) and the charming romance La Fermiere (1835),
have great sweetness and show incontestable poetic power.
Moreau wrote some charming prose stories: Le Gui de chene,
La Souris blanche, &c.
MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR MARIE (1763-1813), French
general, was born at Morlaix in Brittany on the I4th of February
1763. His father was an avocat in good practice, and instead
of allowing him to enter the army, as he attempted to do,
insisted on his studying law at the university of Rennes.
Young Moreau showed no inclination for law, but revelled in
the freedom of a student's life. Instead of taking his degree
he continued to live with the students as their hero and leader,
formed them into a sort of army, which he commanded as their
provost, and when 1789 came he commanded the students in the
daily affrays which took place at Rennes between the young
noblesse and the populace. In 1791 he was elected a lieut.-
colonel of the volunteers of Ille-et-Vilaine. With them he served
under Dumouriez, and in 1793 the good order of his battalion,
and his own martial character and republican principles secured
his promotion as general of brigade. Carnot, who had an eye
for the true qualities of a general, promoted him to be general
of division early in 1794, and gave him command of the right
wing of the army under Pichegru, in Flanders. The battle
of Tourcoing established his military fame, and in 1795 he was
given the command of the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle,
with which he crossed the Rhine and advanced into Germany.
He was at first completely successful, won several victories
and penetrated to the Isar (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS),
but at last had to retreat before the archduke Charles. However,
the skill he displayed in conducting his retreat which was
considered a model for such operations greatly enhanced his
own reputation, the more so as he managed to bring back with
him more than 5000 prisoners. In 1797 he again, after prolonged
difficulties caused by want of funds and material, crossed the
Rhine, but his operations were checked by the conclusion of
the preliminaries of Leoben between Bonaparte and the Aus-
trians. It was at this time he found out the traitorous corre-
spondence between his old comrade and commander Pichegru
and the emigre prince de Conde. He had already appeared as
Pichegru's defender against imputations of disloyalty, and now he
foolishly concealed his discovery, with the result that he has
ever since been suspected of at least partial complicity. Too
late to clear himself, he sent the correspondence to Paris and
issued a proclamation to the army denouncing Pichegru as
a traitor. He was dismissed, and it was only when in 1799
the absence of Bonaparte and the victorious advance of Suvarov
made it necessary to have some tried and experienced general
in Italy that he was re-employed. He commanded the Army
of Italy, with little success, for a short time before being appointed
to the Army of the Rhine, and remained with Joubert, his
successor in Italy, till Novi had been fought and lost. Joubert
fell in the battle, and Moreau then conducted the retreat of
the army to Genoa, where he handed over the command to
Championnet. When Bonaparte returned from Egypt he found
Moreau at Paris, greatly dissatisfied with the Directory both
as a general and as a republican, and obtained his assistance in
the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, when Moreau commanded the
force which confined two of the directors in the Luxembourg. In
reward, the First Consul again gave him command of the Army
of the Rhine, with which he forced back the Austrians from
the Rhine to the Isar. On his return to Paris he married Mile
Hullot, a Creole of Josephine's circle, an ambitious woman
who gained a complete ascendancy over him, and after spending
a few glorious weeks with the army in Germany and winning
the celebrated victory of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3, 1800) he settled
down to enjoy the fortune he had acquired during his campaigns.
His wife collected around her all who were discontented
with the aggrandisement of Napoleon. This " club Moreau "
annoyed Napoleon, and encouraged the Royalists, but Moreau,
though not unwilling to become a military dictator to restore
the republic, would be no party to an intrigue for the restoration
of Louis XVIII. All this was well known to Napoleon, who
seized the conspirators. Moreau's condemnation was procured
only by great pressure being brought to bear by Bonaparte on
the judges; and after it was pronounced the First Consul treated
him with a pretence of leniency, commuting a sentence of im-
prisonment to one of banishment. Moreau passed through Spain
and embarked for America, where he lived in quiet and obscurity
for some years at Morrisville, New Jersey, till news came of
the destruction of the grande armee in Russia. Then, probably
at the instigation of his wife, he committed the last and least
excusable of the series of well-meant political errors that marked
his career. Negotiations were set on foot with an old friend
in the circle of republican intriguers, Bernadotte, who, being
now crown prince of Sweden and at the head of an army opposing
Napoleon, introduced Moreau to the tsar Alexander. In the
hope of returning to France to re-establish the regime of popular
government, Moreau gave advice to the allied sovereigns as
to the conduct of the war, but fortunately for his fame as a
patriot he did not live to invade France. He was mortally
wounded while talking to the tsar at the battle of Dresden on
the 27th of August 1813, and died on the 2nd of September.
He was buried at St Petersburg. His wife received a pension
from the tsar, and was given the rank of marechale by Louis
XVIII. , but his countrymen spoke of his " defection " and
compared him to Dumouriez and Pichegru.
Moreau's fame as a general stands very high, though he was
far from possessing Napoleon's transcendent gifts. His com-
binations were skilful and elaborate, and his temper always
unruffled when most closely pressed. Moreau was a sincere
republican, though his own father was guillotined in the Terror.
He was fortunate in the moment of his death, though he would
have been more so had he died in America. He seems by his
final words, " Soyez tranquilles, messieurs; c'est mon sort,"
not to have regretted being removed from his equivocal position
as a general in arms against his country.
The literature on Moreau is copious, the best book being C.
Jochmus, General Moreau Abriss e-iner Geschichte seines Lebens
und seiner Feldzuge (Berlin, 1814). A more ordinary work is A. de
Beauchamp, Vie polilique, militaire, et priv6e du General Moreau,
translated by Philippart (London, 1814); and there is a curious
tract on his death in Russian, translated into English under the title,
Some Details Concerning General Moreau and his Last Moments, by
Paul Svinin (London, 1814).
MOREAU DE SAINT MERY, MEDERIC LOUIS ELIE (1750-
1819), French politician, was born at Fort de France, in the
island of Martinique, on the 28th of January 1750. He came
to Paris at the age of nineteen, and became an avocat at the
parlement of Paris. He subsequently returned to Martinique
to practise law, and in 1780 was appointed member of the colonial
council of San Domingo. Returning to Paris in 1 784, he received
a commission to study the legislation of the French colonies,
and 'published Lois et constitutions des colonies franfaises de
I'Amerique sous le Vent de 1550 a 1785. In 1789 he was president
of the assembly of the electors of Paris, played an active part
in the early days of the Revolution, and was designated by
Martinique deputy to the Constituent Assembly. His moderate
ideas were the occasion of his arrest after the loth of August
1792, but he contrived to escape to the United States, opened
8 2 8
MORECAMBE MORELL
a bookseller's shop at Philadelphia, and published Description
topographique et politique de la partie espagnole et de la partie
franfaise de I'lle de Saint- Domingue (1796-1798). Returning to
France in 1799, he became historiographer to the navy and
councillor of state, and drafted in part the colonial and maritime
code. In 1802 he was appointed by the First Consul administrator
of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla, but was dis-
missed in 1806 for slackness in repressing insubordination.
From that date until his death he lived on a pension paid him
by the Empress Josephine, who was a kinswoman of his.
See Fournier-Tescay, Discours prononce aux obskques de Moreau
le 30 Janvier 1819; Silvestre, Notice sur Moreau (Paris, 1819).
HORECAMBE, a municipal borough, watering-place and
seaport in the Lancaster parliamentary division of Lancashire,
England, on Morecambe Bay, 236 m. N.W. by N. from London
by the London & North- Western railway; served also by the
Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 11,798. A fine promenade
extends along the shore; there are a quay and a pier, a winter
garden, and all the appointments of a seaside resort. The
Midland railway is the harbour authority. The town was
incorporated in 1902, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 16 councillors. The former alternative name
was Poulton-le-Sands. Area, 1801 acres.
MOREL, the surname of several French classical scholars and
printers in the i6th and i7th centuries, known for their editions
of classical authors and the Fathers, (i) GUILLAUME MOREL
(1505-1564) was born at Tilleul in Normandy. After acting
as proof-reader in a Paris firm, he set up for himself, and
subsequently succeeded Turnebus as king's printer in 1555.
His most important work was Thesaurus vocutn omnium latin-
arum, containing a number of quotations from Greek authors,
taken from hitherto unpublished MSS. in the Paris library.
(2) FEDERIC (as he always called himself, not Frederic) MOREL,
surnamed the Elder (1523-1583), was born in Champagne.
He was of noble family, and was not connected with Guillaume
Morel. About 1550 he married the daughter of the famous
printer, Michel de Vascosan, in 1557 set up in business in the
rue Saint Jean de Beauvais, and in 1571 was appointed printer
to the king. His chief publications were the Declamationes
of Quintilian and L' Architecture de Philibert Delorme. (3)
FEDERIC MOREL, son of the preceding, surnamed the Younger
(1558-1630), was one of the greatest Greek scholars of his time.
In addition to the management of his father's business, to which
he succeeded, he held the professorship of eloquence at the
College de France. The number of his translations and commen-
taries on the Fathers and classical authors (Aristotle, Dio
Chrysostom, Strabo) was very large; special mention may be
made of his revised edition of Amyot's translation of Plutarch
and his Latin translations of some of the dissertations of Maximus
of Tyre, of Libanius, Hierocles and Theodoret. His commen-
tary on the Psalms is still considered valuable. (4) CLAUDE
MOREL (1574-1626), brother of the preceding, also published
editions of many of the Fathers and other authors, with learned
prefaces and notes. (5) CHARLES MOREL (1602-1640) was
printer and secretary to the king. He followed the example
of the other members of his family, and issued the works of
Clement of Alexandria, Gregory of Nazianzus, Cyril, Synesius
and Chrysostom, and the Concilia generalia et provincialia
of the German theologian Severin Bini. (6) GILLES MOREL;
brother of the preceding (the dates of his birth and death are
unknown), was the last representative of this learned family.
The number of his publications was small, but some of them were
of great importance, the chief being the Grande bibliotheque des
peres, in 17 folio vols. (1643).
See M. Maittaire, Historia typographorum aliquot parisiensium
(1717), for all the above; Fe'deiic Morel the elder is the subject of a
monograph by J. Dumoulin (Paris, 1901).
HORELIA (formerly Valladolid), a city of Mexico and capital
of the state of Michoacan, 125 m. direct and 234 m. by rail
W. by N. of the city of Mexico, near the southern margin of
the great Mexican plateau, 6398 ft. above sea-level, in lat.
,19 42' N. long., 100 54' W. Pop. (1900), 37,278, partly Indians
and mestizos. Morelia is served by a branch of the Mexican
National railway; its station is outside the city, with which
it is connected by a small tramway line. The city is built on
a rocky hill rising from the Guayangareo valley, which gives
to it a strikingly picturesque appearance. It has the usual
rectangular plan, with several pretty squares and straight, clean,
well-paved streets. Facing the plaza mayor, now called the
Plaza de los Martfres because of the execution there of the patriot
Matamoros in 1814, is the cathedral, one of the finest specimens
of the old Spanish renaissance church architecture in Mexico.
Among its interior adornments is an onyx font, some fine
wood carving in the choir, and the silver doors to the shrines
of its chapels. Opposite the cathedral is the government
palace, which also contains the public library. The municipal
government is housed in an ancient tobacco factory converted
to public uses, and a fine old Capuchin convent now serves as
a public hospital. The Paseo, or public park, is distinguished
for its fine trees and flowers. The Morelianos are noted for
their love of music, and musical competitions are held each
year, the best band being sent to the city of Mexico to compete
with similar organizations from other states. The public water-
supply is brought into the city over a fine old aqueduct (3 m.
in length, carried on arches), which was built in 1785 by the
bishop of the diocese as a famine relief work. In common
with the state of Michoacan, Morelia is a stronghold of clericalism
and conservatism. A large number of private schools are
maintained through Church influence in opposition to the
public schools. Conspicuous among these is a large girls' school.
Another institution is the college of San Nicolas de Hidalgo,
which was founded at Patzcuaro in 1540 by Bishop Quiroga
(who had been sent into Michoacan to redress the wrongs
committed by Nuno de Guzman), was removed to Valladolid
(Morelia) a few years later to be combined with a local
college, and was rebuilt in 1882. It is the oldest existing
collegiate institution in Mexico; in it Hidalgo once taught
and Morelos was a student. The city's manufactures include
cotton, woollen and silk textiles, cigars and cigarettes, and
dulces, or sweetmeats, Morelia being noted throughout Mexico
for the latter, particularly for a variety called Guayabate.
Morelia, first known as Valladolid, was founded in 1541 by
Viceroy Mendoza. In 1582 Valladolid replaced Patzcuaro
as the capital of Michoacan. It was the birthplace of both
Morelos and Iturbide, and was captured by Hidalgo at the
beginning of the revolutionary outbreak of 1810-11, and by
Iturbide in 1821 when on his march to Mexico City, where he
was crowned emperor. Its name was changed to Morelia in
1828, in honour of the revolutionary leader Jose Maria Morelos
y Pav6n, and in 1863 it was made the see of an archbishop.
MORELL, JOHN DANIEL (1816-1891), British educationalist,
was born on the i8th of June at Little Baddow, Essex, where
his father was minister of the Congregational church (1799-1852).
He proceeded to Homerton College in 1833, where he studied
theology under Dr Pye Smith. He then entered Glasgow
University, where he took his M.A. degree in 1841. Subse-
quently he studied philosophy and theology under Fichte at
Bonn, and returned to England to undertake the pastorate
of the Congregational church at Gosport. After three years'
work, he decided to give up the ministry in favour of philosophical
work. As early as 1846 he made his name by his Historical and
Critical View of the Speculative Philosophy of Europe in the
Nineteenth Century, which brought him to the notice of Lord
Lansdowne, who made him an inspector of schools. From
1848 till 1876 he was active in this capacity. As a result
of his experience he published numerous educational works,
e.g. The Analysis of Sentences (1852), The Essentials of English
Grammar and Analysis (1855), Handbook of Logic (1855),
Grammar of the English Language (1857). He also published four
lectures on The Philosophical Tendencies of the Age (1848), The
Philosophy of Religion (1849), Fichte 's Contributions to Moral
Philosophy (1860), Philosophical Fragments (1878), An Introduc-
tion to Mental Philosophy on the Inductive Method (1884). He
died on the ist of April 1891.
MOREL-LADEUIL MORELLI
829
MOREL-LADEUIL, LEONARD (1820-1888), French gold-
smith and sculptor, was born at Clermont-Ferrand. He was
apprenticed first to Morel, a manufacturer of bronzes, under
whom he became one of the most expert chasers, or ciseleurs, in
France, and then to Antoine Vechte, to acquire the art of
repousse (q.v.) the art in which he was to excel. He studied
further under J. J. Feuchere and then attracted the notice of
the comte d'Orsay and the due de Morny, through whose
recommendation the French government, desirous of popu-
larizing the idea of the new Imperialism, commissioned him
to produce the " Empire Shield." Napoleon III. notified his
warm approval, but the trade, annoyed that a craftsman
should obtain commissions direct, resented the innovation
and thenceforward boycotted the young artist, whose beautiful
and poetic vase, " Dance of the Willis " (the spirits dancing
round the vase, above the lake represented on a dish below)
none would take. He was encouraged nevertheless by a
foreign dealer in Paris, Marchi, who employed him on
statuettes, mainly religious in character, until 1859, when
Messrs Elkington, in view of the great exhibition of 1862,
engaged him to work in Birmingham for three years in
repoussl, assuring him a free hand. Following his silver
" Night " came " Day," and then the " Inventions " vase,
which placed him at once at the top of his profession. This
was followed by the beautiful plateau called " Dreams," which
was subscribed for (1500) by Birmingham as the town wedding-
gift to the prince and princess of Wales. Morel-Ladeuil's
contract was then renewed for five years, but as a matter of fact
he remained with the firm for twenty-three years at their
London house, the first result being his masterpiece the " Milton
Shield: Paradise Lost " (in repousst steel and silver), which was
the sensation of the Paris Exhibition. It was bought by the
English government for 3000, and thousands of copies made
by " galvanoplastie " or electrotype were sold and spread all
over the world. Then after " The Months " came another
masterpiece, the " Helicon Vase," in steel, silver, and gold,
priced at 6000, which in course of time was presented by the
ladies and gentlemen of the royal house to Queen Victoria on
her first jubilee. For the Philadelphia Exhibition (1876) Morel-
Ladeuil produced " A Pompeian Lady at her Toilet," following
it in 1878 with the " Bunyan Shield," a companion to the
Milton. After putting forth his reliefs " The Merry Wives of
Windsor," " The Merchant of Venice," and " Much Ado about
Nothing," in view of his failing health he retired to Boulogne,
where he died of angina pectoris on the isth of March 1888,
and was buried with much ceremony at Clermont-Ferrand.
His total work, apart from the productions of his youth, numbers
35 pieces, which richly reveal his elegant and refined fancy
and grace, his feeling for correct and dainty ornament, and
his love of pure art marked by an elevated if rather sentimental
taste and a noble style.
See L'CEuvre de Morel-Ladeuil, sculpteur-ciseleur, by L. Morel
(Paris, 1904).
MORELLET, ANDRE (1727-1819), French economist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Lyons on the 7th of March
1727. He was one of the last survivors of the philosophes,
and in this character he figures in many memoirs, such as Mme
de Remusat's. He was educated by the Jesuits in his native
town, and at the Sorbonne; he then took holy orders, but his
designation of abbe was the chief thing clerical about him.
He had a ready and biting wit, and Voltaire called him " L'Abbe
Mord-les." His work was chiefly occasional, and the most
notable parts of it were a smart pamphlet in answer to Charles
Palissot's scurrilous play Les Philosophes (which procured him
a short sojourn in the Bastille for an alleged libel on Palissot's
patroness, the princesse de Robeck), and a reply to Galiani's
Commerce des bles (1770). Later, he made himself useful in
quasi-diplomatic communications with English statesmen,
and was pensioned, being, moreover, elected a member of the
Academy in 1785. A year before his death in Paris on the I2th
of January 1819 he brought out four volumes of Melanges
de littirature et de philosophic duXVIII* siecle, composed chiefly
of selections from his former publications, and after his
death appeared his valuable Memoires surle XVIII' siede etla
Revolution (2 vols., 1821).
A bibliography of his numerous works is given in QueVard's La
France litteraire, vol. vi. ; see also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi,
vol. i.
MORELLI, GIOVANNI (1816-1891), Italian patriot and art
critic, was born at Verona on the i6th of February 1816.
He was educated first at Bergamo, the home of his mother,
who had removed thither on the death of her husband; and
then at Aarau in Switzerland. At the age of eighteen he
commenced his university career at Munich, being debarred
as a Protestant from entering any Italian college, and became
the pupil of Ignatius Dollinger, the celebrated professor of
anatomy and physiology. Natural philosophy and medicine
were the studies to which he specially devoted himself, but he
was also keenly interested in all scientific and literary pursuits.
At Munich, and later at Erlangen, Berlin and Paris, his brilliant
gifts and independence of thought and judgment attracted the
attention of the most distinguished men of the day. In Paris
he became intimate with Otto Mtindler, and his intercourse
with that eminent art critic was not without its effect in deter-
mining the direction of his future studies; and, during a summer
spent in Switzerland, he formed a friendship with Louis Agassiz,
whose teaching made a deep and lasting impression upon him.
On his return to Italy in 1840 he became associated in Florence
with that band of patriots who were strenuously labouring for
the deliverance of their country from the oppressive Austrian
rule. He took an active part in the war of 1848, and was
subsequently chosen by the provisional Lombard government
to plead the cause of Italian unity before the German parlia-
ment assembled at Frankfort. In 1860, in recognition of the
great services rendered to his country by Morelli, Victor
Emmanuel named him a citizen of the Sardinian kingdom, and
in the following year he was elected deputy for Bergamo to the
first free Italian parliament. He was a staunch supporter
of Cavour, and, though never a leading politician, exercised
a considerable influence over the most prominent statesmen of
the Right, who valued his sound judgment, integrity, moderation
and foresight. One of his first acts after his election was to draw
the attention of parliament to the urgent need of reform in the
administration of matters relating to the fine arts. In con-
sequence of his representations, a commission was appointed
with the object of bringing under government control all works
of art which could be considered public property. The com-
mission, of which Morelli was named president, began its work
in Umbria and the Marches, and he appointed as his secretary
G. B. Cavalcaselle, who was then engaged in collecting materials
for a work on Italian art. According to one who knew Morelli
well, much that Cavalcaselle then learned from his chief was
embodied in the well-known History of Painting, which was
published in 1864 in conjunction with Sir Joseph Crowe.
The immediate result of Morelli's first labours in the Marches
was the passing of the law, which bears his name, strictly pro-
hibiting the sale of works of art from public and religious
institutions. In 1873 he was named a senator of the kingdom
of Italy, having voluntarily resigned his seat in the Lower
House owing to the increasingly democratic tendencies of the
Chamber. In Rome, the seat of the government since 1870,
he spent several months of each year; but his settled home was
Milan, whither he had removed from Bergamo in 1874. Here
he published some of his researches into the history of Italian art.
In order to be free to speak his mind unreservedly, he determined
to adopt a pseudonym and to write in German. His first
contributions, a series of articles on the Borghese Gallery,
were published in Liitzow's Zeitschrijtfilr bildende Kunst between
the years 1874 and 1876. Posing as an art-loving Russian,
who puts forth his opinions with the utmost diffidence, he
adopted the pseudonym of Ivan Lermolieff an anagram of
his own name with a Russian termination and described his
essays as Ein kritischer Versuch, translated from the Russian
by Johannes Schwarze, this time a Germanized form of Morelli.
8 3 o
MORELOS
The originality of the method recommended by the author for
studying art, the general soundness of his critical opinions, and
the many new (and apparently correct) attributions suggested
for pictures in the Borghese Gallery and elsewhere, attracted
the attention of all students of art; but failure attended every
attempt to discover the identity of the Russian critic. In 1880
Morelli published a small book under the same pseudonym,
entitled, Die Werke italienischer Meister in den Galerien von
Munchen, Dresden und Berlin. The appearance of this volume,
which was cast in so original a form that it was altogether
unlike anything which had preceded it in the realm of art
scholarship, created an extraordinary sensation. The daring
opinions expressed by the author struck at the roots of all
existing art criticism, and were often diametrically opposed to
the views of the most renowned art historians of the day. The
importance of the work could not be denied, and in spite of
determined opposition and searching and bitter attacks, it
gained' general recognition as a standard work which no serious
student of art could ignore. It inaugurated a new and more
scientific method of criticism, and marks an epoch in the art
studies of the igth century. The book was translated into
English in 1883, with Morelli's own name upon the title-page,
and a few years later into Italian. In the decade between
1880 and 1890 he contributed three articles to German periodicals :
Perugino oder Rafael, Raffaels Jugendentwickelung, Noch einmal
das venezianische Skizzenbuch. Being addressed to critics who
had challenged his opinions, they are somewhat polemical in
character, but contain a mass of information, more especially
about drawings. He also wrote a skit on art connoisseurship
in Europe, intending to publish it in English as the reflections
of an American on the follies of art critics in the Old World;
but he never carried out his intention, though some portion of the
MS. was embodied in the first part of his Critical Studies. This
volume, the first of a series of three which, under the title of
Kunstkritische Studien, was to contain all Morelli's contribu-
tions to art literature, was published in 1890. The first part,
cast in dialogue form, contains a detailed exposition of his
method. Then follow The Borghese Gallery, a reissue of his
former articles with many important additions, and The Doria
Gallery, an entirely new contribution. The second volume
deals with the galleries of Munich and Dresden, and is a revised
edition of the first two parts of the original book of 1880; but
here again copious additions rendered it practically a new book.
The third volume was to treat of the Berlin Gallery, and was
also to contain an exhaustive account of the drawings of Italian
masters, but it was destined never to be carried out. Morelli
was taken seriously ill towards the middle of February 1891,
and was found to be suffering from heart disease and other com-
plications; a fortnight later he died at Milan, on the 28th of
February. His collection of drawings by the old masters he
bequeathed to his pupil, Dr Frizzoni, and his pictures, over
100 in number, to the city of Bergamo, where they are now
exhibited as the Galleria Morelli in two rooms of the Accademia
Carrara. A striking half-length portrait by Lenbach, who
presented it to his friend in 1886, forms part of the collection.
In memory of Morelli a bronze bust of him by a Milanese artist
has been placed in the Brera; but his features are more worthily
presented in a second portrait by Lenbach and in a life-like pastel
sketch executed by the Empress Frederick in 1884, when he was
her guest at Baveno. After the death of Morelli the first two
volumes of his Critical Studies were published in English, Sir
Henry Layard, one of his most intimate friends, contributing to
the first a biographical sketch of the author; and the fragmentary
MS. of the third volume was published in German by Dr Frizzoni,
under whose editorship an Italian translation of the first volume
has also been issued.
Morelli found art criticism uninspired, unscientific and
practically worthless. To be of any real value he held that
historical, documentary and traditional knowledge respecting
works of art was only of secondary importance as compared
with the evidence to be derived from the study of the pictures
themselves. He contended that art criticism must be conducted
on scientific principles and follow a strict course of inductive
reasoning. A painting should be subjected to a searching
analysis, and its component parts and minutest details submitted
to methodical and exact investigation.
The study of the individual parts and forms was, in his
estimation, of the highest importance, for they were not mere
incidents, but the outward and visible seal of an artist's character
stamped upon his work, and obvious to all who had eyes to see.
By diligent observation of the forms the rudiments of the lan-
guage of art might be mastered, and the first step taken towards
initiating a methodized system of study. The education of a
critic consists chiefly in learning to compare, and Morelli soon
recognized the value of systematic comparison in the study of
art. By the combined methods of critical analysis and com-
parative observation he found the clue he had so long been
seeking. Studying one day in the Uffizi, it suddenly struck him
that in a picture by Botticelli containing several figures the
drawing of the hands was remarkably similar in all; that the
same characteristic but plebeian type, with bony fingers, broad
square nails, and dark outlines, was repeated in every figure.
Turning to the ears, he observed that they also were drawn in
an individual manner, and that in the numerous figures in which
the ear was visible the same typical form recurred. Having
noted these fundamental forms, he proceeded to an examination
of other works by this painter, and found that the same forms
were exactly repeated, together with other individual traits
which seemed distinctive of the master: the characteristic type
of head and expression, the drawing of the nostrils, the vitality
of movement, the disposition of drapery, harmony of colour
(where it had not been tampered with by the restorer), and
quality of landscape. In all Botticelli's true works the presence
of these and other characteristics proclaimed their genuineness.
In paintings where the forms and types were those of the painter,
but where vitality, movement, and all deeper qualities were
absent, Morelli recognized works executed from the master's
cartoons; while in pictures where neither types nor forms
responded to the test, and where only a general family likeness
connected them with Botticelli, he discerned the productions of
pupils and imitators. After applying his method to the works
of Botticelli, he proceeded to examine those of other Florentine
masters, and afterwards of painters of other Italian schools,
everywhere meeting with results to him not less convincing.
If the drawing of the hand and ear were not always conspicuous,
there were other peculiarities of this language of form to aid
in the identification of a master: the treatment of the hair,
as in Piero dei Franceschi; the indication of the sinews, as in
Foppa; the drawing of the eye, as in Liberate da Verona; the
modelling of the eyelid and upper lip, as in Ambrogio de Predis;
the form of the feet, as in Luini. In short, all apparently
insignificant details were of importance in his plan of study, for
to him they were like the signature of the master. (C. J. F.*)
MORELOS, an inland state of Mexico on the southern slope
of the great Mexican plateau, lying S. of the Federal District,
with the states of Puebla on the E. and S.E., Guerrero on the
S., and Mexico on the W., N. and N.E. Pop. (1900), 161,697,
including a large percentage of Indians and mixed bloods.
Area, 2773 sq. m. Its surface is roughly broken by mountain
ranges extending southward from the Sierra de Ajusco, forming
numerous valleys opening southward. It is drained by the
Amacusac river, a northern tributary of the Mescala, or Balsas.
There is a wide variation of climate for so small a territory, the
higher elevations of the Sierra de Ajusco being cold and humid
(the Mexican Central crosses the range at an elevation of
9974 ft.); the lower spurs mild, temperate and healthy, the
lower valleys subtropical, hot and unhealthy. The rainfall is
light in the lower regions and irrigation is generally employed.
Notwithstanding its mountainous character, Morelos is one of
the most flourishing agricultural states of Mexico, producing
sugar, rice, Indian corn, coffee, wheat, fruit and vegetables.
Although the state is supposed to have several of the minerals
found in this part of Mexico (silver, cinnabar, iron, lead, gold,
petroleum and coal), its mining industries continue undeveloped
MORESNET MORGAGNI
831
and neglected. San Antonio, a suburb of Cuernavaca, is
noted for its pottery, which is highly attractive in form and
colour, and finds a ready market among the visitors to that city.
Morelos is traversed by two railway lines the Interoceanic
from N.E. to S.W., and the Mexican Central almost N. and S.,
the latter affording direct communication between the national
and state capitals.
The capital, CUERNAVACA (pop. 9584 in 1900), 47 m. S. of
the city of Mexico on the Mexican Central railway, is one of
the most picturesque towns in Mexico. It dates from the time
of Cortes, who built for himself a residence there, and had the
town included in the royal grant to himself in 1529. Maximilian
had a villa there, and many of the public men of Mexico, natives
of the lowlands, have made their homes there rather than
in the national capital. The palace of Cortes is now occupied by
the state legislature and by various public offices, and Maxi-
milian's villa by a school.
After the capital the largest city in the state is Cuautla Morelos,
or Ciudad Morelos (pop. 6269 in 1900), 27 m. east by south
of Cuernavaca, on the Interoceanic railway, and in a rich sugar-
producing district. Some of the largest and most modern
sugar-mills of Mexico are in the Cuautla district. There are
hot sulphur springs here. The town is celebrated in Mexican
history for the intrepid defence of the place by Jose Maria
Morelos (1765-1815), the patriot leader, against a greatly
superior royalist force, from the igth of February to the 2nd of
May 1812, when he cut his way through the attacking army
and escaped. Other important towns are Yautepec (6139 in
1900), 1 6 m. east of Cuernavaca, on the Interoceanic line;
Tetecala, 13 m. south-west of the capital, a characteristic Indian
town near the pyramid of Xochicalco, and Jojutla, 21 m.
south of the capital, on the Interoceanic railway near the
southern boundary of the state. An interesting local pheno-
menon is that of lake Tequesquiten, which was formed by the
subsidence of a large area of ground about the middle of the
igth century, carrying with it an old town of the same name.
The hollow filled with water, and the spire of the old church
is still to be seen in the middle of the lake.
MORESNET, a small neutral state lying on the borders of
Prussia and Belgium, 4 m. S.W. of Aix-la-Chapelle, and em-
bracing an area of nearly 1400 acres. Its only village is that
of Neutral Moresnet, also called Kelmis or Kalmis, with 2800
inhabitants. Just over the Prussian frontier is Prussian
Moresnet, with 650 inhabitants, and in Belgium is Belgian
Moresnet, with about 1200. Moresnet, strictly Montzen-
Moresnet, is, as its name implies, a mountain, under which is
the extremely valuable zinc mine owned by the " Vieille
Montagne Company," which is a Belgian undertaking. The
profit of the customs is divided between the two states,
but a tendency has been observed to convert it gradually into
a German possession. The state of Moresnet owes its origin
to the general European settlement of 1815. No agreement
could be reached about the ownership of this small district,
and it was made a neutral state under the joint government of
Prussia and Belgium. This arrangement lasted until 1841,
when Moresnet was given an administration of its own, this
being composed of a burgomaster and a council of ten members.
The inhabitants decide individually whether they will perform
military service for Prussia or for Belgium, and also whether
they will accept the jurisdiction of the Prussian or of the Belgian
courts.
See Hoch, Un Territoire oublie au centre de I'Europe (Bern, 1881);
Schroder, Das grenzstreitige Gebiet von Moresnet (Aix-la-Chapelle,
1902); and Spandau, Zur Geschichte von Neutral- Moresnet (Aix-la-
Chapelle, 1904).
MORETON BAY CHESTNUT, a tall tree known botanically
as Castanospermum australe (natural order Leguminosae), native
of Queensland and New South Wales. The pods are almost
cylindrical, about 9 in. long and 2 in. broad, and are divided
interiorly by a spongy substance into three to five cells, each
of which contains a large chestnut-like seed. The seeds are
roasted and eaten by the natives; the timber, which somewhat
resembles walnut, is soft, fine-grained, and takes a good polish,
but is not durable.
MORETO Y CAVANA, AGUSTIN (1618-1661), Spanish
dramatist and playwright, was baptized at Madrid on the 9th
of April 1618. He graduated at Alcala in December 1639, and
resided in Madrid till 1654, when he removed to Toledo, took
orders, and became chaplain to the primate Baltasar de Moscoso
y Sandoval. He died at Toledo on the 28th of October 1661,
while engaged on Santa Rosa, a play which was completed by
Pedro Francisco Lanini. The first volume of his dramas was
published in 1654; the second and third volumes appeared in
1676. The most celebrated of his pieces is El Desden con el
Desden, imitated by Moliere in La Princesse d' Elide, by Gozzi
in La Principessa filosofa, and by Schreyvogel in Donna Diana.
It is characteristic that four episodes in El Desden can el Desden
are taken from four separate plays of Lope de Vega's (La
Vengadora de las mujeres, Las Milagros del desprecio, De Cor-
sario & corsario, and La Hermosa fea). Moreto borrows from
Castro, Tirso de Molina and others to an extent which is indicated
at length in Fitzmaurice-Kelley's Literature espagnole (Paris,
1904), but his adaptation shows great dexterity and charm.
MORETTO, IL (" The Blackamoor," a term which has not
been particularly accounted for), the name currently bestowed
upon ALESSANDRO BONVICINO (1498-1554), a celebrated painter
of Brescia, Venetian school. He was born at Rovato, in the
Brescian territory, in 1498, and studied, first under Fioravante
Ferramola of Brescia, afterwards, still youthful, with Titian in
Venice. His own earlier method, specially distinguished by
excellent portrait-painting, was naturally modelled on that
of Titian. Afterwards he conceived a great enthusiasm for
Raphael (though he does not appear to have ever gone to
Rome), and his style became partially Raphaelesque. It was,
however, novel in its combination of diverse elements, and
highly attractive with fine pencilling, a rich yet not lavish use
of perspective and decorative effects, and an elegant opposition
of light and shade. The human figure is somewhat slender in
Bonvicino's paintings, the expression earnestly religious, the
flesh-tints varied, more so than was common in the Venetian
school. The backgrounds are generally luminous, and the
draperies well modified in red and yellow tints with little inter-
mixture of blue. The depth of Bonvicino's talent, however,
was hardly in proportion to its vigour and vivacity; and he
excelled more in sedate altarpieces than in subjects of action,
and more in oil-painting than in fresco, although some fine
series of his frescoes remain, especially that in the villa Marti-
nengo at Novarino, near Brescia. Among his celebrated works
in the city are in the church of S. Clemente, the " Five Virgin
Martyrs," and the " Assumption of the Madonna " (this latter
may count as his masterpiece) ; in S. Nazaro e Celso, the " Coro-
nation of the Madonna "; in S. Maria della Grazie, " St Joseph ";
in S. Maria de' Miracoli, " St Nicholas of Bari." In the Vienna
Gallery is a " St Justina " (once ascribed to Pordenone) ; in the
Stadel Institute, Frankfort, the " Madonna enthroned between
Sts Anthony and Sebastian "; in the Berlin Museum, a colossal
" Adoration of the Shepherds," and a large votive picture (one
of the master's best) of the " Madonna and Child," with infant
angels and other figures above the clouds, and below, amid a
rich landscape, two priests; in the National Gallery, London,
St Bernardin and other saints and two impressive portraits. II
Moretto is stated to have been a man of child-like personal piety,
preparing himself by prayer and fasting for any great act of
sacred art, such as the painting of the Virgin-mother. His
dated works extend from 1524 to 1554, and he was the master
of the pre-eminent portrait-painter Moroni. He died on the
22nd of December 1554.
MORGAGNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1682-1771), Italian
anatomist, was born on the 25th of February 1682 at Forli. 1
His parents were in comfortable circumstances, but not of the
nobility; it appears from his letters to G. M. Lancisi that Morgagni
was ambitious of gaining admission into that rank, and it may
x His statue was erected at Forll in 1875, and the town library
preserves fourteen manuscript volumes of his writings.
8 3 2
MORGAGNI
be inferred that he succeeded from the fact that he is described
on a memorial tablet at Padua as " nobilis forolensis." At
the age of sixteen he went to Bologna to study philosophy and
medicine, and he graduated with much tdat as doctor in both
faculties three years later (1701). He acted as prosector to
A. M. Valsalva (one of the distinguished pupils of Malpighi),
who held the office of " demonstrator anatomicus " in the
Bologna school, and whom he assisted more particularly in
preparing his celebrated work on the Anatomy and Diseases
of Ike Ear, published in 1 704. Many years after (i 740) Morgagni
edited a collected edition of Valsalva's writings, with important
additions to the treatise on the ear, and with a memoir of the
author. When Valsalva was transferred to Parma Morgagni
succeeded to his anatomical demonstratorship. At this period
he enjoyed a high repute in Bologna; he was made president of
the Academia Inquietorum when in his twenty-fourth year, and
he is said to have signalized his tenure of the presidential chair
by discouraging abstract speculations, and by setting the fashion
towards exact anatomical observation and reasoning. He
published the substance of his communications to the Academy
in 1706 under the title of Adversaria anatomica, the first of a
series by which he became favourably known throughout
Europe as an accurate anatomist; the book included " Observa-
tions on the Larynx, the Lachrymal Apparatus, and the Pelvic
Organs in the Female." After a time he gave up his post at
Bologna, and occupied himself for the next two or three years
at Padua, where he had a friend in Domenico Guglielmini (1655-
1710), professor of medicine, but better known as a writer on
physics and mathematics, whose works he afterwards edited
(1719) with a biography. Guglielmini desired to see him
settled as a teacher at Padua, and the unexpected death of
Guglielmini himself made the project feasible, Antonio Vallis-
neri (1661-1730) being transferred to the vacant chair, and
Morgagni succeeding to the chair of theoretical medicine. He
came to Padua in the spring of 1712, being then in his thirty-
first year, and he taught medicine there with the most brilliant
success until his death on the 6th of December 1771.
When he had been three years in Padua an opportunity
occurred for his promotion (by the Venetian senate) to the chair
of anatomy, in which he became the successor of an illustrious
line of scholars, including A. Vesalius, G. Fallopius, H. Fabricius,
Gasserius, and A. Spigelius, and in which he enjoyed a stipend
that was increased from time to time by vote of the senate until
it reached twelve hundred gold ducats. Shortly after coming
to Padua he married a lady of Forli, of noble parentage, who
bore him three sons and twelve daughters. Morgagni enjoyed
an unequalled popularity among all classes. He was of tall
and dignified figure, with blonde hair and blue eyes, and with
a frank and happy expression; his manners were polished, and
he was noted for the elegance of his Latin style. He lived in
harmony with his colleagues, who are said not even to have
envied him his unprecedentedly large stipend; his house and
lecture-theatre were frequented " tanquam officina sapientiae "
by students of all ages, attracted from all parts of Europe; he
enjoyed the friendship and favour of distinguished Venetian
senators and of cardinals; and successive popes conferred honours
upon him. Before he had been long in Padua the students
of the German nation, of all the faculties there, elected him
their patron, and he advised and assisted them in the purchase
of a house to be a German library and club for all time. He
was elected into the imperial Caesareo-Leopoldina Academy in
1708 (originally located at Schweinfurth), and to a higher grade
in 1732, into the Royal Society in 1724, into the Paris Academy
of Sciences in 1731, the St Petersburg Academy in 1735, and
the Berlin Academ^ in 1754. Among his more celebrated
pupils were Antonio Scarpa (who died in 1832, connecting the
school of Morgagni with the modern era), Domenico Cotugno
(1736-1822), and L. M. A. Caldani (1725-1813), the author
of the magnificent atlas of anatomical plates published in
2 vols. at Venice in 1801-1814.
In his earlier years at Padua Morgagni brought out (1717-1719)
five more series of the Adversaria anatomica, by which his reputation
was first made; but for more than twenty years after the last of
these his strictly medical publications were few and casual (on gall-
stones, varices of the vena cava, cases of stone, and several memo-
randa on medico-legal points, drawn up at the request of the curia).
Classical scholarship in those years occupied his pen more than
anatomical observation. It was not until 1761, when he was in his
eightieth year, that he brought out the great work which, once for
all, made pathological anatomy a science, and diverted the course
of medicine into new channels of exactness or precision the De
Sedibus et causis morborum per anatomem indagatis, which during
the succeeding ten years, notwithstanding its bulk, was reprinted
several times (thrice in four years) in its original Latin, and was
translated into French (1765), English (1769, 3 vols. 410), and
German (1771). Some account of this remarkable work remains
now to be given.
The only special treatise on pathological anatomy previous to that
of Morgagni was the work of The'ophile Bonet of Neuchatel, Sepul-
chretum: sive anatomia practica ex cadaveribus morbo denalis, first
published (Geneva, 2 vols. folio) in 1679, three years before Morgagni
was born; it was republished at Geneva (3 vols., folio) in 1700, and
again at Leyden in 1709. Although the normal anatomy of the
body had been comprehensively, and in some parts exhaustively,
written by Vesalius and Fallopius, it had not occurred to any one
to examine and describe systematically the anatomy of diseased
organs and parts. Harvey, a century after Vesalius, naively re-
marks that there is more to be learned from the dissection of one
person who had died of consumption or other chronic malady
than from the bodies of ten persons who had been hanged. F.
Glisson, indeed (15971677), shows, in a passage quoted by Bonet in
the preface to the Sepulchretum, that he was familiar with the idea,
at least, of systematically comparing the state of the organs in a
series of cadavera, and oi noting those conditions which invariably
accompanied a given set of symptoms. The work of Bonet was,
however, the first attempt at a system of morbid anatomy, and,
although it dwelt mostly upon curiosities and monstrosities, it
enjoyed much repute in its day; Haller speaks of it as "an im-
mortal work, which may in itself serve for a pathological library."
Morgagni, in the preface to his own work, discusses the defects and
merits of the Sepulchretum: it was largely a compilation of other
men's cases, well and ill authenticated ; it was prolix, often inaccurate
and misleading from ignorance of the normal anatomy, and it was
wanting in what would now be called objective impartiality a
quality which was introduced as decisively into morbid anatomy
by Morgagni as it had been introduced two centuries earlier into
normal human anatomy by Vesalius. Morgagni has narrated the
circumstances under which the De Sedibus took origin. Having
finished his edition of Valsalva in 1740, he was taking a holiday in
the country, spending much of his time in the company of a young
friend who was curious in many branches of knowledge. The
conversation turned upon the Sepulchretum of Bonet, and it was
suggested to Morgagni by his dilettante friend that he should put
on record his own observations. It was agreed that letters on the
anatomy of diseased organs and parts should be written for the
perusal of this favoured youth (whose name is not mentioned);
and they were continued from time to time until they numbered
seventy. Those seventy letters constitute the De sedibus et causis ,
morborum, which was given to the world as a systematic treatise
in 2 vols., folio (Venice, 1761), twenty years after the task of epis-
tolary instruction was begun. The letters are arranged in five
books, treating of the morbid conditions of the body a capite ad
calcem, and together containing the records of some 640 dissections.
Son.e of these are given at great length, and with a precision of state-
ment and exhaustiveness of detail hardly surpassed in the so-called
" protocols " of the German pathological institutes of the present
time; others, again, are fragments brought in to elucidate some
question that had arisen. The symptoms during the course of the
malady and other antecedent circumstances are always prefixed
with more or less fulness, and discussed from the point of view of the
conditions found after death. Subjects in all ranks of life, including
several cardinals, figure in this remarkable gailery of the dead.
Many of the cases are taken from Morgagni's early experiences at
Bologna, and from the records of his teachers Valsalva and H. F.
Albertini not elsewhere published. They are selected and arranged
with method and purpose, and they are often (and somewhat
casually) made the occasion of a long excursus on general pathology
and therapeutics. The range of Morgagni's scholarship, as evidenced
by his references to early and contemporary literature, is astonishing.
It has been contended that he was himself not free from prolixity,
the besetting sin of the learned ; and certainly the form and arrange-
ment of his treatise are such as to make it difficult to use in the
present day, notwithstanding that it is well indexed in the original
edition, in that of Tissot (3 vols., 4to, Yverdun, 1779), and in more
recent editions. It differs from modern treatises in so far as the
symptoms determine the order and manner of presenting the ana-
tomical facts. Although Morgagni was the first to understand
and to demonstrate the absolute necessity of basing diagnosis,
prognosis and treatment on an exact and comprehensive knowledge
of anatomical conditions, he made no attempt (like that of the
Vienna school sixty years later) to exalt pathological anatomy into a
science disconnected from clinical medicine and remote from practical
needs. His orderliness of anatomical method (implying his skill
MORGAN, D. MORGAN, SIR H.
833
with the scalpel), his precision, his exhaustiveness, and his freedom
from bias, are his essentially modern or scientific qualities; his
scholarship and high consideration for classical and foreign work,
his sense of practical ends (or his common sense), and the breadth
of his intellectual horizon prove him to have lived before medical
science had become largely technical or mechanical. His treatise
was the commencement of the era of steady or cumulative progress
in pathology and in practical medicine. Symptoms from that time
ceased to be made up into more or less conventional groups, each
of which was a disease ; on the other hand, they began to be viewed
as " the cry of the suffering organs," and it became possible to
develop Thomas Sydenham's grand conception of a natural history
of disease in a catholic or scientific spirit.
A biography of Morgagni by Mosca was published at Naples in
1768. His life may also be read in A. Fabroni's Vitae illustr. Italor.,
and a convenient abridgment of Fabroni's memoir will be found
prefixed to Tissot's edition of the De sedibus, &c. A collected
edition of his works was published at Venice in 5 vols. folio, in
1765- (C. C.)
MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802), American soldier, was born
in Hunterdon county, New Jersey, in the winter of 1736, of
Welsh ancestry. In 1753 he removed to Virginia. In June
1775, soon after the outbreak of the War of Independence,
he was commissioned a captain of Virginia riflemen, and he
marched his company to Boston in 21 days. In the winter
of 1775 he accompanied General Benedict Arnold to Canada,
and in the assault on Quebec (Dec. 31) he and his riflemen
penetrated well into the city, where he was hemmed in and
was forced to surrender. On the 7th of August 1776 he was
discharged on parole; on the I2th of November he was com-
missioned colonel of the nth Virginia; and soon afterwards
he was released from his parole. In the summer of 1777 he was
engaged in minor skirmishes in New Jersey, and early in Septem-
ber joined General Horatio Gates, then engaged in the campaign
against General Burgoyne. At the first battle of Saratoga
(Sept. 19) he was, until Arnold's arrival late in the day, the
ranking officer on the field; and in the second battle (Oct. 7)
also took a prominent part. Morgan rejoined Washington in
November near Philadelphia. In March 1779 he was commis-
sioned by Congress colonel of the 7th Virginia; but in July,
suffering from poor health and dissatisfied because Congress did
not advance him further in rank, he resigned from the army
and retired to Virginia. After the battle of Camden, however,
he joined Gates (then in command in the South) at Hillsborough,
North Carolina, and on the ist of October took command of
a corps. On the I3th of the same month Congress tardily
raised him to the rank of brigadier-general. In January 1781
Cornwallis and Tarleton attempted to entrap him, but at the
Cowpens (Jan. 17) he defeated Tarleton and then escaped from
Cornwallis into North Carolina. Apparently Morgan sug-
gested to Greene (who had superseded Gates) that general's
plan of battle at Guilford Court House on the i$th of March.
In December 1793 he was commissioned major-general of
Virginia militia, and in November 1794 commanded troops sent
to suppress the Whisky Insurrection in western Pennsylvania.
He was a Federalist representative in Congress in 1797-1799,
and died in Winchester, Virginia, on the 6th of July 1802.
See James Graham, The Life of General Daniel Morgan of the
Virginia Line (New York, 1856) ; and Rebecca McConkey, The
Hero of Qowpens (rev. ed., New York, 1885).
MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883), American mer-
chant and philanthropist, one of the " war governors " of New
York state, was born in Washington, Berkshire county, Massa-
chusetts, on the 8th of February 1811. He was first a clerk
and then a partner in his uncle's store at Hartford, Connecticut,
and became head of the New York firm of E. D. Morgan & Co.
(formed in 1847). He engaged in politics, first as a Whig and
then as a Republican. In 1849 he was elected president of the
Board of Assistant Aldermen of New York City; he was a
member of the state senate in 1850-1853 and procured the
passage of the bill providing for the establishment of Central
Park in New York City; in 1855-1858 he was state commissioner
of immigration; from 1859 to 1863 he was governor of New
York, being the first Republican executive of the state; in
1863-1869 he was United States senator from New York. He
died in New York City on the i4th of February 1883. Morgan
xvm. 27
was one of the founders of the Republican party, and was
chairman of the National Republican Committee in 1856-1864
and in 1872. He was one of the most efficient and able of the
war governors; even before the outbreak of the Civil War he
did much to prepare the state government for it, and from
September 1861 to January 1863 he was in command of the
military department of New York, with the rank of major-
general of volunteers. He was a liberal donor to Union Theo-
logical Seminary, Williams College and other institutions. His
collection of paintings and sculpture, much of which had long
been loaned to the Metropolitan Museum, was sold in January
1886.
MORGAN, SIR HENRY (c. 1635-1688), Welsh buccaneer, and
lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, was the eldest son of Robert
Morgan of Llanrhymny in Glamorganshire. He is said to have
been kidnapped as a boy at Bristol and sold as a slave at
Barbadoes, thence making his way to Jamaica, and is possibly
to be identified with the Captain Morgan who accompanied the
expedition of John Morris and Jackman when Vildemos, Trujillo
and Granada were taken. In 1666 he commanded a ship in
Edward Mansfield's expedition which seized the island of Provi-
dence or Santa Catalina, and when Mansfield was captured and
killed by the Spaniards shortly afterwards Morgan was chosen
by the buccaneers as their "admiral." In 1668 he was com-
missioned by Sir Thomas Modyford, the governor of Jamaica,
to capture some Spanish prisoners, in order to discover details
of the threatened attack on Jamaica; and collecting ten ships
with 500 men south of Cuba, he landed and marched to Puerto
Principe, which he took and pillaged; and afterwards accom-
plished the extraordinary feat of taking by storm the fortified
and well-garrisoned town of Porto Bello on the mainland. The
governor of Panama, astonished at this daring adventure, in
vain attempted to drive out the invaders, and finally Morgan
consented to evacuate the place on the payment of a large
ransom. These exploits had considerably exceeded the terms
of Morgan's commission and had been accompanied by frightful
cruelties and excesses; but the governor endeavoured to cover
the whole under the necessity of allowing the English a free hand
to attack the Spaniards whenever possible. Morgan was almost
immediately entrusted with another expedition by Modyford
against the Spaniards, and proceeded to ravage the coast of
Cuba. In January 1669 the largest of his ships was blown up
accidentally in the course of a carousal on board, Morgan and
his officers narrowly escaping destruction. In March he sacked
Maracaibo, and afterwards Gibraltar. Returning to Maracaibo,
he found three Spanish ships waiting to intercept him; but
these he destroyed or captured, recovered a considerable amount
of treasure from one which had sunk, exacted a heavy ransom
as the price of his evacuating the place, and finally by an
ingenious stratagem eluded the enemy's guns altogether and
escaped in safety. On his return to Jamaica he was again
reproved, but not punished by Modyford. The Spaniards on
their side were moreover acting in the same way, and a new
commission was given to Morgan, as Commander-in-chief of ah 1
the ships of war in Jamaica, to levy war on the Spaniards and
destroy their ships and stores, the booty gained in the expedition
being the only pay. Accordingly, after ravaging the coast of
Cuba and the mainland, Morgan determined on an expedition
to Panama. He recaptured the island of Santa Catalina on
the 1 5th of December 1670, and on the 27th gained possession
of the castle of Chagres, killing 300 of the garrison. Then with
1400 men he ascended the Chagres river, and after overcoming
perils and obstacles of all kinds he appeared before Panama on
the iSth of January 1671, defeated a much larger force than
his own, and took the city. The fame of this brilliant exploit
was, however, again obscured by abominable scenes of cruelty
and debauchery, during which a galleon containing a consider-
able part of the booty escaped. Moreover, on returning to
Chagres the members of the expedition found themselves cheated
of their fair share of the spoil, 1 while Morgan escaped with a
1 Cal. of St Pap. America & West Indies 1669-1674, Nos. 580 and
798; Exquemelin (ed. 1898), 237.
834
MORGAN, J. H. MORGAN, L. H.
few ships to Jamaica, leaving the rest to get home as best they
could. On his return he received the thanks of the governor
and council; but meanwhile on the 8th of July, 1670, a treaty
had been signed between Spain and England, and both Mody-
ford and Morgan were ordered home under arrest to answer
for their conduct. Morgan, however, soon succeeded in gaining
the king's favour, and in the autumn of 1674 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor of Jamaica and was knighted, leaving
England in December. After such a career as his it is not
surprising that Morgan's conduct as a responsible official of the
government was not very creditable. He was charged by
Lord Vaughan, afterwards earl of Carbery, the governor, soon
after his appointment, of persisting in encouraging privateering;
he intrigued against his colleagues and successive governors of
Jamaica, with the hope of superseding them; raised factious
dissensions; and supported the outrageous conduct of his brother,
Captain Charles Morgan, a terrible ruffian, and his kinsman,
Colonel Byndlos, taking part in their brawls and drunken orgies.
He was finally, on the i2th of October 1683, suspended in
Jamaica from all his employments; a decision which was con-
firmed by the government at home after hearing Morgan's
defence; but he was restored to his place in the council on the
1 8th of July 1688, shortly before his death, which took place in
August.
See A. O. Exquemelin (one of Morgan's buccaneers), Buccaneers of
America (1684, reprinted in 1891) ; A. Morgan, History of the Family
of Morgan (1901).
MORGAN, JOHK HUNT (1825-1864) , American Confederate
soldier, was born in Huntsville, Alabama, on the ist of June
1825, and was brought up on a farm near Lexington, Kentucky,
to which his parents removed in 1830. In the Mexican War
he was a first lieutenant of a Kentucky cavalry regiment. On
the outbreak of the Civil War he was captain of the Lexington
Rifles (organized in 1857); in September 1861 he succeeded in
getting out of Lexington the company's arms after the issue
of the order for the disarming of the state guard, and late in
the same month reached the Confederate camp at Woodson-
ville on the Green river. He proved himself an able scout, and
was made captain of a cavalry company and commander of a
cavalry " squadron," including two other companies, which
in February 1862, with General A. S. Johnston's other forces,
withdrew from Kentucky to Corinth, Mississippi. He was
commissioned a colonel after the battle of Shiloh, and in July
1862, starting from eastern Tennessee, made the first of his
famous raids. He routed a Federal force at Lebanon, destroyed
much rolling stock and other railway property, and threatened
Louisville and Cincinnati. In August and September he took
part in General Braxton Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, and
again threatened Ohio. In December he defeated the Union
garrison at Hartsville, Tennessee, taking prisoners, valuable
stores, and many cattle; was commissioned brigadier-general
for this success; and soon afterward again raided Kentucky. To
cover Bragg's movement from Tullahoma to Chattanooga
Morgan made, in July 1863, his famous raid into Indiana and
Ohio. Bragg had instructed him to confine himself to Kentucky,
but Morgan hoped to gain recruits in Indiana, where opposition
to the war was strong. With 2460 men he crossed the Cumber-
land near Burkesville, Kentucky, on the 2nd of July; on the
5th captured a garrison at Lebanon; and on the I3th entered
Ohio near Harrison. The regular cavalry, under Generals E. H.
Hobson and James M. Shackelford, was now close behind him,
and his way was beset by quickly gathering militia. He marched
through the suburbs of Cincinnati on the night of the I3th and
on the i8th got to Portland, near Buffington Island, where
he attempted to cross on the next day; but gunboats and
steamers prevented him. In a sharp battle he lost 600 or more
men. As many more surrendered soon afterwards, and about
300 crossed the river. On the 26th he surrendered to General
Shackelford at New Lisbon. He was imprisoned with 70 of
his men in the penitentiary at Columbus, from which on the
night of the 27th of November he and six of his companions
escaped by a tunnel they had dug. In the spring of 1864 he
was put in virtual command of the Department of South-western
Virginia, which included eastern Tennessee, and late in August
he took command at Jonesboro, Georgia. On the 4th of Sep-
tember he was shot in a garden in Greenville, Tennessee, having
been betrayed, it appears, to the Federals. Morgan had an
excellent eye for topographical details, and by the swiftness of
his movements and his sudde,n blows kept Kentucky in con-
tinual alarm. His lieutenant, Basil W. Duke, says that his
force at no time reached 4000, but that it 'killed and
wounded nearly as many of the enemy and captured more
than 15,000."
See Basil W. Duke, .History of Morgan's Cavalry (Cincinnati, 1867).
MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837- H ), American financier
and banker, was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the I7th of
April 1837, a son of Junius Spencer Morgan (1813-1890), who
was a partner of George Peabody and the founder of the house
of J. S. Morgan & Co. in London. He was educated at the
English High School in Boston and at the University of Got-
tingen. In 1857-1860 he worked in the New York banking
house of Duncan, Sherman & Co.; from 1860 to 1864 was agent
and attorney in New York for George Peabody & Co. of London,
and afterwards for its successor, J. S. Morgan & Co., of which
he became head; in 1864-1871 was a member of the firm of
Dabney, Morgan & Co.; and in 1871 he entered the firm of
Drexel, Morgan & Co., in which he was associated with Anthony
J. Drexel, of Philadelphia, upon whose death in 1893 he became
senior partner. In 1895 the firm became J. P. Morgan & Co.
Closely associated with Drexel & Co. of Philadelphia, Morgan,
Harjes & Co. (successors to Drexel, Harjes & Co.) of Paris, and
Morgan, Grenfell & Co. (before 1910 J. S. Morgan & Co.) of
London, it became, largely owing to Mr Morgan's ability, one
of the most powerful banking houses in the world. It carried
through the formation of the United States Steel Corporation
(which took over the business of Andrew Carnegie and others),
harmonized the coal and railway interests of Pennsylvania, and
purchased the Leyland line of steamships and other British lines
in 1902, thus effecting an Atlantic shipping "combine" (see
STEAMSHIP LINES); and it, or the banking houses which it
succeeded, reorganized the following railways: Albany & Susque-
hanna (1869); the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (1888); the Erie and the Reading
(1895); the New York & New England (1896); the Northern
Pacific (1897); the Baltimore & Ohio (1899), &c.; and in 1895
it supplied the United States government with $62,000.000 in
gold to float a bond issue and restore the treasury surplus of
$100,000,000. Mr Pierpont Morgan was a prominent member
of the Protestant Episcopal Church; an enthusiastic yachtsman,
whose " Columbia " defeated the " Shamrock " in 1899 and
1901 for the " America's " cup; a notable collector of books,
pictures, and other art objects, many loaned or given to the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (of which he was president), and
many housed in his London house and in his private library
on 36th Street, near Madison Avenue, New York City; and a
generous benefactor of the American Museum of Natural History,
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Harvard University (especially
its medical school), the Lying-in Hospital of the city of New
York and the New York trade schools.
MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881), American ethnolo-
gist, was born near Aurora, New York, on the 2ist of November
1818. He graduated in 1840 at Union College, then studied
law, was admitted to the bar, and practised his profession with
success at Rochester, New York. Soon after leaving college
Morgan went among the Iroquois, living as far as he could their
life and studying their social organization. In October 1847
he was formally adopted into the Hawk gens of the Seneca
tribe, and received the name " Ta-ya-da-wah-kugh." The fruit
of his researches was The League of the Iroquois (1851; new ed.
1904), which, says J. W. Powell, " was the first scientific account
of an Indian tribe ever given to the world." The success of
the book encouraged him to further research, resulting in his
Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family
(1869). In 1877 he adc'^d to his reputation by publishing
MORGAN, LADY MORGARTEN
835
Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human Progress
from Savagery, through Barbarism, to Civilization, in which he
divided the progress of culture into seven stages " lower
savagery," " middle savagery," " upper savagery," " lower
barbarism," " middle barbarism " and " upper barbarism," and
" civilization." The book was in four parts, dealing with (i)
the growth of intelligence through inventions and discoveries;
(2) the growth of the idea of government; (3) the growth of
the idea of the family; and (4) the growth of the idea of property.
Morgan was a member of the New York assembly in 1861 and
of the New York senate in 1868-1869. In J^So he was president
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
He died in Rochester, New York, on the i;th of December 1881.
In addition to the works above mentioned and many magazine
articles, he published The American Beaver and his Works
(1868) and Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines
(1881).
MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859), British authoress,
daughter of Robert Owenson, an Irish actor, was born in 1783
in Dublin. She was one of the most vivid and hotly discussed
literary figures of her generation. She began her career with
a precocious volume of poems. She collected Irish tunes, for
which she composed the words, thus setting a fashion adopted
with signal success by Tom Moore. Her St Clair (1804), a novel
of ill-judged marriage, ill-starred love, and impassioned nature-
worship, in which the influence of Goethe and Rousseau was
apparent, at once attracted attention. Another novel, The
Novice of Si Dominick (1806), was also praised for its qualities of
imagination and description. But the book which made her
reputation and brought her name into warm controversy was
The Wild Irish Girl (1806), in which she appeared as the ardent
champion of her native country, a politician rather than a
novelist, extolling the beauty of Irish scenery, the richness of
the natural wealth of Ireland, and the noble traditions of its
early history. She was known in Catholic and Liberal circles
by the name of her heroine " Glorvina." Patriotic Sketches and
Metrical Fragments followed in 1807. Miss Owenson entered
the household of the marquess of Abercorn, and in 1812, per-
suaded by Lady Abercorn, she married the surgeon to the
household, Thomas Charles Morgan, afterwards knighted; but
books still continued to flow from her facile pen. In 1814 she
produced her best novel, O'Donncll. She was at her best
in her descriptions of the poorer classes, of whom she had a
thorough knowledge. Her elaborate study (1817) of France
under the Bourbon restoration was attacked with outrageous
fury in the Quarterly, the authoress being accused of Jacob-
inism, falsehood, licentiousness and impiety. ' She took her
revenge indirectly in the novel of Florence Macarthy (1818),
in which a Quarterly reviewer, Con Crawley, is insulted with
supreme feminine ingenuity. Italy, a companion work to her
France, was published in 1821; Lord Byron bears testimony to
the justness of its pictures of life. The results of Italian historical
studies were given in her Life and Times of Salvator Rosa (1823).
Then she turned again to Irish manners and politics with a
matter-of-fact book on Absenteeism (1825), and a romantic
novel, The O'Briens and the O'Flahertys (1827). From Lord
Melbourne Lady Morgan obtained a pension of 300. During
the later years of her long life she published The Book of the
Boudoir (1829), Dramatic Scenes from Real Life (1833), The
Princess (1835), Woman and her Master (1840), The Book without
a Name (1841), Passages from my Autobiography (1859). She
died on the i4th of April 1859.
Her autobiography and many interesting letters were edited with
a memoir by W. Hepworth Dixon in 1862.
MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743), English deist, of Welsh ex-
traction, became an independent minister, but soon after 1720
lost his position owing to the growing unorthodoxy of his views.
He took up medicine and became a freethinker, though he
describes himself as a Christian deist. He was an energetic
controversialist. Among his works are Philosophical Principles
of Medicine (1725); Collection of Tracts (1726), essays dealing
with the Trinitarian controversy; The M oral Philosopher (1737),
a dialogue between a Christian Jew, Theophanus, and a
Christian deist, Philalethes. He died on the I4th of January
1742/3-
MORGANATIC MARRIAGE, a form of marriage properly
peculiar to the German peoples, but also found in the royal
families of other European countries. It is one in which the
contracting parties are not by birth of equal status or rank
(ebenburtig), and under which the wife, if not ebenburlig, does not
take the rank of her husband, and the children, whether it be
the wife or husband that is of lower rank, have no right of
succession to the dignities, fiefs or entailed property of the
parent of higher rank. This equality by birth was formerly
throughout Germany the necessary condition to a complete
and perfect marriage, but it is now only applicable ,10 members
of reigning houses or of the higher nobility (hoher Add), and it
is thus of force among the " mediatized " princes of the German
Empire. In the constitution of the various states, and in the
" house laws " (H ausgesetze) of the reigning families, the rules
are laid down as to what constitutes ebenburtigkeit . Generally
it may be said that members of a. present or former reigning
house, either in Germany or Europe, would be recognized as
ebenburtig, but a former morganatic marriage would be taken
as destroying the qualification. In Great Britain the regula-
tions as to the marriages of members of the royal family are
contained in the Royal Marriage Act 1772 (see MARRIAGE).
The term " morganatic marriage " is applied generally to any
marriage of a person of royal blood with one of inferior rank.
The origin of the term, in medieval Latin matrimonium ad
morganaticam, is usually taken to refer to the Morgengabe, i.e.
the morning gift, made by a husband to his wife on marriage.
The German name is Ehe zur linken Hand (marriage by the left
hand, whence the phrase a " left-handed marriage "), the husband
of such marriage ceremonies giving the left instead of the right
hand to the bride. Such marriages are recognized as fully bind-
ing by the Church, and the children are legitimate, and no other
marriage can take place during the lifetime of the contracting
parties.
MORGANTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Monongalia
county, West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, about
50 m. S.E. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890), ion; (1900), 1895;
(1910 census), 9150. The city is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio and the Morgantown & Kingwood railways, and by
several steamboat lines, the Monongahela being navigable
to Fairmont, about 25 m. above Morgantown. Morgantown
is the seat of the West Virginia University (co-educational),
formed from the Monongalia Academy (incorporated, 1814) and
the Woodburn Female Seminary (incorporated, 1858), and
chartered in 1867 as the Agricultural College of West Virginia;
in 1868 the present name was adopted. In 1908 the university
had 80 instructors and 1534 students. Coal, glass-sand and
limestone are found in the vicinity of Morgantown. The first
settlement here was made about 1768 by the brothers David
and Zackwill Morgan, and was named in honour of the latter.
It was incorporated as Morgan's Town in 1785; and in 1905 a
city charter was granted to it after the annexation of Greenmont
(pop. 1900, 349), Seneca (pop. 1900, 723), and South Morgantown
(pop. 1900, 405).
MORGARTEN, the name of the pasture slopes that descend
westwards to the south end of the lake of Aegeri in the Swiss
canton of Zug, about 2 m. by road from the Sattel station on
the railway line from Schwyz to Zurich. It was at the foot
of these slopes and on the shore of the lake that the small Swiss
force defeated the large Austrian army, advancing from Zug
on Schwyz, on the isth of November 1315, and so laid the
foundations of Swiss liberty. As the lake has shrunk, the
exact site of the battle has been disputed. It seems most
probable that it took place near the Haselmatt Chapel, in the
territory of Zug, where is the official monument, but some hold
that the real site was in Schwyz territory, near the old tower
and battle chapel of Schornen, in the gorge between the lake
and Sattel.
The original accounts of the battle are collected in part iii. (1884) of
8 3 6
MORGEN MORIER, SIR R. B. D.
the Mitteilungen of the Historical Society of Schwyz. See also the
careful study in K. Burkli's Ein Denkmal am Motgarten -wo ist sem
Platz? (Zug, 1895).
MORGEN, a unit of measurement of land in Holland and the
Dutch colonies, and hence still current in South Africa, equiva-
lent to about 2 acres. It is also used in Prussia, Norway
and Denmark, where it equals about two-thirds of an acre.
The word is usually taken to be the same as the German and
Dutch word for " morning," the area of a " morgen " being
equal to that covered by a morning's ploughing.
MORGHEN, RAFFAELLO SANZIO (1758-1833), Italian en-
graver, was born at Naples on the ipth of June 1758. He
received his earliest instructions from his father, himself an
engraver; but, in order to be initiated more fully in the art, he
was afterwards placed as a pupil under the celebrated Volpato.
He assisted this master in engraving the famous pictures of
Raphael in the Vatican, and the print which represents the
miracle of Bolsena is inscribed with his name. He married
Volpato's daughter, and, being invited to Florence to engrave
the masterpieces of the Florentine Gallery, he removed thither
with his wife in 1782. His reputation now became so great as
to induce the artists of Florence to recommend him to the grand
duke as a fit person to engrave the " Last Supper " of Leonardo da
Vinci; apart, however, from the dilapidated state of the picture
itself, the drawing made for Morghen was unworthy of the
original, and the print, in consequence, although an admirable
production, fails to convey a correct idea of the style and merit
of Leonardo. Morghen's fame, however, soon extended over
Europe; and the Institute of France, as a mark of their admi-
ration of his talents, elected him an associate in 1803. In 1812
Napoleon invited him to Paris and paid him the most flattering
attentions. He died at Florence on the 8th of April 1833.
A list of the artist's works, published at Florence in 1810, com-
prised 200 compositions; the number was afterwards considerably
increased. Amongst the most remarkable, besides those already
mentioned, may be noticed the Transfiguration from Raphael, a
Magdalen from Murillo, a Head of the Saviour from da Vinci, the
Car of Aurora from Guido, the Hours and the Repose in Egypt
from Poussin, the Prize of Diana from Domenichino, the Monument
of Clement XIII. from Canova, Theseus vanquishing the Minotaur,
Francesco Moncado after Van Dyck, portraits of Dante, Petrarch,
Ariosto, Tasso, and a number of other eminent men. His prints
have hardly maintained the reputation which they enjoyed during
the artist's lifetime. Though carefully and delicately executed,
they are somewhat mechanical and wanting in force and spirit.
MORHIER, SIMON (d. c. 1450), provost of Paris during the
English occupation in the isth century, was seigneur of Gilles,
near Nogent-le-Roi, in the Chartrain country. Being a member
of the duke of Burgundy's party, he was appointed provost at
Paris by John, duke of Bedford, on the ist of December 1422.
He was taken prisoner at the siege of Montargis in 1427, and
again at the battle of Rouvrai in 1429; but in September ol
the latter year he repulsed Joan of Arc's attack upon Paris
After a campaign in Cotentin in 1435, he was once more
taken prisoner at the bridge of Charenton in 1436. Remaining
faithful to the English party, he became captain of Dreux, a
councillor of Henry VI., and treasurer of France and Normandy
He assisted in the defence of Meaux (1439), of Creil and o:
Pontoise (1441), and must have died between 1450 and 1456.
See the Nouvelle biographic generate, vol. xxxvi.; and a note on
Simon Morhier in the memoirs of the Antiquarian Society of France
vol. xxv.
MORHOF, DANIEL GEORG (1639-1691), German man o
letters, was born at Wismar on the 6th of February 1639. He
first studied jurisprudence and then littrae humaniores at th
university of Rostock, where his elegant Latin versification
procured for him in 1660 the chair of poetry. In 1665 he wen
to the new university of Kiel as professor of eloquence am
poetry; this chair he exchanged for that of history in 1673. H
died at Lttbeck on the 3<Dth of July 1691. Of his numerou
writings the most important are Unterricht von der deutschei
Sprache und Poesie (1682; 3rd ed., 1718), the first attempt ir
Germany at a systematic survey of European literature, an
Polyhistor, sive de auctorum notitia el rerum commentarii (Liibeck
688, not completed till 1707; 4th ed., 1747), a kind of encyclo-
aedia of the knowledge and learning of his time.
See Eymer, Morhof und sein Polyhistor (in the Xenia Austriaca,
'ienna, 1893) ; and biography by R. v. Liliencron in Allgem. Deutsche
Biographic (1885).
MORIAH, an obscure place-name of ancient Palestine with
.pparently two distinct connotations, (i) A land entirely un-
uiown, on a mountain in which Abraham offered Isaac (Gen.
xii. 2). The text is probably corrupt: some have suggested
' land of the Amorites," others " land of Midian." The etymo-
ogy of the word is equally obscure. Traditionally, of course,
' the land of Moriah " is identified with the site of the Temple at
erusalem, 1 except by the Samaritans and a few western scholars
such as Dean Stanley) who accept their belief that the mountain
vas Gerizim. (2) The upper part of the hill of Ophel, the
hreshing floor of Araunah, upon which Solomon erected the
Temple, is once called Mount Moriah (2 Chron. iii. i). Whether
.his name be derived from the corruption in Genesis or not cannot
be definitely decided; it very likely is. The testimony of Jose-
jhus, who often names the temple hill " Moriah," is of course not
original, and of no weight. (R. A. S. M.)
MORIER, JAMES (1780-1849), English traveller and author,
was born in 1780. Through the influence of his uncle, Admiral
William Waldegrave, Baron Radstock, he entered the diplomatic
service, and as secretary to Lord Elgin followed the grand vizier
n the Egyptian campaign. An account of his Eastern experi-
ences was published in 1812, under the title A Journey through
Persia, Armenia and Asia Minor to Constantinople in 1808-9.
From iSioto 1816 he was the British representative at the court
of Persia, and after his return he published A Second Journey
through Persia to Constantinople between the years 1810 and 1816.
His knowledge of Eastern life and manners he also turned to
account in the composition of several entertaining romances.
The most popular of these were The Adventures of Hajji Baba
of Ispahan (1824), The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan in
England (1828), Zohrab the Hostage (1832), and A yesha the Maid of
Kars (1834). Morier died at Brighton on the 23rd of March
1849.
MORIER, SIR ROBERT BURNETT DAVID (1826-1893),
British diplomatist, was born at Paris on the 3 ist of March 1826.
He was descended from a family of diplomatists of Huguenot
origin, the best known of whom were his father David, consul-
general for France and minister at Bern, and his uncle James,
the author of The Adventures of Hajji Baba. After a somewhat
defective private education he came up to Balliol College,
Oxford. Here he attracted the notice of Jowett, under whose
influence his brilliant but wayward mind obtained the disci-
pline of which it stood in need. The relation of tutor and pupil
developed into a friendship of rare warmth. Writing towards
the close of his life, Jowett, who inspired more devoted friend-
ships than any man of his time, spoke of Morier as his kindest
and best friend for forty-five years. On leaving Oxford, Morier
at first obtained an appointment in the Education Department,
but resigned in 1852, and in the following year became attach6
at Vienna. In the succeeding years he was attached in turn
to almost every court in Germany. Restless in temperament
and unconventional in method, he plunged into the vortex of
German politics to a degree that did not always accord with the
traditions of diplomacy. The most important years of his career
in Germany were from 1866 to 1871, when he was secretary of
legation at Darmstadt. Here he became a trusted adviser of the
crown princess, and through her acquired an intimate friendship
with the crown prince (afterwards the emperor Frederick III.),
whose antagonism to Bismarck's reactionary policy met with
cordial support from Morier's sturdy Liberalism. Bismarck,
already jealous of British influence at court, honoured Morier
with a hatred not lessened by the fact that Morier's knowledge
of German politics was unrivalled outside Germany. On leaving
Darmstadt, Morier became charge d'affaires, first at Stuttgart
1 Some of the sects transfer the scene of the sacrifice to the
" Chapel of Abraham " in the precincts of the Holy Sepulchre
Church.
MORIKE MORISCOS
837
and then at Munich, and in 1876 was appointed minister at
Lisbon. From 1881 to 1884 he was minister at Madrid. In
December 1884 he became ambassador at St Petersburg, and
almost immediately had to face the alarming situation created
by the Russian advance to Penjdeh. Thanks to his efforts, a
war that at one moment seemed inevitable was averted. His
great popularity at the Russian court contributed towards a.
marked improvement in the relations between the two countries.
Bismarck took alarm at the lessening influence of Germany over
Russia, and tried to procure Morier's downfall. The KSlnische
Zeitung declared in December 1888 that Morier had made use
of his position at Darmstadt during the Franco-German War to
betray the movements of the German troops to Marshal Bazaine.
The authority for this charge was an alleged declaration made by
Bazaine to the German military attache at Madrid. Bazaine
had died in September, but Morier had heard rumours in July
of the charge brought against him, and had procured from
Bazaine a written denial, which he now published in The Times.
Apart from this, it was clearly shown that Morier could not
have transmitted the information by the alleged date, and that
Bazaine, according to the testimony of his own books and of other
officers, received the information in question by reports from the
front. As a matter of fact, Morier was an ardent champion of
the German cause. His correspondence with Jowett shows the
latter vainly endeavouring to convince his friend that the French
were in the right. Public opinion everywhere, except in the
German Conservative press, attributed the charge to political
motives. Morier's failing health caused him, at his own request,
to be appointed Lord Dufferin's successor at Rome in 1891; but
it was felt that he could not be spared from St Petersburg, and
there he remained till forced to find a milder climate. It was
then too late, and he died at Montreux in Switzerland on the
i6th of November 1893.
MORIKE, EDUARD FRIEDRICH (1804-1875), German poet,
was born at Ludwigsburg on the 8th of September 1804. In
1834 he was appointed pastor of Kleversulzbach near Weinsberg,
and in 1851 became professor of literature at the Katharinen-
stif t in Stuttgart. This office he held until his retirement in 1 866 ;
but he continued to live at Stuttgart until his death on the 4th
of June 1875. Morike is the most lyrically gifted of all the poets
belonging to the so-called Swabian school which gathered round
Uhland. His poems, Gedichte (1838; 22nd ed., 1905), are mostly
lyrics, graceful in style, original in conception, often humorous,
but expressed in simple and natural language. He also wrote a
somewhat fantastic Idylle vom Bodensee, oder Fischer Martin und
die Glockendiebe (1846; 2nd ed., 1856), and published a collection
of hymns, odes, elegies and idylls of the Greeks and Romans,
entitled Klassische Blumenlese (1840), and several novels and
narratives, among the former Maler Nolten (1832; 6th ed., 1901),
which enjoyed great popularity.
Morike's Gesammelte Schriften were first published in 4 vols.
(in 1878) ; the most recent editions are those edited by R. Krauss
(6 vols., 1905), and the Volksausgabe, published by Gcschen (4 vols.,
1905). Selections from his literary remains were published by
R. Krauss in Eduard Morike als Gelegenheitsdichter (1895), and his
correspondence with Hermann Kurz, Moritz von Schwind, and
Theodor Storm, by J. Bachtold (1885-1891); an edition of Morike's
Ausgewdhlte Briefe, in 2 vols., appeared 1903-1904. See F.
Notter, Eduard Morike (1875); and H. Fischer, Eduard Morike
(1881); K. Fischer, E. Morike (1901); H. Maync, E. Morike
(1902) ; K. Fischer, Morikes kunsllerisches Schaffen und dichterische
Schopfungen (1903).
MORILLON, a name commonly given by fowlers to the
female or immature male of the GOLDEN-EYE (?..), the Clangula
glaucion of modern ornithology, under the belief which still very
generally obtains among them, as it once did among naturalists
that they formed a distinct species of duck. The mistake no
doubt originated in, and is partly excused by, the facts that the
birds called Morillons were often of opposite sexes, and differed
greatly from the adult male Golden-Eye, whose full and beautiful
plumage is not assumed until the second year. The word is used
in French in precisely the same form, but it is in that language
applied to the Tufted Duck, Fuligula cristata, and is derived,
according to Littre", from more, signifying black. (A. N.)
MORIN, JEAN (latinized JOANNES MORINUS) (1591-1659),
French theologian, was born in 1591 at Blois, of Protestant
parents. He learned Latin and Greek at Rochelle, and con-
tinued his studies at Leiden, subsequently removing to Paris.
His conversion to the Roman Church is ascribed to Cardinal du
Perron. In 1618 he joined the congregation of the Oratory, and
in due course took priest's orders. In 1625 he visited England
in the train of Henrietta Maria; in 1640 he was at Rome, on the
invitation of Cardinal Barberini, and was received with special
favour by Pope Urban VIII. He was, however, soon recalled
to Paris by Richelieu, and the rest of his life was spent in inces-
sant literary labour. The Histoire de la delivrance de I'eglise
chretienne par I'emp. Constantin, et de la grandeur et souverainete-
temporelle donnee a I'eglise romaine par les rois de France
(1630) gave great offence at Rome, and a Declaration (1654),
directed against faults in the administration of the Oratory, was
strictly suppressed. So, too, his great work on penance gave
equal offence to the Jesuits and to Port-Royal, and even after
his death, in 1659, the polemical vehemence of his Exercita-
tiones biblicae, and the exaggeration of his assertion " apud
neotericos Haereticos verba Scripturarum non esse Integra, non
superficiem, non folia, nedum sensum, medullam et radicem
rationis " long led Protestants to treat his valuable contribu-
tions to the history of the Hebrew text as a mere utterance of
Popish prejudice.
Morin was a voluminous and prolix writer on ecclesiastical anti-
quities. His principal works in this field are Commentarius historicus
de disciplina in administratione sacramenti poenitentiae XIII. primis
seculis in eccl. occid. et hucusque in orient, observata (1651), and
Comm. de sacris ecclesiae ordinationibus secundum antiques et recenii-
ores latinos, graecos, syros et bdbylonios (1655), which expresses
those irenical views on the subject of ordination which recommended
Morin to Urban VIII. The literary correspondence of Morin
appeared in 1682 under the title of Antiquitates ecclesiae orientalis
(edited by R. Simon).
Morin's chief fame, however, rests on his biblical and critical
worK. By his editio princeps of the Samaritan Pentateuch and Tar-
gum, in tne Paris Polyglott, he gave the first impulse in Europe to the
study of this dialect, which he acquired without a teacher (framing
a grammar for himself) by the study of MSS. then newly brought
to Europe. Not unnaturally he formed a very exaggerated view of
the value of the Samaritan tradition of the text (Exercitationes in
utrumque Samaritanorum Pentaleuchum, 1631). A similar tone of
exaggerated depreciation of the Massoretic Hebrew text, coloured
by polemical bias against Protestantism, mars his greatest work,
the posthumous Exercitationes biblicae^ de hebraeici graecique textus
sinceritate (1660), in which, following in the footsteps of Cappellus,
but with incomparably greater learning, he brings irrefragable argu-
ments against the then current theory of the absolute integrity of the
Hebrew text and the antiquity of the vowel points.
MORION (the French form of a word occurring in Spanish as
morrion, Ital. morione, usually connected with the Span, morra,
top or crown of the head), a light round-shaped head-piece or
helmet (q.v.). The chief characteristics are a brim, an upright
comb running along the crown from back to front, and the
absence of guards for the face, ears or neck. The brim was bent
sharply upwards at the front and back, and the piece was
generally worn tilted backward so as to cover the neck. The
morion and the cabasset, a pear-shaped headpiece with a flatter
I brim and no comb, were the typical infantry helmets of the i6th
and early I7th centuries. It was sometimes worn unaccom-
panied by any body armour.
MORISCOS (i.e. little Moors), the name given to the Spanish
Mahommedans who accepted baptism and their descendants.
Many, if not most, of them were in reality of the same race as
the Christians, and were descended from converts to Islam.
Those Mahommedans who retained their religion under Christian
rulers were known as Mudejars, a word of Arabic origin which
has been interpreted as meaning " those who remained " or
" were left." Until the 1 5th century they were numerous, and
enjoyed free exercise of their religion, which was secured to them
by capitulations and treaties. Their number had been con-
siderably diminished by the time of the conquest of Granada
in 1492. By the terms of the capitulation of the city freedom of
worship was secured to the Mahommedans. But the policy
of the Catholic sovereigns, who desired to establish unity of faith
8 3 8
MORISON MORLAIX
among their subjects, and the influence of the Church, soon led
to violations of the treaty. The first Christian archbishop
of Granada, Talavera, made some progress in converting the
people peacefully. But at the end of 1499 Cardinal Jimenez
insisted on adopting coercive measures. A rebellion ensued,
and the Mahommedans were suppressed. Want of power, or
other obstacles, delayed the final extinction of tolerated Mahom-
medam'sm in all parts of Spain, but by 1525 it was every-
where suppressed. The last remains of it were crushed in
Valencia, where the Mahommedans were furiously attacked
by the Christian peasantry during the great agrarian revolt
known as the Germania, 1520-1521. As they were dependent
on the protection of the landlords, the Mahommedans were
docile tenants, and their competition weighed heavily on the
Christians. The same quality of industry remained to the
Moriscos, and excited the envy of their Christian fellow
countrymen. The feelings with which they were regarded are
admirably shown by Cervantes (who shared them to the full)
in his " Conversation of the Two Dogs." In 1568 the govern-
ment of Philip II. issued an edict, which ordered them to re-
nounce all their Moorish ways of We and to give up their children
to be educated by Christian priests. The result was a rebellion
in Granada, which was put down with great difficulty. The
Moriscos were expelled from Granada and scattered over other
parts of Spain. Many fled to Africa, where the more spirited
among them took to piracy at Algiers and other ports. They
still maintained relations with their kinsfolk in Spain, and the
whole coast suffered from their incursions. The Moriscos entered
into relations with other enemies of Spain, and notably, with
France. Henry IV. included a plan for supporting a Morisco
rebellion in the great scheme for the destruction of the Spanish
monarchy, which he was about to put into execution when he
was murdered on the I4th of May 1610. These intrigues were
known to the Spanish government and inspired it with terror.
The expulsion of the whole body of Moriscos was decided on in
1608, and the edict was published on the 22nd of September
1609. The expulsion was carried out with great cruelty. The
number driven out has been variously estimated at 120,000
or at 3,000,000. In some known cases the expelled Moriscos
suffered martyrdom in Africa as Christians. A few were left in
Spain as domestic slaves, and some contrived to return in secret.
Cases of crypto-Mahommedanism continued to come before the
Inquisition till the i8th century.
See The Moriscos of Spain: their Conversion and Expulsion, by
H. C. Lea (London, 1901).
MORISON, JAMES AUGUSTUS COTTER (1832-1888), British
author, was born in London on the 2oth of April 1832. His
father, who had made a large fortune as the inventor and pro-
prietor of " Morison's Pills," settled in Paris till his death in 1840,
and Cotter Morison thus acquired not only an acquaintance with
the French language, but a profound sympathy with France and
French institutions. In later life he resided for some years in
Paris, where his house was a meeting-place for eminent men of
all shades of opinion. He was educated at Highgate grammar
school and Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he fell under the
influence of Mark Pattison, to whom his impressionable nature
perhaps owed a certain over-fastidiousness that characterized
his whole career. He also made the acquaintance of the leading
English Positivists, to whose opinions he became an ardent
convert. Yet he retained a strong sympathy with the Roman
Catholic religion, and at one time spent several weeks in a
Catholic monastery. One other great influence appears in the
admirable Life of St Bernard, which he published in 1863 that
of his friend Carlyle, to whom the work is dedicated, and with
whose style it is strongly coloured. Meanwhile he had been a
regular contributor, first to the Literary Gazette, edited by his
friend John Morley, and then to the Saturday Review at its most
brilliant epoch. In 1868 he published a pamphlet entitled Irish
Grievances shortly stated. In 1878 he published a volume on
Gibbon in the " Men of Letters " series, marked by sound judg-
ment and wide reading. This he followed up in 1882 with his
Macaulay in the same series. It exhibits, more clearly perhaps
than any other of Morison's works, both his merits and. his
defects. Macaulay's bluff and strenuous character, his rhetorical
style, his unphilosophical conception of history, were entirely
out of harmony with Morison's prepossessions. Yet in his
anxiety to do justice'to his subject he steeped himself in Macau-
lay till his style often recalls that which he is censuring. His
brief sketch, Mme de Maintenon: une etude (1885), and some
magazine articles, were the only fruits of his labours in French
history. Towards the close of his life he meditated a work
showing the application of Positivist principles to conduct.
Unfortunately, failing health compelled him to abandon the
second or constructive part: the first, a brilliant piece of writing
which attempts to show the ethical inadequacy of revealed
religion and is marked in parts by much bitterness, was published
in 1887 under the title of The Service of Man. He died in London
on the 26th of February 1888.
MORITZ, KARL PHILIPP (1757-1793), German author, was
born at Hameln on the Weser on the isth of September 1757, of
humble parentage. After receiving a scanty schooling, he was
apprenticed to a hat-maker, but was later enabled to study
philosophy at Erfurt and Wittenberg and in 1777 became teacher
in a school at Dessau. While on a tour through Italy in 1786
he became acquainted with Goethe, who interested himself in
him. On his return, he was appointed professor of archaeology
and aesthetics, at the academy of art in Berlin, and in this city
he died on the 26th of June 1793. Of Moritz's writings on
aesthetic, archaeological and philosophical subjects, the little
treatise Uber die bildende Nachahmung des Schonen (1788; re-
printed 1888) and Die Golterlehre (1791; loth ed., 1855, a reprint
in Reclam's Universalbibliothek, 1878) are important; interesting,
too, are the accounts of his travels, Reisen eines Deulschen in
England (1788; repr. 1903; also trans, into Eng.) and Reisen
eines Deutschen in Italien (3 vols., 1792-1793). As an author he
is best known by his two novels, Anton Reiser (1785-1790; new
ed. by L. Geiger, 1886) and Andreas Hartknopf (1786), which
are mainly autobiographical.
See K. F. Klischnig, Erinnerungen aus den zehn leizten Lebens-
jahren meines Freundes Anton Reiser (1794); Varnhagen von Ense,
Denkwiirdigkeiten, vol. iv. (1838) ; and M.Dessoir,KarlPhilippMoriiz
als Aesthetiker (1889).
MORLAIX, a town of western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Finistere, 37 m. E.N.E. of Brest
on the railway to Rennes. Pop. (1906), 13,875. Morlaix lies
between 4 and 5 m. from the English Channel in a narrow valley
where two small streams unite to form the Dossen, the channel
of which forms its port. Below the town the river widens into
an estuary, the mouth of which is commanded by an old fortress,
the Chateau du Taureau, built in 1542 to protect the town against
the English. The railway from Paris to Brest crosses the valley
on a striking two-storeyed viaduct some 200 ft. above the quays.
Morlaix contains a considerable number of wooden houses of
the isth, i6th and i7th centuries. These have large covered
courts, with huge open fireplaces and carved wooden staircases,
supported on pillars, leading from the court to the upper storeys.
Morlaix has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of commerce, and colleges for boys and
girls. The industries include the manufacture of tobacco
occupying about 900 hands, tanning, brewing and the manufac-
ture of casks, wooden shoes and candles; there is an active trade
in grain, butter, oil-seeds, vegetables, leather, wax, honey and in
horses and other livestock, which are exported by sea. The.
port, consisting of an outer tidal harbour and an inner basin,
admits vessels drawing 17 ft. at spring tides and 12 ft. at neap
tides.
Judging by the numerous coins found on the spot, the site
of Morlaix was probably occupied in the time of the Romans.
The counts of Leon held the lordship in the 1 2th century, but the
dukes of Brittany disputed possession with them, and in 1187
Henry II. of England, guardian of Arthur of Brittany, made him-
self master of the town after a siege of several weeks. During
the Hundred Years' War Morlaix was held by the French and
the English in turn, and pillaged by the latter in 1522. Queen
MORLAND MORLEY, EARLS OF
839
Mary of Scots, on her way to be married to the dauphin, made
solemn entry into Morlaix in 1548. The town having joined
the League, the castle was taken by storm in the name of
Henry IV. in 1594.
MORLAND, GEORGE (1763-1804), English painter of animals
and rustic scenes, was born in London on the 26th of June 1763.
His grandfather, George H. Morland, was a subject painter,
three of whose popular pictures were engraved by Watson and
Dawe in 1769. The son, H. R. Morland, father of George, was
also an artist and engraver, and picture restorer, at one time a
rich man, but later in reduced circumstances. His pictures of
laundry-maids especially were very popular in their time, and
were reproduced in mezzotint. They represented ladies of
some importance who desired to be painted, according to the
fashion of the day, engaged in domestic work. Morland's
mother was a Frenchwoman, who possessed a small independent
property of her own; she is believed to have been the Maria
Morland who exhibited twice at the Royal Academy in 1785
and 1786, although some writers have stated that Maria Morland
was not the mother, but one of the sisters of George Morland.
At a very early age Morland produced sketches of remarkable
promise, exhibiting some at the Royal Academy in 1773, when
he was but ten years old, and continuing to exhibit at the Free
Society in 1775 and 1776, and at the Society of Artists in 1777,
and then sending again to the Royal Academy in 1778, 1779 and
1780. His very earliest work, however, was produced even
before that tender age, as his father kept a drawing which the
boy had executed when he was but four years old, representing
a coach and horses and two footmen. He was a student at the
Royal Academy in early youth, but only for a very short time.
From the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to his father for
seven years, and by means of his talent appears to have kept the
family together. He had opportunities at this time of seeing
some of the greatest artists of the day, and works by old masters,
but even then a strange repugnance for educated society showed
itself, and no persuasion, for example, could ever allure him
within reach of the Angerstein gallery, where he would have been
a welcome visitor. Before his apprenticeship came to an end,
Romney offered to take Morland into his studio for three years,
with a salary of 300 a year, but the offer was rejected, and as
soon as his freedom came, he left his dull, respectable home, with
its over-strict discipline, and began a career of reckless prodi-
gality which has hardly a parallel in art biography. In 1785 he
was in France, whither his fame had preceded him, and where he
had no 'lack of commissions, and in the following year he married
Anne, the sister of William Ward, the engraver, and settled down
in High Street, Marylebone.
Mrs Morland was a beautiful and virtuous woman, and through-
out the whole of her husband's profligate career was deeply
attached to him. It was at this time that he painted the six
pictures known as the Laetitia series, engraved by J. R. Smith,
and, just preceding his marriage, four other didactic works,
" The Idle and the Industrious Mechanic " and " The Idle
Laundress and the Industrious Cottager," engraved by Blake,
had been produced by him. Shortly after his marriage Morland
resided at Pleasant Passage, Hampstead Road, and at that
time his reputation was rapidly increasing, while as he was the
sole vendor of his own productions, his expenditure, although
very extravagant, was not beyond his income. Soon, however,
he moved to Warren Place, and there, although he was making
a thousand a year by his pictures, he lived at such an expensive
rate that he began the series of financial difficulties which finally
ruined him. His wild frolics about town, and the prodigal line
of conduct upon which he had entered, resulted in a heavy
accumulation of debt, but in 1789 he set himself to clear off his
encumbrances, and did so in fifteen months. He then removed
to Leicester Square, later to Tavistock Row, then to St Martin's
Lane, and finally to Paddington, and was at that time at the very
height of his reputation.
After moving to a larger house in Winchester Row, his financial
position became so embarrassed that he had to fly from his
creditors into Leicestershire, where he indulged to the full his
delight in animal life. After a year, however, he returned to
London and settled in Charlotte Street, when his difficulties
ncreased, and time after time he had to obtain letters of licence,
n order to avoid being arrested by his creditors. At last,
lowever, he had to cross the water, and change his place of abode
:rom time to time, keeping it as secret as possible, and we hear
of him at Lambeth, at East Sheen, in the Minories, Kentish
Town, Soho, Newington, Kennington Green and Hackney, while
tie had numerous adventures in eluding the attention of those
who desired to capture him.
In 1799 he escaped to the Isle of Wight, and settled down for
some time at Yarmouth, but returned to London at the end of
the year, was arrested and sent to King's Bench prison, where he
lived within the rules, occupying a small furnished house in St
George's Fields, but keeping his exact residence a secret. In 1802
he was liberated, but in 1803 had to place himself in the custody
of the Marshalsea, in order to avoid his creditors. Afterwards
he visited Brighton and other places, and by his riotous living
brought himself to such a state of health that fits of an apoplectic
nature became frequent, and he was for a time paralysed. On
the i Qth of October 1804 he was arrested by a publican and
conveyed to a sponging-house, where, in attempting to make a
drawing which could be sold in discharge of the debt, he was
seized with a fit which proved the beginning of brain fever. He
died on the 2gth of the same month. His wife survived him only
three days, the news of his death bringing on convulsive fits from
which she died on the 2nd of November. Their remains were
interred together in the burying-place of St James's Chapel.
The finest of his pictures were executed between 1 790 and 1 794,
and amongst them his picture of the inside of a stable, in the
National Gallery, may be reckoned as a masterpiece. His works
deal with scenes in rustic and homely life, depicted with purity
and simplicity, and show much direct and instinctive feeling for
nature. His colouring is mellow, rich in tone, and vibrant in
quality, but, with all their charm, his works reveal often signs
of the haste with which they were painted and the carelessness
with which they were drawn. He had a supreme power of
observation and great executive skill, and he was able to select
the vital constituents of a scene and depict even the least inter-
esting of subjects with artistic grace and brilliant representation.
His pictures are never crowded; the figures in them remarkably
well composed, often so cleverly grouped as to conceal any
inaccuracies of drawing, and to produce the effect of a very
successful composition. As a painter of English scenes he takes
the very highest position, and his work is marked by a spirit
and a dash, always combined with broad, harmonious colouring.
Many of his best works have been well rendered in mezzotint by
J. R. Smith, W. Ward, P. Dawe, G. Keating, S.W. Reynolds
and other engravers. He exhibited regularly at the Royal
Academy from 1784 down to 1804, but few of his academy
pictures can be identified owing to the inadequate description of
them afforded by their titles.
Four biographies of him appeared shortly after his death, written
by W. Collins (1805), F. W. Blagdon (1806), J. Hassell (1806)
and George Dawe (1807). Later biographies are those by Ralph
Richardson (1895), J. T. Nettleship (1898) and G. C. Williamson
(1904 and 1907). (G. C. W.)
MORLANWELZ, a town of Belgium in the province of Hainaut,
15 m. E. of Mons. It lies in the centre of the coal-mines district
and has extensive foundries and ironworks. Pop. (1904), 8200.
MORLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF. In 1299 William de
Morley of Morley in Norfolk was summoned to parliament as a
baron, and his son Robert (d. 1360) was a celebrated warrior,
being largely responsible for the English victory at Sluys and
fighting at Crecy. His descendant Robert, the 6th baron (d.
1443), had no sons, but he left a daughter Alianore, who married
William Level (d. 1476), and Lovel was summoned to parliament
as Lord Morley, ranking as the 7th holder of the title. He left a
son Henry, who was killed in 1489, and Henry's heir was his
sister Alice, the wife of Sir William Parker (d. 1510), hereditary
marshal of Ireland. Their son Henry Parker (1476-1556)
became the zoth baron, as he was summoned to the House of
840
MORLEY, G. MORLEY, JOHN
Lords as Lord Morley in 1523. He was a man of literary attain-
ments and translated some of the writings of Plutarch, Boccaccio,
Petrarch, Seneca, Cicero and others into English. Most of these
are only found in manuscript, but his Tryumphes of Fraunces
Petrarcke was published a second time in 1887. His eldest son
Henry (d. 1553) died during his father's lifetime, leaving a son
Henry (d. 1577) who became nth Baron Morley on his grand-
father's death. His son Edward (d. 1618), one of the judges of
Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the barony; and Edward's
son and successor was William Parker, 4th Lord Monteagle (<?..).
The barony of Morley remained united with that of Monteagle
until the death of William's grandson Thomas about 1686, when
it fell into abeyance.
John Parker, ist earl of Morley (1772-1840), only son of John
Parker (1735-1788), who was created Baron Boringdon in 1784,
but was no relation of the previous barons Morley, was a promi-
nent supporter of Pitt and of Canning. In 1815 he was created
earl of Morley. He was a public benefactor to Plymouth and its
neighbourhood. He was succeeded by his son Edmund Henry
Parker (1810-1864), whose son, Albert Edmund, the 3rd earl
(1843-1905), was chairman of committees in the House of
Lords from 1889 to 1905, after having been under-secretary for
war and first commissioner of works. In 1905 his son, Edmund
Robert (b. 1877), became 4th earl.
MORLEY, GEORGE (1597-1684), English bishop, was born
in London and educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1640
he was presented to the sinecure living of Hartfield, Sussex, and
in the following year he was made canon of Christ Church and
exchanged to the rectory of Mildenhall, Wiltshire. He preached
before the Commons in 1642, but his sermon gave offence, and
when in 1647 he took a prominent part in resisting the parlia-
mentary visitation of Oxford University he was deprived of his
canonry and living. Leaving England he joined the court of
Charles II., and became one of the leading clergy at The Hague.
Shortly before the Restoration he came to England on a highly
successful mission to gain for Charles the support of the Presby-
terians. In 1660 he regained his canonry, and soon became dean
of Christ Church. In the same year he was consecrated bishop
of Worcester. At the Savoy conference of 1661 he was chief
representative of the bishops. He was translated to the see of
Winchester in 1662. His works are few and chiefly polemical,
e.g. The Bishop of Worcester's Letter to a friend for Vindication of
himself from the Calumnies of Mr Richard Baxter (London,
1662).
MORLEY, HENRY (1822-1894), British man of letters, was
born in London on the isth of September 1822. After unhappy
experiences at English schools, he was sent to the Moravian
school at Neuwied, whose system strongly influenced his sub-
sequent theories of education. It was intended that he should
follow his father's profession of medicine, and in 1844 he bought
a share in a practice at Madeley, Shropshire. Plunged into debt
by his partner's dishonesty, he set up a small school for young
children at Liscard, near Liverpool. His principle was to
abolish all punishment, to make his pupils regard their work as
interesting instead of repellent, and to form their character by
appealing exclusively to higher motives. This scheme, carried
out with much ingenuity, proved a complete success. Mean-
while he had devoted his spare time to writing. His contri-
butions to magazines attracted the notice of Charles Dickens, on
whose invitation in 1851 he settled in London as a regular
contributor to Household Words. He was also on the staff of the
Examiner, which he edited from 1861 to 1867. Meanwhile he
had devoted much research to a life of Palissy the Potter (1852),
which was at the same time a picture of life in medieval France.
Encouraged by its favourable reception, he followed it up with
lives of Jerome Cardan (1854) and Cornelius Agrippa (1856), and
subsequently of Clement Marot (1870). His dramatic criticisms
were reprinted in 1866 under the title of The Journal of a London
Playgoer, 1851-1866. In 1857 he was appointed evening lecturer
in English literature at King's College, and in 1865 became, in
succession to David Masson, professor of English literature at
University College, London. His First Sketch of English Litera-
ture (1873), a comprehensive and useful manual, reached its
34th thousand during the author's lifetime. He published in
1864 the first volume of a monumental history of English litera-
ture entitled English Writers, which he eventually carried in
eleven volumes down to the death of Shakespeare. He was
indefatigable as a popularizer of good literature. After editing
a standard text of Addison's Spectator, he brought out a vast
number of classics at low prices in Morley's Universal Library,
Cassell's National Library, and the Carisbrooke Library. His
ready speech, retentive memory, earnest purpose, and bright
style made him perhaps the most popular lecturer of his day.
His teaching work at University College was marked by equally
extraordinary success. In 1882 he accepted a post that made
great calls on his time and energy the principalship of Univer-
sity Hall. This institution was partly a place of residence for
students of University College, and partly the home of Man-
chester New College. During this time he rendered further
services to the cause of education in London not only by his work
on the council of University College, but by his advocacy of a
teaching university for London. In 1889 he resigned the prin-
cipalship of University Hall and his professorship at University
College, and retired to Carisbrooke, Isle of Wight, intending to
devote his leisure to the completion of the great task of his life,
English Writers. But with his work only half achieved he died
on the I4th of May 1894.
MORLEY [OF BLACKBURN], JOHN MORLEY, VISCOUNT
(1838- ), English statesman and author, was born at Black-
burn on the 24th of December 1838, being the son of Jonathan
Morley, surgeon. He matriculated at Lincoln College, Oxford,
in 1856, and after taking his degree in 1859 came up to London
with the determination of seeking distinction by literature. He
almost immediately became editor of the moribund Literary
Gazette, which not all his ability could preserve from extinction.
Gradually, however, he became known as a philosopher and a
Radical, and as one of the ablest and most incisive contributors
to the literary and political press of the day. His sympathies as
a thinker seem to have been at this time chiefly with Positivism,
though he never embraced Comte's doctrine in its hierarchical
aspects; but he acquired a reputation as an agnostic, which
became confirmed in the popular mind when he somewhat
aggressively spelt God in one of his essays with a small " g."
In 1868 he was editor for a short time of the daily Morning Star,
which came to an end in 1870. In 1867 he succeeded G. H.
Lewes in the editorship of the Fortnightly Review, which he con-
ducted with brilliant success until 1883, when he was elected to
parliament; he then assumed in exchange, but not for long, the
lighter duties of the editorship of Macmillan's Magazine. He
had been connected with Messrs Macmillan since the commence-
ment under his editorship, in 1878, of the "English Men of
Letters " series, a collection of biographies of various merit,
in which nothing is better than the editor's own contribution in
his Life of Edmund Burke, itself an extension of his article in the
9th edition of this encyclopaedia (1876). Since 1880 he had also
been editor of the Pall Mall Gazette, which had been turned into a
Liberal paper (see NEWSPAPERS).
In 1883 Mr Morley, who had twice unsuccessfully attempted to
enter parliament, was returned for Newcastle-upon-Tyne at a
by-election. The prestige thus acquired led to his presiding
over a great Liberal congress at Leeds in the same year; and,
although the platform never seemed his natural element, the
literary finish of his style and the transparent honesty of his
reasoning rapidly gained him a prominent position in the House
of Commons. When, in February 1886, Mr Gladstone returned
to office as a Home Ruler, Mr Morley, who had never before held
any public appointment, filled one of the most important posts
in the cabinet as secretary for Ireland. He had always expressed
his sympathy with the Irish Nationalist movement. He had no
opinions to recant, no pledges to explain away. He is credited
with an especial influence over Mr Gladstone in the matter of
Home Rule, and in particular with having kept him steady in
the Bill of 1886 to his original purpose of entirely separating the
Irish from the British legislature, a provision which pressure
MORLEY, S. MORLEY, T.
841
from their own party afterwards compelled both of them to
abandon. After the severe defeat of the Gladstonian party at
the general election of 1886, Mr Morley led a life divided between
politics and letters until Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1892,
when he resumed his former office. He had been re-elected for
Newcastle in circumstances entirely honourable to himself, a
determined attempt having been made to exclude him in con-
sequence of his resistance to an Eight Hours' Labour Bill, of
which he disapproved as an undue interference in principle with
the rights of adult labour. His constituents showed their
appreciation of his integrity by returning him with a majority of
1739; but the resistance to his views on the labour question went
on in his constituency, and was assisted by Joseph Cowen's
persistent campaign in the principal Newcastle newspaper against
the general lines of Mr Morley's somewhat doctrinaire and anti-
imperialistic views on politics. The result was that at the
election of 1895 he lost his seat, but soon found another in
Scotland, for the Montrose Burghs. He had during the interval
taken a leading part in parliament, but his tenure of the chief
secretaryship of Ireland was hardly a success. The Irish gentry,
of course, made things as difficult for him as possible, and the
path of an avowed Home Ruler installed in office at Dublin
Castle was beset with pitfalls. In the intestine disputes which
agitated the Liberal party during Lord Rosebery's adminis-
tration, and afterwards, Mr Morley sided with Sir William
Harcourt, and was the recipient and practically co-signatory
of his letter resigning the Liberal leadership in December. 1898.
Mr Morley's activities were now again turned to literature, the
political views most characteristic of him, on the Boer war in
particular, being practically swamped by the overwhelming
predominance of Unionism and Imperialism. His occasional
speeches, however, denouncing the Government policy towards
the Boers and towards the war, though not representing the
popular side, always elicited a respectful hearing, if only for the
eloquence of their language and the undoubted sincerity of the
speaker. As a man of letters his work was practically concluded
at this period, and may briefly be characterized. His position
as a leading English writer had early been determined by his
monographs on Voltaire (1872), Rousseau (1873), Diderot and the
Encyclopaedists (1878), Burke (1879), and Walpole (1889). Burke
as the champion cf sound policy in America and (as Mr Morley
deems) of justice in India, Walpole as the pacific minister under-
standing the true interests of his country, fired his imagination.
His Life of Oliver Cromwell (1900) revises Gardiner as Gardiner
revised Carlyle. The Life of Cobden (i88r) is an able defence of
that statesman's views rather than a critical biography or a real
picture of the period. Mr Morley's contributions to political
journalism and to literary, ethical and philosophical criticism
were numerous and valuable. They show great individuality of
character, and recall the personality of John Stuart Mill, with
whose mode of thought he had many affinities. As in letters, so
in politics. A philosophical Radical of a somewhat mid-ipth-
century type, and highly suspicious of the later opportunistic
reaction (in all its forms) against Cobdenite principles, he yet
retained the respect of the majority whom it was his usual fate
to find against him in English politics by the indomitable
consistency of his principles and by sheer force of character
and honesty of conviction and utterance.
After the death of Mr Gladstone Mr Morley was principally
engaged upon his biography, until it was published in 1903.
Representing as it does so competent a writer's sifting of a mass
of material, the Life of Gladstone was a masterly account of the
career of the great Liberal statesman; traces of Liberal bias were
inevitable but are rarely manifest; and in spite of the a priori
unlikelihood of a full appreciation of Mr Gladstone's powerful
religious interests from such a quarter, the whole treatment is
characterized by sympathy and judgment. Among the coro-
nation honours of 1902, Mr Morley was nominated an original
member of the new Order of Merit; and in July 1902 he was
presented by Mr Carnegie with the late Lord Acton's valuable
library, which, on the 2Oth of October, he in turn gave to the
university of Cambridge.
When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his cabinet
at the end of 1905 he was made secretary of state for India. In
this position he was conspicuous in May 1907 and afterwards for
his firmness in sanctioning extreme measures for dealing with
the outbreak in India of alarming symptoms of sedition. Though
he was bitterly attacked by some of the more extreme members
of the Radical party, on the ground of belying his democratic
principles in dealing with India, his action was generally recog-
nized as combining statesmanship with patience; and, though
uncompromising in his attitude towards revolutionary propa-
ganda, he showed his popular sympathies by appointing two
distinguished native Indians to the council, and taking steps for
a decentralization of the administrative government. When Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman resigned in 1908 and Mr Asquith
became prime minister, Mr Morley retained his post in the new
cabinet; but it was thought advisable to relieve him of the burden
imposed by a seat in the House of Commons, and he was trans-
ferred to the upper house, being created a peer with the title
of Viscount Morley of Blackburn. His subsequent career at
the India office will always be associated with his extensive
remodelling (1908-1909) of the system of government in India so
as to introduce more fully the representative element (see INDIA).
Whatever might be the outcome of this crucial reform, the pre-
paration and execution of Lord Morley's scheme were carried
through by him with a statesmanlike and philosophic detach-
ment, and in a spirit of balanced reason, which earned for him
the increased respect of all parties in the state. (H. CH.)
MORLEY, SAMUEL (1809-1886), English manufacturer and
politician, was born at Homerton, not then a part of London, on
the I5th of October 1809, the youngest son of a Nottingham
hosier. His father, John, and his uncle, Richard, were the
founders of the already prosperous Nottingham firm of I. & R.
Morley, dealers in hosiery made in the cottages of the local
knitters, and as early as 1797 they had opened a London ware-
house, in the counting-room of which Samuel Morley began his
career at sixteen. On his father's retirement in 1840 he became
practical head of the London concern, and when his brothers
retired in 1855 sole owner. In 1860 he was sole owner also of the
Nottingham business. Under excellent management the business
grew rapidly into the largest of the kind in the world, with huge
mills at Nottingham and in Leicestershire and Derbyshire
employing thousands of hands. In 1865 Morley was elected
M.P. for Nottingham, and from 1868-1885 he sat for one
of the Bristol divisions. He was a strong Liberal and a
whole-hearted supporter of Gladstone, who in 1885 offered him a
peerage. He was one of the principal proprietors of the London
Daily News, the chief Liberal organ of the period, and it was
owing to him that its price was reduced from 3d. to id. and its
losses turned to great gains. Morley was a deeply religious
man. Like his father before him, he was a Dissenter, and for
many years he strongly opposed every scheme of state inter-
ference with education. He was keenly interested in the temper-
ance movement, and during the closing years of his life his
public energies were chiefly confined to its promotion. His
philanthropy was active, his charity widespread and munificent,
and he was a model employer. He died on the 5th of September
1886. His son, Arnold Morley (b. 1849), was Liberal M.P. for
Nottingham from 1880-1885, and for East Nottingham from
1885-1895. From 1886-1892 he was chief Liberal whip, and from
1892-1895 postmaster-general.
See Edwin Hocder, Life of Samuel Morley (1887); Frederic M.
Thomas, /. & R. Morley: a Record of a Hundred Years (1900).
MORLEY, THOMAS (1557-1603), English musical composer,
was born in 1557, as may be gathered from the date of his motet,
" Domine non est," composed " aetatis suae 19 anno domini
1576," and preserved in Sadler's Part-Books (Bodleian Library).
He was a pupil of William Byrd, but nothing is known as to his
origin and very little as to the incidents of his career. In the
account of the entertainments given at Elvetham by the earl of
Hertford in 1591 in honour of Queen Elizabeth, it is stated that
there was " a notable consort of six Musitions," whose music so
pleased the queen " that in grace and favour thereof, she gave
842
MORLEY MORMONS
a newe name unto one of their Pavans, made long since by
Master Thomas Morley, then Organist of Paules Church." This
statement, however, lacks corroboration, and if Morley ever held
the post he must have done so for a very short time. On
the sth of July 1588 he was admitted Mus. Bac. at Oxford.
Four years later (July 24, 1592) he entered the Chapel
Royal, where he successively filled the offices of epistler and
gospeller. From the dedication to his first book of canzonets it
seems that in 1595 Morley was married. His wife's Christian
name was Margaret, and before her marriage she apparently held
some post in the household of Lady Periam, wife of the lord
chief baron of the exchequer. On the nth of September 1598
Morley received a licence for twenty-one years to print ruled
music-paper and song-books in English, Latin, French or Italian.
His rights under this grant were assigned by him to various
publishers. In Burgon's Life of Gresham it is stated (ii. 465)
that the registers of St Helen's, Bishopsgate, show that Morley
lived in that parish. This is inaccurate, and there is no proof
that the family of the same name residing in St Helen's between
1594 and 1600 was related to the composer. In the preface to
his Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke (1597),
Morley gives as one of his reasons for undertaking that work that
he led a solitary life, " being compelled to keepe at home," pre-
sumably owing to ill health. On the 7th of October 1602 his place
in the Chapel Royal was filled up, and on the 25th of October
1603 administration of his goods was granted to his widow.
This document (Act Book, 1603, fol. 171) describes him as " late
parishioner of St Botolph's near Billingsgate," but the registers
of that parish contain no entries relating to him. Morley was
incontestably one of the greatest of the secular Elizabethan
composers. His madrigals, canzonets and ballets are as remark-
able for their beauty as they are for their admirable .workmanship,
and his Introduction to Practicall Musicke, in spite of its frequent
obscurity, is an invaluable source of information as to the state
of musical science in England at the end of the i6th century.
His works are: (i) Canzonets to Three Voices (1593; 2nd ed.,
1606; 3rd ed., 1631; Ger. trans. : Cassel, 1612, and Rostock,
1624); (2) Madrigals to Four Voices (1594; 2nd ed., 1600); (3)
First Book of Ballets to Five Voices (1595; an Ital. ed. appeared
in London in the same year; 2nd ed., 1600; Ger. ed., Nuremberg,
1609); (4) First Book of Canzonets to Two Voices (1595; 2nd ed.,
1619); (5) Canzonets or Short Little Songs to Four Voices, selected
out of Italian Authors (1597); (6) Canzonets to Five and Six
Voices (1597); (7) A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall
Musicke (1597; 2nd ed., 1608; 3rd ed., 1771); (7) Madrigals to
Five Voices, selected out of Italian Authors (1598); (8) The
First Book of Consort Lessons, made by divers authors, &c.
(1599; 2nd ed., 1611); (9) The First Book of Airs to Sing and
Play to the Lute with Ike Base Viol (1600); (10) The Triumphs of
Oriana to Five and Six Voices, composed by divers several
authors (1601). Besides the above, services, anthems, motets
and virginal pieces by Morley are to be found in various collec-
tions, both printed and manuscript. (W. B. S.*)
MORLEY, a municipal borough in the Morley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m. S.S.W.
of Leeds, on the Great Northern and London & North- Western
railways. Pop. (1901), 23,636. The town-hall was opened in
1895; and a park, for which the ground was presented by
Lord Dartmouth, in 1890. The chief industries are connected
with woollen cloth, machinery for the treatment of wool,
coal and stone. The borough, incorporated in 1885, is under
a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 3385 acres.
In the neighbourhood are ruins of a mansion, Howley
Hall, dating from 1590, which, garrisoned for the parliament,
sustained a heavy siege from the royalists during the Civil
War.
MORMAOR, or MORMAER (from two Gaelic words mor, great,
and maor, a steward or bailiff), a title used to designate the rulers
of the seven provinces into which Celtic Scotland, i.e. the part of
the country north of the Forth and the Clyde, was divided.
These seven mormaorships, or original " earldoms " of Scotland,
s they were afterwards called, were: Angus, Athole with
Gowry, Caithness with Sutherland, Fife, Mar with Buchan,
Moray with Ross, and Stratherne with Menteith.
MORMONS, the common name given to the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints, a religious sect founded by Joseph
Smith, jun., at Manchester, New York, in 1830, and since 1848
largely concentrated about Salt Lake City, Utah. Smith was
born on the 23rd of December 1805 at Sharon, Windsor county,
Vermont, from which place in 1815 or 1816 his parents, who like
his grandparents were superstitious, neurotic, seers of visions, and
believers in miraculous cures and in heavenly voices and direct
revelation, removed to New York, where they settled on a small
farm near Palmyra, Wayne county (then Ontario). In 1819
they removed to Manchester, in what is still Ontario county,
about 6 m. from Palmyra. In Manchester Joseph, a good-
natured, lazy boy, suffering from a bad heredity physically and
psychically, began to have visions which seem to have accom-
panied epileptoid seizures (his mother's father had falling fits),
from which he recovered apparently before he became of age.
The boy's father was a digger for hidden treasure and used a
divining rod to find proper places to dig wells, and about this
time the son became a crystal gazer and by the use of a " peep-
stone " discovered the whereabouts of pretended hidden treasure.
He said (in 1838) that on the night of the 2ist of September 1823
the angel Moroni appeared to him three times, and told him that
the Bible of the western continent, the supplement -to the New
Testament, was buried on a hill called Cumorah, now commonly
known as Mormon Hill. It seems almost certain that he told
other and earlier stories of how he came to find the gold plates,
and it is possible that before this time there was a story current
in Canada of the recovery of a " Gold Bible." It was not until
the 22nd of September 1827 that (as he said) he dug up, on the
hill near Manchester, a stone box, in which was a volume, 6 in.
thick, made of thin gold plates 8 in. by 7 in., and fastened
together by three gold rings. The plates were covered with small
writing in characters which, it was said, Professor Charles
Anthon 1 declared were in the " reformed Egyptian tongue "; with
the golden book Smith claimed that he found a breastplate of gold
and a pair of supernatural spectacles, consisting of two crystals
set in a silver bow, and called "Urim and Thummim"; by aid
of these the mystic characters could be read. Being himself
unable to read or write fluently, Smith employed as amanuenses:
first Martin Harris (1793-1875); then his own wife, Emma; after
the middle of April 1829, Oliver Cowdery, a blacksmith and school
teacher; and David Whitmer (1805-1888); to them, from behind
a curtain, he dictated a translation, for the printing and publish-
ing of which Martin Harris paid, in spite of the continued
opposition of his wife to the scheme. An edition of 5000 copies
of The Book of Mormon 2 was printed early in 1830 in the printing
office of the Wayne Sentinel at Palmyra. It was accompanied
by " The Testimony of the Three Witnesses," a sworn statement
of Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer and Martin Harris that an
angel of God had shown them the plates of which the book was a
translation, and by "The Testimony of the Eight Witnesses,"
four of them Whitmers and three of them Smiths (Joseph's
father and his brothers Hyrum and Samuel). Soon afterwards,
according to Smith, the plates disappeared, being taken away by
the angel Moroni.
The Book of Mormon, in which Joseph Smith was declared to
be God's " prophet," with all power and entitled to all obedience,
1 Martin Harris took a copy in Smith's hand of certain " carao
tors " (so Smith spelled it) to Dr Anthon, who at first thought it
"a hoax upon the learned," but, after hearing the story of the
diamond spectacles and that Harris had been asked to pay for the
publication of the book, said that it was a fraud on Harris. He
recognized the miscellaneous and haphazard nature of the " carac-
tors, ' of which facsimiles are given by Riley, p. 8i,and Linn, p. 40.
Riley thinks that the " caractors " were automatic writing, an-d that
" unconscious cerebration played a large part in the evolving of the
gold plate scheme."
1 More than a dozen years afterwards Smith, when asked if
" Mormon " was not connected with the Greek word for " hobgoblin "
("Mormo"is thus used in 17th-century English), explained that it
meant "more good," from the " Egyptian won," " with the addition
of more, or the contraction mor."
MORMONS
843
professes to give the history of America from its first settlement
by a colony of " Jaredites " from among the crowd dispersed by
the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel down to the
year 5 A.D. These settlers in course of time destroyed one an-
other. In 600 B.C. Lehi, his wife, and four sons, with ten friends,
all from Jerusalem, landed on the coast of Chile. Upon the
death of Lehi, the divine appointment to the leadership of Nephi,
the youngest son, roused the resentment of his elder brothers,
who were in consequence condemned to have dark skins and to be
an idle, mischievous race, the " Lamanites " or N.orth-American
Indians. Between the Nephites and the bad Hebrews a fierce
war was maintained for centuries, until finally, in spite of divine
intervention in the person of the risen Christ, who here founded
a Church with the same organization " as was enjoyed on the
Eastern Continent," the Nephites fell away from the true faith,
and in 384 A.D. were nearly annihilated in a battle at the hill of
Cumorah, in Ontario county, New York. Among the handful
that escaped were Mormon and his son Moroni, the former of
whom collected the sixteen books of records, kept by successive
kings and priests, into one volume, which on his death was supple-
mented by his son with some personal reminiscences and by him
buried in the hill of Cumorah, where he was divinely assured that
the book would one day be discovered by God's chosen prophet.
This is Smith's account of the book: it was a contention of the
early anti-Mormons, now however discredited, that The Book of
Mormon as published by Smith was rewritten with few changes
from an unpublished romance, The Manuscript Found, written
before 1812 by Solomon Spaulding 1 (1761-1816), a minister and
iron-founder who had become greatly interested in the pre-
historic mounds of Ohio and wrote a romance to explain their
origin and the Hebrew origin of the North-American Indians.
The style of the book is poor; the speeches of primitive Indian
chiefs are filled with the phraseology of the ipth-century camp-
meeting; there are long extracts from the Westminster Con-
fession, and a speech of Nephi contains a statement of doctrine
which corresponds with heretical views held in Smith's own time
in the presbytery of Geneva, in which his home lay.
The time was singularly favourable to the founding of a new
sect: religious unrest and receptiveness were prevalent; and
western New York was the scene of the foundation of various
new communities between 1780, when Jemima Wilkinson
founded " Jerusalem " in Yates county, New York, and 1848,
when the Fox sisters gave their first spiritualistic manifestations
about ten miles from Joseph Smith's home. His book and his
claim to divine authority, upheld by frequent revelations, soon
drew many followers to Smith. A Church was formally organ-
ized on the 6th of April 1830 at Fayette, Seneca county, New
York; and in June a conference of about thirty members met
at Fayette. Smith and Cowdery had previously (May, 1829)
baptized each other, in alleged accordance with the instruc-
tion of John the Baptist,who had ordained them, conferring
" the priesthood of Aaron "; while Peter, James and John
afterwards made them priests of " the order of Melchisedec."
1 It was supposed that Sidney Rigdon had been a compositor in a
Pittsburg printing-office, that he had stolen Spaulding's manuscript
from this office, or had made a surreptitious copy of it, and that
he entered into a plot with Smith to use this material for a new Bible.
In support of this are vague stories of a mysterious visitor to Smith
at the time he was making his translation; and the argument that
Smith did not, and Rigdon did, know enough to get the book in
shape. But there is no actual proof that Rigdon lived in Pittsburg
or was employed in a printer's shop there as early as when Spaulding's
" copy " must have been left with the printer; and there is no evi-
dence that Rigdon knew anything of Mormonism until after the pub-
lication of The Book of Mormon. The discovery by Professor J. H.
Fairchild, in 1884, in Honolulu of a manuscript romance by Spaulding
(now in the library of Oberlin College, Ohio), which did not agree at
all in style or matter with The Book of Mormon, does not entirely
settle the matter, as this romance is so different in character from the
story read by Spaulding to some of his friends in 1811-1812, that if
it was really Spaulding's, it must have been a later work than The
Manuscript Found,. Even, however, if it be true that Smith used
Spaulding's story, his own additions to it must have been large, for
parts of the Book seem autobiographic, and one incident seems to be
based on the anti-Masonic excitement prevalent in New York state
after the disappearance of William Morgan in 1826 ten years after
the death of Solomon Spaulding.
In October 1830 Smith sent out Parley Parker Pratt (1807-
1857), Oliver Cowdery, Ziba Peterson, and Peter Whitmer, jun.,
as missionaries. One of their first converts, in Mentor, Lake
county, Ohio, was Sidney Rigdon (1793-1876), whom Pratt had
formerly known, who had preached as a Baptist in 1810-1828 a
part of this time in Pittsburg who had then joined Alexander
Campbell and Walter Scott in establishing the Disciples of
Christ, and who was pastor of a church in Mentor. Rigdon was
baptized, became a Mormon leader, and, after a " revelation " of
December 1830, made a new translation of the Bible, in which
prophecies of the coming of Joseph Smith and the nature of The
Book of Mormon are inserted in the soth chapter of Genesis and
the 2gth chapter of Isaiah respectively. This translation was
not published until 1866 and is not in use in the Mormon churches.
In January 1831 Smith, who had been " persecuted " in his New
York home, where several lawsuits, all unsuccessful, had been
brought against him, accompanied Rigdon to Ohio, where at
Kirtland (a few miles south-west of Mentor), Lake county, Ohio,
the preaching of the new sect was very successful, partly because
Pratt and Rigdon were so well known to the Disciples in north-
eastern Ohio. Smith at this time seems to have intended to
make the New Jerusalem at Kirtland; there he established a
general store, a steam saw-mill and a tannery, bought land,
platted a great city, and built a stone temple, which was con-
secrated in 1836. But the church was " persecuted " again,
especially by apostates; on the 2Sth of March 1832 Smith and
Rigdon were tarred and feathered at Hiram, 2 Portage county,
where they were then living. In February 1834 the Church was
fairly organized; already on the 8th of March 1833 Smith,
Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams had been styled the first
presidency, and were entrusted with the keys of the last kingdom.
About this time the licentiousness of Smith might have led to the
dissolution of the Church but for Brigham Young (1801-1877), a
Vermont painter and glazier, who was baptized in 1832 and soon
afterwards was ordained elder. Young's indomitable will, per-
suasive eloquence, executive ability, shrewdness and zeal soon
made their influence felt, and, when a further step was taken in
1835 towards the organization of a hierarchy by the institution
of the quorum of the "twelve apostles," 3 who were sent out as
proselytizing missionaries among the " gentiles," Young was
ordained one of the Twelve and despatched to preach through-
out the eastern states. In 1836 the Kirtland Safety Society Bank
was organized (in accordance with a " revelation " to Smith) ;
as it was unchartered it issued notes under the name of "The
Kirtland Safety Society anti-BANK-ing Co."; but in March 1837
Rigdon and Smith, the secretaiy and treasurer, were charged
with violating the state law against unchartered banks, and they
were convicted in October; the society appealed, claiming that
it was not a bank but an association, but in November the
" bank " suspended payments and in Jan. 1838 Smith and Rigdon
left the state for Missouri. In 1836-1837 there had been a deter-
mined attempt to depose Smith and make David Whitmer head
of the Church; Rigdon and Young successfully opposed this
movement, which was backed by Whitmer, Pratt, Williams and
Harris. Probably in June 1837 (or in July 1838) there was
organized under the leadership of Captain " Fear Not " (David
W. Patten) a band called " The Daughter of Zion " (see Mic. iv.
13), the " Big Fan " (Jer. xv. 7), " Brothers of Gideon," and
finally "Sons of Dan," or " Danites " (Gen. xlix. 17), bound
to secrecy under penalty of death, and formed to punish all
who opposed the Church and its supreme head. Numerous
crimes and outrages were attributed to them. 4 In the winter
2 Rigdon had formerly been well known and respected in Hiram,
which was a stronghold of the Disciples; there he had taught Latin
and Greek to the father of Mrs James Abram Garfield.
3 Young received at this time the title of " The Lion of the Lord " ;
Lyman Wright and Parley Pratt, who also became apostles, were
called respectively " The Wild Ram of the Mountains " and " The
Archer of Paradise."
4 The existence of this organization has been denied by Mormons,
but there is abundant evidence that it did exist. See Linn, pp.
212-214, and Bancroft, pp. 124-126; the latter, friendly to the
Mormons, says (p. 124) that of the existence of the Danites "there
is no question."
MORMONS
of 1830-1831 Pratt, Cowdery and two others had gone as far west
as Jackson county, Missouri; in June 1831 Rigdon and Smith
joined them there near what is now Independence and (in August)
laid corner-stones of Zion and of a Mormon temple; thereafter
Mormon immigration to Missouri increased rapidly; and in the
early part of 1838 Smith and Rigdon fled to the new settlement
called Far West (now Kerr) in Caldwell county, Missouri, which
had been made in 1836-1837. Thither many of the saints had
taken refuge, having been forcibly driven 1 from Independence
and Big Blue in November and December 1833, and having been
induced to remove from Clay county after staying there in
1833-1836. In Caldwell and Daviess counties Smith's troubles,
however, continued to increase. His profligacy had repelled
many of his leading supporters and bred internal dissensions,
while from the outside the brethren were harassed and threatened
by the steadily growing hostility of the native Missourians. At
Far West on the 4th of July 1838 Rigdon preached his " salt
sermon " from Matt. v. 13, urging his hearers to wage " a
war of extermination " on those who disturbed them. To such
a height did the conflicts with the " gentiles " grow that they
assumed the proportions of a civil war, and necessitated the
calling out of the state militia. A company of Danites from
Far West put some Missourian militia to flight but lost their
own leader Captain Patten; the gentiles then attacked a Mormon
settlement at Hawn's Mill (near Far West) and killed in cold
blood about a score of the Mormons. Late in October Far
West surrendered to an overwhelming force of militia. Smith
and Rigdon with others were arrested and imprisoned on a charge
of treason, murder and felony, and their followers to the number
of 15,000 crossed over into Illinois and settled near Commerce,
Hancock county. Smith, who succeeded in escaping from
custody, had rejoined the Mormons in Illinois, and there they
were cordially welcomed, especially by the politicians of both
parties, who hoped to secure the Mormon vote in the presidential
campaign of 1840; and when they founded (on the site of Com-
merce) the city of Nauvoo, they readily obtained (Dec. 1840)
from the state legislature a charter which made the city practi-
cally independent of the state government and gave Smith
nearly unlimited civil power. He organized a military body
called the Nauvoo Legion (also incorporated by the legislature),
of which he was commander, being commissioned "lieutenant-
general " by the governor of Illinois in 1841; Smith allowed Dr
John C. Bennett, an Illinois politician and a new convert, to be
the city's first mayor. Foundations of a new temple were laid
on the 6th of April 1841 and the temple (83 by 128 ft.) was
dedicated on the ist of May 1846. The city grew very rapidly;
a university of the city of Nauvoo was established, among its
professors being Rigdon and Orson Pratt (1811-1881), a mathe-
matician, who was called " The Gauge of the Law." In 1842
Smith was charged with instigating an attempt, made by O.P.
Rockwell, a Mormon of Nauvoo, to assassinate ex-Governor
L. W. Boggs of Missouri; it was impossible to hold either Rock-
well or Smith after their indictment and arrest, since the Nauvoo
municipal court had the power to determine cases of habeas
corpus; the influence of Dr Bennett, -who had quarrelled with
Smith, was not strong enough to outweigh the power of the
Mormon vote with the state authorities, and Smith was not h; Id
when in June 1843 he was arrested on the old charge of treason-
able acts committed in Missouri. His downfall was brought
about in a very different manner.
The Book of Mormon had forbidden polygamy: " There shall
not any man have save it be one wife, and concubines he shall
have none, for I the Lord God delighteth 2 in the chastity of
women. . . . For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed
unto me, I will command my people, otherwise they shall hearken
unto these things." The conditional clause may indicate that
Smith from the first had intended to make polygamy a part of the
1 One of the early charges against the Mormons in Missouri was
that they invited free negroes and mulattoes to settle with them;
and this rather than any disgust at their religious teachings may have
been the first source of opposition to them.
2 Such solecisms are not infrequent in the Mormon Bible.
creed of the Church. There is some evidence that even in Ohio
polygamy had been secretly practised by Smith and less probably
by other elders. In Illinois there seems to have been no secret
about Smith's cohabiting with other women. On the i2th
of July 1843 he had a revelation expressly establishing and
approving polygamy. This revelation was not published officially
until 1852, but its purport immediately became known in
Nauvoo and aroused great indignation. Dr R. D. Foster, whose
wife Smith seems to have coveted, and whom Smith had accused
of theft and immorality, William Law and Wilson Law, wealthy
Canadian converts, and Sylvester Emmons, a member of the
council, established a newspaper the Expositor, which was to
work for the repeal of the city charter, " to correct the abuse of
the unit power, to advocate disobedience to political revelations ";
the first and only number (June 7, 1844) told of Hyrum Smith's
reading to the council the " revelation on the eternity of the
marriage covenant, including plurality of wives," of Joseph
Smith's methods and success in winning spiritual wives, and of
the prophet's political ambitions. The city council tried the
editors of the Expositor, the Smiths denying the " revelation"
on plural marriage, and on the zoth of June the Expositor printing
office was razed. Foster and the Laws fled to Carthage. There
was a general uprising against the Mormons and Smith put
Nauvoo under martial law; but his most able lieutenants were
absent, 3 the legion surrendered its arms, and Joseph and Hyrum
Smith and others were arrested on the charge of treason (June
25, 1844) and were imprisoned at Carthage. On the night of
the 27th a mob, with the collusion of the militia guard, broke into
the prison and shot the two brothers dead.
Rigdon, the survivor of the first presidency, and Brigham
Young, who were absent from Illinois at the time of Smith's death,
were rivals for Smith's place; Young succeeded in having the
Council of Twelve, of which he was head, made the supreme
authority, and then had Rigdon 4 tried for threatening treason
and " cut off from the Church." Young had still to meet the
opposition of Joseph Smith's family, who claimed for his son,
Joseph, the right of succession, and for a time supported the
claims of James J. Strang (1813-1856) of Wisconsin, who had
been baptized in February 1844, who told of revelations he
had received, who settled with his followers on Beaver Island,
Michigan, in 1847, was crowned " King of Zion " there in July
1850, and was killed by some of his followers there in June 1856,
when his kingdom broke up. In January 1845 the Nauvoo city
charter was repealed; hostility and suspicion against the Mormons
increased; there were " burnings " of Mormon property in the
outlying country and retaliation by the Nauvoo Legion under a
pro-Mormon sheriff; a commission of four members (including
Stephen A. Douglas), appointed by the governor, arranged with
the Mormon authorities in October 1845 that they should all
leave the state next spring. In May and Jane 1846 most of the'
Mormons left Nauvoo; in September the city was cannonaded
and it again surrendered to the gentiles.
Five companies of Mormon volunteers joined the force under
Colonel Stephen W. Kearny which marched to California in the
winter of 1846-1847; but this was rather in the nature of assist-
ance from the general government, which provided for their
western transportation, than a proof of Mormon patriotism. An
exploring party under Brigham Young entered (July 24, 1847)
the Great Salt Lake valley and chose it as a place for their new
city. Young then returned to Winter Quarters, near what is
now Florence, Nebraska, and there on the sth of December 1847
was chosen president as Smith's successor. Under his leader-
ship, and in accordance with a scheme " revealed " to him and
announced in January 1847, the march was organized in a
3 Brigham Young, Orson Pratt, and others of the Twelve were
campaigning for Smith's candidacy for president of the United
States, a campaign which he had undertaken because neither Henry
Clay nor John C. Calhoun would give him satisfactory pledges as to
the attitude he would take toward the Mormons if elected president.
4 Rigdon attempted, with brief success, to establish in Pittsbure
a Church of Christ, independent of the Latter Day Saints, but based
on much the same plan. He spent his last years at Friendship,
Allegany county, New York.
MORMONS
845
masterly way; the main body, for instance, in its trip across the
prairies made flour in a mill built by Young and reaped grain
sowed months before by an advance guard. The first migration
arrived in Salt Lake City in September, and the population of
the new settlement before the close of 1848 was about 5000.
The city did not prosper, however, during the first few years of
its settlement; but in 1849 and 1850 it became a dep6t and
outfitting place for the immigrants to California in the gold
excitement. The great improvement of the country under
systematic irrigation (here first used on a large scale in the
United States) was another factor in the industrial growth of
the settlement. As early as 1837 Mormon missionary work
had begun in Great Britain, and many foreign converts had
immigrated to Ohio, Missouri and Illinois; in December 1847,
in a " general epistle " to the Church, Young urged all Mormons
in Europe to emigrate as speedily as possible; 120 British saints
immigrated in February 1848; a general " emigrating fund "
was established in 1849, and the Perpetual Emigration Fund
Company was incorporated in 1850; but in 1855 when there were
4425 emigrants, according to the British agency, as a result of
an attempt to cut down expenses, proper provision was not
made for their transportation from Iowa City, only hand-carts
or push-carts being supplied, and one-sixth of a party of 400
died of starvation or exhaustion in a winter march across the
plains.
When the Mormons first went west they thought they would
escape from the jurisdiction of the United States, but the treaty
of Guadalupe Hidalgo at the close of the Mexican War trans-
ferred the region to the United States. In March 1849 a conven-
tion at Salt Lake City organized the " State of Deseret,"of
which Brigham Young was elected governor; a general assembly
meeting in July sent a delegate to the Federal Congress and
asked through Stephen A. Douglas for admission into the Union
as a state or as a Territory; and on the 9th of September 1850
Utah was admitted as a Territory, of which Young became
governor. He forced three non-Mormon district judges to leave
theTerritory in iSsr.and by his open opposition to Lieut.-Colonel
Edward Jenner Steptoe, U.S.A., who was stationed in Salt Lake
City in the winter of 1854-1855 with about 300 soldiers on the way
to California, and who was appointed governor of Utah in
December 1854, forced Steptoe to decline the nomination. In
1855-1856 actual violence seems to have been offered to Judges
George B. Stiles and W. W. Drummond; and about the same
time Federal Indian agents in Utah complained that Mormon
missionaries to the Indians were rousing them to hostilities
against the United States. The defiant attitude of the Mormon
Church towards the United States was thus being continually
brought to the notice of the Federal authorities by official reports
and by officials fugitive from Utah ; and at the same time popular
sentiment was stirred against Mormonism by constant rumour of
violence in Utah against non-Mormons and apostates and by
the official publication, in August 1852, of the " revelation on
the eternity of the marriage covenant, including plurality of
wives." In 1853 Young put down autocratically the "Gladden-
ites," followers of Gladden Bishop, who opposed polygamy. In
1856 the Mormon " Reformation " had begun: its principal
factors were an elaborate system of confession to missionaries of
the Church ; the apparent inspiration by the Church of assassina-
tion of any suspected of hostility to the Church, of opposition
to the ambition of its leaders, or of an intention to escape from
Utah and the control of Young; and the doctrine of " blood
atonement," which was introduced by Jedediah Morgan Grant
(1817-1856) and by which the only remission for certain sins
was the shedding of the sinner's blood, so that, according to
Brigham Young, " cutting people off from the earth ... is to
save them, not to destroy them." Many outrages were com-
mitted by a Mormon band of desperadoes who called themselves
" Wolf-hunters." Young's agents doubtless killed William P.
Parish of Springville, Utah, early in 1857, apparently because
he was planning to remove to California; at about the same time
a party of six, including two brothers named Aikin, travelling
from San Francisco were arrested as spies, were acquitted, and
then were attacked in their camp and murdered, one at least
by an assassin who claimed that Young had given him the
order; and at Mountain Meadows in Washington county, in the
south-western part of Utah, on the nth of September 1857,
about 120 immigrants on their way to southern California,
having been attacked four days before by Indians and Mormons
and having made a bold defence, were tricked by a flag of truce
carried by Mormons who pretended to be a rescuing party, and
were killed by armed Mormon troops, 1 seventeen of the younger
children being spared.
In 1857 President Buchanan 2 appointed Alfred Cumming
(then superintendent of Indian affairs on the Upper Missouri)
as governor of the Territory in place of Young, and sent 1500 men
to Utah under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston. On the isth of
September Young issued a proclamation forbidding all armed
forces from entering the Territory, calling to arms all forces in
the territory, and declaring martial law. On the sth and 6th
of October a band of mounted Mormons under Major Lot Smith
captured and burnt three supply-trains cf the Federal troops;
soon afterwards 800 oxen were cut out from another supply-train
and were driven to Salt Lake City. The main body of the
Federal troops under Colonel Johnston went into winter quarters
in November at Black's Forks, near Fort Bridger. But in the
spring of 1858, through the intervention of Thomas L. Kane of
Pennsylvania, who had probably been baptized by Young in
1847 and seems to have been a Mormon agent in the East, and
who now received letters of authority from President Buchanan,
the Mormons were induced to make a merely formal submission
to Federal authority. Governor Cumming acquiesced in this
settlement of affairs, by which the actual victory was with the
Saints. A peace commission sent to Utah in the summer of
1858 carried to the Mormons a presidential proclamation by
which they received pardon for their treason. Practically all
the Federal troops were withdrawn from Utah in the summer of
1860; soon afterwards Governor Cumming left the Territory to
join the Confederate army. One of his immediate successors,
John W. Dawson of Indiana, late in 1861 was forced to leave the
territory, having been terribly beaten by several Mormons who
professed (with apparent truth) to avenge an insult to a woman.
In 1862, because the Mormons were suspected of sympathizing
with the Confederate States, Colonel P. E. Connor, in command
of the military district of Utah (and Nevada), actually marched
United States troops into Salt Lake City. Governor Stephen S.
Harding, appointed in 1862, proved less tractable than previous
governors; a mass meeting in March 1863 undertook to secure
his removal; and in June he and a Federal judge were displaced,
possibly by the influence of Young (whom Harding had arrested
for polygamy but who was not indicted), through capitalists
interested in western mail-express and telegraph projects. The
Church became less hostile to the Federal government toward
the close of the Civil War, as it became apparent that the
Confederacy was to be defeated.
Young made a successful effort in 1868-1869 to assure the
industrial and commercial control of Utah: after Colonel Connor
established Camp Douglas in the immediate vicinity of Salt Lake
'There is no positive proof that this massacre was ordered by
the authorities. John Doyle Lee, who was executed in 1877 for
the massacre, was a prominent Mormon, had been " adopted " as
a spiritual son of Brigham Young in Nauvoo, was one of the
founders of Provo and other Mormon settlements in southern Utah,
a probate judge, afterwards a member of the Territorial legislature,
and his statement implicates the Church. Lee said that he was
sacrificed to justice. The only charge against the immigrants
seems to have been that they were from Arkansas, and that all
Arkansans had forfeited their lives because it was in Arkansas (near
Van Buren) that Parley Parker Pratt, the Mormon Isaiah, was
killed on the I3th of May 1857 by Hector H. McClean, with whose
wife Pratt had eloped. It seems probable that sentiment was
aroused against the Arkansans by false stories of their poisoning
wells, burning fences, &c.
2 Buchanan's message (Dec. 8, 1857) stating that Young and
his followers apparently intended " to come into collision with
the government of the United States " and his sending troops to
Utah were considered by his critics as attempts to create an issue
which would overshadow the slavery question and to draw away
from the army an important force.
MORMONS
City it became increasingly difficult for the Mormon authorities
to prevent trade with gentile stores in the city; and in 1869
there was incorporated the Zion Co-operative Mercantile Institu-
tion, to which practically all retailers in the territory were
forced to sell out. In 1869 the Pacific Railroad reached Salt
Lake City and by lessening its isolation, lessened its control by
Young. His power was shaken somewhat, and the general tone
of Mormonism was improved greatly by the " Godbeite move-
ment," led by W. S. Godbe and E. L. T. Harrison, who with T. B.
H. Stenhouse, author of The Rocky Mountain Saints (1874),
Edward W. Tullidge, who wrote an official History oj Salt Lake
City, and others, had established in 1868 the Utah Magazine,
which attacked Young's despotism. Although Godbe and
Harrison were " cut off " from the Church they succeeded in
founding the Salt Lake Tribune (1870), the first permanent pro-
test in Utah against Young. At the same time the power of
the Latter-Day Saints and Young's autocracy were threatened
by the growth of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-Day Saints, which was formed in 1852 upon the an-
nouncement of the doctrine of polygamy, which declared that
polygamy had been foisted upon the Church and that Brigham
Young was an interloper, and which chose Joseph Smith III.
(son of Joseph Smith, jun.; born in 1832) as its head in 1860;
in 1863 and in 1869 representatives of the Reorganized Church
preached in Salt Lake City.
As early as 1862 Congress had passed the Morrill Act (intro-
duced by Justin S. Morrill) " to punish and prevent the practice
of polygamy in the Territories," but in 1867 the presiding officers
of the Utah legislature, petitioning for the repeal of this act,
declared that " the judiciary of this Territory has net, up to
the present time, tried any case under said law." Attempts
to pass some extreme measures in 1866 and in 1869-1870
failed. In October 1871 a grand jury in Utah indicted
Young and others for violating a Territorial statute against
improper cohabitation; but in April 1872 the Supreme Court of
the United States (Chilian v. Englebrech) practically declared
the jury incompetent as it had been impanelled by a Federal
(and not by a Territorial) marshal, and in October 1873
the same court (Snow v. The United States) ruled that the
attorney-general appointed by the president in a territory
could try no cases save those in which the Federal govern-
ment was a part}', thus putting the prosecution of polygamy
cases into the hands of the locally elected attorney-general.
But on the 23rd of June 1874 President Grant signed the Poland
Act, 1 "in relation to courts and judicial officers in the Territory
of Utah," which provided for prosecution by the United States
attorney-general (not the locally elected official) in criminal
cases in Federal courts in the Territory, for the impanelling
of grand and petit jurors by the United States marshal, and for
the challenge of any juror practising or believing in polygamy
on a trial for adultery or polygamy, and otherwise corrected the
defects in the Territorial law as pointed out by the Supreme
Court, so that prosecutions for polygamy might no longer be a
mere farce. But the law was little more than a dead letter:
there were few prosecutions, and the only conviction was that
of Young's secretary, George Reynolds, whose case dragged on
from 1874 to 1879. In 1873 Ann Eliza Young, called " Wife
No. 19," brought a suit for divorce against Brigham Young;
the defendant was at various times imprisoned and fined for
failure to pay alimony pendente lite ; and in 1877 the judge
decided that the marriage was void as polygamous.
Young died in Salt Lake City on the 29th of August 1877;
he left an estate of more than $2,000,000, and was survived by
about 25 wives and more than 40 children. The Church owes
much to mm, for he was an able leader. It has been said
of him that he was " for daring a Cromwell, for intrigue a
'This act, introduced by Luke Potter Poland (1815-1887) of
Vermont, was bitterly opposed by the Congressional delegate from
Utah, George Q. Cannon (1827-1901), an Englishman by birth, a
prominent Mormon missionary in Hawaii and Great Britain, and
Parley P. Pratt's successor as apostle. He had been elected in
1872, and there was a lon fight to prevent his being seated because
he was a polygamlst.
Machiavelli, for executive force a Moses, and for utter absence of
conscience a Bonaparte." It must be borne in mind that to him,
more than to anyone or anything else, was due the long struggle
of the Church against the United States. His only doctrinal
contribution to the Church was in 1852 when, in a sermon, he
said that our Father could be none other than the first Man;
that Adam came into the garden of Eden in a celestial body and
with one of his wives; and that "He is our Father and our God,
and the only God with whom we have to do."
Young's successor in the presidency acting president until
1880 was John Taylor (1808-1887), an Englishman by birth,
who was living at Toronto when P. P. Pratt converted him in
1836; he was a missionary in England in 1840; then went to
Nauvoo and was wounded when Smith was killed; preached in
France and Germany, and translated The Book of Mormon into
French His first counsellor, appointed in 1880, was George
Q. Cannon, who was probably the real administrator. On the
22nd of March 1882 President Arthur approved the Edmunds
Act, drafted by George F. Edmunds of Vermont, which dis-
franchised polygamists in the Territories, made ineligible for jury
duty in prosecutions for bigamy, polygamy, or unlawful cohabi-
tation all who practised polygamy or believed in it, and made
polygamy punishable by a maximum fine of $500 and imprison-
ment of not more than five years, and cohabitation with more
than one woman punishable by a maximum fine of $300, im-
prisonment for not more than six months, or both. The act
was opposed because it was ex post facto. Under the Edmunds
Act and the Edmunds-Tucker Act of March 1887 about 1200
persons were convicted of polygamy or unlawful cohabitation
in Utah, Idaho and Arizona. The law was so rigidly enforced
that about 12,000 were disfranchised, and the president of the
Church had to spend his last years in hiding, and many other
prominent Mormons escaped " on the underground." The
Edmunds-Tucker Act of 1887 dissolved the Perpetual Emigra-
tion Company and the corporation of the Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-Day Saints; and the Supreme Court in May 1890, on
the ground that the Church was an organized rebellion, upheld
the constitutionality of the confiscation of the Church property.
On the 24th of September 1890 Wilford Woodruff 2 (1807-1898),
who had been chosen to succeed President Taylor in 1889, and
who was himself a polygamist, issued a manifesto declaring
" that my advice to Latter-Day Saints is to refrain from con-
tracting any marriage forbidden by the law of the land "; and
on the 6th of October the general conference of the Church
approved Woodruff's manifesto and accepted " his declaration
concerning plural marriages as authoritative and binding."
This apparent rescindment of " revelation " was explained by
Mormon scholars as Smith had explained the abandonment of
the New Jerusalem in Missouri the Saints were prevented
from carrying out the commands contained in a revelation, but
as they had tried to obey, they would not be punished for dis-
obedience. 3 On the 4th of January 1893, in response to a
petition from the officials of the Church pledging the member-
ship thereof to faithful obedience to the laws against polygamy,
&c., President Harrison issued a general pardon to all liable to
the penalties of the Edmunds-Tucker Act, on condition that they
had not violated its provisions since the ist of November 1890
and should not violate them in future. On the 4th of January
1896 Utah was admitted to the Union as a state, one of the
conditions made by Congress being that polygamy should be
prohibited by the state constitution, and that this prohibition
be repealable only with the consent of the United States and of
the people of the state; and article iii. of the constitution reads:
" The following ordinance shall be irrevocable without the con-
sent of the United States and the people of this state: Perfect
2 Woodruff was born in Connecticut, became a Mormon in 1832,
in 1839 was made an apostle, in 1840 and in 1845 was a missionary
to England, preached throughout the United States; wrote Leaves
from my Journal (1881), and was called in the Church "Wilford
the Faithful."
3 In 1831 the Order of Enoch, or United Order, was established,
providing for a community of goods; when the people proved
unable to keep this law, the " lesser law of tithing was given to
them in 1838.
MORMONS
847
toleration of religious sentiment is guaranteed. No inhabitant
of this state shall ever be molested in person or property on
account of his or her mode of religious worship; but polygamous
or plural marriages are for ever prohibited." In March 1896 the
escheated property of the Church still in possession of the
United States government was restored, but the Church was
not again incorporated, its legal business being transacted by
its president as trustee-in-trust for the body of religious wor-
shippers known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints; each ward of the Church has, however, been incorporated,
and its bishop is its executive head. In 1898 President Woodruff
died and was succeeded by Lorenzo Snow (1814-1901), a native
of Ohio, converted to Mormonism in 1836. In 1898 Brigham
Henry Roberts (b. 1857), an Englishman by birth and a Mormon
leader, was elected to Congress from Utah; as he had three wives
there was objection to his taking his seat in 1899 in the s6th
Congress; and on the 25th of January 1900 by a vote of 268 to
50 he was excluded from his seat. In 1903 Reed Smoot (b. 1862),
an apostle of the Church, was elected to the United States
Senate, where there was an attempt to exclude him (not on the
ground that he was a polygamist, for there was no suspicion of
his having violated the law, but because the apostles of the
Church still advocated polygamy); the Senate Committee on
Privileges and Elections reported in favour of his exclusion;
but on the 2oth of February 1907 the Senate voted against his ex-
clusion (42-28). According to Senator Smoot there were in 1906
not more than 500 householders in Utah who were polygamous;
only six of the twelve apostles, and only one chosen since April
1900, were polygamous; and of the fourteen general authorities
chosen between 1890 and 1906 twelve were monogamists.
Joseph Fielding Smith (b. 1838), a nephew of the prophet, being a
son of Hyrum Smith, succeeded to the presidency in 1901; he
was a polygamist, and in March 1907, soon after the birth of
what was said to be his forty-third child, he pleaded guilty when
charged with breaking the law against polygamy and was fined
$300.
The growth of the Latter-Day Saints has been largely in
foreign countries. Missionary work in southern Canada was
begun in 1833 by Orson Pratt, and in 1836 his brother, Parley
P. Pratt, organized a mission in Toronto; in 1837 the work was
begun in Liverpool, which is still the headquarters in Great
Britain; in Ireland the work met with little success; from
Germany missionaries were expelled in 1851 and in 1853; the
Book of Mormon was translated into Italian by Lorenzo Snow
in 1852; a Hawaiian version was made in 1856 by George Q.
Cannon; and the missions in Scandinavia were begun about
1850. In the earlier years of the Church all converts were
urged to migrate to Utah, and the glowing accounts of life there
doubtless increased their number; the later policy of the
Church, to which it was forced after 1887, when the Perpetual
Emigration Fund was dissolved and assisted immigration was
forbidden by the Federal government, was for converts to
remain in their native countries. In England (and to a lesser
degree on the Continent) the announcement of the doctrine of
plural marriage was a disadvantage to the Church, and many
converts transferred their allegiance to the Josephites, or Re-
organized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, who
always opposed polygamy and attempted to prove that such
doctrines had been foisted on the Church by Brigham Young,
who had supplanted Joseph Smith's true successor, Joseph
Smith III.
In 1908 the total number of Latter-Day Saints in the United
States (chiefly in Utah and the neighbouring states) was estimated
at 350,000, and there were besides about 48,000 members of the
Reorganized Church. In Utah there are four great Mormon
temples at Salt Lake City (1893), Manti (1888), Logan (1884) and
St George (1877). The Reorganized Church has twice been de-
clared by United States Courts the legal successor of the Church
founded by Joseph Smith, jun.; it holds that " the doctrines of
polygamy, human sacrifice, or killing men to save them, Adam
being God, Utah being Zipn or the gathering place of the saints,
are doctrines of devils"; its headquarters are in Lamoni, Iowa,
whither it was removed from Piano, Illinois, in 1881; it has several
churches in Canada, the largest being at London, Ontario, and
Toronto, and it is the owner of a Temple lot at Kirtland, Illinois.
The Temple lot at Independence, Missouri, is owned by the small
band of Mormon schismatics (organized in Illinois in 1835) who
call themselves " The Church of Jesus Christ," and are known as
Hedrickites; the Utah Church considers Independence as the holy
city, and made a large settlement there in 1907.
The general morality of the Mormons seems to have been high
for a frontier community; there was no gambling nor drunken-
ness. The Saints, notably in the time of Brigham Young, were
fond of dancing, and the Deseret Dramatic Association was formed
and a theatre was built in the early years of the settlement in
Utah.
Government. The Mormon hierarchy is highly complicated. At
the head of the body is a president, who possesses supreme authority,
and is successor to Joseph Smith, jun., " Seer, Translator, Prophet ;
the president is supported by two counsellors. These three are
supposed to be the successors of Peter, James and John, constitute
what is known as the " first presidency, seem to typify the Trinity,
and are the head of the priesthood of Melchisedec. Then comes the
" patriarch," whose chief duty is to bless and lay on hands, and
after him the " twelve apostles," forming a travelling high council.
Of these the president is ex ojficie one, and endowed with authority
equal to the other eleven. Their duties are important. They
ordain all other officers, elders, priests, teachers and deacons, 'lead
all religious meetings, and administer the rites of baptism and sacra-
ment. The " quorum of the twelve " is second in power to the
"quorum of the first presidency," and acts in case the president
dies or is disabled. Fourth come the seven presidents of the
" seventies " or " seventies' quorums," each body comprising
seventy elders; there are about 140 seventies in all, each of which
has seven presidents, and every seven one president. These
seventies make annual reports, and are the missionaries and propa-
gandists of the body. Fifth come the " high priests, " whose
chief duty is to officiate in all the offices of the church in the absence
of any higher authorities. The priesthood of Melchisedec is made
up of the officials just named president, two counsellors, patriarch,
apostles, presidents of seventies, elders and high priests. In the
Aaronic priesthood, which is subordinate to the priesthood of
Melchisedec, and is occupied rather with temporal affairs, the highest
office is that of the presiding bishop, who superintends the collection
of tithes; other Aaronic officials are styled priests, teachers and
deacons. The Church is made up of about 50 stakes (21 in Utah),
each having a presidency (a president and two counsellors), and
is divided into wards, which are subdivided into districts, each
of which has a certain number of teachers, a meeting-house,
Sunday school, day school, and dramatic, debating and literary
societies.
Doctrine. A system of polytheism has been grafted on an earlier
form of the creed, according to which there are grades among the
gods, the place of supreme ruler of all being taken by the primeval
Adam of Genesis, who is the deity highest in spiritual rank, while
Christ, Mahomet, Joseph Smith and Brigham Young also par-
take of divinity. The business of these deities is the propagation
of souls to people bodies begotten on earth, and the sexual relation
permeates the creed. The saints on leaving this world are deified,
and their glory is in proportion to the number of their wives and
children; hence the necessity and justification of polygamy (although
its practice is not now authorized by the Church), and the
practice of having many wives sealed to one saint. Marriage, if
accompanied by the ecclesiastical ceremony of " sealing," is for
eternity, and is a necessary pre-requisite to heavenly bliss. A man
may be sealed to any number of women, but no woman may be
sealed to more than one man. Both marriage and sealing by proxy
are permitted to assure salvation to women who die unsealed.
This system of spiritual wives or celestial marriage is based on the
idea that a woman cannot be saved except through her husband.
Polygamous marriage is supposed to make possible the procreation
of enough bodies for thousands of spirits which have long awaited
incarnation. Especially in their earlier years the Mormons believed
in faith healing, and Joseph Smith bade them " trust in God when
sick, and live by faith and not by medicine or poison." Their
distinguishing points of faith are: religiously, a belief in a continual
divine revelation through the inspired medium of the prophet at
the head of the Church; morally, polygamy, though this is con-
demned in the Book of Mormon, as has been noticed above; and,
socially, a complete hierarchical organization. They believe in the
Bible as supplemented by the Book of Mormon, the Book of Doctrine,
and revelation through the president of the Church ; in the gift of
prophecy, miracles and casting out devils; in the imminent approach
of the end of the world; in their own identity with the apocalyptic
saints who shall reign with Christ in a temporal kingdom, either in
Missouri (at Independence) or in Utah; in the resurrection of the
body; in absolute liberty of private judgment in religious matters;
and in the salvation of a man only if he believes in Christ's atone-
ment, repents, is baptized by immersion by a Christ-appointed
apostle and receives the laying on of hands for the gift of the
Holy Ghost by duly-authorized apostles. Among their minor
rules as laid down in A Word of Wisdom supposed to have been
revealed to Joseph Smith (Feb. 27, 1833), are these recommenda-
tions: that it is not good to drink wine pr strong drink, except at
the Lord's Supper (and even then it should be home-made grape-
MORMYR MORNAY
wine), or to use hot drinks or tobacco the former being meant for
the washing of the body and the latter for the healing of bruises
and sick cattle; man's proper food is herbs and fruit; that for
beasts and fowls, grain ; and, except in winter and in case of famine
and severe cold, flesh should not be eaten by man. Infant baptism
is also condemned, but the children of saints who have reached
their eighth year should be baptized. The deceased, also, can be
baptized by proxy, and in this way " baptism for the dead "
(i Cor. xv. 29) Washington, Franklin and others have been
vicariously baptized into the Church, since, according to the
Mormons, there was no valid baptism between the time of the
corruption of the primitive Church and the establishment of the
Church of Latter-Day Saints.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Book of Mormon, first printed in 1830, has
been reprinted and translated frequently. Smith also wrote a
History of Joseph Smith, being extracts from his journal, published
in 1842-1846 in Times and Seasons, a church periodical, and a
Book of Commandments, for the Government of the Church of Christ
(Zion, Jackson county, Missouri, 1833), and " compiled " a Book
cf Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter-Day Saints
(Kirtland, Ohio, 1835, and often reprinted) ; and The Pearl of Great
Price: Being a choice Selection from the Revelations, Translations
and Narratives of Joseph Smith, First Prophet, and Revelator to the
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Liverpool, 1851; Salt
Lake City, 1891). The best bibliographies are in H. H. Bancroft's
History of Utah (San Francisco, 1889), vol. xxi. of the History of the
Pacific States of North America, in which the effort to avoid bias
against the Mormons has made the work biassed in their favour,
and in I. Woodbridge Riiey's The Founder of Mormonism, a Psycho-
logical Study of Joseph Smith, Jr. (New York, 1902), the first in-
quiry by a trained psychologist into Smith's case. More important
than either of these works is William Alexander Linn's The Story
of the Mormons from the Date of their Origin to the Year 1901 (New
York, 1902) ; Linn, unlike Riley, thinks it proved that Rigdon used
the " Spaulding manuscript " in the preparation of the Book of
Mormon. E. W. Tullidge"'s History of Salt Lake City (Salt Lake
City, 1886) and Orson F. Whitney s History of Utah (4 vols., Salt
Lake City, 1892-1898) are valuable general works by Mormon
writers; the leaders of the Reorganized Saints, Joseph Smith III
and Herman C. Smith, wrote A History of the Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Lamoni, Iowa, 1901); and Tullidge, a
member of the same branch, wrote a Life of Joseph the Prophet
(Piano, Illinois, 2nd ed., 1880). Edward H. Anderson s Brief History
of the Church of Latter-Day Saints (3rd ed., 1905) and J. E. Talmage's
Story of Mormonism (reprinted, 1907) are regarded by Mormons
as authentic. Early attacks oh Mormonism are E. D. Howe's
Mormonism Unveiled (Painesville, Ohio, 1834) and Pomeroy Tucker's
Origin and Progress of the Mormons (New York, 1867). And among
works descriptive of Mormonism in Utah written by Gentiles the
more important are: History of the Mormons of Utah: their Domestic
Polity and Theology (Philadelphia, 1852), by Lieut. J. W. Gunnison
of the U.S. Topographical Engineers, who took part in surveys
preliminary to building a transcontinental railway; Utah and the
Mormons (New York, 1854), by B. G. Ferris, secretary of Utah
Territory in 1852-1853; Horace Greeley, Overland Journey from New
York to San Francisco in 1859 (New York, 1860); Jules Remy,
Journey to Great Salt Lake City (London, 1861) ; and The City of the
Saints, and across the Rocky Mountains to California (London,
1861), by Richard F. Burton, who spent a month in Salt Lake
City in 1860. There is much valuable material in the Reports of
the Utah Commission appointed under the Edmunds Act, in Testi-
mony before the Senate Committee in the Smoot case (1903-1905),
and in the Report of the Committee on Privileges and Elections
(Senate Report 4253, 59th Congress, 1st Session), also in the Smoot
case.
MORMYR. The mormyrs (Mormyridae) are one of the most
remarkable families of the Malacopterygian fishes, confined to
the fresh waters of tropical Africa and the Nile. About 100
species, referred to two sub-families and ten genera, are now
known, a great number of new forms having recently been
discovered in the Congo. They are curious-looking, highly
aberrant fishes, very variable in the extent of the vertical fin
and in the form of the body, and especially the head, which may
be either extremely abbreviated or elongated into a rostrum,
with or without a dermal appendage or " feeler." The shape
of the head has suggested many of the specific names which have
been given to these fish, such as elephas, tapirus, tamandua,
cabattus, ovis, ibis, numenius, &c. Some forms are eel-shaped.
The mormyrs are further remarkable for the enormous develop-
ment of the brain and for the problematic organ which sur-
mounts it; also as being among the few fishes in which an
electric organ has been discovered. This organ, situated on
each side of the caudal region, is derived from the muscular
system and is of feeble power; it was long considered as
" pseudoelectric."
Very little is known of the habits of these fishes. Professor
G. Fritsch, of Berlin, during his stay in Egypt for the purpose of
experimenting on electric fishes, observed that they perish very
rapidly when removed from the water, and he had the greatest
difficulty in keeping some alive in an aquarium for two or three
days. Captain S. Flower has recently been more successful, and
the mormyrs have proved a great success in the Gezira aquarium,
near Cairo, examples of the species having lived from ten to
twenty-six months. The species with comparatively large
mouths feed principally on fishes and crustaceans, the others
on tiny animals and vegetable and more or less decomposed
matter. P. Delhez, on the Congo, found that many are attracted
to the borders of the river in the neighbourhood of human
dwellings, where they feed on the refuse thrown into the water.
It is probable that the species with a rostrum use it to procure
small prey hidden between stones or buried in the mud, and that
the fleshy mental appendage with which they are provided is
a tactile organ compensating the imperfection of the vision in
the search for food. Until quite recently absolutely nothing
was known of the breeding-habits and development. To the
late J. S. Budgett we owe some very interesting observations
made in the Gambia on Gymnarchus nilotitus, which makes a
nest, and the larvae of which are provided with filamentous
external gills.
Venerated by the ancient Egyptians, the mormyrs are often
represented on hieroglyphics and mural paintings as well as in
bronze models. The " Oxyrhynchus," remarkable for its long,
curved snout, is the most frequently depicted. A revision cf the
Mormyridae has been published by G. A. Boulenger in the Proc.
Zool. Sac. (1898), with a bibliographical index to the various
anatomical and physiological contributions. The skull has been
minutely studied by W. G. Ridewood, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.
xxix., 1904, p. 188). Figures of the most remarkable forms will be
found in Boulenger's Poissons nouveaux du Congo, Ann. Mus. Congo
(Zool. i. and ii., 1898-1902), and in his Fishes of the Nile (London,
1907, 4}; On the breeding habits of Gymnarchus,^ cf. J. S.
B.)
Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. (1901), xvi. 126.
(G. A. B.)
MORNAY, PHILIPPE DE (1549-1623), seigneur du Plessis-
Marly, usually known as Du-Plessis-Mornay or Mornay Du
Plessis, French Protestant, was born at Buhy in Normandy
on the 5th of November 1 549. His mother had leanings toward
Protestantism, but his father sought to counteract her influence
by sending him to the College de Lisieux at Paris. On his
father's death in 1559, however, the family formally adopted the
reformed faith. Mornay studied law and jurisprudence at
Heidelberg in 1565 and the following year Hebrew and German
at Padua. On the outbreak of the second religious war in 1567,
he joined the army of Conde, but a fall from his horse prevented
him from taking an active part in the campaign. His career as
Huguenot apologist began in 1571 with the work Dissertation
sur I'eglise visible, and as diplomatist in 1572 when he under-
took a confidential mission for Admiral de Coligny to William
the Silent, prince of Orange. He escaped the St Bartholomew
massacre by the aid of a Catholic friend, and took refuge in
England. Returning to France towards the end of 1573, he
participated during the next two years with various success in
the campaigns of Henry of Navarre. He was taken prisoner
by the duke of Guise on the' loth of October 1575, but not being
recognized was ransomed for a small sum. Shortly afterwards
he married Charlotte Arbaleste at Sedan. Mornay was grad-
ually recognized as the right-hand man of the king of Navarre,
whom he represented in England from 1577 to 1578 and again
in 1580, and in the Low Countries 1581-1582. With the death of
the duke of Alencon-Anjou in 1584, by which Henry of Navarre
was brought within sight of the throne of France, the period of
Mornay's greatest political activity began, and after the death
of the prince of Conde in 1588 his influence became so great
that he was popularly styled the Huguenot pope. He was
present at the siege of Dieppe, fought at Ivry, and was at the
siege of Rouen in 1591-92, until sent on a mission to the court
of Queen Elizabeth. He was bitterly disappointed by Henry
IV.'s abjuration of Protestantism in 1593, and thenceforth
gradually withdrew from the court and devoted himself to
writing. He founded in 1593 the Protestant academy or
MORNING MORNY
849
university at Saumur, which had a distinguished history until
its suppression by Louis XIV. in 1683. In 1598 he published a
work on which he had long been engaged, entitled De insti-
tution, usage et doctrine du saint sacrement de I 'eucharistie en
I'eglise ancienne, containing about 5000 citations from the
scriptures, fathers and schoolmen. Jacques Davy Du Perron,
bishop of Evreux, afterwards cardinal and archbishop of
Sens, accused him of misquoting at least 500, and a public
disputation was held at Fontainebleau on the 4th of May 1600.
Decision was awarded to Du Perron on nine points presented,
when the disputation was interrupted by the illness of Mornay.
His last years were saddened by the loss of his only son in 1605
and of his devoted wife in 1606, and were marked only by
perfecting the Huguenot organization. He was chosen a deputy
in 1618 to represent the French Protestants at the synod of
Dort, and though prohibited from attending by Louis XIII.,
he contributed materially to its deliberations by written
communications. He was deprived of the governorship of
Saumur at the time of the Huguenot insurrection in 1621,
and died in retirement on his estate of La Foret-sur-Sevre on the
nth of November 1623.
His principal works, in addition to De L'institution, usage et
doctrine du saint sacrement de V eucharistie en I'eglise ancienne
(La Rochelle, 1598), mentioned above, are Excellent discours de la
vie et de la mart (London, 1577), a bridal present to Charlotte
Arbaleste; Traite de I'eglise ou I' on traite des principals questions
qui out ete mues sur ce point en npstre temps (London, 1578); Traite
de la verite de la religion chretienne centre les athees, epicuriens,
payens, juifs, mahometans et autres infideles (Antwerp, 1581); Le
mystere d'iniquite, c'est a dire, I'histoire de la papaute (Geneva, 1611).
Two volumes of Memoires, from 1572 to 1589, appeared at La
Foret (1624-1625), and a continuation in 2 vols. at Amsterdam
(1652); a more complete but very inaccurate edition (Memoires,
correspondances, et vie) in 12 vols. was published at Paris in 1624
1625.
See the life of Mornay written by his wife for the instruction of
their son, Memoires de Mme Duplessis-Mornay, vol. i. in the ed.
of Memoires et correspondances de Duplessis-Mornay (Paris, 1824
1825); E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, article " Mornay ";
J. Ambert, Du Plessis-Mornay (Paris, 1847); E. Stahelin, Der
Vbertrilt K. Heinrichs IV. von Frankreich zur katholischen Kirche
(Basel, 1856); Weiss, Du Plessis Mornay ccmme theologien (Strass-
burg, 1867). There is a good article " Du Plessis-Mornay " by
T. Schott in Hauck's Realencyklopadie, and another by Grube in
Kirchenlsxikon.
MORNING, properly the dawn of day, sunrise, but extended
to the whole early part of the day, from the dawn to midday.
" Morning " (M. Eng. morwening) was formed on the analogy of
" evening," from " morn," in M. Eng. morwen, and originally
meant the coming of the sunrise, as " evening," the coming of the
close of the day (O. Eng. afnung, from a/en, eve). The O. Eng.
morgen represents the common Teutonic word for the dawn;
the ultimate source has been assigned to the root, seen in
" murk," " murky," meaning to be dark, or, with more proba-
bility, to the root mergh, to twinkle, shine (cf. Lith. mirga), and
further to the root mar, as in Gr. papnaipeiv, to shine (cf. Lat.
marmor, marble). The M. Eng. morwen dropped the n and became
morwe, " morrow," which properly means " morning," but was
soon used of the day following the present.
The " morning-star " (Ger. Morgenstern) was a military
weapon of the middle ages, consisting of a mace or club with a
ball head studded with spikes; the spiked ball was sometimes
swung loose from the head of the mace by a chain. The weapon
was also known as a " holy water sprinkler." The "morning-
gift," earlier " moryeve," Ger. Morgengabe, was the present
given to a bride by her husband on the morning after the
marriage. The custom is probably connected with the origin
of the term " morganatic marriage " (see MORGANATIC).
MORNY, CHARLES AUGUSTE LOUIS JOSEPH, Due DE
(1811-1865), French statesman, was the natural son of Hortense
Beauharnais (wife of Louis Bonaparte, and queen of Holland)
and Charles Joseph, comte de Flahaut (q.v.), and therefore half-
brother of Napoleon III. He was born in Paris on the 2ist of
October 1811, and his birth was duly registered in a certificate
which made him the legitimate son of Auguste Jean Hyacinthe
Demorny, described as a landowner of St. Domingo. M.
Demorny was in fact an officer in the Prussian army and a
native of St Domingo, though he owned no land there or else-
where. After a brilliant school and college career he received
a commission in the army, and next year entered the staff college
and became lieutenant. The comte de Morny, as he was called
by a polite fiction, served in Algeria in 1834-35 as aide-de-camp
to General Camille Alphonse Trezel, whose life he saved under
the walls of Constantine. When he returned to Paris in 1838
he secured a solid position in the business world by the establish-
ment of a great beetroot-sugar industry at Clermont in Auvergne,
and by writing a pamphlet Sur la question des sucres in 1838.
In these and other lucrative speculations he was helped by the
beautiful and wealthy wife of the Belgian ambassador, Charles
Joseph, comte Lehon, until there were few great commercial
enterprises in Paris in which he had not an interest. Although
he sat as deputy for Clermont-Ferrand from 1842 onwards he
took at first no important part in party politics, but he was
heard with respect on industrial and financial questions. He
supported the government of Louis Philippe, because revolution
threatened his commercial interests, but before the catastrophe
of 1848, by which he was temporarily ruined, he meditated
conversion to the legitimist cause represented by the comte de
Chambord. His attitude was expressed by the mot with which
he is said to have replied to a lady who asked what he would do
if the Chamber were " swept out." " Range myself on the side
of the broom handle," was his answer. Presently he was
admitted to the intimate circle of Louis Napoleon, and he helped
to engineer the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851 on the
morrow of which he received the ministry of the interior. After
six months of office, during which he had shown commendable
moderation and tact to his political opponents, he resigned his
portfolio, ostensibly because he disapproved of the confiscation
of the Orleans property but really because Napoleon, influenced
by Morny's rivals, resented his pretensions to a foremost place
in the government and his desire to insist on his claims as a
member of the Bonaparte family. He now resumed his financial
speculations, and when in 1854 he became president of the Corps
Legislatif, a position which he filled with consummate [dignity
and tact for the rest of his life, he used his official rank to assist
his schemes.
Politics and high finance with Morny went hand in hand.
In 4856 he was sent as special envoy to the coronation of
Alexander II. of Russia; he executed his mission with prodigal
splendour, and brought home a wife, Princess Sophie Troubetzkoi,
who by her connexions greatly strengthened his social position.
In 1862 Morny, whose power was at its culminating point, was
created a duke. It is said that he aspired to the throne of
Mexico, and that the French expedition sent to place Maximilian
on the throne was prompted by Napoleon's desire to thwart
this ambition. In any case, in spite of occasional dissensions,
Morny's influence with the emperor remained very great, and
the liberal traditions which he had retained enabled him to serve
the imperial cause by his influence with the leaders cf the
opposition, the most conspicuous of whom, Emile Ollivier, was
detached from his colleagues by his efforts. But while he was
laying the foundations of the " Liberal Empire " his health,
undermined by a ceaseless round of political and financial
business, of gaiety and dissipation, was giving way, and was
further injured by indulgence in quack medicines. The emperor
and the empress visited him just before his death in Paris on
the loth of March 1865.
Morny's valuable collection of pictures was sold after his
death. In spite of his undoubted wit and social gifts Morny
failed to secure the distinction he desired as a dramatist, and
none of his pieces which appeared under the pseudonym of M.
de St Remy Sur la grande route ; Monsieur Choufleury restera
chez lui, and the Finesses du mari among others met with any
considerable success on the stage.
The figure of the due de Morny is familiar to the general reader
in the due de Mora of Le Nabab of Alphonse Daudet, who had been
one of his secretaries. See F. Lolie, Le Due de Morny et la societe du
second empire (1909). Earlier accounts are by H. Castille, M. de
Morny (1859), and Arthur de la Gue'ronniSre, Etudes et portraits
850
MORO MOROCCO
politiques (1856). See the literature dealing with Napoleon III.,
and the article on Flahaut de la Billarderie; also F. Loliee, Le
Due de Morny, adapted by B. O'Donnell. A volume, Extraits des
memoires de Morny: Une Ambassade en Russie 1856, was published
in 1892.
MORO, ANTONIO (c. 1512-1575), otherwise known as Sir
Anthony More, the eminent portrait-painter, was born at
Utrecht in 1512 according to some, but in 1525 according to
Karl van Mander in his Het Leven der Schilders. He studied
his art under Jan Schoorel; and after making a professional visit
to Italy he commenced to paint portraits in the style of Hans
Holbein. His rise to eminence was rapid. In 1552 he was
invited to Madrid by the emperor Charles V. to execute a
likeness of Prince Philip. Two years afterwards he was in
London painting the portrait of Queen Mary. For this picture
an annual salary and, as some suppose, the honour of knighthood
were conferred upon him. On the death of Mary- in 1558 Moro
returned to Spain, and lived there for two years in great honour
with Philip II., executing, in addition to portraits, several copies
after Titian. His death took place at Antwerp about 1575.
Among his figure-pictures Van Mander specifies the " Circum-
cision of Christ," executed for Antwerp Cathedral, as one of
the most notable. His portraits are full of individuality, and
characterized by firm and solid rendering of flesh. Several
admirable examples are preserved in Madrid; among the rest
the portrait of Queen Mary of England, which has been
excellently etched by Milius (L'Art, Dec. 8, 1878). " Moro's
style," says Stanley in his Dutch and Flemish Painters, " so
much resembles that of Holbein as to frequently create a
doubt to which of them a portrait is to be attributed, but he is
not so clear and delicate in his colouring (perhaps from
having painted so much in Spain) as that master."
MOROCCO (L MAGHRIB EL AKSA, " The Farthest West,"
i.e. of the Mahommedan world), an independent state of North
Africa, bounded on the N. by the Mediterranean, on the E. by
Algeria, on the S. (indefinitely) by the Sahara, and on the W.
by the Atlantic as far south as Wad Dra'a. Its landward limits
can only be vaguely defined. The eastern frontier towards
Algeria, determined by the treaty of 1844, is a purely conven-
tional line starting from the mouth of a small stream called the
Skis and running across country in a general S.S.E. direction.
In 1900 this was given a westerly trend to the south of the Atlas
by the annexation of the Figig, Igli and Tuat oases by France.
The southern boundaries expand and contract according to the
power and acivity of the central authorities. Behm and
Wagner, who included Figig, Tuat, Kenatsa and other oases,
estimated (in 1882) the then area of the sultanate at 305,548
sq. m. The allegiance of many of the tribes within this compass
is questionable and intermittent, and the loss of the district
from Figig to Tuat, which is not accurately defined, has
considerably reduced the area. Morocco is still the portion
of Northern Africa about which European information is
most defective, and all maps are still to a considerable extent
composed of unscientific material eked out by probabilities and
conjecture.
The Mediterranean Coast Lands. The seaward aspect of Morocco
only is known in detail. To the Mediterranean it presents for
about 200 m. the rugged profile of the Rif hills (still unexplored),
which generally end in lines of cliff broken at intervals by narrow
sweeps of sandy beech, but occasionally open up into beautiful and
fertile valleys. About 6 m. west of the Skis lies the mouth of the
river Mulwiya; and 10 m. farther on, opposite Cabo del Agua (Ras
Sidi Bashir), is a group of dry and barren islands, owned by Spain,
known as Chaffarinas or Jazair Zafran (Spanish las Chafarinas),
which protect the best roadstead on the Rif coast. Between Point
Quiviana and Melilla runs a low and sandy shore in front of a great
salt marsh, the Mar Chica of the Spaniards. Melilla (Meliliya) is
a fortified rock convict station or presidio, held by the Spaniards
since 1497, forming a peninsula connected by lines of rampart with
Fort Rosario on the heights behind. The fine semicircular bay of
Alhucemas is the seaward end of one of the most beautiful valleys
in the Rif, clothed with verdure and dotted with hamlets. A
Spanish presidio occupies one of the larger of the Alhucemas islands
(Al-Mazemma), which are identified with the Ad Sex Insulas of the
itineraries. Another Spanish presidio crowns the island rock
Penon de Velez; and in the valley off which it lies stood a town
known to the Spaniards as Velez de Gomera, to the Arabs as Badis,
which continued to be a place of importance in the l6th century.
The so-called Bay of Tetuan (Te(tawan) the town is just visible
from the sea is little more than the straight stretch of coast
between Cape Mazari on the south and Cape Negro or Negrete on
the north; but the prominence of these two headlands gives it an
appearance of depth. From Cape Negro northwards to Ceuta the
most notable object is the summit of Jebel Musa, which, though
situated on the Strait of Gibraltar, towers above the intervening
hills. Ceuta (Sibta), the most important of the Spanish settlements
in Morocco, occupies a peninsula the head, Mt Acho, standing
about 4 m. out to sea, and the neck being low and narrow. It
marks the eastern end of the strait. Westwards, the first point
of interest is again Jebel Musa, the Elephas of Strabo, and the Apes'
Hill of English charts. About 20 m. farther along the coast lies
the Bay of Tangier (Tanja), one of the finest harbours in Morocco.
West from Tangier runs the Jebel Keblr (rising to a little over
jooo ft.), the seaward extremity of which forms Cape Spartel,
the north-west angle of the African continent, known to the ancients
as Ampelusia or Cotes Promontorium. The lighthouse, 312 ft.
above sea-level, built in 1865 at the cost of the sultan of Morocco,
and maintained at the joint expense of England, France, Italy and
Spain, is the only one on the western coast. It is provided with
a fixed intermittent white light, visible for 36 m.
The Atlantic Coast Line. The Atlantic coast of Morocco is
remarkable for its regularity ; it has not a single gulf or noteworthy
estuary; the capes are few and for the most part feebly marked.
Southward from Cape Spartel the shore sinks rapidly till it is
within a few feet of the sea-level. In the low cliff which it forms
about 4J m. from the lighthouse there is a great quarry, which from
remote antiquity has yielded the hand-mills used in the Tangier
district. A stretch of low marshy ground along the Tahaddart
estuary W. Muharhar and W. el-Kharrub agrees with
Scylax's Gulf of Cotes (Tissot). Eight m. farther lies Azila, the
ancient Colonia Julia Constantia Zilis, with a Moorish and Jewish
population of about 1200. For the next 16 m., between Azila and
Laraish (Laraiche), the coast has a tolerably bold background
of hills, Jebel Sarsar forming an important landmark for the latter
town which, with its Phoenician, Roman and medieval remains,
is historically one of the most interesting places in Morocco. A
line of reddish cliffs about 300 ft. high runs south for about 10 m.
from the W.-Lekkus, at whose mouth the town is built; then the
coast sinks till it reaches the shrine of Mulai Bu Selham on an
eminence 220 ft. high. Between Mulai Bu Selham (often wrongly
called " Old Mamora ") and a similar height crowned by the tomb
of Sidi 'Abd Allah Jelali lies the outlet of the Blue Lake (Marja
Zarka), 10 or 12 m. long. Farther south, and separated from the
sea by an unbroken line of rounded hills (230-260 ft.), is the much
more extensive lagoon of Ras ed-Dura, which in the dry season
becomes a series of marshy meres, but in the rainy season fills up
and discharges into the Sebu. Eastward it is connected with the
Marjat el-Gharb, fed by the W. Meda. On the south side of the
outlet of the Sebu lies Mehediya (otherwise misnamed New Mamora
or Mehduma) founded by 'Abd el-Mumin, and named after the
Muwahhadi Mahdi. It was held by Spain from 1614 to 1681.
Twenty miles farther is the mouth of the Bu Ragrag, with Salli (Sla)
on the north side, long famous for its piracies, and still one of the
most fanatical places in the empire, and on the south side Rabat,
with its conspicuous Hassan tower, and Sheila with its interesting
ruins. Onward for 100 m. to Point Azammur and the mouth of
the Um er-Rabi'a river a line of hills skirts the sea; the shore is for
the most part low, and, with the exception of capes at Fedala (a
small village, originally a port, partly rebuilt by Mulai Isma'il, and
completed by Mahommed XVII., who opened it to Europeans
between 1760 and 1773) and Dar el-Baida or Casablanca, it runs
in a straight line west-south-west. Azammur (Berber for " The
Wild Olives," viz. of the Sheikh Bu Shaib) once the frontier town
of the kingdom of Fez stands on an eminence about ij m. from
the sea on the south side of the Urn er-Rabi'a, here some 150 ft.
wide, deep and red, with an obstructing bar. The bay of Mazagan,
a few miles to the south, curves westward with a boldness of sweep
unusual on this coast. About 8 m. to the south, and less than
I m. inland, lie the extensive ruins of Tit, a town which proved a
thorn in the side of the Portuguese of Mazagan till they destroyed
it. At Cape Blanco (so called from its white cliffs) the coast, which
bulged out at Cape Mazagan, again bends south to resume much
the sanre general direction for 55 m. to Cape Cantin. On this
stretch the only point of interest is the site of the vanished
Walidiya, formerly EI-Ghait, with an excellent harbour, formed by
an extensive lagoon, which by a little dredging would become the
safest shipping station on the whole Morocco seaboard. About
1 8 m. farther lies Saffi (Asfi), the most picturesque spot on the west
coast, with the high walls and quare towers of its Portuguese
fortifications shown to advantage by the ruggedness of the site.
Sixty miles farther south lies Mogador, beyond which the coast
becomes more and more inaccessible and dangerous in winter,
being known to navigators as the " Iron Coast." From Cape Sim
(Ras Tagriwalt) r 10 m. south of Mogador, the direction is due
south to Cape Ghir (Ighir Ufrani), the termination of Jebel Ida u
Tanan, a spur of the Atlas. Beyond this headland lies Agadir
(Agadir Ighir), the Santa Cruz Mayor or Santa Cruz de Berberia
MOROCCO
851
of the Spaniards, formerly known as the Gate of the Sudan. 1 It
is a little town with white battlements three-quarters of a mile
in circumference, on a steep eminence 600 ft. high. In the
1 6th century it was seized by the Portuguese; but in 1536 it
was captured by Mulai Ahmad, one of the founders of the Sa'adi
dynasty. Some 60 m. farther south, at the mouth of a river
known by the same name, is the roadstead of Massa, with a
mosque popularly reputed the scene of Jonah's restoration to
terra firma. This port 2 was regularly visited by the Genoese
traders in the 1 6th century, who exported skins, gum, wax, gold
and indigo. Another 50 m. farther south lies Ifni, a landing-place
easily recognizable by the shrine of Sidi Worzek, a few miles to the
Character of the Interior. The backbone of the country is the
Great Atlas (Daren of the Berbers), for which see ATLAS. The
principal rivers take their rise in the Atlas Mountains, and the
headwaters of the Mulwiya, the Sebu, the Um er-Rabf a, the
Dra'a and the Ziz all rise between 32 20' and 32 30' N., and
between 3 30' and 5 W. The Mulwiya (Mulucha and
Malva of Pliny, &c.) is the river which the French have long
wished to make the western boundary of Algeria. Its course is
largely unexplored save by native French officials. About 34
20' N. General Colvile found it some 200 yds. wide but quite
MOROCCO
Scale, 1:7, 000,000
English Miles
8 T) Longitude West 6 of Greenwich g
south of which is the Cape Non * ot the Portuguese. The better
known Cape Nun lies 5 or 6 m. north of the W. Nun, at the mouth
of which is Assaka, a port which the sultan of Morocco opened to
foreign trade in 1882, but closed after six months. From Assaka
to the mouth of the Dra'a the country continues broken and
fertile, but farther south it is flatter and more sandy, so that with
the Dra'a the Sahara may be said to begin.
1 This must not be confounded with Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena,
a post established in 1476 somewhere on this coast by Herrera,
lord of the Canary Islands. After obtaining permission to re-
occupy the post in 1861, the Spanish government was unable to
identify it, though in all probability the original site was the lagoon
known as Puerto Cansado, much farther south. But this is now
too remote a spot to be worth colonizing, hence the desire to substi-
tute some other. Ifni, on old maps Gueder, was chosen (1878),
there being some evidence to show that it was possibly the true
site of the ancient fort.
2 See Valentin Ferdinand. Beschreibung West Afrikas (Mem. of
the Acad. of Munich, 3rd Class, pt. viii.).
3 No, Non, Nor, Naum, Nao, are among the various readings. 1
was another Cape Non to the south of Cape Bojador which seems to
have given rise to the proverb. Quern pasar o cabo de Nao ou tornara
ou nao. See Bol. de la Soc. Geogr. (Madrid, 1880), p. 316.
shallow; about 25 m..east of its source, where it is crossed by
the route to Ziz, it is already a powerful stream with a deep bed
cut in the granite rock, and shortly afterwards it is joined by
the W. Sgimmel, a still larger affluent (Rohlfs). Of the lesser
streams which flow into the Mediterranean it is enough to
mention the W. Martfl or Martin (otherwise W. Bu Sfiha,
W. Ras, W. Mejeksa), which falls into the Bay of Tetuan, and
is identified with the Tamuda of Pliny and Thaluda of Ptolemy.
On the Atlantic seaboard there are a number of compara-
tively small streams north of the Sebu, the chief of which is the
winding W. Lekkus, with several tributaries. The Sebu (the
Subur magnificus et namgabilis of Pliny) may be compared to
the Thames in length and width, though not in steadiness and
depth of current. At Meshra'at el-Ksiri, about 70 m. from its
mouth, it is about 10 ft. deep in the month of May and more
than 460 ft. wide; and, though its banks are 21 ft. high, extensive
inundations occur. The tide ascends as far as El-Kantara,
15 m. above Ma'mora, and steam barges with a small draught
of water could make their way to the ford just mentioned, and
MOROCCO
possibly evert as far as Fez. Affluents of the Sebu are W. Mikkes
and W. Redem (90 m. long). The swift and muddy current of
W, Beht usually loses itself in a swamp before it reaches the
main stream. The Bu Ragrag, which debouches between Rabat
and Salli, is about the same length as the Beht, but of much
more importance. It and the Um er-Rabi'a (mother of
grass), although their mouths are widely separated, drain the
northern slopes of the central Atlas. The impetuous Um er-
Rabi'a, with a rocky bed and many rapids, is perhaps as large as
the Sebu. W. el-Abiad, W. Akhdar and W. Tessaut are the
principal affluents. This last is separated by about 10 m. only
from the valley of the Tansift, the river which flows to the north
of the city of Marrakesh ; and by the W. Nefls, the Asif el-Mai
(Asif is Berber for river), the W. Usbi, and other smaller tribu-
taries, receives the waters of about 180 m. of the Atlas range.
The valley between _the Atlas and the An ti- Atlas is traversed
by the W. Sus, whose ever-flowing stream is sufficient to turn
the whole district into a garden. The Massa or W. al-Ghas,
though its headwaters drain only one or two of the lesser valleys
at the south-west end of the Anti-Atlas, is "about 50 yds.
from bank to bank at the mouth, with a depth at high water
and in the proper channel of something over a fathom." Farther
south is the Assaka, known to European geographers as the
W. Nun; and finally the W. Dra'a is reached, which in length
exceeds all the rivers of Morocco, but, except in spring, when
the snows are melting in the highlands, remains throughout its
lower reaches a dry sandy channel. In the upper valleys
however innumerable streams from the south side of the main
chain of the Atlas, the W. Dades from the east, and the Asif
Marghen, W. el-Molah, or Warzazet from the west, flow through
populous and fertile valleys, and uniting to form the Dra'a
cut their way southward through a gorge in the Jebel Soghar,
which, as the name implies, is a lower range running parallel
to the Atlas proper. For the next 130 m. the stream holds
S.S.E., drained at every step by the irrigation canals which turn
this region into a green oasis, till at last its dwindling current
bends westward to the sebkha (salt marsh) of Debaya. For a
few weeks once a year the thaw-floods fill this shallow but
extensive basin and rush onwards to the Atlantic; but in summer
it dries up, and, like the bed of the river for some distance
below, is covered with flourishing crops. From the south of
the Atlas still farther east descend other streams, the W. Zlz
(with its tributaries the W. Todgha and W. Gheris), the W. Ghlr,
the W. Kenatsa, &c., which, after watering the oases of Med-
ghara, Tafilalt (Sajilmasa), Kenatsa, &c., lose themselves in the
sands of the Sahara.
[Geology. The Atlas Mountains, which are built up of a series of
ridges rising to 12,000 ft. to the east of Morocco, form the backbone
of the country. The central and highest portions consist of slates,
crystalline limestones and schists of Archean, Pre-Cambrian and
possibly of Cambrian ages. They are much fojded and broken
through by numerous intrusions of basalts and diorites. The mass
of Jebel Tezah is composed of mica-schists and porphyries which
appear to bear closer resemblances to the rnetamorphic rocks of
Egypt than to the Archean crystalline formation of Central Africa.
The strata of the central ridges are succeeded by a great thickness
of purple marls, red sandstones, conglomerates and calcareous rocks,
occurring in faulted, folded and detached areas and recently con-
sidered to range from Silurian to Trias. Later palaeozoic rocks of
Devonian and Carboniferous ages also form a broad zone extending
into the Sahara on the southern and south-eastern flanks. The
whole of the Cretaceous system is represented by the shales and lime-
stones occurring between the coast and the edge of the plateau above
Morocco, but do not enter into the composition of the High Atlas.
Moraines, made up largely of unstriatcd blocks of porphyry, have
been reported from the Upper Atlas. At the foot of the mountains,
extensive mounds of boulder beds are developed on an immense
scale and were considered by Maw to belong to the Glacial Epoch.
Between Damnat and the sea, however, the signs of a former glacia-
tion appear to be insignificant. No moraines occur here, and conse-
quently the glacial origin of the boulder beds described by Maw has
been disputed. They are probably alluvial cones brought down
from the High Atlas and mountainous regions. From Mogador
to 60 m. inland, and over the plains around Marrakesh, a tufaceous
deposit forming a hard crust, several feet thick, follows every undu-
lation of the ground. Immense accumulations of tufa are met with
in the limestone areas of the mountains. The chief tectonic struc-
tures which trend N. 20 E. belong to the Alpine and Mediterranean
systems. The Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are involved in these
movements, which, however, were moulded on an earlier folding
affecting the palaeozoic rocks of the Atlas region. The sundering
of Africa from Europe at the Straits of Gibraltar took place in
late Tertiary times; while the elevation of the Barbary coast to a
height of 50 to 70 ft. is of Recent date.)
Climate. The climate is good, and produces a hardy race.
Shielded by the Atlas from the hot winds of the Sahara, the coast of
the Atlantic offers great attractions to those suffering from chest
complaints. Tangier is a recognized health resort, and Mogador
and Rabat await development as such. Rain falls only between
September and April; on the Atlantic coast it is brought by the
south-west wind, and on the Mediterranean sometimes also by the
east wind, or skarki, otherwise dry and somewhat trying to invalids.
The wonderfully temperate climate of Mogador is due in a great
measure to trustworthy trade-winds. In Tangier and Mogador
the thermometer seldom rises over 80 F. or sinks below 40, although
inland the extremes are much greater; and while on the plains or in
low-lying cities the heat grows intense, snow gleams on the Atlas
nearly all the year round. The best months for visiting the interior
are September (if rain has fallen), October, November and the early
part of December, or May and June.
Fauna. The absence of woodland keeps wild animals in check.
Besides the lion, which exists in very limited numbers and, accord-
ing to local proverbs, with diminished courage the spotted leopard,
panther, hyaena, jackal, lynx, fox, wild boar, porcupine, antelope
and gazelle are the most important. The audad or wild sheep is
found in the more inaccessible parts of the Atlas. Rabbits swarm
in the country to the north of the Bu Ragrag, and since 1870 they
have crossed this stream, which used to be their southern limit.
Hares are generally common. Rats are from time to time a plague
to agriculturists, and the jerboa is frequently met with. A kind
of ground-squirrel, the sibsib, occurs in the southern provinces.
Monkeys of the same species as those of Gibraltar frequent the neigh-
bourhood of Jebel Musa or Apes' Hill. The common wild birds
include blackbirds, goldfinches, linnets, greenfinches, robins, wagtails,
skylarks and crested larks, swifts, magpies, cuckoos, lapwings, rollers,
several shrikes, as well as turtle-doves, nightingales, jays and buff-
backed egrets. The house-sparrow is not found ; between Marrakesh
and Mogador its place is taken by a beautiful bird (Emberiza strio-
[ula), locally called tablb, or " doctor." The birds of prey include
eagles, vultures, ospreys, buzzards, falcons, harriers, kestrels, kites,
ravens and hawks. Hawking is still indulged in by some of the
country governors, and the Moors are very fond of hunting, many
keeping greyhounds. The Barbary partridge is the main resource
of the sportsman, though he may also bag several other varieties
of partridge, bustards, guinea-fowl, plovers, grouse, snipe, quail,
curlew, ducks and other water-fowl. Along the coast there is no lack
of gulls, gannets, pelicans, flamingoes, herons, whimbrel, oyster-
catchers, &c. Most towns have their colony of storks. Several
venomous snakes and two vipers are found, but are not common,
and the same may be said of scorpions and tarantulas, but centipedes
are more numerous. Human parasites are, however, most' to be
guarded against. Mosquitos give little trouble save in towns or
near water. Invasions of locusts are serious, but intermittent.
Lizards, chameleons, tortoises and frogs are familiar objects; it is
from Morocco that the small tortoises hawked about the streets of
London are usually obtained.
Of domestic animals the mule is the great beast of burden, though
camels, mares and asses are also employed. The horse is usually a
sturdy little animal, but far below the ancient reputation of the Bar-
bary steed. It is seldom used as a draught animal. Roughly broken
when young, his mouth is soon spoiled by barbarous bits, and his
feet by square shoes. The finest animals are said to be bred in
Shiadhma and Abda. In form and size the mules are much superior
and usually fetch two or three times the price of the horse. The
horned cattle are not unlike Aldcrneys; but being practically
untcnded, and the oxen having to do the ploughing, they furnish a
very different quality of milk, yielding it only while the calf looks on ;
the sheep, for the improvement of which, also, nothing is done,
have spiral horns (not infrequently four), rounded foreheads and long,
fine wool; the goats, which furnish the famous leather, needing even
less care are still more abundant. Domestic fowls are kept in great
numbers; they are of the Spanish type, small and prolific.
The bonito and mackerel fishery off the coast of Casablanca and
Tangier attracts fishers from Spain, Portugal and other parts of
Europe. Occasionally a small shoal may be found as far south as
Mogador. Soles, turbot, bream, bass, conger eel and mullet are
common along the coast, and southern Morocco is visited occasion-
ally by shoals of a large fish called the azUmzah (sciaena aguila),
rough scaled and resembling a cod, and the tasargelt (Temnodon
saltator), the " blue fish " of North America. Crayfish, prawns,
oysters and mussels swarm in the rocky places, but the natives have
no proper method of catching them, and edible crabs seem unknown.
The tunny, pilchard and sardine, and a kind of shad known as the
" Mogador nerring," all prove at times of practical importance.
The catching of the shabel, a species of shad, mis-called " Barbary
salmon " is a great industry on the principal rivers of the coast, and
vast numbers of the fish, which are often from 5 to 15 Ib in weight
are dried and salted. They ascend from the sea in spring. Barbels
MOROCCO
and a few other small fish swarm in the streams, but for the aneler
there is little real sport.
Flora. From the presence of a large proportion of plants of cen-
tral and northern Europe (none of the northern plants, however
being of alpine or arctic type) and the absence of southern types
characteristic of the sub-tropical zone, Ball concluded that " the
Morocco flora is altogether a portion of that great Mediterranean
flora which, with local peculiarities, one finds from the Indus to the
Atlantic Islands, but that " the mountain flora of Morocco is a
southern extension of the European temperate flora, with little or no
admixture of extraneous elements, but so long isolated from the
neighbouring regions that a considerable number of new specific
types have been developed." Of the individual plants none are
more remarkable than the ardr and the organ. The former (Callitris
quadnvalms, or Thuja articulata of Shaw) is a cypress-like tree
that grows on the Atlas both in Morocco and Algeria. It furnishes
gum sandarach; and its beautiful and enduring timber has been
identified with the alerce with which the Cordova cathedral (mosque)
was roofed, and with the citrus-wood, arbor vitae, of the ancient
Romans. The argan, Elaeodendron argan (Argania sideroxylon)
is confined to a tract of country extending about 150 m. along the
coast, from the river Tansift almost to the river Sus, and about 30 m.
in breadth; and it is found nowhere else in the world. The fruit,
which ripens between May and August, is an olive-looking nut,
greedily eaten by camels, mules, goats, sheep and horned cattle
(but not by horses) for the sake of the fleshy pericarp, and crushed
by the natives to extract the oil from the kernel. Though " its
strong and fulsome savour " renders it nauseous to the European
palate, this oil is largely used in the cookery of southern Morocco.
The prickly pear " and the aloe form part of the features of the
landscape from the coast up to the slopes of the mountains, but
neither is indigenous. The cork tree has lost ground enormously
though it probably forms the staple of the Ma'mora forest, which
extends for some 20 m. between the Bu Ragrag and the Sebu. The
palmetto is often locally very abundant, but the most common wild
tree on the plains is the thorny lotus or mimosa: in the mountainous
regions it is reduced to a mere scrub. Lentisks, arbutus, oleanders,
junipers and broom are also common, but vast stretches of country
are devoid of either trees or shrubs. Citrons, lemons, limes (sweet
and sour), apricots, plums, melons, mulberries, walnuts and chest-
nuts are common in many parts. Tetuan and Laraish are famous
for oranges, Mequinez for quinces, Marrakesh for pomegranates, Fez
for figs, Tafilalt and Akka for dates, Sus for almonds, Dukalla for
melons, Tagodast, Edanan and Rabat for grapes, and Tarudant for
olives. The grape is extensively cultivated, but principally for eating ;
the Jews manufacture crude but palatable wines. Sugar, once grown
in Sus, to supply the demands of the whole of Morocco, has dis-
appeared as have also cotton and indigo. Indian hemp and tobacco
are cultivated under the restrictions of an imperial monopoly
the former (of prime quality) being largely used as hashish, the latter,
though never smoked, as snuff. Barley is the most usual cereal;
but excellent crops of wheat, maize, millet, rya, beans, peas, chick-
peas and canary seed are also obtained. Potatoes, tomatoes, cab-
bages and beets have been introduced from abroad; otherwise the
ordinary vegetables are peas, beans, turnips, onions, garlic, capsicums,
cucumbers, marrows and carrots. Sweet herbs are extensively grown
for use in cooking and in the preparation of tea.
In some of the Atlas valleys there is a wealth of timber, enormous
conifers, 10 to 12 ft. in girth of -stem, oaks, &c., but the greater part
of the country has been cleared of forest, exhibiting only brushwood,
and the lesser fruit-trees. Cowan, writing more immediately of
the country between Morocco and Mogador, speaks of " drifts of
asphodel, white lilies, blue convolvuli, white broom flowers, thyme
and lavender, borage, marigold, purple thistles, colossal daisies
and poppies"; and Trotter tells how for miles the undulating
plateau of Kasar Fara'on was covered with wild flowers, whose
varied colours, and the partiality with which each species confined
itself to certain ground, gave to the landscape a brilliant and unique
appearance.^ Dark blue, yellow and red iris, marigold and poppy
occurred in patches an acre in size; farther on whole hills and
valleys were of a delicate blue tint from convolvulus and borage.
At times the traveller's tent is pitched on a carpet of mignonette
indigenous to the country at times on a carpet of purple bugloss.
In the country of the Beni Hasan squills are so abundant that the
fibres of the bulbs are used instead of hair in making tent-cloth ; and
in the north of Al Kasar al-Kebir the moors are covered for miles with
a beautiful white heather. From such gorgeous combinations of
colour one can well imagine that the Moors drew the inspiration
of their chromatic art; but the season of floral splendour is brief,
and under the hot sun everything soon sinks into the monotony of
straw. 1
Inhabitants. No well-founded estimate exists as to the number
of inhabitants within the Moorish Empire, and the suggestions
'The botany of Morocco has been explored by Balansa (1867),
Hooker, Ball and Maw (1871), Rein and Fritsch (1873), Ibrahim
Ammeribt (a Berber collector, 1873, 1876), the Rabbi Mardochee Abi
Serur (1872-1873) ; and the results have been systematically arranged
853
in Cosson's Compendium florae atlanticae : ou
barbaresques (Paris, 1881, &c.).
Flore des etats
vary between five and ten millions. The majority of the
inhabitants are pastoral and agricultural in their pursuits; but
while large stretches of country are inhabited sparsely or not
at all, other parts, especially along the Atlas slopes, are closely
dotted with considerable villages whose hardy occupants
cultivate every foot of level surface which it is possible to till
and irrigate. Three races inhabit Morocco, and the members
of two others are continually being introduced. The most
numerous and important are the aboriginal Berbers (q.v.)
known locally also as Amazlgh who inhabit the mountainous
districts, and whose blood to a greater or less extent permeates
the whole population. These were the people who thrice
conquered Spain once from the Visigoths, and twice from their
less stalwart co-religionists. It has been its constant reinforce-
ment by this Berber element that has maintained the indepen-
dence of Morocco alone among the countries of North Africa.
The plains are for the most part occupied by Arabs (q.v.), intro-
duced in the nth and i2th centuries, long after the so-called
Arab invasion " of the 7th century, which would have left few
traces but for the Moslem missionaries who came after them.
A large number of the plainsmen are, however, composite
Arabicized Berbers, known to foreigners as "Moors" (q.v.), to
which division also the mixed race of the towns belongs.
Arabs are never found in the mountains save as religious
teachers or authorities, but only a small proportion of them
continue nomadic.
The third race which may be considered native is the Jewish,
consisting of two distinct sections: those settled among the
Berbers from time immemorial, speaking their language, and in
addition a hideously corrupt Arabic; and those expelled from
Europe within comparatively modern times, who have got little
farther than the ports, where they speak Spanish with the
addition of Arabic. These latter are the most progressive and
flourishing of all the inhabitants of Morocco, and in their hands
is much of the foreign trade. It is a remarkable fact that
several of the so-called Berber tribes are believed to have been
of Jewish origin, having embraced Islam on the coming of Mulai
Idris. To these white races constant additions of a negro
element are being added by the slave-trade with the western
Sudan, while inter-marriages between negro and Arab or Berber
have produced a proportion of mulattos.
The last class consists of the small colonies of Europeans
settled at the ports, for the most part engaged in trade. The
largest of these colonies, in this case principally Spanish, is
found in Tangier. All such foreigners are under the local
jurisdiction of their own consular courts. They possess more-
over the right of claiming the protection of their authorities
for natives entrusted with their interests, without which, in
the absence of justice, commerce with the interior would be
impossible.
Language. The language of Morocco is Berber, of which several
dialects are spoken, notably that of the RIf, towards Algeria, and the
Shilha of central Morocco and the Sus. Of these very little is known ;
but they do not essentially differ from one another or from those of
Algeria, notwithstanding considerable variations of pronunciation
and a varying proportion of Arabic or other admixtures, there being
no written standard to maintain. On the plains and coast of
central Morocco, however, Arabic has superseded Berber, as the
language of creed and court. Since the 1 5th century, when Ibn
Khaldun found the Arabic of Morocco very corrupt, it has made
great strides, and having always been a foreign tongue with the
Koran as its model, it has escaped many of the faults into which
Eastern Arabic outside Arabia has fallen. This is especially notice-
able in the correct Arab value given to the alphabet and in the strictly
classical use of many terms, especially among the litterati of Fez.
Provinces and Towns. Political divisions can hardly be said to
exist in the Moorish Empire to-day, although it is formed of what
were at one time or other the independent kingdoms of Fez and
Marrakesh, and the important provinces of Sus, Tafilalt and the
RIf, together with the Saharan oases. As administrative units
the various subdivisions change according to the relative strength of
tribesmen and government. Central Morocco, between the two spurs
of the Atlas ending towards Rabat and at Cape Ghir, is, however,
naturally parcelled out by its rivers into the districts of Tamsna,
Shawiya, Dukalla, Abda, Shiadhma and Haha, running from north
to south along the coast, and Sraghna and Rahamna lying inland
from the last three.
854
MOROCCO
There are only three great inland cities, each of which in turn
serves as metropolis: Fez, Mequinez and Marrakesh. The towns
next in importance are the seaports of Tangier, Casablanca (Dar el
Baida), Mogador, Mazagan, Sam, Salli-Rabat, Laraish and Tetuan.
All these places are separately noticed. The ports of Agadir Ighir,
Azammur and Azila being closed to trade, are in a decayed
condition. On the Mediterranean shore, along the coast of Er-Rit,
the Spaniards have for centuries possessed Ceuta, Penon de Vebz,
Alhucemas and Melilla; in 1848 they appropriated the Chaffarinas
Islands. Inland, besides the three cities named, are the sacred towns
of Mulai Idris, Zarhon, Sheshawan and Wazzan (the last-named of
which alone is open to Europeans), and the minor towns of Al
Kasar, Sifru, Taza, Dibdu and Ujda in northern Morocco (once the
kingdom of Fez) ; Damnat, El Kla, Sidi Rahal, Zettat and Amzmiz
in central Morocco (once the kingdom of Marrakesh); Tarudant,
High, Tiznit and Glimin in southern Morocco (once the kingdom
of Sus.)
The town of Mulai Idris Zarhon lies to the north of Mequinez.
James Jackson, who in 1801 managed to pay a hurried visit, is the
only European known to have entered its gates. It is a place of
apparently 1500 to 2000 inhabitants, compact, and with several large
buildings, the principal of which is the shrine of Mulai Idris, the
founder of the Moorish Empire, round which the place has grown.
Wazzan is the seat of a sharif or noble descended from Mulai Idris,
whose family has been greatly reverenced for over two hundred
years. It was built by Mulai Abd Allah es-Sharif (d. 1675), and
is open to European visitors, which Sheshawan (or Shefshawan),
another sacred city of sharifs, founded in 1471, a day's ride into the
mountains south of Tetuan, is not. Sifru is picturesquely situated
amidst gardens, a short day's ride from Fez. Taza is a considerable
trading centre on the route between Fez and the Algerian frontier.
The population, in Leo's time 20,000, is now 5000, of whom 800 are
Jews. Dibdu, to the ease of Taza, is a small but important Jewish
centre. About 120 m. east of Taza, and only 10 from the frontier,
is Ujda (Oudjda of the French), in the midst of an orange grove.
Marrakesh is the only really large city of central Morocco. Damnat
is a walled town of magnificent situation in the Atlas, east of Marra-
kesh, between which and the Um er-Rabi'a are the less important
Sidi Rahal and El Kla. Amzmiz lies in the Atlas, south-west of
Marrakesh. Tarudant, the capital of Sus, is situated between the
Atlas and the river Sus; it is a place of from 30,000 to 40,000
inhabitants, already a flourishing town in the I2th century, rebuilt by
the Sa'adi Dynasty early in the i6th, and refortified by El Hasan IV.
in 1882. Tiznit, which lies to the south, until then but a village,
was in 1882 converted into a town by El Hasan IV., and walled.
High (1300 ft.) above a stream which joins the Massa, is the chief
town of Tazirwalt, the state of Sidi Hisham, an independent princi-
pality founded by Sidi Ahmed u Musa; and Glimin or Agelmin, in
like manner is the chief town of the Wad Nun district. Tagaost,
about 40 m. inland from Ifni, was formerly a large city, and in the
l6th century the seat of a Spanish factory trading in archil.
Communications. Regular and fairly frequent steamship services
link Morocco with the principal ports of the world, though in some
instances transshipment at Gibraltar is necessary. The tourist
traffic has grown greatly since the last quarter of the igth century.
Great Britain, Spain, France and Germany have postal agencies,
running competing courier mails along the coast and to the capitals,
while Great Britain, France and Spain have laid telegraphic cables
from Gibraltar, Oran and Tarifa respectively to Tangier; but the
extension of wires inland, save for telephones and electric light, was
prohibited up to 1909. A railway about 24 m. long, connecting
Casablanca and Ber Reshid, was opened in September 1908. This
was the first line built in Morocco. There is also a railway from
Melilla to some neighbouring mines. In genera! traveling in the
interior is what it was a thousand years ago. There being practically
no made roads and few bridges, vehicular traffic is out of the question,
and even the transport of goods and persons on the backs of animals
lacks the facilities provided in some Eastern lands as Persia, for
instance in regular posting stations and caravanserais, here known
as fandaks. Travellers have therefore to carry tents and all con-
veniences desired. Throughout the central Moroccan plains it is
generally perfectly safe to travel unguarded, but in mountainous
districts it is customary to be accompanied by a mounted policeman
(makhazni) whose duty is as much to prevent travellers attempting
exploration as to afford them protection.
Resources of the Country. The natural products of the country
remain almost entirely undeveloped. In applications for conces-
sions for mining and other exploitation, the government has seen the
possibility of further complications with Europe: so that if, by whole-
sale bribery, any grant was obtained a nullifying clause was inserted,
or the first occasion seized to raise anew insuperable obstacles. After
the conference at Algeciras in 1906, however, the government was
obliged to grant various concessions. The breeding of horses or
cattle and the rearing of birds for European markets increase in
spite of restriction and heavy dues. One of the most promising of
recent developments has been the growing supply of chickens, eggs,
and fruit to Europe even to England. The fisheries also are capable
of great expansion, and are at present almost entirely in the hands of
Portuguese and Spaniards.
Agriculture. It is still true, as in the time of Addison, that the
Moors " seldom reap more than will bring the year about," and the
failure of a single harvest causes inevitable dearth. Only a small
part of the available land is cultivated; and the cultivated portion
possessed by each tribe is divided into three parts, one only of which
is sown each year. With a plough of the most primitive description
the Moorish peasant scarcely scratches the surface of the soil; his
harrow is a few branches of trees weighted with heavy stones. The
corn is cut close to the ear with short serrated sickles, and the straw
is left standing. Underground, granaries or matmoras are excavated
beneath the tufaceous crust which covers much of the lowlands,
sometimes capable of holding 2000 quarters; they preserve their
contents in good condition for many years.
Mineral Wealth. That mineral deposits of great value exist in
Morocco there is little doubt. At Jebel Hadid or the Iron Mountain,
in Abda, disused mines may still be visited, and in Sus iron has long
been worked. In the Beni Madan hills near Tetuan are mines,
closed, it is said, by the sultan 'Abd er- Rahman; but whether they
furnished copper or lead authorities differ. On the road to Kenatsa,
Rohlfs saw lead and antimony worked. Antimony especially seems
to be abundant to the south of the Atlas; Rohlfs found it in a very
pure state near Tesna, and Dr Allen saw splendid veins of it north of
the Dra'a. That gold existed in Sus was long suspected; Gatell
proved it. Rock-salt occurs in the mountains north of Fez, in the
valley of the W. Martil, and probably in Jebel Zarhon. In several
places, as in the route from Saffi to Morocco, are brine lakes, from
which the salt is collected and exported as far as Central Africa.
Manufactures. The manufactures are few, and the most famous
leather is now either exported undressed to Marseilles or Phila-
delphia, or is counterfeited by machinery in London or Paris. With
the exception of slippers and shawls supplied to Moors established
in the Levant, manufactured exports consist principally of carpets,
rugs, trays, arms and " curios " for decorative purposes. For home
use the Moors do much spinning, weaving, and dyeing, chiefly of
wool ; but although it is possible to dress superbly in native-made
articles, every year sees an increasing importation of Manchester
and Yorkshire goods, rivalled by the cheaper products of Barcelona
and Austria in the last case with great success.
Commerce. The external trade of Morocco is mainly with Great
Britain, France, Germany and Spain. The proportion of trade taken
by Britain, formerly fully 50 % of the whole, had decreased in 1905 to
32 %, in which year France's share was 39 %, that of Germany nearly
12% and that of Spain 5%. Statistics as to its value are difficult
to obtain, and not altogether trustworthy; the British consul at
Tangier, writing in 1906, declared : " No information is to be obtained
from the Moorish custom-houses and no statistics whatever are pub-
lished by the Moorish government." From such sources as were
available the exports in 1873 (a year of phenomenally good crops)
were valued at about 1,500,000 and the imports at 934,000.
Twenty years later (1903) the exports were valued at 1,601,000 and
the imports at 2,656,000. A British consular return gave the value
of the trade in 1906 as: Exports 1,756,109, imports 2,976,900.
According to French official returns the value of trade fell in 1907 to
3,200,000, but had risen in 1908 to 4,400,000. This includes the
trade through the eight open Moroccan ports (Tangier, Tetuan,
Laraish, Rabat, Casablanca, Mazagan, Saffi and Mogador), the
trade through Melilla, and that by the land frontier with Algeria.
The trade with Algeria is valued at from 300,000 to 500,000 a year.
Statistics as to the considerable trade done by caravans crossing the
Sahara are entirely lacking.
The chief articles of exports are skins and hides, sheep, oxen and
goats, wool, barley, eggs, beeswax, almonds and slippers. Maize,
peas and chick-peas are also considerable exports in years of good
crops. Cotton goods form the chief articles of import (exceeding
800,000 in value in 1906), sugar, tea, flour and semolina coming
next. Other imports include cloth, candles, iron and hardware,
wines and spirits. Wheat and oxen are imported overland from
Algeria.
Finance. The only part of the revenue which can be estimated
with any degree of accuracy are the customs, which during the early
years of the 2Oth century yielded about 500,000 per annum. Under
the provisions of the act of Algeciras the Morocco State Bank was
established in 1907. It is a limited liability company and subject
to the law of France. The capital of the bank is 800,000 and the
head office is at Tangier. The directors represent the various
groups subscribing the capital, French financiers contributing a
share twice as large as that of any other group in return for the
relinquishment of the right of France to take up all new loans at
the rate of the lowest tender. The bank holds a concession from the
state for forty years, and acts as its treasurer and financial agent.
It alone has the power of issuing notes. A Moorish high commis-
sioner and four censors (representing the Bank of England, the Bank
of France, the Bank of Spain and the German Imperial Bank) watch
over the working of the bank. In all legal disputes in which the
bank is concerned the Federal Court at Lausanne is the final authority.
There is a Moorish coinage based on that of the Latin Union;
Spanish money is also legal tender.
Moorish weights and measures vary from town to town, but in
the foreign trade the decimal system has almost entirely superseded
the native chaos. Credit is allowed by European houses at their
peril, and in some lines profits are cut ruinously fine or done away
MOROCCO
with altogether by dishonest practices, many arising out of the long
credit in vogue.
Government. The Moorish government is a limited autocracy,
the theoretically absolute power of the sultan being greatly
circumscribed by the religious influences which in a measure
support him, and by the official proletariat with which he is
surrounded. The central government is known as the maghzen
or makhzan (an Arabic word primarily meaning storehouse),
a term also applied to the whole administrative body and
collectively to the privileged tribes from whose ranks the state
officials are recruited. At the head of the administration are
wazirs or ministers of state, who possess no power independent
of the sultan's will. The wazirs in general accompany the court,
but the minister for foreign affairs is stationed at Tangier. Local
administration is directed by the governors of provinces and
towns, who are nominated by the wazir ed dakhalani (minister
of the interior). The subordinate town officials are appointed
by the governor, and sheiks direct the affairs of the villages.
All appointments are practically without pay, office holders
being expected to obtain remuneration from " presents," i.e.
bribes and extortion. Attached to the government service
are a number of tribes (called maghzen tribes), who furnish the
sultan's body-guard, garrison certain towns, and perform other
duties in return for exemption from taxation. There was no
regular assessment for taxation, but such organized spoliation
as might be required for public or private ends. That part of
the empire where the sultan's authority is supreme is known
as blad el-maghzen (government country); those regions where
the sultan's authority is precarious are called blad es-siba (the
unsubmissive country).
All the powers are represented in Tangier by diplomatic
and consular officials, whose independent jurisdiction over
their respective fellow-subjects leads to the frequent confusion
of justice. The evidence of non-Mahommedans is not accepted
in Moorish courts, where venality reigns, and unprotected Jews
surfer constant injustice, besides daily indignities, for which
they repay themselves by superior astuteness.
Army. A half-organized army service in which is partly hered-
itary, partly forced is periodically employed in collecting taxes at
sword-point, and in " eating up " the provinces; with it the custom
is (or was) for the sultan to go forth to war each summer, spending
the winter in one of his capitals. The only approach to a regular
army consists of certain hereditary troops furnished by the maghzen
tribes, the Bokhara (black), the Udala (mulatto), the Ashragah and
Ashrardah (white), and the Galsh, who form a body of police,
Makhhaznia (mixed), all of whom are horsemen. The infantry
(Askaria) are mostly rough levies; only a small portion being well
trained under European officers. No accurate estimate can be
formed of the total available forces, and the arms are of every
pattern. There is no navy, but the government possesses several
small steamers, one or two mounting guns.
Religion. The religion of Morocco is Islam, the Moors being among
the strictest followers of Mahomet. The divisions of the East are
unknown, and their tenets include the principal teachings of both
Shias and Sunnis, but, as employing the Maleki ritual, they must
be classed with the latter. Recognizing their own sultan as Amir el
Mu'minin (" Commander of the Faithful ") and Khalifa of God on
earth, they acknowledge no other claimant to that position, and have
few dealings with the Turks, whom they consider corrupt. They
have not yet given way extensively to strong drink.
Missions. The Franciscans for six and a half centuries did brave
work in the country, since the founder of their order offered himself
for that task in 1214, and many of them, including several British
and Irish missionaries, suffered martyrdom; but they have long
abandoned attempts to convert the Moors. The London Jewish
Society was established in Mogador in 1875, and since 1883 various
Protestant agencies support a considerable number of missionaries,
men and women, including doctors and nurses.
Education. The level of education could hardly be lower, although
most males have an opportunity of learning to recite or read the
Koran, if not to write. Only traders trouble about arithmetic.
Youths who desire to pursue their studies attend colleges in Fez
or elsewhere to acquire some knowledge of Mahommedan theology,
logic, composition and jurisprudence.
Literature and Travel. Journalism is entirely foreign, and was
introduced in 1883, at the same time as the printing-firess, Spanish,
French and English newspapers being established in quick succession.
The sultan el Hasan III. set up a lithographic establishment in Fez,
from which a valuable series of Arabic theological, legal and historical
works have been issued, but most noteworthy of all is the publication
in Cairo in 1895 of an Arabic history of Morocco, in four volumes, by
855
a native of Salli, Ahmad bin Khalid en-Nasiri. A most practical
step was taken by the French, on the conclusion of the agreement with
Great Britain in 1904, in the establishment of a state-subventioned
Mission scientifique au Maroc, which, in addition to establishing at
Tangier the only public library in the empire, engaged a number of
able students in research work, the results of which are embodied in
the periodical publications Archives marocaines (6 vols., 1904-1906)
and L Afrique franfaise.
Other forward steps have been taken in the production of several
important volumes on the country and in serious attempts to explore
the Atlas. The vicomte de Foucauld attained the first place by his
intrepid journeys as a Jew through the forbidden regions and by his
workman-like geographical records; Joseph Thomson did good work
in the Great Atlas, though within a limited area ; the vicomte de la
Martiniere excavated some of the Roman remains; Mr Walter B.
Harris made a bold journey to Tafilalt ; and the marquis de Segonzac
and Louis Gentil added to the knowledge of the Atlas by interesting
expeditions. 1 A hydrographic mission under A. H. Dye also did
valuable work (1905-1909). An equally important service was ren-
dered by the compilation by Sir R. Lambert Playfair and Dr
Robert Brown of an invaluable Bibliography of Morocco to the end of
1891 (1893), containing over two thousand entries.
History. The prehistoric antiquities of Morocco are of
considerable interest. In the cave at Cape Spartel Tissot
found regularly shaped arrow-heads, and in the north of the
country he met with dolmens, barrows and cromlechs, just as
in Algeria or Tunisia. The dolmens usually form a trapezium,
and the body seems to have been buried with the knees drawn
up to the chin. At M'zorah, a quaint little village of widely-
scattered houses built of rough blocks of yellow soft sandstone,
about 8 or 10 m. south-east from Azila, stands a group of mega-
lithic monuments of some interest. They have been visited
and described by many travellers, but Watson's account is the
most detailed. Round the base of a mound (15 ft. high) of
yellow sandstone lies a circle of sixty-seven large stones, one
of which (at the west side) is more than 20 ft. high. In the
vicinity are several other groups, some of still larger blocks.
Roman roads (see AFRICA, ROMAN) seem to have run from Tan-
gier southwards to the neighbourhood of Mequinez (Miknasa) , and
from Azlla to the south of Rabat; and Roman sites are in several
instances marked by considerable remains of masonry. At
Kasar Fara'on (Pharaoh's Castle), on the western slope of J.
Zarhon, are the ruins of Volubilis. The enceinte, constructed
of large stones and flanked by round towers, is 12,0x30 ft. in
extent. Four gates are still recognizable, and a triumphal arch
erected in A.D. 216 in honour of Caracalla and Julia Domna.
The stones of this site have been used for Mequinez Miknas.
Banasa (Colonia Aelia, originally Valentia) is identified with
the ruins of Sidi All Bu Jenun, and. Thamusida with those of
Sidi Ali b. Hamed. At Shammish, up the river from Laraish,
the city of Lixus (Trinx of Strabo) has splendid specimens of
Punic and Roman stonework, and the similar remains on the
headland of Mulai Bu Selham probably belong to the Mudelacha
of Polybius. Of early Moorish architecture good examples are
comparatively few and badly preserved. Besides those in Fas,
Miknas, and Marrakesh, it is sufficient to mention the mausoleum
of the Benl-Marin (i3th to i6th centuries) at Sheila, which, with
the adjoining mosque, is roofless and ruined, but possesses a
number of funeral inscriptions.
The earliest records touching on Morocco are those of Hanno's
Periplus, which mentions that Carthaginian colonies were planted
along the coast. The savage and inhospitable tribes with whom
they came in contact included cave-dwellers; but megalithic
remains point to a yet earlier race. It is not till the last
century B.C. that Moroccan Berbers are found supplying troops
to Pompey or Sertorius, and later, under Augustus, becoming
themselves incorporated in the Roman province of Maure-
tania (q.v., and also AFRICA, ROMAN). But the Roman province
reached only to the Bu Ragrag, on which Sala, now Salli, was
its outpost; Volubilis, near Mequinez, being its principal, if not
its only, inland city. In the fifth century A.D. the country
became subject to the Vandals and, about 618, to the Goths.
1 Gentil, in La Geographic, No. 3 (1908), describes the Siroua
region, which, N.N.W. of Tikirt, connects the Anti Atlas and the High
Atlas. The Siroua volcano compares with the finest volcanoes of
Europe.
856
MOROCCO
The coming of the Arabs under 'Oqba ('Okba) in 682 was of
far greater moment, though it was not till twenty years later
that his successor, Musa ibn Nosair, undertook a
successful expedition as far as Tafilalt and the Dra'a.
6&2 > -?W > .' The force of ten thousand Arabs and Egyptians
with whom Tariq (Tarik) ibn Zaid held the Tangier
district in 710 was trebled by the enrolment of the Berbers,
who enabled him next year to invade Spain, burning his boats
behind him (see CALIPHATE, C. Abbasids). But the Moroc-
can Berbers chafed beneath the Arab rule, and in 739 successfully
revolted, setting up their first independent ruler, Maisara.
Their kinsmen in Spain followed suit with equal success, and
though subdued for a time, they retained their independence in
certain parts till the nth century, when, as masters of Granada,
they subjugated their implacable foes, the Arabs; and finally,
under the Murabti and Muwahhadi dynasties, conquered all
Mahommedan Spain.
The recorded history of the Moorish Empire commences with
the settlement near the Roman ruins of Volubilis in A.D. 788 of
Idrls the elder (Idris b. Abdallah), one of the fugitive
Dynasties, descendants of Mahomet during the struggles be-
tween rival claimants of the caliphate. Islam had
then been established in these parts for eighty years, but Idrls
and his son, Idrls II., the builder of Fez, extended its influence,
uniting the Berbers into a kingdom. Their line controlled a
limited portion of northern Morocco for nearly two centuries, in
part supplanted by the Miknasa in 922, until displaced by the
Maghrawa in 988. These two dynasties were exterminated in
1061 by Yusef I. (bin Tashfln), founder of the Murabti dynasty
of Berbers (Almoravides), who added the remainder of Morocco,
most of Spain and Portugal, and Tlemcen. Their principal
existing monument is the city of Marrakesh. In 1149 the
Murabti power was overthrown by another religious leader,
'Abd elMuminat the head of the Muwahhadi i.e. " Unitarian "
horde (Almohades), under whom the Moorish Empire reached
its zenith at the close of the I2th century. It then included,
in addition tc the Murabti realm, what now are Algeria, Tunisia
and Tripoli, extending to the frontier of Egypt, which they
were prevented from occupying by the rise of Saladin. Before
the middle of the I3th century they had been driven out of
Spain, and had lost all but what is now known as Morocco,
whence, between 1217 and 1269, they were busted by the Beni
Marin (Marinides). To them we owe the Giralda, Hasan and
Kutublya towers of Seville, Rabat and Marrakesh respectively,
the Torre de Oro at Seville, Gibraltar Castle, and the towns of
Rabat and Al kaar. It was under their rule that Francis of
Assisi despatched to Morocco the first Christian missionaries of
modern times. (See ALMORAVIDES and ALMOHADES.)
The new dynasty differed from the two which had preceded
it in being frankly part of a Berber tribe, the Zenata, who carved
out a kingdom for themselves. Having assisted
/w/'d 1 "" 1 tne Murabtis and Muwahhadis respectively at the
1213-1524. battles of El Arcos (1195) and Las Navas (1212),
the defection of their amir on that occasion offered
an opportunity for Abd-el-Hakk, the son of their general, to
attempt the overthrow of the reigning house. At first the
Beni Marin professed allegiance to Tunis, where the Hafsis, a
branch of the Muwahhadis, had thrown off the Moorish yoke and
secured acknowledgement in northern Morocco and parts of
Spain. But they were soon in a position to proclaim complete
independence, and by the time that Abu Bakr, the third son
of Abd-el-Hakk to succeed him, died, in 1258, they held sway
over all that is now known as Morocco, and 1269 saw the
death of the last Muwahhadi prince.
On the death of Abu Bakr there succeeded Yakub II., one of
the few amirs of Morocco who have left a name for just adminis-
tration and for philanthropic undertakings. Although of strict
religious habits, he displayed no bigotry, studying philosophy,
and entering into friendly intercourse with Europeans, whom
he encouraged to trade with Salli. In 1261, 1275 and 1277-
1279, he undertook successful expeditions to Spain, and again in
1284, this time, in alliance with Alphonso of Leon, against his
rebel son Sancho. But Alphonso dying during the struggle,
Yakub found himself master of his country, and Sancho had to
acknowledge his suzerainty. All Mahommedans within his
realm were freed from all taxes, and all the Arabic manu-
scripts of the country thirteen loads were despatched to the
college Yakub had built in Fez.
But Yakub did not live to reap the benefits of his conquest,
which were enjoyed by his son, Yusef IV. (1286), who was
courted by his father's old foes, entering into amicable relations
with Tunis, Egypt, Arabia and the neighbouring European
states. With the contemporaneous Beni Zeiyan dynasty of
Tlemcen, sworn foes of his house, however, he was still at war
when stabbed (1307) in the new town of Tlemcen, which he had
built while conducting a siege of the old town. A second siege
was begun in 1335, and Tlemcen fell in 1337 to the fourth ruler
of the dynasty, Ali V., Abu '1 Hasan, better known as " The
Black Sultan." Unsuccessful in his invasion of Spain and
Tunisia, Ali had eventually to abdicate in 1351 in favour of his
rebel son, the famous " Abu Ainan," Faris I., who during a short
reign recovered Algeria and Tunisia.
The Beni Marin were soon driven back, till a few years later
Tlemcen alone remained to them, and this they held only till
1359 (see TLEMJEN). Thereafter their empire became habit-
ually divided between rival claimants, and the Portuguese began
to obtain footholds on the coast, Ceuta being lost to them in
1415, AlKasar in 1458, and Azila and Tangier in 147 1.
On the failure of the Beni Marin the amirate was seized by
Sa'id III., " El Wattas," head of another branch, founder of the
short-lived Waftasi dynasty. His reign is memor- wattasl
able as that in which the " Catholic Princes " Dynasty,
expelled his co-religionists from Spain, the last i47t ' lS4S -
amir of Granada and many others taking refuge in Morocco,
where in 1492 they built for themselves Tetuan. .His son,
Mahomet VIII., surnamed " the Portuguese," because so long
a prisoner of that people, had to suffer the loss to Portugal of
practically all his Atlantic ports but Salli-Rabat, and of Penon
de Velez to Spain, which had a few years previously captured
Melilla. Although two more reigns carried the dynasty down to
1550, it has barely left its mark upon the country. From the
beginning of the new century a rising power had been making
itself felt in the south, over which the Wattasis never held
sway.
The family of sharifs or " nobles " that is, descendants of
Mahomet popularly known as the Sa'adi or Hasani (Hosaini),
settled in the Dra'a district, but originally came from Sa'adi
Yanboa, near Medina. Their opportune religious Dynasty,
leadership rallied the disjointed members of the IS24 ~ 1668 -
empire for a jehad against the Portuguese, but ultimately, on
the death of Mahomet VIII., when in possession of the kingdom
of Marrakesh, the sharifs defeated his successor and arranged a
formal division of the country at the Um er-Rabi'a. At the
head of the movement were then the two sons of the sharif who
had started it, Ahmed III. and Mahomet IX., between whom
rivalry broke out, resulting in the success of the latter, who by
1550 found himself the master of the whole empire on carrying
off the last Wattasi amir Mahomet and espousing his daughter.
On the assassination of Mahomet IX. in 1557, the succession
passed by a previous agreement to his brother's son, 'Abd-Allah
IV., who secured himself against the possible rivalry of his
brothers by putting ten of the twelve to death. One of the
survivors, however, Abd-el-Malek I., deposed Abd-Allah's son,
Mahomet XI., whose appeal to Sebastian of Portugal for assis-
tance, brought about the celebrated " battle of the three kings,"
in which they all perished in 1578 near Al Kasar. This opened
the way to the most famous of his line, Ahmed IV., Ed-Dhahebi,
or " the Golden," who proclaimed himself caliph, the last
(nominal) Abbasid holder of that office having been superseded
by the Turks on their conquest of Egypt in 1517. He entered
into friendly relations with Queen Elizabeth and other European
potentates, and the oases of Tuat, &c., were added to his domin-
ions, which embraced also Timbuktu, whence came gold and
tobacco. Ahmed fell a victim of the plague in 1603, and the
MOROCCO
857
succession was disputed by three of his sons. In 1608 one of
them, Zidan, became supreme and reigned twenty years. To
subdue rebellions Zidan twice obtained the assistance of English
troops from Charles I., and, like his father, employed large
numbers of European artificers in the various palaces he built
or completed. The two sons who succeeded him had both
become drunkards from intercourse with these foreigners, but
a third, Mahomet XIII., called from prison to reign in 1636,
proved himself a wise and beneficent ruler. But his friendship
for Europeans displeased the more fanatical among his subjects,
and after a futile attempt on the part of a central Moroccan
" saint " of great reputation to oust him, and the " Christians "
on the coast as well, another family of sharlfs was invited from
Tafllalt to undertake the task, and by 1649 they were masters
of Fez.
Before tracing the history of the Filali dynasty, which still
holds its own, it will be convenient to refer briefly to the relations
European wn i c ^ subsisted then (i7th century) and for many
Relations years afterwards, apart from wars with Spain and
with Portugal, between the Moors and Europeans. From
Morocco. t jj e ear [y p art O f tne I3 th cen t ur y there are records
of Christian mercenaries and others in the Moorish service,
while intermittent trading expeditions had already brought
the principal European ports of the Mediterranean into
touch with Morocco. The settlement of European traders in
Moorish ports does not appear to have commenced till later;
but it soon became an important factor, for the Moors have
always appreciated the advantages of foreign commerce, and
thus the way was opened up for diplomatic intercourse and
treaty privileges. Even while their rovers were scouring the
seas and making slaves of the foreigners captured, foreign
merchants were encouraged to trade among them under guaran-
tees and safe-conducts. Thus originated all the rights enjoyed
by foreigners in Morocco to-day, as subsequently confirmed by
treaties. France was the first to appoint a consul to Morocco,
in 1577, Great Britain only doing so a century later. For
centuries the treatment of foreign envoys in Morocco was most
humiliating, the presents they brought being regarded in -the
light of tribute. It was not till the year 1900 that the custom
was abolished of mounted sultans under umbrellas receiving
ambassadors on foot and bareheaded.
While, from the European point of view, the pirates of the
Barbary coast were a bloodthirsty set of robbers, in no way
to be distinguished from the sweepings of Western
Rovers. " civilization who scoured the seas farther east, from
the standpoint of the Moors they were the pious
religious warriors for the faith, who had volunteered to punish
the Nazarenes for rejecting Mahomet, and it is difficult to realize
the honour in which their memory is held save by comparison
with that of the Crusaders, in which the positions were exactly
reversed. The Moorish rovers approached as nearly to an
organized navy as anything the country ever possessed, and at
times they were fitted out by the state, to whom their prizes
therefore belonged. They made descents on the opposite coasts,
even as far as Devon and Cornwall, carrying off the population
of whole hamlets.
Salli, Ma'mora (Mehediya), Laraish, Tangier, Ceuta y Tetuan,
and Badis were their principal rendezvous in Morocco, and
their vessels, an assortment of almost every known build and
rig of the day, varied greatly in numbers and size. It is probable,
however, that contemporary writers greatly over-estimated
their importance. They appear to have flourished chiefly
throughout the i6th, I7th and i8th centuries, and to have
attained the zenith of their power during the latter part of the
1 7th century. A great impetus was given to their raids by the
expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1610, and their operations
were facilitated later by the recovery of most of the Moorish
ports from foreign hands. The varying influence of the different
European states could be gauged at first by the prices they
were compelled to pay to ransom their captive subjects, and
later by the annual tribute which they were willing to present
to protect their vessels. Some countries continued the payment
well into the igth century, although the slavery of Christians
in Morocco had been abolished by treaty in 1814.
During the time that piracy flourished hundreds of thousands
of foreigners suffered captivity, torture and death in Morocco
rather than abjure their faith, the one condition
on which a measure of freedom within Morocco
was offered to them. The horrors of that time
were keenly felt in Christendom, and collections were constantly
made at church doors for the ransom of Moorish captives.
Frequent expeditions for that purpose were undertaken by
members of religious brotherhoods, not a few of whom themselves
became martyrs. The lot of the European slave was infinitely
worse than that of the negro who indifferently embraced Islam,
and was at once admitted to equality in all points save freedom.
They were principally employed on public works or in galleys
under the task-master's lash, both men and women being sub-
jected to every indignity.
The record of the Filali dynasty may now be considered.
The first of this line proclaimed in Fez was Mahomet FHSII
XIV., but the first of European fame was his brother, Dynasty,
Rashid II., " The Great Tafllatta," as he was styled <'*->
by the English, who then occupied Tangier, sultan from 1664
to 1672. With him opened a terrible epoch of bloodshed and
cruelty, only once revived since during the short reign of
El Yazld (1790-1792) the horrors of which for both natives
and Europeans, are often indescribable. It reached its climax
under his brother Isma'Il. A man of wonderful vitality, his
reign lasted 55 years (1672-1727), during which his fierce grasp
never relaxed. Many hundreds of sons and countless daughters
were born to him in a harem rivalling that of Solomon, for
which he even asked a daughter of Louis XIV. Having, as
he supposed, driven the English from Tangier, he laid unsuc-
cessful siege to Ceuta for 26 years, but otherwise his military
measures were confined to subduing internal enemies, in which
he was supported by his faithful black troops, the Bokharis,
and also by a foreign legion of renegades.
For 30 years after Isma'il's death one son after another
was set up by the Bokharis, seven succeeding some of them
more than once till one, Abd-Allah V., who partook of his
father's bloodthirsty nature, ended his sixth turn of power
in 1757. Then, at last, this dynasty provided a beneficent
sovereign in the person of his son, Mahomet XVI., during whose
reign of 33 years the land prospered. By him Mogador was
built and Mazagan, the last hold of the Portuguese, recovered.
He was followed by the wretch Yazld, his son by an English
or Irish woman, whose reign was fortunately cut short while
contending with four rival brothers, two of whom in turn
succeeded him, the second, Sulaiman II., proving as wise a
ruler as his father. Under his reign (1795-1822) piracy was
abolished, but the policy, maintained till the end of the
century, of having as little as possible to do with foreigners
was initiated.
By Sulaiman's direction the imperial umbrella passed to his
nephew, Abd-er-Rahman II., on whom he could rely to maintain
his policy. Although disposed to promote foreign trade, he
made a futile attempt in 1828 to revive piracy, which the
Austrians frustrated by reprisals next year. Following this
was the war of 1830 with France over the partition of Algeria,
as a result of which the Moors renounced all claim to Tlemcen
and entered into agreements the infraction of which led -to a
second war between the two in 1844, during which Tangier
and Mogador were bombarded. A bombardment of Salli in
1851 secured for the French the settlement of various claims,
and when Abd-er-Rahman died, in 1859, the Spaniards were
threatening Tetuan.
War being declared, the Spaniards marched on the town,
which they captured after two months, and held till peace was
signed six months later on their own terms. The vanquished
sultan, Mahomet XVII., reigned till his death in 1873, when
his son, El Hasan III., succeeded, having the usual fight to
secure the supremacy. In comparison with his predecessors
El Hasan was mild and gentle, too much so to maintain continual
858
MOROCCO
peace among the more turbulent of his subjects. From early
in the century Sus had practically maintained independence,
but in 1882 was reduced to submission, as also were subsequently
the other great Berber centres, one by one, till the land had rest.
Fighting between the Riflans and Spaniards in 1894 having
involved the sultan in the payment of some 650,000 indemnity,
he was on his way to recover this from the culprits when he died
in camp and was interred at Rabat.
El-Hasan's death was kept secret till the coffin reached its
destination, so that a peaceful proclamation was secured for
'Abd-el-'Aziz IV., his son by a Circassian slave who
The Reign p OSSesse d great influence over him. His trusted
Atfz d iv!' chamberlain, Si Ahmed ben Musa, became Wazir
regent, and put down all opposition, ruling with a
firm, wise hand till 1900, when he died just as his ward attained
his majority. Drastic changes thereon took place, and a new
set of ministers came into power. The young sultan now
showed himself desirous of acquiring and practising foreign arts
and of introducing foreign reforms. Under his mother's advice
he sought especially the friendship and advice of Great Britain,
on whose disinterested friendship he believed he could rely.
But lack of training and experience frustrated his praiseworthy
efforts, and he became the prey of schemers and speculators,
who pandered to his worst traits and squandered his treasure.
This turn of affairs aroused the fanaticism of his people,
and in 1902 the Berber tribes of the Algerian frontier rose in
rebellion under Jelali Zarhoni, nicknamed " Bu Hamara,"
who claimed to be fighting on behalf of the sultan's brother
Mahomet, already imprisoned in Mequinez for revolt. 1 Unable
to subdue the rebellion, which did not, however, affect the rest
of the empire, 'Abd-el-'Aziz borrowed money from France to
reorganize his army, but failed to effect his purpose. Mean-
while a local sharif, Mulai Ahmed er-Raisuli, made himself
master of the district round Tangier, holding even foreigners
to ransom, and creating a false impression abroad as to the
general state of the empire.
The end appeared near when by a declaration, signed in London
on the 8th of April 1904, Great Britain, in return for concessions
in Egypt, agreed not to interfere with French action in Morocco.
In this declaration, one of the series of arrangements marking
the establishment of the entente cordiale, France declared that
she had no intention of changing the political status of Morocco.
She designed, however, a system of " pacific penetration," and
administrative, economic, financial and military reforms re-
forms which the Moorish court did not desire. By a separate con-
vention with Spain in October 1904 the interests of that country
were safeguarded, and it seemed that the Anglo-French agree-
ment had the approval of all the powers. Some weeks before
its conclusion its terms had been communicated to Germany,
and four days after its signature Count Billow had stated in
the Reichstag that there was no ground to apprehend that
German interests (" essentially economic ") in Morocco would
be disregarded. During the remaining months of 1904, however,
and in the opening months of 1905, the international situation
was changed. Germany had viewed with concern the increased
influence of France in Europe, but remained quiescent until
after the reverses to the Russian arms in Manchuria, when it
was judged in Berlin that the time had arrived for Germany
to become the arbiter of European policy; and the means to
demonstrate her position were found in the Moroccan question.
After having turned a deaf ear to the demands of the Pan-
Germanic party for the " vindication " of German rights in
Morocco, after in fact nearly a year of acquiescence in the pre-
dominant position of France in that country 2 the German
) Mulai Mahomet, eldest son of El Hasan and a generally popular
prince, was released from prison by 'Abd-el-'Aziz early in 1908 and
placed in command of his army. On the defeat of 'Aziz by Mulai
Hafid, Mahomet contemplated seizing the throne. He was, however,
imprisoned by Hafid in the palace at Fez, where he was reported
to have died, in mysterious circumstances, in June 1909.
2 Shown inter alia by the landing of 500 Algerian troops at Tangier
(a step taken to secure the release of Ion Perdicaris and his stepson,
captives of Raisuli), and of a detachment at Rabat.
government now complained of being ignored in the Anglo-
French arrangement and proceeded to extend its patronage to
'Abd-el-'AzIz. On the 3ist of March 1905 the German emperor
landed at Tangier and had conferences with the sultan's repre-
sentatives. The emperor was reported to have declared that he
had come to enforce the sovereignty of the sultan, the integrity
of Morocco, and the equality of commercial and economic
interests. The effect of this intervention was soon apparent.
The sultan rejected the scheme of reforms proposed
by France, and at the suggestion of Germany issued
invitations to the powers to meet his representatives
and advise him concerning the reforms needed.
The French foreign minister, M. Delcasse, held that there was
no need for a conference, but Prince Billow used menacing
language and after a period of much stress M. Delcasse resigned
(June, 1905), the French government thereupon agreeing to
the holding of a conference. So far the German policy had
triumphed; the conference met at Algeciras on the i6th of
January 1906 and engaged in the delicate task of reconciling
French claims for predominance with the German demand
of equality for all. The British delegates gave firm support
to their French colleagues, while Austria proved " a brilliant
second " to Germany. With great difficulty a scheme of reforms
was elaborated, Germany having previously acknowledged the
privileged position of France along the Moroccan-Algerian
frontier. The general act embodying the resolutions of the
conference was signed on the 7th of April; it was accepted by
the sultan on the i8th of June, and the ratifications of the act
by the other powers were deposited at the Spanish Foreign
Office on the 3ist of December 1906. The act provided for
a Moorish police force from 2000 to 2500 strong, distributed
among the eight open ports of Morocco, to be commanded by
Moorish kaids, assisted by French and Spanish instructors and
officers, with a Swiss inspector-general the arrangement to
continue for five years. The act provided also for the institution
of a state bank (see supra Finance). Other provisions dealt
with (a) the acquisition of land round the ports by foreigners,
and the consequent payment by them of the regulated or tertib
taxes; (b) the more efficient control of the customs adminis-
tration, first by an annual assessment of the average values
of all imports as a basis for the tariff during the following year,
and, secondly, by a strict supervision of the administration
itself; and (c) the authority of the state over the public services
and public works, tenders for which were to be adjudicated
impartially without reference to the nationality of the bidder.
Throughout 1906 the country was in a disturbed condition,
and while a Franco-Spanish demonstration off Tangier succeeded
in obtaining the removal of Raisuli from the governor-
ship of the town, various outrages occurred (includ-
ing the murder of a Frenchman in the suburbs of V i<ia.
Tangier) for which no satisfaction could be obtained.
At length the murder of Dr. Emile Mauchamp at Marrakesh
on the i gth of March 1907 determined the French to take prompt
action, and Ujda was occupied (March 29) by Algerian troops,
the French government determining to hold the town until
satisfaction had been given to their demands. This satisfaction
'Abd-el-'Aziz promised in May, and some progress was made
towards carrying out the Algeciras programme, the state bank
being organized in July 1907. Meantime the weakness of the
sultan's rule was illustrated in many quarters: near Tangier
by the continued activity of Raisuli, that chieftain securing in
June another European captive Sir Harry Maclean, 3 who
after over seven months' detention had to be ransomed by the
British government for 20,000.
3 Kaid Sir Harry Maclean (b. 1848) after serving in the British
army became instructor to the Moorish army, which he accompanied
in several expeditions. He was also colonel of the sultan's body-
guard. For services rendered to the British government he was
made a C.M.G. in 1898 and a K.C.M.G. in 1901. On the occasion
of his capture he had gone, as he thought, to receive the submission
of Raisuli, and had with him one or two attendants only. The sum
paid for his ransom was subsequently refunded as to 15,000
by Raisuli himself and the remainder by Mulai Hafid.
MOROCCO
859
At Casablanca at this time works were in progress, with the
sanction of the sultan, for improving the harbour. The works
were beyond the ramparts, close to the Moslem cemetery; and
the neighbouring tribesmen (the Shawia) were excited by reports
that the cemetery had been desecrated. On the 3oth of July
they attacked the European labourers and killed nine of them
(three French, three Spaniards, and three Italians), afterwards
entering the town and raiding the Jewish quarter. Refugees
fled by boat to Tangier with news of the massacre. The French
government decided to occupy Casablanca, and a strong naval
and military force was sent thither. Before the arrival of the
troops the commander of the cruiser " Galilee " landed a party
(Aug. 5) to guard the French consulate. The passage of the
detachment was opposed, whereupon the " Galilee," aided
by the " Du Chayla " bombarded the town. Casablanca was
at the same time entered by the tribesmen, who began a general
Casablanca, P^age. On the 7th the French troops arrived and
were landed, and further fighting took place. Before
order was restored nearly every inhabitant had been killed or
wounded or had fled; the dead alone numbered thousands. The
European colony was, however, saved. Though masters of the
town, the French found the Shawia tribes still full of fight, and,
first under General Crude and afterwards (Jan. 1908) under
General Amade, the French proceeded to the reduction of the
Shawia country. At cne time the expeditionary force numbered
15,000 men. 1 By June 1908 the district was quiet and there-
after the strength of the force was gradually reduced. 2
The action of France at Casablanca aroused the fanaticism
of the tribes of Tafilalt and those dwelling near the Algerian
border. In November 1907 the Beni Snassen crossed the frontier
and were not reduced to submission until after hard fighting.
Another outbreak occurred in April 1908, when a French column
in the Guir district, west of Figig was surprised, and had difficulty
in beating back the enemy. In that and a subsequent engage-
ment, which resulted in the dispersal of the foe in May, the French
casualties were over 200. French and Moorish commissioners
were then appointed to preserve order along the frontier.
While thus engaged on the eastern frontier and on the Atlantic
coast of Morocco France had given financial and moral support
to 'Abd-el-'AzIz, whose position was threatened
f < \bd-ei- by his brother Mulai Hafid - On the l6th of August
Aziz. I 97i within a fortnight of the bombardment of
Casablanca, the ulema of Marrakesh had declared
'Abd-el-'AzIz deposed and Hafid sultan; and from September
onwards the tribes round Casablanca opposing the French were
supported by troops sent from Marrakesh. Aziz having been
furnished with money by the state bank, he was enabled to reach
the seaport of Rabat at the head of his army in September
1907. There he was visited by the French minister and appeared
willing to grant all the demands of France in return for help
against his brother. A loan was forthcoming but no military
assistance save that some of 'Abd-el-'Aziz's troops were taken
by a French warship to Mazagan. While desultory fighting
between the supporters of the rival brothers was proceeding
Hafid was proclaimed sultan at Fez on the 4th of January
1908; Hafid now sought support from France, Germany, and
other powers, and moving from Marrakesh passed the French
1 A Spanish force of 600 men was also sent to Casablanca.
Throughout the crisis Spain, with some misgiving, co-operated in
the actions of France.
2 In September 1908 the German consul at Casablanca gave
safe-conduct to six deserters from the Foreign Legion, of whom
three were Germans. On the way to embark for Hamburg, and
while under guard from the German consulate, all six deserters weie
forcibly arrested by a French patrol. The matter created great
excitement both in Germany and France, chiefly from the demand
of the German government that France should express regret for the
action of its agents before the facts were fully established. A way
of escape was found in the formula " the two governments, regretting
the events which occurred at Casablanca, . . . refer the matter to
arbitration . . . and agree to express regret . . . according to the
judgment of the court." The case then went to The Hague Court
of Arbitration, which gave its decision in May 1909, substantially
in favour of France. In July the French government pardoned
the deserters.
lines in the Shawia country, entered Mequinez in May and Fez
in June 1908. At length 'Abd-el-'AzIz made an effort to reassert
his authority and with a force numbering 4000 he left Rabat
in July for Marrakesh. He reached the neighbourhood of that
city on the 2nd of August, having received the adhesion of
numerous tribes, including the Shawia. On the igth he started
for the final march on Marrakesh. He appears to have been
betrayed, for hardly had his force started when it was assailed
on all sides, whereupon the tribesmen deserted in a body and the
" regulars " ran away. The day was irretrievably lost and
'Abd-el-'AzIz sought safety in flight. On the 22nd he arrived
at Settat in the Shawia country, and within the French lines,
with only a handful of followers. For a short time he talked
of continuing the struggle, but ended by accepting a pension
from his brother Hafid and was assigned a residence in Tangier.
That town, the last in Morocco to acknowledge Hafid, did so
on the 23rd of August; the change of sultans being accomplished
without any disturbance of public order.
Germany was anxious for the immediate recognition of Hafid
and caused some perturbation in France by a circular to the
powers to that effect dated the 2nd of September; i IH nd
the French and Spanish governments replied by S uan. *
proposals for guarantees that Hafid would respect
the Act of Algefiras. This course received general assent and
Hafid having given the guarantees demanded he was formally
recognized as sultan at the beginning of 1909. His relations
with Europe were made easier by the conclusion, in February
1909, of a Franco-German agreement designed to avoid all
cause of misunderstanding between those powers in Morocco.
Germany put on record that her interests in the sultanate
were " only economic," and France agreeing to " safeguard
economic equality " Germany undertook not to impede the
political interests of France in the country.
The weakness of the central government was exemplified
by the inability of Mulai Hafid to control the Rif tribesmen,
who in July 1909 killed a number of European labourers in
the neighbourhood of the Spanish fortress of Melilla (?..). Spain
sent an army of 50,000 men to vindicate its authority. After
a severe campaign the Riffians were reduced to submission
(Nov. 1909). Though powerless in the Rif, Mulai Hafid's army
succeeded in defeating Bu Hamara's force and in capturing
(Aug. 1909) that pretender, otherwise known as el Roghi. 3
Bu Hamara and many of his followers were taken to Fez. The
tortures inflicted upon them evoked strong protests from the
European powers. In 1910 Mulai Hafid obtained a loan,
chiefly from France, of 4,000,000; the greater part of the loan
went to liquidate claims by Europeans against the maghzen.
AMIRS AND SULTANS* OF MOROCCO
I. Idrisi Dynasty (Arab), A.D. (Capital, Fez.)
788. Idris I.
791. Rashld (regent).
804. Idris II.
828. Mahomet I.
836. 'AH I.
848. Yahya I.
881. Yahya II.
894. 'Ali II.
Yahya III.
904. Yahya IV.
(Interregnum from 917.)
922. El Hasan I. " El Hajjam." (Fez lost to the Miknasa 925.)
935. El Kennun (at Hajrat en-Nasr).
948. 'AbuTAish Ahmed.
954 El Hasan II. (at Basra).
961. 'Abd-Allah I.
970. Mahomet II. (Subjugated by the Maghrawa 985.)
II. Miknasa Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.)
925. Musa I. " Ibn Abd-el-'Aafla."
938. Madin.
952. Ibrahim I.
973. El Burl.
1014. El Kasem I.
J For an account of Bu Hamara's career see Questions diplomat-
ique* (Oct. 16, 1909).
4 Title of sultan adopted about 1640.
1217.
1239.
1244.
86o
III. Maghrawa Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.)
988. Ziri ihn 'Atia.
1000. El Muaz.
1026. Hammama.
1039. Dunas.
1060. El Fatuh and 'Ajisa.
1065. El Moannasir.
1067. Tamim.
IV. Murabti Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Marrakesh.)
1061. Yusef I. (Bin Tashfin.)
1106. 'AH III.
1143. Tashfin I.
1145. Ibrahim II.
1146. Ishak.
V. Muwahhadi Dynasty (Berber). (Capitals, Marrakesh and
Seville.)
1145. 'Abd-el-Mumin.
1163. Yusef II., " Abu Ya'kub."
1184. Ya'kQb I., " Abu Yusef el Mansur."
1199. Mahomet III., " En-Nasir."
1214. Yusef III., " Abu Yakub el Mustansir."
1223. 'Abd-el-Wahid, " El Makhluwi."
1224. 'Abd-Allah IL, " Abu Mahomet."
1226. Yahya V., " E.1 Mu'tasim."
1229. Idris III., " El Mamun."
1232. Rashid 1., " Abd-el-Wahid."
1442. 'AH IV., " Es-Said el Mu'tadid." (Mequinez lost to Beni
Marin 1245.)
1248. 'Omar I., " El Mortada." (Fez lost to Beni Marin, 1248.)
1266. Idris IV., " Abu Dabbus el Wathik." (Marrakesh lost
to Beni Marin, 1269.)
VI. Beni Marin Dynasty (Berber). (Capitals, Fez, Mequinez and
Marrakesh.)
1213. 'Abd-el-Hakk.
'Othman I., " Abu Said I."
Mahomet IV., " Abu Marraf."
Abu Bakr.
1258. Yakub II.. " bin 'Abd-el-Hakk."
1286. Yusef IV.
1307. 'Amr, " Abu Thabit."
1308. Sulaiman I., " Abu Rebi'a."
1310. 'Othrnan II., " Abu Said II."
1320. 'Omar II. (at Sajilmasa).
1331. 'Ali V., " Abu'l Hasan."
1351. Paris I., " Abu'Ainan."
1358. Sa'id I. (a child).
1359. Ibrahim III., " Abu Salem."
("Tashfin II., " Abu 'Omar."
1361. -! 'Abd-el-Halim (in Sajilmasa).
[.Mahomet V.
'Abd-el-'Aziz I.
Mahomet VI., " Es-Said."
(Ahmed I., "AbuTAbbas" (in Fez).
VAbd-er-Rahman I. (in Marrakesh).
1384. Musa II. and Ahmed II., " Es Mustansir."
1386. Mahomet VII., " El Wathik."
1387. Ahmed I. (2nd reign).
1393. 'Abd-el-'Aziz II., " Abu Paris."
1396. Paris II., " El Mutawakkil."
1408. Abu Sa'id III.
1416. Sa'id II. and Yakub III.
1425. *Abd- Allah III. (after whom the record of this dynasty
ceases) .
VII. Wattasi Dynasty (Berber). (Capital, Fez.)
1471. Sa'id III., " Es-Sheikh el Wattas."
1500. Mahomet VIII., "The Portuguese."
1530. Ahmed III. (in Fez).
1548. Mahomet X. (Defeated by the Sharifs, 1550.)
VIII. Sa'adi Dynasty (Arab). (Capitals, Fez, Mequinez and
Marrakesh.)
._,. /Ahmed III. (in Marrakesh).
h \Mahomet IX. (in Tarudant).
1557- 'Abd-Allah, " El Ghalib."
1574- Mahomet XI., " El Mutawakkil."
1576. 'Abd-el-Malek I., " El Muatasim."
1578. Ahmed IV., " El Mansur " or " Dhahebi."
1603. Mahomet XII., " Es-Sheikh."
Abd-el-'Aziz III., " Abu Paris/'
1608. Zidan.
1628. 'Abd-el-Malek II.
1631. El Walid.
1636. Mahomet XIII., " Es-Sheikh Es-Saghir." (Fez lost to the
Filalis, 1649.)
1654. Ahmed V., " El Abbas."
1658. 'Abd-el-Karim in Marrakesh. (Overthrown by Filalis
1668.)
MOROCCO
1366.
1372.
1374-
IX. Filall Dynasty (Arab). (Capitals, Fez, Mequinez and
Marrakesh.)
1649. Mahomet XIV., " Es-Sharif."
1664. Rashid II.
1672. Isma'il, " The Bloodthirsty."
1727. Ahmed VI., " Ed-Dhahebi II."
1728. 'Abd-el-Malek III., " Abu Merwan."
.1729. 'Abd-Allah V., " El Mortada."
1734. 'AH VI.
1736. Mahomet XV., " Uld er-Riba."
1738. El Mustadi.
1745. Zin el 'Abdin.
1757. Mahomet XVI.
1790. El Yazid.
1792. El Hisham.
1795. Sulaiman II.
1822. 'Abd-er-Rahman II.
1859. Mahomet XVII.
1873. El Hasan III.
1894. 'Abd-el-'Aziz IV.
1908. Hand.
NOTE. The dates given are those in which the various rulers
acquired sovereign power. Many had already secured the allegiance
of certain provinces some time before, and many retained such
allegiance long after the greater portion of the empire had accepted
a successful rival. European nations in several instances treated
with men who were not at the time actual sovereigns, and in some
cases were never such.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. History: Budgett Meakin, The Moorish Empire,
an historical epitome (London, 1899; which contains critical
notices of all important books on Morocco to date) ; Ernest Mercier,
Histoire de I'Afrique septentrionale (3 vols., Paris, 1888-1891).
Principal authorities: Native Ibn'Abd el Hakim, embracing the
period from A.D. 690 to 750 (trans. Jones; Gottingen, 1858); 'Abd
el Wahid el Marrakeshi (1149-1224), trans. E. Fagnan in the Revue
Africaine, pp. 202-207 (1891), Radd el Kartas (788-1326), trans. Bau-
mier (Paris, 1860) ; El Makkari (710-1500). trans. Gayangos (London,
1840); El Ufrani (1631-1812), trans. Houdas (Paris, 1889); and En
Nasiri (710-1894; Cairo, 1895). Foreign Diego de Torres,
Relation del Origen y suceso de los xarifes (Seville, 1586); Faria y
Sousa, Africa Portuguesa (Lisbon, 1681); Mouette, Histoire des
Conquestes de Mnuley Archy, &c. (Paris, 1683) ; De el Puerto, Mission
historial de marruecos (Seville, 1708); Busnot, Histoire du regne
de Muley Ismail (Rouen, 1714); Louis S. de Chenier, Recherches
hisioriques sur les Maures (3 vols., Paris, 1787); Mas Latrie, Traites
de paix, &c. (3 vols., Paris, 1866-1872), and Relations et commerce
de V Afrique septentrionale (Paris, 1886).
Geography. Budgett Meakin, The Land of the Moors (a general
description, London, 1901); Ch. De Foucauld, Reconnaissance
au Maroc, text and maps (Paris, 1888; by far the most extensive,
detailed and original exploration up to that date undertaken in
Morocco, admirably illustrated); J. D. Hooker and John Ball,
Marocco and the Great Atlas (London, 1878; the trustworthy record
of a serious and well-equipped scientific expedition, valuable chiefly
for its botanical information) ; Gerhard Rohlfs, Adventures in Morocco
(London, 1874; previous to De Foucauld's achievement, the most
extensive journey recorded in modern times) ; Walter B. Harris,
Tafilet (London, 1895; recounts a plucky journey across the Atlas);
Joseph Thomson, Travels in the Atlas (London, 1889; the narrative
of a restricted excursion from Marrakesh) ; H. de la Martiniere,
Journeys in the Kingdom of Fez (London, 1889; chief value archaeo-
logical); Rafael Pezzi, Los presidios menores de Africa (Madrid,
1893; an account of the Spanish possessions in Morocco); Captain
Jules Erckmann, Le Maroc moderne (Paris, 1885; includes parts not
open to Europeans, visited by the author as an officer in the Moorish
army); Capt. E. Bonelli, El Imperio de Marruecos (Madrid, 1882;
a somewhat similar work, by a Spanish officer) ; F. de A. de Urres-
tazu, Viages par Marruecos (Madrid, 1877 ; descriptions by a Spaniard
born in the country and travelling as a native) ; G. D. Cowan and
R. L. N. Johnston, Moorish Lotos Leaves (London, 1883; trust-
worthy papers dealing with south central Morocco); Emilien
Renou, Description geographique de I'empire du Maroc (Paris, 1846;
a compendium of information available at that date); J. Canal,
Geographie generale du Maroc (Paris, 1902); Mission de Segonzac,
Voyages au Maroc 1899-1901 (Paris, 1903) and later publications
of the Segonzac Mission; Ch. Tissot, Recherches sur la geographic
comparee de la Mauretanie Tingitane (Paris, 1877; a valuable
archaeological survey) ; M. Besnier, " Geographie anciennedu Maroc"
and " Recueil des descriptions antiques," both in No. III. of Archives
marocaines (Paris, 1904); Leo Africanus, Description of Africa,
1526, trans. Pory, 1600; ed. Dr Robert Brown, for Hakluyt Society
(3 vols., London, 1896; a wonderful work for its period, always of
interest, but the source of many oft-repeated errors in books on
Morocco).
Geology. G. Maw, " Notes on the Geology of the Plain of Morocco
and the Great Atlas," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1872), vol. xxviii. ;
J. Thomson, " Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the
Geography and Geology of the Atlas Range in the Empire of
Morocco," Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1889, Newcastle Meeting; P. Schnell
MORON DE LA FRONTERA MOROSINI
861
L 'Atlas marocain (Paris, 1898); A. Brives, " Contribution a 1'dtude
geologique de 1'Atlas marocain," Bull. Soc. Gcol. France (Oct. 1905).
Ethnology. Budgett Meakin, The Moors (London, 1902; a
minute account of manners and customs); James G. Jackson, An
Account of the Empire of Morocco (London, 1809; the authoritative
description for a century); Georg Host, Efterretninger om Marokos
og Fes (a work still of great value; Copenhagen, 1779); Thomas
Fellow, Captivity and Adventures, 1736 (ed. Dr Robert Brown,
London, 1890; one of the best and most intimate narratives of the
European slaves); Count Sternburg, The Barbarians of Morocco
(London, 1908).
Language. Rev: Jose Lerchundi, Rudimentos del drabe . . . de-
marruecos (Tangier, 1891) and Vocabulario espanol arabigo (Tangier,
1892) ; Eng. trans, of the former by J. Maclver MacLeod (Tangier,
1900; most useful, but dealing chiefly with the corrupt colloquial
speech of the Tangier-Tetuan district); Budgett Meakin, An Intro-
duction to the Arabic of Morocco (Tangier, 1900 ; vocabulary, grammar,
notes, phrases, &c., for pocket use, in Roman characters) ; Miss C. W.
Baldwin, Morocco-Arabic Dialogues (Tangier, 1892; uniform with
the last-named, but in Arabic characters).
Maps. The most trustworthy general maps are R. de Flotte de
Roquevaire, Carte du Maroc (scale I: 1,000,000) 4 sheets, ed. tgo8;
the French War Office maps (scale 1 : 500,000, begun 1906, scale
1:100,000, begun 1909), and the British War Office map (scale
1:1,000,000) 4 sheets, 1904. There are numerous district maps.
The Dy6 Mission published fifteen. (B. M.*; K. A. M.*)
MOR6N DE LA FRONTERA, or MORON (anc. Arumi), a
town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville; 32 m. S.E.
of the city of Seville. Pop. (1900) 14,190. Moron occupies
an irregular site upon broken chalk hillocks near the right
bank of the Guadaira. It is connected by rail with Utrera
on the Cadiz & Seville line. On the highest elevation to
the eastward are the ruins of the ancient castle, of considerable
importance during the Moorish period, when Moron, as its full
name implies, was a frontier fortress; the castle was afterwards
used as a palace by the counts of Urefia. In 1810-1811 it was
fortified by the French, but blown up by them in the following
year. The chief public building of Moron is the large parish
church, which dates from the i6th century. Moron is alsc
famous throughout Spain for its marble and its chalk (cal de
Mordti), from which the whitewash extensively used in the
Peninsula is derived.
MORONE, GIOVANNI (1509-1580), Italian cardinal, was
born on the 25th of January 1509 at Milan, where his father,
Count leronimo Morone (d. 1529), was grand chancellor. His
father, who had been imprisoned for opposing encroachments
on the liberties of Milan by Charles V. (whom he afterwards
cordially supported), removed to Modena, where his youngest
son had most of his early education. Proceeding to Padua
he studied jurisprudence with distinction. In return for im-
portant service rendered by his father, he was in 1527 nominated
by Clement VIII. to the see of Modena, and consecrated in
1533 after a contest. From 1535 he was constantly entrusted
by Paul III. with diplomatic missions; he was nuncio (1536)
to Ferdinand, king of the Romans, and legate to the diet of
Spires (1542) having successfully resisted the transfer of the
diet to Hagenau on account of the plague (1540). On the
3ist of May 1542 he was created cardinal, and was further
nominated protector of England, Hungary, Austria, of several
religious orders, and of the santa casa at Loreto. With the
cardinals Paul Parisio and Reginald Pole he was deputed to
open the Council of Trent (Nov. i, 1542), the place of meeting
having been a concession to his diplomacy. The legates arrived
on the 22nd of November, but no council assembled. The death
of Paul III. (1549) deprived him of a good friend. The views of
the Reformers had spread in his diocese, and he was suspected
of temporizing with them. He resigned his see (1550) in favour
of the Dominican Egidio Foscherari, reserving to himself an
annual pension and the patronage of livings. Julius III., at
the instance of the duke of Milan, gave him (1553) the rich see
of Novara (which he Designed in 1560 for the see of Albano)
and sent him as nuncio to the diet of Augsburg (1555), from
which he was immediately recalled by the death of Julius
(March 23). In June 1557 Paul IV. imprisoned him in the
castle of St Angelo (with others, including Pole, and Foscherari),
on suspicion of Lutheran heresy. The prosecution entirely
failed, and Morcne might have had his liberty, but refused to i
leave prison unless Paul IV. publicly acknowledged his innocence.
He remained incarcerated till the pope's death (Aug. 18,
iSS9), and took part in the election of Pius IV. Ochino, in
the twenty -eighth of his Dialogi XXX., 1563 has a colloquy
on the treatment of heretics, between Pius IV. and Morone,
in which the latter maintains: " Errantes in viam revocandi,
non occidendi." This really hits the position of Morone, a
sincere Catholic, to whom persecution was abhorrent. He
presided at the Tridentine Council from the roth of April
to the 4th of December 1563, and endeavoured to exercise a
conciliatory influence. At the end of 1564 Foscherari died,
and Morone was reinstated in the see of Modena. On the
death of Pius IV. (1565) he came near to being elected pope.
His last days were easy; he died at Rome on the ist of December
1580, and was buried at S. Maria sopra Minerva. His writings
comprise a few letters and orations. His career is that of a good
man, struggling for the welfare of his Church against corruptions
not essential to the system to which he was devoted.
See J. G. Frick, " De Joanne Morono," in J. G. Schelhorn's^4moent-
tates liierariae, vol. xii. (1730) ; " G. Moroni," Dizionario di erudizione
(1847) ; N. Bernabei, Vita del cardinale G. Moroni (1885) ; M. Young,
Life and Times of Aonio Pilearw (1860); C. Benrath, in Hauck s
Realencyklopalie (1903). (A. Go.*)
MORONI, GIAMBATTISTA (c. 1510-1578), Italian portrait-
painter of the Venetian school, was born at Albino near Bergamo
about 1510 (or perhaps a few years later), and became a pupil
of Bonvicino named II Moretto. Bsyond the record of his works
very few particulars regarding him have reached us. Titian,
under whom also Moroni, while still very young, is said to have
studied (but this appears hardly probable), had at any rate a
high opinion of his powers: he said that Moroni made his por-
traits " living " or ' actual " (veri}. In truthful and animated
portraiture Moroni ranks near Titian himself. His portraits
do not indeed attain to a majestic monumental character;
but they are full of straightforward life and individuality, with
genuine unforced choice of attitude, and excellent texture and
arrangement of draperies. There is a certain tendency to a
violet-tint in the flesh, and the drawing and action of the hands
are not first-rate. The earliest inscribed date discovered
for any of his works is 1553. As leading samples may be men-
tioned in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence the " Nobleman pointing
to a Flame," inscribed " Et quid volo nisi ut ardeat ? " ; in the
National Gallery, London, the portraits of a Tailor, a member
of the Fenaroli family, Canon Ludovico de' Terzi, and others;
in the Berlin Gallery, his own portrait; and in Stafford House,
the seated half-figure of the Jesuit Ercole Tasso, currently
termed " Titian's Schoolmaster " not as indicating any real
connexion between the sitter and Titian, but only the consum-
mate excellence of the work. Besides his portraits, Moroni
painted, from youth to his latest days, the ordinary round
of sacred compositions; but in these he falls below his master
II Moretto. One of the best is the " Coronation of the Virgin," in
S. Alessandro della Croce, Bergamo; also in the cathedral of
Verona, " SS Peter and Paul," and in the Brera of Milan,
the " Assumption of the Virgin." Moroni was engaged upon
a " Last Judgment," in the church of Corlago, when he died
on the sth of February 1578. (W. M. R.)
MOROSINI, a noble Venetian family, probably of Hungarian
extraction, which gave many doges, statesmen, generals and
admirals to the Venetian Republic, and cardinals to the Church.
It first became prominent at the time of the emperor Otho II.
owing to its rivalry with the Caloprini family, whom it succeeded
in subjugating by the end of the loth century. Domenico
Morosini (d. 1156), elected doge in 1148, waged war with success
against the Dalmatian corsairs, recapturing Pola and other
Istrian towns from them. Marino Morosini (d. 1252) was elected
doge in 1249; Michele was doge from June 1382, until his death
in October of the same year.
ANDREA MOROSINI (i 558-1618) was a famous historian and was
entrusted by the Venetian senate with the task of continuing
Paolo Paruta's Annali Veneti, in Latin. His history of Venice was
published by his brother in 1623 (Venice), and translated into
862
MORPETH MORPHINE
Italian by Senator Girolamo Molin (Venice, 1782). Among his
other works are: Le Imprese ed espeditioni di terra santa, &c.
(Venice, 1627); De us quae venela respublica ad Istriae oras gessit,
&c. (in the Corner-Duodo collection of MSS. ; De forma reipublicae
venetae in MS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. His life
has been written by Luigi Lollin (1623), by Niccolo Crasso (1621),
and by Antonio Palazzoli (1620).
FRANCESCO MOROSINI (1618-1694) was one of the greatest
captains of his time. As a young man he fought against the
Turks and the pirates, and after signally distinguishing himself
at the battle of Naxos in 1650 he was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Venetian navy. He then conducted a series of
successful campaigns against the Turks, but was recalled in
consequence of the intrigues of his rival the Proweditore
Antonio Barbaro (1661). But when Candia was attacked by
a large force, under the terrible vizir Keuprili, Morosini was sent
to relieve the fortress in 1667; the siege lasted eighteen months,
but Morosini, in spite of his prodigies of valour, was forced to
surrender to save the surviving inhabitants. He was tried, but
acquitted of all blame, and on the renewal of the war with the
Turkish Empire in 1684 he was again appointed commander-
in-chief, and after several brilliant victories he reconquered the
Peloponnesus and Athens; on his return to Venice he was loaded
with honours and given the title of " Peloponnesiaco." In
1688 he was elected doge, and in 1693 he took command of
the Venetian forces against the Turks for the fourth time; the
enemy which had been cruising in the archipelago withdrew
at his approach, so great was the terror inspired by his name.
While wintering at Napoli di Romania (Nauplia) he died on the
6th of January 1694.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Barbara, Genealogia delle famiglie palrizie
venete, MS., clas. vii., cod. 927, in the Marcian Library, Venice;
Cappellari, Campidoglio veneto, MS., clas. vii., cod. 17, ibid.;
Romanin, Storia documentata di Venezia, also other general Venetian
histories; G. Dalla Santa, Due Letters di umanisti veneziani a Paolo
Morosini (in Nuovo archivio veneto, xix. 92) ; G. Graziani's life of
F. Morosini in Latin (Padua, 1698); A. Arrighi, Vita di F. M.
(Padua, 1449). (See also VENICE.)
MORPETH, a market town and municipal and parliamentary
borough of Northumberland, England, situated in a fine valley
on the Wansbeck, 17 j m. N. of Newcastle by the North Eastern
railway the junction of several branches with the main line. Pop.
(1901), 6158. The Wansbeck winds round the town on the west,
south and east, and a rivulet, the Cottingburn, bounds it on
the north. The parish church of St Mary, a plain building of
the I4th century, is situated on Kirk Hill, a short distance
from the town. It has a good example of a Jesse window.
Nothing remains of the old castle except the gateway. The
valley of the Wansbeck above Morpeth is well wooded and
very picturesque. By its side are fragments of Newminster
Abbey, a wealthy foundation of the I2th century, occupied by
monks from Fountains in Yorkshire; and Mitford, with its
Norman and Early English church, and ruins of a Norman
castle and a manor-house of the I7th century. To the north
of Morpeth a good specimen of the peel tower of the isth century
is seen at Cockley Park. Industries of Morpeth include tanning,
brewing, malting, iron and brass founding, and the manufacture
of flannels, agricultural implements, and bricks and tiles. The
parliamentary borough, within the Wansbeck division of the
county, returns one member and extends 8 m. eastward to
the coast, including the town of Blyth. Morpeth is governed by
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 328 acres.
The manor of Morpeth is said to have been granted to William
de Merlay soon after the Conquest and passed with the borough
from his family to those of Graystock, Dacre and Howard, earls
of Carlisle, with whom it remains. The town is a borough by
prescription and grew up round the castle attributed to the above
William de Merlay. About the end of the i2th century Roger de
Merlay the younger granted the burgesses right to hold of him
and his heirs " as freely as the charter of the king purported
which he held of the king by gift." Charles II. incorporated
the town in 1662 under the government of two bailiffs who were
chosen every year in the following manner: the bailiffs for the
time being chose two juries from whom the commonalty elected
four burgesses, and from these four the steward of the lord
of the manor appointed the bailiffs for the ensuing year. This
was continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. In
1 200 a market on Wednesday and a fair on the Feast of St Mary
Magdalene were granted to Roger de Merlay, and in 1283 the
fair was extended for two days. The market rights still belong
to the lord of the manor.
MORPHEUS, in Roman mythology, one of the sons of Somnus,
the god of sleep. He was a personification, apparently invented
by Ovid (Metam. xi. 635), of the power that calls up human
shapes (ptop^cu) of all kinds to the dreamer. His brothers
Phobetor and Phantasus assumed the forms of all kinds of
animals and inanimate things.
MORPHINE, the chief alkaloid of opium (q.v.), to which the
medicinal action of the former is mainly due. It is not used itself
in medicine owing to its insolubility in water and ether. The
preparations of morphine are incompatible with salts of iron,
copper and mercury, also with lime water and alkaline earths
and substances containing tannin. With ferric chloride it forms
a deep red colour.
The preparations of morphine in the British Pharmacopoeia
are as follow: from Morphinae Hydrochloridum are made five sub-
preparations: (l) Liquor Morphinae Hydrochloridi, strength I % or
about 4J grs. of the hydrochloride to the fl.oz. ; (2) Suppositoria
Morphinae, made with a basis of oil of theobroma, strength J gr.
of morphine hydrochloride in each; (3) Tinctura Chloroformi el
Morphinae, strength tV S r - ' n IO minims; (4) Trochiscus Mor-
phinae, j'j gr. in each ; (5) Trochiscus Morphinae et Ipecacuanhae,
strength fa gr. of morphine hydrochloride and tV gr. ipecacuanha
in each. From Morphinae Acetas, a white soluble amorphous
powder, is made Liquor Morphinae Acetatis, strength I % or 4$ grs.
of the acetate to I fl. oz. From Morphinae Tartras, a white crys-
talline powder, are prepared, Injectio Morphinae Hypodermica,
containing 5 % of morphine tartrate, and Liquor Morphinae
Tartratis. Morphinae Sulphatis is not official in the British Phar-
macopeia but is official in the United States, the U.S.P. Trochisci
Morphinae et Ipecacuanhae and Pulvis Morphinae Compositus
(Tully's powder) being made from it. Hypodermic tabloids of
morphine sulphate either alone or combined with atropine are much
in use. Various non-official preparations of morphine are in use, such
as dionin, heroin, glycaphorm and peronin.
Therapeutics. Morphine is an analgesic and hypnotic, reliev-
ing pain and producing deep sleep. As contrasted with opium
it differs in being less astringent and constipating. Morphine is
the greatest anodyne we possess, and no drug yet discovered
equals it in pain-relieving power. The most frequent mode
of administration is the hypodermic method, on account of the
extreme rapidity with which it is absorbed. Ill pain due to
violent sciatica relief and even permanent cure has been obtained
by the injection of morphine directly into the muscle of the
affected part, and in the treatment of renal and hepatic colic
morphine given subcutaneously will relieve the acute pain conse-
quent on the passage of biliary and urinary calculi. A violent
paroxysm of asthma may be arrested by the administration of
morphine subcutaneously, but the practice should not be con-
tinued, as there is great danger in a chronic disease that
the patient may become the victim of morphinism. Morphine
is recognized as one of the most useful drugs in the treat-
ment of eclampsia, early injection often arresting the fits.
In the cough of phthisis minute doses are of service, but
in this particular disease morphine is frequently better
replaced by codeine or by heroin, which checks irritable
coughs without the narcotism following upon the administration
of morphine. In bronchitis with profuse expectoration the use
of morphine is particularly dangerous, as it is likely to check the
cough so necessary for getting rid of the secretion, but in the
converse condition it usefully allays the harassing cough by
diminishing the excitability of the respiratory centre. In the
dyspnoea of advanced valvular disease of the heart morphine
relieves the distress and restlessness, and induces sleep. It
should however be withheld if the heart has undergone fatty
degeneration. Morphine is a sheet anchor in the later stages
of cancer and other painful diseases, rendering the life of the
patient one of comparative comfort. If given in excess the
drug is eliminated by way of the intestines and kidneys. It
MORPHOLOGY
863
is also excreted in the milk; hence the danger in the adminis-
tration of large doses of morphine to nursing mothers.
Morphine-scopolamine anaesthesia was introduced in 1902
by Steinbiickel. It has been used by some surgeons for the
production of anaesthesia previous to the administration of
ether or chloroform, but the use of the method is now more
usually relegated to obstetric practice.
Morphinism (Morphinomania). Chronic morphine poisoning is
very common, as morphine taken constantly creates a habit. Once
acquired the habitue 1 depends on the drug for a comfortable existence,
and as the organism becomes quickly tolerant of the alkaloid the
original dose no longer suffices. The total amount of morphine
indulged in by the habitual morphinist may reach an astonishing
figure; 15 grs. a day is said to be common, and some medical writers
record quantities such as 60 to 70 grs. in the 24 hours in extreme cases.
The early stages of morphinism are marked by moral degeneration ;
the patient seems to lose all sense of right and wrong, and will lie most
plausibly and even thieve to obtain the drug ; personal disorderliness,
disregard of time, neglect of business and decline of family affection
become soon evident. Physical symptoms also appear; the face
assumes an earthy colour, the body wastes, constipation is usually
present to an extreme degree, the secretions become arrested, loss of
appetite and indigestion follow and the mouth is parched. The nails
become brittle and the skin dry, sterility shows itself in women and
sexual impotence in men. While not directly causing death, morphin-
ism so lowers the bodily powers that the patient is easily carried off
by some intercurrent malady. The sudden withdrawal of the drug
from a morphine habitu6 is followed by a train of alarming symptoms.
As the time approaches for the usual dose there is marked restless-
ness, followed by excitement and later by chills, pallor, sinking,
nausea, with perhaps vomiting and diarrhoea. Horrible mental
depression and melancholia are present, and there may be hallucina-
tions of vision and hearing passing into violent delirium. At this
stage collapse may set in, the patient become faint, the limbs twitch,
the radical pulse become imperceptible, and unconsciousness super-
vene. The condition may even go on to a fatal result should morphine
be continuously withheld, but injection of even a small quantity of
morphine causes these symptoms to cease abruptly. The sudden
withdrawal of morphine should therefore never be practised with
takers of large quantities of the drug, but gradually diminishing
doses given by the physician should be substituted. For the success-
ful treatment of morphinism, complete isolation of the patient is
necessary in a place where he is supervised so that he can obtain no
morphine. Isolation in a home is far the best, as friends may give
way to entreaties and servants be bribed. The " tapering off " of
the dose is the best method. Absence from home and strict super-
vision lasting over a long period, usually a year, are necessary to
prevent relapse. The lowered bodily health requires to be built
up, and a long sea voyage under adequate supervision is usually
recommended.
MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. iJopftrf, form), a term introduced
by Goethe to denote in biology the study of the unity of type
in organic form (for which the Linnaean term " Metamorphosis "
had formerly been employed). It now usually covers the entire
science of organic form. There are numerous restricted senses
of the term in various sciences, but here we shall deal with
it as a substantive side of zoology and botany.
Historical Outline. If we disregard such vague likenesses
as those expressed in the popular classifications of plants by
size into herbs, shrubs and trees, or of terrestrial animals by
habit into beasts and creeping things, the history of morphology
begins with Aristotle. Founder of comparative anatomy and
taxonomy, he established eight great divisions (to which are
appended certain minor groups) Viviparous Quadrupeds,
Birds, Oviparous Quadrupeds and Apoda, Fishes, Malakia, Mala-
costraca. Entoma, and Ostracodermata distinguishing the first
four groups as Enaima (" with blood ") from the remaining four
as Anaima (" bloodless "). In these two divisions we recognize
the Vertebrata and Invertebrata of J. B. P. A. Lamarck, the
first four groups corresponding with the Mammals, Birds,
Reptiles, Fishes, whilst the others agree more loosely with the
Cephalopods, Crustacea, Insecta, and Echinoderms with Mollusca
other than the Cephalopods. Far from committing the mistake
attributed to him of reckoning Bats as Birds, or Cetaceans as
Fishes, he discerned the true affinities of both, and erected the
latter into a special ytvos beside the Viviparous Quadrupeds,
more on account of their absence of limbs than of their aquatic
habit. Not only is his method inductive, and his groups founded
on the aggregate of known characters, but he foreshadows such
generalizations as those of the correlation of organs, and of
the progress of development from a general to a special form after-
wards established by G. L. Cuvier and K. E. von Baer respectively.
In the correspondence he suggests between the scales of Fishes
and the feathers of Birds, or in that hinted at between the
fins of Fishes and the limbs of Quadrupeds, the idea of homology
is nascent; and from the compilation of his disciple Nicolaus
of Damascus, who regards leaves as imperfectly developed
fruits, he seems almost to have anticipated the idea of the
metamorphosis of plants. Even after the reappearance of
Aristotle's works in the i3th century, little can be recorded but
revivals of his conclusions. Monographs on groups of plants and
animals frequently appeared, those of P. Belon on Birds and
G. Rondelet on Fishes being among the earliest; and in the former
of these (1555) we find a comparison of the skeletons of Bird
and Man in the same posture and as nearly as possible bone
for bone an idea which, despite the contemporaneous renais-
sance of human anatomy initiated by Vesalius, disappeared for
centuries, unappreciated save by the surgeon Ambroise Pare.
B. Palissy, like Leonardo da Vinci before him, discerned the
true nature of fossils; and such flashes of insight continued to
appear from time to time during the i;th century. Thus,
Joachim Jung recognized " the distinction between root and
stem, the difference between leaves and foliaceous branches, the
transition from the ordinary leaves to the folia floris," and
W. Harvey anticipated the generalizations of modern embryology
by his researches on development and his theory of epigenesis.
The encyclopaedic period of which Gesner is the highest
representative was continued by Aldrovandi and others in the
1 7th century; but, aided by the Baconian movement, then
influencing all scientific minds, it developed into one of
genuinely systematic aim. At this stage of progress the
most important part was taken by John Ray, whose classi-
ficatory labours among plants and animals were crowned
with success. He first expelled the fabulous monsters and
prodigies of which the encyclopaedists had handed on the
tradition from medieval times, and succeeded, particularly
among plants, in distinguishing many natural groups, for which
his own terms sometimes survive e.g. Dicotyledons and
Monocotyledons, Umbelliferae and Leguminosae. The true
precursor of Linnaeus, he introduced the idea of species in natural
history, and reformed the practice of definition and terminology.
Of the works which followed up Ray's systematic labours,
none can be even named until we come to those of his great
successor Linnaeus, whose grasp of logical method and lucidity
of thought and expression enabled him to reform and reorganize
the whole labours of his predecessors into a compact and definite
" systema naturae." The very genius of order, he established
modern taxonomy, not only by the introduction of the binomial
nomenclature and the renovation of descriptive terminology
and method, but by the subordination of the species under the
successive higher categories of genus, order and class, so recon-
ciling the analytic and synthetic tendencies of his predecessors.
Although the classification of plants by the number of their
essential organs is highly artificial, it must be remembered
that this artificiality is after all only a question of degree, and
that he not only distinctly recognized its provisional character
but collected and extended those fragments of the natural
system with which A. de Jussieu soon afterwards began to build.
His classification of animals, too, was largely natural, and,
though on the whole he lent his authority to maintain the notion
of three kingdoms of nature, he at least at one time discerned
the fundamental unity of animals and vegetables, and united
them in opposition to the non-living world as Organisata. At
the same time he was still far more a scholastic naturalist than
a modern investigator.
While the artificial system was at the zenith of its usefulness,
Bernard de Jussieu was arranging his gardens on the lines
afforded by the fragmentary natural system of Linnaeus. His
ideas were elaborated by his nephew Antoine de Jussieu, who
published diagnoses of the natural orders, so giving the system
its modern character. Its subsequent elaboration and definite
establishment are due mainly to the labours of Pyrame de
864
MORPHOLOGY
Candolle and Robert Brown. The former concentrated his
own long life and that of his son upon a new " systema naturae,"
the colossal Prodromus syslematis naluralis (20 vols., 1818-1873),
in which 80,000 species were described and arranged. Mean-
while the penetrative genius of Brown enabled him to unravel
such structural complexities as those of Conifers and Cycads,
Orchids and Proteaceae, thus demonstrating the possibility of
ascertaining the systematic position of even the most highly
modified floral types. Both Candolle and Brown were thus no mere
systematists, but genuine morphologists of the modern school.
The labours of Bernard and Antoine de Jussieu initiated
a parallel advance in zoology, the joint memoir on the classifica-
tion of mammals with which Cuvier and Geoffrey St-Hilaire
almost began their career receiving its dominant impulse
from the " genera " of Antoine. Cuvier's works correspond in
zoology to those of the whole period from the Jussieus to Brown,
and epitomize the results of that line of advance. Although
in some respects preceded by A. von Haller and J. Hunter,
who compared, though mainly with physiological aim, the same
parts in different organisms, and much more distinctly by Vicq
d' Azyr, the only real comparative anatomist of the i8th century,
he opens the era of detailed anatomical research united with
exact comparison and clear generalization. The Regne animal
(1817) and the theory of types (vertebrate, molluscan, articu-
late, and radiate) are the results of this union of analysis
and synthesis and mark the reconstitution of taxonomy en a
new basis, henceforth to be no longer a matter of superficial
description and nomenclature but a complete expression of
structural resemblances and differences. In Germany, L. H.
Bojanus, J. F. Meckel, C. T. E. von Siebold and Johannes
Miiller, with his many pupils, carried on the work; in France,
too, a succession of brilliant anatomists, such as A. De Quatre-
fages, A. Milne-Edwards and H. de Lacaze-Duthiers, were
his intellectual heirs; and in England he has been admirably
represented by Sir R. Owen.
It is now necessary to return to Linnaeus, whose more specula-
tive writings contain, though encumbered by fantastic hypo-
theses, the idea of floral metamorphosis. About the same time,
and quite independently, C. F. Wolff , the embryologist, stated
the same theory with greater clearness, for the first time distinctly
reducing the plant to an axis bearing appendages the vege-
tative leaves which become metamorphosed into bud-scales
or floral parts through diminution of vegetative force. Thirty
years later the same view was again independently developed
by Goethe in his now well-known pamphlet (Versuch die Meta-
morphose der Pflanzenzuerkl,aren,Goiha., 1790). In this brilliant
essay the doctrine of the fundamental unity of floral and foliar
parts is clearly enunciated, and supported by arguments from
anatomy, development and teratology. All the organs of a
plant are thus modifications of one fundamental organ the
leaf and all plants are in like mariner to be viewed as modifica-
tions of a common type the Urpflanze. Whether, as some
historians hold, his " Urpflanze " was a mere ideal archetype,
bringing forth as its fruit the innumerable metaphysical abstrac-
tions of the Naturphilosophie, and leading his countrymen
into all the extravagances of that system; or whether, as E. H.
Haeckel maintains, it represented a concrete ancestral form,
so anticipating the view of modern evolutionists, it is certain
that to him F. W. S. von Schelling was indebted for the founda-
tion upon which he erected his philosophic edifice, as also that
Goethe shared the same ideas. It must be remembered that
he lived and made progress for forty years after the publication
of this essay, that he was familiar with the whole scientific move-
ment, and warmly sympathized with the evolutionary views of
Lamarck and Geoffrey St-Hilaire; it is not therefore to be
wondered at that his writings should furnish evidence in favour of
each and every interpretation of them. His other morphological
labours must not be forgotten. Independently of Vicq d' Azyr,
he discovered the human premaxillary bone; independently
of L. Oken, he proposed the vertebral theory of the skull; and
before S. C. Savigny, he discerned that the jaws of insects were
the limbs of the head.
In 1813 A. P. de Candolle published his Tkiorie Ztimenlairt
de la botanique, which he developed into the classic Organo-
graphie vtgitale (1827). He established his theory of symmetry,
reducing all flowers to " symmetrical " groupings of appendages
on an axis and accounting for their various forms by cohesion
and adhesion, by arrested or excessive development. The next
advance was the investigation by W. P. Schimper and A. Braun
of phyllotaxis the ascending spiral arrangement of foliar and
floral organs thus further demonstrating their essential unity.
The term morphology was first introduced by Goethe in 1817, in
a subsequent essay (Zur Natunvissenschafl uberhaupt, besonders
zur Morphologic). It did not come into use in botany until its
popularization by Auguste de St-Hilaire in his Morphologie tiegetale
(1841), and in zoology until later, although De Blainville, who
also first employed the term type, had treated the external forms
of animals under " morphologic." Though the Naturphiloso-
phie of Schelling and its countless modifications by his followers,
its mystic theories of " polarization " and the like, its apparatus
of assumption and abstraction, hypothesis and metaphor,
cannot here be discussed, its undoubted services must not be
forgotten, since it stimulated innumerable reflective minds
to the earnest study of natural science, gave a powerful impulse
to the study of comparative anatomy and vindicated the claims
of philosophic synthesis over those of analytic empiricism.
Among its many adherents, some are of more distinctly theo-
logical type; others metaphysical, others mystical or poetic,
others, again, more especially scientific; but its most typical and
picturesque figure is Lorenz Oken, who epitomizes alike the
best and the worst features of the school, and among whose
innumerable pseudo-morphological dreams there occasionally
occurred suggestions of the greatest fruitfulness notably, for
instance, the independent statement of the vertebral theory
of the skull.
By far the most distinguished anatomist of the transcendental
school is Geoffrey St-Hilaire, who being comparatively free from
the extravagances of Oken, and uniting a depth of morpho-
logical insight scarcely inferior to that of Goethe with greater
knowledge of facts and far wider influence and reputation in
the scientific world, had greater influence on the progress of
science than either. He started from the same studies of ana-
tomical detail as Cuvier, but, influenced by Buffon's view of
unity of plan and by the evolutionary doctrines of Lamarck,
diverged into new lines, and again reached that idea of serial
homology of which we have so frequently noted the independent
origin. His greatest work, the Philosophic analomique (1818-
1823), contains his principal doctrines. These are: (i) the
theory of unity of organic composition, identical in spirit with
that of Goethe; (2) the theory of analogues, according to which
the same parts, differing only in form and in degree of develop-
ment, should occur in all animals; (3) the " principe des con-
nexions," by which similar parts occur everywhere in similar
relative positions; and (4) the " principe du balancement des
organes," upon which he founded the study of teratology, and
according to which the high development of one organ is allied
to diminution of another. The advance in morphological
theory is here obvious; unfortunately, however, in eager pursuit
of often deceptive homologies, he wandered into the transcen-
dentalism of the Naturphilosophie, and seems utterly to have
failed to appreciate either the type theory of Cuvier or the
discoveries of Von Baer. He defended Buffon's and Bonnet's
earlier view of unity of plan in nature; and the controversy
reached its climax in 1830, when he maintained the unity of
structure in Cephalopods and Vertebrates against Cuvier before
the Academy of Sciences. On the point of fact he was of course
utterly defeated; the type theory was thenceforward fully
accepted and the Naturphilosophie received its death-blow.
Such was the popular view; only a few, like the aged Goethe,
whose last literary effort was a masterly critique of the con-
troversy, discerned that the very reverse interpretation was the
deeper and essential one, that a veritable " scientific revolu-
tion " was in progress, and that the supremacy of homological
and synthetic over descriptive and analytic studies was
MORPHOLOGY
865
thenceforward assured. The irreconcilable feud between the
two leaders really involved a reconciliation for their followers;
theories of homological anatomy had thenceforward to be
strictly subjected to anatomical and embryological verification,
while anatomy and embryology acquired a homological aim.
This union of the solid matter and rigorous method of Cuvier
with the generalizing spirit and philosophic aims of Geoffrey
is well illustrated in the works of Owen.
The further evolution of the idea of homology is sketched
below, while the extent and rapidity of the subsequent progress
of the knowledge of all the structural aspects of plants and
animals alike make a historical survey impossible up to the
appearance of the Origin of Species (1859). The needful solu-
tion was effected by Darwin. The " Urpflanze " of Goethe, the
types of Cuvier, and the like, at once became intelligible as
schematic representations of ancestral organisms, which in various
and varying environments, have undergone differentiation into the
vast multitude of existing forms. All the enigmas of structure
become resolved; " representative " and " aberrant," " progres-
sive " and "degraded," "synthetic" and "isolated," "per-
sistent " and " prophetic " types no longer baffle comprehension;
conformity to type represented by differentiated or rudimentary
organs in one organism is no longer contradicted by their entire
disappearance in its near allies, while systematist and morpholo-
gist become related simply as specialist and generalizer, all
through this escape from the Linnaeau dogma of the fixity of
species. The phenomena of individual development receive
interpretation in terms of ancestral history; and embryology
thus becomes divided into ontogeny and phylogeny the latter,
too, coming into intimate relation with palaeontology while
classification seeks henceforth the reconstruction of the genea-
logical tree. All these results were dearly developed in Haeckel's
Generelle Morphologic (1866), while the valuable contemporaneous
Principles of Biology of Herbert Spencer also gave special
attention to the relation of morphology to physiology.
Individuality. Probably no subject in the whole range of biology
has been more extensively discussed than that of the nature of
organic individuality. The history of the controversy is of interest,
since besides leading up to solid results it serves, perhaps better
than any other case, to illustrate the slow emergence of the natural
sciences from the influence of scholastic thought. Starting from the
obvious unity and indivisibleness of Man and other higher animals,
and adopting some definition such as that of C. F. B. Mirbel, " Tout
tre organist, complet dans ses parties, distinct et s6par6 des autres
tres, est un individu," it was attempted times without number to
discover the same conception elsewhere in nature, or rather to impose
it upon all other beings, plants and animals alike. The results of
different inquirers were of course utterly discrepant. It seemed easy
and natural to identify a tree or herb corresponding to the individual
animal, yet difficulties at once arose. Many apparently distinct
plants may arise from a common root, or a single plant may be
decomposed into branches, twigs, shoots, buds or even leaves, all
often capable of separate existence. These, again, are decompos-
able into tissues and cells, the cells into nucleus, &c., and ultimately
into protoplasmic molecules, these finally into atoms the inquiry
thus passing outside organic nature altogether and meeting the old
dispute as to the ultimate divisibility of matter. In short, as
Haeckel remarks, scarcely any part of the plant can be named
which has not been taken by some one for the individual. It is
necessary, therefore, briefly to notice some of the principal works
on the subject, and these may conveniently be taken in descending
order.
While H. Cassini practically agreed with Mirbel in attempting to
regard separate plants as individuals, the widest interpretation of
the individual is that of G. Gallesio (1816), who proposed to regard
as an individual the entire product of a single seed, alike whether
this developed into a uni-axial plant extended continuously like a
banyan, or multiplied asexually by natural or artificial means like
the weeping-willow or the Canadian pondweed, of each of which,
on this view, there is only a single individual in Britain, happily
discontinuous.
At once the oldest and most frequently maintained view is that
which regards the bud or shoot consisting of a single axis with
appendages as the plant-individual, of which the tree represents a
colony, like a branched hydroid polyp. This conception, often
attributed to Aristotle, but apparently without foundation, appears
distinctly in the writings of Hippocrates and Theophrastus the
latter saying, " The bud grows on the tree like a plant in the ground."
The aphorism of Linnaeus, " Gemmae totidem herbae," is well
known; and in this view C. F. Wolff and Humboldt concurred, while
Erasmus Darwin supported it by an appeal to the facts of anatomy
XVIII. 28
and development. The most influential advocate of the bud theory
during the first half of the io.th century was, however, Du Petit-
Thouars, who, although starting much as usual with a " principe
unique d existence," supported his theory on extensive though
largely incorrect observations on stem structure and growth. For
him the tree is a colony of phytons, each being a bud with its axillant
leaf and fraction of the stem and root. Passing over
numerous
minor authors, we come to the central work of Alex. Braun (1853),
in which, as Sachs has clearly pointed out, the illegitimate combina-
tion of Naturphilosophie with inductive morphology reaches its
extreme. He reviews, however, all preceding theories, admits the
difficulty of fixing upon any as final, since the plant, physiologically
considered, is rather a divtduum than an individuum, and proposes
as a compromise, or indeed as a partial cutting of the knot, the
adoption of the shoot, as the morphological individual, comparable
to an animal, especially because, unlike the cell, leaf, &c., it includes
all the representative characters of the species. Darwin and Spencer
on the whole also accept the bud or shoot as at any rate the most
definite individual.
The theory of metamorphosis naturally led Goethe, Oken and
others to regard the leaf as the individual, while Johannes Muller,
J. J. S. Steenstrup and others adopted the same view on various
physiological grounds. C. Gaudichaud elaborated a theory inter-
mediate between this view and that of Du Petit-Thouars, according
to which the plant was built up of individuals, each consisting of a
leaf with its subjacent internode of stem, which was regarded as
the leaf-base, and this was supported by Edward Forbes and
others, while the nominally converse view that of the leaf as a
mere outward expansion of the stem-segment was proposed by
C. F. Hochstetter.
Though sundry attempts at identifying various tissues, such as
the nbro-vascular bundles, as the constituent individuals may be
passed over, those associated with the cell theory are of great impor-
tance. T. Schwann decided in favour of the cell and regarded the
plant as a cell-community, in which the separate elements were
like the bees of a swarm a view virtually concurred in in all essen-
tial respects by M. Schleiden, R. Virchow and other founders of the
cell theory. Yet, although the structure and functions of the plant
are ultimately and specially cellular, it is impossible to ignore the
fact that, save in the very lowest organisms, these are subordi-
nated and differentiated into larger aggregates, and form virtually
but the bricks of a building, and hence the later theories outlined
above. Of attempts to find the individual in the nucleus or the
protoplasm granules it is unnecessary to speak further.
So far the theories of absolute individuality. The conception of
relative individuality was first clearly expressed by Alphonse de
Candolle and Schleiden, both of whom take the cell, the shoot and
the multi-axial plant as forming three successive and subordinated
categories. K. W. von Nageli too recognized not only the necessity
of establishing such a series (cell, organ, bud, leafy axis, multi-axial
plant) but the distinction between morphological and physiological
individualities afterwards enunciated by Haeckel.
Passing over the difficulties which arise even among the Protozoa
we find that a similar controversy (fully chronicled in Haeckel's
Kalkschwdmme) has raged over the individuality of sponges. While
the older observers were content to regard each sponge-mass as an
individual, a view in which J. N. Lieberkuhn and other monographers
substantially concurred, the application of the microscope led to the
view suggested by James Clark, and stoutly supported by Saville
Kent, that the sponge is a city of amoeboid or infusorian individuals.
H. J. Carter looked upon the separate ampullaceous sacs as the true
individuals, while others, defining the individual by the possession
of a single exhalent aperture, distinguish sponges into solitary and
social.
For the higher animals the problem, though perhaps really even
more difficult, is less prominent. As Haeckel points out, the earlier
discussions and even the comparatively late essay of Johannes
Muller take an almost purely psychological or at least a physiological
point of view; and the morphological aspect of the inquiry only
came forward when the study of much lower forms, such as Cestoid
worms (see PLATYELMIA) or Siphonophores (see HYDROZOA), had
raised the difficulties with which botanists had so long been
familiar. With the rapid progress of embryology, too, arose new
problems; and in 1842 Streenstrup introduced the conception of an
" alternation of generations " as a mode of origin of distinct individ-
uals by two methods, for him fundamentally similar, the sexual from
impregnated females and the asexual from unimpregnated " nurses "
a view adopted by Edward Forbes and many other naturalists,
but keenly criticized by W. B. Carpenter and T. H. Huxley. In
R. Leuckart's remarkable essay on polymorphism (1853) the Siphono-
phora were analysed into colonies, and their varied organs shown
to be morphologically equivalent, while the alternate generations of
Steenstrup were reduced to a case of polymorphism in development.
Leuckart further partly distinguished individuals of different orders,
as well as between morphological and physiological individuals.
In 1852 Huxley, starting from such an undoubted homology as
that of the egg-producing process of Hydra with a free-swimming
Medusoid, pointed out that the title of individual, if applied to the
latter, must logically be due to the former also, and avoided this
confusion between organ and individual by defining the individual
5
866
MORPHOLOGY
animal, as Gallesio had done the plant, as the entire product of an
impregnated ovum the swarm of Aphides or free Medusae which in
this way might belong to a single individual being termed Zooids.
In Carus's System of Animal Morphology (1853) another theory
was propounded, but the problem then seems to have fallen into
abeyance until 1865, when it formed the subject of a prolonged and
fruitful discussion in the Principles of Biology. Adopting the cell
(denned as an aggregate of the lowest order, itself formed of physio-
logical units) as the morphological unit, H. Spencer points out that
these may either exist independently, or gradually exhibit unions
into aggregates of the second order, like the lower Algae, of which
the individuality may be more or less pronounced. The union of
such secondary aggregates or compound units into individuals of a
yet higher order is then traced through such intermediate forms as
are represented by the higher seaweeds or the liverworts, from the
thallus of which the axes and appendages of Monocotyledons and
Dicotyledons are ingeniously derived. The shoot of a flowering
plant is thus an aggregate of the third order; it branches into
an aggregate of the fourth or higher order, and finally as a tree
"acquires a degree of composition too complex to be any longer
denned." Proceeding to animals, the same method is applied.
The Protozoa are aggregates of the first order. These, like plants,
exhibit transitions, of which Radiolarians, Foraminifera and sponges
are taken as examples, to such definite compound wholes as Hydra ;
and such secondary aggregates multiply by gemmation into per-
manent aggregates of the third order, which may exhibit all degrees
of integration up to that of the Siphpnophora, where the individu-
alities of the Polyps are almost lost in that of the aggregate form.
The whole series of articulated animals are next interpreted as more
or less integrated aggregates of the third order, of which the lower
Annelids are the less developed forms, the Arthropods the more
highly integrated and individualized. Molluscs and vertebrates
are regarded as aggregates of the second order.
In 1866 appeared a morphological classic, the Generelle Morpho-
logie of Haeckel. Here pure morphology is distinguished into two
sub-sciences the first purely structural, tectology, which regards
the organism as composed of organic individuals of different orders;
the 'second essentially stereometric, promorphology. To tectology,
defined as the science of organic individuality, a large section of the
work is devoted. Dismissing the theory of absolute individuality
as a metaphysical figment, and starting from the view of Schleiden,
De Candolle and Nageli of several successive categories of relative
individuals, he distinguishes more clearly than heretofore the
physiological individual (or bion), characterized by definiteness
and independence of function, from the morphological individual
(or morphon), characterized similarly by definiteness of form; of the
latter he establishes six categories, as follows :
1. Plastides (cytodes and cells), or elementary organisms.
2. Organs (cell-stocks or cell-fusions), simple or homoplastic or-
gans (tissues), or heteroplastic organs. Organ-systems,
organ-apparatuses.
3. Antimeres (opposite or symmetrical or homotypic parts), e.g.
rays of radiate animals, " halves of bilaterally symmetrical
animals."
4. Metameres (successive or homodynamous parts), e.g. stem-
segments of Phanerogams, segments or zoonites of Annelids
or vertebrates.
5. Personae, shoots or buds of plants, polyps of Coelenterates,
&c., " individuals " in the narrowest sense among the higher
animals.
6. Corms (stocks or colonies), e.g. trees, chains of Salpae, polyp-
stocks, &c.
In his subsequent monograph on calcareous sponges, and in a
final paper, he somewhat modifies these categories by substituting
one category of extreme comprehensiveness, that of the idorgan, in
place of the three separate orders of organs, antimeres and meta-
meres. The idorgan (of course clearly distinguished from the
physiological organ or biorgan) is finally defined as a morphological
unit consisting of two or more plastids, which does not possess the
positive character of the person or stock. These are distinguished
into homoplasts or homo-organs and alloplasts or alloe-oreans, the
former including, as subdivisions, plastid-aggregates and plastid-
fusions, the latter idomeres, antimeres and metameres. The former
definition of the term antimere, as denoting at once each separate
ray of a radiate, or the right and left halves of a bilaterally sym-
metrical animal, is corrected by terming each ray a paramere, and
its symmetrical halves the antimeres. Thus an ordinary Medusoid
has four parameres and eight antimeres, a starfish five and ten.
The conception of the persona is largely modified, not only by with-
drawing the comparison of the animal with the vegetable shoot and
by omitting the antimere and metamere as necessary constituents,
but by taking the central embryonic form of all the Metazoa the
gastrula (fie. l) and its assumed ancestral representative, the gas-
traea as the simplest and oldest form of persona. The different
morphological stages to which it may attain are classified into three
series: (i) Monaxonial inarticulate personae, i.e. uniaxial and un-
segmented without antimeres or metameres, as in sponges or lowest
Hydroids; (2) Stauraxonial inarticulate personae with antimeres,
but without metameres, e.g. coral, medusa, turbellarian, trematode,
bryozoon; (3) Stauraxonial articulate personae with antimeres and
(After Haeckel.)
FIG. i. ^Gastrula in
optical section, showing
primitive opening and
digestive cavity (blasto-
pore and arch-enteron),
as also outer and inner
layers, ectoderm and en-
doderm.
metameres, e.g. annelids, arthropods, vertebrates. The colonies
of protozoa are mere idorgans. True corms, composed of united
personae, occur only among sponges, hydroids, siphonophores,
corals, bryozoa, tunicates and echinoderms, of which the apparent
parameres are regarded as highly
centralized personae of a radially budded
worm colony; and these can be classified
according to the morphological rank of
their constituent personae. They usually
arise by gemmation from a single per-
sona, yet in sponges and corals occasion-
ally by fusion of several originally
distinct persons or corms. The theory
of successive subordinate orders of in-
dividuality being thus not only derived
from historical criticism of previous
theories but brought into conformity
with the actual facts of development
and descent various groups of organ-
isms being referred to their several
categories the remaining problem of
tectology, that of the relation of the
morphological to the physiological in-
dividuality, is finally discussed. Of the
latter, three categories are proposed:
(i) the " actual bion or complete physio-
logical individual," this being the com-
pletely developed organic form which has
reached the highest grade of morphological individuality proper to
it as a representative of, e.g. its species; (2) the " virtual bion or
potential physiological individual," including any incompletely
developed form of the former from the ovum upwards; and (3) the
" partial bion or apparent physiological individual," such fragments
of the actual or virtual bion as may possess temporary indepen-
dence without reproducing the species this latter category having,
however, inferior importance.
Haeckel's theory, indeed in its earlier form, has been adopted by
C. Gegenbaur and other morphologists, also in its later form by
G. Jager, who, however, rejects the category of idorgan on the ground
of the general morphological principle that every natural body
which carries on any chemical changes with its environment be-
comes differentiated into more or less concentric layers; but the
subject, especially as far as animals are concerned, was again
discussed in a large work by E. Pcrrier. Starting from the cell or
plastid, he terms a permanent colony a meride, and these may re-
main isolated like Sagitta or Rotifer, or may multiply by gemmation
to form higher aggregates which he terms zoides. Such zoides may
be irregular, radiate or linear aggregates, of which the two former
classes especially are termed demes. The organ Haeckel's idorgan
is excluded, since tissues and organs result from division of labour
in the anatomical elements of the merides, and so have only a
secondary individuality, " carefully to be distinguished from the
individuality of those parts whose direct grouping has formed the
organism, and which live still, or have lived, isolated from one
another." Perrier further points out that the undifferentiated
colonies are sessile, as sponges and corals, while a free state of exist-
ence is associated with the concentration and integration of the
colony into an individual of a higher order.
So far the various theories of the subject; detailed criticism is
imoossible, but some synthesis and reconciliation must be attempted.
Starting from the cell as the morphological unit, we find these
forming homogeneous aggregates in some Protozoa and in the early
development of the ovum. But integration into a whole, not
merely aggregation into a mass, is essential to the idea of individu-
ality; the earliest secondary unit, therefore, is the gastrula or
me>ide. This stage is permanently represented by an unbranched
hydroid or sponge or by a planarian. These secondary units may,
however, form aggregates either irregular as in most sponges, in-
definitely branched as in the hydroids and actinozoa, or linear as
in such planarians as Catenula. Such aggregations, colonies or
demes, not being aggregated, do not fully reach individuality of the
third order. This is attained, however, for the branched series by
such forms as Siphonophores among Hydrozoa, or Renilla or Pen-
natula among Actinozoa; for linear aggregates again by the higher
worms, and still more fully by arthropods and vertebrates. Aggre-
gates of a yet higher order may occur, though rarely. A longi-
tudinally dividing Nats or laterally branched Syllis are obviously
aggregates of these tertiary units, which, on Haeckel's view, become
integrated in the Echinoderm, which would thus reach a complete
individuality of the fourth order. A chain of Salps or a colony of
Pyrosoma exhibits an approximation to the same rank, which is
more nearly obtained by a radiate group of Botryllus around their
central cloaca, while the entire colony of such an ascidian
would represent the individual of the fifth order in its incipient and
unintegrated state these and the preceding intermediate forms
being, of course, readily intelligible, and indeed, as Spencer has
shown, inevitable on the theory of evolution.
The exclusion of tissues and organs from rank in this series is
thus seen to necessarily follow. Ectoderm and endoderm cannot
exist alone; they and the organs into which they differentiate
MORPHOLOGY
867
arise merely, as Jager expresses it, from that concentric lamination,
or, with Perrier, from that polymorphism of the members of the
colony, which is associated with organic and social existence. The
idea of the antimere is omitted, as being essentially a promorpho-
logical conception (for a medusoid or a starfish, though of widely
distinct order of individuality, is equally so divisible) ; that of the
metamere is convenient to denote the secondary units of a linear
tertiary individual; the term persona, however, seems unlikely to
survive, not only on account of its inseparable psychological
connotations, but because it has been somewhat vaguely applied
alike to aggregates of the second and third order; and the term
colony, corm or deme may indifferently be applied to those aggre-
gates of primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary order which
are not, however, integrated into a whole, and do not reach the full
individuality of the next higher order. The term zooid is also
objectionable as involving the idea of individualized organs, a view
natural while the medusoid gonophores of a hydrozoon were looked
at as evolved of its homologue in Hydra, whereas the latter
may be a degenerate form of the former. Passing to the vegetable
world, here, as before, the cell is the unit of the first order, while
aggregates representing almost every stage in the insensible evolu-
tion of a secondary unit are far more abundant than among animals.
Complete unity of the second order can hardly be allowed to the
thallus, which Spencer proposes to compound and integrate into
tertiary aggregates the higher plants ; as in animals, the embryo-
logical method is preferable, both as avoiding gratuitous hypothesis
and as leading to direct results. Such a unit is clearly presented
by the embryo of higher plants in which the cell-aggregate is at
once differentiated into parts and integrated into a whole. Such
an embryo possesses axis and appendages as when fully developed
(fig. 2). The latter, however, being as organs mere lateral expan-
sions of the concentric layers into which the plant embryo, like the
animal, is differentiated, and so neither stages of evolution nor
capable of separate existence, are not entitled to individual rank.
The embryo, the bud, shoot or uniaxial plant, all thus belong to
the second order of individuality, like the hydroid they resemble.
Like the lower coelenterates, too, aggregates of such axes are
formed by branching out from their low degree of integration. Such
colonies can hardly be termed individuals of the third, much less
of higher, order, at least without somewhat abandoning that unity
of treatment of plants and animals without which philosophical
biology disappears. Individuality of the second order is most
fully reached by the flower the most highly differentiated and
integrated form of axes and appendages.
Such a simple inflorescence as a raceme
or umbel approximates to unity of the
third order, to which a composite
flower-head must be admitted to have
attained while a compound inflorescence
is on the way to a yet higher stage.
If, as seems probable, a nomenclature
be indispensable for clear expression, it
may be simply arranged in conformity
with this view. Starting from the unit
(After Sacl ^ tne ^ rs ?- orc 'er, the plastid or monad,
E-mKr, ^f and terming any undifferentiated ag-
FIG 2. Embryo of d( ? ^ e have a monad . deme
Dicotyledon, showing inci- f nt f grat ; ng into a secondary unit or
pient axis and appendages, d | K ^ dyad-demes,
. '
as also the three concentric .
embryonic layers.
a fHad ^ form tiad . demes>
and these when differentiated becoming
tetrads, the botryllus-colony with which the evolution of compound
individuality terminates being a tetrad-deme. The separate living
form, whether monad, dyad, triad, or tetrad, requires also some dis-
tinguishing name, for which persona will probably ultimately be
found most appropriate, since such usage is most in harmony with
its inevitable physiological and psychological connotations, while the
genealogical individual of Gallesio and Huxley, common also to all
the categories, may be designated with Haeckel the ovum-product or
ovum-cycle, the complete series of forms needed to represent the
species being the species-cycle (though this coincides with the former
save in cases .where the sexes are separate, or polymorphism occurs).
For such a peculiar case as Diplozoon paradoxum, where two separate
forms of the same species coalesce, and still more for such hetero-
geneous individuality as that of a lichen, where a composite unit
arises from the union of two altogether distinct forms fungus and
alga yet additional categories and terms are required.
Promorphology. Just as the physiologist constantly seeks to
interpret the phenomena of function in terms of mechanical, physical,
and chemical laws, so the morphologist is tempted to inquire whether
organic as well as mineral forms are not alike reducible to simple
mathematical law. And just as the crystallographer constructs an
ideally perfect mathematical form from an imperfect or fragmentary
crystal, so the morphologist has frequently attempted to reduce
the complex-curved surfaces of organic beings to definite mathe-
matical expression. Canon Moseley (Phil. Trans., 1838) succeeded
in showing, by a combination of measurement and mathematical
analysis, that the curved surface of any turbinated or discoid
shell might be considered as generated by the revolution, about the
axis of the shell, of a curve, which continually varied its dimensions
according to the law of the logarithmic spiral. For Goodsir this
logarithmic spiral, now carved on his tomb, seemed a fundamental
expression of organic curvature and the dawn of a new epoch in
natural science that of the mathematical investigation of organic
form and his cwn elaborate measurements of the body, its organs,
and even its component cells seemed to yield, now the triangle,
and again the tetrahedron, as the fundamental form. But such
supposed results, savouring more of the Naturphilosophie than of
sober mathematics, could only serve to discourage further inquiry
and interest in that direction. Thus we find that even the best
treatises on botany and zoology abandon the subject, satisfied with
merely contrasting the simple geometrical ground-forms of crystals
with the highly curved and hopelessly complicated lines and surfaces
of the organism.
But there are other considerations which lead up to a mathematical
conception of organic form, those namely of symmetry and regularity.
These, however, are usually but little developed, botanists since
Schleiden contenting themselves with throwing organisms into
three groups first, absolute or regular; second, regular and radiate;
third, symmetrical bilaterally or zygomorphic the last being
capable of division into two halves only in a single plane, the second
in two or more planes, the first in none at all. H. C. C. Burmeister,
and more fully H. G. Bronn, introduced the fundamental improve-
ment of defining the mathematical forms they sought not by the
surfaces but by axes and their poles; and Haeckel has developed
the subject with an elaborateness of detail and nomenclature which
seems unfortunately to have impeded its study and acceptance,
but of which the main results may, with slight variations chiefly due
to Tager (Lehrb. d. Zool. i. 283), be briefly outlined.
A. ANAXONIA : Forms destitute of axes, and consequently
wholly irregular in form, e.g. Amoebae and many sponges.
B. AXONIA : Forms with definite axes.
I. HOMAXONIA, all axes equal.
(a) Spheres, where an indefinite number of equal axes can
be drawn through the middle point, e.g. Sphaerozoum.
(b) Polyhedra, with a definite number of like axes.
Of these a considerable number occur in nature, for example,
many radiolarians (fig. 3), pollen-grains,
&c., and they are again classifiable by
the number and regularity of their faces.
II. PROTAXONIA, where all the parts
are arranged round a main axis, and of
these we distinguish
1. Monaxonia, with not more than
one definite axis. Here are distinguished
(a) those with similar poles, spheroid
(Coccodiscus) and cylinder (Pyrosoma)
and (6) those with dissimilar poles,
cone (Conulina).
2. Stauraxonia, where, besides the
main axes, a definite number of secondary
FIG. 3. Radiolarian
UMUU n4VbO| '1 UV.lllllL.1. IlUlllUV^i W* B9WWUVMU7 f ,-, 7 T \
axes are placed at right angles, and the (Ethmospkaera)
stereometric cround-form becomes a "regular endospha
where
stereometric
an
stereometric grouncf-form ~ becomes a irregular enaospnaeric
pyramid. Here, again, may be dis- polyhedron with equi-
tinguished (a) those with poles similar, angular faces. Type
Stauraxonia hpmopola, where the stereo- of Homaxoma.
metric form is the double pyramid (fig. 4), and (b) those with
poles dissimilar, Stauraxonia heteropola,
form is the single pyramid, and where we
distinguish a basal, usually oral, pole
from an apical, aboral or anal pole.
The bases of these may be either regular
or irregular polygons, and thus a new
classification into Homostaura and
Heterostaura naturally arises.
The simpler group, the Homostaura,
may have either an even or an odd
number of sides, and thus among the
Homostaura we have even-sided and
odd-sided, single and double pyramids.
In those Homostaura with an even
number of sides, such as medusae, the
radial and inter-radial axes have similar
poles; but in the series with an odd
number of sides, like most echinoderms,
each of the transverse axes is half radial
and half semi-radial (fig. 5). Of the
group of regular double pyramids the
twelve-sided pollen-grain of Passiflora
(fig. 4) may be taken as an example, FIG. 4. Pollen of Pas-
having the ground-form of the hexagonal sion Flower, as example of
system, the hexagonal dodecahedron. Stauraxonia homopola.
Of the equal even-sided single pyramids Ground-form a regular
(Heteropola homostaura), Alcyonium, double pyramid of six
Ceryonia, Aurelia may be taken as sides,
examples of the eight-sided, six-sided,
and four-sided, pyramids while those with an odd number of sides
may be illustrated by Ophiura or Primula with five sides, and the
flower of lily or rush with three sides.
In the highest and most complicated group, the Heterostaura,
868
the basal polygon is no longer regular but amphithect . . .
= double-edged). Such a polygon has an even number of sides,
and can be divided into symmetrical halves by each of two
planes intersecting at right angles in the middle point, and
thus dividing the whole figure into four congruent polygons.
The longer of these axes may be termed
lateral, the shorter the equatorial or dorso-
ventral; and these two axes, along with
the main axes, always define the three
dimensions of space. Ctenophores (fig. 6)
furnish examples of eight-sided amphi-
thect pyramids, some Madrepore Corals
of six-sided, Crucifers, some Medusae,
and Cestodes of four-sided amphithect
pyramids.
In these forms the poles of the dorso-
ventral and lateral axes are similar, and,
FIG. 5. Starfish an as . h preceding Monaxonia and
example cl Heteropola Stauraxoni he can s tre of the body is
homostaura. Ground- defined b a ,; and th are thersfore
form a regular single termed Centr axoma, while the Pro-
pyramid of five sides. nia whjch afe defined by thdr
central point are called Centrostigma. There are, however, other
forms, and these the most complicated, in which the poles of at
MORPHOLOGY
FIG. 6. Ctenophore (Eucharis). FIG. 7. Spatangus. Ground
Ground-form an eight-sided form a five-sided half amphi-
double amphithect pyramid. thect pyramid,
least the dorse-ventral axis are unlike, and in which the body is
thus defined not with reference to a line but to a median plane,
and these have accordingly received the name of Centropipeda.
Their ground-form is a polygon with an even number of sides,
which can only be divided into two symmetrical halves by the
one median plane. It can be obtained by halving an amphithect
pyramid of double the number of sides, and is consequently termed
a half amphithect pyramid (fig. 7). The whole amphithect pyramid
may be most conveniently obtained by the reduplication of the
ground-form as if in a mirror. Of half amphithect pyramids there
are again two forms, termed by Haeckel Amphipleura and Zygo-
pleura, the former including the " bilaterally symmetrical " or
irregularly radiate forms of previous authors, such as Spatangus
Viola, Orchis, while the Zygopleura include forms bilaterally
symmetrical in the strictest sense, in which not more than two
radial planes, and these at right angles to each other, are present.
The sterometric ground-form is a half rhombic pyramid. Haeckel
again divides these, according to the number of antimeres, into
Telrapleura and Dipleura.
Promorphology has thus shown that the reigning dogma of the
fundamental difference of organic and mineral forms is false, and
that a crystallography of organic forms is possible the form of
the cell or the cell-aggregate differing from the crystal merely by
its more or less viscous state of aggregation, its inherited peculi-
arities, and its greater adaptability to the environment. The
classification into bilateral and radiate forms which usually does
duty for more precise promorphological conceptions must be aban-
doned as hopelessly confusing essentially different forms, or at
least must be rigidly restricted the term radial to regular and
double pyramids, the term bilateral to the Centropipeda if not
indeed to dipleural forms. Similarly the topographical and relative
terms, anterior and posterior, upper and under, horizontal and
vertical, must be superseded by the terms above applied to the axes
and their poles, oral and aboral, dorsal and ventral, right and left.
Nature of Morphological Changes. The main forms of organic
structure being analysed and classified and their stage of individu-
ality being ascertained, the question next arises, by what morpho-
logical changes have they arisen, and into what categories can these
modes of differentiation be grouped? They at first sight seem
innumerable, yet in reality are few. Goethe somewhat vaguely
generalized them for the flower as ascending and descending meta-
morphosis, expansion and contraction of organs, &c. ; but the first
attempt at careful enumeration seems to be that of Auguste de
St Hilaire, who recognized defects of development, adherences,
excesses of production or " dedoublements," metamorphosis and
displacement of organs. Subsequent authors have variously treated
the subject; thus Asa Gray enumerates as modifications of the
flower coalescence, adnation, irregularity, abortion, non-alter-
nation or anteposition, multiplication, enation, unusual develop-
ment of the axis, and other morphological modifications connected
with fertilization. These are obviously too numerous, as may
be best shown by a single comparison with the view of an animal
morphologist. Thus Huxley, in discussing the arrangement of the
Vertebrata, recognizes only three processes of modification, not only
in the ancestral evolution of the Equidae, but in the individual
development of animals generally; these are " (i) excess of develop-
ment of some parts in relation to others, (2) partial or complete
suppression of certain parts, (3) coalescence of parts originally
distinct." The particular form of excess of development which
results in the repetition of parts, and the morphological changes
due to partial or complete fusion of such repeated parts receive
special treatment in the article METAMERISM.
Nature of Morphological Correspondence Categories of Homology.
To indicate all the steps by which the idea of morphological re-
semblance has been distinguished from that of physiological would
be to examine the whole history of morphology; it must suffice to
discuss the terminology of the subject which has, as ever, served
not only as an index but as an engine of progress. For these cwo
distinct forms of resemblance the terms homology and analogy
gradually became specialized, and were finally established and
clearly defined by Owen in 1843 " the former as the same organ
in different animals under every variety of form and function
(e.g. fore-limbs of Draco volans and wings of Bird) ; the second as
a part or organ in one animal which has the same function as another
part or organ in a different animal (e.g. parachute of Draco and
wings of Bird)." He further distinguishes three kinds of homology:
(1) special, being " that above defined, namely, the correspondence
of a part or organ determined by its relative position and con-
nexions with a part or organ in a different animal, the determina-
tion of which homology indicates that such animals are constituted
on a common type," e.g. basilar process of human occipital with
basi-occipital of fish ; (2) general, that " higher relation in which a
part or series of parts stands to the fundamental or general type,
involving a knowledge of the type on which the group in question
is constituted," e.g. the same human bone and centrum of the last
cranial vertebra; (3) serial homology, " representative or repetitive
relation in the segments of the same skeleton " (demonstrated
when general and special homologies have been determined) ; thus
usually the basi-occipital and basi-sphenoid are " homotypes."
These terms were henceforth accepted by naturalists; but the
criterion of analogy and homology became for L. Agassiz and
other embryologists developmental as well as comparative, refer-
ence to the ideal archetype becoming less and less frequent.
Passing over the discussions of L. Agassiz and Bronn, of which
the latter is criticized and partly incorporated by Haeckel, we
find the last-named (i) placing serial under general homology;
(2) erecting categories of homology partially corresponding to
those of individuality (a) homptypy (of antimeres), hence dis-
tinct from that of Owen, (b) nomodynamy (of metameres), (c)
homonomy (of parts arranged on transverse axes) ; (3) denning
special homology in terms of identity of embryonic origin.
In 1870 this latter point was more fully insisted upon by Ray
Lankester, who, decomposing it into two others, proposed to
supersede the term homology by homogeny, being the corre-
spondence of common descent, and homoplasy, denoting any
superinduced correspondence of position and structure in parts
embryonically distinct. Thus, the fore-limb of a mammal is
homogenous^ with that of a bird, but the right and left ventricles of
the heart in both are only homoplastic, these having arisen inde-
pendently since the divergence of both groups from a uni-ventricu-
tate ancestor in relation to similarity of physiological needs. St G.
Mivart next proposed to retain homology as a generic term, with
homogeny and homoplasy as two species under it, and carried the
analysis into jjreat detail, distinguishing at first twenty-five, but
later fifteen, kinds of correspondence: (i) parts similar in function
only, e.g. legs of lizard and lobster; (2) parts similar both in
function and relative position, wings of bat and bird; (3) parts of
common descent, fore-limb of horse and rhinoceros; (4) parts of
similar embryonic origin, whatever be their racial genetic relations,
e.g. occipitals of panther and perch; (5) parts of dissimilar
embryonic origin, whatever be their racial genetic relations, e.g.
legs of Diptera; (6, 7, 8, o, 10) laterally, vertically, serially, antero-
posteriorly and radially homologous parts; (n) subordinate serial
homologues, e.g. joints of antenna; (12 and 13) secondary and terti-
ary subordinate serial homologues; (14 and 15) special and general
homologies (in Owen's sense). In his Kalkschwamme Haeckel
proposed to term homophyly the truly phylogenetic homology in
opposition to homomorphy, to which genealogic basis is wanting;
and finally Von Jhering has published a repetition of Lankester's
view.
In this discussion, as in that of individuality, it is evident that
we are dealing with numerous logical cross-divisions_ largely corre-
sponding, no doubt, to the complex web of inter-relations presented
by nature, yet remaining in need of disentanglement. Though we
must set aside analogies of functional activity, the resemblances
in external shape or geometric ground-form which correspond to
these, e.g. Hydrozoa and Bryozoa, Fishes and Cetaceans, mimetic
MORPHY MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR
organisms, are nevertheless, as our historic survey showed, the first
which attract attention; and these homoplastic or homomorphic
forms, as Haeckel has shown, come as fairly within the province
of the promorphplogist as do isomorphic crystals within that of
his an-organological colleague the crystallographer. Here, too,
would be considered " radial," " vertical," " lateral " homology,
homotypy of antimeres," and all questions of symmetry, for which
Haeckel's nomenclature of homaxonial, homopolic, &c., is distinctly
preferable. Entering the field of tectology or morphology in the
ordinary sense, we may next consider whether two organisms com-
pared are of the same category of individuality are homocategoric ;
and under this serial homology, for instance, would come as a
minor division, the correspondence between the units or parts of
units of a linear dyad-deme or triad. From a third point of view,
that of the embryologist, we trace the development of each multi-
cellular organism (i) from the embryonic layers and systems into
which the secondary unit (gastrula or plant embryo) differentiates,
(2) from a unit-deme or unit of the inferior order or orders of
individuality. The parts and units thus recognized by ontogenetic
research, respectively or successively homodermic, homosystemic
and homodemic, may then conveniently be termed (indifferently
save for considerations of priority) either " specially homologous,
" homogenous," " homophylic," or " homogenetic," in the language
of phylogenetic theory. These three great classes of morphological
correspondence promorphological, tectological and embryological
may or may not coincide. But the completest homology, in
which all forms of resemblance unite and from which they differen-
tiate, is that expressed in the cell theory, or rather in that ovum
theory which underlies it, and which Agassiz therefore not unjustly
regarded as " the greatest discovery in the natural sciences of modern
times."
Orientation and Subdivisions of Morphology. The position of
morphology in the classification of the sciences and the proper mode
of subdividing it cannot be discussed within these limits, although
the latter is especially the subject of much disagreement. The
position above assumed, that of including under morphology the
whole statical aspects of the organic world, is that of Haeckel,
Spencer, Huxley and most recent animal morphologists ; botanists
frequently, however, still use the term under its earlier and more
limited significance (see PLANTS: Morphology).
(P.GE.;P.C.M.)
MORPHY, PAUL CHARLES (1837-1884), American chess
player, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the 22nd of June
1837, the son of Alonzo Morphy (1798-1856) and his wife, whose
maiden name was Le Carpentier. The father, the son of a well-
to-do Spanish immigrant, was a prominent jurist and legislator
and, like his brother Ernest, passionately fond of chess. Learn-
ing the moves from his father at the age of ten, Paul gave evidence
of such extraordinary precocity that in less than two years he
was able to defeat all the amateurs of his native city. While
still at school he competed successfully with such strong players
as Eugene Rousseau and the Hungarian master J. Lowenthal.
He attended the Jesuit college of St Joseph at Spring Hill,
Alabama, and applied himself to the study of the law, being
admitted to the bar of Louisiana in 1858. During the autumn
of 1857 he took part in the first American chess congress at New
York, winning the first prize from sixteen competitors, including
the well-known L. Paulsen. Morphy went to Europe in the
spring of 1858 and entered upon a series of triumphs, both in
regular matches and in blindfold play, that proved him to be
one of the best players of the time. The winter of 1858-1859
was passed in Paris, where he was destined to gain his greatest
triumphs, practically winning the championship of the world by
beating Adolf Anderssen, champion of Germany, by a score
of 7-2, with two games drawn. Another feat was his simul-
taneous blindfold match against eight strong French players,
six of whom he defeated. At this time he was in his twenty-
second year. Returning to the United States in 1859, he in-
tended to establish himself in the practice of the law at New
Orleans, but the outbreak of the Civil War frustrated these
plans. His devotion to chess had already begun to affect his
health. He spent the year 1863 in Paris, returning to New
Orleans in 1864, but his health was now permanently impaired.
He became insane, and at last he died in New Orleans in 1884.
See Exploits and Triumphs of Paul Morphy, by F. M. Edge (New
York, 1859); Morphy' s Games, edited by J. Lowenthal (New York,
1860) ; Paul Morphy, by Max Lange (Leipzig, 1881).
MORRILL, JUSTIN SMITH (1810-1898), American political
leader and financier, was born at Strafford, Vermont, on the i4th
of April 1810. He was a clerk in a store at Strafford in 1825-
869
1828, and at Portland, Maine, in 1828-1831, and was a merchant
and then a farmer in his native town in 1831-1855. He was
elected to the national house of representatives as an anti-
slavery Whig in 1854, soon afterwards joining the new Republican
party, and served in the house from 1855 until 1867. From 1867
until his death in Washington on the 28th of December 1898 he
represented Vermont in the Senate. In the house he was
continuously a member of the ways and means committee (of
which he was chairman in 1865-1867), and in the Senate of the
finance committee (of which he was chairman in 1877-1879,
1881-1893 and 1893-1898). Soon after entering Congress he
became the acknowledged leader of the protectionists, and at
the request of John Sherman, then chairman of the ways and
means committee, he prepared a new tariff bill, which was
introduced in the house in March 1860. To this relatively
conservative bill, which substituted in many instances ad
valorem for specific duties, and was intended by its author to
be a revenue as well as a protective measure, were added many
amendments which made the bill more strongly protectionist,
and in some cases were vigorously opposed by Merrill. The bill
was finally passed by the Senate on the 2oth of February 1861,
and was signed by President Buchanan on the and of March
following. Morrill is probably best known as the author of the
Land Grant Act of 1862, which led to the development .of the
highly important system of state educational institutions, aided
by the Federal government. On the i4th of December 1857,
Morrill introduced in the house a bill " donating public lands to
the several states and Territories which may provide colleges for
the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts." This bill
passed both houses, but was vetoed in February 1859 by President
Buchanan on the ground that it would cause friction between
the states, that it would be uneconomical, that it might encourage
fraudulent speculation, that it would injure existing institutions,
and that it was unconstitutional. A similar bill was introduced
by Morrill on the i6th of. December 1861, and five months after-
wards was presented to the Senate by Benjamin Wade of Ohio.
The measure had a negative report from committee in the house,
and was strongly opposed in the Senate; but it passed both
branches, and on the 2nd of July 1862 was signed by President
Lincoln. This measure provided for the foundation and main-
tenance of colleges " where the leading object shall be, without
excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including
military tactics [which had not been included in the original bill],
to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture
and the mechanic arts. . . in order to promote the liberal and
practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits
and professions in life." In 1890 Morrill introduced in the
Senate the so-called " Second Morrill Act," under which $25,000
is given annually by the Federal government to each of the
" land-grant " colleges.
MORRIS [MORRISON], CLARA (1840- ), American actress,
was born in Toronto, Ontario, and at the age of seventeen joined
a stock company in Cleveland, Ohio. Her first New York
appearance (1870) was under Augustin Daly in an adaptation
of Wilkie Collins's Man and Wife; and she won considerable
success as Cora in L' Article 47, Camille, Miss Multon and similar
emotional parts. In 1874 she married Frederick C. Harriott,
and soon afterwards began to write novels and to contribute to
magazines. She published her Life on the Stage in 1901, and
Life of a Star in 1906.
MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (1752-1816), American statesman,
was born in the old Morrisania manor house, in what is now the
city of New York, on the 3ist of January 1752. He graduated
at King's College (now Columbia University) in 1768, studied
law, and was admitted to the bar in 1771. New York, then in
the midst of the political disturbances which preceded the out-
break of the War of American Independence, offered a good
opportunity for a public career, and Morris had the aristocratic
connexions which tradition required. 1 An extreme aristocrat
1 His great grandfather, RICHARD MORRIS, having fought in Crom-
well's armies, emigrated to America on the restoration of Charles II.,
and founded the manor of Morrisania, in what was then New Nether-
land. His grandfather, LEWIS MORRIS (1671-1746), inherited this
870
MORRIS, J. MORRIS, SIR LEWIS
in his political views, he distrusted the democratic tendencies
of the Whigs, but a firm belief in the justice of the American
cause led him to join their ranks. His half-brother, Staats Long
Morris (1728-1800), was a Tory, fought in the British army, and
became a major-General. Gouverneur served in the New York
Provincial Congress in 1776-1777, was perhaps the leading advo-
cate in that body of a declaration of independence, and after
the Congress had become (July 1776) the " Convention of the
Representatives of the state of New York," he served on the
committee of that body which prepared the first draft of the state
constitution. He served in the Continental Congress in 1777-
1779, and was enthusiastic in his support of Washington. In
1778 he was selected chairman of the committee to treat with
Lord North's conciliation commissioners, and as such presented
the famous report, adopted by a unanimous vote of Congress,
which declared that the recognition of independence must pre-
cede any negotiations for peace. He settled in Philadelphia as a
lawyer, and in February 1780 he published in Philadelphia a
series of essays on finance, in which he criticized the issue of
legal-tenders, denounced laws passed for the benefit of the
debtor class, and urged the people to tax themselves for the
common good. From 1781 to 1785 he was assistant to Robert
Morris (q.v.), superintendent of finance. In 1782 he prepared an
elaborate report on the coinage, suggesting the use of the decimal
system and of the terms dollar and cent. With some modifications
introduced by Jefferson, notably the adoption of a higher unit
of value (the dollar instead of one-tenth of a cent), this plan
constitutes the basis of the present American system. Morris
was one of Pennsylvania's representatives in the constitutional
convention of 1787, and took an active part in the debates. His
influence was weakened, however, by his cynicism and by his
ultra-aristocratic views. He favoured a strong executive
holding during good behaviour, an aristocratic senate appointed
by the president for life, and the restriction of the suffrage to free-
holders. The struggle which the frontier settlers of Pennsyl-
vania had made in the state legislature to secure unlimited
issues of paper money and the enactment of laws favourable to
the debtor class prejudiced him against the West, and he tried
to introduce into the constitution a clause guaranteeing forever
the political supremacy of the states east of the Alleghanies.
He was instrumental in securing the executive veto and in defeat-
ing the proposal that the legislature should elect the president.
He also gave able support to the nationalistic and anti-slavery
factions in the convention. He was the member of the committee
of revision selected to draft the constitution in its final form, and
that document is a monument to the vigour and simplicity of his
literary style. In 1787 he bought Morrisania from Staats Long
Morris, and returned to New York to live.
He went to France in February 1789 on private business, and
remained abroad for nine years, passing most of the time in
Paris, London, and the German capitals. In 1792 he acted as
financial agent in a daring attempt to secure the escape of the
king and queen from Paris. He was appointed United States
minister to France in 1792, and was the only representative of a
foreign country who remained at his post throughout the Reign
of Terror; but his ill-concealed attitude of hostility to the Revolu-
manor and also a large estate from his uncle in Monmouth county,
East Jersey. He was an influential advocate of the surrender of the
proprietary government of the Jerseys to the Crown (1702), became
a member of the New Jersey Council in 1703, was suspended by
Governor Cornbury in 1704, was elected a member of the Assembly
in 1707 and led that body in opposition to Cornbury, was reappointed
to the Council under Governor Lovelace in 1708, was again suspended
in 1709 by Lieut.-Governor Ingoldsby, was made President of the
Council in 1 710 under Governor Hunter, and in 1711, during Hunter's
administration (1710-1719), of which he was a staunch supporter, was
made a justice of the supreme court of New Jersey. He was chief
justice of New York from about 1720 until 1733, was sent to England
by the popular party late in 1734 to present their grievances to the
king, and was governor of New Jersey from 1738 until his death on
the 2ist of May 1746. Gouverneur Morris's father, LEWIS MORRIS
(16981762), closed a long public career as judge of the vice-admiralty
court of New York; his mother was descended from a French
Protestant refugee, who had come to America to escape the persecu-
tion of Louis XIV.
tion gave offence, and in return for the recall of Genet, at the
request of the United States, the French government, in 1794,
asked for the recall of Morris. Business and pleasure, however,
still detained him in Europe for four years longer. He returned
to New York in 1798, resumed the practice of his profession,
re-entered politics, and sat in the United States Senate as a Feder-
alist from 1800 101803. AsearlyasiSoi Morris became interested
in projects for improving the communication between the Hudson
river and Lake Erie, and from 1810 to 1816 he was chairman of
the board of canal commissioners, which after exploring the
country prepared plans for the Erie Canal. He was bitterly
opposed to the war of 1812, and openly advocated the formation
of a northern confederacy to escape the rule of the " Virginia
dynasty." He died at Morrisania on the 6th of November
1816.
His half-brother, LEWIS MORRIS (1726-1798), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was educated at Yale, served in the
Continental Congress f rom 1 7 7 5 until early in 1 7 7 7 , and went on a
mission to the western frontier in 1775 to win over the Indians
from the British to the American side. He joined the army as
brigadier-general of militia in June 1778, and served in the New
York Senate in 1777-1781 and 1784-1790.
See The Diary and Letters of Gouverneur Morris (2 yols., New York,
1 888), edited by Anne Gary Morris; Jared Sparks, Life of Gouverneur
Morris (3 vols., Boston, 1832), the first volume being a biography
and the second and third containing Morris's miscellaneous writings
and addresses ; and Theodore Roosevelt, Gouverneur Morris (Boston,
1888), in the " American Statesmen " series.
MORRIS, JOHN (1810-1886), English geologist and palaeon-
tologist, was born at Homerton, London, on the igth of February
1810. He was brought up to the business of a pharmaceutical
chemist. Early in life he published observations on the Tertiary
and Post-Tertiary deposits in the Thames valley, and on fossil
plants and various invertebrata, in the Magazine of Natural
History, the Annals oj Nat. Hist, and other journals. In 1845 he
issued his Catalogue oj British Fossils (2nd ed., 1854), a work of
essential service to geology. He was also author (with John
Lycett) of A Monograph of the Mollusca from the Great Oolite
(Palaeontographical Soc., 1850-1853). In 1855 he became pro-
fessor of Geology in University College, London, a post which he
held until 1877. In 1868-1870 and 1877-1878 he was president of
the Geologists' Association. He was awarded the Lyell medal by
the Geological Society in 1876, and was made Hon. M.A. of
Cambridge in 1878 in acknowledgment of his services as deputy
Woodwardian professor during the final illness of Sedgwick. He
died in London on the 7th of January 1886.
MORRIS, SIR LEWIS (1833-1907), British poet, eldest son of
Lewis Edward William Morris and Sophia, daughter of John
Hughes of Carmarthen, was born at Penbryn in 1833. His great
grandfather, Lewis Morris (1700-1765), had been a well-known
Welsh poet and antiquary. He was educated at Sherborne
School and Jesus College, Oxford, where he took first classes in
classics (1853 and 1855). He won the chancellor's prize for an
English essay in 1858, was called to the bar in 1861, and elected
hon. fellow of his old college in 1877. He practised for twenty
years as a conveyancing counsel, retiring from active legal work
in 1 88 1. He was energetic on behalf of educational movements
in Wales, and contested Welsh constituencies in the Liberal
interest, but without success. He was knighted in 1896, and
became also a Jubilee-medallist and Knight of the Redeemer
of Greece. Comparatively late in life Sir Lewis Morris made his
appearance as a writer of verse with three series of miscellaneous
poems, called Songs oj Two Worlds, published respectively in
1872, 1874 and 1875. These little volumes proved him to have
a refined taste and a gentle metrical fluidity, which soon won for
his work considerable popularity. In 1876 and 1877 he made a
more important venture with The Epic oj Hades, an attempt to
re-tell the stories of Hellenic mythology with a certain modern
and allegorical setting. This work, though it is somewhat
strained in sentiment and is not free from artistic infelicities,
contains his best verse and has passages of undeniable force and
effect. His later work follows too closely upon the influence of
Tennyson, from which he is never altogether free; but his earnest
MORRIS, R. MORRIS, W.
871
didacticism, genial optimism and evident sincerity have given
his work a thoroughly wholesome moral influence. Among his
other books were Owen (1880), Songs Unsung (1883), Gycia
(1886), A Vision of Saints (1890), Idylls and Lyrics (1896) and The
New Rambler (1906). He died at Carmarthen on the i3th of
November 1907.
MORRIS, RICHARD (1833-1894), English philologist, was
born in London on the 8th of September 1833. In 1871 he was
ordained in the Church of England, and from 1875-1888 was head
master of the Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, near London.
His first published work was The Etymology of Local Names
(1857). Between 1862 and 1880 he prepared twelve volumes for
the Early English Text Society, edited Chaucer (1866) and
Spenser (1869) from the original manuscripts, and published
Specimens of Early English (1867). His educational works,
Historical Outlines of English Accidence (1872), Elementary
Lessons in Historical English Grammar (1874) and English
Grammar (1874), had a large sale and exercised a real influence.
The rest of his life he devoted to the study of Pali, on which he
became a recognized authority. He died at Harold Wood,
Essex, on the i2th of May 1894.
MORRIS, ROBERT (1734-185)6), American financier, a signer
of the Declaration of Independence, was born in Liverpool,
England, on the 3 ist of January 1 734. He emigrated to America
in 1747, entered a mercantile house, and in 1754 became a
member of a prosperous firm, which was known successively as
Willing, Morris & Co., Willing, Morris & Inglis and Willing,
Morris & Swanwick. In the conflict with the mother country
Morris took the side of the colonists, but associated himself
with the conservative group of Pennsylvania Whigs who followed
the lead of John Dickinson and James Wilson, rather than
with the more radical faction represented by Thomas Paine.
He was vice-president of the Pennsylvania Committee of
Safety (1775-1776), and a member of the Continental Congress
(1775-1778). At first he disapproved of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, but he joined the other members in signing it on the 2nd
of August. He retired from Congress in 1778, and was at once
sent to the legislature, serving in 1778-1779 and in 1780-1781.
His greatest public service was the financing of the War of
Independence. As chairman or member of various committees
he practically controlled the financial operations of Congress
from 1776 to 1778, and when the board system was superseded
in 1781 by single-headed executive departments he was chosen
superintendent of finance. With the able co-operation of his
assistant, Gouverneur Morris who was in no way related to
him he filled this position with great efficiency during the
trying years from 1781 to 1784. For the same period he was
also agent of marine, and hence head of the navy department.
Through requisitions on the states and loans from the French,
and in large measure through money advanced out of his own
pocket or borrowed on his private credit, he furnished the means
to transfer Washington's army from Dobbs Ferry to Yorktown
(1781). In 1781 he established in Philadelphia the Bank of
North America, chartered first by Congress and later by Pennsyl-
vania, the oldest financial institution in the United States, and
the first which had even partially a national character. A
confusion of public and private accounts, due primarily to the
fact that his own credit was superior to that of the United States,
gave rise to charges of dishonesty, of which he was acquitted
by a vote of Congress. He was a member of the Federal Con-
vention of 1787, but took little part in its deliberations beyond
making the speech which placed Washington in nomination for
the presidency of the body. On the formation of the new gov-
ernment he was offered, but declined, the secretaryship of the
treasury, and urged Hamilton's appointment in his stead. As
United States senator, 1780-1795, he supported the Federalist
policies and gave Hamilton considerable assistance in carrying
out his financial plans, taking part, according to tradition, in
arranging a bargain by which certain Virginia representatives
were induced to vote for the funding of the state debts in return
for the location of the Federal capital on the Potomac. After
the war he gradually disposed of his mercantile and banking
interests and engaged extensively in western land speculation.
At one time or another he owned wholly or in major part nearly
the entire western half of New York state, two million acres
in Georgia and about one million each in Pennsylvania,
Virginia and South Carolina. The slow development of this
property, the failure of a London bank in which he had funds
invested, the erection of a palatial residence in Philadelphia,
and the dishonesty of one of his partners, finally drove him into
bankruptcy, and he was confined in a debtors' prison for more
than three years (1798-1801). He died in Philadelphia on the
7th of May 1806.
The best biography is E. P. Oberholtzer's Robert Morris, Patriot
and Financier (New York, 1903), based upon the Robert Morris
papers in the Library of Congress; see also W. G. Sumner's The
Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution (New York.
1891).
MORRIS, WILLIAM (1834-1896), English poet and artist,
third child and eldest son of William Morris and Emma Shelton,
was born at Elm House, Walthamstow, on the 24th of March
1834. His grandfather was a respected tradesman in Worcester,
and his father, who was born in that town in 1797, came up to
London in 1820, and entered the office of a firm of discount
brokers, in which he afterwards assumed a partnership. As a
child the poet was delicate but studious. He learnt to read very
early, and by the time he was four years old was familiar with
most of the Waverley novels. When he was six the family
moved to Woodford Hall, where new opportunities for an out-of-
door life brought the boy health and vigour. H rode about
Epping Forest, sometimes in a toy suit of armour, became a
close observer of animal nature, and was able to recognize any
bird upon the wing. At the same time he continued to read
whatever came in his way, and was particularly attracted by the
stories in the Arabian Nights and by the designs in Gerard's
Herbal. He studied with his sisters' governess until he was
nine, when he was sent to a school at Walthamstow. In his
thirteenth year his father died, leaving the family well-to-do;
the home at Woodford was broken up, as being unnecessarily
large; and in 1848 William Morris went to Marlborough, where
his father had bought him a nomination. Morris was at the
school three years, but got very little good from it beyond a
taste for architecture, fostered by the school library, and an
attraction towards the Anglo-Catholic movement. He made
but slow progress in school work, and at Christmas 1851 was
removed and sent to a private tutor for a year. In June 1852
he matriculated at Exeter College, Oxford, but, as the college
was full, he did not go into residence till January 1853. He
at once made friends, who stood him in good stead all his life,
foremost among whom were Edward Burne- Jones, who was a
freshman of his year, and a little Birmingham group at Pembroke.
They were known among themselves as the " Brotherhood "; they
read together theology, ecclesiastical history, medieval poetry,
and, among moderns, Tennyson and Ruskin. They studied art,
and fostered the study in the long vacations by tours among the
English churches and the Continental cathedrals. Moreover,
Morris began at this time to write poetry, and many of his first
pieces, afterwards destroyed, were held by sound judges to be
equal to anything he ever did. Both Morris and Burne- Jones
had come to Oxford with the intention of taking holy orders,
but as they felt their way they both came to the conclusion that
there was more to be done in the direction of social reform than
of ecclesiastical work, and that their energies would be best
employed outside the priesthood. So Morris decided to become
an architect, and for the better propagation of the views of the
new brotherhood a magazine was at the same time projected,
which was to make a speciality of social articles, besides poems
and short stories.
At the beginning of 1856 the two schemes came to a head
together. Morris, having passed his finals in the preceding
term, was entered as a pupil at the office of George Edmund
Street, the well-known architect; and on New Year's Day the
first number of The Oxford and Cambridge Magazine appeared.
The expenses of this very interesting venture were borne entirely
872
MORRIS, W.
by Morris, but after the issue of No. i he resigned the formal
editorship to his friend Fulford. Many distinguished com-
positions appeared in its pages, but it gradually languished, and
was given up after a year's experiment. The chief immediate
result was the friendship between Morris and Dante Gabriel
Rossetti (q.v.), which sprang up from a successful attempt to
secure Rossetti as a contributor. In the summer of 1856 Street
removed to London, and Morris accompanied him, working very
hard both in and out of office hours at architecture and painting.
But Rossetti persuaded him that he was better suited for a
painter, and after a while he devoted himself exclusively to that
branch of art. It was in the summer that the two friends visited
Oxford, and finding the new Union debating-hall in course of
construction, offered to paint the bays. Seven artists volun-
teered help, and the work was hastily begun. Morris worked
with feverish energy, and on finishing the portion assigned to
him proceeded to decorate the roof. The work was done too
soon and too fast, the colours began to fade at once, and are now
barely decipherable; but the broken designs, so long as any
vestige remains, will always be interesting as a relic of an im-
portant aesthetic movement and as the first attempt on Morris's
part towards decorative art (see ROSSETTI). Early in 1858
Morris published Tlte Defence of Guenevere, which was almost
unnoticed by contemporary criticism, but is now recognized as
one of the pearls of Victorian poetry.
On 26th April 1859 Morris married Jane Burden, a beautiful
Oxford girl, who had sat to him as a model, and settled tem-
porarily at 41 Great Ormond Street, London. Meanwhile he set
about building for himself at Upton a house which was to be the
embodiment of all his principles of decorative art. Furniture,
decorations, household utensils and every article of daily use
were specially designed, and in the summer of 1860 the house
was ready for occupation. The furnishing of it had suggested a
fresh activity; Morris now determined to embark upon decora-
tion as a career. A small company was formed, consisting of
D. G. Rossetti, Philip Webb, Burne-Jones, Madox Brown,
Faulkner and Marshall, and in January 1862 started business
under the title of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., with offices
at 8 Red Lion Square. The prospectus set forth that the firm
would undertake church decoration, carving, stained glass,
metal-work, paper-hangings, chintzes and carpets. The business,
after inevitable vicissitudes, flourished, but the " house beauti-
ful " at Upton proved to be unhealthily situated. Serious
illness obliged the family to remove to town, and in November
1865 they resettled at 26 Queen Square, Bloomsbury. Morris
was now unceasingly busy, but he found time also for literature.
In June 1867 he published The Life and Death of Jason, which
was at once successful; and in April 1868 the first two parts of
The Earthly Paradise. The rest of this wonderful storehouse
of poetic romance appeared in two volumes in 1869 and 1870.
In the following year he was again looking for a country house,
and lighted upon Kelmscott manor house, in the Upper Thames
valley, which he took at first in joint-tenancy with Rossetti
and used principally as a holiday home. In 1872 appeared Love
is Enough, structurally the most elaborate of his poems for its
combination of the epic and dramatic spirits; and in the autumn
he began to translate the shorter Icelandic sagas, to which his
enthusiasm had been directed by two inspiring journeys to Ice-
land. Business worries, however, interrupted him; it was found
necessary to reconstruct the company owing to its having grown
out of proportion with the existing division of profit and labour.
Long negotiations ensued, and in March 1875 the old firm was
dissolved. Morris now became sole manager and proprietor,
although the other members of the old firm continued, in
varying degrees, to give him the advantage of their assistance
and advice.
Meanwhile the epic mood had possessed Morris very strongly,
and, in addition to his work upon the sagas, he had actually
finished and (in 1875) published a verse translation of the Aeneid,
which is interesting rather for its individuality than for any
fidelity to the spirit of the original. In the following year
appeared Sigurd the Volsung, a version full of heroic vigour,
movement and vitality, but somewhat too lengthy and inco-
herent in design to preserve the epic interest intact to the British
taste. This splendid burst of poetic activity, however, had
raised him to a place among the first poets of his time; and in
1877 an attempt was made to induce him to accept the professor-
ship of poetry at Oxford. But he felt himself lacking in the
academic spirit, and wisely declined. At this time a fresh outlet
for his energy was furnished by his foundation in 1877 of the
Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, which sprang
into being as a practical protest against a scheme for restoring
and reviving Tewkesbury Abbey. He began, too, to take an
active interest in politics over the Eastern Question, but his
enthusiasm was at the moment a flash in the pan. Finding that
events were going against his judgment, Morris, as was so often
the case with him, shrugged his shoulders and broke free from
the movement.
Still, although he found it hard to sit close to a definite party,
Morris continued to be spasmodically interested in political
movements. During the next few years, indeed, the interest
gained ground with him steadily. He became treasurer of the
National Liberal League in 1879, but after the Irish coercive
measures of 1881 he finally abandoned the Liberal party, and
drifted further and further into Socialism. For ten or twelve
years this movement had been gaining ground in England, and
the Social Democratic Federation was formed in 1881. In
January 1883, within a week of his election to an honorary
fellowship at Exeter, Morris was enrolled among its members.
Thenceforward for two years his advocacy of the cause of Social-
ism absorbed not only his spare time, but the thought and energy
of all his working hours. For it he even neglected literature and
art. In March 1883 he gave an address at Manchester on " Art,
Wealth and Riches "; in May he was elected upon the executive
of the federation. In September he wrote the first of his Chants
for Socialists. About the same time he shocked the authorities
by pleading in University Hall for the wholesale support of
Socialism among the undergraduates at Oxford. Nevertheless,
the federation began to weaken. At the franchise meeting in
Hyde Park in 1884 it was unable to get a hearing. Morris,
however, had not yet lost heart. Internal dissensions in 1884 led
to the foundation of the Socialist League, and in February 1885
a new organ, Commonweal, began to print Morris's splendid
rallying-songs. Still, differences of opinion and degree prevented
concerted action; and when, after the Trafalgar Square riots in
February 1886, Morris remonstrated with the anarchic section
he was denounced by the advanced party and ever afterwards
was regarded with suspicion. In 1889 he was deposed from the
management of Commonweal, and gradually lost all confidence in
the movement as an active force.
Long before that time, however, Morris had returned to the
paramount interests of his life to art and literature. When his
business was enlarged in 1881 by the establishment of a tapestry
industry at Merton, in Surrey, Morris found yet another means
for expressing the medievalism that inspired all his work, whether
on paper or at the loom. In 1887 he published his translation
of the Odyssey, which had many of the- qualities and defects of
his Aeneid, and is much more interesting as an experiment than
valuable as a " Homeric echo." In the Commonweal appeared
News from Nowhere, published in book form in 1891, describing
an England in which the principles of communism have been
realized. He then added another to his many activities; he
assumed a direct interest in typography. In the early seventies
he had devoted much attention to the arts of illumination
and calligraphy. He himself wrote several manuscripts, with
illuminations of his own devising. From this to attempts to
beautify the art of modern printing was but a short step. The
House of the Wolfings, printed in 1889 at the Chiswick Press,
was the first essay in this direction; and in the same year, in
The Roots of the Mountains, he carried his theory a step further.
Some fifteen months later he added a private printing-press to
his multifarious occupations, and started upon the first volume
issued from the Kelmscott Press, his own Glittering Plain. For
the last few years of his life this new interest remained the
MORRIS MORRISON, R.
873
absorbing one. A series of exquisite books, which gain in value
every year, witnesses to the thorough and whole-hearted fashion
in which he invariably threw himself into the exigencies of his
life-work.
The last years of his life were peacefully occupied. He was
sounded as to whether he would accept the laureateship upon
the death of Tennyson, but declined, feeling that his tastes and
his record were too remote from the requirements of a court
appointment. His last piece of work, the crowning glory of his
printing-press, was the Kelmscott Chaucer, which had taken
nearly two years to print, and fully five to plan and mature. It
was finished in June 1 896, and before it was in his hands he already
knew that his working day was over. His vigour had been
slowly declining for some time, and he sank gradually during the
autumn, dying on the 3rd of October 1896. He was buried in
Kelmscott churchyard, followed to the grave by the workmen
whom he had inspired, the members of the league which he had
supported, the students of the art gild he had founded, and the
villagers who had learnt to love him.
Essentially the child of the Gothic revival, he had put an
ineffaceable stamp on Victorian ornament and design, his place
being that of a follower of Ruskin and Pugin, but with a greater
practical influence than either. In house decoration of all kinds
furniture, wall-papers and hangings (which he preferred to
paper), carpet-weaving, and the painting of glass and tiles,
needlework, tapestry he formed a school which was dominated
by his protest against commercialism and his assertion of the
necessity for natural decoration and pure colour, produced by
hand work and inspired by a passion for beauty irrespective of
cheapness or quickness of manufacture (see ARTS AND CRAFTS).
The truest criticism of William Morris is that attributed to his
friend, the poet Swinburne, who said that he was always more
truly inspired by literature than by life. His Socialism, though
it made a brave show at times, was at heart a passionate enthu-
siasm for an inaccessible artistic ideal. Morris, indeed, was not
primarily interested in men at all, but in objects. His poetry
deals, it is true, with the human passions, but the emotion is
always seen as in a picture; he is more concerned with the atti-
tude of the group than with the realization of a character. He had
very little adaptability in dealing with his fellows; the crowd,
as a crowd, fired his enthusiasm, but he was unable to cope with
the individuals that composed it. Many of his colleagues bear
witness to his generosity and magnanimity, but as a general
principle he certainly lacked the wider humanity. This is the
one failing of his art; it is also the shortcoming of his poetry.
Granted this, there is left an immense amount that will always
command admiration. The spirit of beauty breathes in every
line; a sense of music and of colour is everywhere abundant; the
reader moves, as it were, under a canopy of apple-blossom, over
a flower-starred turf, to the faint harmony of virginals. Nor
does the poet lack power and vigour when an adventurous story
is to be told. The clash of arms breaks upon his pagan paradise
with no uncertain sound; he is swift in narrative, breathless in
escapade. And over all hangs the faint atmosphere of medieval-
ism, of an England of green gardens and grey towers, of a London
" small and white and clean," of chivalry and adventure in every
brake. The critic has also to remember the historical value of
Morris's literary influence, following upon the prim domesticities
of early Victorian verse, and breaking in upon Tennyson's least
happy phase of natural homeliness.
See the Life and Letters, in 2 vols. (Longmans), by J. W. Mackail.
An article on " William Morris and his Decorative Art," by Lewis F.
Day, appeared in the Contemporary Review for June 1903. (A. WA.)
MORRIS, a city and the county-seat of Grundy county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the north bank of the Illinois river, about
62 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 4273; (1910) 4363- Morris
is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by
the Illinois & Michigan canal. Electric power is derived from
the Illinois river at Marseilles, 111. (pop. in 1910, 3291), about
15 m. west. Morris (named in honour of Isaac P. Morris, a
commissioner of the Illinois & Michigan canal) was settled in
1834, and was chartered as a city in 1857.
MORRIS-DANCE, or MORRICE-DANCE (Span. Morisco,
Moorish), an old English dance, which is said by various
authorities to have been introduced by John of Gaunt from Sp'ain
or borrowed from the French or Flemings. That it was a develop-
ment of the morisco-dance or Spanish fandango is not invali-
dated by the fact that the morisco was for one person only, for,
although latterly the morris-dance was represented by various
characters, uniformity in this respect was not always observed.
There are few references to it earlier than the reign of Henry VII.,
but it would appear that in the reign of Henry VIII. it was
an almost essential part of the principal village festivities. In
earlier times it was usually danced by five men and a boy dressed
in a girl's habit, who was called Maid Marian. There were also
two musicians; and, at least sometimes, one of the dancers,
more gaily and richly dressed than the others, acted as " foreman
of the morris." The garments of the dancers were ornamented
with bells tuned to different notes so as to sound in harmony.
Robin Hood, Friar Tuck and Little John were characters ex-
traneous to the original dance, and were introduced when it came
to be associated with the May-games. At Betley, in Stafford-
shire, there is a painted window, of the time of Henry VIII. or
earlier, portraying the morris the characters including Maid
Marian, Friar Tuck, the hobby-horse, the piper, the labourer,
the fool and five other persons apparently representing various
ranks or callings. The hobby-horse, which, latterly at least, was
one of the principal characters of the dance, consisted of a wooden
figure attached to the person of the actor, who was covered with
trappings reaching to the ground, so as to conceal his feet. The
morris-dance was abolished along with the May-games and
other festivities by the Puritans, and, although revived at the
Restoration, the pageant gradually degenerated in character and
declined in importance. Maid Marian latterly was personated by
a clown, who was called Malkin or Marykin. The interest of the
subject has revived in recent years in connexion with the new
movements associated with folk-music generally.
See The Morris Book, by Cecil J. Sharp and H. C. Macllwaine.
Among older authorities see Douce, " Dissertations on the Ancient
Morris Dance," in his Illustrations of Shakespeare (1839); Strutt,
Sports and Pastimes of the People of England; Brand, Popular
Antiquities (1849).
MORRISON, ARTHUR (1863- ), English novelist, was
born in Kent on the ist of November 1863. He was for a short
time a clerk in the civil service, and in 1890 took to journalism.
He had already published scattered tales and sketches of low life
in London when W. E. Henley, with whom he was connected as a
contributor to the National Observer, suggested their publication
in volume form. Tales of Mean Streets (1894) immediately
attracted attention, and this was followed by A Child of the Jago
(1896) , the scene of which is laid between High Street, Shoreditch,
and Bethnal Green Road. Cunning Murrett (1900), The Hole
in the Wall (1902), and the detective stories, Martin Hewitt,
Investigator (1894), which had sequels in 1894 and 1896, and
The Green Eye of Gorma, are among his other works.
MORRISON, RICHARD JAMES (1795-1874), English as^
loger, commonly known by his pseudonym " Zadkiel," was born
on the 1 5th of June 1795. He served in the Royal Navy, but
resigned with the rank of lieutenant in 1829. He then devoted
himself to the study of astrology, and in 1831 issued The
Herald of Astrology, subsequently known as Zadkiel' s Almanac.
In this annual pamphlet Morrison, over ths signature " Zadkiel
Tao-Sze," published predictions of the chief events of the coming
year. In 1863 Morrison brought a libel action against Admiral
Sir Edward Belcher, who had accused him of obtaining money
by charlatanism in the form of crystal-gazing. He was awarded
twenty shillings damages, but was deprived of his costs. Morrison
died on the 5th of April 1874.
MORRISON, ROBERT (1782-1834), the first Protestant
missionary to China, was born of Scottish parents at Buller's
Green, near Morpeth, on the 5th of January 1782. After re-
ceiving an elementary education in Newcastle, he was appren-
ticed to a lastmaker, but his spare hours were given to theology,
and in 1803 he was received into the Independent Academy at
MORRISTOWN MORSHANSK
Hoxton. In the following year he offered his services to the
London Missionary Society, and after he had attended David
Bogue's college at Gosport and studied Chinese under a native
teacher, he was appointed to Canton in 1807. After a year
of much hardship he became translator to the East India
Company's factory there in 1809, and worked at a Chinese Gram-
mar and a translation of the New Testament, both published
in 1814. In 1817 he published A View of China for Philological
Purposes, and his translation of the Old Testament (in which
William Milne collaborated) was completed in the following year.
His next enterprise was the establishment (1820) of an Anglo-
Chinese college at Malacca for " the reciprocal cultivation of
Chinese and European literature." Here too were trained native
Chinese evangelists who could proceed to the mainland and carry
on Christian work with comparative immunity. In 1821 Morri-
sons's Chinese Dictionary, in six 4to volumes, a monumental
work, was published by the East India Company, at a cost of
12,000. Leaving China at the close of 1823, Morrison spent
two years in England, where he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society. Returning to China in 1826, he set himself to
promote education and to prepare a Chinese commentary on
the Bible and other Christian literature. He died at Canton on
the ist of August 1834. Morrison was admirably fitted for the
pioneering work accomplished by his grammar and dictionary;
and his establishment of a dispensary, manned by a native
who had learned the main principles of European treatment,
marks him out as the forerunner of modern medical missions.
His Memoirs, compiled by his widow, were published in 1839. See
also R. Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society, vol. ii.
ch. xix.; C. S. Home, The Story of the L. M. S. ch. v.; Townsend,
Robert Morrison (1888).
MORRISTOWN, a town and the county-seat of Morris county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Whippany river, 31 m. (by rail) W.
of New York City. Pop. (1890) 8156; (1900) 11,267; (1910
census) 12,507. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western, the New Jersey & Pennsylvania and the Morristown
& Erie railways. Morristown is situated on a table-land sur-
rounded by picturesque hills. It is primarily a residential suburb
of New York, and has many handsome residences and a number
of large estates. Near its centre is a public park, in which is a
soldiers' monument (59 ft. in height). At Morris Plains, about
4 m. to the north, is a state hospital for the insane (1876).
Morristown, officially named in 1740 in honour of Lewis
Morris (1671-1746), then governor of New Jersey, and grand-
father of Gouverneur Morris, was settled about 1710, under
the name of West Hanover, by Puritans, who were attracted
here by the presence of iron ore. From January to May
1777, and again from December 1779 to June 1780, Morris-
town was occupied by the American army under Washington.
Behind the court-house is the site of Fort Nonsense, built at
Washington's orders, largely to keep his soldiers employed. In
December I77o-January 1780 General Benedict Arnold was
tried before a court martial presided over by General Robert Howe
(1732-1785) in the Dickerson tavern here, still standing. In
Morristown, at the old Speedwell ironworks (almost completely
destroyed by fire in 1909), was made a part of the machinery of
the " Savannah," the first steamboat that crossed the Atlantic,
and here Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred Vail completed the
invention of the electric telegraph. Morristown was incorporated
as a town in 1865.
See A. M. Sherman, Historic Morristown, New Jersey; The Story
of its First Century (Morristown, 1905) and Julia K. Colics, Authors
and Writers Associated with Morristown (Morristown, 1893).
MORSE, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE (1791-1872), American
artist and inventor, was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts,
on the 27th of April 1791, son of Jedidiah Morse (1761-1826),
Congregational minister there and a writer on geography, and
a grandson of Samuel Finley, president of the college of New
Jersey. At the age of fourteen he entered Yale College, where
he graduated in 1810 and where under the instruction of Jeremiah
Day and Benjamin Silliman he received the first impulse towards
electrical studies. In 1811 Morse, whose tastes during his early
years led him more strongly towards art than towards science,
became the pupil of Washington Allston, and accompanied his
master to England, where he remained four years. His success
at this period as a painter was considerable. In 1825 he was
one of the founders of the National Academy of Design, and
was its first president, from 1826 until 1845. The year 1827
marks the revival of Morse's interest in electricity. It was at that
time that he learned from J. F. Dana of Columbia College the
elementary facts of electromagnetism. As yet, however, he was
devoted to his art, and in 1829 he again went to Europe to study
the old masters.
The year of his return, 1832, may be said to close the period of
his artistic and to open that of his scientific life. On board the
packet-ship " Sully," while discussing one day with his fellow-
passengers the properties of the electromagnet, he was led to
remark: " If the presence of electricity can be made visible in any
part of the circuit, I see no reason why intelligence may not be
transmitted by electricity." In a few days he had completed
rough drafts of the necessary apparatus, which he displayed to
his fellow-passengers. 1 During the twelve years that followed
Morse was engaged in a painful struggle to perfect his invention
and secure for it a proper presentation to the public. In poverty
he pursued his new enterprise, making his own models, moulds
and castings, denying himself the common necessaries of life.
It was not until 1836 that he completed any apparatus that would
work, and finally, on the 2nd of September 1837, the instrument
was exhibited to a few friends in the building of the university
of the City of New York, where a circuit of 1 700 ft. of copper wire
had been set up, with such satisfactory results as to awaken the
practical interest of the Messrs Vail, iron and brass workers in
New Jersey, who thenceforth became associated with Morse in
his undertaking. Morse's petition for a patent was soon followed
by a petition to Congress for an appropriation to defray the ex-
pense of subjecting the telegraph to actual experiment over a
length sufficient to establish its feasibility and demonstrate its
value. The committee on commerce, to whom the petition was
referred, reported favourably. Congress, however, adjourned
without making the appropriation, and meanwhile Morse sailed
for Europe to take out patents there. The trip was not a success.
In England his application was refused, and, while he obtained a
patent in France, it was subsequently appropriated by the French
government without compensation to himself. His negotiations
also with Russia proved futile, and after a year's absence he
ret urned to New York. In 1 843 Congress passed the long-delayed
appropriation, steps were at once taken to construct a telegraph
from Baltimore to Washington, and on the 24th of May 1844
it was used for the first time. In 1847 Morse was compelled to
defend his invention in the courts, and successfully vindicated
his claim to be called the original inventor of the electromagnetic
recording telegraph. In 1858 the representatives of Austria,
Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Piedmont, Russia, the
Holy See, Sweden, Tuscany and Turkey appropriated the sum
of 400,000 francs in recognition of the use of his instruments
in those countries. He died on the 2nd of April 1872, at
New York, where his statue in bronze now stands in the
Central Park. (See TELEGRAPH.) He introduced into America
Daguerre's process of photography, patented a marble-cutting
machine in 1823, and in 1842 made experiments with telegraphy
by a submarine cable.
See S. Irenaeus Prime, Life of S. F. B. Morse (New York, 1875).
MORSE, the ornamented brooch by which a cope is fastened.
The usual form is a large circular clasp made of gold or silver
and studded with jewels. A i4-century " morse " ornamented
with translucent enamel is in the British Museum. The word
comes through the O. Fr. mors, from the Lat. morsus, the catch
of a buckle, from mordere, to bite.
MORSHANSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov,
50 m. N. of the city of Tambov, on the Tsna river. Pop. (1900),
2 S;9. I 3- The village of Morsha was founded in the middle of
1 Five years later the captain of the ship identified under oath
Morse's completed instrument with that which Morse had explained
on board the '' Sully " in 1832,
MORTAGNE MORTAR
875
the i7th century, and received municipal institutions in 1779;
but within a very few years it became a wealthy town, owing to
its situation in a very fertile district. Since it was brought
into railway communication with Ryazhsk (81 m.. west on the
railway between Moscow and Ryazan) it has become the chief
centre for the trade in wheat raised in the governments of
Tambov, Penza, Saratov and in the eastern districts of the
government of Ryazan. There are also extensive dealings in
flour, hemp-seed, tallow and potash.
MORTAGNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Orne, 24 m. E.N.E. of Alencon
by rail. Pop. (1906), 3383. A vaulted entrance (isth century),
relic of an old stronghold, and the church of Notre-Dame (i5th
and i6th centuries) with a fine northern portal are of interest.
The town is the seat of a sub-prefecture and of a tribunal of first
instance, and is a celebrated market for horses of the Perche
breed. Mortagne, once capital of the Perche, dates from the
loth century.
MORTAIN, a small town in the department of La Manche,
France, the chief town of an arrondissement and seat of a
sub-prefect. It is beautifully situated on a rocky hill rising
above the gorge of the Cance, a tributary of the Selune. The
parish church of St Evroult is a magnificent example of the
transitional style of the early i3th century, with a massive tower
of the I4th and a Norman doorway dating from the original
collegiate church (1058). Close to the town is the Abbaye-
Blanche, founded as a Benedictine convent in 1105 and soon
afterwards affiliated to Citeaux. The church is a perfect example
of a Cistercian monastic church of the late izth century, and por-
tions of the lath-century cloisters also survive. The population
is between 2000 and 3000.
Mortain was, in the middle ages, the head of an important
comtf, reserved for the reigning house of Normandy. In or
about 1049 Duke William took it from his cousin William,
" the warling," and bestowed it on his half-brother, Robert,
thenceforth known as " count of Mortain," whose vast posses-
sions in England after the Conquest (1066) gave name to " the
small fees of Mortain," which owed less (knight) service than
others. Robert was succeeded as count by his son William,
who rebelled against Henry I., was captured at the battle of
Tinchebrai (1106) and forfeited his possessions. Some years
later, Henry bestowed the comt& on his nephew Stephen, who
became king in 1135. On Stephen's death (1154) his surviving
son William became count of Mortain, but when he died
childless in 1159 the comte was resumed by Henry II. On the
accession of Richard I. (1889) he granted it to his brother
John, who was thenceforth known as count of Mortain till
he ascended the throne (1199). With his loss of Normandy the
comti was lost, but after the recapture of the province by the
House of Lancaster, Edmund Beaufort, a grandson of John of
Gaunt, was created count of Mortain and so styled till 1441,
when he was made earl of Dorset.
As the counts are often described as " earls " of Mortain
(or even of " Moreton ") the title is sometimes mistaken for an
English one. It has also, through erroneous spelling, been some-
times wrongly derived from Mcrtagne-en-Perche. (J. H. R.)
MORTAR, the name (i) of a vessel in which any material may
be crushed or pounded, and (2) given to various compositions
used in building and consisting of lime and cement with sand or
other fine aggregate, well mixed by manual labour or machinery
with a proper quantity of clean water (see below, and also
BRICKWORK). The Latin name both for such a vessel and for
the material as mixed 1 in it, is mortarium. The earlier English
form morter, from Fr. morlier, has been in modern English more
closely adapted to the spelling of the Latin original. As applied
to a vessel, the name is chiefly used for one employed in the
preparation of drugs, which are pounded or triturated in the
" mortar " by means of a pestle (Lat. pistillum; pinsere, to
pound). The name has also been given, from a resemblance in
shape to the vessel, to a short thick piece of ordnance, resting
on a " bed " formerly used for high-angle fire. The barrel was
always very short, normally even shorter than it was wide, and
sometimes even resembled a bowl in shape. The place of the
mortar in artillery is now taken by the howitzer. In modern
times the name " mortar " is occasionally used for a particularly
short howitzer. (See ORDNANCE.)
Building Mortar. The sand forming the aggregate is placed on the
mixing platform and formed into a ring within which lime in the
required proportion is placed; it is then gently but thoroughly
sprinkled with clean water through the rose of a watering-can or
hose-pipe. The lime is covered with the sand and left undisturbed
for a day or two to slake, and the whole mass is then turned over and
well mixed with the larry. The mortar is often used immediately
the materials are thoroughly incorporated, but it should rather be
kept covered over with sacks until well tempered. For large works
a mortar mill working by hand, steam, or other power effects a
considerable economy. Stone chippings, clean, hard, broken bricks
or furnace clinkers may take the place of sand when the mill is
employed, as the action of grinding reduces any large pieces to small
sandlike particles.
The remarks above apply to ordinary lime mortar. Mortar of
hydraulic lime, cement mortar, or mortar gauged with cement, must
be mixed up in quantities sufficient only for immediate use. Any
material not used at the time, or at least the same day, will be wasted;
cement cannot be reworked after it has begun to set as its setting
properties are destroyed.
Slaking is a most important part in the process of making mortar.
There are three methods of slaking lump lime the first by immersion,
the second by sprinkling with water, and the third by
exposing the lime to the atmosphere and leaving it to Slaking.
absorb moisture. Different qualities of lime require varying amounts
of water, but the average quantity is about a gallon and a half to
every bushel of lime. It should be all added at one time and the
mass then left to slake undisturbed. Hot limes are often used for
mortar. These are unsuitable for plastering unless slaked for a long
period. It will at once be seen that when mortars composed of these
limes are used immediately after mixing, slaking must continue for a
long time, drying up the moisture necessary for setting, and causing
the mortar to crumble to dust in the joints of the brickwork. This
fact gives us the reason for the old Roman enactment which set forth
that lime should be slaked for three years before using. In the south
of Europe it is the custom to slake lime the season before it is used.
The practical application of mortar to building work, and the
methods of pointing the joints of brickwork and stonework, are
described ana fully illustrated in the article on BRICKWORK.
The results of many careful tests and experiments serve to show
that the hardening of mortar is due to several causes acting collec-
tively. With ordinary lime mortars the chief causes of // an f en / n _
hardening are the absorption of carbonic acid from the air turf
and the combination of part of the water with the lime,
which unites with some of the silica of which the sand is composed and
forms silicate of lime. The initial setting is due to the evaporation of
the excess of water and to the production of minute crystals of hydrate
of lime which slowly absorbs carbonic acid gas from the air. With
mortar of rich lime an outer crust is thus formed on the exposed
parts which prevents ready access of air to the interior and retards
setting. In illustration of this peculiar property of lime to remain
soft, some remarkable cases may be mentioned. One of the bastions
erected by Vauban in 1666 was removed by General Treissart, in
1822, a hundred and fifty six years after erection. The lime in the
interior of the masonry, where it was inaccessible to the action of the
atmosphere, was found to be quite soft. Dr John of Berlin mentions
that in removing a pillar 9 ft. in diameter in the church of St Peter,
Berlin, eighty years after erection, the mortar in the interior was found
to be quite soft. Sir C. W. Pasley, in removing the old wharf wall at
Chatham dockyard in 1834, found that the work executed in lime
mortar was easily removable, the mortar being in a state of pulp.
The brickwork, built with Roman cement, it was found necessary to
blast.
The Romans were convinced that it was owing to prolonged and
thorough slaking that their works in plaster became so hard and were
not defaced by cracks. L. B. Albert! mentions in his writings that
he once discovered in an old trough some lime which had been left
there five hundred years and that it was quite soft and fit for use.
The setting and hardening of hydraulic limes and cements are due
mainly to crystallization brought about by the action of water on the
silicate of lime, and not by mere absorption of carbonic acid gas from
the atmosphere. As a consequence we find that this variety of
limes and cements has the valuable property of setting hard while
immersed in water and in many cases growing increasingly hard with
the lapse of time.
Opinions differ very widely on the question of the suitability for
building purposes of limes or cements which contain an appreciable
proportion of magnesia, many experts holding the view .. . ,
that the expansion which often occurs in floors and other * e "
works of concrete from one to four years after laying may
be justly attributed to the presence of this substance. For mortars,
however, it may be assumed that the presence of magnesia is not
detrimental to the value of the matrix, but on the contrary may be a
source of strength, for experiments show that it reduces the energy of
876
MORTAR
resist the dissolving action of sea-
magnesia is present, and it is pretty well established by experience
that cements derived from argillo-magnesian limestones furnish a
durable cement for construction in the sea.
The old mortar of the Romans, which proves its great property of
endurance by many of their works still remaining, was in all proba-
bility composed of lime mixed with pozzolana or " trass." These
materials are similar in character and are obtained from extinct
volcanoes in the case of the Romans from the Italian volcanoes,
but also from extinct volcanoes in the valleys of the Rhine and in
Holland. Good as these mortars undoubtedly were, it may be safely
asserted that no cement or mortar has been discovered to excel in
strength, or in durability in all climates, the Portland cement of the
present day. The best varieties of this material are made in England,
the country of its origin, much of the continental and American
product being deficient in the qualities which combine to make a
good cement. (For the properties of Portland cement and the
method of its manufacture see CEMENT.)
The comparative strengths under tensile stress of grey-lime mortar,
Portland-cement mortar, and Portland-cement mortar with the
addition of lime, are given in the following table, which is the result
of a series of tests by G. R. Redgrave.
Proportions by Measure.
Breaking Weight
per sq. in. in Ib.
Sand.
Cement.
Lime.
Water.
2
6
10
6
10
i
i
i
i
i
0-50
0-83
1-33
1-25
2-OO
1-50
2-50
36-89 (average of three tests)
103-79
50-16
73-47
42-34
It is a good plan, where the question of cost precludes the use of
mortar made entirely of cement, to add to lime mortar mixed in the
usual proportions a small quantity of Portland cement. This is
termed " gauged " lime mortar. By this addition the strength is
greatly increased and the extra cost is but slight.
The following table shows the force required to tear apart common
stock bricks bedded in mortar, mixed in proportions
Adhesion common iy use d, an( J l e f t t o get and harden for four
of Mortar. weeks _
Adhesive Strengths of Lime and Cement Mortars.
White chalk, lime and sand .
Barrow lias do.
Do. do.
Portland cement ....
Do. ....
Proportions.
to 3
to 3
to 4
to 4
to 6
4! ft. per sq. in.
?i :: ::
& :: ::
These results show clearly that the adhesive strength of mortar
varies according to the proportion of sand used, the power of resist-
ance of the mortar to the force brought to bear upon it decreasing as
the proportion of sand is increased.
The primary cause of the premature decay which sometimes takes
place in mortars and like material is due to the presence of mud and
decayed vegetable and animal matter in the sand, or possibly in the
lime or cement itself. It is therefore of great importance
to use a perfectly clean sand for the aggregate, and to
Mortar. select a lime or cement of good quality for the matrix,
care being taken that no foreign matters detrimental to the mortar be
introduced during the processes of preparation.
The effect of salt in mortars as a preventive of the destructive
effects of frost has not as yet been thoroughly determined, and the
few experiments that have been carried out show varying
results. In some German experiments, cubes of stone
were joined together with cement mixed with water of
different characters, ranging from pure rain-water to
water containing from 2 to 8% of salt. Before the
cement was set the blocks were exposed in air at a temperature
varying from 20 F. to freezing-point, after which they were kept
for seven days in a warm room. The samples were then examined
with these results: The cement mixed with pure water was quite
crumbled, having lost all its tenacity. The cement made with
water containing 2 % of salt was in rather better condition,
while that containing 8% of salt had not suffered from its ex-
posure to frost. The use of salt causes much efflorescence on the
face of the work, and should therefore not be used where this would
be undesirable. Nor should salt be employed for work that is to be
subsequently painted. The mortar for the brick facing of the Forth
Bridge below water was composed of one part of Portland cement
and one part of sa-nd mixed with salt water in a mill. Briquettes
made from this compound withstood a tensile stress of an average
of 365 ft per square inch when a week old, and of 510 ft at five
Effects ot
Salt and
Frost on
Mortar.
weeks after mixing. Salt has no effect upon the strength of a
mortar, although it retards the setting process somewhat.
Cement mixed with a percentage of sugar (usually 2 % and under)
has been used with varying success. In India sugar is a frequent
ingredient in mortar, probably because it has the effect
of preventing too rapid setting ; it also retards the drying Sw '"
of the material. The sugar must be dissolved in the water Mortar.
used for gauging, as_the results obtained when the sugar is mixed
with the other ingredients in a dry state are not good. The addition
of sugar to water enables it to take up about fourteen times more lime
than pure water. It is supposed by many writers who have studied
the methods of the ancients that old Roman mortars contained strong
ale, wort or other saccharine matter, and it is probable that the use
of sugar with lime passed from India to Egypt and Rome. The fol-
lowing is an extract from the Roorkee Treatise on Engineering, a work
of reference published in India: " It is common in this country
to mix a small quantity of the coarsest sugar, ' goor ' or ' jaghery,'
as it is termed, with the water used for mixing up mortar. Experi-
ments were made with bricks joined together by mortar consisting
of one part of common shell lime to one and a half parts of sand, one
pound of ' jaghery ' being mixed with each gallon of water. The
bricks were left for thirteen hours and after that time the average
breaking weight of the joints in twenty trials was 6$ ft per square
inch. In twenty-one specimens joined with the same mortar
without the ' jaghery ' the breaking weight was 4^ ft per square
inch."
Of the saccharine matters used in mortar feacle seems to give the
best results, rough cane sugar being next in effectiveness ; beetroot
sugar is not a good material to use.
The by-laws made by the London County Council in 1891 under
sec. 16 of the Metropolis Management and Buildings Act Amend-
ment Act 1878 require that " the mortar to be used in B , gws
the construction of walls must be composed of freshly " ,. f .
burned lime and clean, sharp sand or grit without earthy a *... '
matter, in the proportions of one of lime to three of sand ,
or grit." The cement to be used must be Portland
cement or other cement of equal quality to be approved by the
district surveyor, mixed with clean, sharp sand or grit in proportions
of one of cement to four of sand or grit. Burnt ballast or broken
brick may be substituted for sand or grit, provided such material
be properly mixed with lime in a mortar mill.
The varieties of lime and cement chiefly used for mortar in the
British Isles are set forth below :
Pure or fat limes should not be used for mortar. Grey stone lime,
feebly hydraulic, makes a good mortar, but should not be employed
for work below ground or in other damp situations. It ii me , .,
is obtained chiefly at Dorking, Hailing, Lewes and Cemeats tor
Merstham. It is used in the proportion of one part to ju ortar
two or three parts of sand. An analysis of the lime
from Castle Bytham gives the following composition :
Silica .... 14-00
Iron oxide and alumina
Lime
Magnesia
Carbon dioxide
Water and loss
4-25
77-00
1-25
0-90
2-60
IOO-OO
Blue lias lime is eminently hydraulic and should be used in good class
work. Its use is a necessity for foundations and work in damp
situations where Portland cement is not employed. It is used in the
proportions of one part to one or two parts of sand. The best-
known varieties are obtained from Watchet in Somersetshire,
Barrow-on-Soar in Leicestershire, Rugby in Warwickshire, and Lyme
Regis in Dorsetshire. A typical lias lime shows on analysis the
following composition :
Silica . . . 17-53
Iron oxide
Alumina
Lime
Magnesia
Sulphuric anhydride
Water and carbon dioxide .
Insoluble matter and loss .
2-87
6-83
65-84
i-oo
1-36
3-85
Q-72
IOO-OO
Portland cement is the best matrix known, since it is the most
powerful and the most durable. It is used for mortar wherever
great strength, hard-wearing properties, and resistance to damp are
required. It should weigh H2_ ID per striked bushel and be ground
fine enough to pass through a sieve having 2500 meshes to the square
inch and leave not more than 10% residue. Test briquettes after
setting under water for seven days should stand a tensile strain of
350 ft on a square inch. It is used in the proportions of one part of
cement to from one to five parts of sand.
Portland cement of a similar character to the English cement,
but somewhat less powerful, is largely made in America. The
principal seat of manufacture is Coplay, Pa., where the first
MORTARA, E. MORTGAGE
877
American Portland cement was manufactured in 1874 by Mr. David
O. Saylor.
The chief works of reference on this subject are G. R. Burnell,
Limes, Cements, Mortars; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction;
F. W. Taylor and S. E. Thompson, A Treatise on Concrete, Plain and
Reinforced. (J. BT.)
MORTARA, EDGAR, an Italian Jew, of a Bologna family,
whose abduction in early childhood (1858) by the Inquisition
occupied for several years the attention of European diplomacy.
Edgar Mortara, when between five and six years of age, fell ill.
His nurse, a Catholic, arranged with her priest for his baptism
in that faith, unknown to his parents, on the 24th of June 1858.
She had acted in the same way with his elder brother, who had
been ill a year or two previously, but on his recovery the boy
continued to be educated as a Jew. This time she determined
to make sure of her convert. Everything was concerted in
advance with the ecclesiastical authorities, and immediately
after the baptism both child and nurse disappeared. The
story became public property, and protest was aroused in
nearly every European country. The English and French
governments made representations to the Vatican, but Pius IX.,
through the medium of the Civilta Callolica, maintained that
the question at issue was a spiritual one, outside his temporal
jurisdiction. He accordingly declined to take any action,
meanwhile indicating the direction of his sympathies by making
Mortara his ward. In 1861 the Mortara family induced the
Italian government to demand the prosecution of the nurse.
The Vatican replied that she had entered a nunnery, and sub-
sequently, on the threat of intervention by Prussia, induced
the Mortara family to withdraw their plaint. After the capture
of Rome by the Italian troops in 1870 Edgar Mortara had the
opportunity of reverting to Judaism, but he refused to do so,
and not long afterwards became an Augustinian.
MORTARA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Pa via, 354 ft. above sea-level, a railway junction situated
between the Ticino and the Po, 32 m. by rail S.W. of Milan.
Pop. (1901), 7298 (town); 8697 (commune). Lines run to Milan,
Pavia, Alessandria, Casale Monferrato and Vercefli. The church
of San Lorenzo is in the Gothic style of the i4th century with
a brick facade. Outside the town is the Lombard Romanesque
church of S. Albino. Mortara has iron-works and manufactures
of hats and cheese. Here the Austrians defeated the Piedmontese
in 1849.
MORTGAGE (an old French legal word, meaning " dead
pledge," translated in medieval Latin mortuum vadium), 1 the
securing " money or money's worth " by making it a charge
upon property, real or personal, so that if the debt be not paid
by a time agreed upon by the parties, the creditor may foreclose
or sell the property and pay himself out of the proceeds. In
English law this is done by an actual or executory conveyance
of the property to the creditor, subject only to its being defeated
if the debt should be paid at the time fixed an arrangement
to which the law has attached peculiar incidents designed to
carry out its real object.
The history of mortgage transactions in Roman law shows
three well-marked stages. In the beginning the estate was
conveyed absolutely to the creditor, who made a covenant
(Jiducia) to reconvey it when the debt should be paid. All the
interest, however, in the meantime passed from the debtor to
the creditor, and should the latter refuse to reconvey there was
no remedy to the original owner except a personal action. In
the second stage (that of pignus) the property did not pass
to the creditor; he merely received possession of the thing pledged,
together with certain rights of sale, &c., in the event of payment
not being made at the time appointed. Lastly, without parting
with the possession even of the pledge the debtor could create
a lien or charge (hypotheca) over it in favour of the creditor, who
1 Coke on Littleton gives the following explanation of the meaning:
" It secmeth that the cause why it is called mortgage is, for that it is
doubtful whether the feoffor will pay at the day limited such summe
or not, and if he doth not pay, then the land which is put in pledge
upon condition for the payment of the money is taken from him
for ever, and so dead to him upon condition, &c. And if he doth pay
the money, then the pledge is dead as to the tenant, &c."
acquired thereby a right on failure of payment to follow the
thing by real action against the possessor, whosoever he might
be, and to repay himself from the proceeds of his sale.
The mortgage of English law is the result of two distinct
influences. Its origin and form belong to the common law;
the restrictions by which it is made to serve the purpose of a
security only, and nothing more, belong to the courts of equity.
In the eye of the common law the mortgagee was the owner of
the estate conveyed in the mortgage; in equity the mortgagor
remains the real owner, and the mortgagee is merely an
encumbrancer. A, the owner of land in freehold, conveys to
B and his heirs, with a proviso that on repayment of money
lent by B to A, on a future day, with interest until payment,
B or his heirs will reconvey the estate to A and his heirs, and
that, until default be made in payment, A and his heirs may
hold without interruption from B and his heirs. This is a
common mortgage of land, and at law, after failure of payment,
the land belonged absolutely to the mortgagee, while in the
meantime, before payment, the legal estate was considered to
be vested in him, subject only to being defeated by payment at
the proper time. The court of chancery first interfered in the
reign of James I. to decree a redemption after forfeiture, and a
case in the reign of Charles I. decides that payment after for-
feiture has the same effect as payment before. The right of
the mortgagor to redeem his estate after it has been forfeited,
according to the terms of the deed, is called his equity of redemp-
tion. No agreement between the parties was suffered to oust
the jurisdiction of the court, or to deprive the debtor of his
equity of redemption. And this equity, at first regarded as a
mere right of the debtor, became established in course of time
as an estate in land which descended to the heirs of the
mortgagor. On the other hand, the interest of the mortgagee
is part of his personal estate, and passes to his executor and
not to his heir. In spite of the terms of the mortgage, the
owner of the land is still the owner, and the mortgagee is a
creditor for the money he advanced and the interest thereon.
It may be a question whether a given deed is a conveyance or a
mortgage, and the court, in deciding, will look at all the circum-
stances of the case, and will treat it as a mortgage when it was
the real intention of the parties that it should operate as a
security only. Thus, if the price was grossly inadequate, if
the purchaser was not let into immediate possession, if he
accounted for the rents to the grantor, retaining an amount
equivalent to interest, if the expense of the deed was borne by
the grantor, there would be reason to believe that the
conveyance was only meant to be a mortgage. And " once a
mortgage, always a mortgage "; no subsequent agreements can
change its character.
A mortgagee may, however, on default of payment file a bill
of foreclosure requiring the mortgagor to pay the amount of
the debt with interests or costs by an appointed day, or submit
to be deprived of his equity of redemption. The effect of
failure to pay by the time appointed would be to make the
mortgagee absolute owner of the estate; but the court in any
foreclosure suit may, at the request of either side, order a sale
instead of a foreclosure. And a power of sale is now implied
as one of the incidents of the mortgage, unless forbidden or
varied by express destination. The mortgagee is entitled to
retain out of the proceeds of the sale the amount of his principal,
interest and costs, the surplus belonging to the mortgagor. A
mortgagor cannot require the creditor to receive payment
before the time appointed in the deed; and, on default of
payment at the appointed time, he must give the creditor six
months' notice of his intention to pay off the mortgage, so that
the creditor may have time " to look out for a fresh security
for his money."
When the same land is successively mortgaged to different
persons, their rights take priority according to their chrono-
logical order. But the operation of equitable doctrines in
the formation of the law of mortgage leads to an important
modification of this rule. Of the successive mortgagees, the
first only takes the legal estate, and this, according to the maxim
878
MORTIER MORTIFICATION
of the court of thancery, will turn the scale when there is an
equality of equitable rights between two contracting parties.
Thus, if the third mortgagee had no notice at the time of making
his advance of the existence of the second mortgagee, the
equities of the two claimants are supposed to be equal, and if
nothing else intervened priority of time would decide the order
of their rights. But if the third mortgagee gets an assignment
of the first mortgage, he can tack his third mortgage to the first,
and so postpoiie the second mortgagee. And if the first mort-
gagee himself makes an additional advance after the date of
the second mortgage, but without notice of it, his whole debt
will take precedence of the second mortgage. A similar result
of equitable rules is seen in the consolidation of securities. Two
separate estates, mortgaged at different times and for different
sums of money by the same mortgagor to the same mortgagee,
are regarded as consolidated, so that the whole of the land
becomes security for the whole of the money, and the owner
cannot redeem either mortgage without redeeming the other.
If the mortgagor should have mortgaged another estate for
more than its value, the holder of the deficient security may
buy in the first mortgage, consolidate it with his own, and
exclude the second mortgagee.
An equitable mortgage is constituted simply by the deposit
of title-deeds in security for money advanced. The enactment
of the Statute of Frauds that no action shall be brought on
" any contract or sale of lands," &c., or any interests in or
concerning them unless the agreement be in writing and signed
by the party to be charged, has been cited as incompatible
with the recognition of equitable mortgages, but it is argued
by Lord Abinger that the act was never meant to affect such
a transaction. The deeds which are the evidence of title could
not be recovered in an action at law, and, if they were claimed
in equity, the court would require the claimant to do equity
by repaying the money borrowed on the deposit. Any sub-
sequent legal mortgagee, having notice of the deposit, will be
postponed to the equitable mortgagee, and when the legal
mortgagee has not inquired as to the title-deeds the court
will impute to him such knowledge as he would have acquired
if he had made inquiry. A Welsh mortgage is one in which
an estate is conveyed to a creditor, who takes the rents and
profits in lieu of interest and without account, the estate being
redeemable at any time on payment of the principal. Any
form of property, with few exceptions, may be mortgaged.
United Slates. In the United States there has been express
legislation dealing with mortgages of land in most of the states.
For the most part legislation has followed the lines of the English
law, but there is a great variation in the extent to which the
principles of equity have been substituted for the rules of
common law. In some states, the mortgage deed is held to
create a seizin of and an estate in the premises, with all its
common law incidents, to be enforced if need be by ejectment.
In others, the mortgagee's rights are limited to such as the rules
of equity prescribe, and may not be enforced by a suit at law.
In yet others, the mortgagee's interest is not deemed an estate
at all, but is here only to be enforced by the sale of the premises
as a means of paying the debt.
See Fisher OB Mortgages; Coote on Mortgages; Ashburner on
Mortgages; L. A. Jones, Treatise on the Law of Corporate Bonds and
Mortgages (Indianapolis, 1907).
MORTIER, EDOUARD ADOLPHE CASIMIR JOSEPH, DUKE
OF TREVISO (1768-1835), marshal of France, was born at Cateau
Cambresis on the I3th of February 1768, and entered the army
as a sub-lieutenant in 1791. He served in the campaigns of
1792 and 1793 on the north-eastern frontier and in the Nether-
lands, and subsequently on the Meuse and the Rhine. In
the war against the second coalition in 1799 he was promoted
successively general of brigade and general of division. His
conduct of the French occupation of Hanover led Napoleon
to include Mortier in the first list of marshals created in 1804.
He commanded a corps of the grande armee in the Ulm campaign
in which he distinguished himself particularly by his brilliant
action of Diirrenstein; in 1806 he was again in Hanover and
north-western Germany, and in 1807 he served with the grande
armee in the Friedland campaign. In 1808 he was created
duke of Treviso, and shortly afterwards he commanded an army
corps in Napoleon's campaign for the recapture of Madrid. He
remained in Spain for two campaigns, winning the victory of
Ocana in November 1809. In 1812 and 1813 he commanded
the Young Guard, and in the " defensive " campaign of 1814
he rendered brilliant services iri command of rearguards and
covering detachments. In 1815, after the flight of Louis XVIII.,
he rejoined Napoleon and was given a high command, but at
the opening of the Waterloo campaign he fell ill. After the
second restoration he was for a time in disgrace, but in 1819
he was readmitted to the Chamber of Peers and in 1825 received
the Order of the Saint Esprit. In 1830-1831 he was ambassador
of France at St Petersburg, and in 1834-1835 minister of war
and president of the council of ministers. In 1835, while
accompanying Louis Philippe to a review, the marshal with
eleven other persons was killed by the bomb aimed at the king
by Fieschi (July 28, 1835).
MORTIFICATION, a term used in pathology and surgery,
signifying a local death (Lat. mors) in the animal body. A
portion of the body may die in consequence of the disturbance
of its nutrition by inflammation, or of a cutting off of the blood-
supply, as by pressure upon, or injury to, the blood-vessels.
A comparatively slight injury affecting a portion of the body
imperfectly supplied with blood may give rise to an inflam-
matory condition which in a healthy part might pass unnoticed,
but which, in consequence of imperfect nutrition, may end in
mortification. If the flow of arterial blood only is arrested, the
part depending upon it for nutrition becomes numb, cold and
shrivelled, and the form of mortification known as dry gangrene
occurs. This is apt to be met with in oldish persons with
diseased vessels and feeble heart-action, especially if the blood
is rendered less nutritious by the presence of diabetes or of
kidney disease. The rule of treatment in all cases of threatened
mortification is to keep the part warm by flannel or cotton-wool,
but to avoid all methods which unduly hurry the returning
circulation. Such increase would give rise to excessive reaction,
which, in tissues already weakened, might actually produce
mortification. When the part is dead it should be wrapped
up in dry antiseptic dressings to prevent putrefaction. The
surgeon should then wait until the " line of demarcation," a
linear ulceration, between the living and the dead part is evident,
and then, if the case permits, should amputate at a higher level.
In spreading gangrene, in which acute sepsis is present, and
in which no line of demarcation forms, the best chance for the
patient is promptly to amputate high up in sound tissues. In
these cases the blood is generally poisoned, and if the patient
recovers from the primary shock of the operation, the disease
may reappear in the stump, and lead to a fatal result.
Frost-bite. Under the influence of cold, the blood-vessels
contract, and less blood is conveyed to the tissues. Frost-bite
is particularly apt to attack the feet, the hands, and the tips
of the ears. The condition is unassociated with pain, for the
reason that the nerves are benumbed. As no blood is passing
into the skin, the parts look like tallow, and thus attract the
attention of the companions of the frost-bitten man, who perhaps
has no thought of there being anything amiss. But because
the tissues are frost-bitten it does not follow that they will
not recover. The great danger is that, as the blood in the
vessels becomes thawed, there will be so much reactionary
flow through the tissues that acute inflammation will follow.
And this inflammation of the damaged tissues is very likely
to cause mortification. The re-establishment of the circulation,
therefore, should be undertaken with the greatest possible care.
The frost-bitten individual must not be brought near a fire nor
even into a warm room. Nothing warm should come in contact
with the affected parts. The best thing to do is to rub them
with snow or with cold water. The thawing is associated with
much pain, and in the case of the hand or foot this may be
diminished by raising the part, so as to help the return of the
venous blood to the heart. If mortification follows, the parts
MORTILLET MORTIMER
879
become black, and care should be taken to prevent their becoming
invaded by the germs of putrefaction. (E. O.*)
MORTILLET, LOUIS LAURENT GABRIEL DE (1821-1898),
French anthropologist, was born at Meylau, Isere, on the zgth
of August 1821. He was educated at the Jesuit college of
Chambery and at the Paris Conservatoire. Becoming in 1847
proprietor of La Revue independante, he was implicated in the
Revolution of 1848 and sentenced to two years' imprisonment.
He fled the country and during the next fifteen years lived
abroad, chiefly in Italy. In 1858 he turned his attention to
ethnological research, making a special study of the Swiss lake-
dwellings. He returned to Paris in 1864, and soon afterwards
was appointed curator of the museum at St. Germain. He
became mayor of the town, and in 1885 he was elected deputy
for Seine-et-Oise. He had meantime founded a review, Mate-
riaux pour I'histoire positive et philosophique de I'homme, and
in conjunction with Broca assisted to found the French School
of Anthropology. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the
25th of September 1898. Of his published works the best
known are Le Prehistorique (1882); Origines de la chasse, de
la peche el de I' agriculture (1890); Les Negres et la civilisation
igyplienne (1884).
MORTIMER (Family). . The Mortimers of Wigmore, earls
of March and Ulster, were of a stock akin to the dukes of Nor-
mandy and to many great houses of the duchy. Their ancestor
Hugh, bishop of Coutances in 990, had at least three sons by
a niece of Herfast the Dane, forefather of the Norman earls
of Hereford, and brother-in-law of Duke Richard I. The eldest
of these sons was Ralph, father of William of Warenne, earl
of Surrey. The second was Roger of Mortemer-en-Brai, in
the Pays de Caux, who, like his elder brother, is called filius
episcopi. If we assume that Roger was born before his father's
consecration, he must have lived to a great age. In the battle
fought within his own village of Mortemer, Roger was a leader
of the force which defeated the French, but, releasing an enemy
of his duke, he was punished by the loss of his castle, which was
given to his nephew, William of Warenne. The chronicle of
Ordericus Vitalis makes the Conqueror relate in a long death-bed
speech how he had thrust Roger out of Normandy, and, though
reconciled to him, had not restored the castle " in which
he saved my enemy." It is somewhat remarkable that the
Mortemers, thus early deprived of the castle at the source of the
Eaulne, yet handed down a surname derived from it. Here
also it may be noted that although Mortimer and Warenne
branch off from their common stock before the beginnings of
armorial bearings, the two houses assumed arms, which speak
plainly enough of their common origin. The Mortimers' chief
seat in Normandy became St Victor-en-Caux, where in 1074,
by the last recorded act of Roger and his wife Hawise, the
priory became an abbey. Roger's age would have forbidden
him to be with the duke at Hastings, but, according to Wace,
his son Hugh was in the fight, and Ralph the third son was
probably among the knights.
By the deaths of his elder brothers, Ralph de Mortemer
became heir to his father's lands. He followed his kinsman,
William Fitz-Osbern, the earl of Hereford, to the marches of
Wales, and the Domesday book for Hereford and Shropshire
marks the growth of the Mortimer power in those countries.
He remained loyal during the rising of the 2nd earl of Hereford,
and was enriched by grants of many of the earl's forfeited estates,
among them the castle town of Wigmore, which became the
chief seat of Mortimer and Cleobury, thereafter called Cleobury
Mortimer. His Domesday lands lie in eleven counties, but the
most important are found in North Hereford and South Shrop-
shire. Although keeping apart from the treason of Earl Roger,
Ralph rose in 1188 with the other barons of the March, but was
reconciled to William II., whom he afterwards supported in
Normandy. He was living in 1104 a partisan of Henry I., and
must have died soon afterwards. Hugh de Mortimer, who is
found as his successor, a great Herefordshire baron in 1140,
may have been either the son of Ralph's old age, or a grandson,
the son of another Ralph. During the reign of Stephen, Hugh
occupied himself with local feuds, but seized the royal castle
of Bridgnorth. So great was his power in the marches, that
he alone, deserted by the earl of Hereford, armed and held his
three castles against Henry II. Although forced at last to
submit, he was allowed to keep Wigmore and the ruins of
Cleobury. This proud baron died at Cleobury (c. 1181) in
the rhabit of a canon of the abbey which he had founded at
Wigmore.
Ralph de Mortimer, the 5th baron of Wigmore (d. 1246),
married Gwladys the Swart, daughter of Llewelyn the Great,
prince of Wales, and by her was father of Roger, whose bride,
Maude de Breuse, daughter and co-heir of that William de
Breuse whom Llewelyn had hanged, brought in a third of the
honour of Breuse of Brecknock, and a share of the honour of the
earls marshal. So came the lordship of Radnor with other lands,
and, as Eyton justly remarks, the history of the Mortimers
ceases to be a provincial record. The last-named Roger stood
steadfast for the Crown during Henry III.'s struggle with his
barons. He found the fleet horse that carried Edward from
his captivity. He led the rear-guard at Evesham, where his
marchers hacked the head from earl Simon, and sent it to their
lady at Wigmore. " After that victory," says Eyton, " no
privilege, reward or honour was too great for Mortimer to ask."
Dying in 1282, he was succeeded by Edmund, the eldest surviving
son (d. 1304), Roger, a third son, founding the line of Mortimer
of Chirk.
By Margaret de Fiennes, a kinswoman of Queen Eleanor of
Castile, Edmund Mortimer had, with other issue, a son and
heir, Roger (b. 1287), whose great- inheritance was increased
on his marriage with Joan, daughter and heir of Peter de
Geneville, her grandmother being a co-heir of Lacy. The whole
of the Geneville lands, with the half of the Lacy fief in England
and Ireland, came through her to the Mortimers, who now added
the castle town of Ludlow and half Meath to their estates. As
the king's lieutenant in Ireland during Edward Bruce's invasion
of 1316, Roger Mortimer defeated the Lacys, his wife's jealous
kinsfolk, and made her inheritance secure. With the aid of
his uncle Roger Mortimer of Chirk, he assured the Mortimer
power on the Welsh marches. During the war with the
Despensers, the force of the Mortimers was cast against the king
and his favourites, but after Bridgnorth Castle had been taken
and fired, uncle and nephew submitted and suffered a harsh
captivity for two years in the Tower of London. The uncle
died in his prison, whence the nephew made a famous escape
to France. At the court of Charles IV. the exile met Isabel,
the queen of England, and early in 1326 the scandal of her
close friendship with the lord of Wigmore had reached England.
When the queen and her mercenaries from Germany and Hainaut
landed at an English port in September, Mortimer was with her,
and he followed the flight of the king to Wales. He was among
the judges of the elder Despenser at Bristol, and of the younger,
his chief enemy, at Hereford. After the parliament had deposed
Edward II. and made the young Edward king in his stead,
Roger, as the queen's paramour, ruled England. Enriched by
the lands of the Despensers, and by those of the earl of Arundel,
beheaded at his command, Mortimer, who was created earl of
March in 1328, never ceased to add greedily to his possessions
and offices. When he held a Round Table, he summoned to it,
with the young king and the queen-mother, almost all the
nobles of the kingdom, and was, says Robert of Avesbury, " as
it were, king over them all." But his fate followed suddenly
upon these doings. Lancaster turned in vain upon the
aggrandized march-lord, but the young king, impatient of his
own puppet-like place in Mortimer's polity, worked secretly and
surely for his fall. Montague's men-at-arms entered Notting-
ham Castle by night, and joining the king, seized the favourite
in his chamber next the queen. Mortimer, with the courage
of his race, turned to bay and struck dead a knight who was the
king's steward. But he was hurried to London and condemned
by the peers; his death followed suddenly. Like any foot-pad,
he was drawn at the horse-tail to the elms of Tyburn, where
his body hung two days upon the common gallows.
88o
MORTISE MORTON, EARL OF
The earl's son and heir, Edmund Mortimer, had been married
to Elizabeth of Badlesmere, heir of her brother Giles. He died
the year after his father's fall, and his young son Roger, as he
grew up, was restored to a great part of their forfeited inheritance.
This Roger fought at Crecy in " the king's battle." A founder
of the Order of the Garter, he was summoned as a baron and
obtained a reversal of his grandfather's attainder. In 1355 he was
summoned as earl of March. On the death of his grandmother,
Ludlow Castle became the chief seat of his house. But following
his king in the invasion of Burgundy, he died suddenly at
Rouvray in 1360. His wife, a grand-daughter of that William
Montague, earl of Salisbury, who had captured his grandfather
at Nottingham, survived him two-and-twenty years.
His only son, Edmund, a boy nine years old, succeeded him
as 3rd earl of March (1351-1381). A bride was found for him
in the royal house. His marriage with Philippa, daughter of
Lionel of Antwerp, duke of Clarence, by Elizabeth de Burgh,
the heir of Ulster, added the earldom of Ulster to his style, and
brought his issue into the direct succession of the Crown. Like
so many of his race, he died young, of a chill caught in fording
a Munster river on a winter's day, and his countess was dead
before him. Elizabeth, their eldest child, became the wife
of the famous Harry Percy, called Hotspur. Their second was
Roger, who succeeded to his father's two earldoms as a boy of
seven, and was at once appointed lieutenant of Ireland. His
marriage was given to the earl of Kent, who married him to his
daughter, Eleanor Holand, the niece of King Richard. In the
parliament of 1385 the king named him as heir-presumptive
to the throne. The panegyrists of his family are loud in their
praise of his knightly doings and his great beauty, but they
speak also of his lion-like ferocity, of his lasciviousness, and of
his neglect of divine things. When in Ireland he defied the
statute of Kilkenny, and ordered his garments and horse-harness
after the fashion of an Irish chieftain. He wore the Irish mantle
on the day in 1398 when, in one of his petty wars with the
Leinster men, he was struck down at Kells as he charged far
before his horsemen. The body, mangled by Irish skenes and
axes, was brought home to be laid by his fathers in their
abbey of Wigmore.
Once more a child succeeded to the earldoms. Edmund,
4th earl of March, was six years old at his father's death, and
was, for the king's party, the heir-presumptive of the kingdom.
But in 1399 the boy's fate was changed by the coming to power
of the Lancastrian party, and Henry IV.'s first parliament
recognized Henry's son as heir-apparent. Although Edmund
and his brother Roger were brought up honourably with the
new king's younger children, they were in strict custody until
the king's death, broken only by the attempt of their uncle,
Sir Edmund Mortimer, and his father-in-law, Owen Glyndwyr,
to carry them off from Windsor to Wales, where the young earl
would have been proclaimed king. Henry V., however, released
the earl and restored his lands, and absolved March from any
share in the plot of the earl of Cambridge, who had married
Anne, sister of the earl. March served the king in his French
wars, although a dysentery caught in the camp at Harfleur
seems to have kept him from his share in the glory of Agincourt.
On the accession of Henry VI. the earl was appointed to the
lieutenancy of Ireland which had been held by his father and
grandfather, and in Ireland, on the igth of January 1425, he
died suddenly of the plague. His wife, Anne, daughter of
Edmund, earl of Stafford, had borne him no child, and thus,
his brother being dead before him, the illustrious house of the
Mortimers, earls of March and Ulster, became extinct. Their
lands and earldoms passed to Richard, duke of York, son of
Richard of Cambridge, by the last earl's sister, and the great
name of Mortimer disappeared from the English baronage.
AUTHORITIES. VictoriaHlstoryofthe Counties of England Intro-
ductions to Domesday book for Hereford and Shropshire; Eyton's
Antiquities of Shropshire; Dictionary of National Biography;
Dugdale's Monasticon; Stapleton's Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae;
G. E. C.'s Complete Peerage; Rymer's Foedera; Journal of the British
Archaeological Association, vol. xxiv. Inquests, post mortem, close,
patent and charter rolls, &c. (O. BA.)
MORTISE, or MORTICE (adapted from the Fr. mortaise;
cf. Ital. mortise and Spanish morlaja; the origin is unknown;
Celtic equivalents, such as Gaelic moirteis, are of French origin),
a term for a socket or cavity cut in a piece of wood, or other
material, into which a corresponding projecting end, a " tenon,"
fits, the two when fitted together forming a " mortise-joint,"
for fastening two beams or other pieces of timber together.
MORTLAKE, a village in the Kingston parliamentary division
of Surrey, England, on the Thames, 6j m. W. of London. Pop.
of parish, which includes East Sheen (1901), 7774. It has been
associated with the Oxford and Cambridge boat-race since 1845,
the race finishing here. The village appears in Domesday, and
the manor belonged to the Archbishops of Canterbury until the
time of Henry VIII., when it passed by exchange to the Crown.
From the early part of the I7th century until after the civil
wars Mortlake was celebrated for a manufacture of tapestry.
MORTMAIN (O. Fr. mortemain; med. Lat. mortua manus,
dead hand), the state or condition of lands or tenements when
held by a corporation in perpetual or inalienable tenure. Aliena-
tion in mortmain having the effect of depriving the lord of the
incidents of seignory, which arose through the death or felony
of the tenant or failure of his heirs, many English statutes
were passed directed against such alienation. The earliest is that
of Henry III. 36 (Magna Carta) ; others being 7 Edward 1. 13
(De Viris Religiosis); 13 Edward I. 32; 15 Richard II. 5; and 23
Henry VIII. 10. The present law is regulated by the Mortmain
and Charitable Uses Act 1888, as amended by the act of 1891.
MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4 ra EARL or (c. 1525-1581),
Scottish statesman, was the second son of Sir George Douglas
of Pittendriech. Before 1543 he married Elizabeth (d. 1574),
daughter of James Douglas, 3rd earl of Morton, a grandson
of James Douglas (d. c. 1500), who was created earl of Morton
in 1458. The 3rd earl's wife was Catherine, an illegitimate
daughter of James IV. In 1553 James Douglas succeeded to
the title and estates of his father-in-law, and in 1563 he became
lord high chancellor of Scotland. Though his sympathies were
with the reformers, he took no part in the combination of
Protestant barons in 1565, but he headed the armed force
which took possession of Holyrood palace in March 1566 to
effect the assassination of Rizzio, and it was to his house that
the leading conspirators adjourned while a messenger was sent
to obtain Mary's signature to the " bond of security." The
queen, before complying with the request, escaped to Dunbar,
and Morton and the other leaders fled to England. Having
been pardoned, Morton returned to Scotland early in 1567, and
with 600 men appeared before Borthwick Castle, where the
queen after her marriage with Bothwell had taken refuge. He
was present at the remarkable conference at Carberry Hill, and
he also took an active part in obtaining the consent of the
queen at Lochleven to an abdication. He led the army which
defeated the queen's forces at Langside'in 1568, and he was the
most valued counsellor of the earl of Murray during the latter's
brief term of office as regent. On the death of the earl of Mar
(Oct. 28, 1572), Morton, who had been the most powerful noble
during this regency, and also during that of the earl of Lennox,
at last reached the object of his ambition by being elected regent.
In many respects Morton was an energetic and capable ruler.
He effected at Perth, in February 1573, with the aid of Elizabeth's
envoy, a pacification with Huntly, the Hamiltons, and the
Catholic nobles who supported Mary. Only the castle of
Edinburgh held out, and this, aided by English artillery, he
succeeded in taking after a brave resistance by Kirkcaldy of
Grange and Maitland of Lethington.
The ensuing execution of these men, the bravest and the
ablest Scotsmen of that age, put an end to the last chance of
Mary's restoration by native support. But while all seemed to
favour Morton, there were under-currents which combined to
procure his fall. The Presbyterian clergy were alienated by
his leaning to Episcopacy, and all parties in the divided Church
by his seizure of its estates. Andrew Melville, who had succeeded
to the leadership of Knox, was more decided than Knox against
any departure from the Presbyterian model, and refused to be
M6RTON, J. MORTON, J. M.
won by a place in his household. The powerful earl of Argyll and
Atholl, a Stuart and Roman Catholic, united with Alexander
Erskine, governor of Stirling, who now had the custody of the
young king, and others in a league which received so much support
that Morton bent before the storm and offered to resign. He
surrendered the castle of Edinburgh, the palace of Holyrood, and
the royal treasures, retiring to Lcchleven, where he busied him-
self in laying out gardens. But his ambition could not deny itself
another stroke for power. Aided by the young earl of Mar, he
got possession of Stirling Castle and the person of the king.
Civil war was avoided only by the influence of Sir Robert
Bowes, the English ambassador. A nominal reconciliation was
effected, and a parliament at Stirling introduced a new govern-
ment. Morton, who secured an indemnity, was president of
the council, but Atholl remained a privy councillor in an enlarged
council with the representatives of both parties. Shortly after-
wards Atholl died of poison, it was said, and suspicion pointed
to Morton. His return to power was brief, and the only im-
portant event was the prosecution of the two Hamiltons, who
still supported Mary and saved their lives by flight to England.
The final fall of Morton came from an opposite quarter. In
September 1579 Esme Stuart, the king's cousin, came to
Scotland from France, gained the favour of James by his courtly
manners, and received the lands and earldom of Lennox, the
custody of Dumbarton Castle, and the office of chamberlain.
One of his dependants, Captain James Stuart, son of Lord
Ochiltree and brother-in-law of Knox, had the daring to accuse
Morton at a meeting of the council in Holyrood of complicity in
the murder of Darnley, and he was at cnce committed to custody.
Some months later Morton was condemned by an assize for
having taken part in that crime, and the verdict was justified
by his confession that Bothwell had revealed to him the design,
although he denied participation in its execution. He was
executed by the maiden a guillotine he had himself brought
from England on the 2nd of June 1581.
The attainted earldom of Morton passed by charter at his death
to a grandson of the 3rd earl, John, 7th Lord Maxwell (1553-1593),
who had previously claimed the title. In 1586, however, the attain-
der was rescinded in favour of Archibald Douglas, 8th earl of Angus
(q.v.), a nephew of the 4th earl. Various earls of Morton have now
to be distinguished.
Sir William Douglas (d. 1606), who ranks as 6th or 7th earl of
Morton, was the 4th earl's near kinsman, being the son of Sir Robert
Douglas of Lochleven (d. 1547), and was closely associated with him
in his career, the two men being occasionally confused in the histories.
He was the custodian at Lochleven Castle of Queen Mary. By the
4th earl's will he succeeded in 1588 to the earldom of Morton, on
the death of Archibald, 8th earl of Angus; but Lord Maxwell's
title of Morton, which had been revoked in 1585, was revived in
1587 and 1592, so that both men were in possession, and a conflict
arose. Sir William Douglas was succeeded by his grandson William
(1582-1649), known as 7th or 8th earl of Morton, lord high treasurer
of Scotland, a zealous Royalist, who on the outbreak of the Great
Rebellion provided 100,000 for the cause by selling his Dalkeith
estates to the Buccleuch family ; and though John, 8th Lord Maxwell
(c. 1586-1613), also claimed the earldom, he was attainted i.i 1609
and his rights then failed, his titles and estates being restored in
1618 to his brother Robert, with the title of earl of Nithsdale (1620)
in lieu of Morton. Among later earls of Morton mention may be
made of James (1702-1768), idth earl (or, as sometimes numbered,
i6th), who became president of the Royal Society (1764), and wasa
distinguished patron of science, and particujarly of astronomy. In
1746 he visited France, and was imprisoned in the Bastille, probably
as a Jacobite. The present earl of Morton is his descendant.
MORTON, JOHN (c. 1420-1500), archbishop of Canterbury,
cardinal and statesman, belonged to a family which had
migrated from Nottinghamshire into Dorset, and was born
either at Bere Regis or Milborne St Andrew. Educated at the
neighbouring Benedictine abbey of Cerne and at Balliol College,
Oxford, he graduated in law, and followed that profession in
the ecclesiastical courts in London, where he attracted the
notice of Archbishop Bourchier. He is said (Diet. Nat. Biog.)
to have been " at once admitted to the privy council";
but probably this is a mistake for the ordinary council, of which
Morton might well have been made a member when he was
appointed master in chancery and chancellor of the duchy of
Cornwall. He received a good deal of ecclesiastical preferment
from the Lancastrian party, was present, if he did not fight on
the losing side, at the battle of Towton in 1461, and was sub-
sequently attainted by the victorious Yorkists. He lived with
the exiled court of Margaret of Anjou at Bar until 1470, and took
an active part in the diplomacy which led to the coalition of
Warwick and Clarence with the Lancastrians and Louis XI., and
indirectly to Edward IV.'s expulsion from the throne. Morton
landed with Warwick at Dartmouth on the I3th of September
1470, but the battle of Tewkesbury finally shattered the
Lancastrian hopes, and Morton made his peace with Edward IV.,
probably through the mediation of Archbishop Bourchier.
In March 1473 Morton was made master of the rolls, and
Edward found employment for his diplomatic talents; he was
sent on a mission to Hungary in 1474, and was one of the nego-
tiators of the Treaty of Pecquigny in 1475. In 1479, after
receiving a number of minor ecclesiastical promotions, he was
elected bishop of Ely. He was one of the executors of
Edward IV.'s will in 1483, and the story of the future Richard
III., while preparing Morton's arrest, joking with him about the
strawberries the bishop grew in his garden at Holborn is well
known and apparently authentic. Oxford University in vain
petitioned for Morten's release, and after some weeks in the
Tower he was entrusted to the duke of Buckingham's charge
at Brecknock. Here Morton encouraged Buckingham's designs
against Richard, and put him into communication with the
queen dowager, Elizabeth Woodville, and with Henry Tudor,
earl of Richmond. He escaped from Brecknock Castle to
Flanders, avoided Buckingham's fate, and devoted his energies
during the next two years to creating a party in England and
abroad in the interests of the earl of Richmond.
When Richmond secured the crown as Henry VII. Morton
became his principal adviser. He succeeded Bourchier as
archbishop of Canterbury in 1486 and Alcock as lord chancellor
in 1487; and he was responsible for much of the diplomatic,
if not also of the financial, work of the reign, though the ingenious
method of extortion popularly known as " Morton's fork "
seems really to have been the invention of Richard Fox (q.v.),
who succeeded to a large part of Morton's influence. Morton
no doubt impressed Lancastrian traditions upon Henry VII.,
but he cannot be credited with any great originality as a states-
man, and Henry's policy was as much Yorkist as Lancastrian.
The fact that parliament continued to meet fairly often so long
as Morton lived, and was only summoned once by Henry VII.
after the archbishop's death, may have some significance; but
more probably it was simply due to the circumstance that
Morton's death synchronized with Henry's achievement of a
security in which he thought he could almost dispense with
parliamentary support and supplies. As an ecclesiastic Morton
followed orthodox Lancastrian lines: in 1489 he obtained a
papal bull enabling him to visit and reform the monasteries,
and he proceeded with some vigour against the abuses in the
abbey of St Albans. In 1493 he was created a cardinal, and
in 1495 was elected chancellor of the university of Oxford. He
encouraged learning to the extent of admitting Sir Thomas
More into his household, and writing a Latin history of
Richard III., which More translated into English. He con-
structed " Morton's Dyke " across the fens from Wisbech to
Peterborough, repaired the episcopal palace at Hatfield and the
school of canon law and St Mary's Church at Oxford. He
died at Knole on the i2th of October 1500, and was buried in
the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral.
Besides the authorities cited in the Diet. Nat. Biogr, see the
recently published calendar of Patent Rolls, 1461-1485, passim;
W. Busch, England under the Tudors (1892); J. Gairdner, Henry
VII. (1889) and Lollardy and the Reformation (1908), and Political
History of England, vols. iv. and v. (Longmans). (A. F. P.)
MORTON, JOHN MADDISON (1811-1891), English play-
wright, was born at Pangbourne, on the 3rd of January 1811.
He was the author of Box and Cox (1847) and a number of other
farces. In later life, however, he failed to maintain his success,
and eventually became a Charterhouse pensioner, dying on the
igth of December 1891.
His father, Thomas Morton (i76A?-i838), also a well-known
882
MORTON, L. P. MORTUA'RY
dramatist; was the author of Columbus, or a World Discovered
(1792); Speed the Plough (1798); The School of Reform, or How
to Rule a Husband (1805); A Roland for an Oliver (1819); and
other pieces.
MORTON, LEVI PARSONS (1824- ), American banker and
politician, was born at Shoreham, Vermont, on the i6th of
May 1 824.' He was in business at Hanover, New Hampshire,
in 1843-1849 and in Boston in 1849-1854. He then became a
partner in a New York dry-goods house. He established in
1863 the banking house of L. P. Morton & Company (dissolved
1899), with a London branch which had Sir John Rose (1820-
1888) as its principal member. The American firm assisted
in funding the national debt at the time of the resumption of
specie payments, and the London house were fiscal agents of
the United States government in 1873-1884, and as such
received the $15,500,000 awarded by the Geneva Arbitration
Court in settlement of the " Alabama Claims " against Great
Britain. In 1899 Morton became president of the Morton
Trust Company in New York City. He was a Republican
representative in Congress in 1879-1881, United States minister
to France in 1881-1885, vice-president of the United States
during the presidency of Benjamin Harrison in 1889-1893, and
in 1895-1896 was governor of New York, signing as such the
" Greater New York " bill and the liquor-tax measure known
as the " Raines law." In 1896 he was a candidate for the presi-
dential nomination in the Republican national convention.
MORTON, OLIVER PERRY (1823-1877), American political
leader, " war governor " of Indiana, was born in Salisbury,
Wayne county, Indiana, on the 4th of August 1823. After
studying for two years (1843-1845) at Miami University, he
practised law at Centerville, Indiana, and in 1852 was judge
of the sixth judicial circuit of Indiana. In February 1856
he was a member of the Pittsburg convention which led to
the organization of the national Republican party, and in
the same year he was a candidate for governor of Indiana;
he was defeated, but his campaign resulted in the effective
organization of the new party in his state. He was elected
lieutenant-governor in 1860, and when Henry S. Lane (1811-
1881), the governor, resigned, on the i6th of January 1861,
Morton became governor. In 1864 he was re-elected. In
meeting all the extraordinary demands resulting from the
Civil War he displayed great energy and resourcefulness, and
was active in thwarting the schemes of the secessionists in the
neighbouring state of Kentucky, and of the Knights of the
Golden Circle, the Order of American Knights, and the Sons
of Liberty (secret societies of Southern sympathizers and other
opponents of the war) in Indiana. In 1863 a hostile legislature
sought to deprive him of all control over the militia, and failing
in this, adjourned without making the appropriations necessary
for carrying on the state government. In this predicament
Morton appointed a bureau of finance, and appealed for financial
aid to private individuals, bankers, the counties, and even the
Federal government. The response was so prompt that he
was able to conduct affairs practically single-handed until 1865,
when a legislature more favourable to his policies assembled.
In 1865, when Morton had a paralytic stroke and went to Europe
for treatment, the president entrusted him with a confidential
mission to Napoleon III. concerning the withdrawal of the
French troops from Mexico. Morton resigned as governor in
January 1867 to accept a seat in the United States Senate, in
which he served during the rest of his life. He was recognized
as one of the leaders of the Radical wing of his party, voting in
favour of Johnson's impeachment, and being especially active
on behalf of negro suffrage. In 1870 Grant offered to appoint
him minister to Great Britain, but he declined the honour on
perceiving that a Democrat would succeed him in the Senate.
1 His earliest ancestor in America was George Mourt, or Morton
(d. 1624), a merchant of York, England, who seems to have been in
London in 1621-1622 as financial agent for the Plymouth colonists.
He published Mourt's Relation, or Journal of the Beginning and
Proceedings of the English Plantation at Plimolh (1622), apparently
written by William Bradford and Edward Winslow, ana went to
Plymouth, Mass., in the " Anno " in 1623.
He was a candidate for the Republican nomination for the
presidency in 1876, and at the national convention of his party
received 124 votes on the first ballot; the nomination, however,
finally went to Rutherford B. Hayes. He died at Indianapolis
on the ist of November 1877.
See William D. Foulke, Life of Oliver P. Morton (2 vols., Indiana-
polis, 1899).
MORTON, THOMAS (1564-1659), English bishop, was born
at York, and was educated at York and Halifax grammar-
schools and St John's College, Cambridge, where he became
fellow on taking his degree. He was ordained in 1592, and
held the office of university lecturer in logic till in 1598 he
was presented to the living of Long Marston, Yorkshire. He
gained a considerable reputation as a Protestant controversialist,
and published numerous works against Roman Catholicism,
chief among them being the Apologia catholica (1605) and
A Catholicke Appeale (1609). He held successively the deaneries
of Gloucester (1606), Winchester (1609), and a canonry at York
(1610). In i6i6-he became bishop of Chester, in 1618 bishop
of Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1632 bishop of Durham. On
the abolition of the episcopate in 1646 he was assigned a pension,
but it was never paid, and the remainder of his life was passed
in retirement.
MORTON, THOMAS (c. 1590-1646), usually called Thomas
Morton of Merrymount, English adventurer in America, was a
lawyer of Clifford's Inn, London, and seems to have practised
in the west of England. He spent three months in America
in 1622; returned in 1625, and settled at Mount Wollaston, in
what is now Quincy, Massachusetts; and in 1626, when most
of the settlers removed to Virginia, he assumed command of the
settlement, and renamed it Merrymount. 2 Morton, a Royalist
rake, soon became a thorn in the flesh of the sober colonists at
Plymouth. On May-Day in 1627 his companions erected a
May-pole, and, assisted by Indians, indulged in all the revelry
and licence then customary in England. " The setting up of this
May-pole was a lamentable spectacle to the precise Separatists
that lived at New Plimmouth," says Morton. " They termed it
an Idoll; yea, they called it the Calf of Horeb, and stood at
defiance with the place, . . . threatening to make it a woefull
mount and not a merry mount." .In disregard of a royal
proclamation, Morton sold rum and fire-arms to the natives,
not only injuring the trade of Plymouth, but also endangering
the safety of the colonists. Morton was therefore arrested
and sent to England; and when John Endecott, with a patent
from the council for New England, arrived soon afterward he
visited Merrymount, which lay within his jurisdiction, rebuked
the inhabitants, cut down the May-pole, and renamed the place
Mount Dagon. In 1629 Morton returned to America, but was
arrested on trivial charges by the Massachusetts authorities,
and was confined in the stocks. Later his house was burned
and he was sent to England, where he spent a term in the Essex
gaol. After his release he wrote his New English Canaan (1637),
in which he describes the Indians and the natural features of
the country, and heaps ridicule upon the New England colonists.
In 1643 Morton returned to America. He was imprisoned in
Boston in the following year, and was tried before the general
court for complaining against the colony before the Privy
Council; he was recommitted to gaol pending the gathering
of further evidence, and after a year's confinement was fined
100 and released. He retired to Agamenticus (now York),
Maine, and in 1646 died poverty-stricken.
See the New English Canaan, edited by Charles Francis Adams
(Publications of the Prince Society, vol. ix., Boston, 1883); C. F.
Adams, Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (Boston, 1896);
and, for a more favourable view of Morton, A Few Observations
on the Prince Society's Edition of the New English Canaan, revised
and reprinted from the Churchman (New York, 1883). Morton's
adventures have furnished material for Nathaniel Hawthorne's
short story, The Maypole of Merrymount, and for John Lothrop
Motley's novels, Morton's Hope (1839) and Merry Mount (1849).
MORTUARY (Med. Lat. mortuarium, from mortuus, dead),
of or belonging to the dead, or, in particular, to the burial
8 In his book Morton indulges his fondness for punning and display
of Latinity by calling the place Mare-Mount (Hill by the sea).
MORVAN MOSAIC
883
of the dead. The chief modern use of the word is for
a building in which dead bodies awaiting burial may be
temporarily kept, for the purpose of inquiry, identification,
post-mortem examination, &c. But it has also been applied to
many subjects connected with death and burial. In monastic
institutions it was the duty of the almoner to send round to
other monastic houses notice of the death of a member, asking
for prayers for the soul of the dead. This notice was often
beautifully illuminated. On being returned with the endorse-
ment of the monastery to which it had been sent, it would be
copied into the roll. Both the notice and the roll were known
as a mortuarium, or mortuary (see Abbot F. H. Gasquet's
English Monastic Life, 1904). In the English Church a "mor-
tuary " was in certain places a customary oblation or offering
paid out of the estate of a deceased person to the church
to which he belonged. An act of 1529 (21 Hen. VIII. c. 6)
limited the amount to be paid in mortuaries, the highest being
of the value of ics. in estates above 40. Mortuaries, where
customary, can only be enforced in the ecclesiastical courts.
The custom has entirely died out, though claims have been
made from time to time.
MORVAN, an elevated region forming the northern continua-
tion of the central plateau of France, and extending over a
large part of the department of Nievre, and over portions of
those of Yonne, Cote-d'Or and Sa6ne-et-Lo:re. Its area is a
little over 1000 sq. m. The average elevation is about 1600 ft.,
the culminating point the Bois-du-Roi, attaining 2959 ft. It
is traversed by the Yonne, which has its source on Mt Prenelay
(2789 ft)., by the Cure and by several affluents of the Arroux.
Geologically it consists chiefly of gneiss and granite. It contains
much good pasturage and is abundantly wooded, the exploitation
of its forests affording employment to large numbers of the
inhabitants.
MORVI, a native state of India, in Kathiawar, within the
Gujarat division of Bombay. Area, 822 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
87,496, showing a decrease of 17% in the decade, due to famine;
estimated revenue, 48,000; tribute, 4000. The chief, whose
title is Thakur sahib, is a Jadeja rajput, of the same clan as
the rao of Cutch. The chief products are cotton and grain.
The town of Morvi is situated on the river Machhu, 22m. from
the sea and 35 from Rajkot; pop. (1901) 17,820.
MORVILE, HUGH DE, one of the four English knights who
perpetrated the murder of Becket. He appears in the service
of Henry II. from 1158. His principal estate was at Burgh-
on-Sands. After the archbishop's murder Hugh and his asso-
ciates at first took refuge in Knaresborough Castle; afterwards
the king sent them to obtain absolution from the pope. The
story runs that all four were enjoined to go on pilgrimage to
the Holy Land, but it is not known whether Hugh made his
expiation in this way. The date of his death is unknown, but
it was in or before 1202/3, when we find his English lands in
the hands of his two daughters as co-heiresses.
See Eyton's Itinerary of Henry II.; Ramsay, Angevin Eng'and.
MORYSON, FYNES (1366-1630), English traveller and writer,
was the son of a Lincolnshire gentleman, Thomas Moryson,
member of parliament for Grimsby. After being educated at
Cambridge, where he gained a fellowship at Peterhouse, Fynes
Moryson spent many years in travel on the continent of Europe,
in Palestine, and in Asia Minor. In 1600 he became secretary
to Sir Charles Blount, lord-tkputy of Ireland, in which country
his brother, Sir Richard Moryson, held an important government
appointment. In 1617 Moryson published an account of his
travels and of his experiences in Ireland, where he witnessed
O'Neill's rebellion, in a voluminous work entitled An Itinerary.
He died on the I2th of February 1630. The Itinerary was
originally intended to consist of five parts; but only three were
printed, a fourth being preserved in manuscript in the library
of Corpus Christi College, Oxford (partially printed in 1903 in
Charles Hughes's Shakespeare's Europe). Another part of the
Itinerary was republished in 1735 with the title History of Ireland
1599-1603, with a short Narrative of the State of the Kingdom from
1169; and in 1890 Henry Morley included in the " Carisbrooke
Library " a volume, Ireland under Elizabeth and James I., de-
scribed by Spenser, Sir John Dailies and Fynes Moryson. The
Itinerary is a work of great value to the historian as a truthful
picture of the social conditions prevailing in Europe at the
beginning of the I7th century.
MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr.
novatlov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the
word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which
generally uses ^T/^oXtryij^a), the fitting together of many, gener-
ally small, pieces of marble, opaque glass, coloured clays, or
other substances, so as to form a pattern.
Ancient Mosaic. The earliest existing specimens of mosaic
belong to one of the less important branches of the art namely,
the ornamentation on a small scale of jewellery, ivory thrones,
and other furniture, or more rarely of some elaborate archi-
tectural ornament. Most of this sort of mosaic resembles in
execution what are called cloisonne enamels. In the Louvre
and in the British Museum are preserved some very beautiful
ivory carvings in low relief, some from Nineveh and others from
Egypt, in which figures of deities, ornaments formed of the lotus
and papyrus plants and royal cartouches are enriched by small
pieces of glass or lapis-lazuli and other gem-like stones, which
are let into holes made in the ivory. Each minute piece is
separated from the next by a thin wall or cloison of ivory, about
as thick as cardboard, which thus forms a white outline and
sets- off the brilliance of the coloured stones.
Excavations at Tel-el- Yehudia in Lower Egypt have brought
to light some mosaics on a larger scale, but treated in the same
way. These are caps of columns, wall tiles, and other objects,
either of white limestone or earthenware, in which designs,
chiefly some forms of the papyrus, are formed by bits of glass or
enamelled earthenware, let into a sinking in the tile or column.
This form of mosaic was employed by the Greeks: the Erech-
theum at Athens, built in the middle of the sth century B.C.,
had the bases of some of its white marble columns ornamented
with a plait-like design, in which pieces of coloured glass were
inserted to emphasize the main lines of the pattern.
Another, quite different, sort of mosaic was known to the
Egyptians of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. This is made
entirely of glass and is extremely minute. The finest known
specimen is in the British Museum: it is a small tablet about
j in. square, apparently the bezel of a ring, on which is repre-
sented the sacred hawk every feather on the bird's wing
being produced with a great number of colours and tints, each
quite distinct, and so minute that a strong magnifying glass is
required to distinguish its details,
The way in which this mosaic was produced is extremely
ingenious. Numbers of long sticks of various-coloured glass
were arranged in such a way that their ends produced the
figure of the hawk; other sticks of blue glass were placed all
round so as to form the ground. The whole bundle of sticks
of glass when looked at endwise now presented the figure of the
hawk with a blue background, immensely larger than it after-
wards became. The bundle was then heated till the sticks
melted together, and the whole thick rod, softened by fire,
was drawn out to a greatly diminished thickness. A slice of
the rod was then cut off and its faces polished the design,
much reduced in size, of course being equally visible at both
sides of the slice; and thus the microscopic minuteness of the
mosaic was produced with astonishing delicacy and refinement;
many slices, each showing the same mosaic, could be cut from
the same rod.
Far more important was the use of mosaic on a large scale,
either for pavements or for walls and vaulted ceilings. We are
told by Pliny (H. ff. xxxvi 184) that the practice of decorating
pavements " after the fashion of painting " was due to the
Greeks, and there is no reason to doubt the truth of this state-
ment, although no mosaic pavement discovered in Greece can
be dated with certainty to a period preceding the Roman occupa-
_ tion. This is true even of the pavement in the temple of Zeus
i at Olympia (fig. i; Olympia, Baudenkmaler, vol. ii. pi. cv.).
88 4
MOSAIC
The simplest classification of mosaics is that of Gauckler
(Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquiles, s.v. " Musi-
vum Opus "), who distinguishes the following:
a. Opus tessellalum, consisting of cubes of marble or stone,
regularly disposed in simple patterns. This was largely used
for pavements, especially in Roman times.
b. Opus vermiculatum, consisting of cubes (not always regu-
larly shaped) generally of coloured marble 1 or more precious
FIG. I. Greek Pavement from the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
materials, when these were obtainable, disposed so as to obtain
a pictorial effect. The art cf mosaic is mainly concerned with
this branch of work.
c. Opus rr.usiiium, properly applied to the mosaic decoration
of walls and vaulted ceilings (camerae), in which cubes of glass
or enamel were used. The glass was rendered opaque by the
addition of oxide of tin, and coloured with other metallic oxides;
when melted it was cast into flat slabs, generally about 5 in.
thick, and then broken into small cubes.
d. Opus sectile, a species of marqueterie in marble or other
coloured materials used to produce pictures and patterns.
Under the later empire a particular variety of this, called opus
alexandrinum* mainly composed of porphyry, red and green, 3
was much in use.
Judging from the description given by Vitruvius (vii. i), and
an examination of numerous specimens of Roman tessellated
mosaics, the process of manufacture was the following. The
earth was first carefully rammed down to a firm and even surface;
on this was laid a thick bed of stones, dry rubbish, and lime,
called " rudus," from 6 to 9 in. deep, and above this another
layer, 4 to 6 in. thick, called " nucleus," of one part of lime
to three of pounded brick, mixed with water; on this, while still
soft, the pattern could be sketched out with a wooden or metal
point, and the tesserae or small bits of marble stuck into it, with
their smoothest side uppermost. Lime, pounded white marble,
and water were then mixed to the consistency of cream, forming
a very hard-setting cement, called marmoratum. This cement,
while fluid, was poured over the marble surface, and well brushed
into all the interstices between the tesserae. When the concrete
and cement were both set, the surface of the pavement was
rubbed down and polished.
The usual Roman pavement was made of pieces of marble,
averaging from half to a quarter of an inch square, but rather
1 In the less prosperous provinces of the empire, such as Britain,
these costly materials could not be obtained, and native sandstone,
&c., was used.
"The biographer of Severus Alexander (Hist. Aug., 0.25,7)
attributes the invention of opus alexandrinum to that emperor;
but this is clearly a false derivation. This technique was doubtless
invented at Alexandria.
* This latter is often, but wrongly, called serpentine.
irregular in shape. A few other, but quite exceptional, kinds of
mosaic pavements have been found, such as that at the Isola
Farnese, 9 m. from Rome, made of tile-like slabs of green
glass, and a fine " sectile " pavement on the Palatine Hill,
made of various-shaped pieces of glass, in black, white, and
deep yellow. In some cases e.g. in the " House of the Faun "
at Pompeii glass tesseiae in small quantities have been
mixed with the marble ones, for the sake of greater brilliance
of colour.
Few countries are richer than England in remains of Roman
mosaics; the great pavements of York, Woodchester, Cirencester,
and many other places are as elaborate in design and as skilfully
executed as any that now exist even in Rome itself. In what-
ever country these mosaics are found, their style and method
of treatment are always much the same; the materials only of
which the tesserae are made vary according to the stone or
marble supplied by each country. In England, for instance,
limestone or chalk often takes the place of the white marble
so common in Italian and North African mosaics; while, instead
of red marble, a fine sort of burnt clay or red sandstone is
generally used; other makeshifts had to be resorted to, and
many of the Romano-British mosaics are made entirely without
marble. It is perhaps partly owing to the great wealth of
Northern Africa in marbles of many colours and of varying
shades that the finest of all Roman mosaics have been found
in Algeria and Tunis, especially those from Carthage, some of
which have been brought to the British Museum. See Archaeo-
logia, xxxviii. 202.
The range of colour in the marble tesserae is very great, and
is made use of with wonderful taste and skill: there are three
or four different shades of red, and an equal number of yellows
and greens, the last colour in all its tints being almost peculiar
to this part of Africa, and one of the most pleasant and har-
monious in almost any combination. Deep black, browns and
FIG. 2. Part of a Persian's Head from the Battle of Issus;
full size.
bluish-greys are also abundant. The mosaics from Carthage
are no less excellent in design than in the richness and beauty of
their materials. Large spaces are filled by grand sweeping
curves of acanthus and other leaves, drawn with wonderful
boldness and freedom of hand, and varied with great wealth of
invention. Without the use of very small tesserae, much rich-
ness of effect is given by gradations of tints, suggesting light and
i
MOSAIC
885
shade, without a painful attempt to represent actual relief.
The colours of the marbles used here and elsewhere by the
Romans are so quiet and harmonious that it would have been
almost impossible to produce with them a harsh or glaring
design, and when used with the skill and strong artistic feeling
of the mosaic workers at Carthage the result is a real masterpiece
of decorative design.
The finest of the later examples in Rome is that which decorates
the vault of the ambulatory of the circular church of S. Costanza,
built by Constantino- the Great, outside the walls of Rome. This
very interesting mosaic might from its style and materials have been
executed in the 1st century, and is equal in beauty to any work of
the kind in Italy. It shows no trace whatever of the Byzantine
influence which, in the next century, introduced into Italy a novel
style of mosaic, in materials of the most glittering splendour. Sur-
vivals of this classical style of mosaic are found in North Africa and
the East. At Kabr-Hiram, near Tyre, Renan discovered among
the ruins of a small three-apsed Christian church of the 4th century
A.D. a fine mosaic pavement, covering the nave and aisles, thoroughly
classical in style. A very similar mosaic, of about the same date,
was discovered at Nebi Yunas, near Sidon.
Medieval Mosaics. These may be divided into four principal
classes: (i) those used to decorate walls and vaults, made of
glass cubes; (2) those for pavements, made of marble, partly in
large shaped pieces, and partly in small tesserae; (3) glass in
small pieces, either rectangular or triangular, used to enrich
marble pulpits, columns, and other architectural features; (4)
wood mosaics.
i. In the Byzantine period the glass cube mosaic was exclu-
sively employed in mural decoration. At first natural colouring
was used, and backgrounds, if not in local colour, were generally
blue; but the use of gold, both for backgrounds and for the high
lights on drapery, &c,, gradually prevailed. Owing to the
intense conservatism of Byzantine art, no regular stages of
progression can be traced in this class of mosaic. Some of the
5th-century mosaics at Ravenna are, in every way, as fine as
those of the I2th, and it was not till the end of the i3th century
that any important change in style took place. The mosaics of
the pth century are inferior in drawing and general treatment to
those both of the earlier and later time, while in Italy at least
this art was almost entirely extinct during the loth and nth
centuries. Extreme splendour of colour and jewel-like brilliance
combined with the most stately grandeur of form are the main
characteristics of this sort of decoration.
A " majesty," or colossal central figure of Christ with saints
standing on each side, is the most frequent motive. In many
cases, especially in the 5th and 6th centuries, Christ was represented
as a lamb, to whom the twelve apostles, in the form of sheep, are
paying adoration. Christ, the Good Shepherd, is sometimes de-
picted as a beardless youth, seated among a circle of sheep the
treatment of the motive being obviously taken from Pagan represen-
tations of Orpheus playing to the beasts. The tomb of Galla
Placidia has a good example of this subject, with much of the old
Roman grace in the drawing and composition. Frequently the
Virgin Mary, or the patron saint of the church, occupies the central
space in the apse, with ranges of other saints on each side.
The " Doom," or Last Judgment, is a favourite subject for domes
and sanctuary arches ; the Florence baptistery has one of the grandest
mosaic pictures of this subject, executed in the ijth century. The
earlier baptisteries usually have the scene of Christ's baptism the
river Jordan being sometimes personified in a very classical manner,
as an old man with flowing beard, holding an urn from which a
stream pours forth. S. Vitale at Ravenna has in the sanctuary a
very interesting representation of Justinian and his empress Theo-
dora (see fig. 3), attended by a numerous suite of courtiers and ladies;
these mosaics are certainly of the 6th century, and may be contem-
porary with Justinian, though the fact that he and Theodora
are each represented with a circular nimbus appears to indicate that
they were not then alive.
In mosaics of the best periods the treatment of the forms
and draperies is broad and simple, a just amount of relief being
expressed by delicate gradations of tints. In mosaics of the
gth century the drawing is very awkward, and the folds of the
robes are rudely expressed in outline, with no suggestion of light
and shade.
A further application of this work was to the decoration of
broad bands over the columns of the nave, as at S. Maria Maggiore
in Rome, 4th century, and in the two churches of S. Apollinare
at Ravenna, 6th century. In some cases almost the whole
interior of the church was encrusted in this magnificent way,
as at Monreale Cathedral, the Capella Palatina of Palermo, and
S. Mark's at Venice.
In these churches the mosaics cover soffits and angles entirely,
and give the effect of a mass of solid gold and colour producing
the utmost conceivable splendour of decoration. 1 In many
cases vaulted ceilings were covered with these mosaics, as the
tomb of Galla Placidia, A.D. 450, and the two baptisteries at
Ravenna, 5th and 6th centuries. For exteriors, the large use
of mosaic was usually confined to the west facade, as at
S. Miniato, Florence; S. Maria Maggiore, Rome; and S. Mark's,
FIG. 3. Mosaic of Theodora and Attendants, from S. Vitale,
Ravenna; over life size.
Venice. In almost all cases the figures are represented on a
gold ground, and gold is freely used in the dresses and ornaments
rich jewels and embroidery being represented in gold, silver,
sparkling reds, blues and other colours, so as to give the utmost
splendour of effect to the figures and their drapery.
The revival of the art of painting in Italy and the introduction
of fresco work in the i4th century gave the deathblow to the
1 Unfortunately the world-wide fame of S. Mark's and the other
great churches of Italy has subjected these extraordinary works to
the fatal process of " restoration," and wherever any sign of decay
in the cement backing (the tesserae themselves are quite indestruct-
ible) has given the least excuse the " restorers " have destroyed
whole masses of ancient work, and supplied its place with worthless
modern copies. The mosaics of the S. Mark's baptistery, and of the
apses at S. Miniato, at Pisa, and many other places have in this way
been wantonly renewed in recent times.
886
MOSAIC
true art of wall-mosaics. Though at first the simple and archaic
style of Cimabue and his pupils Jacopo da Turrita, Giotto, and
Taddeo Gaddi was equally applicable to painting or mosaic, yet
soon the development of art into greater realism and complexity
required a method of expression unfettered by the necessities
and canons of mosaic work. Pietro Cavallini, a Roman artist,
was one of the last who worked according to the old traditions.
His mosaic of the birth of the Virgin in S. Maria in Cosmedin,
Rome, executed about the middle of the I4th century, is not
without merit, though his superior knowledge of form has only
caused his composition to be somewhat feeble and insipid com-
pared with the works of the earlier artists. Even in the i$th
century a few good mosaics were produced at Venice and else-
where. The mosaics from Titian's pictures on the west end of
S. Mark's at Venice, Raphael's in the Chigi Chapel in S. Maria
del Popolo, and many large pictures in S. Peter's in Rome are
the most striking examples of these.
The following list, in chronological order, comprises a selection
from among the most important glass wall-mosaics during the
period when mosaic-working was a real art. 1
4th Century.
Rome. S. Costanza.
S. Maria Maggiore square panels over the
columns of the nave.
S. Pudenziana.
S. Giovanni in Laterano chapel of SS. Rufina e
Seconda.
Naples. S. Restituta baptistery.
5th Century.
Ravenna. Orthodox Baptistery vault.
Tomb of Galla Placidia vault, 450.
Archbishop's Chapel vault.
Rome. S. Paolo fuori le mura triumphal arch.
S. Maria Maggiore square pictures over nave
columns, and triumphal arch (?).
S. Sabina figures on west wall.
Milan. S. Ambrogio, Chapel of S. Satiro vault.
Fundi. Cathedral apse.
Nola. Cathedral apse.
6th Century.
Ravenna. Arian Baptistery vault.
S. Apollinare Nuovo apse and nave, with gth-
century additions.
S. Vitale apse and whole sanctuary, c. 547.
S. Apollinare in Classe apse and nave, 549.
Rome. SS. Cosmas and Damian apse.
Milan. S. Lorenzo, Chapel of S. Aquilinus vault.
Constantinople. S. Sophia walls and vault, c. 550.
Thessalonica. Church of St George apse, &c. ; and S. Sophia
dome and apse.
Trebizond. S. Sophia apse.
jfh Century.
Rome. S. Agnese fuori le mura apse, 626.
S. Teodoro.
S. Stefano Rotondo.
S. Venanzio, baptistery of Lateran.
Jerusalem. " Dome of the Rock " arches of ambulatory,
688.
8th Century.
Rome. Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano.
SS. Nereus and Achilles.
Jerusalem. Mosque of Al-Aksa on dome.
Mount Sinai. Chapel of the Transfiguration.
gih Century.
Rome. S. Cecilia in Trastevere apse.
S. Marco apse.
S. Maria della Navicella apse, and " Chapel of
the Column."
S. Prassede triumphal arch.
Milan. S. Ambrogio apse, 832.
loth Century.
Cordova. Mihrab (sanctuary) of Mosque.
nth Century.
Jerusalem. " Dome of the Rock " base of cupola, 1027.
Constantinople. Church of S. Saviour walls and domes.
I2th Century.
Venice. S. Mark's narthex, apse and walls of nave and
aisles.
1 It must be remembered that the earlier mosaics have in most
cases suffered much from restoration.
Capua. Cathedral apse.
Torcello. Cathedral apse.
Murano. Cathedral apse.
Salerno. Cathedral apse.
Palermo. Capella Palatina, begun 1132 the whole walls.
Church of La Martorana vault.
Monreale. Cathedral the whole walls, 1170-1190.
Bethlehem. Church of the Nativity, 1169.
Cefalu. Cathedral apse, 1148.
Rome. S. Clemente apse.
S. Francesca Romana apse.
S. Maria in Trastevere apse.
i jth Century.
Florence. Baptistery vault, begun c. 1225 by Fra Jacopo.
S. Miniato apse and west front.
Rome. S. Paolo fuori le mura apse.
. S. Clemente -triumphal arch, 1297.
S. Giovanni in Laterano apse by Jacopo da
Turrita, 1290.
S. Maria Maggiore apse and west end by Jacopo
da Turrita and Taddeo Gaddi.
S. Maria in Trastevere apse by Pietro Cavallini,
1291.
I4th Century.
Florence. Baptistery, finished by Andrea Tafi.
Pisa. Cathedral east apse by Cimabue, 1302, north
and south apses by his pupils.
Rome. S. Peter's navicella, in atrium by Giotto.
S. Maria in Cosmedin on walls by Pietro
Cavallini, c. 1340.
Venice. SS. Giovanni e Paolo in arch over effigy of
Doge Morosini.
The Byzantine origin of these great wall-mosaics, wherever they
are found, is amply proved both by internal and documentary
evidence. The gorgeous mosaics of S. Sophia and S. Saviour's in
Constantinople, 6th century, and the later ones in the monasteries
of Mount Atnos, at Salonica and at Daphne near Athens, are identical
in style with those of Italy of the same date. Moreover, the even
more beautiful mosaic work in the " Dome of the Rock " at
Jerusalem, 7th and nth centuries, and that in the sanctuary of the
great mosque of Cordova, of the loth century, are known to be the
work of Byzantine artists, in spite of their thoroughly Oriental
design. The same is the case with the rarer mosaics of Germany,
such as those in S. Gereon at Cologne and at Parenzo.
A very remarkable, almost unique, specimen of Byzantine mosaic
is now preserved in the " Opera del Duomo," Florence. This is a
diptych of the nth century, of extremely minute, almost micro-
scopic work, in tesserae of glass and metal, perhaps the only example
of tesserae made of solid metal. It has figures of saints and inscrip-
tions, each tessera being scarcely larger than a pin's head. This
beautiful diptych originally belonged to the imperial chapel in
Constantinople, and was brought to Florence in the I4th century.
2. The second medieval class, mosaic pavements, though of
great beauty, are of less artistic importance. This so-called
opus alexandrinum is very common throughout Italy and in
the East, and came to greatest perfection in the i3th century.
It is made partly of small marble tesserae forming the main
l ; nes of the pattern, and partly of large pieces used as a ground
FIG. 4. Marble Mosaic at Monreale Cathedral.
or matrix. It is generally designed in large flowing bands
which interlace and enclose circles, often of one stone sliced
from a column. The finest example is that at S. Mark's, Venice,
of the 1 2th century. The materials are mainly white marble,
with green and red porphyry, and sometimes glass.
MOSAIC
887
Besides the countless churches in Italy possessing these
beautiful pavements, such as S. Lorenzo, S. Marco, S. Maria
Maggiore, and S. Maria in Trastevere, in Rome, there are in
England, in the Chapel of the Confessor, and in front of the high
altar at Westminster, very fine specimens of this work, executed
about 1268 by a Roman artist called Odericus, who was brought
to England by Abbot Ware, on the occasion of a visit made by
the latter to Rome. Another English example is the mosaic
pavement in front of the shrine of Becket at Canterbury; this
is probably the work of an Englishman, though the materials
are foreign, as it is partly inlaid with bronze, a peculiarity never
found in Italy. Palermo and Monreale are especially rich in
examples of sectile mosaic, used both for pavements and walls
in the latter case generally for the lower part of the walls
the upper part being covered with the glass mosaics. Fig. 4
gives a specimen of this mosaic from Monreale cathedral. Its
chief characteristic is the absence of curved lines, so largely used j
in the splendid opus Alexandrinum of Italy, arising from the
fact that this class of Oriental design was mainly used for the
delicate panelling in wood on their pulpits, doors, &c. wood
being a material quite unsuited for the production of large
curves.
3. Glass mosaic, used to ornament ambones, pulpits, tombs,
bishops' thrones, baldacchini columns, architraves, and other
marble objects, is chiefly
Italian. The designs, when
it is used to enrich flat
surfaces, such as panels or
architraves, are verysimilar
to those of the pavements
last described. The white
marble is used as a matrix,
in which sinkings are made
to hold the glass tesserae;
twisted columns are fre-
quently ornamented with
a spiral band of this glass
mosaic, or flutings are
suggested by parallel bands
on straight columns. The
cloisters of S. Giovanni
in Laterano and S. Paolo
fuori le mura have splendid
examples of these enriched
shafts and architraves.
This style of work was
largely employed from the
6th to the 1 4th centuries.
One family in Italy, the
Cosmati, during the whole
of the i3th century, was
especially skilled in this
craft. The pulpit in S.
Maria in Ara Coeli, Rome,
is one of the finest speci-
mens (see fig. 5), as are
also the ambones in S.
Clemente and S. Lorenzo,
and that in Salerno cath-
edral. The tomb of Henry
III. (1291), and the shrine
of the Confessor (1269) at
FIG. 5. Part of Marble Pulpit with
glass mosaic, church of Ara Coeli,
Rome.
Westminster are the only examples of this work in England.
They were executed by " Petrus civis Romanus," probably a
pupil of the Cosmati.
In India, especially during the i;th century, many Mahommedan
buildings were decorated with fine marble inlay of the class now called
" Florentine." This is sectile mosaic, formed by shaped pieces ot
various coloured marbles let into a marble matrix A great deal ot
the Indian mosaic of this sort was executed by Italian workmen;
the finest examples are at Agra, such as the Taj Mahal.
4. Mosaics in wood are largely used in Mahommedan build-
ings especially from the I 4 th to the iyth centuries. The finest
specimens of this work are at Cairo and Damascus, and are used
chiefly to decorate the magnificent pulpits and other woodwork
in the mosques. The patterns are very delicate and complicated,
worked in inlay of small pieces of various coloured woods, often
further enriched by bits of mother-of-pearl and minutely carved
ivory. This art was also practised largely by the Copts of Egypt,
and much used by them to ornament the magnificent iconostases
and other screens in their churches.
Another application of wood to mosaic work, called " intar-
siatura," was very common in Italy, especially in Tuscany and
Lombardy, during the isth and early i6th centuries. Its chief
use was for the decoration of the stalls and lecterns in the church
choirs. Very small bits of various coloured woods were used
to produce geometrical patterns, while figure subjects, views
of buildings with strong perspective effects, and even land-
scapes, were very skilfully produced by an inlay of larger pieces.
Ambrogio Borgognone, Raphael, and other great painters, often
drew the designs for this sort of work. The mosaic figures
in the panels of the stalls at the Certosa near Pavia were by
Borgognone, and are extremely beautiful. The stalls in Siena
cathedral and in S. Pietro de' Casinensi at Perugia, the latter from
Raphael's designs, are among the finest works of this sort, which
are very numerous in Italy. It has also been used on a smaller
scale to ornament furniture, and especially the " Cassoni," or
large trousseau coffers, on which the most costly and elaborate
decorations were often lavished.
AUTHORITIES. Classical. An excellent account of the subject,
with full references, is given by Gauckler in Daremberg and Saglio,
Dictionnaire des antigwtts, s.v. " Musivum opus "; the translations
there given of the loci classici of Pliny are, however, inaccurate.
Amongst earlier works the following are important: G. Ciampini,
Vetera monumenta (1690-1699); A. Furietti, De musivis (1752);
S. Lysons, Roman Antiquities of Woodchester (1797) and Reliquiae
britannico-romanae (1813); F. Mazois, Ruines de Pompei (1812-
1838) ; Real museo borbonico (1824-1857) ; . Artaud, Histoire de la
pemture en mosaique (1835) ; Monumentos arquitectonicos de Espana
(1859-1883) ; Wilmowsky, Romische Mosaiken aus Trier und dessen
Umgegend (1888).
Christian. Theophilus, Diver sarum artium schedule,, ii. 15; 5.
Kensington Museum Art Inventory, pt. i. (1870); Renan, Mission
de Phenicie (1875) ; Garrucci, Arte cristiana (1872-1882), vol. iv. ; De
Rossi, Musaici cristiani di Roma (1876-1894); Parker, Archaeology
of Rome, and Mosaic Pictures in Rome and Ravenna (1866) ; Barbet de
Jouy, Les Mosaiques chretiennes de Rome (1857) ; Gravina, Duomo di
Monreale, Palermo (1859 seq.); Serradifalco, Monreale ed altre chiese
siculo-normanne (1838); Salazaro, Man. dell' arte merid. d'ltalia
(1882); M. D. Wyatt, Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages
(1849); Salzenberg, Alt-christliche Baudenkmale von Constanlinopel
(1854); Pulgher, Eglises byzantines de Constantinople (1883);
Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture (1864) ; Quasi, Alt-chrisl-
liche Bauwerke von Ravenna (1842);]. P. Richter, Die Mosaiken
von Ravenna (1878); M. de Vogu6, Eglises de la terre sainte (1860);
Milanesi, Del Arte del vetro pel musaico (i6th century, reprinted at
Bologna in 1864); Rohault de Fleury, Monuments de Pise (1866);
J. Kreutz, Basilica di S. Marco, Venezia (1843); Gaily Knight,
Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy (1842-1844); C. G. Fossati, Aya
Sophia (1852); A. N. Didron, " La peinture en mosaique," Gaz. des
B. Arts, xi. 442 ; Gerspach, La Mosaique (1883) ; A. L. Frothingham,
" Les mosai'ques de Grottaf errata," Gaz. arch. (1883); E. Muntz, La
Mosaique chrelienne pendant les premiers sikcles (1893); G. Clausse,
Basihques el mosaiques chretiennes (1893) ; Ainalov, Mosaiken des IV.
u. V. Jahrhunderts (1895) ; P. Saccardo, Les Mosaiques de Saint Marc
a Venise (1896) ; A. A. Pavlovsky, Iconographie de la chapelle palatine
(1895); Di Marzo, Delle Belle arti in Sicilia ; Sangiorgi, II Battistero
della basilica Ursiana di Ravenna (1900) ; J. Kurth, Die Mosaiken
der christlichen Aera, I. Die Mosaiken von Ravenna (1902); J. P.
Richter and A. C. Taylor, The Golden Age of Classic Christian Art
(1904 ; on the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore, which the authors assign
to the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. ; some excellent reproductions are
given); Schmitt and Kluge, " Kachrie Djami " (Bulletin del'institut
imperiale russe a Constantinople, xi., 1906; text in Russian).
Moslem. Hessemer, Arabische und alt-italienische Bauver-
zierungen (1853); Prisse d'Avennes, L'Art arabe (1874-1880);
Prangey, Mosquee de Cordoue (1830) ; Owen Jones, Alhambra (1842) ;
De Vogu6, Temple de Jerusalem (1864); Texier, Asie Mineure
(1862) and L'Armenie et la Perse (1842-1852); Bourgoin, Les Arts
arabes(i868); Coste, Monuments modernesde la Perse (1867); Flandm
and Coste, Voyage en Perse (1843-1854) ; Gayet, L'Art arabe (1893).
Wood Mosaic-Tarsia. Omati del coro di S. Pietro Cassinense
di Perugia (1830); Caffi, various works on Rafaello de Brescia and
other intarsiat'ori (1851); Tarsie ed intagli di S. Lorenzo in Geneva
(1878); and Scherer, Technik und Geschichte der Intarsia (1891).
(J. H. M. ; H. S. J.)
888
MOSAIC
Modern Mosaic. The art of mosaic for mutal decoration has
never been deeply implanted in the artistic sensibilities of the
north of Europe, nor has it been employed much either in
France, or Germany, or England. It ceased to be generally
adopted in Italy when fresco, oil and tempera painting came
into vogue. Gothic architecture is ill-suited to its robust claims
as a decorative art; and the incoming fashion for the latest
and least interesting development of classical architecture,
" Palladian," divorced not only it, but mural painting also,
from all architectural schemes. To be properly consequent
and effective, buildings, ecclesiastical or public, should be
constructed with the intention of being covered almost entirely
by mosaics, which demand rich environment, marble or other
colour; mosaic is essentially a colour medium. It is therefore
scarcely surprising that when mural decoration became pre-
eminently pictorial, and gestures and expression grew compli-
cated, elaborate, and naturalistic, an art limited in its powers
of presenting such manifestation of realistic design was relegated
into the limbo of obscurity.
There are no instances of the use of mosaic in England after
the Roman occupation. The Normans, who derived it from
the Greeks and Saracens, and adopted it in Sicily, did not import
it either to France or England. Although English churches,
and French also, were highly decorated with polychromy from
early times up to the i6th century, there is no evidence of mosaic
ever having been used. The revival of a school of mosaicists in
Rome during the I7th century, employed in the decoration of
St Peter's, and here and there sparsely engaged in other churches,
led to the idea which Wren would have carried into effect,
namely, making use of mosaic for the cathedral of St Paul's in
London; but his scheme, if it was ever really entertained, was
not carried out, as we all know; and the art, which might have
become the fashion in England, remained an exotic. Even
late into the years of the igth century mosaic decoration was
regarded by classical purists as a barbarous art, and the glorious
decorations in that material to be seen in Sicily, Italy, Greece,
Asia Minor and Russia were disregarded as works of high art.
They were in many cases cut out to provide room for extravagant
and vulgar designs in fresco or tempera, unmeaning, undeco-
rative, and wholly abominable as decoration. Those Roman
mosaics over the altars in St Peter's, being copies of celebrated
oil pictures, while they cannot be denied excellence as such and
marvellous dexterity, reveal the worst possible taste, for they
attempt to represent adequately, in cubes, touches of the brush
which were spontaneous, fluid, thick and thin, and as sensitive
and spontaneous as the finger pressure on the violin string, so
accurate that the least deviation from absolute position produces
discord.
The restrictions on mosaic are many, and some are obvious.
In the first place, mosaic is not suited for a small scale of design.
It is true that in the Opera del Duomo in Florence there is a
miniature mosaic (executed in the I2th century) of extraordinary
beauty, which must have taken a lifetime to execute; but still
this remains a curiosity, a bit of craftsmanship rather than a
great work of art. There is also a copy of Mr Holman Hunt's
" Finding the Saviour in the Temple," executed for Clifton
College by assistants in Messrs Powell's establishment in White-
friars, London; it is admirably done, no doubt, but it is a long
way behind the original, which is a design wholly ill adapted
to mosaic. There are several other instances, notably one by
Mr H. Holiday of " The Last Supper," where mosaic has been
employed to translate a beautiful design which would have been
more satisfactorily executed either in oil or water colours. The
primal and most obvious limitation is in matters of detail-
detail as regards a multiplicity of forms, many gradations
either of colour or tone and naturalistic accidents. In this
respect good mosaic is like good basso relievo; it is accomplished
by firmly pronounced outlines, unconfused masses, large planes
unbroken up by small adjuncts, and generalized and convention-
alized forms and simple colour. So all small curves, as well as
small tints, should be eliminated, because it is not in the nature
of the material to do them justice. One can scarcely conceive
a choice less happy for mosaic than the centre group taken out
of the upper portion of the Disputa fresco in the Vatican by
Raphael, yet this florid piece of work, so facile in creation, was
chosen to be executed on the eastern wall of the morning chapel
in St Paul's.
It is useless to illustrate the many similar mistakes that have
been made. They were made in some of the earlier work in
the choir of St Paul's. The best example of mosaic on a small
scale is in Ravenna, the tomb of Galla Placidia; the best upon a
large scale is the great Christ at the east end of the cathedral at
Monreale. These two works absolutely justify the means to the
end. Interesting are the designs made by Sir Edward Burne-
Jones for the mosaics for the American church in Rome, but the
execution and colour are alike monotonous. The cathedral of
Chester contains a series of mosaic pictures designed by Mr
Clayton. The Guards' chapel in St James's is adorned likewise
by the same artist, under the direction of the late Sir Arthur
Blomfield. In the chapel for the school at Giggleswick are
mosaics designed by T. G. Jackson, R.A., admirably and broadly
treated in true mosaic character; these were executed in situ,
and not, according to the modern habit, upon paper, away from
their environment and by a foreign firm. Those mosaic pictures
which are placed in niches in the great gallery of South Ken-
sington Museum are failures qud mosaic, though -the designs in
many instances are fine, notably those by Lord Leighton and
Val Prinsep; but their execution is uninteresting, because the
cubes are laid so flatly and so evenly that they suggest an oil
picture appliquS upon a flat ground.
Messrs Powell have been employed on several occasions to
decorate churches with mosaic. This firm has adopted the old
style, and rejected the new one initiated by Dr Salviati of Venice.
If we observe the surface of a fine Greek mosaic, such as that of
Andrea Tafi in the Baptistery of Florence, or the few remains
of unrestored mosaic in St Mark's, Venice, or indeed other works
scattered over Italy, we shall see that it is rough, not smooth;
that the cubes are irregular in shape; that there is always a
space of the ground colour left, red or white, and visible between
each cube. In modern mosaic, with rare exceptions, restoration
or other, the cubes have been jammed up closely together, and the
surface is as smooth as a piece of paper; thereby is engendered
a mechanical and uninteresting surface, over which light plays
with monotony, and hence that brilliant and scintillating effect
so essentially the character of true mosaic is absent. This
defect and it is a grave one is evident in the works in mosaic
more or less recently set up in Paris, notably in the apse of the
Pantheon, the east end of the Madeleine, and the vaulting of
the great staircase of the Louvre. Those in the apse are finely
designed, but scarcely look like mosaic, those in the Madeleine
still less so, and the last not at all.
The artist who designs for this material must set aside all the
principles he has learned to estimate in paint, either of oil or
tempera. As an instance of a painter, pre-eminently delicate in
his colour and tone, failing as a mosaic designer we may quote
Cimabue, whose beautiful designs in the cathedral at Pisa would
have been far more effective had the artist painted them upon
the wall with the medium in the requirements of which he was
so great a master. The same criticism may apply to the mosaics
in recent years set up on the west front of Santa Maria del Fiore
in Florence. The very first principles which go to make a fine
picture are just those which should be avoided in mosaic
elaborate modelling, delicate transitions of light and shade and
picturesque effects of dark and light, materialistic resemblance
indeed. The designer for mosaic should ever bear in mind his
material, and in his designs for it he should accentuate those
characteristics which belong essentially and specifically to
mosaic and to no other technique. If he is a painter, he must
forget his lessons in that art and take up with new ones those
which teach broad masses of colour obtained in lines. He will
find that effects gained by a technique employed in oil colour
look bald and ridiculous when translated into mosaic. Water-
colour and pastel are by far the best media for cartoons to be
copied in mosaic. We do not know how these were executed
MOSAIC
in ancient days; probably the design was drawn on the wall, and
there were no cartoons. The master not only invented, but he
was the master-workman also, and that is how it should be.
The probability is that the custom of drawing the design upon
the wall practised by the early frescanti was the survival of a
method adopted by the mosaicists, just as their method repeated
that of Roman and Greek wall-painters. Of course this direct
method leads to a large style, a style harmonizing with environ-
ment, scale, &c.; the tendency is to draw large in a large building,
to draw small in a small one. Anyhow, this is quite certain, that
all the fine Byzantine and i3th century mosaics, as well as wall
paintings, were executed in situ and not away, as was the usual
custom in England and elsewhere until recently.
Mr Harry Powell has permitted the writer to make use of
some of his reflections upon the mosaicist's art in the following
notes. The mosaicist should not separate the artistic from the
technical details of his craft. He must study not only the
decorative effect, form, colour and spacing of his design, but
the surface to be covered as well as the materials with which he
builds.
Surface. Good brick-work, the mortar joints slightly cut back,
affords the best foundation for mosaic. The hollow and sharp-
edged joints provide a key for the cement into which the cubes
will be set, and they diminish the risk of sagging, a not uncommon
event if the cement is not welded to the wall by being well pressed
into the joints. If the mosaic is to be applied on stone, the stone
must be notched and well roughened to provide support. Whether
the surface is brick or stone, it must be well saturated with boiled
oil to prevent suction, because if too much suction takes place the
powder only of the cement will remain and the cubes will drop out.
Cement. A cement suitable for mosaic is one which retains its
tenacity, which can be applied in layers, which sets slowly, and
which is not liable to change colour after long exposure. These
conditions are best met by an oil cement. One consisting of equal
weights of white oxide of zinc and carbonate of zinc, mixed with
double boiled oil and containing small proportions of wax, gold size
and slacked lime gives good results. This cement can either be white
or red, white where greyness of tone is desirable, red where a richer
effect is desirable. It is generally mixed with a small portion of
oxide of iron or oxide of manganese, which prevents the whiteness
of the joints from rendering adjacent tints grey from a distance.
Atmospheric Corrosion. As the atmosphere of modern towns is
more corrosive than that of medieval Venice or medieval Rome, it
is important that, in choosing the cement and the materials to be
imbedded in it, the mosaicist should be certain that they are imper-
vious to atmospheric impurities.
Glass. Although marble, mother of pearl, and other substances
have been, and are still, occasionally used, the predominant material
in ancient as well as modern mosaics is glass. When prepared with
due regard to the continuing proportions of its ingredients, glass
is impervious to the action of ordinary acids, and is practically
indestructible. It can be made to assume almost every shade
and tint of colour (see GLASS). There are many kinds of glass,
but for mosaic work either a potash-lead or a soda-lime glass is
usually employed. Both of these glasses can be rendered opaque
by mixing with the ingredients either oxide of tin or a mixture of
felspar and fluorspar. Glass rendered opaque by the admixture
of felspar and fluorspar has a bright, vitreous, easily cleaned surface,
and readily develops brilliant colours.
Production of Colours. Colours are obtained by mixing and
melting with the ingredients of the opaque glass small proportions
of certain metallic oxides. Oxide of chalk gives a purple blue;
oxide of copper gives a peacock blue; oxide of copper with oxide of
iron gives a green; oxide of copper mixed with oxide of iron and a
strong reducing agent gives a red ; oxide of chromium a green ; oxide
of nickel a purple; oxide of uranium a yellow; and oxide of
manganese a violet or a black if a larger quantity of oxide is
used.
Manufacture of Glass Slabs. The mixtures, in a state of powder,
are shovelled into crucibles standing round the grate of a furnace,
and when fusion is complete the viscous glass can be coiled upon
the heated end of an iron rod and removed for use, very much in
the way that thick treacle may be coiled round the bowl of a spoon.
A mass of molten glass, thus collected, is allowed to fall upon a flat
iron table, and is pressed into a slab about 6 in. square and
J in. thick. The slabs are removed to an oven, where they are
allowed to cool slowly, and when cool are removed and broken
by a hammer or a miniature guillotine into tesserae or cubes The
fractured edge of the tesserae is used for the surface of the mosaic.
Gold and Silver Slabs. The tesserae containing gold or silver
leaf are as impervious to surface corrosions from the effects of
atmosphere as the solid colours. The process of manufacturing a
gold or silver slab for mosaic work is to spread the metallic leaf
on a very thin tray of transparent glass, about 5 in. in diameter,
and after it has been heated to press upon the surface of the leaf a
mass of molten glass, so as to create cohesion between the molten
glass and the glass tray through the pores of the metallic leaf.
The slabs thus Formed contain gold, silver or platinum leaf hermeti-
cally imprisoned between two layers of glass. The slabs are cut up
into tesserae or cubes by means of a diamond or glass-cutter's wheel.
Only one surface can be used for mosaic work.
Tinted Metals. By using coloured glass for the thin glass trays
which form the surface of the metallic slabs a variety of tinted
metallic effects are obtained. Moreover, if the glass which is to
form the background is coloured, and if the slab after it has been
cooled is strongly reheated, the leaf becomes sufficiently disin-
tegrated to allow the colour of the background to show through, with
the result that the colour effect of the metallic leaf is modified.
Palette and Tools. The palette of the mosaic worker is a shallow
box with many partitions, each division containing different-
coloured tesserae. The only tools required are clippers, for shaping
the tesserae, and a pointed awl for pricking through the cartoon
into the cement the outlines of the design. Although the process
and tools are simple, it requires prolonged training of mind, hand,
eye and fingers to enable a workman to create in mosaic a living
representation as distinguished from a lifeless copy of the master
craftsman's design.
Drawing directly on the Wall. Curved Surfaces. If the mosaicist
desires to draw his cartoon directly upon the wall, a necessary
procedure where curved surfaces are presented, he goes to work
in the following manner. He causes a model to be made to
scale of a dome, semi-dome or spandrel and upon it he draws
his design with a brush in strong red pigment, having previously
squared up the whole surface to scale. This done, he causes
the dome, semi-dome or spandrel to be covered over with thick
brown paper. This being attached to the wall with white lead
sufficient only to give temporary adhesion, the brown paper is
squared up to the scale of the small sketch; each square being
relatively numbered. The master then sets his pupils to work
to draw mechanically and copy accurately from the small
design on to the full-sized dome, semi-dome or spandrel. This
done, the master follows on, correcting with charcoal or brush
until the whole design is developed in strong outline. Having
made a slightly coloured sketch, the master with the aid of his
pupils proceeds to mix all the tints in water-colour, adding
colla di pesce or fish glue, and a little honey to prevent cracking.
He then applies every tint separately, keeping each distinct,
and above all minding that the local colours of all half-tints are
different from the colour of all shadows. This done, he dips
his brush in black and draws all the outlines, the thickness of
which depends upon the distance which will intervene between
his work and the spectator; in order that the black may not
appear cold from a distance, he will add to one side of the line,
a red line, thicker or thinner than the black, according to the
effect he wishes to produce. It is sometimes effective to add
upon the other side of the black line a green line, so that the
purple effect of the black and red shall be modified.
Colour. We now conie to the great question of colour and
how to obtain it simply, and so that from a distance a Warred
and woolly effect is not obtained. There should be a marked
and sharp definition between all tints; they should not be fused;
they should look sharply defined, as the squares upon a chess-
board, and appear crude and brutal. The work which looks
least refined near at hand looks more finished at a distance.
Red and blue lines alternately laid, either more red or more
blue as the purple is intended to tend towards red or blue, make
the best purple. Green is best made with yellow and blue lines,
the masses being separated by red lines, and the shadows of
green should be red or blue: if red, they should be outlined with
blue; if blue, with red. Red should be treated flatly, shaded with
a deeper red, which should be of a warmer tone than the lights.
Blue should be shaded with blue or red; and it is well to mix
green tesserae with the blue in the lights, and again green tesserae
with the blue or red shades to modify crudity. Pure white
should be very sparingly used: it expands greatly at a distance.
The best white is that which is of the tone of Naples yellow.
Whenever it is necessary to use pure white, either a yellow or
pink line should be set on one side of it.
It is impossible to keep the flesh too simple. The local colour,
i.e. a red orange, is the staple colour. Features should be drawn
8go
MOSBY MOSCHEROSCH
in strong red or burnt sienna, or a rich brown. The outlines
of limbs or the contours of faces should be made first with a
green line, a little darker than the local tints, then a red line
darker still, then a black or brown line. White draperies are
capable of being treated with endless variety. Their shadows
may be green, red, blue, grey or yellow. If the white drapery
is to take a neutral tone when seen from a distance, all these
tints should be employed, because when mixed those positive
colours appear neutral when seen from afar.
Gold drapery has a fine effect. Bright gold expands to four
times the width of the line, so that the lines of gold should be
thin. It may be that the gold drapery is to appear greenish;
when that is desirable the folds should be drawn in green out-
lined with red. All deep shades should be treated with red and
hot browns. As gold expands so considerably, a larger interval
should be left between the tesserae than between any other
colour, even white. Each tessera should have a thin space of
the ground colour round it. The tesserae should never be
jammed: it is that which causes so many modern mosaics to look
like oil-cloth or chromo-lithographs.
The Finished Cartoon. The finished cartoon, having been
coloured in lines, should look exactly like the finished mosaic
as regards effect; and the master, in making his cartoon, should
always bear in mind that he is designing for mosaic, and not
making a finished picture. The cartoon, when complete, is taken
off the wall and cut up in pieces. Each piece is then carefully
traced. The space upon the wall corresponding to each section
is then covered with cement, but only upon that portion of the
space which can be worked in mosaic in a day. The mosaic
worker then applies the portion of the tracing upon the wet
cement, and with a sharp point he pricks through the paper
upon the lines thereon drawn; on removing the tracing he will
find indents within the surface of the cement, which give him
his cue to all the forms. Setting up the coloured design by his
side, he takes the tesserae, which exactly correspond in colour
and tone with those on the drawing, and begins his work,
commencing from the outline and working inwards towards
the centre, the lightest portion being left to the last. Here
comes in the real test whether the craftsman is capable or the
reverse. This is soon judged by the master, who will put the
work in and out until he is satisfied with the result. Unless the
master has himself gone through the drudgery of laying the
cubes he can be no teacher. He must be a craftsman as well as
a designer, and must know by experience and practice in a very
difficult craft what the material can do with ease and what it is
not called upon to do by reason of its inherent limitations. If
he has not so trained himself he is certain to pictorialize what he
should conventionalize; and, moreover, he will set technical
difficulties in the way which are impossible to overcome. He
must aim at the greatest simplicity without dullness, at
producing the greatest effect by the simplest means, and to do
that he must know his material or fail. (W. B. Ri.)
MOSBY, JOHN SINGLETON (1833- ), American soldier,
was born in Edgemont, Powhatan county, Virginia, on the 6th
of December 1833. He graduated at the university of Virginia
in 1852, was admitted to the bar in 1855, and practised law in
Bristol, Washington county, Virginia, until the beginning of the
Civil War, when he joined the cause of the South. He enlisted
as a private in the Washington Mounted Rifles, which became
a part of General J. E. B. Stuart's ist Virginia Cavalry, and of
which he was adjutant for a time. In June 1862, after having
gone over the ground alone on scouting duty, he accompanied
Stuart in his ride round McClellan's entire army. Early in
1863 he secured Stuart's permission to undertake a quasi-inde-
pendent command. In Fairfax county and then in Fauquier
and Loudoun counties (known as Mosby's Confederacy), within
the Federal lines, he raised, mounted, armed and equipped a
force of irregulars. On the night of the 8th of March 1863,
with about 30 men, he penetrated the Federal lines at Fairfax
Court-House and took 33 prisoners, including Brigadier-General
Edwin H. Stoughton, commanding the 2nd Vermont brigade;
and he became famous for other such exploits. In the North
he was regarded as a guerilla who disregarded the rules of war,
and in the autumn of 1864, Sheridan, acting under orders from
Grant, shot and hanged seven of Mosby's men without trial; in
November Mosby retaliated by hanging seven of Custer's cavalry-
men. Eventually, on the 2ist of April 1865, twelve days after the
surrender of General Lee, he disbanded his men and surrendered;
and through the influence of General Grant, who later became
his personal friend, he was paroled. He returned to his legal
practice, joined the Republican party, canvassed Virginia in
1872 for General Grant, in 1878-1885 was United States consul at
Hong-Kong, and after practising law in San Francisco, was
assistant attorney in the Federal Department of Justice from
1904 to 1910. He wrote Mosby's Reminiscences and Stuart's
Cavalry Campaigns (Boston, 1887), and a defence of Stuart and
of Lee Stuart's Cavalry in the Gettysburg Campaign (New
York, 1908).
See J. Marshall Crawford, Mosby and his Men (New York, 1867) ;
A. Monteiro, War Reminiscences by the Surgeon of Mosby's Command
(Richmond, Virginia, 1890); James J. Williamson, Mosby's Rangers
(New York, 1900) ; John W. Munson, Reminiscences of a Mosby
Guerrilla (New York, 1906); John H. Alexander, Mosby's Men
(New York, 1907); and Partisan Life with Mosby (New York, 1867),
by John Scott, who drafted the Partisan Ranger Law, under which
Mosby's command operated.
MGSCHELES, I6NAZ (1794-1870), Bohemian pianist, was
born at Prague on the 3Oth of May 1794, and studied music
at the Conservatorium under the direction of Dionys Weber.
At the age of fourteen he made his first appearance before the
public in a pianoforte concerto of his own composition with
marked success. In 1814 he prepared, with Beethoven's con-
sent, the pianoforte arrangement of Fidelia, afterwards pub-
lished by Messrs Artaria. In the following year he published
his celebrated Variationen uber den Alexandermarsch, a concert
piece of great difficulty, which he played with so great effect
that he was at once recognized as the most brilliant performer
of the day. He then started on a tour, during the course of
which he visited most of the great capitals of Europe, making
his first appearance in London in 1822, and there securing the
friendship of Muzio Clementi and John Cramer. For a concert
given by the latter he wrote his famous Hommage a Handel, a
duet for two pianofortes, which afterwards became a lasting
favourite with the public. During a visit to Berlin in 1824 he
first became acquainted with Mendelssohn, then a boy of fifteen;
and a friendship sprang up between them which was severed
only by Mendelssohn's early death (see Briefe von Mendelssohn-
Bartholdy an Ignaz und Charlotte Moscheles, 1888). In 1826
Moscheles married Charlotte Embden at Hamburg, and settled
permanently in London. He was undoubtedly for some con-
siderable time the greatest executant of his age; but, using his
brilliant touch as a means and not as an end, he consistently
devoted himself to the further development of the true classical
school, interpreting the works of the great masters with con-
scientious fidelity, and in his extempore performances, which were
of quite exceptional excellence, exhibiting a fertility of invention
which never failed to please the most fastidious taste. In 1837
Moscheles conducted Beethoven's Ninth Symphony at the
Philharmonic Society's concerts with extraordinary success, and
by his skilful use of the baton contributed to the prosperity of
this association. During the course of his long residence in
London he laboured incessantly in the cause of art, until the year
1846, when, at Mendelssohn's earnest solicitation, he removed to
Leipzig to carry on a similar work at the Conservatorium, then
recently founded. In this new sphere he worked with unabated
zeal for many years, dying on the loth of March 1870. Moscheles'
numbered works extend to 142, apart from minor pieces; his
most important compositions are his Pianoforte Concertos,
Sonatas and Studies (Etudes, op. 70; and Characteristische Studien,
op. 95); Hommage a Handel; and his three Allegri di bravura,
See The Life of Moscheles (1873), a translation by A. D. Coleridge
of Mme Moscheles' Aus Moscheles Leben (1872).
MOSCHEROSCH, JOHANN MICHAEL (1601-1669), German
satirist, was born at Willstadt, near Strassburg, on the 5th of
March 1601. He received a careful early education at the
MOSCHOPULUS MOSCOW
891
Latin School at Strassburg, and in 1620 began his academic career
as a student of jurisprudence. After being for some years tutor
in the family of the Graf von Leiningen-Dachsburg, he
finally became privy councillor to the landgravine of Hesse-
Cassel. He died at Worms on the 4th of April 1669. Under
the name of " Der Traumende," Moscherosch was a member of
the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, a society founded by Prince
Ludwig of Anhalt-Cothen, in 1617, for the purification of the
German language and the fostering of German literature. His
most famous work is the Wunderliche und wahrhaftige Gesichte
Philanders von Sittewald (anagram of Willstadt) (1642-1643),
for which he took as his model the Suenos (visions) of the
famous Spaniard Francisco Gomez de Quevedo y Villegas
(1580-1645). Hardly inferior to the " visions " is the Imomnis
cura parentum, Christliches Vermachtnis eines Voters, which was
published at Strassburg in 1643 and again in 1647. Note-
worthy is also Die Patientia, discovered in 1897 in MS. in the
municipal library at Hamburg.
Selections from Moscherosch's writings have been published by
W. Dittmar (1830), F. Bobertag (in Kurschner's Deutsche National-
lileratur, xxxii., 1884), and K. Muller (in Reclam's Universalbib-
liothek). Reprints of the Insomnis cura parentum and Patientia
have been published by L. Pariser (1893 and 1897), who is also the
author of Beitrage zu einer Biographic von Moscherosch (1891).
See also M. Nickels, Moscherosch als Padagog (1883); J. Wirth
Moscherosch' s Gesichte (1888).
MOSCHOPULUS ("little calf ," probably a nickname), MANUEL,
Byzantine commentator and grammarian, lived during the end
of the I3th and the beginning of the I4th century. His chief
work is 'Efxiir-finara 7pa^/itm/cd, in the form of question and
answer, based upon an anonymous epitome of grammar, and
supplemented by a lexicon (<rv\\oyri) of Attic nouns. He was
also the author of scholia on the first and second books of
the Iliad, on Hesiod, Theocritus, Pindar and other
classical and later authors; of riddles, letters, and a treatise
on the magic sauares. His grammatical treatises formed the
foundation of the labours of such promoters of classical studies
as Manuel Chrysoloras, Theodoras Gaza, Guarini, and Con-
stantine Lascaris.
A selection from his works under the title of Manuelis Moschopuli
opuscula grammatica was published by F. N. Titze (Leipzig, 1822);
see also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur
(1897) and M. Treu, Maximi monachi Planudis epistulae (1890),
p. 208.
MOSCHUS, Greek bucolic poet and friend of the Alexandrian
grammarian Aristarchus, was born at Syracuse and flourished about
150 B.C. He was the author of a short epic poem, Europa, and a
pretty little epigram, Love, the Runaway, imitated by Torquato
Tasso and Ben Jonson. The epitaph on Bion of Smyrna, wrongly
supposed to have been his tutor, was in all probability written
about the time of Sulla (see F. Biicheler in Rheinisches Museum,
xxx., 1875). The poem on Megara (the wife of Heracles) is
probably not his, but a few other pieces, undoubtedly genuine,
have been preserved. His poems are nearly all in hexameters.
They are usually printed in editions of Bion and Theocritus,
and have been translated into many European languages.
The text has been edited by U. von Wilamowitz-Mollendorff,
in the Oxford Scriptorum classicorum bibliotheca (1905); there are
English translations by I. Banks in Bonn's Classical Library (1853),
and by Andrew Lang (1889), together with Bion and Theocritus.
See F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexan-
drinerzeit. i. 231 (1891), and article BION.
MOSCOW (Russian Moskva}, a government of Central Russia,
bounded by the governments of Tver on the N.W., Vladimir
and Ryazan on the E., Tula and Kaluga on the S., and Smolensk
on the W., and having an area of 12,855 S Q- m - The surface is
undulating, with broad depressions occupied by the rivers, and
varies in elevation from 500 to 850 ft. The government is
situated in the centre of the Moscow coal-basin, which extends
into the neighbouring governments. Its geology has been
carefully studied, and it appears that in the Tertiary period
the surface of this province was already continental; but during
the Cretaceous period it was to some extent overflowed by the
sea. Jurassic deposits are represented by their upper divisions
only; the lower ones, as well as Triassic and Permian deposits,
are wanting. The Carboniferous deposits are of a deep-sea
origin, and are only represented by the upper division which
lies upon Devonian deposits, discovered in an artesian well at
Moscow at a depth of 1508 ft. The pendulum anomaly, men-
tioned by Kaspar Gottfried Schweitzer (1816-1873), has been
investigated. It appears in a zone 10 m. wide and about 95 m.
long from west to east, and is positive (+10-6*) to the north
of Moscow and negative ( 2-7") to the south.
The government is drained by the Volga, which skirts it for a
few miles on its northern boundary, by the navigable Sestra,
which brings it into communication with the canals leading to
St Petersburg, by the Oka, and by the Moskva. The Oka
and Moskva from a remote period have been important channels
of trade, and continue to be so notwithstanding the develop-
ment of the railways. The Oka brings the government into
water communication with the Volga. Extensive forests
(39 % of the entire area) still exist. The soil is somewhat unpro-
ductive; agriculture is carried on everywhere, but only two
districts export corn, all the others being more or less dependent
on extraneous supplies. The principal crops are rye, oats,
barley, potatoes, with some flax, hemp and hops.
The population, 1,913,700 in 1873, numbered 2,430,549 in
1897, and 2,733,300 in 1906. They are nearly all Great-Russians
and belong to the Greek Church (4% Nonconformists). The
importance of the Moscow government as a manufacturing
centre is steadily increasing, and it now stands first in Russia.
The chief factories are for cottons, woollens, silks, clothing,
chemicals, sugar refineries, distilleries, iron-works. There is
besides a very great variety of minor industries such as those
concerned with gold thread and gold brocades, gold and silver
jewelry, bronze, perfumery, sweets, tobacco, tanneries, gutta-
percha, furniture, carriages, wall-paper, toys, baskets, lace,
and papier-mache. The government is divided into 13 districts.
The prehistoric archaeology of Moscow has been carefully
studied. This district has been inhabited since the Stone Age.
Bronze implements are rare, and there are places where instru-
ments of stone, bone and iron are found together. The inhabi-
tants who constructed the burial mounds in the loth to i2th
centuries seem to have been of Finnish origin, and were poorer,
as a rule, than their contemporaries on the Volga.
MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva), the second capital of the
Russian empire, and chief town of the government of the same
name, in 55 45' N. and 37 37' E., on both banks of the
river Moskva, a tributary of the Oka. It is by rail 400 m.
from St Petersburg, 1017 from Odessa, and 814 from Warsaw.
It lies to the north of the most densely peopled parts of Russia
(the " black-earth region "), whilst the country to the north
of it is rather thinly peopled as far as the Volga, and very
sparsely beyond that. The space between the middle Oka
and the Volga, however, was the cradle of the Great-Russian
nationality (Novgorod and Pskov excluded); and four or five
centuries ago Moscow had a quite central position with regard
to that region.
The present city covers an area of 32 sq. m. (about 40 when
the suburbs are included). In the centre, on the left bank of
the Moskva, stands the Kreml or Kremlin, occupying the
Borovitsky hill. To the east of the Kremlin is the Kitay-Gorod,
formerly the Great Posad, the chief centre of trade. The
Byelyi-Gorod, which was formerly enclosed by a stone wall
(whence the name), surrounds the Kremlin and the Kitay-Gorod
on the west, north, and north-east. A line of boulevards now
occupies the place of its wall (destroyed in the i8th century),
and forms a first circle of streets round the centre of Moscow.
The Zemlyanoy-Gorod (earthen enclosure) surrounds the
Byelyi-Gorod, including the Zamoskvoryechie on the right
bank of the Moskva. The earthen wall and palisade that
formerly enclosed it no longer exist, their place being taken
by a series of broad streets with gardens on both sides the
Sadovaya, or Gardens Street. The fourth enclosure (the Kamer
College earthen wall) was made during the reign of Catherine II.;
it is of irregular shape, and encloses the outer parts of Moscow,
892
MOSCOW
whilst the suburbs and the villages which have sprung up on
the highways extend some miles beyond.
The Kremlin is an old fort of pentagonal (nearly triangular)
shape, about 100 acres in extent, occupying a hill 130 ft. above
the level of the Moskva. It is enclosed by a high stone battle-
mented wall 2430 yds. in length, restored during the ipth
century, and having nineteen towers. Its five gates are sur-
mounted by towers and are all noteworthy. The Spaskiya
(Saviour's; Gate was erected in 1491 by a Milanese architect;
the Gothic tower (203 ft.) that surmounts it was added in 1626
by the English architect, Holloway. A sacred picture of the
Saviour (the " palladium of Moscow ") was placed upon it in
1647, and all who pass through the gate uncover. The towers
surmounting the other four gates were erected by order of
Ivan III. Of the sacred buildings of the Kremlin the most
venerated is the' Uspenskiy cathedral. The former church of
this name was erected in 1326 by the tsar, Ivan Kalita, but,
on its falling into disrepair, a new one was built on the same
place in 1475-1479, by the Bolognese architect, Fioraventi,
in the Lombardo-Byzantine style, with Indian cupolas. It was
restored each time after being pillaged or burnt in 1493, 1547,
1682 and 1812. It contains the oldest and most venerated
holy pictures in Russia, one of which is attributed to the metro-
politan Peter, another to St Luke. The cathedral possesses
also the throne of Vladimir I., and numerous relics of saints,
some of which date from the I4th century. The Russian
metropolitans and patriarchs were consecrated in this cathedral,
as well as the tsars after Ivan IV. The Arkhangel cathedral,
on the opposite side of the square, was originally built in 1333,
and a new one was erected in its place in 1505-1508. It contains
the tombs of the tsars from Ivan Kalita (1340) to Ivan Alexeivich
(1696), and possesses vast wealth. The Blagovyeshchensk
cathedral, recalling the churches of Mount Athos (in Turkey),
was first built in 1397, rebuilt in 1484-1489, and restored in
1883-1896; the remarkable pictures of Rublev (1405) are still
preserved. It was the private chapel of the tsars, and in it
they are baptized and married. Vestiges of a very old church,
that of the Saviour in the Wood, contemporaneous with the
foundation of Moscow, still exist in the yard of the palace. A
stone church took the place of the old wooden structure in 1330,
and was rebuilt in 1527. The Voznesensky convent, erected
in 1380-1393, and restored in the end of the igth century, is
the burial-place of wives and sisters of the tsars. The Chudov
monastery, erected in 1358-1365 and rebuilt in 1771, was the
residence of the metropolitans of Moscow and a state prison.
Close by, the great campanile of Ivan Veliky, erected in the
Lombardo-Byzantine style by Boris Godunov, in 1600,
rises to the height of 271 ft. (318 ft. including the cross), and
contains many bells, one of which weighs 645 tons. Close by
is the well-known Tsar-Kolokol (king of the bells), 65 ft. in
circumference round the rim, 19 ft. high, and weighing 1983 tons.
It was cast in 1735, and broken during the fire of 1737 before
being hung. The treasury of the patriarchs in the campanile
of Ivan Veliky contains not only such articles of value as the
sakkos (episcopal robes) of the metropolitans with 70,000 pearls,
but also very remarkable monuments of Russian archaeology.
The library has 500 Greek and 1000 very rare Russian MSS.,
including a Gospel of the 8th century.
The great palace of the tsars, erected in 1838-1849, is a fine
building in white stone with a gilded cupola. It contains the
terems, or rooms erected by Tsar Michael Feodorovich for the
young princes his sons in 1636 (restoreoMn 1836-1849, their former
character being maintained), a remarkable memorial of the
domestic life of the tsars in the I7th century. In the treasury
of the tsars, in the Orujeynaya Palata, now public museums,
the richest stores connected with old Russian archaeology are
preserved crowns, thrones, dresses, various articles of house-
hold furniture belonging to the tsars, Russian and Mongolian
arms, carriages, &c. The Granovitaya Palata, another wing
of the great palace, consists of a single-vaulted apartment
built in 1473-1490, and is used as a state banqueting hall.
The four sides of the Senate Square are occupied by buildings
of various dates, from the isth century onwards. Among them
is the imposing senate, now the law courts, erected by Catherine
II. (1771-1785). Facing it is the arsenal (1701-1736). Thetemple
of the Saviour, begun in 1817 in commemoration of the events
of the French campaign of 1812, was abandoned in 1827, and
a new one was built during 1838-1883 on a hill on the bank of
the Moskva, at a short distance from the Kremlin. Its style
is Lombardo-Byzantine, with 1 modifications suggested by the
military taste of Nicholas I.
The Kitay-Gorod, which covers 121 acres, is the chief com-
mercial quarter of Moscow. It contains the new bazaars, a
triple block of buildings erected in 1888-1893 m sandstone, at
a cost of over 1,630,800, and the Gostinoy Dvor, consisting
of several stone buildings divided into 1200 shops. The Red
Square, 900 yds. long, with a stone tribunal in the middle,
which was formerly the forum, market cross and place of execu-
tion separates the bazaar from the Kremlin. At its lower
end stands the fantastic Pokrovsky Cathedral (usually known
as Vasili Blazhennyi), one of the wonders of Moscow, on account
of its towers, all differing from each other and representing,
in their variety of colours, pine-apples, melons and the like.
It was begun by Ivan the Terrible in 1554 to commemorate the
conquest of Kazan, but not completed until 1679. It was
plundered and desecrated by the French in 1812, but restored
in 1839-1845. The exchange, built in 1838 and restored in 1873,
is very lively, and its " exchange artels " (associations of nearly
2000 brokers) are worthy of remark. Banks, houses of great
commercial firms, streets full of old book-shops carrying on a
very large trade, and finally the Tolkuchy rynok, the market
of the poorest dealers in old clothes, occupy the Kitay-Gorod,
side by side with restaurants of the highest class. In this
quarter are also situated the house of the Romanovs, the reigning
dynasty of Russia, rebuilt and refurnished in 1859 in exact
conformity with its former shape; and the printing-office of
the synod of the Orthodox Greek Church, founded in 1563 and
containing about 600 MSS. and 10,000 very old printed books,
together with a typographical museum. At the entrance to
the Kitay-Gorod stands the chapel of the highly venerated
Virgin of Iberia, a copy made in 1648, of a holy picture placed
on the chief gate of the monastery of Mt Athos.
The northern parts of the Byelyi-Gorod are also the centre
of a lively trade. Here are situated the Okhotnyi Ryad (poultry
and game market) and the streets Tverskaya, Petrovka and
Kuznetsky-Most the rendezvous of the world of fashion. Here
also are the theatres, the industrial art museum, imperial bank
(1894), and Rozhdestvensky convent (founded in 1386). In the
south-west of the Byelyi-Gorod, opposite the Alexander Garden
on the west side of the Kremlin, stand the university (see below),
museum of domestic industries, Rumyantsev Museum and
church of the Redeemer. This last, built in the form of a Greek
cross in 1837-1883 at a cost of nearly 1,600,000, is dominated
by five gilded domes and faced externally with marble. The
interior is harmoniously decorated with gold and marble, and
adorned with pictures by Verestctagin and other Russian
artists. In the east of the city are three monasteries all dating
from the I4th century.
The Zemlyanoy-Gorod, which has arisen from villages that
surrounded Moscow, exhibits varied characteristics. In the
neighbourhood of the railway stations it has busy centres of
traffic; other parts are manufacturing quarters, whilst others
for instance, the small quiet streets on the west of the boulevard
Prechistenka, called the old Konushennaya, with their wooden
houses and spacious courtyards are the true abodes of the
families of the old, for the most part decayed, but still proud,
nobility. The Zamoskvoryechie, on the right bank of the
Moskva, is the abode of the patriarchal merchant families.
The climate of Moscow is cold and continental, but healthy.
The average annual temperature is 40-1 F. (Jan., 14;
July, 66-5). The summer is warm (64-2), and the winter
cold and dry (15-8), great masses of snow lying in the streets.
The spring, as is usually the case in cold continental climates,
is beautiful. The prevailing winds are south-west and south.
MOSCOW
893
The river Moskva is frozen, on the average, for 153 days (from
Nov. 12 to April 13).
The Moskva is crossed by five bridges; a branch of it, or rather
a channel, makes an elongated island in the middle of the city.
Water of excellent quality, principally from the Mytishchi
springs and pounds, n m. distant, has since 1893 been led
to fountains in different parts of the city, whence it is distributed
by watermen.
The population was estimated at only 150,000 in the middle
of the i8th century, and at 250,000 in 1812. Since 1870 it has
been growing at the rate of about 2\ % per annum; (1872),
601,969; (1882), 753,469; (1902), 1,092,360, or including the
suburbs 1,173,427: (est. 1907), 1,359,254. The housing problem
is of great importance in Moscow, as it appears that over 10%
of the domiciles are underground. And while the average for
the city is two occupants to each room, there are more than
10,000 domiciles which have more than four occupants to each
room, representing one-fourth of the population. The average
mortality is consequently high, namely 28 per 1000 (33 per 1000
if the children inmates of the Foundling House be included).
Fires occur very frequently. The inhabitants are mostly Great-
Russians. They belong chiefly to the Orthodox Greek Church,
or are Nonconformists; the Lutherans number 2% and the
Roman Catholics i %.
Since the I4th century Moscow has been an important com-
mercial city. About the end of the isth century its princes
transported to Moscow, Vladimir, and other Russian towns
no fewer than 18,000 of the richest Novgorod merchant families,
and took over the entire trade of that city, entering into direct
relations with Narva and Livonia. The annexation of Kazan
(1552) and the conquest of Siberia (1580-1600) gave a new
importance to Moscow, bringing it into direct commercial
relations with Khiva, Bokhara and China, and supplying it
with Siberian furs. The fur-trade had a great fascination
for all European merchants in the i6th century, and an English
company, having received the monopoly of the Archangel trade,
caused their merchandise to be sent by the White Sea instead
of by the Baltic. Moscow thus became the centre for nearly the
entire trade of Russia, and the tsar himself engaged in large
commercial operations. Situated at the intersection of six
important highways, Moscow was the storehouse and exchange-
mart for the merchandise of Europe and Asia. The opening
of the port at St Petersburg affected its commercial interest
unfavourably at first; but the Asiatic trade and internal trade
of Moscow have since then enormously increased. Here are
concentrated the traffic in grain, in hemp and in oils sent to
the Baltic ports; in tea, brought both by way of Siberia and
of St Petersburg; in sugar, refined here in large quantities;
in grocery wares for the supply of more than half Russia and all
Siberia; in tallow, skins, wool, metals, timber, wooden wares,
iron and steel goods, wine, drugs, raw cotton, silk and all other
produce of the manufactures of middle Russia. As a railway
centre the city plays so predominant a part that \ to \ of all
the goods carried by the railways of European Russia are loaded
or unloaded at Moscow. The banks, including the mortgage
banks, are the most important in Russia.
From the isth century onwards the villages around Moscow
were renowned for the variety of small industries which they
carried on; the first large manufactures in cottons, woollen
fabrics, silk, china and glass in Great-Russia were established
at Moscow in the I7th and i8th centuries. After 1830, in con-
sequence of protection tariffs, the manufactories in the govern-
ment of Moscow rapidly increased in number; but two-thirds
of them are now concentrated in the capital. Moscow is in
fact the principal manufacturing city in the empire, employing
about 100,000 operatives in her mills and factories. Nearly
one-half of them are engaged in the textile industries, especially
calico-printing. Next in importance comes the preparation
of food-stuffs, followed by the metal and metallurgical industries
" and the chemical works.
Moscow has many educational institutions and scientific
societies. The university, founded in 1755, exercised a powerful
influence on the intellectual life of Russia during the years
1830-1848; and it still continues to be the most frequented
Russian university. In 1904 it had over 5000 students, who
are mostly poor. The library contains some 286,000 volumes,
and has rich collections in mineralogy, geology and zoology.
Among the museums the Rumyantsev, now connected with the
so-called public museum, occupies the first rank. It contains
a library of 700,000 volumes and 2300 MSS., remarkable collec-
tions of old pictures, sculptures and prints, as well as an extensive
minera'ogical collection, and an ethnographical collection
representing very accurately the various races of Russia. The
private museum of Prince Golitsui contains a good collection
of paintings and MSS. The Shchukin Museum contains Russian
antiquities, pictures and objects of industrial art. A number
of excellent free libraries have been opened, two of them con-
taining valuable collections of books and MSS. 4 The remarkable
Tretyakov gallery of pictures, chiefly of the Russian school,
has been presented (1892) by its owner to the city. The phil-
anthropic institutions include the vast foundling hospital (1764).
The municipal relief of the poor was entirely reorganized in
1894, partly on the Elberfeld system and partly on quite new
and original lines.
Moscow is surrounded by beautiful parks and picturesque
suburbs. Of the former one of the most frequented is the
Petrovsky Park, to the north-west, with a castle built in 1776,
burnt by the French in 1812, but rebuilt in 1840. A little farther
out is the Petrovskoye Razumovskoye estate, with an agricul-
tural academy (1865) and its dependencies (botanical garden,
experimental farm, &c.). Another large park and wood surround
an imperial palace (1796) in the village of Ostankino. The
private estates of Kuzminski, Kuskovo and Kuntsevo are also
surrounded by parks; the last has remains of a very old grave-
yard, supposed to belong to the pagan period. In the south-
west, on the right bank of the Moskva, which here makes a
great loop to the south, are the Vorobyevy hills, which are
accessible by steamer from Moscow, and afford one of the best
views of the capital. In the loop of the Moskva is situated the
Novo-Dyevichy or Virgins' convent, erected in 1524 and con-
nected with Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, and many events
of Russian history. In the south, on the road to Serpukhov,
is the village of Kolomenskoye, founded in 1237, a favourite
residence of Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great, with a church
built in 1537, a striking monument of Russian architecture,
restored in 1880. The monastery Nikolo-Ugryeshskiy, 12 m.
from the city, between the Kursk and Ryazan railways,
occupies a beautiful site and is much visited by Moscow mer-
chants, to venerate a holy picture by which Dmitry Donskoi
is said to have been blessed before going to fight (1380) the
Mongols. In the north, the forest of Sokolniki, covering 4^
sq. m., with its radial avenues and numerous summer
residences, is the part of Moscow most frequented by the middle
classes.
History. The Russian annals first mention Moscow in 1147
as a place where Yuri Dolgoruki, prince of Suzdal, met Svya-
toslav of Syeversk and his allies. The site was inhabited from
a very remote antiquity by the Merya and Mordvinians, whose
remains are numerous in the neighbourhood, and it was well
peopled by Great-Russians in the i2th century. To the end
of the i3th century Moscow remained a dependency of the princes
of Vladimir, and suffered from the raids of the Mongols, who
burned and plundered it in 1237 and 1293. Under Daniel,
son of Alexander Nevsky (1261-1302), the prince of Moscow
first acquired importance for the part he took in the wars against
the Lithuanians. He annexed to his principality Kolomna,
situated at the confluence of the Moskva with the Oka. His
son in 1302 annexed Pereyaslavl Zalesky, and in the following
year Mozhaisk (thus taking possession of the Moskva from its
source to its mouth), and so inaugurated a policy which lasted
for centuries, and consisted in the annexation by purchase and
other means of the neighbouring towns and villages. In 1300
the Kremlin, or fort, was enclosed by a strong wall of earth and
timber, offering a protection to numerous emigrants from the
8 94
MOSEL MOSELLE-LINE
Tver and Ryazan principalities. Under Ivan Kalita (1325-1341)
the principality of Vladimir where the princes of Kiev and
the metropolitan of Russia had taken refuge after the wars
that desolated south-western Russia became united with
Moscow; and in 1325 the metropolitan Peter established his
seat at Moscow, thus giving new importance and powerful
support to the young principality. In 1367 the Kremlin was
enclosed within stone walls, which proved strong enough to
resist the Lithuanians under Olgierd (1368 and 1371). Kalita's
grandson, Dmitry Donskoi, annexed the dominions of Starodub
and Rostov, and took part in the renowned battle of Kulikovo
(1380), on the Don in the government of Tula, where the Russians
ventured for the first time to oppose the Mongols-, in a great
pitched battle. Two years after the battle of Kulikovo Moscow
was taken and plundered (fcr the last time) by Toktamish, khan
of the Golden Hbrde of the Mongols.
The increase of the principality continued during the first
half of the isth century, and at the death of Vasili (or Basil)
the Blind, in 1462, it included not only the whole of what is
now the government of Moscow, but also large parts of the
present governments of Kaluga, Tula, Vladimir, Nijniy-Nov-
gorod, Kostroma, Vyatka, Vologda, Yaroslav and Tver. It
was not however until the reign (1462-1505) of Ivan III. that
the prince of Moscow set up claims to other parts of Russia, and
called himself "Ruler of all Russia." In 1520 Moscow was said
to contain 45,000 houses and 100,000 inhabitants. Ivan IV.
annexed Novgorod and Pskov to Moscow, and subdued Kazan
and Astrakhan. But after his reign Moscow suffered from a
long series of misfortunes. In 1547 two conflagrations destroyed
nearly the whole of the city, and a few days later the Tatar khan
of the Crimea advanced against it with 100,000 men. He was
compelled to retire from the banks of the Oka, but in 1571,
taking advantage of the state into which Russia was brought
by the extravagances of Ivan, he took Moscow and burned all
the city outside the Kremlin. The gates of the Kremlin having
been shut, thousands of people perished in the flames, and the
annals record that of the 2oo.,ooo who then formed the population
of Moscow, only 30,000 remained. In 1591 the Tatars of the
Crimea were again in Moscow and avenged their repulse from
the Kremlin on the inhabitants of the unfortified town. Mean-
while the political influence of the boyars had gradually increased.
The peasants, who settled on their lands, or on the estates which
the prince bestowed upon his boyars, had become serfs; and the
political tendency of the boyars, supported by the wealthier
middle classes (which had also a rapid development in the same
century), was to become rulers of Russia, like the noblesse of
Poland. During the reign of Feodor or Theodore (1584-1598),
Boris Godunov, the regent, ordered the murder of the heir to
the throne, Demetrius, son of Ivan IV.,. and himself became tsar
of Russia. Moscow suffered severely in the struggle which
ensued, especially when the populace rose and exterminated
the Polish garrison, on which occasion the whole of the city
outside the Kremlin was again burned and plundered. But
in compensation it acquired in the eyes of the nation a greatly
increased importance, as a stronghold against foreign invasions.
The Novo-dyevichy or Virgins' nunnery, which the Poles be-
sieged (1610) without taking, was invested with a higher sanctity.
The city also by-and-by recovered its commercial importance,
and this the more as other commercial cities were ruined, or
fell into the hands of foreigners; and thirty years later Moscow
was again a wealthy city. Owing, however, to the ever-increas-
ing concentration of power in the hands of the tsar, and the
steady development of autocracy, it lost much of its political
importance, and assumed more and more, especially under
Alexis Mikhailovich (1645-1676), the character of a private
estate of the tsar, its suburbs becoming mere dependencies of
his vast household.
During the whole of the I7th century Moscow continued to be
the scene of many troubles and internal struggles. The people
several times revolted against the favourites of the tsar, and
were subdued only by cruel executions, in which the slrellzy a
class of citizens and merchants rendering hereditary military
service supported the tsar. Afterwards appeared the raskol
or nonconformist movement, and in 1648, when the news spread
that Stenka Razin was advancing on Moscow "to settle his
accounts with the boyars," the populace was kept from rising
only by severe repressive measures and by the defeat of the
invader. Later on, the sirellzy themselves engaged in a series of
rebellions, which led the youthful Peter the Great to suppress
them (1698) amid streams of blood. The opposition encountered
at Moscow to his plans of reforming Russia according to his
ideal of military autocracy, the conspiracies of the boyars and
merchants, the distrust of the mass of the people, all compelled
him afterwards to leave (1703) the city, and to seek, as his
ancestors had done, a new capital. This he founded at St
Petersburg on the very confines of the military empire he was
trying to establish.
In the course of the i8th century Moscow became the seat
of a passive and discontented opposition to the St Petersburg
government. Peter the Great, wishing to see Moscow like other
capitals of western Europe, ordered that only stone houses
should be built within the walls of the town, that the streets
should be paved, and so on; but his orders were only partially
executed. In 1722 the Kremlin was restored. In 1739 the
city became once more the prey of a great conflagration; two
others followed in 1748 and 1753, and gave an opportunity for
enlarging some streets and squares. Catherine II. tried to
conciliate the nobility, and applied herself to benefit the capital
with new and useful buildings, such as the senate house, the
foundlings' and several other hospitals, salt stores,' &c.
The last public disaster was experienced by Moscow in 1812.
On the I3th of September, six days after the battle of Borodino,
the Russians troops evacuated Moscow, and the next day the
French occupied the Kremlin. The same night, while Napoleon
was waiting for a deputation of Moscow notables, and received
only a deputation of the rich raskolnik merchants, the capital
was set on fire through the carelessness of its own inhabitants
(it was no heroic deed of Roztopchin's), the bazaar, with its
stores of wine, spirits and chemical stuffs, becoming the prey
of the flames. The inhabitants abandoned the city, and it
was pillaged by the French troops, as well as by Russians them-
selves, and the burning of Moscow became the" signal of a general
rising of the peasants against the French. The want of supplies
and the impossibility of wintering in a ruined city, continually
attacked by cossacks and peasants, compelled Napoleon to leave
Moscow on the igth of October, after he had unsuccessfully
attempted to blow up certain parts of the Kremlin.
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
MOSEL (Fr. Moselle}, a river of France and Germany,
a left-bank tributary of the Rhine. It rises at an altitude
of 241 1 ft. on the west flank of the Vosges, close to the Franco-
German frontier, and a little N. of the Ballon d'Alsace.
It flows first N.W. through the French department of Vosges,
bends towards N. through that of Meurthe-et-Moselle, forms
the Franco-German frontier for a short distance below Pagny,
and enters Lorraine. From Sierck to Wasserbillig it forms
the frontier between the Rhine Province and Luxemburg,
then, turning N.E., it follows a sinuous course and reaches
the Rhine at Coblenz. The principal towns on the banks of
the Mosel are, in France: Remiremont, Epinal, Toul and Pont-
a-Mousson; in Germany: Metz, Diedenhofen, Trier (Treves)
and Coblenz. The Mosel receives the waters of the Moselotte,
Meurthe, Seille and Saar (its principal tributary) on the right,
and the Madon, Orne and Sauer on the left. Navigation for
small vessels extends downwards from Fronard, a little below
Nancy, the Mosel canal affording communication from a point
above Metz to the frontier. In the lower part of the valley are
the vineyards from which the well-known Mosel wines are
produced. The valley of the Mosel, especially the part between
Trier and Kochem, is noted both for picturesque scenery and
for many sites of antiquarian interest. The length of the river
is 314 m.
MOSELLE-LINE, the designation of a line of French barrier
forts (forts d'arret) on the upper Moselle between the fortresses
MOSEN MOSES
895
of Epinal and Belfort (see these articles, also MEUSE LINE and
articles referred to therein). The purpose of. this line, the
separate forts of which command the relatively few lines of
advance from upper Alsace through the Vosges, is to deflect
a possible German invasion from Alsace either towards Belfort
or towards the open gap between Epinal and Toul called the
Trouee d'Epinal.
MOSEN, JULIUS (1803-1867), German poet and author, was
born at Marieney in the Saxon Vogtland on the 8th of July,
1803. He studied law at Jena, and, after two years in Italy,
at Leipzig. In 1834 he settled in Dresden as an advocate.
He had meanwhile shown great literary promise by his Lied
vom Ritter Wahn (1831). This was followed by the more philo-
sophical Ahasver (1838), and by a volume of poems, Gedichte
(1836, 2nd ed., 1843), among which Andreas Hofer and Die
letzten Zehn vom vierten Regiment have become popular. He
wrote the historical plays Heinrich der Finkler (Leipzig, 1836),
Cola Rienzi, Die Brdute wn Florenz, Wendelin und Helens
and Kaiser Otto III. (the four last being published in his Theater
1842), and a politico-historical novel, Der Kongress von Verona
(1842), which was followed by a charming collection of short
stories (Bilder im Moose, 1846). In 1844 Mosen accepted the
appointment of dramaturge at the Court Theatre in Oldenburg,
but he was soon afterwards stricken with paralysis, and after
remaining an invalid for many years, died at Oldenburg on the
loth of October 1867. Of his later works may be mentioned
Die Dresdner Gemdldegallerie (1844), and the tragedies Herzog
Bernhard (1855) and Der Sohn des Fursten (1858).
A collection of his works, Sdmtliche Werke, appeared in 8 vols.
(1863; new ed., by his son, with a biography; 6 vols., 1880).
MOSER, JOHANN JAKOB (1701-1785), German jurist, was
born at Stuttgart on the i8th of January 1701. He studied
at the university of Tubingen, where, at the early age of nineteen,
he was appointed extraordinary professor of law. In 1729
he became ordinary professor, and in 1736 he accepted a chair
and directorship in the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder.
On account, however, of differences with King Frederick William
I. of Prussia, he resigned these offices in 1739 and retired to
Ebersdorf, a village in the principality of Reuss, where for
several years he devoted himself -wholly to study, and especially
to the production of his Deulsches Staatsrecht. In 1751 he was
recalled to Wiirtemberg as district counsellor, and in 1759 was
imprisoned at Hohentwiel on account of the steps he had taken
in connexion with this office against certain tyrannical proceed-
ings of the duke. In 1764 he received his liberty and was
restored to office. He died on the 3Oth of September 1785.
Moser was the first to discuss in an adequate form the subject of
European international law. He wrote more than 500 volumes,
his principal works being Deutsches Staatsrecht (1737-1754).
Neues deutsches Staatsrecht (1766-1775), Deutsches Staatsarchiv
(1751-1757), Grundriss der heutigen Staatsverfassung von Deulsch-
land (1754).
See Schmid, Das Leben J. J. Mosers (1868); Schulze, J. J. Moser,
der Vater des deutschen Staatsrechts (1869).
MOSER, JUSTUS (1720-1794), German publicist and states-
man, was born at Osnabriick on the i4th of December, 1720.
Having studied jurisprudence at the universities of Jena and
Gottingen, he settled in his native town as a lawyer. The
confidence he inspired among his fellow citizens soon led to his
being appointed adwcatus patriae (state attorney). On the
appointment of the duke of York (son of George III. of England)
to the lay Protestant bishopric of Osnabruck, he was attached
to the person of the new ruler as legal adviser, and continued
in this office of trust for twenty years. .From 1762 to 1768 he
wasjusticiarius (chief justice) of the criminal court in Osnabruck
and in 1768 was made Geheimer Refcrendar (privy councillor of
justice). He died at Osnabruck on the 8th of January 1794
Not only as a statesman and administrator, but also as a
publicist, Moser occupied a leading position among the men
of his time. His history of Osnabruck (1768; 2nd ed. 1780
3rd ed. 1819) is a masterly work. In his Patriotische Phantasier
(1775-1786; 2nd ed. by his daughter, I. W. J. von Voigts, 1804
new ed. by R. Zollner, 1871) he shows himself in advance of
lis times, pleading as he does for a national organic development
of a state in the place of arbitrary laws imposed by the sovereign,
rlis Vermischte Schriften (published by F. Nicolai with a bio-
;raphy, 1797-1798) also display a deep insight into human
nature and sparkle with humour and witty sallies. Moser was
also a poet of some repute and wrote a tragedy, Arminius
[1749). A statue of him by Drake was unveiled in Osnabruck
n 1836.
His collected works, Sdmtliche Werke, were published by B. R.
Abeken (10 vols., 1842-1844). See J. Kreyssig, Justus Moser
[1857); L. Rupprecht, Justus Mosers soziale und volkswirtschaftliche
Anschauungen (1892); K. Mollenhauer, Mb'sers Anteil an der Wieder-
"lelebung des deutschen Geistes (1896).
MOSES (Gr. MCOUOTJS, Moxrijj), the great Jewish lawgiver,
prophet and mediator, and leader of the Israelites from Egypt
to the eastern borders of the promised land. The records of
bis life and work are noticed in the articles EXODUS, NUMBERS,
DEUTERONOMY, where the several sources of the narratives
are described. He appears in Midian at the " Mount of God "
(Horeb) dwelling with its priest Jethro (q.v.), one of whose seven
daughters he married, thus becoming the father of Gershom
and Eliezer. Of his earlier life it was said that he was born in
Egypt of Levite parents, and when the Pharaoh commanded
that every new-born male child of the Hebrews should be killed,
he was put into a chest and cast upon the Nile. He was found
by Pharaoh's daughter, and his (step-)sister Miriam contrived
that he should be nursed by his mother; on growing up he killed
an Egyptian who was oppressing an Israelite, and this becoming
known, he sought refuge in flight.
The story of the youth of Moses is, as is commonly the case
with great heroes, of secondary origin; moreover, the circum-
stances of his birth as related in Exod. ii. find numerous parallels
in legend elsewhere, e.g. in the story of the historical Sargpn
(L. W. Ring, Early Bab. Kings, ii. 87 sqq.), in the myths of
Osiris and many others (see, at length, A. Jeremias's Das Alte
Test, im Lichte des alien Orients, 1906, pp. 408 ~qq.; Bab. im N.
Test. p. 30 seq.). The story of the adoption of Moses by the
Egyptian princess appealed to later imagination (Josephus,
Ant. ii. 9, 10; Acts vii. 20-22), and many fanciful fables
grew up around this and the other biblical statements. The
name M5sheh, explained by the fact that the princess " drew
him " (mashah) out of the waters, means properly " one who
draws"; a derivation from Eg. mes(u], "child," finds more
favour, but is not certain.
At the holy mount, Moses received the divine revelation and
was commissioned to bring the people a three-days' journey out
of Egypt to sacrifice at this spot (Exod. iii. 12, 18; v. 3; viii. 27).
The deity revealed himself in a new name, Yahweh, and with
signs and wonders fortified Moses for his task. On his return
he experienced a remarkable incident which is obscurely asso-
ciated with the rite of circumcision. 1 The plagues with which
the reluctant Pharaoh was coerced culminated in the destruction
of all the first-born, and Israel escaped to the Red Sea. The
pursuing Egyptians were drowned, and the miraculous preserva-
tion of the chosen people at the critical moment marks the first
stage in the national history. 2 (See EXODUS, THE.)
The other events need not be detailed. Kadesh (holy) was
1 Exod. iv. 24-26; it possibly explains the transference of the rite
from the bridegroom to the new-born son. For a recent discussion,
see H. P. Smith, Journ. Bib. Lit. (1906), pp. 14-24; and the article
CIRCUMCISION (with J. G. Frazer's essay in the Independent
Review 1904, pp. 204-218).
2 The plagues appear to have been amplified. In t-xod. iv. three
signs are given: the hand of Moses is stricken with leprosy and
restored (the sign for Moses) ; his rod becomes a serpent (cf. vii. 8-13,
the sign for Pharaoh) ; and the water is turned into blood (cf . vii. 17
sqq.). If Pharaoh still remains obdurate his first-born is threatened
(iv. 21 sqq.). As regards the crossing of the Red Sea, a perfectly
rationalizing explanation can be found: with a strong east wind
its waters could temporarily recede and permit a passage (see Journ.
Viet. Inst. xxvi. 28; xxviii. 268, 277). To the Israelites, however,
it was a miracle, an unexpected intervention on the part of Yahweh,
and the first of many marvels which he performed on behalf of the
people of his choice. To rationalize this or any of the series misses
the whole point of the religious history.
896
MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF
the chief centre. This was the scene of the " strife " at
Meribah (striving) where Yahweh " shewed himself holy "
(Num. xx. 1-13) ; a parallel account joins the name with Massah
(trial, proof) where Yahweh " proved " the people (Exod.
xvii. 1-7). These two names (Deut. ix. 22, xxxii. 51) with their
significant meanings recur with varying nuances (Ps. Ixxxi. 7,
xcv. 8 seq.). Here also in the wilderness of Shur, and possibly
at En-mishpat (well of judgment, i.e. Kadesh, Gen. xiv.
7), Yahweh made for Israel " statute and judgment " and
" proved them." This is apparently viewed as the goal of
the three-days' journey (Exod. xv. 22-25). I Q this district the
defeat of the Amalekites is more naturally located (Exod. xvii.;
cf. i Sam. xxvii. 8) and here, finally, for some cause, now
obscured, Moses and his brother Aaron (q.v.) incurred Yahweh's
displeasure (Num. xx. 12, xxvii. 14; Deut. xxxii. 51; Ps. cvi.
3). Pisgah or Mt Nebo (the name suggests a foreign god),
to the north-east of the Dead Sea became the scene of the death
of Moses; his burial-place was never known (Deut. xxxiv.).
In estimating the work of one who stands at the head of the
religious and legal institutions of Israel, it is necessary to refrain
from interpreting the traditions from a modern legal standpoint
or in the light of subsequent ideas and beliefs for which the
sources themselves give no authority. Much confusion has been
caused by attributing to Moses more than the Pentateuch itself
claims, and by misunderstanding the meaning of later references
(Mat. xix. 8; Mark vii. 10, x. 5; xii. 26; Luke xx. 37; John vii.
22). Moreover, it is necessary to allow that the traditions relating
to both Moses and Aaron underwent change. The priesthoods
of Shiloh and Dan could boast of an illustrious origin (i Sam.
ii. 27 seq., Judges xviii. 30), but the religious practices associated
with the former especially were not those of the purest type.
When Aaron himself is connected with the worship of the golden
calf, and when to Moses is attributed a brazen serpent which
the reforming king Hezekiah was the first to destroy, it is evident
that religious conceptions developed in the course of ages.
Although Moses was venerated as a prophet (Hos. xii. 13), a
mediator (Jer. xv. i) and a leader (Mic. vi. 4; Isa. Ixiii. n), much
of the legal procedure ascribed to him must belong on internal
grounds (religious, ethical and sociological evidence) to a post-
Mosaic age. Many of the Mosaic laws find parallels and analogies
in all ages outside the sphere of Israelite influence, notably in
the laws codified several centuries previously by the Babylonian
king Khammurabi (see BABYLONIAN LAW). The practice of
finding in ancient authority a precedent for institutions new and
old (cf. the law of booty, i Sam. xxx. 25, with that ascribed to
Moses in Num. xxxi. 25 sqq.) is quite in accordance with Oriental
custom and explains the growth of the present extremely complex
sources. But this very development of Mosaism implies the
existence of an original nucleus or substratum, although the
recovery of its precise extent is very difficult. The legislation
on Mt Sinai (Horeb) which apparently occupies a very important
place in tradition (Exod. xx. sqq.) is really secondary (cf. W. R.
Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. in); more prominence is evidently
to be ascribed to the influence of the half-Arabian Jethro or
Hobab, and this must, be taken into consideration with what is
known of Kenite and kindred clans (Exod. xviii.; Num. x. 20-33;
see JETHRO; KENITES). 1 Yahweh appears to have been known
to them before he revealed himself to Moses, and the ancestors
of the Israelites are recognized as worshippers of Yahweh, but
are on another level (Exod. vi. 3). The traditions would seem
to point to the institution of new principles in the religion
of Yahweh, and would associate with it not merely Moses but
those foreign elements which are subsequently found in
Israel and Judah. See JEWS, 5, 14, 20.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See further articles, AARON; DECALOGUE;
HEBREW RELIGION; LEVITES. For the introductory questions, W.
Robertson Smith's Old Test, in Jewish Church and Prophets of Israel
are most helpful; see also J.-M. Lagrange, Hist. Crit. and the Old
Testament (Eng., E. Myers, 1905), pp. 148-179; .Wellhausen's
1 See K. Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, ch. i. According
3 Gen. iv. 26, so far from the name Yahweh having been made known
to Israel by Moses (Exod. iii. 13 sqq., vi. 2 sqq.), the worship goes
back to the earliest ages.
Prolegomena is a conclusive elaboration of the initial stages of
criticism. All subsequent studies vary according to the writer's
standpoint; W. R. Harper, Amos and Hosea (Internal. Critical
Commentary), pp. 84 sqq., gives a convenient summary. Among
particular discussions may be named Cheyne, Ency. Bib. s.v., E.
Meyer, Israeliten, pp. 1-103; and the mythological treatment
by H. Winckler, Gesch. Isr., ii. 86-95; A. Jeremias, Alte Test., loc. cit.;
and Ed. Stucken, Astralmythen d. Hebraer, &c., pp. 431 sqq.
For Jewish and other legends (to which Jude 9 alludes), see Beer,
Leben Moses (1863), M. Grunbaum, Neue Beitragez. sem. Sagenkunde
(!893)> PP- J5.2 sqq-; the Assumption of Moses, ed. R. H. Charles
(1897); W. Tisdajl, Sources of the Qur an (1905); and Ency. Bib.
col. 3218, 21 (with references). For the stories of Manetho, &c.,
Ewald, Hist. Isr., ii. 76 sqq. ; Kittel, Hist. i. 26 seq., may be supple-
mented by Willrich, Juden u. Griechen vor d. makkab. Erhebung
(1895), pp. 53 sqq.; G. Maspero, Rec. de travaux (1905), xxvii. 13
sqq., 22 seq. (S. A. C.)
MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF, an extra-canonical apocalyptic
work of the Old Testament. The Assumption or Ascension of
Moses ('A.va\ti\l/is Mow<ros) is a prophecy of the future relating
to Israel, put into the mouth of Moses, and addressed to Joshua
just before the great lawgiver died. Founded upon the book of
Deuteronomy, it is brief and unpoetical. But it seems to have
been large at first, for according to Nicephorus it consisted of
1400 stichs. It contains a brief history of Israel from Moses. to
the Messianic age. The most striking feature in this work is the
writer's scathing condemnation of the priesthood before, during,
and after the Maccabean period, and an unsparing depreciation
of the Temple services.
This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of
it was discovered and published by Ceriani in 1861 (Monumenta
sacra I. i. 55-64) from a palimpsest of the 6th century. Very
little was known about the contents of this book prior to this
discovery. One passage found in this fragment is quoted in the
Ada synodi Nicaenae, ii. 18. Most of the other references relate
to the strife of Michael and Satan about the body of Moses, and
ascribe it to the Ascensio Mosis, i.e. 'AcdXr/^w Mcouoiws.
Various other works have been attributed to Moses, such as the
Petirath Moshe, the /8(/JXos Xoywv nvarutSiv Mcowiws, The Exodus of
Moses (in Slavonic), &c. See Charles, Assumption of Moses, pp.
xiv.-xvii. ; Schurer, Gesch. desjiid. Volkes, iii. 220-221.
Date. The book has been assigned to most dates between
the death of Herod the Great and that of Bar-Cochba. But
this text precludes any date after A.D. 70. The true date appears
to lie between 4 B.C. and A.D. 30. Herod is already dead (vi. 6),
hence it is after 4 B.C.; and Herod's sons are to rule for shorter
periods than their father, hence it must have been composed
before these princes had reigned thirty-four years i.e. before
A.D. 30. But there are grounds for assuming that A.D. 7 is
probably the earlier limit (see Charles , op. cit. Iv.-lviii.).
Author. The author was not an Essene, for he recognizes
animal sacrifices and cherishes the Messianic hope. He was
not a Sadducee, for he looks forward to the establishment of
the Messianic Kingdom (x.). Nor yet was he a Zealot, for the
quietistic ideal is upheld (ix.), and the kingdom is established
by God Himself (x.). He was clearly a Pharisaic Quietist, a
Pharisee of a fast disappearing type, recalling in all respects the
Chasid of the early Maccabean times, and upholding the old tradi-
tions of quietude and resignation. His object is to protest against
the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party through its adop-
tion of popular Messianic beliefs and political ideals. But his
appeal was in vain, and so the secularization of the Pharisaic
movement culminated in due course in the fall of Jerusalem.
The Latin Version a Translation from the Greek. That our Latin
text is derived from the Greek there can be no question. Thus
Greek words are transliterated,* as " chedrio " from Ke&p6a,
" heremus " from tpijuos', Greek idioms are reproduced, as " usque nos
duci captives," = lias rod ^juSs oixM<'XwTi<r0)j'<u, and retranslation into
Greek is frequently necessary in order to correct the misrenderings
3f the translator or the corruptions already inherent in the Greek.
Finally, fragments of the Greek version are still preserved.
The Greek a Translation from the Hebrew. That the Greek was in
turn derived from a Semitic original was denied by Hilgenfeld,
Volkmar and others. But Ewald, Schmidt-Merx, Colani, C,arrire,
Hausrath, Dalman, Rosenthal and Burkitt decide in favour of a
Semitic. R. H. Charles (op. cit. xxxviii.-xlv.) is of opinion that it
s possible to prove that the Greek goes back not to an Aramaic
aut to a Hebrew original, on the following grounds: (i) Hebrew
MOSES OF CHORENE
897
idiomatic phrases survive in the text. Thus circumibo (ii. 7) = "I
will protect," i.e. 33iD (cf. Deut. xxxii. lo), and in sacerdotes
vocabuntur = els fcps K\iflfiaorr<u., wig; o'jns *>]> (cf. I Chron. xxiii. 14,
andlsa. xlviii.2), = " they will call themselves priests." (2) Frequently
it is only through retranslation that we can understand the source of
corruptions in the text. (3) In some cases we must translate not
the Latin but the Hebrew presupposed by it. Thus in i. 7, successor
= 5iA5oxos=n-uro, must be rendered " minister."
The Book may be the lost Testament of Moses. The present book is
possibly the long lost Aio0^j Muweus mentioned in some of the
ancient lists, for it never speaks of the assumption of Moses, but
always of his natural death (i. 15, iii. 13, x. 14). About a half of
the original Testament is preserved in the Latin Version. The latter
half probably dealt with questions about the Creation (see Fabric.
Cod. pseud. V. T., ii. 844; Acla synodi Nicaenae, ii. 20). With this
" Testament " the " Assumption," to which almost all the patristic
references and that of Jude are made, was subsequently edited.
Some views of Author. Our author's views on Moses are remarkable.
He writes that Moses was prepared from before the foundation of
the world to be the mediator of God's covenant with his people
(i. 14, iii. 12). During his life he was Israel's intercessor with God
(xi. II, 17). Praying on their behalf as a " great angel " (xi. 17),
" a sacred spirit who was worthy of the Lord manifold and incompre-
hensible " (xi. 16). Apparently his relation to Israel did not cease
with death, as he was to be their intercessor in the spiritual world
(xii. 6). His death was an ordinary one (i. 15, iii. 13, x. 12, 14),
but no single place was worthy to mark the place of his burial, for
his sepulchre was from the rising to the setting sun, and from the
south to the confines of the north yea, the whole world was his
sepulchre (xi. 8). On the doctrine of good works our author's views
are allied to Old Testament conceptions rather than to the rabbinic
doctrine of man's righteousness, which bulks so largely in Jewish
literature from A.p. 50 onwards. So far from representing man's
righteousness as involving merit over against God, our author
represents the greatest hero of Israel as declaring " Not for any
virtue or strength of mine, but in His compassion and long-suffering
was He pleased to call me " (xii. 7.)
LITERATURE. Editions of the Latin text: Ceriani Monumenta
sacra et profana, I. i. 55-64 (1861); Hilgenfeld, Nov. test, extra
canonem receptum, 107-135 (1876); Volkmar, Mose Prophetie und
Himmelfahrt (1867) ; Schmidt and Merx, DieAssumptio Mosis (Merx,
Archiv. f. wissensch. Erf. des A. Ts. I. ii. 111-152; 1868);
Charles, The Assumption of Moses (translation, with notes and intro-
duction, 1897); Clemen, in Kautzsch's Apocr. und Pseud., II. 311
331. Critical inquiries. For a full account of these see Schiirer
iii. 222; Charles op. cit. xxi-xxviii. (R. H. C.)
MOSES OF CHORENE, Armenian historian, was a native of
Khor'ni in Taron, a district of the Armenian province of Turu-
beran. According to the History of Armenia which bears his
name he was a pupil of the two fathers of Armenian literature,
the patriarch or catholicos Sahak the Great and the vartabed
Mesrob. Shortly after 431 he was sent by these men to Alex-
andria to study the Greek language and literature, and thus
prepare himself for the task of translating Greek writings into
Armenian. Moses took his journey by Edessa and the sacred
places of Palestine. After finishing his studies in the Egyptian
capital he set sail for Greece; but the ship was driven by contrary
winds to Italy, and he seized the opportunity of paying a flying
visit to Rome. He then visited Athens, and towards the end
of winter (440) arrived in Constantinople, whence he set out on
his homeward journey. On his arrival in Armenia he found that
his patrons were both dead. The History of Armenia speaks of
its author as an old, infirm man, constantly engaged in the work
of translating. In the later Armenian tradition we find other
notices of this celebrated man 1 such as, that he was the nephew
of Mesrob, that he was publicly complimented by the emperor
Marcian, that he had been ordained bishop of Bagrewand by the
patriarch Giut, and that he was buried in the church of the
Apostolic Cloister at Mush in the district of Taron; but these
accounts must be received with great caution. This remark
applies especially to the statement of Thomas Ardsruni, 2 that
Moses, like his Hebrew prototype, lived to the age of 120 years,
and recorded his own death in a fourth book of his great work.
The same caution must be extended to another tradition, based
on an arbitrary construction of a passage in Samuel of Ani,
which places his death in the year 489.
The History of Armenia, 1 or, as the more exact title runs, the
1 Collected by Langlois, Collection des historiens de I'armenie, ii.
47 seq.
2 In Brosset, Collection d' historiens armeniens, i. 68.
' The oldest MS. is that of S. Lazaro of the I2th century. Colla-
xvm. 29
Genealogical Account of Great Armenia, consists of three books,
and reaches down to the death of Saint Mesrdb, in the second
year of Yazdegerd II. (Feb. 17, 440).* It is dedicated to
Sahak Bagratuni (who was afterwards chosen to lead the revolted
Armenians in the year 481), as the man under whose auspices the
work had been undertaken. This work, which in course of time
acquired canonical authority among the Armenians, is partly
compiled from sources which we yet possess, viz. the Life of
Saint Gregory by Agathangelos, the Armenian translation of the
Syriac Doctrine of the Apostle Addai, the Antiquities and the Jewish
War of Josephus, and above all the History of Mar A has Kalina
(still preserved in the extract from the book of Sebeos), 6 who,
however, did not write, as Moses alleges, in Syriac and Greek, at
Nisibis, about 131 B.C., but was a native of Medsurch, and wrote
in Syriac alone about A.D. 383, or shortly thereafter. Besides
these, Moses refers to a whole array of Greek authorities, which
were known to him from his constant use of Eusebius, but which
cannot possibly have related all that he makes them relate.'
Although Moses assures us that he is going to rely entirely upon
Greek authors, the contents of his work show that it is mainly
drawn from native sources. He is chiefly indebted to the popular
ballads and legends of Armenia, and it is to the use of such
materials that the work owes its permanent value. Its impor-
tance for the history of religion and mythology is, in truth, very
considerable, a fact which it is the great merit of Emin 7 and
Dulaurier 8 to have first pointed out. For political history,
on the other hand, it is of much less value than was formerly
assumed. In particular, it is not a history of the people or of
the country, but a history of the Armenian aristocracy, and, in
opposition to the Mamikonian tendency which pervades the
rest of the older Armenian historical literature, it is written in
the interest of the rival Bagratunians. Down to the 3rd century
it is proved by the contemporary Graeco-Roman annals to be
utterly untrustworthy but even for the times of Armenian
Christianity it must be used far more cautiously than has been
done, for example, by Gibbon. The worst feature is the con-
fusion in the chronology, which, strange to say, is most hopeless
in treating of the contemporaries of Moses himself. What can
be thought of a writer who assigns to Yazdegerd I. (399-420)
the eleven years of his predecessor Bahram IV., and the twenty-
one years of Yazdegerd I. to his successor Bahram V. (420-439)?
A. von Gutschmid 9 at one time attempted to explain this
unhistorical character of the narrative from a tendency arising
out of the peculiar ecclesiastical and political circumstances of
Armenia, situated as it was between the eastern Roman and the
Persian empires, circumstances which were substantially the
same in the 5th as they were in the two following centuries.
In the course of further investigations, however, he came to the
conclusion that, besides the many false statements which Moses
of Khor'ni makes about his authorities, he gives a false account
of himself. That is to say, the author of the History of Armenia
is not the venerable translator of the sth century, but some
Armenian writing under his name during the years between
634 and 642. The proof is furnished on the one hand by the
geographical and ethnographical nomenclature of a later period
tions of MSS. of Etchmiadzin and Jerusalem are given by Agop
Garinian, Tiflis (1858), 410. The book has been edited and translated
by Whiston (London, 1736, 410); and by Le Valliant de Florival
(Venice and Paris, s.a., 1841), 2 yols. 8vo.
4 The commencement of this king's reign has been fixed by
Noldeke (Geschichte der Sassaniden aus Tabari, p. 423) as 4th
August 438; and this date has subsequently been established by
documentary evidence from the fact of the martyrdom of Pethion
(see Hoffmann, Auszuge aus syrischen Akten persischer Marlyrer,
p. 67).
5 Translated in Langlois, i. 195 seq.
' For the following statements, the evidence may be found in the
article " Ueber die Glaubwurdigkeit der Armenischen Geschichte des
Moses von Khoren," by Alfred von Gutschmid, in the Berichte der
phil. histor. Classe der kdnigl. sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften
(1876), p. i seq.
7 The Epic Songs of Ancient Armenia (Arm.) (Moscow, 1850).
8 " Etudes sur les chants historiques et les traditions populaires
de 1'ancienne Arm6nie," in the Journ. asiat., iv., sdr. 19 (1852),
p. 5 seq.
" Ueber die Glaubwiirdigkeit," &c., p. 8 seq.
898
MOSHEIM MOSLER
and similar anachronisms, 1 which run through the whole book
and are often closely incorporated with the narrative itself, and
on the other hand by the identity of the author of the History
with that of Geography, a point on which all doubt is excluded by
a number of individual affinities, 2 not to speak of the similarity
in geographical terminology. The critical decision a's to the
authorship of the Geography must settle the question for the
History also.
The Geography is a meagre sketch, based mainly on the Choro-
graphy of Pappus of Alexandria (in the end of the 4th century),
and indirectly on the work of Ptolemy. Only Armenia, the
Persian Empire, and the neighbouring regions of the East are
independently described from local information, and on these
sections the value of the little work depends. Since the first
published text 3 contains names like " Russians" and " Crimea,"
Saint Martin in his edition 4 denied that it was written by Moses,
and assigned its origin to the loth century. It was shown,
however, by L. Indjidjean 6 that these are interpolations, which
are not found in better manuscripts. And in fact it is quite
evident that a book which gives the division of the Sassanid
Empire into four spahbehships in pure old Persian names cannot
possibly have been composed at a long interval after the time of
the Sassanidae. But of course it is equally clear that such a
book cannot be a genuine work of Moses of Khor'ni; for that
division of the empire dates from the early part of the reign of
King Chosroes I. (53I-579). 6 Accordingly K. P. Patkanow, 7
to whom we are indebted for the best text of the Geography, is
of opinion that we have in it a writing of the 7th century.
If the limits within which the Geography was composed are to
be more nearly defined, we may say that, from isolated traces
of Arab rule 8 (which in Armenia dates from 651), it must have
been written certainly after that year, and perhaps about the
year 657.'
Another extant work of Moses is a Manual of Rhetoric, in ten
books, dedicated to his pupil Theodorus. It is drawn up after
Greek models, in the taste of the rhetoric and sophistry of the
later imperial period. The examples are taken from Hermcgenes,
Theon, Aphthonius, and Libanius; although the author is also
acquainted with lost writings e.g. the Peliades of Euripides.
On account of the divergence of its style from that of the History
of Armenia, Armenian scholars have hesitated to ascribe the
Rhetoric to Moses of Khor'ni; but, from what has been said
above, this is rather to be regarded as a proof of its authenticity.
Smaller works bearing the same honoured name are the
Letter to Sahak Arderuni; the History of the Holy Mother of God
1 Instances of these may be found in i. 14, where the arrangement
of Armenian provinces, I., II., III., IV., introduced in the year 536,
is carried back to Aram, an older contemporary of Ninus; and in
the passage iii. 18, according to which Shapiir II. penetrated to
Bithynia, although the Persians did not reach that till 608.
8 See the confusion, common to both books, between Cappadocia I.
and Armenia I., in consequence of which Mazaca and Mt Argaeus
are transferred to the latter locality (Hist. \. 14; Geogr. Saint
Martin's ed., ii. 354) ; also the passages which treat of China and
Dchenbakur (Hist. ii. 81 ; Geogr. ii. 376), &c.
3 Edition with translation by Whiston (London, 1736, 4to).
* In the Memoir es historiques et geographiques sur I'Armenie (Paris,
1819, 8vo), ii. 310 seq.
6 Antiquities of Armenia (Arm.), iii. 303 seq.
6 See Noldeke s Tabari, p. 155, seq.
p.
7 Armjanskaja geographija vii. wdka par. Ch. (pripisiw awschajasja
Moiseju Chorenskomu) (St Petersburg, 1877, 8vo). Before him
Kiepert (in the Monatsb. d. Berliner Akad. (1873, p. 599 seq.) had
substantially arrived at the right conclusion when he assigned the
portions of the Geography referring to Armenia to the time between
Justinian and Maurice. (See also Abhandlungen der koniglichen
Gesettschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, philol. hist. Klasse,
Neue Folge, Band iii. Nro. 2, 1901) (in which Dr J. Marquart edits
with commentary under the title Eransahr the sections of the geo-
graphy relating to Persia).
8 The passage about the trade of Basra, which was founded in
635, is decisive on this point (Saint Martin's edition, ii. 368).
9 The peculiar interest which the author (Saint Martin, ii. 340)
takes in the origin of the Slavs in Thrace is best explained by the
war against them which called the emperor Constans II. away
from the East in the year 657. In other respects the writer displays
the most complete indifference, and even ignorance, with regard
to the state of affairs in the West.
and her Image (in the cloister of Hogotsvanch in the district
Andzevatsi of the province of Vaspurakan), which is also
addressed to Sahak; and the Panegyric on Saint Rhipsime. Of
the sacred poems attributed to him, there is only one short
prayer, contained in the hymnal of Sharakan, which can really
claim him as its author.
Of works passing under the name of Moses of Khor'ni, the
following are regarded by the historians of Armenian literature
as spurious: a History (distinct from the Panegyric) of the
wanderings of Saint Rhipsime and her Companions; a Homily
on the Transfiguration of Christ; a Discourse on Wisdom (i.e., the
science of grammar) ; the Commentaries on grammar (an exposi-
tion of Dionysius Thrax). In the case of the grammatical
writings, it has been suggested that there may have been some
confusion between Moses of Khor'ni and a Moses of Siunich, who
lived in the 7th century.
Literature. The date of the History of Moses has been discussed
in many monographs. See especially the brochure of A. Carriere,
Nouvelles sources de Moise de Khoren (Vienna, 1893), who sets it in
the 8th century. A Russian critic, J. Khalateants, arrives at a similar
conclusion in his Armianskie Epos (Moscow, 1896). F. C. Cony-
beare, in an article on " The date of Moses of Khoren," in the Byzan-
tinische Zeitschrift, vol. x., and in a second in vol. ii., entitled "The
Relation of the Paschal Chronicle to Malalas," challenges Professor
Carriere's arguments, and contends that the History of Moses is a late
5th-century work, much interpolated in the immediately succeeding
centuries. (A. v. G. ; F. C. C.)
MOSHEIM, JOHANN LORENZ VON (c. 1694-1755), German
Lutheran divine and Church historian, was born at Liibeck on
the gth of October, 1694 or 1695. After studying at the
gymnasium of his native place, he entered the university of Kiel
(1716), where he took his master's degree in 1718. In 1719 he
became assessor in the philosophical faculty at Kiel. His first
appearance in the field of literature was in a polemical tract
against John Toland, Vindiciae antiquae christianorum disci-
plinae (1720), which was soon followed by a volume of Obser-
vationes sacrae (1721). These works, along with the reputation
he had acquired as a lecturer and preacher, secured for him a
call to Helmstadt as professor ordinarius in 1723. The Institu-
tionum historiae ecclesiasticae libri IV. appeared in 1726, and
in the same year he was appointed by the duke of Bruns-
wick abbot of Marienth^l, to which dignity and emolument the
abbacy of Michaelstein was added in the following year.
Mosheim was much consulted by the authorities when the
new university of Gottingen was being formed; especially
in the framing of the statutes of the theological faculty,
and the provisions for making the theologians independent of
the ecclesiastical courts. In 1747 he was made chancellor of
the university. He died at Gottingen on the 9th of September.
Among his other works were De rebus christianotum ante
Constanlinum commenlarii (1753), Ketzer-Geschichle (2nd ed.
1748), and Sittenlehre der heiligen Schrift (1735-53). His exege-
tical writings, characterized by learning and good sense, include
Cogitationes in N. T. loc. select. (1726), and expositions of i Cor.
(1741) and the two Epistles to Timothy (1755). In his sermons
(Hetiige Reden) considerable eloquence is shown, and a mastery
of style which justifies the position he held as president of the
German Society.
There are two English versions of the Institutes, that'of Archibald
Maclaine, published in 1764, and that of James Murdock ^1832),
which is the more correct. Murdpck's translation was revised and
re-edited by James Seaton Reid in 1848, and by H. L. Hastings
in 1892 (Boston). An English translation of the De rebus chris-
tianorum was published by Murdock in 1851.
MOSLER, HENRY (1841- ), American artist, was born
at New York, on the 6th of June 1841, the family removing to
Cincinnati when he was about ten years old. Studying drawing
by himself, he became a draughtsman for a comic paper, the
Omnibus (Cincinnati), in 1855; in 1859-1861 he studied under
James H. Beard, and in 1862-63, during the Civil War, was an
art correspondent of Harper's Weekly. In 1863 he went to
Diisseldorf, where for almost three years he was at the Royal
Academy schools; he subsequently went to Paris, where he
studied for a short time under Ernest He'bert. His " Le Retour,"
MOSQUE
from the Paris Salon of 1879, was the first American picture
ever bought for the Luxembourg. He received a silver medal
in Paris 1889, and gold medals at Paris, 1888, and Vienna, 1893.
Examples of his work are in the Sydney Art Museum, N.S.W.,
and the art museums of Springfield, Mass., Cincinnati, Ohio and
New York. His son, GUSTAVE HENRY MOSLER (1875-1906),
a pupil of his father and of Leon Bonnat, exhibited at the Salon
in Paris, receiving a medal for his " De Profundis " in 1891; his
portrait of Governor J. W. Stewart is in the State House,
Montpelier, Vermont, and his " Empty Cradle " is in the Toledo
Art Club.
MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span, mezquita, from Arab.
masjid, sajada, to adore), the house of prayer in the
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FIG. i. Plan of Mosque of 'Arar, Old Cairo.
1, Kibleh. 5, Fountain for ablution.
2, Minbar. 6, 6, Rooms built later.
3, Tomb of 'Amr. 7, Minaret.
4, Dikka. 8, Latrines.
Mahommedan religion, consisting generally of a large open
court (sahn) surrounded by arcades (liwan), with a fountain
(mida-a) in the centre of the court, for the ablutions neces-
sary before prayer. The principal feature in the mosque is the
niche (mihrab), which is sunk in a wall built at right angles to
a line drawn from Mecca, and indicates the direction towards
which the Moslem should turn when engaged in prayer. The
arcades in front of the Mecca niche were sometimes of con-
siderable depth, and constituted the prayer chamber (maksura),
portions of which were occasionally enclosed with lattice work.
By the side of the niche was the pulpit (minbar), and some-
times in front of the latter a platform (dikka) raised on columns,
from which chapters from the Koran were read to the people.
Most mosques have endowed property, which is administered
by a warden (nazir), who also appoints the imams and other
officials. The larger mosques have two imams: one is called
(in Arabia and Egypt) the khatib, and he preaches the sermon
on Fridays (the Moslem Sabbath); the other, the ratib, reads
the Koran, and recites the five daily prayers, standing close to
the mihrab, and leading the congregation, who repeat the
prayers with him, and closely follow his postures. The imams
do not form a priestly sect ; they generally have other occupations,
such as teaching in a school or keeping a shop, and may at any
time be dismissed by the warden, in which case they lose the
title of imam. Moslem women, as a rule, are expected to say
their prayers at home, but in some few mosques they are
admitted to one part specially screened off for them.
The earliest mosque erected was that at Mecca, which con-
sisted of a great court, in the centre of which was the Ka'ba or
Holy Stone. The court was surrounded with arcades, all of
which constituted the prayer chamber, so that its plan is neces-
sarily different to the normal type; the existing buildings date
only from the first half of the lyth century, as the whole mosque
was destroyed by a torrent in 1626.
The normal type referred to is best represented in the mosque
of 'Amr (see 'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS) at Fostat, Cairo; built in A.D. 643
it still retains its original arrangement, though partly rebuilt
and increased in its dimensions. The mosque (see fig. i),
now in a somewhat ruined condition, covers an area of about
130,000 sq. ft. with an open court, 240 ft. sq., arid a sanctuary
or prayer chamber, 106 ft. deep, there being a central avenue
and ten aisles on either side. The columns and capitals were all
taken from ancient buildings, Egyptian, Roman and Byzantine,
and they carry arches of different forms, semicircular, pointed
and horseshoe.
The columns and other materials of the mosque of el-Aksa
at Jerusalem were taken by Abdalmalik (A.D. 690) from the
ruins of Justinian's church of St Mary on Mount Sion, and the
central avenue or nave built with them presents the appearance
of a Christian church; it however runs north and south, the
Mecca niche being at the south end; originally there were seven
aisles on each side, now reduced to three. The Kubbet-es-
Sakhra, or Dome of the Rock, at Jerusalem, is only a shrine
erected over the sacred rock, so that the title often ascribed to it
as " the mosque of Omar " is misleading.
The mosque of the Omayyads in Damascus was built by the
Caliph Walid in A.D. 705 on the foundations of the basilican
church of St John: its plan differs therefore from the normal type
in that its arcades run east and west, and the transept in the
centre becomes the prayer chamber. The Mecca niche is sunk
in the doorway of a Roman temple which formerly occupied the
same site, and the substructure of the minaret at the south-west
angle is of still more ancient date. The great court on the north
side has a lofty cloister round it, so that in many respects it
follows the normal type.
The mosque of Ahmad Ibn Tulun, in Cairo (A.D. 879), is the
first mosque erected in which the materials were not taken
from ancient buildings; it has therefore a special interest as
being the earliest genuine example of the Mahommedan style
(see ARCHITECTURE: Mahommedan). The walls, piers and
arches, are all built in brick, covered with stucco, a great portion
of which is preserved down to the present day. The plan is of
the normal type, with a great court in the centre, a prayer cham-
ber four aisles deep on the Mecca side (south-east), and a double
aisle on the other three sides. All the arches are pointed and
slightly horseshoe, preceding therefore by about two and a half
centuries the introduction of the pointed arch into Europe.
The piers carrying the arches have shafts at their angles, the
earliest examples known, and the decoration of the walls con-
sists of friezes, borders, and impost-bands, all enriched with
conventional patterns interwoven with cufic characters and
modelled in stucco. The windows in the outer walls are filled
with pierced stone screens of geometrical design. The architect
is said to have been a Coptic Christian who deprecated the destruc-
tion of ancient buildings to obtain columns and blocks of stone,
and who undertook to design a mosque which should be built
entirely in brick, which when coated with stucco and appro-
priate decorative designs would rival its predecessors.
The next important mosque is that of Kairawan in Tunisia,
which was founded by Sidi Okba in A.D. 675, but was partly
rebuilt and added to in the following two centuries. Its court
covers an area of 38,000 sq. ft., and its prayer chamber is 150 ft.
deep, having a central avenue and eight aisles on each side.
The chief interest of the mosque at Kairawan lies in its being
the prototype of the great mosque at Cordova, which was built
by Abdarrahman in A.D. 780; the earliest portion of the mosque
is the prayer chamber (135 ft. wide by 220 ft. deep), which is in
front of the entrance gateway to the great court, and consists of
a central avenue with five aisles on each side. In A.D. 961 this
900
MOSQUE
portion was extended 150 ft. in the rear by Hakim II., the
mihrab and Mecca wall being rebuilt; about 20 years later a
further enlargement was made, and eight more aisles were added
along the whole eastern side, so that the prayer chamber covered
an area of over 148,000 sq. ft. In the isth century a portion of
Hakim's addition was pulled down to make way for the first
cathedral, which was dedicated to the Virgin. The most
beautiful portion of the mosque, however, still exists in the
prayer chamber of Hakim, where are to be found the earliest
examples of the cusped arch and the origin of many of the
geometrical patterns in stucco at the Alhambra.
The mosque of el Azhar, " the splendid," was begun about
A.D. 970 by Jauhar, the general of the Fatimite Caliph Moizz,
who captured Fostat
and founded el Kahira,
the present town of
Cairo. It was based,
therefore, on the great
mosque at Kairawan,
and although more or
less rebuilt, it still pre-
serves its original plan.
It has a special interest
in being the chief uni-
versity of the Moslem
world, containing some
thousands of students
(mujawirin), for whom
certain parts of the
mosque (riwaq) are
screened off, according
to the country from
which they come. Thus
special parts are re-
served for natives of the
various provinces of
Egypt, of Morocco, Syria,
Arabia, India, Turkey,
&c. Each student can,
if he is too poor to hire
lodgings, live, eat and
sleep in the mosque.
Each has a large chest
which to keep his
FIG. 2. Plan of Mosque of Sultan
Hasan, Cairo.
I, 2, Main entrance.
3, Court open to sky.
4, 5, Fountains.
6, 6, North and south vaulted transepts
(the dotted lines show the curve clothes and books; these
of the vault).
8, 9, Dikka.
10, Sanctuary.
11, Minbar.
12, Kibleh.
13, Door to tomb.
14, Domed tomb-chamber.
15, Tomb within screen.
16, Kibleh.
17, 17, Minarets.
18, 19, 20, Various entrances to mosque.
21, Small rooms connected with service
of the mosque.
22, Sultan's private entrance.
are piled against the
walls to a height of
seven or eight feet. The
students pay no fees, but
the richer ones give
presents to the lecturers,
who sit on the matting
in various parts of the
sanctuary or cloister,
while the students sit
round each lecturer in
a circle. The usual
course of study lasts for three years, though some students
remain for much longer. The chief of the lecturers, called the
Sheik el-Azhar, receives about 100 a year, the others little or
nothing, as regular pay. The Koran, sacred and secular law,
logic, poetry, arithmetic, with some medicine and geography, are
the chief subjects of study.
Of other mosques in Cairo, the finest is that of Sultan
Hasan (fig. 2), completed in A.D. 1360. It differs from the
normal type in many respects, as it includes residences for
various sects, so that portions of it, with the several storeys
externally, resemble an immense mansion or warehouse, and
this would seem to have led to an important change inside, as
instead of a cloister of two or more aisles there are four immense
halls all covered with pointed barrel vaults. Beyond the Mecca
wall is the tomb of the founder, covered with- an immense dome.
The entrance doorway on the north-east side is over 80 ft. in
height, its summit being decorated with stalactite vaults, one
of the grandest features in Mahommedan architecture, only
equalled by the magnificent portals of the mosques in India.
The central square court, of moderate dimensions, with halls and
great recesses, is followed in other examples in Cairo, among
which the Tomb Mosque of Kait-Bey (c. A.D. 1470) is the most
graceful (fig. 3). In this case the central court is roofed over,
and has an octagon lantern in
the centre; the recesses are
covered with horizontal ceilings
carried on great beams, the
whole being elaborately carved,
coloured and gilded; the tomb
is covered with the later type
of dome, built in stone, and
elaborately carved outside with
delicate conventional patterns
in relief.
Although the conquest of
Persia by the Arabs took place
in A.D. 641 there are no remains
of mosques there earlier than
the i3th century, and the oldest
example at Tabriz is evidently,
as far as its plan is concerned,
a copy of a Byzantine church,
departing entirely therefore from
the normal plans. 1 The great
mosque at Isfahan, built by
FIG. 3. Mosque-tomb of Sultan
Kait-Bey, Cairo.
I, Main entrance.
Shah Abbas the Great (1585- 2 | Lobby and cisterns for
1629), has one great court (225 ft.
by 170 ft.) and two smaller ones, 3>
all with fountains in them. The
ablution.
Great minaret.
Kibleh.
Minbar.
prayer chamber is a lofty struc- |; Suhan^s tomb-chamber,
ture, quite unlike those of Egypt 7, The tomb within a screen,
and Kairawan, with a dome 8, Dikka.
75 ft. in diameter and halls on ( For Y iews A f interior and
each side divided into two aisles, extenor ' see ARCHITECTURE.)
each compartment being covered with a dome, in this respect
also not following the early normal type, in which domes were
only found over tombs.
The mosques of Constantinople are all copies more or less of
S. Sophia: they have courts in front with a range of arcades
round, and the centre portion forms the prayer chamber, the
side aisles serving as passages. The central dome has but a
slight elevation outside, but with the numerous cupolas round,
and the minarets, it forms a picturesque group which is wanting
in the mosques of Kairawan, Cordova, and other examples in
North Africa.
In India as in other countries the Mahommedans took
possession of the ancient buildings and adapted them to their
religious requirements. The materials of the native styles of
India, however, did not lend themselves to their utilization as
in Syria, Egypt and North Africa, where the columns and
capitals formed the substructure of the arcades which surrounded
their courts. In the earliest mosque at old Delhi, they adopted
the piers and bracketed capitals of the Jaina builders, whom
they probably employed to build their mosque. They, however,
had no confidence in the arch, which, as the Hindu says, " never
sleeps but is always tending to its own destruction," so that the
pointed arch, which had almost become the emblem of the
Mahommedan religion, had to be dispensed with for the covered
aisles which surrounded the great court, and in the triple entrance
gateway the form of an arch only was retained, as it was con-
structed with horizontal courses of masonry for the haunches,
and with long slabs of stone resting one against the other at
the top. A similar construction was employed in the great
mosque at Ajmere, built A.D. 1200-1211 at the same time as the
Delhi mosque. The objection to the arch is more clearly shown
1 It is very generally held that this " Blue Mosque " dates only
from the isth century (see TABRIZ).
MOSQUITO
901
in the entrance gateway of the Lai Darwaza or Red Gate mosque
at Jaunpur, where an arch (of two rings of ogee shape) is carried
by a solid wall, built under it, which is pierced with three
doorways with bracket-capitals and architraves, returning
therefore to trabeated construction. The covered aisles of
the court of the Jumma Musjid at Jaunpur are in three storeys
with piers, bracket-capitals and architraves, bearing therefore
no resemblance to the arcades of Kairawan and Cordova, and
constituting a different style. There is however one feature
which throughout the Mahommedan mosques in India is always
found, viz. the dome. But this also in India is built in horizontal
courses, so that the form only and not the construction of the
Cairene domes is followed. The chief peculiarity of the mosques
at Ahmedabad is that, as the style progressed, it became more
Indian; in the Jumma Musjid (A.D. 1420) and the Queen's
mosque at Mirzapur, the pointed arch exists only in the facades
of the prayer chambers; in the mosques built 30 to 40 years
later the whole is constructed without a single arch, all the
pillars have bracket-capitals, and the domes, which are of very
slight elevation, are all built in the trabeated style. As a
contrast to the Ahmedabad mosques, the Kadam Rasul mosque
at Gaur in Bengal possesses some characteristics which resemble
those of the mosque of Tulun in Cairo, possibly due to the fact
that it is entirely built in brick, with massive piers carrying
pointed arches.
The climax of Mahommedan work in India is reached in that
of the Mogul emperors at Agra, Delhi and Fatehpur-Sikri, in
which there is a very close resemblance in design to the mosques
of Syria, Egypt, and Persia; the four-centred arch, which is in
the Mogul style, finds general acceptance, and was probably
derived from Persian sources. The mosque at Fatehpur-Sikri
possesses in its great southern gateway, built by Akbar in the
second half of the i6th century, the masterpiece of Indo-
Saracenci architecture. As a rule, the mosques of India
followed the normal plan, with a great central court and aisles
round and a prayer chamber in front of the Mecca wall, which
in India is always at the west end. (R. P. S.)
MOSQUITO (Span, mosquito, a gnat, diminutive of mosca, a
fly), a term originally applied to many species of small blood-
FIG. i.
A, Larva of Anopheles. F, Female Anopheles costalis,
B, Pupa of Anopheles. Loew.
C, Larva of Stegomyia. G, Head of ? Culex.
D, Pupa of Culex. H, Head of <f Anopheles.
E, Egg-float and further enlarged I, Head of <f Culex.
detached egg of Culex. K, Eggs of Anopheles.
sucking DIPTERA (<?.!>.), belonging to various families, but now
by common consent restricted to those known to naturalists
as Culicidae, or gnats. Before the year 1899 mosquitoes had
never been collected systematically, and had received little
notice from entomologists, so that but few genera and com-
paratively few species were known. Although it had long been
suspected that these insects were in some way connected with
malaria and other diseases, while that the species now called
Stegomyia calopus was the carrier of yellow fever had been
asserted by Finlay as early as 1 88 1, it was not untiUthe closing
years of the igth century that the brilliant researches of Ross in
India, and of Grassi and others in Italy, directed the attention of
the whole civilized world to mosquitoes as the exclusive agents
in the dissemination of malarial fever. The result has been that
in subsequent years mosquitoes have been collected, studied and
described by naturalists and medical men in all parts of the
globe. Nearly 100 genera and about 700 species of mosquitoes
are now recognized, but in all probability the total number of
species is not less than 1000.
In general appearance mosquitoes resemble many harmless
midges (Chironomidae), but may be distinguished by the follow-
ing characters, (i) The prolongation of the lower lip or labium
into a prominent proboscis, which in the female sex contains
the full complement of piercing organs found in blood-sucking
Diptera, namely paired mandibles, paired maxillae, a tubular
hypopharynx (the common outlet of the salivary glands), and
an upper lip or labrum. (2) The presence of variously formed
scales on the body and its appendages: the head is clothed with
scales, the thorax with hairs or scales, and the abdomen with
either hairs or scales, or both; the legs and veins of the wings are
always covered with scales, and the palpi are often (as in some
Anophelinae) conspicuously scaly. (3) The fact that the costal
or marginal vein runs completely round the wing. The wings
exhibit six longitudinal veins (seven in Heptaphlebomyia), two
of which are characteristically forked. The antennae, usually
bottle-brush shaped (plumose) in the male sex, are less hairy
in the female. The palpi vary in form and in the number of
their component segments, and the proboscis, though usually
straight, may be curved (as in Megarhinus) or otherwise modified
in shape.
In dividing the Culicidae into genera reliance is placed chiefly
upon characters derived from the scales on the three divisions of
the body and on the wings. A fairly satisfactory attempt at group-
ing the genera has been made by Lutz (1904), who divides the family
in the first place into the Euculicidae, with a piercing proboscis
(i.e. all ordinary mosquitoes), and the Culicimorphae or forms with-
out a piercing proboscis (Mochlonyx, Corethra, &c.). It has since been
proposed to treat the Culicimorphae as a distinct family under
the title Corethridae, and it is probable that with this modification
Lutz's scheme will meet with general acceptance. The Euculicidae
are divided into the Asiphpnatae ( = Anophelinae'), the larvae of
which have no respiratory siphon, and the Siphonatae, or forms in
which a respiratory siphon is present in the larval state. The
divisions of the Siphonatae are the Ankylorhynchae (genera with
curved proboscis, e.g. Megarhinus and Toxorhynchites) and Ortho-
rhynchae (genera with straight proboscis). The latter again are
divided into Metanopsilae (in which the metanotum or posterior
region of the thorax is bare) and Metanotrichae (in which the metano-
tum is clothed with bristles or scales). The Metanopsilae are made
up of the Heleropalpae [palpi long in the male, short in the female ;
sub-families Culicinae (Culex, &c.) and Heptaphlebomyinae (Hepta-
phlebomyia)} and Micropalpae [palpi short in both sexes; sub-
families Aedinae (Aedes, &c.) and Haemagoginae (Haemagogus,
Uranotaenia, &c.)]- The Metanotrichae are similarly divided on the
basis of the palpal characters into two groups, the Heteropalpae
or Hyloconopinae (Joblotia, Rhynchomyia, &c.) and Micropalpae
or Dendromyinae (Wyeomyia, Sabethes, Limatus, &c.).
The old genus Anopheles (characterized by the palpi being long in
both sexes) is now divided into a number of genera according to
the character and shape of the scales on the different regions of the
body and on the wings. These genera make up the sub-family
Anophelinae, and together include over 100 species. The genus
Culex, from which the family takes its name, though it has been
similarly split up, is still in its restricted sense larger than any
other, and some 200 species are comprised in it alone.
Mosquitoes are found in all parts of the world. Even within
the Arctic Circle they are in many localities abundant and
excessively bloodthirsty during the short summer. Under such
conditions the deeply-rooted nature of the blood-sucking
instinct is most remarkable; for insects whose ancestors for
many generations may not have tasted blood will seek for it
with the utmost keenness and pertinacity so soon as an opportu-
nity presents itself. Some species are normally phytophagous,
and the vast majority, at any rate, appear to be capable of
continuing to exist and reproducing their kind upon a purely
vegetarian diet. As a rule the blood-sucking habit is confined
to the females, but in the case of a few species it is said to be
common to both sexes. The thirst for blood is stimulated by
heat, and in temperate climates it is only during hot weather that
mosquitoes are troublesome. Some species of mosquitoes, such
902
MOSQUITO COAST AND RESERVE
as the common gnat (Culex pipiens), are rarely found away from
human habitations; others seldom or never enter houses, but
are met with either in more or less open country, or in the
recesses of forests and woods. In Europe and North America
the continued existence of species is ensured by the hibernation
of impregnated females, or else the winter is passed in the egg
or occasionally in the larval state. In tropical climates with a
well-marked dry season mosquitoes pass into a semi-dormant
condition during the period when there is little water in which
to deposit their eggs. Culicidae are by no means confined to low-
lying districts, and have even been met with in the Himalayas
at an altitude of 13,000 feet. The wide distribution of certain
species is undoubtedly attributable to the agency of ships and
trains; under natural conditions mosquitoes seldom travel far
from their breeding grounds, although the powers of flight of
some species are greater than has been supposed.
The preliminary stages of all mosquitoes are passed in water,
either fresh or salt, stagnant or slightly moving. The nature
of the breeding-place varies greatly according to the species,
and while many of the mosquitoes that infest houses will breed
even in the smallest accidental accumulation of water such as
may have collected in a discarded bottle or tin, the larvae of
other species less closely associated with man are found in natural
pools or ditches, at the margins of slow-moving streams, in
collections of water in hollow trees and bamboo-stumps, or even
in the water-receptacles of certain plants. The eggs are usually
deposited ,on the water itself, and while in the case of certain
species, such as Culex pipiens or the widely distributed
C. fatigans, they are agglutinated together in masses known as
" boats " or " rafts " containing from 50 to 400 ova, those of
others, such as the Anophelinae and many Culicinae (e.g. Steg-
omyia calopus), are laid separately. The larvae are active and
voracious little grub-like creatures (known in the United States
as " wrigglers "), with large heads and jaws provided with a
pair of brushes, which sweep food-particles into the mouth.
Their food consists of minute animal and vegetable organisms,
(Redrawn by permission from Farmers Bulletin 155, Bureau of Ent.,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.)
FIG. 2. Stegomyia calopus (Culex fasciatus, Stegomyia fasciata).
algae, and probably decaying vegetable matter; they are often
cannibals, and feed on their own species. The larvae of species
belonging to the Culicinae have a prominent breathing tube, or
respiratory siphon, on the penultimate (eighth) abdominal
segment, and when taking in air hang head downwards (often
nearly vertically) from the surface film. Larvae of Anophelinae,
on the other hand which are grey, green or brown in colour,
and often extremely difficult to see have no respiratory siphon
and lie almost horizontally at the surface; they frequently appear
as though anchored by the tail to a weed or other object, and
possess the curious faculty of completely rotating the head so as
to browse on the surface film. Mosquito pupae are comma-
shaped (see fig. i), and breathe by means of a pair of respiratory
trumpets on the thorax.
The majority of mosquitoes are dull in hue, but certain species
are brilliantly coloured or conspicuously banded or spotted with
white. The Anophelinae have narrow bodies, and generally
spotted wings, and when at rest keep body and proboscis in a
straight line, often at a considerable angle with the supporting
surface; in this way they can be distinguished from Culicinae,
which have a humped-up thorax with which the proboscis forms
an angle, and in the resting position keep the body parallel to the
support.
The disseminators of malaria are exclusively Anophelinae,
but even among these it is only certain species that are dangerous,
since the others appear to be incapable of acting as hosts of the
parasites. Stegomyia calopus, on the other hand, a very widely
distributed species and the almost certain carrier of yellow
fever, belongs to the Culicinae. In the case of filariasis due to
Filaria bancrofti, which is common throughout the Tropics, the
embryos of the parasite are disseminated by various Culicinae
and Anophelinae (Culex pipiens in Queensland; C. fatigans in
the West Indies; Myzomyia rossii in India; Pyretophorus costalis
in a large portion of tropical Africa; &c.). Six or seven species
of mosquitoes are also the intermediate hosts of Filaria immitis,
which infests the right auricle and pulmonary artery of the dog,
and occurs throughout the tropics, in southern Europe, the
United States of America, and elsewhere. There is reason to
believe that malaria, yellow fever and filariasis are not the only
diseases disseminated by mosquitoes. (E. E. A.)
MOSQUITO COAST AND RESERVE (MosQuixiA or RESERVA
MOSQUITA), a division of the republic of Nicaragua, officially
styled the department of Zelaya. Pop. (1905), about 15,000.
Although its name is sometimes applied to the whole eastern
seaboard of Nicaragua and even to Mosquitia in Honduras,
i.e. the coast region as far west as the Rio Negro or Tinto the
Mosquito Coast is more accurately denned as a narrow strip of
territory, fronting the Caribbean Sea, and extending from about
11 45' to 14 10' N. It stretches inland for an average distance
of 40 m., and measures about 225 m. from north to south. In
the north, its boundary skirts the river Wawa; in the west, it
corresponds with the eastern limit of the Nicaraguan highlands;
in the south, it is drawn along the river Rama. The chief towns
are Bluefields or Blewfields, Magdala on Pearl Cay, Prinzapolca
on the river of that name, Vounta near the mouth of the Cuculaia,
and Carata near the mouth of the Wawa. Bluefields (pop.
about 2000) is the capital and the largest town. It is the seat
of a Moravian mission, and has a good harbour, with regular
steamship services to Greytown in Nicaragua, and to New Orleans.
It exports bananas and other fruit.
The Mosquito Coast is so called from its principal inhabitants,
the Misskito Indians, whose name was corrupted into Mosquito
by European settlers and has been entirely superseded by
that form except in the native dialects. The Mosquito
Indians, of whom there are several tribes, are an unusually
intelligent people, short of stature and very dark-skinned.
Their colour is said to be due to intermarriage with shipwrecked
slaves.
The first white settlement in the Mosquito country was made
in 1630, when the agents of an English chartered company of
which the earl of Warwick was chairman and John Pym treasurer
occupied two small cays, and established friendly relations
with the Indians. From 1655 to 1850 Great Britain claimed
a protectorate over the Mosquito Indians; but little success
attended the various endeavours to plant colonies, and the pro-
tectorate was disputed by Spain, the Central American republics,'
and the United States. The opposition of the United States
was due very largely to the fear that Great Britain would acquire
a privileged position in regard to the proposed interoceanic
canal. In 1848, the seizure of Greytown (San Juan del Norte)
MOSS MOSTAR
903
by the Mosquito Indians, with British support, aroused great
excitement in the United States, and even involved the risk of
war. But by the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 both powers
pledged themselves not to fortify, colonize or exercise dominion
over any part of Central America; and in November 1859 Great
Britain delegated its protectorate to Honduras. This caused
great dissatisfaction among the Indians, who shortly afterwards
revolted; and on the 28th of January 1860 Great Britain and
Nicaragua concluded the treaty of Managua, which transferred
to Nicaragua the suzeiainty over the entire Caribbean coast
from Cape Gracias a Dios to Greytown, but granted autonomy
to the Indians, in the more limited Mosquito Reserve (the area
described above). The local chief accepted this change on
condition that he should retain his local authority, and receive
a yearly subvention of 1000 until 1870. But on his death in
1864 Nicaragua refused to recognize his successor. The reserve
nevertheless continued to be governed by an elected chief, aided
by an administrative council, which met in Bluefields; and the
Indians denied that the suzerainty of Nicaragua connoted any
right of interference with their internal affairs. The question
was referred for arbitration to the emperor of Austria, whose
award published in 1880, upheld the contention of the Indians,
and affirmed that the suzerainty of Nicaragua was limited by
their right of self-government. After enjoying almosf complete
autonomy for fourteen years, the Indians voluntarily surren-
dered their privileged position, and on the zoth of November
1894 their territory was formally incorporated in that of the
republic of Nicaragua, as the department of Zelaya.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See " A Bibliography of the Mosquito Coast of
Nicaragua," by Courtney de Kalb, in Bulletin of the American Geog.
Soc., vol. xxvi. (1894) ; and " Studies of the Mosquito Shore in 1892,"
by the same author, and in the same publication, vol. xxv. (1893).
" A Forgotten Puritan Colony," in No. 165 of Blackwood's Magazine
(Edinburgh, 1898), described the attempt at colonization made in
1630. See also " Die Streit urn die Mosquito-Kuste," by J. Richter,
in Zeitschr. f. Gesellschaft d. Erdkunde, No. 30 (Berlin, 1895).
MOSS, a seaport of Norway, in Smaalenene ami (county), on
the east shore of Christiania Fjord, 37 m. S. of Christiania by
the Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900), 8941. Here was signed,
on the i4th of August 1814, the convention which united Norway
to Sweden. Timber and wood pulp are chief exports, grain and
coal are imported. The port affords 13 to 22 ft. of water beside
the quays.
MOSSAMEDES, a town of Portuguese West Africa, capital of
the district of Mossamedes, on the south side of Little Fish Bay
(Bay of Mossamedes or Angra do Negro). Pop. about 5000.
The harbour affords excellent anchorage. A railway (over
100 m. long) starts from the harbour and crosses the semi-desert
coast region to the fertile Chella plateau. Mossamedes is the
headquarters of an important fishing industry (see La Geographic,
March 1908).
MOSSEL BAY, the name of a bay, town and division of the
Cape province, South Africa. The bay lies midway between
Table Bay (Cape Town) and Port Elizabeth roadstead. Like
most of the South African bays it does not afford good anchorage.
Westward, however, it is sheltered by Cape St Blaize, on which
is a lighthouse. The town lies on the west side of the bay,
Cape St Blaize stretching beyond to the S.E. Mossel Bay is
250 m. by sea and 312 m. by rail E. by S. of Cape Town. Pop.
(1904), 4500. The port ranks fourth in importance among the
seaports of the Cape and does a large forwarding trade. Vessels
load and discharge by means of lighters. Mossel Bay is a
station on the direct Cape Town-Port Elizabeth railway. The
Mossel Bay division of the province has an area of 707 sq. m.,
and a population (1904) of 10,700, of whom 49 % were whites.
MOSSLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Prestwich parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, io| m.
E.N.E. from Manchester, by the London & North-Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 13,452. It lies in the valley of the Tame,
close to the junction of the boundaries of Lancashire, Cheshire
and Yorkshire, and is surrounded by sharply-rising high ground,
especially eastward. The Huddersfield canal passes it. Across
the river from the town ancient earthworks (Bucton Castle), of
British origin, are seen, and a Roman road passing them, and
running north and south is also traceable. Mossley has foundries,
mill-works, woollen factories, and large cotton-spinning mills.
It was incorporated in 1885, and the corporation consists of a
mayor, 6 aldermen, and 16 councillors. Area, 3622 acres.
MOSSOP, HENRY (1729-1774), Irish actor, was born in
Dublin, and made his first stage appearance there, at the Smock
Alley Theatre, as Zanga in Young's tragedy, The Revenge, in
1749. His first London appearance was made in 1751 under
Garrick's management, as Richard III. He returned to Ireland
in 1759, and, playing with Barry, added to his laurels, but when
he attempted management on his own account, he ruined Barry
and went bankrupt himself, dying in poverty on the 27th of
December 1774.
MOST, JOHN [JOSEPH] (1846-1906), German-American
anarchist, was born in Augsburg, Bavaria, on the 5th of February
1846. He was apprenticed to a bookbinder, worked at this
trade in Germany, Austria, Italy and Switzerland in 1863-1868,
and then became a writer of Socialist pamphlets and paragraphs-,
and editor of Socialist sheets in Chemnitz and Vienna, both
suppressed by the authorities, and of the Freie Presse in Berlin,
being repeatedly arrested for his violent and cynical attacks
on patriotism and conventional religion and ethics, and for his
gospel of terrorism, preached in prose and in many songs such
as those in his Proletarier-Liederbuch (5th ed., 1875). Some of his
experiences in gaol were recounted in Die Bastille am Plotzen-
see: Blatter aus meinem Gefangniss-Tagebuch (1876). In 1874-
1878 he was a member of the German Reichstag, but he
failed to be re-elected, was expelled by the Socialist organization,
went to France but was forced to leave in 1879, and then settled
in London. There he founded the " red " organ it was printed
in red Die Freiheit, in which he expressed his delight in June
1 88 1 over the assassination of Alexander II. of Russia and for
this was imprisoned for a year and a half. He then resumed
the publication of Die Freiheit in New York. He was im-
prisoned in 1886, again in 1887, and in 1902, the last time for
two months for publishing after the assassination of President
McKinley an editorial in which he argued that it was no crime
to kill a ruler. He died in Cincinnati on the I7th of April 1906.
See his Memoiren (New York, 1903).
MOSTAGANEM, chief town of an arrondissement in the
department of Oran, Algeria, 44 m. E.N.E. of Oran, on a plateau
278 ft. high, half a mile from the Mediterranean coast. The
town is separated into European and native quarters by a deep
ravine, the Ain Sefra, through which passes a considerable
stream. The native quarter, called Tijit, occupies the eastern
slopes of the ravine and the level ground above, and is dominated
by the kubbas of two marabouts. A railway line, completed in
1889, 122 m. long, connects Mostaganem with Tiaret, the most
convenient place for visiting the Jedars monuments. (See
ALGERIA.)
Mostaganem occupies the site of a Roman town. The ancient
harbour was destroyed by earthquake in the reign of the em-
peror Gallien. The present port is entirely artificial. The
existing town appears to date from the time of the Almoravides,
who built the citadel, now turned into a prison. It passed into
the possession of the rulers of Tlemcen and was captured by
Arouj Barbarossa in 1516, and became part of his brother
Khair-ed-Din's kingdom. In the i6th century the town enjoyed
a period of great commercial prosperity, and its population rose
to 40,000. The re-awakening of the town dates from the French
occupation in 1833. Pop. (1906) of the town, 19,528, of the
commune 22,011, of the arrondissement, comprising 27 com-
munes, 332,684.
In the vicinity of Mostaganem are the Dahra mountains, honey-
combed with caves. In 1845, in one of these caves, a French force,
commanded by Colonel Pelissier, afterwards commander-in-chief
of the French army in the Crimea, destroyed over 800 Arabs men,
women and children by suffocation, by filling the mouths of the
cave with faggots and then setting them on fire.
MOSTAR, the capital of Herzegovina, situated 81 m. S.W. of
Serajevo, on the river Narenta, and on the railway from Serajevo
94
MOSUL MOTANABBI
to Ragusa. Pop. (1900), about 14,500 including the garrison.
Mostar is the seat of Roman Catholic and Orthodox bishops,
a district court, and an Austrian garrison. Half Turkish, half
Italian in character, it commands the gateway through which
all heavy traffic must pass on the seaward road. A single arch
of great beauty, 89! ft. in span, and 61 ft. high, leads to the
Roman Catholic quarter, on the right bank of the river. This
bridge has been the theme of many legends, and its origin has
been much debated. Probably it was built by the Turks, in the
15th or i6th century, after Italian designs; but some antiquaries
ascribe its foundation to the Romans. Since 1881, when an
iron bridge was opened, its use has been confined to foot passen-
gers. Mostar possesses a gymnasium, a school of viticulture,
and a massive Orthodox cathedral.
The present name of the city has been derived from the Serbo-
Croatian most, a bridge, and star, old. Its earlier Slavonic
name was Vitrinicha. Whether it may be identified with Pans
Vetus, Andretium, Bistuae, Saloniana, or Sarsenterum, it certainly
dates from Roman times. Mostar was enlarged in 1440 by
Radivoi Cost, mayor of the palace to Stephen, first duke of
St Sava. Immediately on their conquest of Herzegovina it was
chosen by the Turks as their headquarters. The environs of
the city are interesting. Within a few miles are the sources
of the Buna, a small affluent of the Narenta, which issues from
a cavern at the foot of Podvelez, amid scenery celebrated for
its wild grandeur.
See Sir G. Wilkinson, Dalmatia and Montenegro (London, 1848),
vol. ii. (view and plan at pp. 59, 60); J. Asboth, An Official Tour
through Bosnia and Herzegovina (London, 1890), pp. 255-262; and R.
Munro, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Edinburgh, 1900), pp. 179-188.
MOSUL, a town of Mesopotamia, capital of a Turkish vilayet
and sanjak of the same name, on the right bank of the Tigris,
in 36 35' N., 43 3' E. Pop. 40,000 (Moslems 31,500, Christians
7000, Jews 1500). In Mosul, as in Bagdad, only part of the
space within the walls is covered with buildings and the rest is
occupied by cemeteries; even the solid limestone walls of
the ancient town are half in ruins, being serviceable only in the
direction of the river, where they check inundations. Of the
town gates at present in use, five are on the south, two on
the west, two on the north, and the great bridge gate on the east.
Leaving Mosul by the last named, the traveller first crosses a
stone bridge, 157 ft. long; then a kind of island (140 ft.), which is
overflowed only in spring and summer by the Tigris; next a
stretch of the river which, at such times as it is not fordable,
is spanned by a bridge of boats, the bridge proper covering only
one-sixth of the full width of the stream. During the season of
low water excellent vegetables, particularly water-melons, are
grown upon the islands and dry portions of the river-bed.
The interior of Mosul has an insignificant appearance, only a
few of the older buildings being left, among which may be men-
tioned the Great Mosque, with its leaning minaret, formerly a
church dedicated to St Paul. The streets are for the most part
badly paved and very narrow, a small square in the market-
place, overlooked by airy coffee-booths, being almost the only
open space. The shops are few and poor. The industry in
comparison with former times, when the town had so considerable
a manufacture in muslin as to give its name to that fabric, is
very unimportant; trade also, which is almost exclusively in the
hands of native merchants, has fallen off greatly, although
the town remains the collecting and distributing centre for the
north Mesopotamian desert and Kurdistan. The exports and
most of the imports pass through Bagdad. Mosul is the meeting-
point of roads from Aleppo, Diarbekr, Bitlis, north and west
Persia and Bagdad; and it is on the projected line of railway from
Constantinople to 'the Persian Gulf. Gall nuts, gathered on the
neighbouring Kurdish mountain slopes, are mostly exported,
but are also made use of by native dyers; and hides, wax, cotton
and gum are sold. Christians and Moslems have lived together
on better terms here than elsewhere. Both are animated by an
active local patriotism, and both honour the same patron saints,
Jirjis (St George) and Jonah; the grave of the latter is pointed
out on an artificial mound on the left bank of the Tigris.
The language of the people of Mosul is a dialect of Arabic,
partly influenced by Kurdish and Syriac. The Moslems call
themselves either Arabs or Kurds, but the prevalent type, very
different from the true Arabian of Bagdad, proves the Aramaean
origin of many of their number. Of the Christians the commu-
nity of the Chaldaeans, i.e. those who have gone over from
Nestorianism to Catholicism, seems to be the most important;
there are also Syrian Catholics and Jacobites. Mosul has for
several centuries been a centre of Catholic missionary activity,
the Dominicans especially, by the foundation of schools and
printing-offices, having made a marked impression upon an
intelligent and teachable population. There are very few
Protestants. The town is the seat of British, French and
Russian consulates.
Mosul shares the severe alternations of temperature experi-
enced by upper Mesopotamia. The summer heat is extreme,
and in winter frost is not unknown. Nevertheless the climate is
considered healthy and agreeable; copious rains fall in general
in winter. The drinking water is got from the muddy Tigris.
At the north-east corner of the town is a sulphur spring, and
4 leagues to the south there is a hot sulphur spring (Hammam
'Ali), much frequented by invalids.
Mosul probably occupies the site of a southern suburb of
ancient Nineveh (q.ii.) but it is very doubtful whether the older
name of Mespila can be traced in the modern Al-Mausil (Arab.,
" the place of connexion ") ; it is, however, certain that a town
with the Arabic name Al-Mausil stood here at the time of the
Moslem conquest (636 A.D.). The town reached its greatest
prosperity towards the beginning of the decline of the caliphate,
when it was for a time an independent capital. The dynasty of
the Hamdanids reigned in Mosul from 934, but the town was con-
quered by the Syrian Okailids in 990. In the nth century it
belonged to the Seljuks, and in the I2th, under the sway of the
Atabegs, particularly of Zenki, it had a short period of splendour.
Saladin besieged it unsuccessfully in 1182. The Persians occu-
pied Mosul for a short time in 1623, until it was, soon after-
wards, recovered by sultan Murad IV. The governorship of the
pashalik was long hereditary in the originally Christian family
of the 'Abd-al-Jalll, until the Porte, during the course of the igth
century, succeeded after a long and severe contest in establishing
a more centralized system of government.
The VILAYET OF MOSUL lies mainly east of the Tigris. It is
divided into three sanjaks, Mosul, Shehrizor and Suleimanieh,
and has an area of 29,000 sq. m. Pop. 295,000 (Moslems
245,000, Yezidis 15,000, Christians 30,000 and Jews 5000).
See Karl Ritter, " Asien," vol. vii. in Die Erdkunde (Berlin, 1844).
A map of the town accompanies J. Cernik's paper, " Studienexpedi-
tion durch die Gebiete des Euphrat und Tigris," in Erganzungsheft
No. 45 of Petermanns Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1876); Parry, Six
Months in a Syrian Monastery (1895); E. Sachau, Am Euphrat
und Tigris (Berlin, 1899); Baron von Oppenheim, Vom Mitlelmeer
zum Persischen Golf (Berlin, 1900).
MOSZKOWSKI, MORITZ (1854- ), Polish musical com-
poser, was born at Breslau, and studied at Dresden and Berlin.
He started as a pianist, and had a great success at the chief Euro-
pean centres. He was made a member of the Berlin Academy in
1899. In 1897 he settled in Paris. He became a prolific com-
poser both for pianoforte and for orchestra, but is best known
by his Spanish dances, written for four hands on the piano,
and his waltzes. His opera Boabdil was performed at Berlin
in 1892.
MOTALA, a town of Sweden, in the district (Ian) of Oster-
gotland, on the east side of Lake Vetter at the outflow of the
river Motala, 175 m. S.W. by W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop.
(1900), 3047. It is on the Gota canal route (q.v.). The town
was founded in 1880, but the Motala mechanical works, 2 m.
east, were founded in 1823 by the Gota Canal Company under the
direction of Daniel Fraser, an Englishman. Iron war-ships, rail-
way locomotives, iron bridges, machinery, &c., are built; the
company has branches in Norrkoping, Gothenburg, and elsewhere.
MOTANABBI, strictly AL MUTANABBI' (ABU-T-TAYYIB AHMAD
IBN AL-HUSAIN OF KUFA) (915/6-965), the most famous represen-
1 I.e. " he who plays the prophet."
MOTET MOTHER
905
tative of the last period of Arabic poetry, was the son of a water-
carrier, and is said to have picked up much of the literary
knowledge for which he was afterwards famous by haunting
the book-stalls of his native city. He spent too, some years of
his youth among the nomads of the Syro- Arabian desert, learning
their purer dialect, and becoming imbued with their self-reliant
spirit. Thus he grew up a brave proud man, a gallant warrior
as well as a poet, not easily satisfied either with wealth or
honours, indifferent to the Koran and to the fasts and prayers
of Islam, but untainted by the looseness of morals common to
the poets of those days. At first he essayed a perilous road to
distinction, appearing in the character of a prophet in the desert
between the Euphrates and Syria, where he formed a consider-
able party, but was arrested by the governor of Emesa (Horns).
A prison cooled his enthusiasm. The name of al-Mutanabbi
clung to him, however, and is that by which he is still commonly
known. Regaining his liberty, he had to struggle for a time with
poverty and neglect. But his poetical talents at length found
him patrons, and in 948 he became attached to the court of the
famous warrior and patron of letters, Saif ad-daula, prince of
Aleppo, to whom many of the best fruits of his muse were dedi-
cated, and by whose side he approved his valour in the field.
But he had rivals who knew how to inspire jealousy between
him and the prince, and an angry scene with the grammarian
Khalawaih, in which the latter closed a philological dispute by
striking Motanabbi, in the very presence of the prince and
without rebuke from him, led the poet to leave the court and seek
a new career in the realm of the Ikshlds (957). He now took as
his patron and the object of his eulogies Kafur, the regent of
Egypt a black eunuch who knew how to open the poet's lips
by great gifts and honours. Motanabbi, however, sought a
higher reward, the government of Sidon, and at length broke
with Kafur, wrote satires against him, and had to fly for his life
to Kufa (961). His next great patron was 'Adod ad-daula of
Shiraz, and on a journey from Shiraz to Kufa he was waylaid
and slain by a chieftain of the Asad, whose kinsfolk he had
satirized (September 965).
The poetry of Motanabbi is to European taste much less
attractive than the verses of the ancient Arab poets, being essen-
tially artificial and generally unreal, though it has great technical
merits and displays lively fancy and considerable inventive
power.
Oriental taste places him on a very high pedestal, as may be
judged from the fact that more than forty commentaries were
written on his Dlwan (H. Khal., iii. 306). Dieterici's edition of the
poet (Berlin, 1858-1861), gives the commentary of Waljidi (d. 1075) ;
the Egyptian edition of 1870 has the commentary of 'Ukbarl
(d. 1219). A convenient edition is that published with a commen-
tary of Nasif ul-YazijI at Beirut (1882). See R. A. Nicholson, A
Literary History oj the Arabs (London, 1907), pp. 304-313.
MOTET, a musical art-form of paramount importance in the
1 6th century. The word is of doubtful etymology, and probably
its various uses and forms in the i3th and i4th centuries connect
with more than one origin. Thus motidus suggests modulus or
melody; and probably represents the notion underlying the
use of the term motetus or motellus to designate one of the
middle parts in a vocal combination. On the other hand the
obvious connexion between the Italian word mottetto (diminutive
of motto) with the French mot (in the sense of bon mot) is
in conformity with the use of a profane art-form contem-
porary with the conductus and rondel of these early epochs of
music.
The only really definite and mature art-form denoted by the
word motet is that of the 16th-century pieces of ecclesiastical
music in one or two (rarely more) continuous movements, for
the most part on Biblical or other ecclesiastical prose texts.
The word is, however, used for any single Latin-text composition
in continuous form, not set sectionally verse by verse, and not
forming a permanent part of the mass. Thus Palestrina's
Slabat mater is included among his motets; though the text is
metrical and rhymed, and the style, though continuous, is far
from being that of the typical polyphonic motet. The title of
motet is also occasionally loosely used for non-ecclesiastical
works, such as many of the numbers in the Magnum opus
musicum of Orlando di Lasso and the dedicatory motet at the
beginning of Palestrina's fifth book. And in this way it is
sometimes applied to compositions not to Latin text; as in
Josquin's Deploration di Jehan Okenheim, where all except the
canto fermo is in French.
The most important kind of motet is that which is intimately
connected with the solemn mass for a particular holy day.
Such motets are sung between the Credo and the Sanctus of
the mass. They are, in typical cases, founded on the Gregorian
tones of their texts, and the mass is founded on the same themes,
thus giving the whole service a musical unity which has never
since been approached in any church music even under Bach.
When a motet was not founded on Gregorian tones it was still
possible for the composer to design a mass on the same themes,
and most of the titles of 16th-century masses, when they do
not indicate a secular origin, indicate either the motet or the
Gregorian tones on which they are founded. Thus Palestrina's
masses Assumpta est Maria; O admirabile commercium; Dum
complerentur; Hodie Chris tus natus est; Dies santificatus; Veni
sponsa Christi, and the second Missa Tu es Petrus, are magni-
ficent examples selected almost at random from the masses
which the composer has founded on his own motets of the same
name. When such masses are performed, whether in a concert-
room or church, it is indisputable that the motet ought always
to be included. Sometimes one composer founded a mass on
another .composer's motet; thus Soriano's fine Missa, Nos
autem gloriari, is based upon a motet by Palestrina. When a
motet was in two movements the second movement almost
always ended with the last clauses of the first, both in text and
in music, thereby sometimes producing a distinctly modern
impression of da capo form.
In later times the term motet is little more than a name
for any choral composition of clearly single design ; and the fact
that such compositions have often been sung, like the 16th-
century motet, between the Credo and Sanctus of High Mass, has t
nothing to do with their character as an art-form. Bach's
motets are great German choral works in several movements,
with no written accompaniment, though there is internal and
external evidence that they were accompanied from score by
the organ. Handel's motets belong to his Italian period and
are simply Latin cantatas of various kinds, with instrumental
accompaniment. The later meanings attached to the word are
quite indefinite, and have no common idea, except that the
motet is nowadays the shortest kind of sacred choral music.
(D. F. T.)
MOTH, in entomology, any lepidopterous insect belonging to
the division Heterocera, as distinguished from the Rhopalocera,
or butterflies; formerly confined to the small nocturnal insect
(belonging to the genus Tinea), which breeds in fur, clothes,
&c. (see LEPIDOPTERA). The word in O Eng. is mo\\e, and
corresponds to Ger. Motte.
MOTHER, the term for the female parent of a child. The
word, like father, is common to Indo-European languages, cf. in
Teutonic languages, Ger. Mutter, Du. moeder, Swed. and Dan.
moder; Gothic is the exception in Teutonic languages, the word
being aithei, cf. atta, father; from Lat. mater come, in Romanic,
Fr. mere, Ital., Span, and Port., madre. Greek has nrrnjp,
(Attic and Ionic), fiarr/p (Doric). The Russian word is mat.
The Sansk. mala points to an original derivation from a stem ma,
to measure, or make. Of the many transferred applications of
" mother " may be mentioned those to the church, to nature, to
the earth, and to a city or nation, as the parent of other cities,
nations, colonies, &c. As a title " mother " is particularly
applied to the head of a religious community of women. For
" mother-of-pearl " see PEARL. There is a particular applica-
tion of " mother " to the scum which rises to the surface of a
liquor during the process of fermentation, and also to a mass of
gummy stringy consistency formed in vinegar in the process of
acetous fermentation, hence known as " mother of vinegar " (see
VINEGAR). This is usually, however, taken to be another word
altogether, and connected with Du. madder, mud, mire.
906
MOTHERWELL, W. MOTION, LAWS OF
MOTHER WELL, WILLIAM (1797-1835), Scottish poet, anti-
quary and journalist, ws born at Glasgow on the i3th of October
1797, the son of an ironmonger. At the age of fifteen he was
apprenticed in the office of the sheriff-clerk at Paisley, and
appointed sheriff-clerk depute there in 1819. He spent his leisure
in collecting materials for a volume of local ballads which he
published in 1819 under the title of The Harp of Renfrewshire.
In 1827 he published a further instalment in Minstrelsy Ancient
and Modern, prefaced by an excellent historical introduction.
He contributed verses to newspapers and magazines, Jeanie
Morrison, My Heid is like to rend, Willie, and Wearie's Cauld Well
being his best-known poems. He became editor of the Paisley
Advertiser in 1828, and of the Glasgow Courier in 1830.
A small volume of his poems was published in 1832, and a larger
volume with a memoir in 1846, reissued, with additions, in 1848.
MOTHERWELL, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1851), 900; (1901), 30,418. It is situated near
the right bank of the Clyde, 13 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the
Caledonian railway. It takes its name from an old well dedi-
cated to the Virgin, and owes its rapid increase to the coal
and iron mines in the neighbourhood. It has large iron and
steel works, bridge-building being a distinctive industry. Boilers,
steam-cranes and ironmongers' ware are also made, and there
are brick, tile and fireclay works. The public buildings include
the town-hall, theatre and hospital; the park was presented in
commemoration of Queen Victoria's Jubilee.
MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move), in English law, an
application made to a court during the progress of an action,
and either before or after judgment has been pronounced. The
object of a motion is to invoke the assistance of the court in
matters that are of a pressing character, and require to be
speedily dealt with. A motion differs from a petition in that it is
made viva voce in open court and is founded on a written state-
ment. Motions are either motions of course or special motions.
A motion of course is made ex parte without notice, and is not
mentioned in court, the party being entitled as of right. Motions
of course are confined to the chancery division of the High Court.
A special motion is made in open court, and must be supported
by proper evidence. Special motions are made either ex parte or on
notice. On all ex parte applications the utmost good faith must
be observed. Ex parte motions, in the king's bench division, are
usually made to a divisional court. A motion for judgment is
a proceeding whereby a party to an action moves for judgment
of the court in his favour. See Rules of the Supreme Court,
Ors. xl., lii.
MOTION, LAWS OF. Before the time of Galileo (1564-1642)
hardly any attention had been paid to a scientific study of the
motions of terrestrial bodies. With regard to celestial bodies,
however, the case was different. The regularity of their
diurnal revolutions could not escape notice, and a good deal
was known 2000 years ago about the motions of the sun
and moon and planets among the stars. For the statement
of the motions of these bodies uniform motion in a circle
was employed as a fundamental type, combinations of motions
of this type being constructed to fit the observations. This
procedure which was first employed by the great Greek
astronomer Hipparchus (2nd century B.C.), and developed
by Ptolemy three centuries later did not afford any law con-
necting the motions of different bodies. Copernicus (1473-
1543) employed the same system, and greatly simplified the
application of it, especially by regarding the earth as rotating
and the sun as the centre of the solar system. Kepler (1571-
1630) was led by his study of the planetary motions to reject this
method of statement as inadequate, and it is in fact incapable of
giving a complete representation of the motions in question. In
1609 and 1619 Kepler published his new laws of planetary motion,
which were subsequently shown by Newton to agree with the
results obtained by experiment for the motion of terrestrial
bodies.
The earliest recorded systematic experiments as to the motion
of falling bodies were made by Galileo at Pisa in the latter years
of the i6th century. Bodies of different substances were
employed, and slight differences in their behaviour accounted
for by the resistance of the air. The result obtained was
that any body allowed to fall from rest would, in a
vacuum, move relatively to the earth with constant
acceleration ; that is to say, would move in a straight
line, in such a manner that its velocity would increase by equal
amounts in any two equal times. This result is very nearly
correct, the deviations being so small as to be almost beyond the
reach of direct measurement. It has since been discovered,
however, that the magnitude of the acceleration in question is
not exactly the same at different places on the earth, the range
of variation amounting to about % %. Galileo proceeded to
measure the motion of a body on a smooth, fixed, inclined plane,
and found that the law of constant acceleration along the line
of slope of the plane still held, the acceleration decreasing in
magnitude as the angle of inclination was reduced; and he inferred
that a body, moving on a smooth horizontal plane, would move
with uniform velocity in a straight line if the resistance of (he
air, and friction due to contact with the plane, could be elimi-
nated. He went on to deal with the case of projectiles, and was
led to the conclusion that the motion in this case could be re-
garded as the result of superposing a horizontal motion with
uniform velocity and a vertical motion with constant accelera-
tion, the latter identical with that of a merely falling body;
the inference being that the path of a projectile would be a
parabola except for deviations attributed to contact with the air,
and that in a vacuum this path would be accurately followed.
The method of superposition of two motions may be illustrated
by such examples as that of a body dropped from the mast of a
ship moving at uniform speed. In this case it is found that the
body falls relatively to the ship as if the latter were at rest, and
alights at the foot of the mast, having consequently pursued a
parabolic path relatively to the earth.
The importance of these results, limited though their scope
was, can hardly be overrated. They had practically the effect
of suggesting an entirely new view of the subject, namely, that a
body uninfluenced by other matter might be expected to move,
relatively to some base or other, with uniform velocity in a
straight line; and that, when it does not move in this way, its
acceleration is the feature of its motion which the surrounding
conditions determine. The acceleration of a falling body is
naturally attributed to the presence of the earth; and, though the
body approaches the earth in the course of its fall, it is easily
recognized that the conditions under which it moves are only
very slightly affected by this approach. Moreover, Galileo
recognized, to some extent at any rate, the principle of simple
superposition of velocities and accelerations due to different sets
of circumstances, when these are combined (see MECHANICS).
The results thus obtained apply to the motion of a small body,
the rotation of which is disregarded. When this case has been
sufficiently studied, the motion of any system can be dealt with
by regarding it as built up of small portions. Such portions,
small enough for the position and motion of each to be sufficiently
specified by those of a point, are called " particles."
Descartes helped to generalize and establish the notion of the
fundamental character of uniform motion in a straight line, but
otherwise his speculations did not point in the direc-
tion of sound progress in dynamics; and the next p'^. **
substantial advance that was made in the principles
of the subject was due to Huygens (1629-1695). He attained
correct views as to the character of centrifugal force in connexion
with Galileo's theory; and, when the fact of the variation of
gravity (Galileo's acceleration) in different latitudes first became
known from the results of pendulum experiments, he at once
perceived the possibility of connecting such a variation with the
fact of the earth's diurnal rotation relatively to the stars. He
made experiments, simultaneously with Wallis and Wren, on the
collision of hard spherical bodies, and his statement of the results
(1669) included a clear enunciation of the conservation of linear
momentum, as demonstrated for these cases of collision, and
apparently correct in certain other cases, mass being estimated by
weight. But Huygens's most important contribution to the
MOTION, LAWS OF
907
Newton
Theory.
subject was his investigation, published in 1673, of the motion
of a rigid pendulum of any form. This is the earliest example of
a theoretical investigation of the rotation of rigid bodies. It
involved the adoption of a point of view as to the relation between
the motions of bodies of different forms, which practically
amounted to a perception of the principle of energy as applied to
the case in question.
We owe to Newton (1642-1727) the consolidation of the views
which were current in his time into one coherent and universal
Galileo- system, sometimes called the Galileo-Newton theory,
but commonly known as the "laws of motion";
and the demonstration of the fact that the motions
of the celestial bodies could be included in this theory by means
of the law of universal gravitation. A full account of his results
was first published in the Principia in 1687.
Such statements as that a body moves in a straight line, and
that it has a certain velocity, have no meaning unless the base,
relative to which the motion is to be reckoned, is denned. Ac-
cordingly, in the extension of Galileo's results for the purpose of a
universal theory, the establishment of a suitable base of reference
is the first step to be taken. Newton assumed the possibility of
choosing a base such that, relatively to it, the motion of any
particle would have only such divergence from uniform velocity
in a straight line as could be expressed by laws of acceleration
dependent on its relation to other bodies. He used the term
" absolute motion " for motion relative to such a base. Many
writers on the subject distinguish such a base as " fixed." The
name " Newtonian base " will be used in this article. Assuming
such a base to exist, Newton admitted at the outset the difficulty
of identifying it, but pointed out that the key to the situation
might be found in the identification of forces; that is to say, in
the mutual character of laws of acceleration as applied to any
given body and any other by whose presence its motion is
influenced. In this connexion he took an important step by
distinguishing clearly the character of " mass " as a universal
property of bodies distinct from weight.
There can be no doubt that the development of correct views
as to mass was closely connected with the results of experiments
with regard to the collision of hard bodies. Suppose two small
smooth spherical bodies which can be regarded as particles to be
brought into collision, so that the velocity of each, relative to any
base which is unaffected by the collision, is suddenly changed.
The additions of velocity which the two bodies receive respec-
tively, relative to such a base, are in opposite directions, and if
the bodies are alike their magnitudes are equal. If the bodies
though of the same substance are of different sizes, the magni-
tudes of the additions of velocity are found to be inversely pro-
portional to the volumes of the bodies. But if the bodies are of
different substances, say one of iron and the other of gold, the
ratio of these magnitudes is found to depend upon something
else besides bulk. A given volume of gold is found to count for
this purpose for about two and a half times as much as the same
volume of iron. This is expressed by saying that the density of
gold is about two and a half times that of iron. In fact, experi-
ments upon the changes of velocity of bodies, due to a mutual
influence between them, bring to light a property of bodies which
may be specified by a quantity proportional to their volumes in
the case of bodies which are perceived by other tests to be of
one homogeneous substance, but otherwise involving also another
factor.
The product of the volume and density of a body measures
what is called its " mass." The mass of a body is often loosely
defined as the measure of the quantity of matter in it. This
definition correctly indicates that the mass of any portion of
matter is equal to the sum of the masses of its parts, and that the
masses of bodies alike in other respects are equal, but gives no
test for comparison of the masses of bodies of different substances;
this test is supplied only by a comparison of motions. When, as
in the case of contact, a mutual relation is perceived between
the motions of two particles, the changes of velocity are in oppo-
site directions, and the ratio of their magnitudes determines the
ratio of the masses of the particles; the motion being reckoned
relative to any base which is unaffected by the change. It is
found that this gives a consistent result; that is to say, if by an
experiment with two particles A and B we get the ratio of their
masses, and by an experiment with B and a third particle C we
get the ratio of the masses of B and C, and thus the ratio of the
masses of A and C, we should get the same ratio by a direct
experiment with A and C. For the numerical measure of mass
that of some standard body is chosen as a unit, and the masses of
other bodies are obtained by comparison with this. Masses of
terrestrial bodies are generally compared by weighing; this is
found by experiment to give a correct result, but it is applicable
only in the neighbourhood of the earth. Familiar cases can
readily be found of the perception of the mass of bodies, inde-
pendently of their tendency to fall towards the earth. The mass
of any portion of matter is found to be permanent under chemical
and other changes, and this fact adds to its importance as a
physical quantity. The study of the structure of atoms has
suggested a connexion of mass with electrical phenomena
which implies its dependence on motion; but this is not incon-
sistent with the observed fact of its practical constancy, to a high
degree of accuracy, for bodies composed of atoms.
The Galileo-Newton theory of motion is that, relative to a
suitably chosen base, and with suitable assignments of mass, all
accelerations of particles are made up of mutual (so-called)
actions between pairs of particles, whereby the two particles
forming a pair have accelerations in opposite directions in the
line joining them, of magnitudes inversely proportional to their
masses. The total acceleration of any particle is that obtained
by the superposition of the component accelerations derived from
its association with the other particles of the system severally
in accordance with this law. The mutual action between two
particles is specified by means of a directed quantity to which the
term " force " is appropriated. A force is said to act upon each
of two particles forming a pair, its magnitude being the product
of mass and component acceleration of the particle on which it
acts, and its direction that of this component acceleration. Thus
each mutual action is associated with a pair of equal forces in
opposite directions. Instead of the operation of superposing
accelerations, we may compound the several forces acting on a
particle by the parallelogram law (see MECHANICS) into what may
be called the resultant force, the total acceleration of the particle
being the same as if this alone acted. The theory depends for its
verification and application upon the fact that forces can be
identified and classified. They can be recognized by Application
their reciprocal character, and it is found to be of the
possible to connect them by permanent laws with the
recognizable physical characteristics of the systems in which they
occur. A generalization of Galileo's results takes the form that
under constant conditions of this kind, force (defined in terms of
motion) is constant, and that the superposition of two sets of
conditions, if their independence can be secured, results in super-
position of the forces associated with them separately. Par-
ticular laws of force may be suggested by a study of the simplest
cases in which they are manifested, and from them results may
be obtained by calculation as to the motions of systems of
any given structure. Such results may be tested by direct
observation.
It should be noted that, within a limited range of application
to terrestrial mechanics, the most convenient way of attacking
the question of the relations of forces to the physical statics.
conditions of their occurrence may be by balancing
their several effects in producing motion; thus avoiding in the
first instance both the choice of a base and the consideration of
mass. This procedure is useful as a preliminary step in the
study of the subject. It does not, however, afford a convenient
starting-point for a general theory, because it is apt to involve
some confusion of phenomena which, from the point of view of
the Galileo-Newton theory, are distinct in character.
Newton's law of gravitation affords the most notable example
of the process of verification of a law of force, and incidentally
of the Galileo-Newton theory. As a law of acceleration of the
planets relatively to the sun, its approximate agreement with
9 o8
MOTION, LAWS OF
Qrovits-
tioa.
Kepler's third law of planetary motion follows readily from a
consideration of the character of the acceleration of a point
moving uniformly in a circle. Newton tells us that
this agreement led him to adopt the law of the inverse
square of the distance about 1665-1666, before
Huygens's results as to circular motion had been published. At
the same time he thought of the possibility of terrestrial gravity
extending to the moon, and made a calculation with regard to it.
Some years later he succeeded in showing that Kepler's elliptic
orbit for planetary motion agreed with the assumed law of attrac-
tion; he also completed the co-ordination with terrestrial gravity
by his investigation of the attractions of homogeneous spherical
bodies. Finally, he made substantial progress with more exact
calculations of the motions of the solar system, especially for the
case of the moon. The work of translating the law of gravitation
into the form of astronomical tables, and the comparison of these
with observations, has been in progress ever since. The dis-
covery of Neptune (1846), due to the influence of this planet on
the motion of Uranus, may be mentioned as its most dramatic
achievement. The verification is sufficiently exact to establish
the law of gravitation, as providing a statement of the motions
of the bodies composing the solar system which is correct to a
high degree of accuracy. In the meantime seme confirmation
of the law has been obtained from terrestrial experiments, and
observations of double stars tend to indicate for it a wider if not
universal range. It should be noticed that the verification was
begun without any data as to the masses of the celestial bodies,
these being selected and adjusted to fit the observations.
The case of electro-magnetic forces between two conductors
carrying electric currents affords an example of a statement of
motion in terms of force of a highly artificial kind. It can only
be contrived by means of complicated mathematical analysis.
In this connexion a statement in terms of force is apt to be dis-
placed by more direct and more comprehensive methods, and
the attention of physicists is directed to the intervention of the
ether. The study of such cases suggests that the statement in
terms of force of the relations between the motions of bodies
may be only a provisional one, which, though it may summarize
the effect of the actual connexions between them sufficiently for
some practical purposes, is not to be regarded as representing
them completely. There are indications of this having been
Newton's own view.
The Newtonian base deserves some further consideration.
It is defined by the property that relative to it all accelerations
of particles correspond to forces. This test involves
Base"" " on ' v changes of velocity, and so does not distinguish
between two bases, each of which moves relatively
to the other with uniform velocity without rotation. The estab-
lishment of a true Newtonian base presumes knowledge of the
motions of all bodies. But practically we are always dealing with
limited systems, so any actual determination must always be
regarded as to some extent provisional. In the treatment of the
relative motions of a limited system, we may use a confessedly
provisional base, though it may be necessary to introduce
corrections, either exact or approximate, to take account either
of the existence of bodies outside the system, or of the rotation of
the base employed relative to a more correct one. Such correc-
tions may be made by the device of applying additional unpaired,
or what we may call external, forces to particles of the system.
These are needed only so far as they introduce differences of
accelerations of the several particles. The earth, which is
commonly employed as a base for terrestrial motions, is not a
very close approximation to being a Newtonian base. Differ-
ences of acceleration due to the attractions of the sun and moon
are not important for terrestrial systems on a small scale, and can
usually be ignored, but their effect (in combination with the
rotation of the earth) is very apparent in the case of the ocean
tides. A more considerable defect is due to the earth having a
diurnal rotation relative to a Newtonian base, and this is never
wholly ignored. Take a base attached to the centre of the earth,
but without this diurnal rotation. A small body hanging by a
string, at rest relatively to the earth, moves relatively to this
base uniformly in a circle; that is to say, with constant accelera-
tion directed towards the earth's axis. What is done is- to divide
the resultant force due to gravitation into two components, one
of which corresponds to this acceleration, while the other one is
what is called the " weight " of the body. Weight is in fact not
purely a combination of forces, in the sense in which that term is
defined in connexion with the laws of motion, but corresponds to
the Galileo acceleration with which' the body would begin to move
relatively to the earth if the string were cut. Another way of
stating the same thing is to say that we introduce, as a correction
for the earth's rotation, a force called " centrifugal force," which
combined with gravitation gives the weight of the body. It is
not, however, a true force in the sense of corresponding to any
mutual relation between two portions of matter. The effect of
centrifugal force at the equator is to make the weight of a body
there about '3 5% less than the value it would have if due to
gravitation alone. This represents about two-thirds of the total
variation of Galileo's acceleration between the equator and the
poles, the balance being due to the ellipticity of the figure of the
earth. In the case of a body moving relatively to the earth, the
introduction of centrifugal force only partially corrects the effect
of the earth's rotation. Newton called attention to the fact that
a falling body moves in a curve, diverging slightly from the
plumb-line vertical. The divergence in a fall of 100 ft. in the
latitude of Greenwich is about iVin. Foucault's pendulum is
another example of motion relative to the earth which exhibits
the fact that the earth is not a Newtonian base.
For the study of the relative motions of the solar system, a
provisional base established for that system by itself, bodies
outside it being disregarded, is a very good one. No correction
for any defect in it has been found necessary; moreover, no rota-
tion of the base relative to the directions of the stars without
proper motion has been detected. This is not inconsistent with
the law of gravitation, for such estimates as have been made
of planetary perturbations due to stars give results which
are insignificant in comparison with quantities at present
measurable.
For the measurement of motion it must be presumed that we
have a method of measuring time. The question of the standard
to be employed for the scientific measurement of Measure-
time accordingly demands attention. A definition of meat of
the measurement dependent on dynamical theory has Time -
been a characteristic of the subject as presented by some writers,
and may possibly be justifiable; but it is neither necessary nor
in accordance with the historical development of science. Galileo
measured time for the purpose of his experiments by the flow
of water through a small hole under approximately constant
conditions, which was of course a very old method. He had,
however, some years before, when he was a medical student,
noticed the apparent regularity of successive swings of a pendu-
lum, and devised an instrument for measuring, by means of a
pendulum, such short periods of time as sufficed for testing the
pulse of a patient. The use of the pendulum clock in its present
form appears to date from the construction of such a clock by
Huygens in 1657. Newton dealt with the question at the begin-
ning of the Principia, distinguishing what he called " absolute
time " from such measures of time as would be afforded by any
particular examples of motion; but he did not give any clear
definition. The selection of a standard may be regarded as a
matter of arbitrary choice; that is to say, it would be possible to
use any continuous time-measurer, and to adapt all scientific
results to it. It is of the utmost importance, however, to make,
if possible, such a choice of a standard as shall render it unneces-
sary to date all results which have any relation to time. Such
a choice is practically made. It can be put into the form of a
definition by saying that two periods of time are equal in which
two physical operations, of whatever character, take place, which
are identical in all respects except as regards lapse of time. The
validity of this definition depends on the assumption that
operations of different kinds all agree in giving the same measure
of time, such allowances as experience dictates being made for
changing conditions. This assumption has successfully stood all
MOTIVE MOTLEY
909
tests to which it has been subjected. All clocks are constructed
on the basis of this method of measurement; that is to say, on
the plan of counting the repetitions of some operation, adopted
solely on the ground of its being capable of continual repetition
with a certain degree of accuracy, and possibly also of automatic
compensation for changing conditions. Practically clocks are
regulated by reference to the diurnal rotation of the earth
relatively to the stars, which affords a measurement on the repeti-
tion principle agreeing with other methods, but more accurate
than that given by any existing clock. We have, however, good
reasons for regarding it as not absolutely perfect, and there are
some astronomical data the tendency of which is to confirm
this view.
The most important extension of the principles of the subject
since Newton's time is to be found in the development of the
Theo of tneorv of ener gy. the cnie f value of which lies in the
Baergy. * act tnat ^ nas supplied a measurable link connecting
the motions of systems, the structure of which can be
directly observed, with physical and chemical phenomena having
to do with motions which cannot be similarly traced in detail.
The importance of a study of the changes of the vis viva depend-
ing on squares of velocities, or what is now called the " kinetic
energy " of a system, was recognized in Newton's time, especially
by Leibnitz; and it was perceived (at any rate for special cases)
that an increase in this quantity in the course of any motion of
the system was otherwise expressible by what we now call the
" work " done by the forces. The mathematical treatment of
the subject from this point of view by Lagrange (1736-1813) and
others has afforded the most important forms of statement of the
theory of the motion of a system that are available for practical
use. But it is to the physicists of the igth century, and especially
to Joule, whose experimental results were published in 1843-1849,
that we practically owe the most notable advance that has been
made in the development of the subject namely, the establish-
ment of the principle of the conservation of energy (see ENER-
GETICS and ENERGY). The energy of a system is the measure of
its capacity for doing work, on the assumption of suitable con-
nexions with other systems. When the motion of a body is
checked by a spring, its kinetic energy being destroyed, the spring,
if perfectly elastic, is capable of restoring the motion; but if it
is checked by friction no such restoration can be immediately
effected. It has, however, been shown that, just as the com-
pressed spring has a capacity for doing work by virtue of its
configuration, so in the case of the friction there is a physical
effect produced namely, the raising of the temperature of the
bodies in contact, which is the mark of a capacity for doing the
same amount of work. Electrical and chemical effects afford
similar examples. Here we get the link with physics and chem-
istry alluded to above, which is obtained by the recognition of
new forms of energy, interchangeable with what may be called
mechanical energy, or that associated with sensible motions and
changes of configuration.
Such general statements of the theory of motion as that of
Lagrange, while releasing us from the rather narrow and strained
view of the subject presented by detailed analysis of motion in
terms of force, have also suggested a search for other forms which
a statement of elementary principles might equally take as
the foundation of a logical scheme. In this connexion the
interesting scheme formulated by Hertz (1894) deserves notice.
It is important as an addition to the logic of the subject rather
than on account of any practical advantages which it affords for
purposes of calculation.
AUTHORITIES. Galileo, Dialogues (translations: " The System of
the World " and " Mechanics and Local Motion," in T. Salusbury's
Mathematical Collections and Translations (1661-1665); Mechanics
and Local Motion, by T. Weston ( 1 730) ; H uygens, Horologium Oscilla-
torium (1673); Newton, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathe-
matica (1687; translation by A. Motte, 1729); W. W. Rouse Ball,
An Essay on Newton's Principia (1893); Whewell, History of the
Inductive Sciences (1837); J. Clerk Maxwell, Matter and Motion
(1882); H. Streintz, Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Mechanik
ti883); E. Mach, Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwickelung historisch-
kritisch dargestellt (1883; 2nd edition (1889 translation) by T. T.
McCormack, 1893) ; K. Pearson, The Grammar of Science (1892) ;
A. E. H. Love, Theoretical Mechanics (1897). H. Hertz, Die Primi-
pien der Mechanik (1894, translation by Jones and Walley 1899).
(W. H. M.)
MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move), in psychology, a general
term signifying any element of consciousness which prompts
an agent to a decision. The older psychology usually regarded
motives as strictly analogous to mechanical forces exerting
pressure or tension, and explained human action as necessarily
determined by the resultant of various, possibly conflicting,
motives. Contemporary psychological research tends to show
with increasing clearness that we must recognize a power of
decision in the self, and that the analogy of mechanical forces is
inadequate to explain the facts. On this view motives will be
regarded as solicitations to act in a certain direction, while the
self decides by throwing its volitional weight on the side of the
motive which it regards as preferable. The solicitations may come
from the most diverse sources: they may be mere desires to avoid
some pain or to gratify some appetite; or they may be of higher
origin, such as the motive of patriotism, or the desire to advance
knowledge. Purposes or ends are often termed motives. " Con-
flict of motives " means sometimes a conflict of purposes, when
the agent has adopted two different lines of action and has
difficulty in combining them; or it may mean a conflict of solici-
tations. It is better to call purposes or ends by those names
when they have been definitely adopted by the agent : while they
are still under deliberation the term " motive " may be used.
MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814-1877), American historian,
son of Thomas Motley, was born on the isth of April 1814 at
Dorchester (now a part of Boston) , Massachusetts, and graduated
at Harvard in 1831. He then studied at Gottingen and Berlin,
becoming a friend of Bismarck at Gottingen, and after a period
of European travel returned in 1834 to America, where he con-
tinued his legal studies. In 1837 he married Mary Benjamin
(d. 1874), a sister of Park Benjamin, and in 1839 he published
anonymously a novel entitled Morion's Hope, or the Memoirs
of a Provincial. In 1841 he entered the diplomatic service as
secretary of legation in Russia, but resigned his post within three
months. Returning to America, he soon entered definitely
upon a literary career. Besides contributing various historical
and critical essays to the North American Review, including a
remarkable essay on the Polity of the Puritans, he published
in 1849, again anonymously, a second novel, entitled Merry
Mount, a Romance of the Massachusetts Colony. About 1846
the project of writing a history of Holland had begun to take
shape in his mind, and he had already done a large amount of
work on this subject when, finding the materials at his disposal
in the United States inadequate, he went to Europe in 1851.
The next five years were spent at Dresden, Brussels and the
Hague in investigation of the archives, which resulted in 1856
in the publication of The Rise of the Dutch Republic, which
became very popular. It speedily passed through many
editions, was translated into French, and also into Dutch,
German and Russian. In 1860 Motley published the first
two volumes of its continuation, The United Netherlands. This
work was on a larger scale, and embodied the results of a still
greater amount of original research. It was brought down to the
truce of 1609 by two additional volumes, published in 1867. In
1861, just after the Civil War had broken out in America, Motley
wrote two letters to The Times defending the Federal position,
and these letters, afterwards reprinted as a pamphlet entitled
Causes of the Civil War in America, made a favourable impression
on President Lincoln. Partly owing to this essay, Motley was
appointed United States minister to Austria in 1861, a position
which he filled with great success until his resignation in 1867.
Two years later he was sent to represent his country in London,
but in November 1870 he was recalled by President Grant.
After a short visit to Holland, he again took up his residence in
England, where the Life and Death of John Barneveld appeared in
two volumes in 1874. Ill health now began to interfere with his
literary work, and he died at Frampton Court, near Dorchester,
Dorset, on the zgth of May 1877, leaving three daughters. The
merits of Motley as an historian are undeniably great. He has
910
MOTLEY MOTORS, ELECTRIC
told the story of a stirring period in the history of the world with
full attention to the character of the actors and strict fidelity to
the vivid details of the action. But it may safely be said that
his tale is best where most unvarnished, and probably no writer
of the same rank has owed less to the mere sparkle of highly
polished literary style.
An excellent edition of his historical works was published in nine
volumes in London in 1903-1904. See the Correspondence of John
Lothrop Motley, edited by G.W.Curtis (New York, 1889); O. W.
Holmes, John Lothrop Motley, a Memoir (Boston, 1878); M. D.
Conway, Biographical Introduction to The Rise of the Dutch Republic
(London, 1896); and John Lothrop Motley and his Family: Further
Letters and Records (1910), edited by his daughter, Mrs Susan
St John Mildmay.
MOTLEY, i.e. of many colours, a term particularly used of the
parti-coloured dress of the professional " fool " (q.v.) of the middle
and later ages. The origin of the word is probably to be found
in " mote " (O. Eng. mot), a particle of dust, &c., hence a spot
or patch. " Mottle," a blotch or spot, is probably a back
formation of motley.
MOTMOT. According to Hernandez in his Historia avium
Novae Hispaniae (p. 52), pubb'shed at Rome in 1651, this is the
Mexican name of a bird which he described well enough to leave
no doubt as lo what he meant; but the word being soon after
printed Momot by Nieremberg and others gave rise to the Latin-
ized Momotus, invented by M. J. Brisson as a generic term, which
has since been generally adopted by ornithologists, though
motmot has been retained as the English form. Linnaeus knew
of only one species of motmot, and referred it to his genus
Ramphastos (properly Rhamphastus) under the name of R.
momota. This is the Momotus brasiliensis of modern ornitho-
logists, and from its geographical range cannot be the original
Motmot of Hernandez, but is most likely the " Guira guainumbi "
of Marcgrave.
The motmots form the sub-family Momotinae, which with the
Todinae (see TODY) form the family Momotidae of Coraciiform
birds, the nearest allies being rollers (q.v.) and kingfishers (q.v.).
In outward appearance the motmots have an undoubted resem-
blance to bee-eaters, but, though beautiful birds, various shades
of blue and green predominating in their plumage, they do not
exhibit such decided and brilliant colours; and, while the bee-
eaters are only found in the Old World, the motmots are a purely
Neotropical form, extending from southern Mexico to Paraguay,
and the majority of species inhabit Central America. Their
ordinary food is small reptiles and fruits, and insects caught on
the wing. The nest of one species, as observed by Robert Owen,
is at the end of a hole bored in the bank of a watercourse, and the
eggs are pure white and glossy (Ibis, 1861, p. 65). Little else has
been recorded of their ways.
The Momotidae form but a small group, containing about six
genera, of which the best known are: Momotus, Baryphthcngus,
Hylomanes, Eumomota, Aspatha and Priatiorhynchus, and the
number of species is very small. While all have a general
resemblance in the serrated edges of the bill and many other
characters, Momotus has the normal number of twelve
rectrices, while the rest have only ten, which in Hylomanes
have the ordinary configuration, but in adult examples of
all the others the shaft of the median pair is devoid of
barbs for the space of about an inch a little above the
extremity, so as to produce a spatulate appearance, such as is
afforded by certain humming-birds known as " racquet-tails "
(see HUMMING-BIRD), kingfishers of the genus Tanysiplera
(see KINGFISHER), and parrots of the group Prioniturus.
C. Waterton (Wanderings, Journey 2, chap, iii.), mentioning
the species M. brasiliensis by its native name " houtou," long
ago asserted that this peculiarity was produced by the motmot
itself nibbling off the barbs, and this extraordinary statement,
though for a while doubted, has since been shown by O. Salvin
(Proc. Zool. Society, 1873, pp. 429-433), on A. Bartlett's authority,
to be perfectly true. (A. N.)
MOTORS, ELECTRIC. Fundamentally, electric motors are
electric generators reversed in function: they convert into
mechanical energy the continued stresses between two electro-
magnetic fields relatively movable, just as generators convert
into electromagnetic stresses the mechanical energy applied to
them. Since no transformation of energy is ever absolutely quan-
titative, the conversions just considered are not accomplished
without loss of energy to about the same extent in both cases.
The sources of this loss are ohmic loss in the conductors, hysteresis,
friction of bearings and brushes, air friction and eddy currents;
the sum of these losses in large modern machines does not exceed
5 or 6%. The torque of the motor is the dynamical result of the
electromagnetic stresses between the magnetic field of the motor
and that due to the armature currents, the latter field being
proportional to the strength of the current sheet due to the
numerical strength of the current and the number of its effective
convolutions. This applies to all types of motors, if one re-
members that whenever either of these two stress factors is a
periodic variable, as in the case of alternating motors, the torque
is proportional to their geometrical co-directed product and not
merely to their numerical product. At this point it will be
convenient to distinguish between the various types of motors.
The first broad distinction is between continuous-current and
alternating-current motors, a distinction rather of convenience
than of necessity, for in point of fact the two depend upon the
same broad principles and can be considered on precisely the
same lines.
Electric motors may be conveniently divided as follows:
(A) Continuous Current.
1. Separately excited.
2. Series-wound constant current.
3. Series- wound constant potential.
4. Series-wound interdependent current and potential.
5. Shunt-wound constant potential.
(B) Alternating Current.
1. Synchronous constant potential.
2. Induction-polyphase constant potential.
3. Induction-monophase constant potential.
4. Repulsion-commutating.
5. Series-commutating.
Of these, the series-wound constant potential, shunt-wound
constant potential, and polyphase induction motors do a very
large proportion of the active work of power transmission: the
first mentioned furnish power for electric railways; the second
chiefly power distribution from public electric supply stations;
while the third are mainly relied upon in long-distance trans-
mission systems. The fourth and fifth groups of class (B) are old
in principle but have been slow in practical development. They
include many modifications and transition forms not involving
radical changes in the principles or properties of the machines.
Their chief use has been for electrical traction, with reference to
which they have, in the main, been developed, and their per-
formance is best at low frequency, 15 to 25 cycles per second.
In class (A) in general, for a certain value of the torque current
must be forced through the armature against the motor electro-
motive force which results from the rotation of the armature in a
given field. This demands a certain greater applied electro-
motive force to produce the current required, which is determined
by the effective electromotive force, equal to the geometrical
difference between the applied and motor electromotive forces,
and by the impedance of the armature. For steady currents this
last is of course the same as the ohmic resistance, just as for
steady electromotive force the geometrical and the numerical
difference of the applied and motor electromotive forces are
coincident. The torque depends, as heretofore noted, on the
field strength and the strength of the current sheet due to the
current thus determined. For small values of the torque the
speed practically depends upon the applied electromotive force
and the field, so that if the former and the latter be constant
the speed is also sensibly constant. This is likewise the case if the
armature resistance be very small; and in general the variations
of speed at constant potential are determined by the product of"
this resistance and the torque, while the absolute speed depends
essentially upon the field strength. Motors for low speed or high
MOTORS, ELECTRIC
911
electromotive force must have both a strong field and many
turns upon the armature, so that both the fundamental stresses
may be large. As the field is generally strong to secure
economy of iron low-voltage and high-voltage machines differ
principally in the number of armature turns. For variable speed,
this latter factor being fixed, field strength and applied electro-
motive force are the factors easily altered, and most of the speed
variation is accomplished by changing one or both of them.
Torque, neglecting field distortion, is at a maximum when the
current is the greatest possible at the given applied voltage that
is, when the motor is at rest. With a small armature resistance
this current is generally far too great for convenience; hence the
motors are usually started with a rheostat in series with the
winding if the current is not limited by the generator itself. The
torque then depends on the sum of the resistances in circuit, and
can be made just sufficient to start the motor under the required
load. By the same device the motor can run at reduced speed,
although with a considerable loss of energy in the rheostat; it is
indeed, as a rule, difficult to get effective speed variation in motors
of any kind without serious loss of energy. The field can be
changed within wide limits only by a considerable increase of the
iron in the magnetic circuit, the applied electromotive force
cannot usually be varied except by increasing the resistances in
circuit, and the number of armature turns cannot be varied with-
out complication, although the effective number can be modified
by shifting the brushes, probably at the expense of sparking.
Altogether, if the speed variation demanded be more than 15 or
20%, it causes, in one way or another, considerable expense and
trouble, particularly if each speed must be closely held irrespec-
tive of load. No large change in absolute speed can readily be
made without considerable change in the percentage variation
of speeds at various loads. Practically, the best results are ob-
tained from motors of very low armature resistance, in which the
field or the applied electromotive force, or both, are varied. The
whole problem is nearly identical with the production of constant
potential or constant current from generators driven at constant
speed, and is solved by similar means. For any one absolute
speed a generator can be made to give constant potential, nearly
irrespective of load, by compound winding. Similarly, a motor
may give a very nearly constant speed at constant potential by a
differential winding in series with the armature, weakening the
field as the armature current rises. This device, however,
obviously increases the energy required for magnetization, and
decreases the effective torque at starting. Practically, the best
continuous-current motors can be made to hold their speed to
within i or 2 % from no load to full load. Commercial machines,
however, generally vary from 5 to 10% in speed. With respect
to the direction or rotation of a motor, the torque changes sign
with a change of sign in either field or armature current, but not
with a change of sign in both. The input of the motor is numeri-
cally equal to the product of the current and the applied
electromotive force, while the output is determined by the
product of the current and motor electromotive force; hence
the efficiency of the motor as a transformer of energy is the
ratio between these two quantities. The output is a maximum
when the applied electromotive force is double the motor
electromotive force, and the efficiency is a maximum when the
motor and applied electromotive forces are substantially equal.
At the point of maximum output the speed is that sufficient to
reduce the current to one-half its static value. No motor is
worked at or near this point, except momentarily, on account of
the low efficiency and severe heating in the armature. These
theoretical values are slightly modified in practical machines by
the small miscellaneous losses subject to independent variations.
The practical output of electric motors is limited in machines
of normal design by the temperature they can safely endure. As
a rule the working temperature, which is commonly reached only
after six hours or more of continuous running, should not rise
more than 40 to 50 F. above the temperature of the surrounding
air. In case of traction motors and others subjected to occasional
severe overloads, separated by periods of rest or of subnormal
load, the temporary rise of temperature tolerated may be much
higher, say 60 to 75 F., after a run of an hour or so. The
temperature of the air is assumed at 70 F. in most cases, and
the temperature of the motor-windings is preferably ascertained
by the rise in electrical resistance due to the heating. Thermo-
meters can seldom be so applied as to measure the full heating
effect.
The actual output obtainable from a motor structure of given
dimensions under these conditions with respect to heating
depends chiefly upon the practicable rotative speed of the arma-
ture, since the chief losses are proportional to the torque, while
the mechanical output at given torque is approximately pro-
portional to the speed. Most makers utilize a single structure
for several standard motors varying in speed and output, a 15 h.p.
machine at, say, 1200 r.p.m. becoming a 10 h.p. at 800 r.p.m.
or a 20 h.p. at 1600 r.p.m. There is no practically fixed relation
between the rating and the speed, although it is approximately
linear, for in winding the same carcass for different speeds the
ratings are settled rather by commercial convenience than by
exact determinations. Motors generally have approximately
the same efficiencies as the corresponding sizes of generators.
Small motors, say from i to 5 h.p., are commonly of 70-80%
efficiency at full load, medium sized machines of 5 to 50 h.p.
about 80 to 90%, and the larger sizes run up to 95% or there-
abouts. In the effort to get low-speed motors without immoder-
ately increasing the cost they are generally dropped a little in
efficiency and allowed to run hotter than if wound for higher
speeds.
The weight of motors per h.p. of output is therefore very
variable. In machines of medium size and speed it is likely to be
50 to 75 Ib per h.p., falling to 30 or 40 in large or specially high
speed machines, and rising to 80 or ico Ib in small or very low
speed motors. High-voltage motors, particularly if small, lose
somewhat in relative output on account of the space taken up
by the necessary insulation.
In all ordinary motors the magnetization of the iron is, for
economy of material, pushed high; and hence the field, even at
heavy loads, is fairly stable and the conditions of commutation
remain good. When, however, motors are designed to stand
severe overloads, or to admit of a wide range of speed regulation
by varying the field strength, the commutation is likely to be
unstable, and severe sparking may result. To meet this condition
the commutating-pole motor really a recrudescence of an old
idea has been introduced on a considerable scale. In this
construction auxiliary pole pieces, excited by series coils from
the motor circuit, are set midway between the ordinary field
poles. The office of these poles is to neutralize the magneto-
motive force due to the armature winding, thus checking field
distortion, and also to ensure the proper reversal of the current
in the armature coil directly under the brush. Of the total
magneto-motive force due to the windings of the commutating
pole, the major part, perhaps three-fourths, is devoted to the
former work and the remainder to the latter, the proportion
varying widely according to the design of the motor. The result
of this construction is excellent, sparkless commutation being
ensured over a wide range of load and field strength. The com-
mutating-pole motor is intrinsically more expensive and slightly
less efficient than the ordinary type, but for the particular kind
of service it is designed to perform is extremely effective. It
gives promise of especial value in high-voltage traction motors.
(A) i. Separately excited Motors are interesting principally on
account of the very efficient method of speed regulation possible by
their use. In this method the field of the motor is excited from the
supply mains, and the armature current is furnished by a motor-
generator running at constant speed. A rheostat in the shunt field
of the latter element enables the applied electromotive force to be
varied to any desired extent, and hence the working motor can be
given full torque at any speed up to that assigned by the maximum
value of the electromotive force which can be applied to the armature.
Moreover, if the armature resistance be small, the motor is fairly
self-regulating at all speeds. The effect is rather startling, since the
motor may be giving a very great torque when it is merely turning
over at a few revolutions per minute; and although the process is
complicated, it leads to excellent results, and is widely used where
delicate speed regulation is required.
912
MOTORS, ELECTRIC
(A) 2. Series-wound Constant-current Motors were early worked
to a considerable extent on arc-lights circuits, but have now passed
out of use save in a small number of constant-current power-trans-
mission systems on the continent of Europe. In these motors the
motor electromotive force is directly proportional to the output,
the torque being constant. They will not start with more than a
certain definite load, but once started the speed will increase until
added work (internal or external) balances the torque. The type is in-
trinsically bad in speed regulation, and must be treated by the same
methods as are adopted to secure constant current in arc machines.
The most successful device in most cases is to vary the field strength
by shunting the field coils or to vary the number of effective arma-
ture conductors by shifting the brushes. Both methods are carried
out mechanically rather than by purely electrical means in the
first case by an automatic rheostat, and in the second by an auto-
matic brush shifter, but neither is wholly satisfactory. Neverthe-
less, such motors have proved capable of excellent commercial service
in some of the European plants, especially in the larger sizes.
(A) 3. Series-wound Constant-potential Motors comprise nearly all
motors used for electric traction aggregating not less, probably,
than one and a half million horse-power; hence they are of great
practical importance. These traction motors are usually highly
specialized machines with very powerful armatures and fields strongly
saturated at all working values of the current. The brushes have
an invariable position. Such motors behave much like separately-
excited motors, having a rather large armature resistance. Speed
regulation has to be obtained by varying the applied electromotive
force. In early traction motors this variation depended upon insert-
ing a rheostat; in modern practice it is customary to employ two,
or even four, identical motors on each car, operated in series for low
speeds and in parallel for full speed. In practice, however, resist-
ances are inserted when necessary, to prevent too sudden changes
of speed and to secure intermediate steps between those obtained
by the series-parallel connexions. In rare instances a still further
variation is secured by the use of a field only partially saturated at
ordinary loads.
(A) 4. Series-wound Motors with Interdependent Current and Poten-
tial are used only in connexion with generators of similar design, motor
and generator forming a dynamical unit. This system is occasionally
used with good results in power transmission. Assuming the motor
field to be saturated, if the speed is to be constant the applied
electromotive force must rise with the load to an amount depending
on the resistances in circuit. If the corresponding generator has a
field less fully saturated, the increase in current demanded by the
increment of torque in the motor can be made not only to raise the
applied electromotive force enough to compensate for armature
resistance, but for the total resistances in circuit, including the line.
With this difference in saturation the motor will automatically
maintain constant speed. The fields of the machines need not be
designed for a given saturation, since shunting them with a suitable
resistance will give the same result.
(A) 5. Shunt-wound Motors at Constant Potential are the main-
stay of continuous-current distributions for industrial purposes. At
constant potential the field remains sensibly constant and the torque
is directly proportional to the current. The motor then behaves
much like a separately-excited motor, and the armature resistance
being generally very small, the speed is very nearly constant, vary-
ing less than 5 % from no load to full load in the best commercial
machines. Operating on a compound-wound generator, a single
motor of this type can be made to regulate with great precision, as
in the previous case. If the motor field be only moderately satu-
rated, its strength, and hence the motor electromotive force,
rises and falls with the applied electromotive force; and there-
fore at constant load these motors run at very nearly constant
speed, in spite of small variations of voltage. If speed variation
be required, it can be obtained to a moderate extent by a rheostat
in the field circuit. At starting a rheostat is necessary in the
armature circuit. The differentially wound modification is now
seldom used.
(B) i. Synchronous Alternating-current Motors. The simplest
starting point in the consideration of this class is the continuous-
current generator. This machine actually generates within the
armature alternating currents; and if the commutator be replaced
by two or more slip-rings connected symmetrically to two or more
points on the armature winding, alternating currents, monophase
or polyphase, according to the number of connexions and the points
touched, can be withdrawn therefrom. The simplest case involves
only two slip-rings, joined to the winding at diametrically opposite
points. Consider two such modified machines as motor and genera-
tor. The condition of complete reversibility is that the instantane-
ous values of the currents, and the instantaneous values of the angular
displacements between poles and armature coils, shall be equal
throughout. This evidently requires that the rotation of the motor
should be synchronous, pole for pole, with that of the generator.
Here, as before, the torque depends on the two fundamental
stresses, but the torque has no determinate sign in the absence
of an initial rotation. The instantaneous value of the torque
depends on the instantaneous value of the current and on its angular
displacement. The speed of the motor being invariable, its motor
electromotive force depends only on the effective excitation, including
the armature reactions, and it may or may not, according to the
conditions of load, be in phase with the impressed electromotive
force. In the case of the continuous-current motor, the motor
output is numerically equal to the product of current and motor
electromotive force; and since, in the alternating circuit, these
quantities are usually not in phase, in alternating motors the
activity is determined by the co-directed part of their product.
The current in the alternating motor depends, not on the ohmic
resistance alone, but upon the impedance and upon the geometrical
difference between the applied and motor electromotive forces.
At a given applied electromotive force, and an armature impedance
assumed constant, the fundamental variables in the motor are the
output, motor electromotive force, and motor current. The two
last factors are interdependent, so that the current may have a wide
range of values, according to the excitation, while the output remains
constant, or, itself remaining constant, may cover a variety of values
of the power corresponding to different excitations. These changes
involve changes in the phase angle between the motor electromotive
force and the current, so that at given output the power-factor
of the motor that is, the ratio between the numerical and geome-
trical products of current and electromotive force may be given
various values at will by changing the field excitation of the motor,
a most unique and valuable property. If the motor electromotive
force be fixed and the output varied, the phase angle between
current and motor electromotive force varies by reason of the arma-
ture taking up a new angular position with respect to the field,
backward for increasing load, forward for decreasing load. The
minimum value of the current for a given load is reached when the
excitation is such that the applied electromotive force and current
are in phase, at which point the real and the apparent energy in the
circuit coincide. The input can then be accurately measured by
voltmeter and ammeter readings, and the motor is working at its
best efficiency for the given load. For greater values of the motor
electromotive force the current leads in phase with respect to the
applied electromotive force; for less values it lags. The former
condition is accompanied by the rising of the electromotive force
at the motor terminals, the latter by its fall. It therefore becomes
possible to use a synchronous motor, if the necessary current due
to the load be not too great, as a voltage and phase regulator upon
an alternating circuit, a function very valuable in power-trans-
mission work. If the excitation be set to produce leading phase
at small loads, the phase angle will gradually diminish as the load
rises, and then, passing through zero, increase again with the lagging
current, thus holding the power-factor near to unity at all working
loads. In a well-designed synchronous motor, by proper initial
adjustment of the field, the power-factor can easily be kept between
0-95 and I from quarter load to full load, and very close to unity
within the ordinary working range. Save for its inability to start
independently, the synchronous motor is a highly desirable addition
to a transmission system. Starting is generally accomplished by
the help of an induction motor or other auxiliary power, and the
motor is treated exactly like an alternator, to be thrown in parallel
with the supply circuit. A synchronous motor will pull itself up
to synchronism if brought near to its synchronous speed, but this
requires a very large amount of current. Operating from a generator
of its own, it can be brought to speed by giving it a small initial
rotation and raising the generator speed very carefully and gradu-
ally, when the two machines will accelerate in synchronism. Poly-
phase synchronous motors obey these same general laws; they can,
however, be started as quasi-induction motors with an open field
circuit, the pole faces serving as secondary conductors, but require so
large currents in thus starting themselves that it is better practice to
bring them to speed by extraneous means.
Synchronous motors sometimes cause serious trouble by " pump-
ing," a phenomenon closely allied to the surging of current between
alternators in parallel, and due to similar causes. If not due to
defective governing of the prime mover, it usually starts with a
change of load or of phase, producing fluctuations in the electromo-
tive force in the system great enough to interfere seriously with
incandescent lighting, and continuing with nearly uniform amplitude
and frequency for hours if unchecked. The amplitude varies with
the conditions, but in the same machine the frequency is nearly
constant. The fluctuation affects both the armature and the field
circuits, the latter inductively by changes in the armature magneto-
motive force, but it can as a rule be controlled by varying the exci-
tation until a neutral point is found, usually when the phase angle is
near to zero. Motors with solid pole pieces give little trouble of this
sort, the oscillations being rapidly damped by the eddy currents.
In motors with laminated fields trie most effective remedy is cham-
fering away the edges of the pole pieces so as to admit heavy copper
shoes running along and under the edges, and even bridging the
spaces between the pole pieces. The eddy currents in these shoes
completely check the " pumping."
Synchronous and other Converters. It seems here appropriate to
refer to these converting devices* not in their general functions, but
merely in so far as they are directly related to motor practice.
The synchronous converter proper is in effect a synchronous motor,
in spite of its commutating function. Owing to the fact that the
direct current voltage is dependent on the alternating current voltage
of supply, the converter cannot advantageously be used to control
MOTORS, ELECTRIC
9*3
the power factor by variation of the field strength, but the field can
be adjusted once for all to hold the power factor reasonably near
unity, provided independent means are available for so adjusting
the applied alternating voltage as to give the required result at the
commutator. If close regulation of the direct-current voltage is
not demanded the converter field can be used more freely. As a
matter of fact the synchronous converter finds its chief use in
electric traction where close regulation is not important, and
motor-generators in one form or another have been found more
suitable for electric-lighting work. The synchronous converters
have the liability to " pumping " or " hunting," to which reference
has already been made, sometimes even of sufficient amplitude to
throw the machine out of step, and are often provided with the
shoes or bridges found useful with ordinary synchronous motors.
Synchronous motor-generators, so far as the motor function is
concerned, present no peculiarities at all. Synchronous commuta-
tors, " permutators," and the like, usually have motor-parts of
very moderate capacity, and must be kept rigorously free of hunting
in order to preserve the conditions of commutation.
In many instances, particularly in American practice, motor
generators with induction motors have been used for ease of starting
and to secure immunity from hunting. A modification of interest
from the motor standpoint is found in the " cascade converter."
In this machine the rotor of an induction motor is directly coupled
to the armature of a commuting converter of equal output, the
windings of the two being in series and approximately equivalent.
In this case the normal motor-electromotive force is reached at
approximately half synchronous speed, and half the energy is de-
livered to the output end of the machine by the rotor acting as
frequency changer, the rest by torque on the shaft. Commutation
takes place therefore at half the initial frequency, which is often a
great advantage.
(B) 2. Polyphase Induction Motors. Speaking broadly, an induc-
tion motor is one in which the armature current is introduced
into the armature windings by electromagnetic induction instead
of by brushes. It is at once an alternating current transformer and
an alternating current motor, operating in the latter function by
virtue of the current received from the former. In the commonest
form the alternating currents are of two or more phases inter-
acting in carrying on these duplicate functions. Induction motors
consist of two concentric masses of laminated iron taking the form of
short hollow cylinders, of which the outer is fixed and the inner
fitted to revolve. The outer surface of the inner drum and the
inner surface of the outer drum are slotted or perforated to receive
the primary and secondary windings of the apparatus. The outer
winding is usually the primary, and the inner (or armature) winding
the secondary. The primary winding is almost universally a multi-
polar drum in character; the secondary is, in the most highly devel-
oped motors, of the same character, but very often consists merely
of numerous insulated armature bars united at each end of the drum
by ac common end-plate or end-ring, forming the structure usually
known as a " squirrel-cage " winding. In polyphase motors of the
usual type the primary drum winding is in duplicate or triplicate,
resembling very closely the armature winding in a two- or three-
phase generator. The actions which go on in these motors have
been the subject of much debate; most of the theoretical discussions
of the matter have been based upon the concept of a rotary magneti-
zation produced by two simple sinusoidal magnetisms superimposed
in quadrature upon the same core, or, in the case of a three-phase
motor, three superimposed in a similar symmetrical manner. This
hypothesis is often most convenient, being merely an application
of the general physical thesis that two equal simple harmonic
motions in quadrature produce circular motion, as in the case of the
conical pendulum. All the results of this hypothesis follow, however,
from the introduction of two alternating magnetizations, acting in
quadrature in time but independently; and one or the other view of
the matter is convenient according as, in the structure considered,
the effective magnetizations do or do not produce a definite physical
resultant. There is no discrepancy between the two hypotheses;
they are merely two points of view of the same phenomena. In the
general case, one need make no supposition as to the existence or
non-existence of the physical resultant rotary magnetization; it is
merely necessary to note that if one phase-winding predominately
produce a magnetic field, and the other a current in the rotary
member fitted to react with that field, torque will result, whether
the two phase-windings act upon the same magnetic structure or
upon two entirely separate magnetic structures merely connected
by the leads which deliver current from one to the other.
Induction motors having both these forms of structure are in
successful use. If one considers the latter case, the two-phase-
windings have exchanged functions every 90 in the two-phase
structure, each phase-winding serving to produce a magnetic field
and to deliver, almost as if it were merely a pair of brushes,
current to react with this field alternately, and the two halves of the
motor structure exchange functions every 90. Considering the
motor in which the two-phase-windings are superimposed on
the same core, there is a virtual magnetic resultant rotating at a
speed determined by the frequency of the current and the number
of poles, and setting up induced currents in the secondary member,
which currents are so disposed as to react with the field to produce
rotary motion. At rest, the secondary electromotive force produced
by the machine as a transformer is a maximum ; when the motor is
running at speed, unloaded, it is a minimum, and an increment of
load causes the secondary member merely to slip behind synchronous
speed far enough to receive an increment of transformed energy
sufficient to carry the new load. If the secondary member is of very
low resistance, the slip behind synchronism is very small, even at full
load less than 2 % in motors developed for this particular property.
An increase of secondary resistance produces increased falling behind
from synchronous speed; and if resistance be added to the secondary
member by interpolating rheostats in its circuits, the motor can be
made to produce uniform torque over a very wide range of speed,
as is the case with continuous current motors. The percentage of
slip is the percentage of energy lost in the secondary member, as
likewise in continuous-current motors if one regards their synchron-
ous speed as that at which the motor electromotive force would
equal that impressed. Polyphase induction motors start, when
properly designed, with a very powerful torque, even up to three or
four times the full load running torque of the same motor. With a
very low-resistance secondary member this torque demands an
immensely large current, the structure acting almost like a short-
circuited transformer, and the lag in the secondary circuit is con-
siderable. In motors in which this large starting current is objec-
tionable, it may be reduced very greatly by interpolating resistances
in the secondary circuits at starting, the effect of these being to
diminish the lag in the secondary circuit and to decrease the demand
for primary current. A certain critical value of this resistance gives
a maximum torque per ampere in the primary circuit with a given
motor, being approximately that total secondary resistance which
equals the secondary reactance. For maximum torque obviously
both resistance and reactance should be equal and as small as
possible. Where a small primary current in starting is of consider-
able importance, this extra resistance is frequently introduced at
starting and cut out afterwards, particularly in cases where large
torque is necessary. If great starting torque is not necessary, the
primary electromotive force is often diminished by inductive resist-
ances, or a change in the connexions of the transformer from which
the motor is fed. Both methods of starting are in commercial use
on a very large scale.
In efficiency and closeness of speed regulation and good general
running properties polyphase induction motors approximate very
closely to the best continuous-current practice. They produce,
however, a certain amount of lag between primary electromotive
force and current, which causes the apparent input to be larger than
the real input, as generally happens in alternating-current work.
The ratio between the real and the apparent watts input is the power
factor of the motor. In well-designed modern machines this is
usually from 85 to 90% at rated load; it should seldom fall below
the former figure, and rarely rises more than I or 2 % above the latter,
though in rare instances power-factors as high as 94 or 95% have
been obtained. Condensers have sometimes been employed in
connexion with such motors to increase the power-factor, and with
considerable success, particularly in maintaining the power-factor
at low and moderate loads; but their use is generally unnecessary,
and condensers of sufficient capacity at any reasonable value of
the voltage have proved troublesome to build and maintain. The
weakest point in these polyphase induction motors is the importance
of employing a very small clearance between armature and field,
in order to increase the power-factor by 'making the structure more
efficient, considered merely as a transformer. The clearances in
ordinary use are seldom greater than ^ in., even in motors as large
as loo h.p., and in smaller machines are frequently not more than
j"j in. Induction motors, however, possess many valuable proper-
ties, and are the mainstay of long-distance power-transmission work
at the present time.
(B) 3. Monophase Induction Motors closely resemble the poly-
phase motor in construction, but have only a single-phase winding
in the primary. The theories of their action are very similar to
those of polyphase motors. The essential point of difference is
that the stable angular displacement between the field magnetization
and the armature currents which co-act with it is obtained in the
polyphase motor by the time-displacements in the several phase
windings, while in the single-phase motor it is obtained by the
angular space-displacement of the armature, which has to be set up
by an initial rotation. Single-phase motors therefore are not
inherently self-starting, and run in either direction equally well
when once started. The torque is always in the direction of the
initial rotation. This rotation is sometimes given by hand and
sometimes by auxiliary phase-windings supplied by derived current
from the main circuit, or merely short-circuited on themselves and
receiving induced currents from the main winding. Both these
devices give a small initial torque in a definite direction, setting up
a so-called elliptical rotary field, i.e. one produced by the composi-
tion of two unequal magnetizations, in this case at some indeter-
minate angle, seldom large. Once up to speed, the single-phase
motors act much like the polyphase. They are conspicuously weak
in the matter of power-factor, however, as well as in that of starting-
torque, and have as yet not come into very extensive commercial
use, although under special conditions they have been and are
successfully employed. A theoretically interesting form of induction
914
MOTOR VEHICLES
motor is a modification which runs at absolutely synchronous
speed, receiving the necessary energy in the secondary not in virtue
of slip behind synchronous speed, but from great difference in wave
form between the primary and secondary circuits, so that energy
due to harmonics of the fundamental frequency is periodically-
received by the armature in spite of synchronism in speed. Such
motors are not employed commercially, but sometimes find a field
for usefulness in the laboratory.
(B) 4. Repulsion-commutating Motors constitute a class of single-
phase alternating-current motors which has risen to considerable
commercial importance. They are fundamentally induction motors
in the sense that the armature currents are supplied by the
inductive action of the field. The armature winding is, however,
provided with a commutator and (for a two-pole motor) two diametri-
cally opposite brushes, which are short-circuited on each other and
placed at an angle with the line of field magnetization. By this
device the magnetic axis of the armature is held at a fixed angle
with the field flux, so that the condition for steady torque is always
fulfilled, its amount depending on the position of the brushes.
Were these either in line with, or exactly at right angles to, the field
poles, the torque would be zero in the first case from lack of angular
displacement, in the second from lack of secondary current. The
brushes being skewed, however, the secondary current is maintained
at a suitable value, and the motor runs in a definite direction. The
general principle is merely that of a transformer with a movable
secondary under magnetic thrust. During reversal of the current
the torque relation remains fixed, since the primary and secondary
currents both change sign, preserving the magnetic relations as in
a series-wound continuous-current machine.
If such a motor is of moderate reactance, the currents are large
and the torque very considerable. The repulsion-commutating
connexion is considerably used as a starting device for single-phase
induction motors, the commutator being short-circuited as a whole
when the armature reaches synchronous speed. Thereafter the
machine operates as a pure induction motor of the sort just described.
The advantage of this change is that the commutator is eliminated,
save at starting, and the motor becomes practically a constant
speed machine like any other properly-designed simple induction
motor. Such motors can be made to start if necessary with several
times the normal running torque and a nearly proportionate increase
of current. The short-circuiting of the commutator is generally
performed automatically by a centrifugal governor. When at speed,
efficiency and power factor are those of the typical motor of class(B)3-
The pure repulsion-commutating motor, worked as such, on the
other hand, resembles a series-wound motor in its characteristics,
having no fixed speed and being capable of running far above
nominal synchronism. This results from the fixed angular relation
maintained by the brushes between the armature and field magneti-
zations, whereby the torque conditions are preserved. Above the
nominal synchronous speed, however, difficulties of commutation
set in, so that some modifications of this simple type are desirable
for wide ranges of speed. The power factors of these motors compare
well, both in starting and in running, with those of the best pure
induction motors, and their efficiencies are similar. These machines
are reversible, serving as alternating generators when driven mechan-
ically at " negative " speed.
Instead of simply skewing the brush line in the repulsion motor,
an entirely analogous effect may be produced by dividing the field
coils into pairs placed in quadrature, the brush line being parallel
to one pair and at right angles to the other. This merely amounts
to dividing the function of the original field physically into its
components, a change which sometimes tends to improve the stability
of the running conditions.
A more radical departure is found in the group of so-called " com-
pensated-repulsion ' motors, of which there are several members,
due to various inventors, all material improvements on the pure
repulsion type just described. Their common characteristic is that
while possessing like simple commutator-repulsion motors, a trans-
former field acting upon the armature as secondary, and a pair of
short-circuiting brushes holding the resulting armature magnetiza-
tion in definite alignment, they also send the primary current in
series through the armature via a second pair of brushes in quad-
rature with the first. The substantial effect of this series connexion
is to cut down the virtual reactance of the armature as the speed
rises, practically annulling it at synchronous speed. In alternating
motors the motor-electromotive force is not merely that due to the
motion of the armature conductors but the geometrical resultant
of this and the reactance E.M.F.'s. In the motor here considered
and analogous machines an auxiliary E.M.F. is applied either as
here, conductively or inductively, in such direction as to compensate
more or less perfectly the armature reactance E.M.F. The result
is to secure, at least for a certain speed, a power factor near unity,
as in the motor under discussion, although the starting conditions
are not particularly good and the performance deteriorates above
synchronism. In some motors of this type the compensating
E.M.F. is introduced by an auxiliary winding in series and in quad-
rature with the main field, instead of by supplementary brushes.
The modifications of the general scheme are rather numerous, and
out of them have come some excellent single-phase motors now
widely used for traction purposes.
(B) 5. Series Commutating Motors. This important and interest-
ing type is derived directly from the ordinary series motor, for
continuous current. The torque in these does not change sign with
reversal of the current in both field and armature, and consequently
alternating current can still produce in them unidirectional torque.
Practically the first step toward an alternating current series motor
is lamination of the field to reduce parasitic currents; the second is
to keep down the reactance. A laminated field motor performs
fairly well at a frequency of 10 periods or thereabouts, but to render
it useful at ordinary frequencies requires modification in design.
The motor E.M.F. being as before the geometrical sum of the
reactance E.M.F. and that due to motion of the armature conductors,
the first improvement can be made by making the latter dominant,
ix. by making the armature relatively very powerful. The plain
series commutating motor has then a relatively weak laminated
field and a powerful armature. To check trouble with commutation
due to short-circuiting coils under a brush, it usually has high
resistance commutator leads, and thus equipped is capable of very
fair performance, having the same general characteristics as the
continuous-current series motor. Even so the armature reactance
is somewhat excessive, so that with this simple construction the
power factor is apt to be bad. Practically the plain series commu-
tating motor is hardly used at all, but rather modifications of it
corresponding very closely to those mentioned in connexion with
the repulsion motor. In other words, an auxiliary electromotive
force tending to annul the reactance E.M.F. of the armature is
imposed upon the armature circuit. This is accomplished generally
by a " compensating coil " in series and in space-quadrature with
the main field. In another modification the compensating coil is
closed upon itself, forming a short-circuited secondary, to which the
armature itself acts as primary. The end to be attained is the
addition of an E.M.F. such that the vector sum of the E.M.F.'s in
the armature shall reduce as nearly as may be to the E.M.F. due to
the motion of the armature conductors, as in a continuous-current
motor. Obviously it is difficult to secure full compensation for all
loads and speeds, but it can be made nearly complete for some
particular load and speed.
These " series-compensated " motors behave much like continuous-
current series motors, and, when properly designed, run well on
continuous current. They have been developed particularly for
heavy traction purposes, to which they are well adapted, owing
to their ability to work well at all speeds. They give a very high
maximum power factor and a reasonably good one over a consider-
able range of speed and load. Obviously both the field proper and
the compensating field can be made subject to regulation to increase
the range of successful action. Motors of this type have already
come into successful use for fast and heavy railway service. Com-
mutation appears to be reasonably good, although it is a far more
difficult pioblem than with continuous-current machines.
The efficiency and output for unit weight in all alternating-
current motors is a little less favourable than with continuous-
current motors. In the last resort the supply of energy to a single-
phase motor is essentially discontinuous, and there is inevitable
extra loss from hysteresis and parasitic currents, whether the motor
is single phase or polyphase. The result is that an alternating-
current motor requires, other things being similar, more or better
material, and loses a little more energy than a continuous-current
motor of equal output. Motor design is a compromise, and while
any one property can be exaggerated, it will be at the expense of
others. One could probably build, for instance, a series-compensated
motor of as high efficiency or as large output per unit weight as any
commercial motor, but there would be sacrifice somewhere, in cost
if not conspicuously elsewhere. As a matter of fact, the difference in
efficiency usually amounts only to a very few per cents., and the
difference in output per unit weight to a few more. The gain in
the use of alternating-current motors is in facility and economy of
distribution, which in many cases is far more than enough to
overweigh any inherent disabilities in the machines themselves.
Hence they are coming steadily into extended use. (L. BL.)
MOTOR VEHICLES. The term " motor-car " is one which
was primarily employed in America to denote the car or carriage
containing the electro-motor used for propelling an electric
tramcar or train of carriages on rails, but of late years it has
been more usually applied in Great Britain to light automobile
or mechanically-propelled carriages running on common roads.
On the continent of Europe and in the United States the usual
expression for these vehicles is " automobile "; the term " auto-
car " has also been employed. We shall deal here first with
the history of mechanically propelled carriages, and with the
evolution of the lighter type used for conveying people for
pleasure and sport; and secondly with the heavier type used for
the carriage of goods.
Light Vehicles. The first practical steam carriage was made by
Richard Trevethick in 1802 (fig. i), though Cugnot had produced
a rudimentary one in France in 1769; but very little was done in
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MOTOR VEHICLES
9*5
this direction until 1824, from which date a number of these
vehicles were constructed and 'used with considerable success,
taking the form of stage coaches propelled by steam, and
weighing some 3 or 4 tons unloaded. Some of these ran regular
passenger services, notably between Cheltenham and Gloucester,
attaining average speeds of 10 to 14 m. per hour; but great
FlG. I. Trevethick's Steam Carriage of 1802: side view and plan.
opposition was met with owing to the narrow prejudice of those
whose interests related to horse-haulage, and every obstruction
was offered in the shape of prohibitive tolls and legislative
enactments. The result was that steam carriages were driven
off the roads in favour of railways, although the select committee
of the House of Commons appointed in 1831 to inquire into the
subject reported completely in favour of their adoption (as did
also that of 1873). In 1861 the first Locomotives on Highways
Act was passed, but the crushing blow came in 1865, when the
legislature prescribed (i) that the number of persons required
to drive the locomotive should be increased to three; (2) that a
man should precede with a red flag; (3) that the maximum limit
of speed should be reduced to 4 m. per hour; and (4) that they
should be forbidden ever to blow off steam, &c. These restric-
tions were confirmed rather than relieved by the 1878 act.
Although these acts were created to deal with heavy traction,
the famous 1881 appeal in the court of queen's bench placed
every type of self-propelled vehicle, from a traction engine down
to Bateman's steam tricycle, under their narrow limitations.
This resulted in the development of the heavy traction engine,
and light motor vehicles were little more heard of in Great
Britain. There were a few exceptions, however, notably the
steam vehicles of Rickett (1860), Carrett (1861), Tangye (1862),
Yarrow (1862), Holt (1866), Todd (1870), Perkins (1870),
Mackenzie (1875) and Blackburn (1878), and some electrical
carriages made by El well (1884), Ward (1886) and Volk (1888).
An important departure was that of Butler, who constructed in
1885 what is believed to be the first vehicle (a tricycle) propelled
by an internal combustion engine in England (fig. 2); he used
the vapour of benzoline exploded electrically. Later, Roots
successfully employed heavy oil, as did Knight. The chief
prohibitory clauses of the acts were repealed in 1896, when the
development of the internal-combustion engine had opened up
entirely new prospects and suggested new possibilities.
Gottlieb Daimler's invention in 1885 of the internal-combus-
tion motor using petroleum spirit was the first step towards the
production of the modern self-propelled road vehicle, the next
step being the recognition in 1887 of the advantages of Daimler's
system by M. Levassor and his application of that system to
the propulsion of a carriage. In the nine years that immediately
followed French manufacturers spent large sums of money in
experimenting with and developing the motor-car, and by 1896,
when the Enabling Act was passed, there were a few practical
FIG. 2. Butler's Motor Tricycle of 1885.
vehicles in England but, perhaps, fewer probable buyers.
British makers, starting as they did in the wake of the French
manufacturers, were able to profit by the experience gained by
the latter, and thus to avoid many otherwise inevitable mis-
takes; they may not be able to claim to have originated many
of the fundamental details of the modern motor-car, but their
experience was gained at a comparatively small cost.
Gottlieb Daimler's engine marked a great advance in the
production of a source of motive power, for its efficiency was
large as compared with its total weight, whilst the simplicity
of its fuel system brought it within the scope of the person of
average mechanical instincts and intelligence, for, even in its
early days, the internal-combustion motor did not demand that
its user should possess an intimate knowledge of engineering.
Daimler fitted one of his motors to a bicycle in 1885, and after-
wards applied the system to the propulsion of boats, one or more
of which were running on the river Seine in connexion with the
Paris Exhibition of 1887. It was this fact that brought the
invention to the notice of M. Levassor, of the firm of Panhard &
Levassor, makers of wood-working machinery, who saw the
possibilities of its application to the propulsion of a road carriage.
MM. Panhard & Levassor secured the French patents from
Daimler, and M. Levassor devised the transmission system which,
as far as its general scheme is concerned, is unaltered to-day,
despite many efforts on the part of skilful inventors and designers
to secure something better. M. Levassor placed the engine in
front, the axis of the crank-shaft being parallel with the side
members of the frame of the vehicle. The drive was taken
through a clutch to a set of reduction gears and thence to a
differential gear on a countershaft from which the road wheels
were driven by chains. With all the modifications of details,
the combination of clutch, gear-box and transmission remains
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MOTOR VEHICLES
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unaltered, so that to France, in the person of M. Levassor, must
be given the honour of having led in the development of the
motor-car.
Progress in the improvement of design was slow until the year
1894, when a great impetus was given to the French industry
by the organization, by the Petit Journal, of a trial run of motor
vehicles from Paris to Rouen. The measure of success attained
by the cars caused considerable surprise, and in the year 1895
a race was organized from Paris to Bordeaux and back, a
distance of 744 m., when the winning vehicle covered the journey
at a mean speed of 15 m. per hour. From that date onward,
until 1908, racing played an important part in the development
of the motor-car; in fact, it is not going too far to say that,
up to 1904, it played a vitally important part therein. The
effect was a rapid development in speed, efficiency and reliability,
and others besides the sportsman and the individual seeking for
new sensations were attracted towards the new vehicle. Racing
was not indulged in in England or Scotland, the authorities
having no power to close the roads for the purpose.
radical changes in previously-existing designs. So far as British
makers were concerned, the Mercedes fashion was allowed to
predominate, but some of the older French makers were less
willing to follow the lead of the great German house. This fact
assisted the British makers to forge ahead in their competition
with the French. But the great factor in the triumph of British
motor engineering arose from the fact that, in England, there
was a great wealth of knowledge concerning the properties of
steels and steel alloys, and that knowledge, which was advancing
all the time, was turned to such good use that it is safe to say
that, in only the very best of French cars is the same strength
and efficiency obtained from the same weight of metal as would
be used in the construction of quite a number of British cars.
Lightness of moving parts has led to increased engine efficiency
and to economy of fuel, whilst the inert parts of the mechanism
the frame and other fixed details by being lighter, call for a
smaller expenditure of power to overcome their inertia. Apart
from the employment of special steels for motor-car construction,
in which England took a leading part, many improvements
FIG. 3. The 40-50 h.p. Six-cylinder Rolls-Royce Pullmans-Limousine.
In July 1902, Mr S. F. Edge, driving a 50 h.p. Napier car,
won the Gordon-Bennett Cup in the course of the open race
from Paris to Vienna. This trophy has played an important
part in the history of the motor-car. It was offered for compe-
tition among cars, entered by recognized National Automobile
Clubs, no more than three cars being permitted to represent a
country, and every car had to be built entirely in the country of
its origin. The length of the race had to be not less than 500
kilometres (310! m.). The first two races in 1900 and 1901 had
been won by French cars and, as these contests had been run
concurrently with the big city-to-city races, the importance
of the Gordon-Bennett race was overshadowed. But it stood
out in bold relief when an English car wrested the international
trophy from its French rivals in 1902. The Automobile Club
of Great Britain and Ireland (now the Royal Automobile Club)
at once secured parliamentary sanction for the use of certain
roads in Ireland for a limited period, and proceeded to organize
a race worthy of the issue at stake. The race was won by the
Mercedes car, the latest production of the famous house of
Daimler.
The Mercedes car set quite a new fashion, for it showed
advancement in a large number of its mechanical details, and
many of these details were either copied or used as the basis for
in design and method have originated in Great Britain. For
instance, the multiple-disk clutch, which permits a car to be
started without shock, is an English invention, as are the
detachable wheel, the spare wheel and the six-cylindered engine.
The latter, introduced by the Napier Company and employed
extensively by them, by Rolls-Royce and others, has exerted
a great influence upon British tastes, because it created a growing
dislike to noise, one of the consequences being the rapid develop-
ment of the silent car.
The representatives of Great Britain in the Gordon-Bennett
race of 1903 were selected by means of a series of eliminating
trials, and in 1904 and 1905 races were held annually in the
Isle of Man for the same purpose. In the years 1906, 1907 and
1908 races were held in that island with such limitations on
fuel or on the diameter of the cylinders as were calculated to
encourage the development of small but efficient transmissions,
and it has been conceded generally that these races served an
extremely useful purpose.
Concurrently with its development into a reliable, silent,
odourless and smokeless power-propelled vehicle, the motor-car
gradually came into more general use. It no longer appealed
only to a few but gained converts daily, and fts final triumph
came when it began seriously to displace the horsed vehicle.
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MOTOR VEHICLES
917
becoming the private carriage of the wealthier classes to be used
on all occasions.
If the motor-car in the guise of a private carriage has developed
at an astonishing rate, its adaptation to the needs of the com-
munity, as a public service vehicle, has been even more rapid.
The first cabs placed on the streets of London in 1903 were by
no means a success, but the cabs constructed by the French house
of Renault and first introduced in London in 1906 rapidly effected
a revolutionary change in the means of individual transport.
Apart from the improved speed of the motor-cabs, they gained
popularity because of the use, on each one of them, of the taxi-
meter, showing at a glance the amount of the fare, thus preventing
overcharge on the part of the driver. One effect of the employ-
ment of motor-cabs and motor-omnibuses has been to reduce
slightly the total number of vehicles, and to quicken a large
volume of the traffic; it is now being recognized that to increase
the speed of the whole of the traffic of London by about 5 m.
an hour is practically equivalent to doubling the width of
the whole of the main streets.
The new British act of 1903, which was enacted for three
years only, was, during the parliamentary session of 1906 and
subsequent sessions, continued from year to year because of the
difficulty that was experienced in reconciling conflicting views
about the control of motor-cars. The 1903 act raised the speed
limit to 20 m. per hour and gave the local government
board power to close to motor traffic such roads as, on inquiry,
might be deemed unsuited therefor, and to impose a speed limit
of 10 m. an hour or less in dangerous places, such as narrow
streets in a town or through a village. A few serious accidents
in England, and many abroad, have kept alive the fear that the
motor-car is a dangerous vehicle that should be restrained or
held in check by stringent legislation. Thus from 1904 onwards,
the motorist was under continuous police supervision. Police
traps, or measured distances, over which the motor-car is timed
by the police, were established in most of the counties of
England, and, whilst, without a doubt, many real offenders were
caught, it is equally true that many an innocent driver was
unfairly accused, whilst motorists guilty merely of technical
infringements of the law were summoned.
The attitude of the police in showing little or no leniency
in the application of the law probably, however, did good in
other directions, although these were not contemplated either
by the law-givers or the police themselves. It considerably
limited the use of excessively powerful cars (for example, a
60 or 90 h.p. car that could easily attain 60 m. an hour),
and experience has demonstrated the fact that, intersected as
England is with a network of narrow roads carrying considerable
traffic, there is little opportunity for the full power of such a
car to be used. The result has been that the comparatively
low-powered vehicle has been developed in efficiency, bringing
with it the advantages of economy in running, simplicity of
mechanical details, cheapness of maintenance and ease of
control and management.
The principle of the internal-combustion engine has not been
altered since Daimler's day, but the mechanical details of the
engine have undergone constant revision and improvement,
until in 1910 it was safe to say that a four-cylindered engine,
with a cylinder bore of 4 in., constructed, we will presume,
in 1899, might have developed 20 h.p. or less, whereas
engines of the same cylinder bore made in 1908 and 1909
actually developed 60 h.p. and more, and the attainment
of even greater efficiency was in sight in 1910. Experience
showed that the saving of weight meant greater economy in
fuel and also in tires, the two principal items in the upkeep of
the motor-car. Engine design has undergone unceasing improve-
ment, and constructional methods have been continuously
advanced, with the end in view of attaining lightness, not only
in the moving parts, but in the inert parts. Lightness in
reciprocating parts, such as the pistons, connecting rods and
valves, has enormously improved crank-shaft speed. Cylinder
castings are now made far lighter, whilst the water jacketing,
for dissipating the excess of heat from the cylinder walls, is now
of sufficiently ample proportions and, in consequence, better
lubrication of the cylinder walls can be maintained. This again
conduced to piston speed. The induction valves of engines of
the earlier types were opened under atmospheric pressure, the
reduced pressure in the cylinder, caused by the downward
movement of the piston, enabling the pressure of the outer
atmosphere to open the valve against its light spring, and to carry
in a charge of the carburetted air that constituted the explosive
mixture. But it was found that the automatic or atmospheric
inlet valve opened late on the induction stroke and closed early,
so that the engine only received an attenuated charge. One
of. the earliest improvements in engine design, therefore, was
the employment of the mechanically-operated inlet valve
operated by a cam exactly as the exhaust valve is operated.
This valve could be fully opened as soon as the piston had begun
its downward or induction stroke, and could be held open during
the momentary period when the piston was at rest at the bottom
of the stroke, thus ensuring a full charge of explosive mixture.
The method of exploding the charge in the cylinder has under-
gone revolutionary changes. The first method, that of heating
the exterior of a closed tube connected with the cylinder,
quickly gave way to electric ignition because it was found that
the charges could not be exploded by the hot tube until the piston
had reached the top of its stroke, and, at the comparatively high
piston speed of these engines, the piston had moved some distance
on its downward stroke before the exploded gas had begun to
expand. Electric ignition was an improvement because it
enabled a " lead " to be given to the explosion, a low voltage
current (from four to six volts of about one ampere being
sufficient for the purpose) being automatically switched on to the
primary circuit of a coil, the induced current in the secondary
circuit being of a voltage sufficiently high (calculated at from
5000 to 10,000 volts of a very small amperage) to jump across a
gap left in a sparking plug inserted in the cylinder. By rotating
the body of the switch (called the contact breaker) the ignition
could be timed to suit exactly the speed of the pistons and,
in this way, greater piston speed was obtainable. The great
development of this system was the introduction by Mr F. R.
Simms, in conjunction with Herr Bosch, of the magneto machine,
known as the Simms-Bosch magneto, the prototype for many
such appliances. This machine, in its simplest elements,
produces a low voltage current (assumed to be of about eight or
ten volts) by the rotation of an armature in the magnetic field
of a set of magnets, the rotation being effected through the
timing-gear wheels of the engine. The low tension current is
conveyed through a primary circuit inducing the secondary
current which is employed for igniting the charges. The
advantages of the magneto are, firstly, that the primary current
is created by the engine, and that the need for an accumulator
as a source of that current is avoided and, secondly, that the
spark is more efficient because the faster the armature is revolved
the more intense is the primary current and the induced current,
consequently, the charge is ignited more rapidly. The magneto
machine has almost entirely displaced the accumulator system
for ordinary running, although, as the latter makes for easier
starting, it is often fitted as an addition.
Great gain in power has been secured from improvements
in the lubrication of the internal-combustion engine. It is
now recognized that a small supply of oil to the_ journals and
bearings of such an engine is insufficient, but in the early days
it was found difficult to give the journals and bearings more
oil without too much getting on to the cylinder walls, because
the latter were lubricated by the oil that was thrown on to them
by the spinning action of the webs of the crank -shaft and by the
connecting-rod ends, these latter dipping into a well of oil in
the lower part of the crank-case. The modern method has
overcome this difficulty. The cranks and connecting-rod ends
no longer dip into the oil, for the latter drains away into a
sump or reservoir below the base of the crank chamber. Thence
it is passed through a filter and pumped to ducts which convey
the oil under pressure to the crank-shaft journals. Sometimes
it is conducted thence along ducts bored in the crank-shaft and
9 i8
MOTOR VEHICLES
[LIGHT
through the webs and crank-pins, whence it feeds the connecting-
rod bearings, enough squirting out to splash on to the cylinder
walls. Sometimes, a shallow trough is placed under each con-
necting-rod end, to hold oil to a certain depth and no more, and
a scoop on the big end collects enough oil to effect the lubrication
of the connecting-rod bearings and cylinder walls. The aim has
been to secure definite lubrication of all moving parts, and, at
the same time, to prevent oil being present on the cylinder walls
in such quantities as will permit the piston to carry it up into
the combustion chamber. Any oil present in the combustion
chamber is burnt during the explosion, but, its combustion being
imperfect, smokiness of the exhaust is the result. By reducing
the oil on the cylinder walls to the minimum necessary for
lubrication, smoking has been abolished, whilst clogging, or
carbonizing, of the valves has been materially reduced.
Methods of carburation have also undergone improvement,
so that the carburation shall not materially vary with varying
engine speed. The only other feature in the engine that calls
for mention is the method of cooling. With the introduction
The 40-50 h.p. Six-cylinder Rolls-Royce Engine (valve side, showing also position of magneto).
FIG. 4. The 40-50 h.p. Six-cylinder Rolls-Royce Engine (carburettor side, showing also high-
tension distributor, and position of centrifugal water pump).
of the honeycomb type of radiator, by which the water is made
to flow through canals an eighth or a sixteenth of an inch wide,
the efficiency of the cooling system has been doubled because
of the large amount of surface, in a given size of radiator, for
dissipating the heat. A fan is generally employed, either situated
behind the radiator and driven by the engine, or the flywheel
is vaned so as to induce a current of air through the radiator.
To deal now with the transmission mechanism, the drive is
taken through a clutch and gear-box as in the earliest days, but,
for the final drive, chain transmission to the road wheels running
on a fixed axle has largely given place to propeller drive on to
a live axle. The leather-faced conical clutch, although still
employed, has in many cases given way to the multiple-disk
clutch in which a number of disks bearing against each other,
either flat in section, or (as in the Hele-Shaw clutch) having
annular tapered grooves, are contained in an oil-tight box.
These plates are capable of being separated laterally from each
other when " out of gear," or brought into frictional contact with
each other when it is desired to start the car. Metal-to-metal
cone clutches, expanding metal shoe
clutches, single metal plate clutches
and coil spring clutches have all at
some time found favour with de-
signers wishing to avoid a leather
clutch. Hydraulic and electro-mag-
netic clutches have also been tried,
but these have not gained any
vogue. In the matter of the gear-
box, the sliding into mesh of the
gear-wheels as employed by Levassor
is still the standard practice, although
that pioneer himself regarded the
method as barbarous, and looked
upon it as a mere temporary expe-
dient. "But details of the gear-box
have materially improved. A single
lever is usually employed for engag-
ing any of the forward gears or the
reverse, so that the mistake of simul-
taneously engaging a reverse and a
forward gear is not possible. The
spur-wheels are generally mounted
in pairs on two sleeves, so that, by
means of a selector mechanism that
compels one sleeve to be brought to
the neutral position before the other
can be moved, no two gears can ever
be engaged together. By means of
" dog clutches," the clutch shaft
can generally be coupled direct with
the bevel-wheel driving the back
axle, the " drive " on the highest
gear being thus transmitted without
passing through any spur-wheels.
This reduces noise and frictional
losses. Except for cars of great
weight, chain transmission is fast
dying out, the power being generally
transmitted through a propeller
shaft (with universal joints at one or
both ends) to a bevel-drive on the
back axle; such axle being divided
into two revolving or " live " axles
carrying the differential gear between
them. The bevel-wheels, differential
gear and live axles are enclosed and
run in a lubricant.
Wire suspension wheels are grow-
ing considerably in favour, a saving
in weight being thus effected. The
liability of the pneumatic tire to de-
flation, through a puncture or burst,
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MOTOR VEHICLES
919
has led to the introduction of detachable rims and detachable
wheels. The detachable rim is borne on the periphery of the
wheel (which is bonded) and secured in position by various
methods. When the tire is punctured or damaged the rim and
tire are removed bodily and replaced by a spare rim with its
tire already in position and inflated, a change capable of
being effected in five minutes or less. The detachable wheel is
mounted upon a shell which fits over and is secured to a sleeve,
four cylinders (according to the choice of the riders) developing
some 3 to 8 h.p. with magneto ignition and belt drive.
The engine was usually started by the rider running alongside
the machine, and causing the machine to rotate the crank-shaft
through the belt and pulley until the initial explosion was
obtained, when he would jump into the seat. Trailers were
employed at first for carrying passengers, but, the length of
the combined vehicle being between nine and ten feet, a side-car,
FIG. 5. Plan View of the 40-50 h.p. Six-Cylinder Rolls-Royce Chassis (1910 type).
which latter turns and is secured upon the fixed axle. In the
case of tire trouble, the wheel intact is removed from the sleeve
(which in the case of a driving-wheel carries the driving fittings,
the brake-drums, &c.) and a duplicate wheel is substituted.
The pneumatic tire has undergone continuous improvement,
particularly in the matters of the selection of the material and
the proportioning of the strength of the " body " to the work
which the tire is to be called upon to perform. Various methods
have been devised for the prevention of skidding or " side-slip "
on greasy surfaces, and, whilst certain mouldings on the rubber
treads have proved advantageous, the method most adopted
is that in which a large number of steel studs stand about a
quarter of an inch above the surface of the tire.
It will be seen that the general lines of the car of 1889 have
not required to be radically altered. Every detail has been
improved so that the cars are more efficient, easier to control
and manage, and infinitely more comfortable, but, in essence,
Levassor's scheme is as good to-day as it was when planned by
him.
The steam car is made by five or six British manufacturers
at the most, whereas the actual manufacturers of petrol cars in
Great Britain numbered at the end of the year 1909 about
seventy, whilst some four hundred other firms were actively
engaged in the construction of cars and their parts, accessories
and sundries. But the steam car appeals to those men who are
or have been steam engineers, and to them the management of
the steam generator and the burners constitutes no difficulty.
The limitations under which the early steam car laboured have,
in the main, disappeared, for the modern steamer can travel
nearly as far without requiring to refill the boiler as a petrol
car can travel without replenishment of the fuel tank. The
electric car is still the luxury to be employed in towns and in
covering short distances, for the weight of the accumulators
has not been greatly reduced, despite sensational announcements
made from time to time.
An interesting feature of the motor movement has been the
steady growth in popularity of the motor cyde. The motor
tricycle was developed up to the year 1903, and then gradually
became displaced by the motor bicycle, which had been intro-
duced in 1901, Motor bicycles gradually increased in popularity,
until in numbers they were in excess of cars. The standard
machines of 1909 had an air-cooled motor of one, two or even
placed at the side of the cycle and secured thereto by detachable
fittings, largely displaced the trailer and also the " fore-car," in
which the passenger was carried in a body placed in front of
three- and four-wheeled cycles.
The rapid growth of the motor movement in Great Britain may
be judged from the fact that by the 3Oth of September 1905 the
number of motor vehicles of all kinds registered had totalled to
74,038, and by the 3Oth of September 1908, three years afterwards,
to no less than 154,415. Of these, 137,323 were registered in
England and Wales, 10,907 in Scotland, and 6185 in Ireland. 71 ,405
were private motor-cars; 12,104 were trade motor-cars; 5880 were
public service vehicles and 65,026 were motor cycles.
A year later (Sept. 30, 1909) the figures showed a further
remarkable increase, the total number of vehicles registered in the
United Kingdom being 183,773, giving an increase of 29,358 in
the year. Of these, private motor-cars numbered 84,840; trade
motor-cars 15,181; public service vehicles 8752; and motor cycles
75,000. The numbers registered in England and Wales were : 74 ,748
private motor-cars; 13,961 trade motor-cars; 8131 public service
vehicles and 66,341 motor cycles, or 163,181 in all. The figures
for Scotland were: 6157 private motor-cars; 1056 trade motor-cars;
584 public service vehicles and 5296 motor cycles or 13,093 in all.
The figures for Ireland were: 3935 private motor-cars; 164 trade
motor-cars; 37 public service vehicles and 3363 motor cycles, or
7499 in all. In the year private motor-cars in the United Kingdom
increased by 18-8%; trade motor-cars by 25-4%; public service
vehicles by 48-8 %, and motor-cycles by 15-3 %.
It is possible to obtain a better idea of the number of motor
vehicles in use from the returns of the commissioners of inland
revenue The total number of privately-owned cars for which
licences were issued in 1908 was 48,019, of motor cycles 35,784,
and of motor-driven hackney carriages 17,300. These figures
may be compared with the registration figures already given lor
the year ending the 3Oth of September 1908. As accounting partly
for the difference, a certain proportion of the registered vehicles
(seeing that the figures include all vehicles in use on and alter
the 1st of January 1904, less those in respect of which the registra-
tions have been cancelled) must have fallen into disuse and some
vehicles will have been sold out of the country, whilst others will
have been sold and re-registered with different authorities. But
the life of the mechanism of a car, in one form or another, is c
siderable length (there were,. for instance, in use in 1910, as c<
mercial vehicles, motor chassis that were put on the road in li
and it is considered that many registered but unlicensed cars remain
for years capable of rendering useful service in emergencies or on
snecial occasions, such as at election periods.
In 1006 an act of parliament authorized a census of production,
which was taken in Igo8, the statistics relating to 1907. These
figures show that the output of complete motor vehicles in the United
Kinedom in that year was 11,700 completed cars and chassis,
and 36S) motor cycles, the total value of the productive work
920
MOTOR VEHICLES
[LIGHT
done in the motor trade being 6,327,000 inclusive of repair work
and the production of parts and accessories.
The number of cars and chassis imported into and retained in
the country (those imported and afterwards re-exported being
excluded from the statistics) in 1909 was 7747 as compared with
6530 in 1908. The absence of a classification, in 1907 and previous
years, for chassis prevents further comparison in the matter of
numbers, but taking the value of the motor-cars, parts and acces-
sories imported into and retained in the United Kingdom, there is
a total of 4,170,121 in 1907, 3.753.14 in 1908, and 3,922,781 in
1909; the average value per car falling from 432 in 1907 to 333
in 1909. The value of the motor cycles and their parts imported
into and retained in the country was 71,101 in 1907, 52,206 in
1908, and 48,327 in ?99-
The number of British made cars and chassis exported in 1909
was 2802 as compared with 2441 in 1908, and of British made
motor cycles 1893 in 1909 as compared with 1048 in 1908 and 800
in 1907; the total value of the exports of cars, parts, chassis and
motor cycles in 1909 being 1,669,361 as compared with 1,315,913
in 1908 and 1,378,180 in 1907.
With the growth of the motor-car movement there have, naturally,
been great developments in the outside industries catering for the
motorist. Most affected by that movement has been the oil trade,
considerable changes having taken place. In the distillation of
crude petroleum for the production of lamp oils, &c., quantities
of volatile spirit were obtained, the outlet for which, formerly,
was small, as the spirit was mainly used for cleaning purposes.
With the introduction of the petrol motor this spirit came into
demand, and, as the demand increased, the situation changed and
the crude petroleum had to be distilled mainly for spirit, thus leaving
a surplus of the heavier oils. The situation, was largely met by a
gradual conversion of the petrol-consumers from spirit of -680
specific gravity to a spirit of -715 specific gravity, whilst for com-
mercial motors even heavier grades were employed. The quantity
of -715 spirit obtainable from a given quantity of crude oil is
considerably greater than the quantity of -680 that could
be produced, so that a better balance between the demand for
motor spirit and that for lamp oil has been effected. The total
quantity of motor spirit used in the United Kingdom in 1909 was
60,000,000 gallons, of which about one-half came from the Dutch
East Indies, whilst a third came from America. Rumania supplied
about 6,000,000 gallons and Russia about 3,000,000 gallons. Large
quantities of lubricating oil were obtained from America, whilst
the remainder (about one-tenth of the total) came from Russia.
France is the centre of the motor-car industry in Europe, and
up to the year 1906 it undoubtedly led in the production of motor
vehicles, but in that year the United States of America, as we shall
have occasion to note, took the lead. The number of private cars
in use in France had risen from 1438 in 1899 to about 23,000 in the
year 1909, whilst industrial vehicles have increased even more
rapidly in number. The following figures are obtained from the
taxation schedules :
Number of Vehicles in use.
War
Trtf-nl
I cdi *
Pleasure Cars.
Industrial Cars.
1 (Hill.
1899
1.438
234
1,672
1900
2.354
543
2,897
1901
4.427
959
5,386
1902
7.358
1,849
9,207
1903
9,922
3,062
12,984
1904
12,519
4.588
17,107
1905
15,011
6,532
21,543
1906
17.358
8,904
26,262
1907
19,601
11,685
31,286
1908
22,252
15.334
37,586
1909
26,000
20,000
46,000
The figures for the year, in the absence of the official return,
are estimated.
The average h.p. per car (pleasure vehicles) has steadily risen
from 5-06 in 1901 to 13-28 in 1908, the number of cars seating more
than two persons having increased in greater proportion than
those seating one or two persons.
The export of French motor vehicles had risen in value from
4,259,000 francs in 1899 to 144,352,000 francs in 1907. In 1908
the exports fell to 127,300,000 francs, and in 1909 an improvement
to about 145,594,000 francs had taken place. The imports of
foreign motor vehicles to France rose from 473,000 francs in 1899
to 8,676,000 francs in 1907, and since that period there has been
an annual decrease.
In Germany the number of motor vehicles of all kinds in use on
the first of January in each year is shown in the following table :
Year. Number of motor vehicles.
1907 27,026
1908 36,022
1909 4L729 '
1910 41,941
In 1910 45% of the total consisted of motor cycles, 49-3% con-
sisted of pleasure vehicles and 5-7% consisted of commercial
vehicles, the proportion of pleasure vehicles having consistently
risen in the four years.
The development of motoring and of the motor industry in the
United States has been exceedingly rapid. As good roads multiply
and extend the use of cars must be still further developed. The
American farmer has discovered that he can make considerable
use of the motor-car in connexion with his industry, and this fact
largely accounts for the demand for high-wheeled buggies, and for
vehicles having ample clearance between the machinery and the
road level.
In the early days of the movement the American taste inclined
towards steam cars, and the mistaken view that the vehicle driven
by an internal-combustion engine could never be made to run as
silently as a steam car was generally held. But in Europe the
petrol engine became refined so rapidly that its equality with the
steam engine in the matter of silence, together with its superiority
in the matter of simplicity and suitability for the man who is not an
engineer, soon created for it a popularity that prevented any
material expansion of the business in steam cars. The makers of
steam cars in America are able to cope with the major portion of
the world's demand for this particular type of vehicle.
The introduction of the Dingley tariff, assessing an import
duty of 45% ad valorem on motor-cars (in the classification of
" manufactured metal "), added to a further charge of about
5% for freight, encouraged American capitalists to embark upon
the manufacture of motor-cars, and in 1899 thirty manufacturers
produced 600 cars. In 1909 the number produced by 200 concerns
was 114,891. Set out in tabular form such figures as are obtainable
are very striking :
Cars Produced.
Year.
Number.
Value.
1899
600
$
1,290,000
1903
10,576
16,000,000
1904
13.766
24,500,000
1905
20,787
42,000,000
1906
23,000
50,000,000
1907
42,694
105,000,000
1908
49.952
83,000,000
1909
114,891
135,000,000
1910
200,000
225,000,000
The number of cars for 1906 is approximated and the number
of cars and their value for the year 1910 are based upon the estimated
output of the various manufacturers. In 1908, whilst the number
of cars constructed showed an increase over the number for 1907,
the total value had decreased owing to the commercial crisis of that
year. In 1909 those manufacturers who had formed the Association
of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers, and who agreed to recognize
the validity of the Selden patents, paid licence fees upon 94,891
cars, the remaining 20,000 cars being estimated as the output of
the concerns that did not belong to the association.
Of the 200,000 motor vehicles estimated to be constructed in
1910, 165,000 were to be petrol-driven pleasure cars, 30,000 were to
be petrol-driven high-wheeled buggies, and 5000 steam and electric
carriages and commercial vehicles.
The history of the Selden patent may be given briefly A patent
was applied for on the 8th of May 1879 by George B. Selden, of
Rochester, New York, for a gas compression engine for propelling
road vehicles. A patent was granted to him on the 5th of November
1895 for an improvement in road engines, and he claimed that any
vehicle propelled by an internal-combustion engine, manufactured
since that time, was an infringement of his rights under the patent.
At the commencement of the year 1910, 71 manufacturers admitted
this claim and paid to the Association of Licensed Automobile
Manufacturers i}% of the catalogue price of their products as
licence fees.
The imports of* motor vehicles into the United States of America
are not numerous, as will be seen from the following figures:
1433 cars imported
1017
1387
1902 . . 265 cars imported 1906
1903 . . 267 1907
1904 . . 605 ,, ,, 1908
1905 . . 1054
The exports rose from $599,927 in value in the year 1902 to
$5,502,241 in 1907 with a falling off to $5,277,847 in 1908.
AUTHORITIES. Baader, Die Unmoglichkeit Dampfwdgen auf
gewohnlichen Stxassen mil Vortheil einzufuhren (Nuremberg, 1835);
Badminton Library, Motors and Motor Driving (London, 1902);
Beaumont, Motor Vehicles and Motors (London, 1900), and "Mechani-
cal Road Carriages" (Cantor Lectures, London, 1895); Brander,
L' Automobile de 1822 a 1835 (Brussels, 1898); Farman, Les
Automobiles (Paris, 1896), and Autocars, Cars, &c. (London, 1896);
Fletcher, Steam Locomotion on Common Roads (London, 1891);
HEAVY]
MOTOR VEHICLES
Gordon, A Treatise on Elementary Locomotion by Means of Steam
Carriages on Common Roads (London, 1832, 1834 and 1836); Gore,
Propulsion of Carriages on Common Roads by Power other than
Animal Power (London, 1893); Graffigny, Manuel pratique du
constructeur et du conducteur de cycles et a' automobiles (Paris, 1900) ;
Grand Cartaret, Le Voiture de demain (Paris, 1898); Gray and
others, The Motor Year Book (London, 1905 and 1906); Guerdon,
Manuel pratique du conducleur d 'automobiles (Paris, 1897); Gurney,
Steam Carriages on Turnpike Roads (London, 1832); Hancock,
Steam Carriages on Common Roads (London, 1838); Jenkins, Power
.Locomotion on the Highway (a guide to the literature; London,
1896); E. H. Knight, American Mechanical Dictionary, "Road
Locomotives," vol. iii. (New York, 1876); J. H. Knight, Notes on
Motor Carriages (London, 1896); Lardner, The Steam Engine (7th
ed., pp. 419-440; London, 1840); Lavergne, Manuel theorique et
pratique de I 'automobile sur route (Paris, 1900) ; Lavergne and
Hasluck, The Automobile (London, 1902); Lieckfeld, Die Petroleum-
und Benzinmotoren (Munich and Leipzig, 1894); Little, Automotor
and Horseless Vehicle Journal (London, 1898); Lockert, Traite
des vehicules automobiles (4 vols., Paris, 1896-1897) ; Petroleum Motor
Cars (London, 1898); Maceroni, Facts concerning Elementary Loco-
motion (2nd ed., London, 1834); Powers and Qualities of Maceroni 's
Steam Carriage Demonstrated (London, 1835) ; Steam Power on Roads,
&c. (London, 1835); Mann, New Method of Propelling Locomotive
Machines (compressed air) (London, 1830) ; Medhurst, A New System
of Inland Conveyance for Goods and Passengers (com-
pressed air) (London, 1827) ; Milandre and Bouquet, Traite
de la construction, de la conduite el de I'entretien de voitures
automobiles (4 vols., Pans, 1898-1899); O'Gorman, Motor
Pocket Book (London, 1904); Periss6 and Godfernaux,
Traction mecanique sur rails et sur routes (Paris, 1900) ;
Rose, A Record of Motor Racing (London, 1909); Salo-
mons, The Horseless Carriage (London, 1895); Saunier,
L'Automobile theorique et pratique (2 vols., Paris, 1899-
1900) ; Sennett, Horseless Road Locomotion (London, 1900) ;
Smith, History of English Carriages and Motor Cars (Tun-
bridge Wells, 1876); S.P.T.A. (Self-Propelled Traffic
Association), Trials of Motor Vehicles for Heavy Traffic
(Liverpool, 1898, 1899, and 1901); Sir H. Thompson,
The Motor Car: its Nature, Use, Management (London,
1902) ; Wallis-Taylor, Motor Cars or Power Carriages for
Common Roads (London, 1897); R. B. Whitman, Motor-
car Principles (New York, 1909); Witz, Moteurs d gaz et
d petrole, vol. iii. (Paris, 1899); Yarrow, "On Steam
Carriages," Proc. Soc. of Eng. (London, 1863); Young, The
Economy of Steam Power (London, 1860); Filson Young,
921
run, on an average basis of 180 m. a week; with a trailer carrying
another 3 tons the corresponding figures vary from pd. to is.
per mile run, according to nature of roads, gradients and fuel
available. The inclusive working cost of a tractor, on mac-
adamized roads, is generally about 15% less than for a 5-ton
wagon, but a standard tractor cannot haul more than a gross
load of 8 tons behind the drawbar except on dry and level
roads. On granite setts the extra vibration often causes undue
wear and tear, unless the suspension of the tractor be very
good.
Vehicles in which the power is derived from internal-combus-
tion engines are commonly known as " petrol " vehicles. Petro-
leum spirit of 0-700 specific gravity is usually the fuel, but many
are now supplied with spirit of 0-760 specific gravity; the range
of boiling points is the criterion of satisfactory use not the
density. Petrol vehicles are, practically, stoutly-built motor-
cars, and some of the models now in use have been developed
from accepted designs of lighter types. There are, however,
numerous manufacturers who construct solely for utility pur-
poses. Below net loads of 2 tons, the petrol-propelled vehicle
Summary of Working Costs for Petrol-driven Vehicles (Exclusive of
Management) in England.
The Complete Motorist (London, 1904); vol. xxxvi. (Head) " Steam
Locomotion on Common Roads," Proc. Inst. C.E. (London, 1873);
Reports of Select Committees of the House of Commons (London,
1831, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1859, 1873, 1881). (C. S. R.)
HEAVY COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Heavy types of motor-cars are now widely employed for
commercial purposes. The earliest British-built type was
the steam-propelled wagon, and its evolution was largely
encouraged and hastened by important competitive trials, at
Liverpool, in the years 1898, 1899 and 1901, which were
conducted by the Self-Propelled Traffic Association. Other
series of trials were held by the Royal Agricultural Society of
England and the Royal Automobile Club.
From the end of 1896 to early in 1905 no commercial motor
vehicle was legal in England if its unladen weight exceeded
3 tons, and this limitation caused much financial loss to pur-
chasers who overloaded them. The Heavy Motor Car Order
of 1904, which came into force on the ist of March 1905, increased
the maximum unladen weight to 5 tons, whilst limiting the
gross weight to 12 tons; by the same order, the combined unladen
weight of a motor wagon and the single trailer which it is allowed
to draw was fixed at 6% tons. In effect, the gross weight of a
trailer and its load may not exceed 8 tons, thus yielding a total
gross weight, for loaded wagon and loaded trailer, of 20 tons.
Excesses in any particular cause a commercial motor to be
treated as a " heavy locomotive," or traction engine, when its
freedom of movement, speed, &c., are restricted more severely.
Miniature traction engines, constructed to comply with the
requirements of the Motor Car Acts and Orders, have progressed
since 1905; they are chiefly used where it is a convenience to
separate the power and carrying units, as by furniture-removal
and other contractors.
The working cost of a steam wagon with a 5-ton load, in
Great Britain, inclusive of provision for interest on capital,
depreciation and maintenance, varies from 7|d. to gd. per mile
Particulars.
Net loads carried :
Costs in pence per vehicle-mile.
(Petrol at lod. per gall.)
10 CWt.
I ton
2 tons
3 tons
5 tons
Average weekly mileage .
400
400
390
35
300
Driver's wages ....
0-84
0-84
i -60
Fuel (petroleum spirit)
Oils and grease.
o-55
O-I2
0-77
0-95
1-25
1-67
Rubber tires
0-50
0-75
1-15
I -SO
2-60
Repairs (material and wages)
Rent, rates and lighting .
Insurance and claims .
Depreciation
o-55
0-12
0-12
0-65
0-85
0-15
0-24
0-90
1-03
0-25
o-35
i -06
1-17
0-40
0-42
1-36
i-55
0-50
0-65
i -60
Interest on capital.
0-15
0-25
o-33
0-47
0-64
Totals
3-60
4-87
6-26
7-82
11-05
has a virtual monopoly of use in England; above that,
it shares the trade with steam. A tabular statement of
current working costs of approved petrol vehicles is published
herewith.
Before proceeding to describe and illustrate representative
types of vehicles, tractors and special machines, a brief summary
of the outstanding points in the English statutes and orders
which apply to heavy motor-cars may well be given. Any
motor-car with an unladen weight in excess of 2 tons is held
to be a " heavy motor-car," and a " trailer " means a vehicle
drawn by a heavy motor-car. The expression " axle weight "
means the aggregate weight transmitted to the surface of the
road or other base whereon the heavy motor-car or the trailer
moves or rests by the several wheels attached to that axle when
the heavy motor-car or trailer is loaded. The expression
" weight," in relation to a heavy motor-car or trailer when
unladen, means the weight exclusive of the weight of any
water, fuel or accumulators used for the purpose of propul-
sion. All heavy motor-cars have to be registered with a county
council, county borough, or other registering authority, and
owners have to declare, on suitable forms, the unladen weight,
the axle weight of each axle, and the diameter of each wheel.
When a registration certificate is issued it bears these data,
in addition to a statement of the width and the material of the
tyre on each wheel, and the highest rate of speed at which the
heavy motor-car may be driven. The owner, after registration,
must cause to be painted, or otherwise plainly marked, upon
some conspicuous part of the offside of the heavy motor-car,
the registered weight unladen, and the registered axle weight
of each axle, whilst, upon the near side of the heavy motor-car,
he must similarly cause to be painted the highest rate of speed
at which it may travel. Width of tires, which in no case may
be less than 5 in., varies in relation to imposed load and wheel
diameter, and a table of these is issued by the local government
board. It is specified that " the width shall not be less than that
922
MOTOR VEHICLES
[HEAVY
number of half-inches which is equal to the number of units
of registered axle weight of the axle to which the wheel is
attached." Taking a wheel 3 ft. in diameter as a 'basis, the
unit of registered axle weight is 7^ cwt.: this unit increases in
the proportion of i cwt. per 12 in. increase of diameter, and
decreases at the rate of i cwt. for every 6 in. reduction in
diameter below 3 ft. The speeds at which heavy motor-cars
may travel vary from 5 m. an hour to 12 m. an hour. Heavy
motor-cars fitted with tires of a soft or elastic material
may travel at higher rates of speed than if they were not so
fitted.
Any motet-car used for trade purposes, but whose unladen
weight does not exceed 2 tons, is allowed to travel as fast as
20 m. an hour, and is regarded as an ordinary motor-car.
Motor-buses. The first double-deck motor-bus, of the type
of which upwards of 1000 are in regular service in London,
was licensed by the police authorities in September of 1904.
The type of chassis employed is practically identical with those
used for loads of 3 tons in the goods-haulage branches of the
industry, and the accompanying chart, which is prepared from
-4--- I ' '|
..'' . s
1905 1908
; :L: ; ! i|:ii
\.}-- IH 1 1
--i-vn- "
25.
)7 1908 1908 1910
umber of London Motorbuse*
4r4iU
TM
]~
J ffl K
; M
in Commission
iit T
U ~/l
data exclusively collected by the Commercial Motor (London),
indicates the growth in the totals since the inception of this
departure in the public conveyance of passengers. The growth
of motor-bus traffic has resulted in the displacement of some
25,000 horses and 2200 horse omnibuses, during the five years
ending the 3oth of June 1910, and it is estimated that there will
be practically no horse omnibuses in London, except upon a few
suburban routes, by the end of 1911. The inclusive working
cost of a London motor-bus, with good management, varies
between gd. and lod. per mile, which figures cover interest,
depreciation and administration.
Successful provincial motor-bus undertakings, in the United
Kingdom, are numerous, and those at Eastbourne, Keighley
and Hull may be particularly mentioned of municipal under-
takings, whilst the Great Western Railway Company alone has
130 such vehicles at work.
Motor-cabs. Spasmodic efforts to introduce motor-cabs in
London were made during the years 1905 and 1906. It was,-
however, only in the month of March 1907 that the General
Motor-cab Company put the first 100 vehicles of its present large
fleet into regular service. The growth of motor-cabs is indicated
by the following numbers, for which the author is indebted to
the Commercial Motor (London), and these are of vehicles
licensed at the dates given: December 31, 1905, 19; December
31, 1906, 96; December 31, 1907, 723; December 31, 1908, 2805;
April 30, 1909, 3203; April 30, 1910, 4941. It is estimated
that, at the 3oth of June 1910, there are only 1200 horse-drawn
hansoms in regular use, and not more than 2500 horse-drawn
four-wheelers, in London. In 1904 London had a total of 11,055
horse-drawn hackney carriages, and two self-propelled hackney
carriages. The London hiring rate for motor-cabs fitted with
taximeters is: for the first mile or part thereof, 8d., subject to
an additional charge at the rate of 2d. per i\ minutes for any
waiting time or travelling below the rate of 6 m. per hour;
2d. per additional 440 yds., or 2\ minutes of waiting or of travel-
ling below 6 m. an hour; with the addition of 2d. per package
for any package carried outside, and 6d. for a bicycle and 6d.
each for each passenger above two, for any distance. The horse-
drawn hansom-cab is is. for the first 2 m., with 6d. for each
additional mile or part of a mile, and with a charge of 8d. per
15 minutes of waiting, after the first 15 minutes completed.
Taximeter cabs cannot be engaged by time in London, but horse-
drawn cabs may be so engaged at 2s. 6d. per hour for a hansom,
and at 25. per hour for a four-wheeler. The taxicab rates apply
throughout the Metropolitan Police area, which in some direc-
tions extends as far as 20 m. from Charing Cross, but horse-
vehicle rates (except those of time) are doubled for any distance
beyond a four-mile radius.
Steam Vehicles. Steam wagons may, generally speaking,
now be divided into three distinct types, and these are dis-
tinguished chiefly by the particular form of final drive adopted
by the designer. There are in general use by the well-known
Driving Chain
FIGS. 6-9. Standard and Representative Types of Present-day Steam-wagon Construction.
HEAVY]
MOTOR VEHICLES
923
makers, at the present day, only three methods of effecting such
a drive: (i) by means of spur or double-helical gear to a live
back axle, as illustrated in figs. 6 and 7; (2) with two side chains
transmitting the drive from a differential intermediate counter-
shaft to the wheels on a fixed back axle, as shown in fig. 8; and
(3) by means of a single chain transmitting the drive from an
intermediate shaft to a differential gear on a live back axle, as
depicted in fig. 9.
The transmission on the first type of vehicle (figs. 6 and 7)
is by means of gearing throughout, and is completely enclosed,
thus ensuring protection from dust, and more perfect lubrication.
Change gears to give two speeds are provided. This form of
drive necessitates a special disposition of the spring mounting, j
in order to ensure that there shall be no sliding motion taking
place between the teeth of the reducing gear, due to the distance
between the centres of the countershaft and the back axle
varying with the changes in the spring deflexion. The gear
drive offers advantages which, for heavy loads, are not offered
by any other form of drive.
The features which are common to all steam wagons of the
second of these types are: vertical fire-tube or water-tube
boiler; horizontal compound engine;
two-speed gear; differential counter-
shaft ; and two sprockets which transmit
the final drive, through chains, to the
rear road wheels. The exact form
which the boiler takes is a point which
has considerably exercised the ingenuity
of individual designers, in order to arrive
at one that can be cheaply produced,
FIG. 10. The Unique Type of Steam Wagon made by the Yorkshire
Patent Steam Wagon Co.
efficient, simple of construction, easy to clean and repair,
strong and reliable, and one which will not prime. The
vertical type of boiler lends itself admirably to the general
design of a steam wagon, because it takes up so little of
the total length of the vehicle, whilst the fittings can be
mounted in much more accessible positions than are possible
with the majority of loco-type boilers. The efficiency is not,
however, so high as is the case with the latter type. It may be
generally stated that boilers of the vertical class, as used on
5-ton or 6-ton steam wagons, have a total heating surface of
about 90 to 95 sq. ft., with about 4 sq. ft. of grate area, and the
working pressure is from 200 Ib to 225 ft per square inch. The
usual and necessary fittings include: pressure-gauge; two safety-
valves, two check-valves, and a blow-off cock. The feed water
is normally supplied to the boiler by a plunger pump driven from
the crank-shaft. The compound engine has all the valve motion
completely enclosed and running in an oil-bath, and is provided
with means whereby high-pressure steam can be supplied to the
low-pressure cylinder, in order that extra power may momen-
tarily be obtained. The change-speed gear pinions, cut from
solid steel, are most often mounted on an extension of the crank-
shaft, and mesh with machine-cut gear wheels which are mounted
on the intermediate shaft, on which the differential gear is also
mounted. The gears provide for two ratios of reduction from
engine to road wheels; the higher one is for all ordinary running,
and the lower one is for steep hills or for very bad roads. The
outer ends of the differential shafts are fitted with chain sprockets,
from which the drive is taken to the back wheels by means of
chains.
The third type (fig. 9) of steam wagon is particularly business-
like in appearance, and sound in construction and design. It
is the outcome of many years' experience in the design of road
locomotives, on the lines of which it is constructed. The loco-
type of boiler is very economical in fuel consumption, and is a
very efficient steamer. Comparing this type of boiler with the
vertical type, the former can be made of a much lighter construc-
tion for a given rate of evaporation, and the smoke-box door
at the forward end offers a most simple and easy means of access
to the smoke tubes for cleaning purposes. No vertical boiler
offers such ready means 'of effecting this operation. The engine,
which is mounted over the boiler in this type, is in full view of
the driver, and, should it become necessary to make any repair
or adjustment when on the road, this can easily be effected with-
out grovelling under the wagon or removing any of the load.
Objection may be raised to the position of the engine, on the
score of its necessitating such a long chain drive to the back
axle; this objection has not been sustained in practice, as many
wagons employing this form of drive have been running for
engthy periods without giving any trouble on that score. The
engine, which is a compound one, is close up to the source from
whence it is supplied with steam, and consequently receives the
steam in a much drier condition; there is less condensation in
the main steam-pipe, because the length of this is reduced to a
minimum. The short steam-pipes should tend to lessen the
risk of their being broken from the sagging or twisting of the
irame, a fault which is not unknown with vehicles having the
mgine a considerable distance from the boiler. This type,
ike types i and 2, also has two change-speed pinions, mounted
on an intermediate shaft. These pinions may be of the sliding
;ype, or may be operated by means of dog-clutches. The
pinions mesh with two wheels that are mounted on a counter-
shaft, on which is also fixed a chain-sprocket, from which the
drive is transmitted, through a long chain, to a chain-wheel
surrounding the differential gear mounted on the back axle.
Traction-engine type of steering gear, with revolving fore-
carriage, is most generally adopted, and is rendered sufficiently
rapid in its movement by suitable gear, operated by a diagonal
shaft and wheel, from the driver's footplate.
Fig. 10 shows the general disposition of the main parts of a
" Yorkshire " steam-wagon. This machine follows the general lines
of those of type 3, so far as transmission gearing is concerned, but
its boiler is of very distinctive construction, as may be seen from the
sectional view in fig. II ; its engine is one of the vertical compound
type, and is mounted directly behind the driver.
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y cfooocFoo
ooooooo
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\
FIG. II. The Yorkshire Steam Wagon Co.'s ingenious
Loco-type Transverse Boiler.
The Sheppee steam-wagon, or " steam-gas " vehicle as it is some-
times termed, on account of the high degree of superheat to which
the steam is raised, and which superheat gives to the steam many
of the characteristics of gas, is shown in fig. 24, and, it may be seen,
this wagon is entirely dissimilar to any other machine with which this
article deals. The generator and paraffin burner are housed within
a " bonnet " and the temperature of the steam is controlled by a
very simple form of thermostat. After leaving the engine, some
of the heat in the exhaust steam is utilized to heat up the feed water
before it is passed into the generator; the steam then passes ir
series through two condensers one in front and one underneath
the vehicle.
Another vehicle which embodies many novel and pract
features is the new Leyland steamer, the construction of which
includes one of the well-known Leyland fire-tube boilers, as shown
924
MOTOR VEHICLES
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in fig. 18, a three-cylinder, single-acting, vertical engine, and an
all-gear drive to the rear wheels.
Boilers. The locomotive type of boiler is shown diagrammatically
in figs. 12-15. The first of these four diagrams illustrates the
of heat is provided in the mass of the heated tubes, and the rapidity
of flame application by the burner, and not in a mass of heated
water. The steam, too, is very highly superheated, and necessitates
the use of a specially-designed engine with mushroom valves.
) ,
ooooo
oxoSoxoxo
O^-rSMoM^v^o
(~&J(~*J(~kJr*\J
-
FIGS. 12-15. F'S- I2 shows the Belpaire type of fire-box construction as compared with the more usual type shown in fig. 13. Fig. 14
and fig. 15 show the form of locomotive boiler fitted by Sidney Straker & Squire, Ltd. The back of the fire-box is sloped so as to
accommodate the gear shafts without unduly lengthening the frame.
Belpaire type of fire-box outer shell, and, by its side fig. 13 shows
the older form of construction. The Belpaire fire-box is a develop-
ment of recent years, and its undoubted superiority over the older
type is meeting with increasing recognition amongst boiler makers.
The sloping back plates of the fire-box, as shown in fig. 15, are
intended to give plenty of room for the housing of the change-speed
gearing without undue lengthening of the vehicle or reduction of
the area of the fire-grate.
Fig. 19 s'hows one form ol paraffin burner, which type is used
in conjunction with semi-flash boilers. The fuel is first vaporized,
by being passed through a heated coil.
Steam Engines for Vehicles and Tractors. The Bentley superheated
steam engine, which is fitted to Colonel Crompton's tractor, is shown
in fig. 20.
It has four high-pressure cylinders, and four in which low-pressure
steam is operative. In a number of tests which were made
Nona.
WATER LtVtL
GRADIENT 1--
>ru siicc nu
FIGS. 16, 17, 18. Fig. 1 6 shows the Toward Vertical Boiler, fig. 17 Alley & MacLellan's Sentinel Water-tube Boiler, and fig. 18
the Vertical Smoke-tube Boiler fitted on Leyland Steam Wagons. The smoke tubes in the last-named boiler are provided with copper
sleeves to prevent corrosion.
Figs. 16, 17 and 18 show vertical boilers made, respectively, by
Toward, of Newcastle, Alley & MacLellan, of Glasgow, and the
Leyland Co., of Leyland. The smoke tubes of the last-named
boiler are provided with copper sleeves, the object of which is the
prevention of corrosion of the outer surfaces of the tubes. All-
copper tubes have been tried, but they are too soft to withstand
the abrasive action of the fine particles of coke which are ejected
from the fire.
In flash or semi-flash boilers, or steam generators, such as are
fitted by the Darracq-Serpollet Co., the Sheppee Motor Co., of York,
and to the tractor made to the designs of Colonel Crompton, C.B.
(fig. 26), only a very small volume of water is at any time in the
tubes. The tubes are exceptionally strong and thick, and they
are made of cold-drawn steel; the water is only forced into them
stroke for stroke of the engine. The essential difference between
this class of generator and any ordinary motor-wagon boiler,
whether of the water-tube or fire-tube patterns, is that the reserve FIG. 19. The Lune Valley Paraffin Burner.
HEAVY]
MOTOR VEHICLES
925
with an engine of this type it was found possible to work it on
an expenditure of 13 Ib of water per brake-horse-power hour.
Another interesting superheated steam engine is the two-
type does not necessitate the fitting of eccentrics; the second system
entails the use of one eccentric lor each cylinder; whilst Stephenson's
system necessitates the provision of two eccentrics per cylinder.
FIG. 20. The Bentley Eight-cylinder Diagonal Tandem-compound Superheated-Steam Engine.
cylinder, double-acting engine made by the Sheppee Co., and
illustrated in fig. 21. In this engine the cam-shaft by which the
steam and exhaust valves are operated is situated midway of the
cylinders' length, and is driven by bevel gearing from the crank-
shaft. Fig. 22 shows a combined steam and hand-operated
water pump, for use in conjunction with either of the engines
mentioned.
FIG. 21. The Sheppee Motor Co.'s compact Double-acting
Superheated " Steam-gas " Engine.
The Sentinel wagon, built by Alley & MacLellan, Ltd., is
perhaps the only heavy steam wagon with a two-cylinder, simple,
double-acting engine controlled by cam-actuated poppet valves;
this engine is shown in section in fig. 23, and, in some respects, it
greatly resembles the Sheppee engine.
The four special engines already named those by Leyland,
Bentley, Sheppee and Alley & MacLellan differ totally from
the type which is fitted most usually on steam-propelled com-
mercial motors, yet they are very practical examples of special
practice. The majority of steam vehicles are provided with two-
cylinder compound engines, in which the steam distribution is
effected and controlled by one or other of the proved link motions,
such as the Joy, the Solms or the Stephenson. The first-named
Steam Tractors. The great popularity which the light steam
tractor enjoys is undoubtedly due to its extreme usefulness in
cases where the employment of steam wagons could not prove
remunerative. For brickmakers, builders, market gardeners
and a host of others whose business demands that separate
loads of heavy material must be moved from place to place
without involving terminal delays, the tractor offers a simple
and ready means of attaining the desired end. The first cost
is comparatively low, and such a " steam horse " can be kept
constantly at work if there is sufficient demand. A steam
tractor is economical and efficient; it can be used on roads
where a steam wagon would be impracticable on account of its
FIG. 22. The Sheppee Combined Steam-driven or Hand-operated
Water-pump.
great axle weight, and, when not used for hauling, it can be put
to other work such as driving pumps or builders' machinery, or
for a host of other purposes requiring a portable power installa-
tion. The fact that the motor is separate from the wagon, or
trailer, which conveys the load, and can haul a loaded trailer
to its destination, leave it, and return with, or for, another
loaded trailer, without waiting for the first load to be unshipped,
not only makes this class of motor extremely useful to agricul-
turists and others, but it makes for greater efficiency, in a large
number of cases, because the power unit is not allowed to stand
idle during the loading or unloading operations. Another vital
point is the low annual cost of maintenance.
Since the passing of the 1903 Motor Car Act, and the coming
into force of the 1904 Heavy Motor Car Order, many of the
well-known makers of road locomotives have turned their atten-
tion to the production of a machine which would come within
the prescribed constructional limits, and would meet popular
demand. These machines are built on proved traction-engine
lines, but with all the parts of suitably reduced size so far as is
consistent with strength and the work which the machines are
926
MOTOR VEHICLES
[HEAVY
called upon to perform. The locomotive type of boiler, with
large fire-box, a heating surface of about 65 sq. ft., and a grate
area of some 3 sq. ft., is used by the leading makers.
CRANKCASE SUSPENSION PLATE.
r EED PUMP
STEAM PORT /EXHAUST}
CAM BOXf PORT.
CAM SHAFT
SHAFT DRIVER
^
REVERSING LINK-
FIG. 23. Alley & MacLellan's Twin-cylinder Steam-engine as
fitted to the Sentinel wagons. The steam and exhaust ports are
operated by a cam-shaft.
Some of the early tractors were fitted with single-cylinder
engines, but, although this type is still supplied by several
makers, the more general practice is to provide a compound
engine, with a multiplying valve which admits high-pressure
steam into the low-pressure cylinder, thus enabling the engine
to develop considerably more than its normal power for short
periods. The engine is mounted over the boiler, with its crank-
shaft at right angles to the axis of the barrel. Two changes of,
gear ratio are usually provided; one for normal running, and a
lower one for very soft ground or steep hills. The driving axle
is of the differential or live type, and provided with means for
locking the compensating gear and rendering it inoperative
FIG. 24. The Sheppee " Steam-gas " or Superheated Steam Vehicle.
when necessary, as would be the case if one driving-wheel were
on hard ground and the other one on soft or greasy ground.
A winding-drum is fitted, and this may be driven by the engine
without, at the same time, driving the tractor: this result is
attained by making the drum free on the axle but providing
means of securely locking it thereto when desired. A flywheel is
generally fitted to one end of the crank-shaft, and this may be
used for driving external machinery.
Many makers have recently given much attention to the improve-
ment of the spring-suspension systems of their respective machines,
and chief amongst these is William Foster & Co., Ltd., of Lincoln,
in which company's " Wellington " tractors the effective spring
base has been so vastly increased that it may safely be termed the
most stable of steam tractors. The life of all the working parts of
a tractor may be considerably lengthened by the elimination of
road shocks, or the prevention of their transmission, through the
gearing, to the engine and the boiler plates. Foster's tractor is
illustrated, in diagrammatic form, in fig. 25.
Fuel Bunker
Draw Br 'Bracket
FIG. 25. Foster's " Wellington " Compound Steam Tractor
with outside spring suspension.
An ingenious machine of the tractor class is that built to the
designs of Colonel Crompton, and shown in fig. 26. This machine
is intended for military purposes, or for operation in undeveloped
countries. Steam is generated in a " semi-flash " boiler, and is
used expansively in a four-pair, diagonal-compound engine of the
type shown in fig. 20. A two-speed epicyclic gear is enclosed by
the flywheel casing, and the power is then transmitted, by worm
gearing, to a differential countershaft, and from sprockets on the
ends of this shaft the drive is finally transmitted to the 7 ft.
diameter road wheels by means of side chains. In this tractor, very
long bearing springs are employed, and these are situated below the
axle, so that, instead of the springs resting on the axle boxes, the
whole frame and the power plant is suspended from the axle boxes.
When hauling a load, the winding cable is permanently secured to the
drawbar, and, when the machine becomes " bogged ' or is otherwise
unable to haul its trailer directly by the drawbar, a single bolt
may readily be removed from the drawbar, and the winding cable
may then be paid out as the tractor proceeds alone. The trailer
may then be hauled up by means of the cable. The average of a
number of tests with this machine, made while hauling a gross
load of 8 tons, showed that its burners consumed from -65 to -85
of a gallon of shale oil for each mile travelled, and that the con-
sumption of water was at the rate of -5 gallon per mile. The gross
weight of the machine, with sufficient fuel and water for well over
100 m. of running, is about 7 tons.
Vehicles Driven by Internal-Combustion Engines. The general
principles of the working of a steam engine are better understood
than are those of the gas or oil engine, owing to the wide use of
the former class of prime mover since the early part of last
century, but it is beginning to dawn upon the public at large
that the internal-combustion engine, of the " petrol " motor, as
it is more popularly termed by those who talk or write about
motor vehicles, is even more simple than the steam engine.
The fundamental reason for the use of the words " internal
combustion " is that the fuel, in the case of the petrol engine,
is burnt (or fired) inside the working cylinder, whereas it is
burnt externally in the case of a steam engine, i.e. underneath
the boiler or generator. The number of units of heat which can
be turned into useful work is very much greater in the case of
internal combustion than of external combustion, the efficiency
of the petrol engine in this respect being, on the average, about
three times as great in practice as is found to be the case with
typical steam engines other than those where highly-superheated
HEAVY]
MOTOR VEHICLES
steam is used, and where the whole of the parts are maintained
in the best condition. The amount of petroleum spirit, or of
paraffin, required to propel a steam vehicle i m. would, other
conditions being equal, propel a vehicle fitted with an internal-
combustion engine over a distance of 3 m.
The essential parts of any internal-combustion system are:
the carburetter; the engine; the radiator; the clutch; the
change-speed gears and the final transmission. The carburetter
is a vessel in which the liquid fuel is converted into a combustible
gas or vapour, for, as there is no connexion to any gas main,
the ordinary petrol engine has to make its gas " on the premises."
The production of the gas is automatic, and calls for practically
no attention from the driver, because, once the engine is started,
the necessary aspiration to draw through the correct quantities
of air and fuel is provided by the action of the valves and pistons.
A smart turn of the starting handle is required to set the
pistons and crankshaft in motion, so that an initial supply of
the combustible mixture may reach one of the cylinders. This
first charge of gas is automatically ignited by an electric spark,
the current for which is furnished and controlled without the
necessity for any hand regulation, and there is then nothing
927
FlG. 26. Colonel Crompton's Superheated Steam Tractor,
further for the driver to do, as regards power, except to move a
convenient lever which opens or closes a " throttle " valve
between the cylinders and the carburetter.
An internal-combustion engine would get very hot if no
precaution were taken to cool it, and it is usual to surround
the cylinder with water spaces. These spaces are called jackets,
and the water is forced through them, either by a pump or by
thermo-siphon (natural circulation) action. It is expedient
to keep down the weight of water, and for that reason pipes,
tubes or small boxes are built up in such a manner that a large
cooling surface is exposed to the air. A fan, which is driven
from the crankshaft of the engine by gear or a belt, is employed
to aid this cooling by reason of the increased volume of air that
passes round the outside of the components of the radiator
members. The general scheme is the same, both for heavy and
light motor-cars.
It is very important that the driver should have a convenient
means of separating the engine from the driving mechanism,
and of putting the two in connexion again, whenever it becomes
necessary, without jar or shock. The common practice is to
use a leather-faced, circular member with a coned face, and to
control the amount of " grip " between this member and a
corresponding enclosing member attached to the engine fly-
wheel by means of a pedal and springs. When the driver wishes
to disengage the two members, he has merely to depress the foot
lever. It will be clear that a clutch of this description can be
made to engage without any difficulty, there being no fixed
positions or steps such as one associates with the ordinary jaw-
clutch, and this gradual application of the load can only be accom-
plished by the aid of two or more surfaces in frictional contact,
and by the holding together of these surfaces by the pressure of
one or more strong springs. The Hele-Shaw multiple-disk clutch
gives very good results, and is easy for drivers to use in traffic.
An internal-combustion engine cannot develop power unless
the crank-shaft can rotate at a relatively high number of revolu-
tions, and the rate of doing work is lowest when the angular
velocity is at its minimum. It is, therefore, necessary to intro-
duce a system of levers between the engine and the road wheels,
m order to permit the number of revolutions of the crankshaft
to be maintained when hill climbing, or when the vehicle is
carrying a heavy load, and the common practice is to introduce
FIG. 27. The well-known 16 h.p. Two-ton Albion Chassis,
three or four sets of different sizes of toothed wheels, any pair
of which can be put into engagement by the movement of a
single lever, which lever is placed near the driver's right hand as
a rule. The lowest of these gear ratios, i.e. the one which allows
the crankshaft to make the greatest number of revolutions to
one revolution of the road wheels, is required for starting
purposes, and the highest gear ratio, i.e. the one which allows
the road wheels to make the greatest number of revolutions in
relation to those of the crankshaft, is employed for high-speed
travelling on the road. From the last change-speed shaft
the power must be transmitted to the road wheels through
a differential gear and through one or other of the types of
final drive which are now employed by representative makers.
The great distinction from the axle of a horse-drawn vehicle
is that there must be both a mechanical connexion, yet a differen-
tial action, between the two back wheels. The wheels on horse
vehicles revolve loosely on the axle, and one can overrun the
other at curves, but the special device known as the " differential
gear " has to be introduced into all motor vehicles between the
FIG. 28. Halley's Van or Lorry Chassis with 20 h.p. Engine,
change-speed gears and the driven road wheels. Such a device
permits one of the two driving wheels to be driven round at a
quicker angular speed than the other, the difference being
determined by the radius of the curve around which the vehicle
is turning.
The most common form of final drive is, perhaps, that in
which two "roller" or "silent" chains transmit the power from
928
MOTOR VEHICLES
[HEAVY
sprockets on the ends of the differential shaft to chain rings
which are bolted to the rear road wheels. Figs. 27, 28 and 29
show typical vehicles, ranging in load capacity from 30 cwt. to
6 tons, on which the side-chain method of final drive is adopted.
One of the chief advantages of the side-chain drive lies in the
fact that there is, with it, less weight below the springs than with
any other form of final drive. The only parts below the springs
are: the fixed back axle; the chain rings (bolted to the road
wheels); the road wheels themselves; the road- wheel brakes and
part of the weight of the chains. The differential gear and
chain sprockets are carried in a countershaft casing, which is
securely bolted to the main frame.
FIG. 29. A typical Six-ton Petrol Wagon Chassis, by Commercial
Cars, Ltd., Luton.
In a number of very successful vehicles the final drive is
transmitted by means of spur pinions. These are mounted
on the ends of bevel-driven differential shaft, and mesh with
internally toothed or externally-toothed gear rings on the road
wheels. Milnes-Daimler and De Dion commercial vehicles are
amongst the machines on which the internally-toothed form of
gear is employed, whilst Ryknield is the most representative
vehicle embodying the externally-toothed form of final drive.
The direct drive, from the ends of the differential shaft, as
is shown in fig. 30, is another type of final transmission that has
met with a considerable amount of success, particularly on the
Leyland machines of five-ton and six-ton capacity. The differen-
tial gear and the bevel-drive reducing gear are both enclosed
within a casing that is bolted to a fixed back axle; the ends of the
driving shaft pass through tunnels in the axle body; and claw
pieces on the outer ends of the differential shaft engage with
similar claws on the road-wheel hubs. The two last-named
forms of gear are highly efficient, provided the pitch and shape
of the teeth are carefully considered and the designs provide
for the encasing of all the pinions and gear rings.
Reducing Gear
Differential Gear
FIG. 30. The Back Axle of the Leyland Six-ton Petrol Wagon.
The only other type of final drive which is used to any great
extent for commercial motors is that which employs a hardened
and ground steel worm meshing with a machine-cut phosphor-
bronze worm wheel which is bolted to the differential-gear cage
of a live back axle. The employment of this type of gear for
the final transmission on commercial motors generally leads to
increased efficiency, on account of the ease with which all the
parts can be enclosed in an oil-tight casing. It also gives silence
of running. The strongest advocate of the worm drive for heavy
vehicles is the Guildford manufacturer, Dennis Bros., Ltd., one
of which company's machines is illustrated in fig. 31. Although
there are many difficulties in the matter of the manufacture
of worm gearing, they are not insurmountable, and, given
proper attention at the hands- of the designer, followed by
FIG. 31. A typical Worm-driven Live-axle Chassis, by
Dennis Bros., Ltd., of_Guildford.
accurate workmanship, probably no other mechanical means
of transmitting power can approach it for smooth and silent
operation. Both thrust bearings on the worm shaft should
be on one side of the worm, to avoid lack of truth in meshing
if any heating occurs between the worm and the wheel. There
are many examples of the worm drive to be found in London on
public-service passenger vehicles, and also on delivery vans.
One of the great charms of this type of transmission is that
a very large gear reduction may be obtained without making
the worm wheel unduly large in diameter; this is an important
factor in the design of a back axle, as every inch of road clearance
is of value for operating on rough country roads. As a large
gear reduction is thus rendered possible on the back axle, it will
readily be understood that the change-speed gear-box may be
made considerably smaller than would be necessary for a bevel-
driven live axle, where a large gear reduction is not permissible,
both on account of its size and because such a ge#r would be
very noisy in its working.
FIG. 32. The Hallford-Stevens Petrol-electric Chassis.
Although the use of tooth wheels is still the only practical
method of obtaining variable transmission for motor vehicles,
the fundamental defects of transmission in this way are inherent
to the system and must always be present; they are now less
apparent, thanks to the remarkable improvement which has
taken place in the use of suitable materials and improved design.
HEAVY]
MOTOR VEHICLES
929
It is still the hope of some manufacturers that a form of infinitely
variable change-speed device will be produced, which will
FIG. 33. 70 h.p. Six-cylinder Dennis Fire-engine with Gwynne
Centrifugal Pump.
replace the step-by-step movement of toothed gearing; the two
chief directions in which this has been attempted are electrical
and hydraulic. Of these two, electrical devices are really
FIG. 34. 60 h.p. Six-cylinder Halley Fire-engine with Centri-
fugal Pump.
step by step, and the hydraulic method' is apparently the only
one that permits of infinite variation. Enormous sums of
money have been spent in the search for an effective hydraulic
FIG. 35. One of Barford & Perkins's Water-ballast Rollers,
xvrn. 30
gear; the work of Hall, Pittler, Jannay, Hele-Shaw, Renault and
others is, perhaps, the best known. It must be confessed,
however, that in 1910 none of these gears could be said to be on
the market for motor vehicles, although hydraulic gears were
being successfully applied in connexion with other problems,
such as the steering of ships, the movement of turrets, &c.
Electrical transmission systems, too, have been tried, and
appear to have been attended with more success than those
of the hydraulic type. Such systems include vehicles which
carry heavy batteries of accumulators, the current from which
is utilized for the driving of the vehicle by means of electric
motors. Other variations include the Hallford-Stevens system,
shown in fig. 32, in which it may be seen the petrol engine drives
a dynamo, and the current is then caused to drive an electric
motor at each side of the chassis. Each motor drives one of the
FIG. 36. Marshall's 30 h.p. Agricultural Tractor,
back road wheels, through a worm and worm wheel. The
changes of vehicle speed are effected by altering the method of
grouping the electrical windings of the dynamo and motor
field-magnets and armatures. This system of control is known
as the series-parallel, and is effected by a single lever, which
actuates a mechanical switch, or " controller."
In one of the most-recently-introduced petrol-electric systems
the " K.P.L." -system, as worked by the Daimler Co., of
Coventry each of the rear road wheels is provided with a separate
power unit, consisting of a four-cylinder petrol engine, which is
direct coupled to a dynamotor, the armature of the latter being
coupled to a worm which meshes with a worm wheel attached
to the road wheel. A small electrical storage battery forms part
of the system, and this receives the excess of current from the
dynamotors when the whole power of the engine is not required
for the propulsion of the vehicle. When the machine is being
driven up a steep incline, or when it is required to travel in a
reverse direction, the battery may be called upon to supply
current to the dynamotor, and, in this manner, the power of
the engine is augmented by the dynamotors' working as electric
motors.
930
MOTRIL MOTT, V.
Still another petrol-electric system is that invented by Mr
Thomas. In this system, which is at the same time the simplest
and most practical form of petrol-electric transmission, two
dynamotors and an epicyclic gear are employed so that the
electrical load is at no time greater than one half of the total
load; consequently, the risk of a " burn out " of the windings,
as the result of sudden and unforeseen periods of overload, is
materially minimized.
Special Applications. Amongst the special applications of
the petrol-engined commercial vehicle is the motor fire-engine,
which has brought to the front in this branch several enter-
prising motor manufacturers, amongst whom Dennis Bros., of
Guildford, Halley, of Glasgow, and Leyland, of Preston, are
prominent. The general construction of the chassis closely
follows the lines of other petrol vehicles of equal load capacity,
but the gear-box tail-shaft is prolonged to the after-end of the
machine, and is direct-coupled to the rotary member of a multi-
stage centrifugal pump. In the Dennis fire-engine, the vacuum
which is necessary in order to lift the water in the suction hose
is obtained by means of priming the pump chamber, further
assisted by a water ejector and a small water tank which is
carried on the machine. This machine is shown in fig. 33,
whilst fig. 34 shows the successful motor fire-engine built by
Halley's Industrial Motors, Ltd., of Yoker, Glasgow. In the
latter machine, as also in the Leyland and other fire-engines
which employ centrifugal pumps, the vacuum is created by
means of reciprocating air pumps. These machines have given
very satisfactory results in the hands of practical firemasters,
in various parts of the United Kingdom and abroad. Merry-
weather and Shand-Mason, who were formerly builders of
steam fire-engines, now also build petrol-engined machines,
these makers favouring reciprocating water pumps.
Other special applications of the internal-combustion motor
are for grass mowing and rolling, and for road mending and
rolling gravel paths, &c. One of the latter type of machines
is shown in fig. 35. In this machine a petrol or paraffin engine
FIG. 37. 45 h.p. Thornycroft Military Oil Tractor.
drives a water-ballast roller through the medium of a clutch, a
simple form of change-speed gear-box, and a single roller chain.
The leading roller, by which steering is effected, is also filled
with water, in order to obtain the dead weight necessary for
rolling. Marshall, Sons & Co., Ltd., of Gainsborough, Thorny-
croft, of Basingstoke, and Broom & Wade, of High Wycombe,
have also produced special machines for agricultural and
military purposes, and one of the smallest tractors built by the
first-named maker is shown in fig. 36. The engine is one of the
two-cylinder type, consuming paraffin fuel, and driving the live
back axle through a substantial gear-box and a final drive of
the externally-toothed type. Such a machine is well below the
weight limit for heavy motor-cars. Fig. 37 shows a more
powerful oil tractor by Thornycroft. This machine is the
same type which was so successful in the tractor trials pro-
moted by the British War Department in March 1909. It is
capable of hauling a gross load of seven tons practically
anywhere, and even of lifting that load vertically by means of
its winding cable. The engine has four cylinders, and the fuel
may be paraffin, alcohol or crude oil. (E. S. S.)
MOTRIL, a town of southern Spain in the province of Granada,
at the foot of an offshoot of the Sierra Nevada and on the edge
of a rich alluvial plain, about i m. from the Mediterranean and
40 m. S.S.E. of Granada, with which it is connected by a good
carriage road. Pop. (1900), 18,528. The climate is semi-tropical,
and the vega or plain of Motril has been found peculiarly adapted
for the culture of sugar-cane and sugar-beet. In the district, and
esoecially at Salobrefia, 3 m. west, there are numerous sugar-
factories; cotton is also grown and manufactured, and alcohol,
flour, soap, iron goods and cotton stuffs are among the other
industrial products. The neighbourhood is rich in zinc and
lead; and copper is also found. Motril itself is a port of the
second class, but the anchorage at Calahonda, 4! m. south-east,
is much better. Grapes, barley, esparto grass, dry figs, almonds
and zinc are exported.
MOTT, LUCRETIA [COFFIN] (1793-1880), American reformer,
was born at Nantucket, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of January
1793. She was descended on her mother's side from Peter
Folger, one of the first settlers of Nantucket, and the grand-
father of Benjamin Franklin; her father's ancestors, also,
were among the first settlers of Nantucket. At thirteen she
was sent to a Friends' boarding school, at Nine Partners, near
Poughkeepsie, New York, where James Mott (1788-1868), who
like her was of old Quaker stock and whom she married in
1811, was then a teacher. In 1810 James Mott entered the
employ of Lucretia's father in Philadelphia, but the business
was not successful and in 1817 Lucretia opened a small school
under the care of the Pine Street Monthly Meeting, but gave
it up a year afterwards and in the same year was recognized
by the Friends as an " acknowledged minister." Her husband
had as early as 1822 espoused the cause of Elias Hicks against
the " Orthodox " Friends, and in 1827, when the Society divided,
Lucretia joined the Hicksites. Hicks's teachings on slavery
had impressed both James and Lucretia; in 1830 James gave
up a lucrative cotton commission business that he might not
profit from the products of slave labour; and both took an
active part in the campaign against slavery. About 1840 Mrs
Mott also took up the cause of woman's rights. On lecturing
tours she and her husband travelled as far west as Indiana and
into Maryland and Virginia. In 1848 she addressed the Anti-
Sabbath Convention in Boston, and with Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
whom she had first met in London in 1840, called a convention
" to discuss the social, civil and religious condition and rights
of women," which met at Seneca Falls and passed a " Declara-
tion of Sentiments," modelled on the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. Her husband, who was prominent among the founders
of Swarthmore College (1864), died in Brooklyn, New York, on
the 26th of January 1868; and Mrs Mott died on the nth of
November 1880 near Philadelphia.
See James and Lucretia Mott: Life and Letters (Boston, 1884),
edited by their granddaughter, Mrs Anna Davis Hallowell.
MOTT, VALENTINE (1783-1865), American surgeon, was
born at Glen Cove, New York, on the 2oth of August 1785.
He graduated at Columbia College, studied under Sir Astley
Cooper in London, and also spent a winter in Edinburgh. After
acting as demonstrator of anatomy he was appointed professor
of surgery in Columbia College in 1809. From 1811 to 1834
he was in very extensive practice as a surgeon, and most suc-
cessful as a teacher and operator. He tied the innominate
artery in 1818; the patient lived twenty-six days. He performed
a similar operation on the carotid forty-six times with good
results; and in 1827 he was also successful in the case of the
common iliac. He is said to have performed one thousand
amputations and one hundred and sixty-five lithotomies. After
spending seven years in Europe (1834-1841) Mott returned to
New York and founded the university medical college of that
city. He translated A. A. L. M. Velpeau's Operative Surgery,
and was foreign associate of the Imperial Academy of Medicine
of Paris. He died on the 26th of April 1865.
MOTTEUX MOUCHEZ
93 1
MOTTEUX, PIERRE ANTOINE (1663-1718), English trans-
lator and dramatist, of French parentage, was born at Rouen on
the 2$th of February 1663. After the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes he settled in London with his kinsman and godfather,
Paul Dominique Motteux. He acted as an auctioneer of
pictures, and in 1706 he had a shop in Leadenhall Street for the
sale of lace, stuffs, Chinese and Japanese commodities, duly
advertised in the Spectator by his friend Richard Steele. He
had not been six years in England when he obtained sufficient
mastery of the language to edit the monthly The Gentleman's
Journal, which contained verses by himself and by the chief
wits of the day. In 1693 he edited the third book, hitherto
unpublished, of Sir Thomas Urquhart's translation of Rabelais,
and in the next year printed the first and second books of
Urquhart's translation. In 1694 he completed Urquhart's work
by a translation of the fourth and fifth books, which, although
not to be compared with the racy, nervous writing of Urquhart,
shows a perfect mastery of colloquial English and an intimate and
adequate sense of Rabelais's meaning. The complete trans-
lation appeared in five volumes in 1693-1694, and was reprinted
as The Whole Works of Francis Rabelais, M.D. (2 vols., 1708),
described as the work of " Sir T. Urchard, Knight, Mr Motteux
and others." His first play, a comedy in five acts entitled
Love's Jest, was produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1696, and
next year followed The Loves of Mars and Venus. He wrote
other works for the stage of no great consequence. More
important than his dramatic work is his History of the Renowned
Don Quixote de la Mancha (4 vols., 1701; and ed., 1712), " trans-
lated from the original by many hands and published by Peter
Motteux," one of the most masterly and spirited translations
in English. His later years appear to have been given to the
shop in Leadenhall Street. He was murdered on the i8th of
February 1718 at a house of ill fame in Star Court, near St
Clement's Church, London, under circumstances which have
never come to light. The manner of his death was no criterion
of his life, which appears to have been sober and decent.
An excellent life by Henri van Laun is prefixed to the 1880
reprint (4 vols.) of J. G. Lockhart's edition of Motteux's Don
Quixote. See also a prefatory note by Charles Whibley in vol. iii.
of Sir T. Urquhart's Rabelais (Tudor Translations, 1900), reprinted
from a rare 1693-1694 edition.
MOTTEVILLE, FRANCHISE BERTAUT DE (c. 1621-1689),
French memoir writer, was the daughter of Pierre Bertaut, a
gentleman of the king's chamber, and niece of the bishop-poet
Jean Bertaut. Her mother, a Spaniard, was the friend and
private secretary of Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. At the
age of seven Francoise was also made a member of the queen's
household and given a pension. The influence of Richelieu,
however, who wished to separate the queen from her Spanish
connexions, exiled mother and daughter to Normandy, where
in 1639 the young girl was married to Nicolas Langlois, seigneur
de Motteville, president of the Chambre des Comptes of Rouen.
He died two years later at the age of eighty-two, and in 1642
the queen summoned Mme de Motteville to court, being
now her own mistress by the death of Richelieu and Louis XIII.
Through all the intrigues and troubles of the Fronde Mme de
Motteville preserved the honourable reputation of being devoted
to her mistress without any party ties or interests. Some
letters of hers are preserved especially a curious correspondence
with " La Grande Mademoiselle " on marriage, but her chief
work is her Memoires, which are in effect a history of Anne of
Austria, written briefly till the date of Mme de Motteville's
return to court, and then with fullness. They give a faithful
picture of the life of the court at that time.
The best edition of her Memoires is that of M. F. Riaux (2nded.,
Paris, 1891, 4 vols.), containing the essay by Sainte-Beuve from
vol. v. of his Causeries du lundi. The Memoirs were translated
into English in 1726 and again by K. P. Wormeley in 3 vols., 1902.
For details concerning her family see Recherches sur Madame de
Motteville et sur safamille, by Charles de Beaurepaire (Rouen, 1900).
MOTTL, FELIX (1856- ), German conductor and com-
poser, was born near Vienna, and had a successful career at the
Vienna Conservatoire. He became known as a gifted conductor
of Wagner's music, and in 1876 was engaged for the Ring des
Nibelungen at Bayreuth. From 1881 to 1903 he was conductor
at the Carlsruhe Opera, and made a wide reputation for his
activity there, particularly in producing the works of Wagner
and Berlioz. In 1886 he directed the performance of Tristan
und Isolde at Bayreuth. In later years he visited London
and New York, and became known as one of the most brilliant
conductors of his day; and in 1904 he was made a director of
the Academy of Music at Berlin. He composed some operas,
of which Agnes Bernauer (Weimar, 1880) was the most suc-
cessful, and numerous songs and other music.
MOTTO (an Italian word, from Late Lat. mutlum, a low
sound, a mutter or murmur, cf. muter e, to mutter; the Latin
word also gives Fr. mot, word), a " legend " consisting of a
significant phrase or sentence, sometimes even of a single word
attached to an emblem or device, and, in heraldry, placed on
a scroll below the achievement or above the crest. Mottoes
express sometimes a sentiment, a favourite principle, emphasize
the meaning or symbolism of the emblem or device, and, in
heraldry, often allude to one or more of the " charges " in the
coat of arms, &c.
There are many publications which give lists of some of the best-
known mottoes, such as Fairbairn, Book of Family Crests, 1856;
Wachbourne, Book of Family Crests (2 vols., 1882); Chassant and
Tansin, Dictionnaire des devises historiques et heraldiques, &c. (1878) ;
Dielitz, Die Watil- und Denkspruche, Feldgeschreie, Losungen, Schlacht-
und Volksrufe, besonders des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (4 vols.,
1888). Gatfield's Guide to Printed Books and MSS. relating to
Heraldry (1892) contains a bibliography.
MOTYA, an ancient Phoenician settlement in Sicily, on a
low island [mod. S. Pantaleo], 5 m. north of Lilybaeum [mod.
Marsala]. It was the centre of the Phoenician trade in Sicily.
It was accessible from the mainland by a mole, which is still
used as a track for wagons. The line of the city wall, of rough
rectangular blocks of stone without mortar, may still be traced
all round the coast, with two gates, one on the north towards
the mole, which is still in part preserved, and one on the south.
The date of its foundation is uncertain. In 398 B.C. it was taken
after a desperate struggle (which, owing to the height and
strength of the houses, continued even after a breach had
been made in the city wall) by Dionysius of Syracuse, but
recovered in the next year: it was, however, abandoned by
the Carthaginians, and its place taken by Lilybaeum on the
mainland. (T. As.)
MOUCHEZ, AMEDEE ERNEST BARTHELEMY (1821-1892),
French astronomer, was born at Madrid of French parents on
the 24th of August 1821. At the age of sixteen he entered the
naval school at Brest, and after serving with distinction in
various ships, was appointed in 1856 to the command of the
" Bisson." Towards the close of the Franco-Prussian War he
made an admirable defence of Brest, and his organization of
the French expedition to the island of St Paul to observe the
transit of Venus in 1874 obtained his election to the Academy
of Sciences and his promotion as commander of the Legion
of Honour. On the 27th of June 1878 he succeeded Urbain
Leverrier as director of the National Observatory of Paris, and
was raised to the rank of rear-admiral. The fourteen years of
his directorship were marked by a great increase in the activity
of the institution. The observatory grounds were enlarged;
two powerful instruments of the novel kind known as coude
equatorials were installed; a spectroscopic department was
established, and the gigantic task of re-observing all Lalande's
stars was completed. He published twenty-one volumes of
Annales, as well as the first two volumes of the great Catalogue
de I'observatoire de Paris; founded the Bulletin astronomique,
and set on foot two schools of practical astronomy, one at Paris,
the other at Montsouris, for the special instruction of naval
and military officers, explorers and surveyors. His most
memorable work, however, was the inauguration of international
operations for charting the heavens. The advances in stellar
photography made by Paul and Prosper Henry and others
suggested to him the magnificent idea of obtaining, through
the collaboration of astronomers in all parts of the world, an
932
MOUFLON MOULDINGS
autographic picture of the entire sphere containing more than
fifty million stars, which should faithfully record in future ages
the state of the sky at the end of the igth century. Although
he did not live to see its completion, he had the satisfaction of
knowing that the ultimate success of this vast scheme was
assured. He died suddenly at his country seat at Wissous,
near Antony, on the 25th of June 1892.
See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, liii. 226; Observatory, xv. 305
(D. Klumpke); Nature, xlvi. 253; Rapport annuel sur I'observatoire
de Paris pour Vannte 1892. (A. M. C.)
MOUFLON, or MUFLON, the wild sheep (Ovis musimon) of
Corsica and Sardinia, where it is now very local. The ewes
are either hornless or provided with quite small horns, the
hornless form being probably characteristic of one island and
the horned of the other. The rams carry good horns, and in
summer show a conspicuous light saddle-shaped mark on the
otherwise dark-coloured coat. The Armenian mouflon (O.
orientalis), of Persia, Armenia, and the Troodos range of Cyprus,
is typically a larger and redder sheep, with the horns curving
in the reverse direction; but the Cyprian race is small. (See
SHEEP.)
MOULD, (i) (O. Eng. molde, from a Teutonic root meaning
to grind, reduce to powder, cf. " meal "), loose fine earth,
rich in organic matter, on the surface of cultivated ground,
especially the made garden soil suitable for the growth of plants.
In the sense of a furry growth, consisting of minute fungi found
on animal or vegetable substances exposed to damp, the word
may be either an extension of " mould," earth, or an adaptation
of an early " moul," with an additional d due to " mould."
" Moul " is a Scandinavian word, cf. Swed. mogla, to grow musty,
and the Eng. colloquial " muggy." (2) A form or pattern,
particularly one by means of which plastic materials may be
made into shapes, whence " moulding," the form which the
material so shaped takes. The word comes through the 0. Fr.
modle, molle, from Lat. modulus, a measure, or standard. The
English " model " is another derivative of the same word.
MOULDINGS, .the term in architecture for the decorative
treatment given to projecting or receding features in stone,
wood and other materials, by means of curved forms, whereby
those features are accentuated and varied owing to the play of
light and shade on the surfaces. The principal characteristics
of all the European styles are to be found in the mouldings
employed in them and in their ornamental decoration. In
some of the earlier styles, such as the Assyrian and the Persian,
there are no mouldings: coloured bands in brick, enamelled tiles
or beton, were deemed sufficient to mark the divisions of their
storeys or to decorate their buildings. The Egyptians employed
two mouldings only, the cavetto (fig. i), a deep moulding some-
times of great dimensions which crowned their pylons, temples
and decorative shrines, and the torus, a semicircular projecting
moulding which was carried above the architrave and down
the quoins of their buildings. The Greeks were the first to
recognize, in their temples, the special value possessed by
mouldings which, occupying an intermediate position between
Fillet
Cavetto
Torus
FIG. i.
FIG 2.
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
the ornamental sculptures and the simple architectural lines
of the main structure, gave a richly decorative effect to the
latter without interference with the beauty of the former.
The Classic mouldings may be divided into two classes,
simple and compound; to the former belong the cavetto (of
small dimensions when compared with the Egyptian cavetto)
and the Scotia (fig. 2), employed for the bases of columns, which
are seen below the eye, both concave mouldings, whilst the
ovolo or echinus Fr. me or quart de rond (figs. 3 and 4)
and the torus are convex mouldings. The compound mouldings
are those composed of curves of contrary flexure, such as the
cymarecta or cymatium (fig. 5), of which the upper part is
concave and the lower convex, a moulding constantly employed
for the upper member of the cornice, and the cyma-reversa
or ogee (fig. 6) Fr. talon in which the upper portion is convex.
FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.
The Greeks sometimes varied the ogee moulding, the upper
portion of which is turned back and the lower portion brought
forward, and to this the term quirked ogee (fig. 7) is given.
Another Greek moulding of compound form is the bird's
beak (fig. 8), employed as a drip
moulding above the corona. Of
smaller dimensions is the astra-
gal (fig. 9), a moulding invariably
carved with the bead and reel,
which in Greek work is constantly
' "' used in conjunction with the en-
riched echinus and cyma-reversa mouldings (figs. 18, 20) and
below the necking of Ionic capitals; and the listel or fillet,
employed chiefly in the separation of curved mouldings one
from the other; in the cymatium constituting its upper
termination (fig. 5), and in the Scotia (fig. 2) its upper
and lower border. In Classic work generally the cavetto
is only employed for the apophyge under the capital and
over the base, but in Roman work, as in the theatre of
Marcellus, it sometimes took the place of the cymatium of the
cornice. Although extremely simple in its form, the finest
Greek moulding, and the one to which the Greeks apparently
attached the greatest value, was the echinus under the abacus
of the Doric capital. The earliest archaic example exists in
the capital of the shafts flanking the tomb of Agamemnon at
Mycenae (a, fig. 10), where it consisted of a large torus decorated
FIG. 10.
with the chevron (see CAPITALS), and an apophyge carved with
the petals of a flower; a similar decoration of the apophyge is
found in two or three early Doric capitals, as at Paestum and
Metapontum, but this is the only example known in which the
echinus of the Doric capital was carved, though traces of painting
and gilding have been found on them. Other examples showing
the gradual development of the echinus are shown in fig. 10;
b being from the temple at Corinth, c from the Parthenon at
Athens, d from the portico at Delos, e an early Roman example
(c. 60 B.C.) of the temple at Cori, and / from the theatre of
Marcellus, where it nearly approaches the quarter round always
employed in late Roman work and in the Renaissance.
There is one other important decorative feature which forms
the most characteristic feature of the bedmould of the Ionic
cornice, viz. the dentil cornice (fig. n), derived originally
from the ends of the squared timbers which carried the cornice
of the primitive Ionic temple, and in the earlier stone examples
copied more or less literally; it subsequently in the 4th century
was introduced as a part of the bedmould of the cornice of the
Ionic Order, the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene in Asia
Minor being one of the best examples. It consists of a series
of projecting blocks with intervals between them equal to half
MOULDINGS
933
the width of the block. In the Greek Corinthian Order it was
first introduced into the Choragic monument of Lysicrates. It
was constantly employed by the Romans in their temples of
the Ionic and Corinthian Orders, the finest example being in the
bedmould of the temple of Castor in Rome, where it is twice the
height of the other mouldings.
In the Romanesque style the mouldings consist almost
entirely of rounds and hollows, the former known as the bowtel,
FIG. ii.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
and in England, France, Spain and Germany employed to
decorate or soften the angle of an arch mould. As the Roman-
esque arch frequently consisted of two or more rings of arches,
projecting one in front of the other, to which rings the term
" order " is sometimes given, the repetition of this simple
moulding constituted an ample decoration by itself, but in the
Norman work in England and the north of France there is
found the constant recurrence of mouldings broken into zigzag
lines and other decorations coming under the head of orna-
mental mouldings described below. The simple bowtel (fig. 12)
was retained in France far into the Gothic period, but in the
Early English style the mouldings (fig. 13) became lighter,
being more boldly cut than in the Romanesque styles. Here
again, as in the earlier style, each ring or order is enriched with
a succession of alternate rounds and hollows, the latter very
deeply cut, and a few small fillets. The bowtel also is brought
cut to an angle which is sometimes emphasized by a small
fillet; this is sometimes called the keel moulding from its re-
semblance in section to the bottom of a ship. Sometimes the
angle of the ring is splayed, and the mouldings are worked on
the splay, and this is very often found in the mouldings of the
ribs of a vault (fig. 130), giving greater lightness to the rib.
The mouldings of the Decorated period (fig. 14) are more diversi-
FIG. 130.
FIG. 14.
FIG. 15.
fied than those of the Early English, and the hollows towards
the end of the period become shallower and broader, ogees
being frequently employed. One of the chief characteristics
of the Perpendicular period (fig. 15) is the prevalence of large
shallow hollows and the employment of two ogees in close
contact with the convex sides next each other.
The French mouldings of the Gothic period in Normandy
and adjacent parts follow very much on the same lines as those
in England, but in the south of France and in Germany they
are very much simpler, and one rarely finds the deep hollow
which forms the chief characteristic of English mouldings.
In French flamboyant and late German Gothic work the
mouldings run through, penetrating one another; these in
Germany were sometimes cut off, having the appearance of
the smaller stems of a tree from which some of the boughs have
been lopped.
Ornamental Mouldings. Although the mouldings in Greek
and Roman architectural works are in general form much the
same, they vary materially in their profiles and also in the
refinement of their enrichment with carving. It is probable
that the earliest decoration of mouldings was confined to the
painting only of their surfaces, and in one or two of the more
archaic examples traces of painting only are found on them.
The desire to accentuate the ornament would seem to have
led the Greeks at a very early date to incise or raise in relief the
decorative designs which originally were painted only; at first
this was done very sparingly, and in the earlier buildings
but few mouldings were employed; in course of time they
increased in number, and in the Augustan period in Rome the
carving extended to the flat surfaces of the corona, and the
fascia and soffits of the architrave.
The four principal Classic mouldings, so far as their enrichment
with carving is concerned, were the cyma-recta or cymatium;
the cyma-reversa or ogee; the echinus or ovolo; and the torus.
The cymatium was almost always decorated with a conven-
tional treatment of the flower of the acanthus plant, known
generally as the anthemion and sometimes as the honeysuckle;
the finest example is that
which is found in the cornice
of the north doorway of the
Erechtheum (fig. 16). Al-
though in some cases the
flower of the acanthus is
FIG. 1 6.
repeated in the Roman cymatium, the rigidity of the other
lines does not seem to have appealed to the Roman sculptor,
who preferred more foliage, such as is shown in the cymatium
FIG. 17.
of the Forum of Nerva (fig. 17), there being endless variety of
design in Roman examples. The ogee-moulding in Greek work
was always carved (fig. 18) with the Lesbian leaf (Fr. rais-de-
cceur; Ger. Herzlaub}, which in Roman work received a peculiar
interpretation of the original design; not understanding the
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
modelling of the leaf and requiring a deeper shadow, the Roman
drilled holes in it and evolved another composition of two
leaves, so that the outer edge of the Lesbian leaf formed a
trefoil cusp (Fr. talon trefle), constituting a new description of
border, as shown in fig. 19, from the temple of Castor at Rome.
The ovolo moulding, whether employed in the bedmould of
a cornice, on the capital of an anta, or in the Ionic capital, was
always carved (fig. 20) with the egg and dart enrichment (Fr.
ove el dard; Ger. Eierstab), which was spread out wider by the
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
Roman carver, while holes pierced on each side of th,e tongue
changed its design into that of the egg and tongue (fig. 21).
In both the enriched ogee and the carved ovolo the design was
never complete without the bead and reel underneath (figs. 20
and 21), there being always two beads and four reels to each
leaf or egg. When employed as the crowning moulding of an
architrave, the ogee is always capped by a fillet; and the same
applies to the cymatium of the cornice. When the ogee mould-
ing was of small size and employed in a subordinate position,
as is constantly done in Roman work, crowning the modillion
934-
MOULIN MO ULINS
or subdividing the fascia of the architrave, a simpler leaf pattern
was employed.
Though not a moulding, the modillion, which was invented
by the Romans to give additional support to the corona, forms
part of the bedmould of the cornice, and may therefore be
described here. It consists of a small bracket (fig. 22), the
design of which was
probably derived from
the vertical console
bracket which carried
the cornice of the
Greek doorways, but
which in the Roman
cornice was employed
horizontally. The de-
sign of the outer side
is that of an Ionic
F IG - 22 - volute with its cushion;
on the inner side the volute is reversed and is of greater size,
the soffit being masked by a leaf.
The torus moulding of the base in early examples was fluted
but not carved, and the earliest example so treated is that
found in the base of the columns of the Erechtheum, where it
was enriched with the triple guilloche. In the temple of Apollo
Branchidae, near Miletus in Asia Minor, where they would seem
to have attempted to rival the figure decoration of the temple
of Diana at Ephesus, the torus mouldings were elaborately
carved with the acanthus plant and the laurel leaf; but it was
in the Augustan age in Rome that the greatest elaboration was
given to the torus of the base; in the Ara Pacis, set up in
A.D. 13, it was carved with the double guilloche; the finest
Roman example of an enriched torus being that of the base of
the Trajan column in Rome, which is carved with laurel leaves
tied at intervals with bands.
The principal enriched Byzantine moulding is that known as
the Venetian dentil (fig. 23), in consequence of its constant
employment in Venice and the to,vns in
its vicinity. Its earliest appearance,
however, is in Sta Sophia at Constan-
tinople (A.D. 537). The other carved
Byzantine mouldings are those which
FIG. 23. '^^m throughout Syria form richly carved
string-courses, taking the place of the Classic cornice, and the
hood moulds of arches. The Byzantine string-course, which is
found in St Mark's, Venice, and in most of
the towns bordering on the Adriatic, is a
cyma-recta carved with the acanthus leaf.
The enrichments of the mouldings of the
Romanesque style are of great variety; in
parts of Italy and in the south of France
they were largely influenced by Byzantine
work; but in Sicily, Apulia, Normandy and
England the Normans introduced a series
of purely geometrical forms in which the chief
peculiarity is the rare occurrence of foliage.
The most characteristic example is that of
FIG. 24. the zigzag or chevron (figs. 24, 25), of which
there are many varieties; then follow the single and double
billet (fig. 26), the double cube, the
(indented, the beakhead (fig. 27), &c.
In the transition period in England,
flowers and foliage begin to be intro-
duced, and the rosette (fig. 28), the
_, dog-tooth (fig. 29), which develops
into a four-leaf flower, and the
ball flower (fig. 30) follow, these being all carved in the hollow
FIG. 26.
FIG. 27.
of cavetto mouldings. In the Decorated and Perpendicular
styles, the flowers and foliage introduced in mouldings become
more natural, till one reaches the Tudor rose (fig. 31), a precise
copy of the flower, beyond which it was difficult to go.
FIG. 28. FIG. 29.
In the i6th century the enrichment of mouldings passed
through a transitional stage, being half Gothic and half Classic,
and on the introduction of the purer Italian style Roman profiles
and decoration were again employed. The Greek revival at
FIG. 30. FIG. 31.
the commencement, and the Gothic revival in the middle, of
the i gth century naturally brought about a reaction in favour
either of purer Classic forms or of Gothic work, but the ver-
nacular types could not be displaced by the passing fashion,
and the influence of Robert Adam is again paramount
to-day. (R- P. S.)
MOULIN (Fr. mculin, a mill), in physical geography, the
name given to the swirling cascades which are formed by glacier
streams pouring into crevasses, and result in the formation of
giant's kettles.
MOULIN QUIGNON, a quarry near Abbeville, France, cele-
brated for the discovery in 1863 by Boucher de Perthes of a
human jaw-bone believed to be referable to the Quaternary
period. By his collection of flints Boucher de Perthes had
been the first to attempt to establish the existence of man in
remote ages; but it had been objected that if the flints were
indeed the work of man, human remains would have been found
in association with them. Considerable excitement therefore
was created both in England and France by the " find " of
bones at Moulin Quignon, and a commission of inquiry was
appointed. The report was favourable to the genuineness of
the relics, but latterly doubts have arisen as to whether they can
be regarded as earlier than the Neolithic age.
MOULINS, a town of central France, capital of the depart-
ment of Allier, 121 m. by rail N.W. of Lyons. Pop. (1906),
18,997. The town is situated on the right bank of the Allier,
which is here crossed by a remarkable bridge of the i8th century
about looo ft. in length. Moulins did not attain any importance
till the I4th century, before which it consisted chiefly of some
mills belonging to the dukes of Bourbon. The medieval town
occupied a small area, the boundaries of which are marked on
the N.E. and S. by the central boulevards occupying the site of
the old moats. The modern town, expanding from this nucleus,
is limited on the east and south by the railway, the southern
portion being traversed by agreeable promenades. To the
north is the spacious avenue known as the Cours de Bercy,
close by the hospital and the lycee. The more interesting
buildings lie within the old enceinte. The chief of these is
the cathedral, which consists of a huge choir of the isth and
i6th centuries, and a nave in the early Gothic style but modern
in construction and terminated by two towers with stone spires
rising to a height of 312 ft. The church possesses a fine triptych
attributed to Domenico Ghirlandajo (d. 1494), and fine windows
of the isth and i6th centuries. Among the oldest buildings
in the town are the square tower of the I4th century (used as a
prison) which is the chief relic of the chateau of the dukes of
Bourbon, and a belfry of the i sth century. Part of an old
Jesuit college serves as the court-house, which contains an
archaeological museum. The library, which possesses a valu-
able Bible of ii 15, is part of the h6tel-de-ville. Numerous
mansions of the isth and i6th centuries border the streets of the
MOULMEIN MOUND-BUILDERS
935
old quarter of the town. There is a statue of the poet Theodore
de Banville, born at Moulins in 1823. The town is the seat of
a prefect, a bishop, and a court of assizes, and has tribunals
of first instance and commerce, and a branch of the Bank of
France. Yzeure, i j m. E. of Moulins, has an interesting Roman-
esque church (i2th" century); 7^ m. W.S.W. of Moulins is
Souvigny, formerly famous for its Cluniac priory. Its church,
a fine building of the nth and I2th centuries, restored in the
iSth century, contains the splendid tombs of Louis II. and
Charles I., dukes of Bourbon in the isth century, and other
tombs of the Bourbon family, now in ruins.
Moulins became the residence of the dukes of Bourbon about
the middle of the i4th century, and capital of the duchy towards
the end of the isth century. In 1566, under Charles IX., an
important assembly of notables was held in the town, at which
the judicial system of France was reorganized.
MOULMEIN (or MAULMEIN), the port and headquarters of
Amherst district and Tenasserim division of Lower Burma.
The population in 1901 was 58,346, and the increase in the last
quarter of a century has been very slight. Ship-building, which
formerly was an important industry, has now been given up,
but there is still a considerable export of teak and rice, and there
are several steam rice- and saw-mills. The total exports average
more than a million sterling. Three steamers run weekly to
Rangoon. Germany and Siam are represented by consuls;
Persia, Denmark, and Norway and Sweden by vice-consuls;
and Italy and the United States of America by consular agents.
The garrison of Madras native infantry, formerly stationed in
the town, was withdrawn in 1898. The town, which has the
appearance of being on a river, the Salween, is really on the
sea, with the island of Bilugyun in front. It is one of the most
picturesque ports in the East. There is a branch of the Bank
of Bengal, and two newspapers are published one in English
and one in Burmese.
MOULT, a term for the shedding of feathers at the periodic
renewal of the plumage by birds, and so transferred to the
periodic shedding of the old skin, shell, &c., by other animals.
The word is seen in O. Eng. in the verb bimutian, to exchange;
from Lat. mutare, to change; cf. mod. Ger. mausen, mausern;
the earlier forms in English are mout, mute; the insertion of
the /, as in " fault," dates from the i6th century.
MOULTON, LOUISE CHANDLER (1835-1908), American poet,
story-writer and critic, daughter of Lucius L. Chandler, was born
in Pomfret, Connecticut, in 1835. In 1855 she married a Boston
publisher, William U. Moulton (d. 1898), under whose auspices
her earliest literary work had appeared in The True Flag. Her
first volume of collected verse and prose, This, That and the Other
(1854), was followed by a story, Juno Clifford (1855), and by
My Third Book (1859); her literary output was then interrupted
until 1873 when she resumed activity with Bed-time Stories,
the first of a series of volumes, including Firelight Stories (1883)
and Stories told at Twilight (1890). Meanwhile she had taken
an important place in American literary society, writing regular
critiques for the New York Tribune from 1870 to 1876 and a
weekly literary letter for the Sunday issue of the Boston Herald
from 1886 to 1892. In 1876 she published a volume of notable
Poems (renamed Swallow-flights in the English edition of 1877)
and visited Europe, where she began close and lasting friend-
ships with leading men and women of letters. Thenceforward
she spent the summers in London and the rest of the year in
Boston, where her salon was one of the principal resorts of
literary talent. In 1889 another volume of verse, In the Garden
of Dreams, confirmed her reputation as a poet. She also wrote
several volumes of prose fiction, including Miss Eyre from Boston
and Other Stories, and some descriptions of travel, including
Lazy Tours in Spain (1896). She was well known for the extent
of her literary influence, the result of a sympathetic personality
combined with fine critical taste. She died in Boston on the
loth of August 1908.
See Lilian Whiting, Louise Chandler Moulton (Boston, 1910).
MOULTRIE, JOHN (1799-1874), English poet, was born in
London on the 3oth of December 1799. He was educated at
Eton, and many of his best verses were contributed to the
Etonian. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1819, and
in 1822 began to reside at the Middle Temple. Three years
later he was ordained, and was presented to the living of Rugby
by Lord Craven. At Rugby he became intimate with Thomas
Arnold, to whom two of his best sonnets are addressed. He
died at Rugby on the 26th of December 1874. He published
several volumes of verse during his lifetime, and a complete
edition of his poems was published (2 vols., 1876) with a memoir
by Derwent Coleridge. They include, amongst much that is
dull, some popular pieces, " Godiva," " Three Minstrels," an
account of meetings with Wordsworth, Coleridge and Tennyson,
" My Brother's Grave," and some excellent hymns.
MOULTRIE, WILLIAM (1730-1805), American soldier, was
born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd of November
1730. His father, a physician, and a graduate of the University
of Edinburgh, migrated to Charleston before 1729. The son
was elected to the Commons House of the Assembly in 1754,
1769 and 1772; and in 1760 he was captain of a provincial
regiment in the expedition under Governor William H. Lyttelton
against the Cherokees. Although he was connected by many
ties to the British, he espoused the American cause on the
outbreak of the War of Independence, and was a member
of the first provincial congress (1775) of South Carolina, which
in June made him a colonel of the Second South Carolina
regiment; and he was a member of the second provincial con-
gress (1775-1776). On Fort Johnson, on James Island in
Charleston harbour, he raised what is said to have been the
first American battle-flag blue, with a white crescent in the
dexter corner, inscribed with the word " Liberty "; the flag was
devised by him in September 1775. In March 1776 he took
command of a palmetto fort which he had built on Sullivan's
Island, off Charleston, which he held against the attack of
Admiral Sir Peter Parker on the 28th of June, and which soon
after the battle was renamed Fort Moultrie by the General
Assembly. He was thanked by Congress, was made a brigadier-
general in the continental army in September 1776, and was
placed in command of. the department of Georgia and South
Carolina. He dislodged the British from Beaufort, South
Carolina, in February 1779, and in April made it possible for
the city of Charleston to put itself into a state of defence by
delaying the advance of General Augustine Prevost. He was
one of those who advised against the surrender of Charleston,
where he commanded the garrison until the arrival of General
Benjamin Lincoln. His imprisonment after the surrender of
Charleston (May 1780) lasted until his exchange with others
for General Burgoyne in February 1782. In October 1782 he
was made a major-general. He was governor of South Carolina
in 1785-1787 and in 1792-1794. He died in Charleston on the
27th of September 1805.
He wrote Memoirs of the Revolution so far as it Related to the
States of North and South Carolina (2 vols., 1802).
MOUND, now used in the sense of a pile or heap of earth,
artificial or natural, especially such a pile raised over a grave
or burial-place, a tumulus, or as a means of defence, and so
used to translate Lat. agger. The earliest use in English is
for a hedge or other boundary between adjoining lands; this only
survives dialectically. The word is obscure in origin, but was
early influenced by " mount," i.e. hill; Lat. mons, mantis. A
connexion with 0. Eng. mund, guardianship, hand, has been
suggested. The " orb," i.e. a globe of gold surmounted by a
cross, as forming part of the regalia (q.v.), is often known as a
" mound "; this is a translation of Fr. monde; Lat. mundus,
world.
MOUND-BUILDERS, in North America, the name given to
the prehistoric inhabitants who chiefly centred in the valleys
of the Mississippi and Ohio, and who seem to have possessed
a measure of civilization far in excess of that of the North
American Indians when first met by the whites. The remark-
able mounds, which have given occasion for the name, are
fortified enclosures and tumuli of the most varied appearance,
round, conical, or in the shape of animals. They are scattered
MOUNDSVILLE MOUNT, W. S.
over an immense tract of country from the great lakes to the
Gulf of Mexico, and from the Rockies to the Atlantic, but are
specially frequent in the valley of the Mississippi, along its
left tributaries, in Arkansas, Kansas and the basin of the Ohio.
But the old theory that the mound-builders were a distinct
race of highly civilized agriculturists, who had lived from
remote antiquity in the regions of the mounds and were
eventually exterminated by the nomadic hordes coming from
the northward, represented to-day by the present Indians, is
no longer supported by the principal American ethnologists,
who hold that the Indians are their descendants.
In Ohio there are thousands of mounds, some in the form of
circles, others four-sided, and in a few cases eight-sided. Some-
times a square and a circle are united. Altar-mounds, small
rounded heaps of earth, are found in Ohio. At their centre is
a basin-shaped mass of hard clay showing effects of fire. These
basins are 3 or 4 ft. across, and contain ashes and charcoal.
Upon these altars are found many objects.
The most famous mound in Ohio is the " Great-Serpent," in
Adams county. It lies upon a narrow ridge between three
streams which unite. It is a gigantic serpent made in earth.
Across the widely-opened jaws it measures 75 ft.; the body
just behind the head measures 30 ft. across and is 5 ft. high;
and, following the curves, the length is 1348 ft. The tail is
in a triple coil. In front of the monster is an elliptical enclosure
with a heap of stones at its centre. Beyond this is a form
somewhat indistinct, thought by some to be a frog.
In Wisconsin the most interesting mounds are the effigy
mounds earthen forms of mammals, birds and reptiles usually
in groups and of gigantic size. Among them are buffalo, moose,
elk, deer, fox, wolf, panther and lynx. Some panthers have
tails 350 ft. long, and some eagles measure 1000 ft. from tip to
tip of outspread wings. Occasionally the figures are cut or
sunk in the earth, and near them are hundreds of simple burial
mounds. It seems most probable that the purpose of these
effigy mounds are totemic, and that they were objects of worship
as guardians of the villages.
Further south in west Tennessee another class of mound is
found. This contains graves made of slabs of stone set on edge.
The simplest have six stones, two at the sides, two at the
ends, one at the top and one at the bottom. Sometimes there
is one of these graves in a mound, sometimes many. In one,
12 m. from Nashville, 45 ft. across and 12 ft. high, were found
a hundred skeletons, mostly in stone graves ranged one above
the other. The skeletons in the upper graves had been buried
stretched at full length. The lower graves were short and
square, and the bones in them had been cleaned and piled in
little heaps.
The mound-builders were Stone-Age men, and made many
beautiful objects of stone, shell, bone and beaten metals, but
they had no knowledge of smelting. That they were not one
race is proved by a study of the skulls from the mounds.
AUTHORITIES. E. G. Squierand E. H. Davis, Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley (1847); I. A. Lapham, Antiquities of
Wisconsin (1855); Stephen D. Peet, Emblematic Mounds; Cyrus
Thomas, " Burial Mounds of the Northern Sections of the United
States," in the Fifth Report (Washington, 1887), and " Mound
Explorations " in the Twelfth Report (1894) of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.
MOUNDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Marshall
county, West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, 12 m. S. of
Wheeling. Pop. (1900) 5632; (1910) 8918. It is served by
the Baltimore & Ohio railroad, by an electric line to Wheeling,
and by boats to Pittsburg, Cincinnati and intermediate ports.
Near Moundsville, at the mouth of Grave Creek, is Grave Creek
Mound, one of the largest relics of the " American mound-
builders "; it is in the form of a regular cone, and is about
320 ft. in diameter at the base and 70 ft. in height. Two
sepulchral chambers were discovered in it in 1838. In the
upper chamber, about half-way between the centre of the base
and the apex, was a single skeleton, adorned with beads, copper
bracelets and plates of mica; in the lower chamber, directly
under the upper and partly in the natural earth, were two
skeletons, one adorned with beads and the other without
ornament. On the sides and top of the lower chamber was a
framework of timbers, which seems to indicate that the mound
is of comparatively recent date. The city of Moundsville was
formed in 1866 by the consolidation of the town of Moundsville
(laid out on the Ohio river in 1831, and incorporated in 1832),
and the town of Elizabethtown (laid out, about 3 m. from the
river, in 1798, and incorporated in 1830).
MOUNET-SULLY, JEAN (1841- ), French actor, was born
at Bergerac, on the z8th of February, 1841. He entered the
Conservatoire at the age of twenty-one, and took the first
prize for tragedy. In 1868 he made his debut at the Odeon
without attracting much attention. His career was interrupted
by the Franco-Prussian War, and the liking he developed for
soldiering had almost decided him to give up the stage, when
he was offered the opportunity of playing the part of Oreste in
Racine's Andromaque at the Comedie Francaise in 1872. His
striking presence and voice and the passionate vigour of his
acting made an immediate impression, and the eventual result
was his election as societaire in 1874. He became one of the
mainstays of the Comedie Francaise, and distinguished himself
in a great variety of tragic and romantic parts. Perhaps his
most famous impersonation was that of Oedipus in L'Oedipe roi,
a French version by Jules Lacroix of Sophocles's drama. This
was first performed in the old Roman amphitheatre at Orange in
1888. Other prominent parts in Mounet-Sully's repertoire
were Achiile in Racine's Iphigenie en Aulide, Hippolyte in
Phedre, Hamlet, the title parts in Victor Hugo's Hernani and
Ruy Bias, Francis I. in Le Roi s'amuse, and Didier in Marion
Delorme. He was created chevalier of the Legion of Honour
in 1889. He also wrote a play, La Buveuse de larmes, and in
1906, in collaboration with Pierre Barbier, La Vieillesse de Don
Juan in verse.
MOUNIER, JEAN JOSEPH (1758-1806), French politician,
was born at Grenoble (Isere) on the i2th of November 1758.
He studied law, and in 1783 obtained a judgeship at Grenoble.
He took part in the struggle between the pdrlements and the
court in 1788, and promoted the meeting of the estates of
Dauphine at Vizille (July 20, 1788), which on the eve of the
Revolution created an immense stir. He was secretary of this
assembly, and drafted the cahiers of grievances and remon-
strances presented by it to the king. Thus brought into
prominence, Mounier was unanimously elected deputy of the
third estate to the states general of 1789. There, and in the
Constituent Assembly, he was at first an upholder of the new
ideas, pronouncing himself in favour of the union of the Third
Estate with the two privileged orders, proposing the famous
oath of the Tennis Court, assisting in the preparation of the
new constitution, and demanding the return of Necker. On
the 28th of September 1789 he was elected president of the
Constituent Assembly. Being unable, however, to approve the
proceedings which followed, Mounier withdrew to Dauphine,
gave in his resignation as deputy, and, becoming suspect, took
refuge in Switzerland in 1790. He returned to France in 1801,
was named by Bonaparte prefect of the department of Ille-
et-Vilaine, which he reorganized, and in 1805 was appointed
councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January
1806. His principal writings are Considerations sur les gouverne-
menls (1789); Recherches sur les causes qui out empeche les
Franqais de devenir libres (1792), and De I'Influence attribute
aux philosophes, aux francs-masons et aux illumines sur la
revolution de la France (1801).
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de I'assembUe constituante (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1905); De Lanzac de Laborie, Un Royaliste liberal en 1789;
J. J, Mounier (Paris, 1887); A. Rochas, Biographie du Dauphine
(Paris, 1856); Berriat St Prix, loge historique de M. Mounier
(1806); F. Bo'ianovski, " Quelques lettres inddites de J. J. Mounier,"
in the Revue historique (1898).
MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868), American artist,
was born at Setauket, Long Island, New York, on the 26th of
November 1807. He studied in the schools of the National
Academy of Design, New York, and in 1832 was made a full
Academician. Among his better-known works are " Turning
MOUNTAIN MOUNTAINEERING
937
the Grindstone " and " Farmer's Nooning," Jonathan Sturgis
collection; "Turn of the Leaf," Lenox Library, New York;
" Bargaining for a Horse," New York Historical Society;
" Raffling for a Goose," M. O. Robert's collection; " Long
Story," Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington; and "War News,"
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. He died at Setauket,
Long Island, on the igth of November 1868. His brother,
Shepard Alonzo Mount (1804-1868), also an artist, best
known as a portrait painter, became a National Academician
in 1842.
MOUNTAIN (O. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an
adjectival form from the classical mons, mantis, whence Eng.
" mount," a form usually used along with the name of an
individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest), a natural elevation of
the earth's surface. The term properly connotes height superior
to that of a hill (O. Eng. hyll, cognate with Lat. collis); but
the distinction depends on the prominence of a given elevation
in relation to its surroundings, and in some degree to the bold
or gentle character of its outline.
For the classification of mountains according to the various
processes of their formation, see GEOGRAPHY, Principles of Geo-
graphy; and for further details GEOLOGY, viii.
MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne), the name applied during
the French Revolution to a political group, whose members,
called Montagnards, sat on the highest benches in the Assembly.
The term, which was first used during the session of the Legis-
lative Assembly, did not come into general use until 1793. At
the opening of the Convention the Montagnard group comprised
men of very diverse shades of opinion, and such cohesion as
it subsequently acquired was due rather to the opposition of
its leaders to the Girondist leaders than to any fundamental
hostility between the two groups. The chief point of distinction
was that the Girondists were mainly theorists and thinkers,
whereas the Mountain was composed almost entirely of uncom-
promising men of action. During their struggle with the
Girondists, the Montagnards gained the upper hand in the
Jacobin Club, and for a time Jacobin and Montagnard were
synonymous terms. The Mountain was successively under the
sway of such men as Marat, Danton, and Robespierre, and the
group finally disappeared after Robespierre's death and the
successes of the French arms.
See also the articles JACOBINS, GIRONDISTS and FRENCH REVO-
LUTION.
MOUNTAIN ASH, an urban district of Glamorganshire, south
Wales, in the Aberdare valley on the Cynon, a west bank
tributary of the Taff, with stations on the Taff Vale and Great
Western railways, 18 m. N.E. of Cardiff. Pop. (1901), 31,093.
A branch of the Glamorganshire canal passes through the
place. At the beginning of the igth century Mountain Ash
was a small village known only by its Welsh name of Aberpenar,
but from 1850, with the development of its collieries, the popu-
lation rapidly increased. The district has an area of 10,504
acres and comprises; besides Mountain Ash proper, a string of
villages, the chief being Cwmpenar, Penrhiwceiber, Abercynon
or Aberdare Junction (at the confluence of the Cynon with the
Taff) and Ynysybwl, 3 m. to the west on the Clydach. The
public buildings include St Margaret's (1862) and St Winifred's
(1883), the parish churches of Mountain Ash and Penrhiwceiber
respectively; old and new town halls (1864 and 1904), cottage
hospital (1896), and a library institute and public hall erected in
1899, at a cost of 8000, by the workmen of Nixon's Navigation
collieries. There is a park of 7 acres given in 1897, by Lord
Aberdare, whose residence, Duffryn, is in the district. There are
also a workmen's institute and a public hall at Penrhiwceiber.
The older part of the urban district is included in the parliamen-
tary borough of Merthyr Tydfil, and also shares with Merthyr
and Aberdare the services of a stipendiary magistrate.
MOUNTAINEERING, the art of moving about safely in moun-
tain regions, avoiding the dangers incidental to them, and attain-
ing high points difficult of access. It consists of two main
divisions, rock-craft and snow-craft. Rock-craft consists in
the intelligent selection of a line of route and in gymnastic
skill to follow the line chosen. In snow-craft the choice of
route is the result of a full understanding of the behaviour of
snow under a multitude of varying conditions; it depends largely
upon experience, and much less upon gymnastic skill. The
dangers which the craft of climbing has been developed to avoid
are of two main kinds: the danger of things falling on the travel-
ler and the danger of his falling himself. The things that may
fall are rocks, ice and snow; the traveller may fall from rocks,
ice or snow, or into crevasses in ice or snow. There are also
dangers from weather. Thus in all there are eight chief
dangers: falling rocks, falling ice, snow-avalanches, falls from
difficult rocks, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes,
faDs into crevasses, dangers from weather. To select and
follow a route avoiding these dangers is to exercise the climber's
craft.
Falling Rocks. Every rock mountain is falling to pieces, the
process being specially rapid above the snow-line. Rock-faces
are constantly swept by falling stones, which it is generally
possible to dodge. Falling rocks tend to form furrows in a moun-
tain face, and these furrows (couloirs) have to be ascended with
caution, their sides being often safe when the middle is stone-
swept. Stones fall more frequently on some days than on
others, according to the recent weather. Local experience is
a valuable help on such a question. The direction of the dip
of rock strata often determines whether a particular face
is safe or dangerous; the character of the rock must also be
considered. Where stones fall frequently d6bris will be found
below, whilst on snow slopes falling stones cut furrows
visible from a great distance. In planning an ascent of a new
peak such traces must be looked for. When falling stones get
mixed in considerable quantity with slushy snow or water a
mud avalanche is formed (common in the Himalaya). It is
necessary to avoid camping in their possible line of fall.
Falling Ice. The places where ice may fall can always be
determined beforehand. It falls in the broken parts of glaciers
(seracs) and from overhanging cornices formed on the crests
of narrow ridges. Large icicles are often formed on steep rock-
faces, and these fall frequently in fine weather following cold
and stormy days. They have to be avoided like falling stones.
Seracs are slow in formation, and slow in arriving (by glacier
motion) at a condition of unstable equilibrium. They generally
fall in or just after the hottest part of the day, and their debris
seldom goes far. A skilful and experienced ice-man will usually
devise a safe route through a most intricate ice-fall, but such
places should be avoided in the afternoon of a hot day.
Hanging glaciers (i.e. glaciers perched on steep slopes) often
discharge themselves over steep rock-faces, the snout breaking
off at intervals. They can always be detected by their debris
below. Their track should be avoided.
Snow Avalanches. These mainly occur on steep slopes
when the snow is in bad condition, early in the year, or after
a recent fresh fall. Days when snow is in bad condition are
easily recognized; on such days it maybe inadvisable to traverse
snow-slopes which at another time may be as safe as a high-road.
Beds of snow collected on rock-ledges in bad weather fall off
when a thaw comes, and are dangerous to rock-climbers. Snow
that has recently fallen upon ice slopes is always liable to slip
off bodily. Such falling masses generally make the lower part
of their descent by couloirs. Snow avalanches never fall in unex-
pected places, but have their easily recognizable routes, which
can be avoided in times of danger by experienced mountaineers.
Falls from Rocks. The skill of a rock-climber is shown by
his choice of handhold and foothold, and his adhesion to those
he has chosen. Much depends on a correct estimate of the
firmness of the rock where weight is to be thrown upon it.
Many loose rocks are quite firm enough to bear a man's weight,
but experience is needed to know which can be trusted, and
skill is required in transferring the weight to them without
jerking. On all difficult rocks the rope is the greatest safeguard
for all except the first man in the ascent, the last in the descent.
In such places a party of three or four men roped together,
with a distance of 15 to 20 ft. between one and another, will be
MOUNTAINEERING
able to hold up one of their number (except the top man) if one
only moves at a time and the others are firmly placed and keep
the rope tight between them, so that a falling individual may be
arrested before his velocity has been accelerated. In very
difficult places help may be obtained by throwing a loose rope
round a projection above and pulling on it; this method is
specially valuable in a difficult descent. The rope usually
employed is a strong Manila cord called Alpine Club rope, but
some prefer a thinner rope used double. On rotten rocks the
rope must be handled with special care, lest it should start
loose stones on to the heads of those below. Similar care must
be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason.
When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult
rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the
traverse there be firm positions. Even then the end men gain
little from the rope. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all
manner of forms: two, or even three, men climbing on one
another's shoulders, or using for foothold an ice-axe propped up
by others. The great principle is that of co-operation, all the
members of the party climbing with reference to the others,
and not as independent units; each when moving must know
what the man in front and the man behind are doing. After
bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer
of ice (verglas), which may even render them inaccessible.
Climbing-irons (crampons, sleigeisen) are useful on such
occasions.
Ice Slopes. Climbing-irons are also most useful on ice or hard
snow, as by them step-cutting can sometimes be avoided, and
the footing at all times rendered more secure. True ice slopes
are rare in Europe, though common in tropical mountains,
where newly-fallen snow quickly thaws on the surface and
becomes sodden below, so that the next night's frost turns the
whole into a mass of solid ice. An ice slope can only be sur-
mounted by step-cutting. For this an ice-axe is needed, the
common form being a small pick-axe on the end of a pole as long
as from the elbow of a man to the ground. This pole is used
also as a walking-stick, and is furnished with a spike at the foot.
Snow Slopes are very common, and usually easy to ascend.
At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse,
called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the mountain rises
from a snow-field or glacier. Such bcrgschrunds are generally
too wide to be strided, and must be crossed by a snow bridge,
which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A
steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the
whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes
are less dangerous if ascended directly than obliquely, for an
oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates
movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is specially
dangerous. Experience is needful for deciding on the advis-
ability of advancing over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on
rocks is usually rotten unless it be thick; snow on snow is likely
to be sound. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring
new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very
steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope.
Snow slopes seldom exceed 40. Ice slopes may be much
steeper. Snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and
safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly
dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start.
Crevasses. These are the slits or deep chasms formed in the
substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They
may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the
crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently
hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The
detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience.
After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding
with' the pole of the ice-axe, or by looking to right and left
where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be
obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no
one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one,
or better to two, companions.
Weather. The main group of dangers caused by bad weather
centre round the change it effects in the condition of snow and
rock, making ascents suddenly perilous which before were easy,
and so altering the aspect of things as to make it hard to find
the way or retrace a route. In storm the man who is wont to
rely on a compass has great advantage over a merely empirical
follower of his eyes. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier
to go wrong than on rocks, but a trained intelligence is the best
companion and the surest guide. ,
History. The first recorded mountain ascent after Old
Testament times is Trajan's ascent of Etna to see the sun rise.
The Roche Melon (n,6ooft.) was climbed in 1358. Peter III. of
Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the last quarter of
the I3th century. In 1339 Petrarch climbed Mt Ventou
near Vaucluse. In 1492 the ascent of Mt Aiguille was made
by order of Charles VIII. of France. The Humanists of the i6th
century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but
the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent
mountaineering of the Zurich school. Leonardo da Vinci
climbed to a snow-field in the neighbourhood of the Val Sesia
and made scientific observations. Konrad Gesner and Josias
Simler of Zurich visited and described mountains, and made
regular ascents. The use of axe and rope were locally invented
at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded
in the i7th century. In 1744 the Titlis was climbed the first
true snow-mountain. Pococke and Windham's historic visit
to Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the fashion of visiting
the glaciers. The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc was
made in 1 7 7 5 by a party of natives. In 1 786 Dr Michel Paccard
and Jacques Balmat gained the summit for the first time. De
Saussure followed next year. The Jungfrau was climbed in 1811,
the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Zermatt Breithorn in 1813.
Thenceforward tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the
body of Alpine guides began to come into existence in con-
sequence. Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually
dated from Sir Alfred Wills's ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854.
The first ascent of Monte Rosa was made in 1855. The Alpine
Club was founded in London in 1857, and soon imitated in
most European countries. Edward Whymper's ascent of the
Matterhorn in 1865 marks the close of the main period of
Alpine conquest, during which the craft of climbing was in-
vented and perfected, the body of professional guides formed
and their traditions fixed. Passing to other ranges, the ex-
ploration of the Pyrenees was concurrent with that of the Alps.
The Caucasus followed, mainly owing to the initiative of D.W.
Freshfield; it was first visited by exploring climbers in 1868,
and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888. Trained
climbers turned their attention to the mountains of North
America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expedition
to the Selkirks. From that time exploration has gone on
apace, and many English and American climbing parties have
surveyed most of the highest groups of snow-peaks; Pike's Peak
(14,147 ft.) having been climbed by Mr E. James and party in
1820, and Mt Saint Elias (18,024 ft.) by the duke of the Abruzzi
and party in 1897. The exploration of the highest Andes was
begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo and
explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between
Chile and Argentina was attacked by Dr Giissfeldt in 1883,
who ascended Maipo (17,752 ft.) and attempted Aconcagua
( 2 3>393 ft.). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald
expedition in 1897. The Andes of Bolivia were explored by
Sir Martin Conway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions
revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the years
1885-1898. Sir Martin Conway visited the mountains of Tierra
del Fuego in 1898. The Alps of New Zealand were first attacked
in 1882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a
New Zealand Alpine Club was founded, and by their activities
the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In 1895
Mr E. A. Fitzgerald made an important journey in this range.
Of the high African peaks, Kilimanjaro was climbed in 1889 by
Dr Hans Meyer, Mt Kenya in 1889 by J. E. S. Mackinder, and a
peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900. The Asiatic moun-
tains have as yet been little climbed, though those that lie within
the British Empire have been surveyed. In 1892 Sir Martin
MOUNT BARKER MOUNTED INFANTRY
939
Conway explored the Karakoram Himalayas, and climbed a
peak of 23,000 ft. In 1895 A. F. Mummery made a fatal
attempt to ascend Nanga Parbat, whilst in 1899 D. W. Fresh-
field took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899,
1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made
ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks
(23,300 ft.)- A body of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert
mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal of
exploration has been accomplished by them. The only mountains
of the northern polar region that have been explored are those of
Spitzbergen by Sir Martin Conway's expeditions in 1896 and
1897, and the peaks in the north of Norway and the Lofotens
by various Alpine Club and Norwegian parties. (W. M. C.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps (1843,
new ed., 1900) ; J. Ball and E. S. Kennedy, Peaks, Passes and Glaciers
(1859-1862); E. Whymper, Scrambles Among the Alps (1871);
C. King, Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada (1886, new ed.,
1903); Sir W. M. Conway, Climbing in the Karakoram, Himalayas
(1894); Sir W. M. Conway, The Alps from End to End (last ed.,
1900); Sir W. M. Conway, The Alps (1904); Francis Gribble, The
Story of Alpine Climbing (1904); Sir W. M. Conway, The Bolivian
Andes (1901); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus
(1895); E. A. Fitzgerald, Climbs in the New Zealand Alps (1896);
F. de Filippi, The Ascent of Mount Saint Elias (1900) ; W. D. Wilcox,
Camping in the Canadian Rockies (1900); H. C. M. Stutfield and
J. N. Collie, Climbs and Exploration in the Canadian Rockies (1903) ;
Mountaineering, in the Badminton Library (1900).
MOUNT BARKER, a town of Hindrcarsh county, South
Australia, at the foot of the mountain of the same name, 34^
m. by rail E. of Adelaide. It has an extremely fine climate
and is much frequented as a health resort in summer. It is
the centre of a populous and fertile district producing quantities
of fruit, wheat and dairy produce; important cattle sales are
held weekly, and there are several engineering works, flour mills
and tanneries in the town, which also is the seat of a wattle-bark
industry. Pop. about 2000; but the inhabitants of the Mount
Barker district number over 34,000.
MOUNT CARMEL, a borough of Northumberland county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the head of Shamokin Creek, about
50 m. N.N.E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 8254; (1900),
13,179, of whom 3772 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,532.
It is served by the Lehigh Valley, the Philadelphia &
Reading, and the Shamokin Division of the Northern Central
(Pennsylvania system) railways. Anthracite coal abounds here,
and the mining and shipping of it, together with the manufac-
ture of mining machinery and miners' supplies are the borough's
principal industries. This locality was settled late in the i8th
century. About 1848 Mount Carmel was laid out as a town,
and in 1862 was chartered as a borough.
MOUNT CLEMENS, a city and the county seat of Macomb
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Clinton river, about 5 m. (about 2m.
in direct line) from its entrance into Lake Saint Clair, and 20 m.
N. by E. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 4748; (1900) 6576 (1194
foreign-born); (1904, state census) 7108; (1910) 7707. It is served
by the Grand Trunk railway and by two electric lines to Detroit.
The mineral waters of Mount Clemens are beneficial to patients
suffering from rheumatism, blood diseases and nervous disorders.
The city's principal manufactures are beet, sugar, barrels and
other cooperage products, wagons, carriages, sleighs and
agricultural implements. Mount Clemens was settled in 1802,
was incorporated as a village in 1837, and was chartered as a
city in 1879.
MOUNT DESERT, an island in Hancock county, Maine,
U.S.A. It is about 16 m. long and 10 m. wide in its widest part,
with an approximate area of 100 sq. m. and a population (1910)
of 8014. The Maine Central railroad runs a ferry from its
nearest station on the mainland (Mount Desert Ferry), and the
island is also accessible during the warmer months by steamship
lines from New York, Boston, Portland, and several other ports.
On the north across Mount Desert Narrows, a bridge connects the
island with the mainland. Eagle Lake, at the north-east base
of Green Mountain, is a beautiful sheet of water about 25 m.
long, and 5 m. wide, and Great Pond, 4m. long, lies near Somesville
between Beech Hill and Western Mountain. There are numerous
outlying rocky islets. The surface of Mount Desert is generally
so rocky that the greater part of it has never been inhabited or
cultivated, but wherever there is a thin soil the hills are wooded
with spruce, alder, birch, maple and mountain ash. The hilly
scenery, the cool summer climate, and the facilities for boating
and fishing attract many thousands of visitors each summer,
and the maintenance of the permanent population is derived
very largely from the summer residents. The Penobscot and
Passamaquoddy Indians come here in the season to sell their
basket-work, toy canoes, moccasins, bows and arrows, &c. The
villages most frequented by summer visitors are Bar Harbor
(q.v.) on the north-east coast; Northeast Harbor, Southwest
Harbor and Seal Harbor on the south coast; and Somesville, at
the head of Somes Sound. Along the western shore are several
quaint old hamlets.
Mount Desert Island was discovered and named by Samuel de
Champlain on the 5th of September 1604. French Jesuits
established a settlement, St Sauveur, at the entrance to Somes
Sound in 1609, but this was destroyed four years later by Samuel
Argall. In 1688 the island was granted by Louis XIV. to Sieur de
la Mothe Cadillac, but no permanent settlement was established
until 1762, when the general court of Massachusetts granted
one-half of the island to Governor Francis Bernard and under
his encouragement a settlement was begun at Southwest Harbor.
During the War of Independence all the American estates of
Bernard were confiscated, but in 1785 his former interest in
Mount Desert was conveyed to his son, John, and two years
later heirs of Cadillac, among them his granddaughter, Mme de
Gregoire, who had come to Maine in 1786, received from the
general court a grant for the remaining portion. Until the
summer visitors came, the settlers gained only a scanty liveli-
hood, chiefly by fishing, lumbering, boat building and farming.
Practically all of them lived along the shore; they had boats,
but few horses, and the roads were only rough trails. There is
no record of any mail service until 1820, and as late as 1870
the only means of reaching the island was by stage from Bangor
or by steamboat twice a week from Portland.
See George E. Street, Mount Desert, a History (Boston, 1905).
MOUNTEBANK (Ital. montambanco, monlimbanco, from man-
tare, to climb up on, mount, and banco, bench, cf. saltimbanco,
an acrobat or dancer, one who dances or leaps on a bench), a
wandering juggler, story-teller, seller of quack medicines, &c.,
who performs his entertainment on a platform or raised bench,
hence any charlatan or quack.
MOUNTED INFANTRY, infantry soldiers who ride instead of
marching on foot from one place to another. As combatants they
are infantry pure and simple, being neither armed nor trained
to fight on horseback, and their special characteristic is the power
to move from one point to another with great rapidity. They
are therefore useful (a) in wars, such as colonial wars, in which
cavalry proper finds no scope for its activity, and (6) in performing
duties for which mounted troops, but not necessarily troops
that can fight mounted, are required. In these two r61es
mounted infantry is obviously a substitute for cavalry. As
cavalry is both a most expensive arm and one which cannot
be improvised, there is an ever-recurring tendency in all armies to
consider it as being more ornamental than useful, and in con-
sequence to substitute mounted infantry under one name or
another (the original dragoons for example were mounted
infantry) for " shock action " cavalry. In recent times, owing
to the development of the long-ranging magazine rifle, this
tendency has been intensified to such a degree that Russia, for
example, converted the whole of her cavalry into dragoons
the term being used in its old sense and trained it to act dis-
mounted in large bodies. It is however significant of the failure
of this wholesale conversion that after the Russo-Japanese War
the regiments that were formerly hussars and lancers were
reorganized as such and ceased to be styled and trained as
dragoons.
It is difficult, but at the same time important, to differentiate
between dragoons or " mounted rifles," as they are often called
to-day, and mounted infantry in a narrower sense of the word.
940
MOUNTFORT MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE
Mounted rifles are half cavalry, mounted infantry merely
specially mobile infantry. The American cavalry in the Civil
War, the Boers in the South African War, the Russians in the
Manchurian campaign, were mounted rifles, and the question
of their advantages and disadvantages, as compared with what is
generally called "regular" cavalry, is purely a cavalry one.
The main question as regards mounted infantry is whether its
existence as a special arm is justified by the kind and degree
of assistance which it is peculiarly qualified to give to the
other arms in war. If this be answered in the affirmative for a
particular army, then that army, having raised mounted
infantry, may require of it such additional services as it would
be more or less uneconomical to assign to regular cavalry.
Mounted infantry in this case may and in fact does assume the
role of mounted rifles; for example, in the British regular
army the duties of divisional mounted troops are performed by
mounted infantry, while in the territorial army the same duties
are performed by yeomanry mounted rifles.
In the British mounted infantry, which is the only force in
any army specially trained as such, 1 the course of instruction
lasts four months and is based on the assumption that officers
and men under instruction are already fully trained as infantry
(M.I. Training, 1009). All words of command, bugle sounds,
formations, &c., are similar to those used in the infantry, and
as a rule spurs are forbidden. The mounted infantry horse is
a handy cob (14-2 to 15). The organization adopted is by
battalions and companies, each company having 6 officers and
153 men, and the battalion consisting of three such companies
and a machine-gun section. Mounted infantry battalions and
companies do not exist in peace, but are formed on mobilization
from the qualified men available who can be spared from the
infantry. Since many more men are trained than would be
required for the 24 or 26 companies forming part of the expedi-
tionary force, the arm is capable of considerable expansion,
while the men first selected for the service are in every way
picked men. As already mentioned its duties are (a) with respect
to the cavalry, first to assist and secondly to supplement or
replace it by the judicious use of the rifle, and (/>) with respect
to the infantry to relieve the unmounted man as far as possible
of reconnoitring and orderly duties, and above all of the
necessity of hurried and exhausting movements to seize points
of support.
Cyclists. The application of the bicycle to military purposes
was first suggested in Great Britain, and military cycling became
the special and almost exclusive property of the volunteer
force, in which, when cycling became universally popular
and the machines cheap, practically all battalions had sections
and most of them companies of cyclists. In those days, however,
the want of a common organization separated the yeomanry
from the volunteers, and the latter, possessing no mounted
troops of its own, employed its numerous cyclists in recon-
noitring, protective and orderly work indifferently. Pro-
visional battalions were frequently formed, and in spite of their
heterogeneous composition and inadequate staff they proved
capable of manoeuvring as units. Movements in brigade
were practised at Aldershot in 1901, the brigade composed of
3 battalions of about 650 rifles each, drawn from some forty
volunteer infantry units under training at the time, being
trained in combined movements by parallel roads and night
marching, as well as in field operations. When the fusion of
the yeomanry and volunteers in the territorial force (1907-1908)
released cyclists from the duties of mounted troops which had
hitherto been imposed on them, the cyclist companies in the
infantry battalions were disbanded, and their place taken by
10 cyclist battalions specially trained for protective work in
large tactical bodies. The regular army, which is generally
employed in almost roadless countries, only maintains a few
cyclists for orderly work.
Amongst the regular armies that of France was certainly
1 The infantry " mounted scouts " of the Russian and French
armies are simply auxiliaries and have no existence apart from
their regiments.
the pioneer in the matter of cycling. Infantry support for
cavalry is a fundamental principle of the French doctrine of
tactics, and this infantry support in so well-roaded a country
as France naturally takes the form of strong cyclist groups.
The French military cyclists are equipped with a folding bicycle,
which allows of cross-country movement being undertaken
without leaving the bicycles unguarded. In Germany very few
military cyclists are maintained one small section in each
infantry or cavalry regiment. The field service regulations
permit the grouping of these sections for united action as a
company, but only under special circumstances. In Italy,
however, whole battalions of the fast-moving light troops,
Bersaglieri, have been within recent years provided with the
cycle.
Cyclists are mounted infantry in the strictest possible sense
of the phrase. They possess over all horsemen the incalculable
advantages of being able to make longer marches; for they can
cover 80 or 90 m. a day for several days; 2 of exemption from
forage anxieties; of freedom from the necessity in action of
leaving one-third or one-quarter of the men to hold the horses;
and of actual speed, an ordinary cyclist being able to move
faster along a good road than a staff officer mounted on a
thoroughbred. On the other hand cyclist troops can never be
as free to move across country as horsemen; a cyclist column,
owing to its speed and great length in proportion to its numbers,
is peculiarly liable to surprise; and the condition of the roads
or a strong head wind materially reduces its rate of marching.
MOUNTFORT, WILLIAM (c. 1664-1692), English actor and
dramatic writer, was the son of a Staffordshire gentleman.
His first stage appearance was with the Dorset Garden company
about 1678, and by 1682 he was taking important parts, usually
those of the fine gentleman. Mountfort wrote a number of plays,
wholly or in part, and many prologues and epilogues. He
married, in 1686, Susanna Percival (see VERBRUGGEN, MRS),
the actress. Owing to jealousy of Mrs Bracegirdle's supposed
interest in Mountfort, Captain Richard Hill, an adventurer, who
had annoyed her with persistent attentions, accompanied by
Charles, fifth Baron Mohun, murdered Mountfort in Howard
Street, Strand, on the 9th of December 1692. Hill made his
escape. Lord Mohun was tried by his peers and acquitted by
a vote of 69 to 14.
MOUNT GAMBIER, a town of Grey county, South Australia,
305 m. by rail S.E. of Adelaide. It stands on the northern base
of the mountain of the same name, an extinct volcano. It
is a handsome town with many fine buildings of white limestone
and grey and red dolomite, which abound in the neighbourhood,
the church of St Paul being the finest edifice of its kind outside
Adelaide. The agricultural society has a good showground
where two shows are held annually. Two splendid lakes lie
near the town Blue Lake, 160 acres in extent, and Valley Lake,
97 acres, from the first of which the water-supply of the town
is derived. Mount Gambier is the centre of one of the richest
grain-growing districts in Australia. Pop. (1901), 3162; and
including the suburbs, about 8000.
MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE, the pioneer institution in
America for the higher education of women, situated in the
village of South Hadley, Massachusetts, near Mount Holyoke.
It was founded by Mary Lyon (q.v.), and was chartered as Mount
Holyoke Female Seminary in 1836 (opened in 1837), but the
name was changed to Mount Holyoke College in 1893. Besides
the recitation halls and laboratories there are the Dwight
Memorial art building (1901), a library building (1905), the
John Payson Williston observatory, botanical gardens (1901),
a gymnasium, a hospital, and seven residence halls. For under-
graduates the college offers two years of work in prescribed
courses in Latin, Greek, French, German, English, history,
Biblical literature, profane literature, physics, and chemistry,
and two years of work in elective courses; for graduates it offers
one year of advanced work, including courses in education
designed for those preparing to teach. To make college expenses
2 The loss of men by accidents to the machines, punctures, &c.,
has been shown in manoeuvres to be nearly negligible.
MOUNTJOY
94
lighter and to " promote a spirit of democracy and of considera-
tion for others " every student helps either in housework or
in the academic departments. In 1908-1909 the college had
no instructors and 748 students.
MOUNTJOY (or MONTJOY), BARONS AND VISCOUNTS.
Sir Walter Blount (d. 1474), of Elvaston, Derbyshire, grandson
of Sir Walter Blount, who was an adherent of John of Gaunt,
succeeded his father, Sir Thomas Blount, as treasurer of Calais
in 1460, becoming governor a year later as a reward for service
rendered to King Edward IV. at the battle of Towton. Edward
conferred on him rich estates forfeited by the earl of Devon;
and in 1465 Blount was made lord high treasurer and created
Baron Mountjoy. This creation is noteworthy as one of the
earliest examples of a baronial title not being of a territorial
character; nor the title of a dignity already existing. Blount's
great-grandfather had married Isolda, daughter and heiress
of Sir Thomas de Mountjoy, and the title was probably chosen
to commemorate this alliance.
WILLIAM BLOUNT, 4th Baron Mountjoy (c. 1478-1534), was
famous as a scholar and patron of learning. He was a
pupil of Erasmus, who called him inter nobiles doctissimus. His
friends included Colet, More and Grocyn. He held a command
in the force sent to suppress Perkin Warbeck's rebellion in
1497. In 1513 he was appointed governor of Tournai, and his
letters to Wolsey and Henry VIII. describing his vigorous
government of the town are preserved in the British Museum.
He was present with Henry VIII. at the Field of the Cloth of
Gold in 1520, and at the meeting with Charles V. in 1522. He
had been master of the mint since 1509, and chamberlain to
Catherine of Aragon since 1512. It fell to him in this office to
announce to the queen Henry's intention to divorce her; he also
signed the letter to the pope conveying the king's threat to
repudiate the papal supremacy unless the divorce were granted.
Mountjoy, who was one of the wealthiest English nobles of his
time, died in 1534. His son Charles, 5th Baron Mountjoy
(1516-1544), was also a patron of learning.
CHARLES BLOUNT, earl of Devonshire and 8th Baron Mountjoy
(1563-1606), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, grandson of the pre-
ceding, was the most notable of the later holders of the title. The
favour which his youthful good looks procured for him from
Queen Elizabeth excited the jealousy of the earl of Essex, and
led to a duel between the two courtiers, who, however, soon
became close friends. Between 1586 and 1598 he was much
on the continent, serving in the Netherlands and' in Brittany.
He joined Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh in their expedition to
the Azores in 1597, his brother, Sir Christopher Blount (1565-
1 60 1 ), who was afterwards executed for complicity in Essex's
treason, being also of the party. In 1600 Mountjoy went to
Ireland as lord deputy in succession to Essex, where he succeeded
in suppressing the rebellion of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone,
whom Essex had failed to subdue. In July 1601 Mountjoy made
himself master of Lough Foyle, and in the following December
he defeated O'Neill's Spanish auxiliaries at Kinsale, and drove
them out of the country. In 1602 the earl of Tyrone made his
submission to Mountjoy in Dublin (see O'NEILL); and on the
accession of James I. Mountjoy was continued in his office with
the more distinguished title of lord-lieutenant. Returning to
England, he was one of Sir Walter Raleigh's judges in 1603;
and in the same year he was made master of the ordnance and
created earl of Devonshire, extensive estates being also granted
to him. He died in London on the 3rd of April 1606. About
1 590 Mountjoy took as his mistress Penelope, wife of Lord Rich
and sister of the earl of Essex. After the death of her brother
in 1601, Lady Rich was divorced from her husband in the
ecclesiastical courts. Mountjoy, by whom she had already
had several children, was married to the lady in 1605 by his
chaplain, William Laud, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury.
As he left no legitimate children the earl's titles became extinct
at his death.
His eldest natural son by Lady Rich, MOUNTJOY BLOUNT
(c. 1597-1666), inherited a large property by his father's will,
and was a favourite with James I. The family title was revived
in his favour in 1618, when he was created Baron Mount joy,
of Mount joy Fort, Co. Tyrone, in the peerage of Ireland; and
Baron Mountjoy of Thurveston, Derbyshire, in the peerage of
England. In 1628 he was further created earl of Newport in
the Isle of Wight. In the same year he was appointed to com-
mand, with the rank of rear-admiral, the expedition for the relief
of Rochelle; in 1634 he was made master of the ordnance. He
took the popular side at the beginning of the trouble between
Charles I. and the parliament, and was an eager opponent of
Strafford. When the Civil War broke out, however, Newport
served in the royalist army, and took part in the second battle
of Newbury in 1644. In January 1646 he was taken prisoner
and confined in London on parole. He died at Oxford on the
1 2th of February 1666, leaving two surviving sons, who in turn
succeeded to the earldom of Newport and barony of Mountjoy.
Both titles became extinct on the death of Henry, the younger
of these sons, in 1681.
In 1683 SIR WILLIAM STEWART (1653-1692), who owned
large property in the counties of Donegal and Tyrone, and
whose grandfather was created a baronet in 1623, was raised
to the peerage of Ireland as Baron Stewart of Ramelton, Co.
Donegal, and Viscount Mountjoy. Having served abroad,
Mountjoy returned to Ireland in 1687, where he became brigadier-
general. At the revolution he remained loyal to James II.;
but being a Protestant he was distrusted by Tyrconnel,
the viceroy, and was removed with his troops from Londonderry
to Dublin. When the gates of Londonderry were closed against
James's representative, Tyrconnel sent Mountjoy and Robert
Lundy with a force to the north. After negotiations which
resulted in Lundy being admitted as governor to the city,
Mountjoy was sent with Sir Stephen Rice to Paris to report on
the state of affairs to James II. On their arrival, Rice acting
on secret instructions, denounced Mountjoy as a traitor, and the
latter was thrown into the Bastille, where he remained till 1692.
He then went over to William III., and was killed at Steinkirk
on the 3rd of August 1692.
WILLIAM, 3rd Viscount Mountjoy (1709-1769), was in 1745
created earl of Blesington, his mother having been sister and
sole heiress of Charles, 2nd and last Viscount Blesington. On
his death without issue in 1769 all his titles became extinct.
Anne Stewart, daughter and heiress of Alexander Stewart,
second son of the above-mentioned William, ist Viscount
Mountjoy, married Luke Gardiner, vice-treasurer of Ireland;
and her grandson, Luke Gardiner (1745-1798), who inherited
a large portion of the Mountjoy family estates, was created Baron
Mountjoy of Mountjoy, Co. Tyrone (1789), and Viscount
Mountjoy (1795), both in the peerage of Ireland; but on the
death without male issue in 1829 of his son Charles John, who
in 1816 was created earl of Blesington, all these titles again
became extinct.
THOMAS WINDSOR, or HICKMAN-WINDSOR (c. 1670-1738),
second son of Thomas, Lord Windsor de Stan well, ist earl of
Plymouth, was in 1699 created Viscount Windsor of Black-
castle, in the peerage of Ireland. In 1712 he was created a peer
of Great Britain with the title of Baron Mountjoy of the Isle
of Wight, being descended in the female line from Sir Andrew
Windsor (c. 1475-1543), ist Baron Windsor de Stanwell, who
married Elizabeth Blount, sister and co-heir of Edward, 2nd
Baron Mountjoy of the first creation, who died an infant in
1475. On the death of Thomas's son Herbert in 1758 the title
of Mountjoy again became extinct ; but it was revived in favour
of John Stuart, earl of Bute, who married Charlotte Jane
Hickman- Windsor, Herbert's daughter and sole heiress, and who
in 1796 was created Viscount Mountjoy of the Isle of Wight,
earl of Windsor, and marquess of the county of Bute, all of
which titles are held by his descendant, the present marquess
of Bute.
See Sir Alexander Croke, The Genealogical History of the Croke
family, originally named Le Blount (2 vols., Oxford, 1823). For the
Irish lord deputy, see also W. B. Devereux, Lives and Letters of the
Devereux, Earls of Essex (2 vols., London, 1853); Fynes Moryson,
Itinerary (London, 1617). Also, G. E. C., The Complete Peerage
(London, 1889).
942
MOUNTMELLICK MOUNT VERNON
MOUNTMELLICK, a market town of Queen's county, Ireland,
pleasantly situated on the Owenass (an affluent of the Barrow)
which nearly encircles it. Pop. (1901), 2407. It is the terminus
of a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, 73 m.
N. of Maryborough and 58^ W.S.W. of Dublin. A branch of
the Grand Canal also reaches the town, providing water
communication with Dublin, and with Waterford by the river
Barrow. There are industries of malting, tanning, woollen and
salt manufactures, and iron-founding. A settlement of Quakers
has contributed largely to the prosperity of the town. A
provincial school of the Leinster Society of Friends was
founded here in 1796.
MOUNT MORGAN, a municipality of Raglan county,
Queensland, Australia, 28 m. by rail S.S.W. of Rock-
hampton. Pop. (1901), 6280. Railway communication was
opened in 1898. The town has been considered to stand on
the richest gold site in Australia, the gold being very fine and
pure.
MOUNT SORREL, a market town in the Loughborough (Mid)
parliamentary division of Leicestershire, on the river Soar, 7 m.
N. of Leicester. Pop. (1901), 2417. The Sileby station on the
Midland main line lies ij m. E. The position is beautiful,
a steep hill, once crowned by a castle, rising above the well-
wooded valley. At BARROW-UPON-SOAR, 25 m. N. (pop. 2409;
Barrow and Quorn railway station), lime is worked extensively.
The village of QUORNDON or QUORN, 15 m. N.W., is the head-
quarters of the well-known Quorn hunt. Quorndon is an urban
district (pop. 2173).
MOUNTSTEPHEN, GEORGE STEPHEN, BARON (1829- ),
Canadian financier, was born on the $th of June 1829 at Duff-
town, Banffshire, Scotland, the son of William Stephen and
Elspeth Smith. He was educated at the parish school, after
which he was for a time a herd boy. In 1850 he went to Canada
and soon became a prominent business man in Montreal. In 1878
he joined with his cousin, Donald Smith (afterwards Lord
Strathcona), in the purchase of the St Paul & Pacific railway.
This led to his interest in the development of western Canada,
and from 1881 onwards he was associated with his cousin in the
construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, for his services
in connexion with which he was in 1886 made a baronet, in
1891 raised to the peerage; and in 1905 made G.C.V.O. In
1888 he left Canada, and thereafter lived in England and
Scotland. He gave lavishly to charity and education, and with
Lord Strathcona built and endowed the Royal Victoria hospital
at Montreal.
MOUNT-TEMPLE, WILLIAM FRANCIS COWPER-TEMPLE,
BARON (1811-1888), English politician, second son of the 5th
Earl Cowper, was born at Brocket Hall, Hertfordshire, on the
1 3th of December 1811. He was educated at Eton, and entered
the Royal Horse Guards, attaining the rank of brevet-major
in 1852. His mother, Emily Mary, was sister to the prime
minister, Lord Melbourne, whose secretary William Cowper
became in 1835; in this year he entered parliament as member for
Hertford, which he continued to represent until 1863. As
commissioner of works (1860-1866) he carried the bills for the
Thames Embankment (1862), and for the new law courts
(1863); but he is best known for the amendment, known as
the " Cowper-Temple clause," which he introduced into the
second reading of the Education Bill of 1870, that no catechism
nor denominational teaching of any kind should be included
in the religious instruction given in rate-aided schools. His
mother, who married Lord Palmerston as her second husband,
died in 1869, and under his stepfather's will William Cowper
succeeded to some of the Palmerston estates in Ireland and
Hampshire, and assumed the additional name of Temple. He
was M.P. for South Hampshire from 1868 until 1880 when he
was raised to the peerage as Baron Mount-Temple of Mount-
Temple, Sligo. He died at Broadlands, near Romsey, on the
i6th of October 1888. He was twice married, but left no
children, the Palmerston estates descending to the Right Hon.
Evelyn Ashley (1836-1907), who was under-secretary of state
for the colonies from 1882 to 1885.
MOUNT VERNON, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson
county, Illinois, U.S.A., about 75 m. E. by S. of St Louis. Pop.
(1890), 3233; (1900), 5216 (in foreign-born); (1910), 8007.
It is served by the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, the Louisville
& Nashville, the Wabash, Chester & Western, and the South-
ern railways. It is the headquarters of the fourth appellate
court district of the state. Mount Vernon was settled in 1819,
incorporated as a village in 1837 and chartered as a city in
1872. Many of its buildings were destroyed by a cyclone on the
1 9th of February 1888.
MOUNT VERNON, a city and the county -seat of Posey county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, in the extreme south-west
corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 4705; (1900), 5132, including 892
negroes and 262 foreign-born; (1910), 5563. It is served by the
Evansville & Terre Haute, the Louisville & Nashville, and the
Evansville & Mount Vernon (electric) railways. The city is a
trading centre for the surrounding farming region. It has a
valuable river trade, and various manufactures. The first settle-
ment here was made in 1803, and in 1819 a town was laid out and
named Mount Vernon. It became the county-seat in 1825, and
was incorporated as a town in 1846 and chartered as a city
in 1865.
MOUNT VERNON, a town of Linn county, Iowa, U.S.A.,
16 m. E. of Cedar Rapids. Pop. (1900), 1629; (1910, U.S.
census), 133*. Mount Vernon is served by the Chicago & North
Western railway. It is the seat of Cornell College (Methodist
Episcopal; coeducational), which was opened as the Iowa
Conference Seminary in 1853, and was chartered in 1857 under
its present name, adopted in honour of William W. Cornell
(1823-1870), an iron manufacturer of New York City and a
benefactor of the institution. Cornell College includes a col-
legiate department, an academy, a conservatory of music, a
school of art, a school of oratory and a summer school; in 1907-
1908 it had 40 instructors and 755 students. Mount Vernon
was settled in 1842, was laid out in 1847, and was incorporated
as a town in 1869.
MOUNT VERNON, a city of Westchester county, in south-
eastern New York, U.S.A., on the Bronx river and Eastchester
Creek, 13 m. from the Grand Central station, New York City.
Pop. (1890), 10,830; (1900), 20,346, of whom 5265 were foreign-
born (many being Italians) and 516 negroes; (1910, census),
30,919. It is ( served by the New York Central & Hudson River
and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by
electric lines to New York City, Yonkers, New Rochelle, &c. The
city has various manufactures, but in the main is a residential
suburb of New York; the finest residences are in the eastern, cen-
tral and north-eastern sections, the last being known as Chester
Hill; the foreign-born element is largely concentrated in the
western part. Mount Vernon is in the township of Eastchester,
which was settled from Connecticut in 1664, possibly in the hope
of pushing Connecticut's boundary nearer the Hudson. It was
called " Ten Farms " or East Chester. A parish of the same
name was established in 1693, but was disallowed in England.
About 1682 the " Ten Farmers " established a free school.
In 1764 the foundations were laid of the present St Paul's
(Protestant Episcopal), which was used through a part of the
American War of Independence as a British military hospital.
St Paul's churchyard dates back to the close of the i7th century.
Along the White Plains road (now Lincoln Avenue) Washington
retreated, pursued by General Henry Clinton, before the battle
of White Plains in 1776. The city of Mount Vernon was founded
in 1851 by several realty companies. The postal authorities
objected to the name Monticello, originally used, and Mount
Vernon was adopted instead. Mount Vernon was incorporated
as a village in 1853 and was first chartered as a city in
1892. West Mount Vernon was founded by the Teutonic
Homestead Association and was annexed to Mount Vernon
in 1869.
See William S. Coffey, " East Chester," pp. 720-764 of vol. ii. of
J. T. Scharf's History of Westchester County, N.Y. (2 vols., Phila-
delphia, 1886).
MOUNT VERNON MOUSE
943
MOUNT VERNON, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Kokosing river, about 45 m - N.E. of
Columbus. Pop. (1890), 6027; (i90o),6633,including 359 foreign-
born and 239 negroes; (1910), 9087. Mount Vernon is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus,
railways. The city is the seat of the state hospital for tuber-
culosis, has a fine court-house, a public library, and various
manufacturing establishments. Natural gas is found in the
vicinity. Mount Vernon was laid out in 1805; it became the
county-seat in 1807, was incorporated as a town in 1845, and
became a city in 1853.
MOUNT VERNON, the former home of George Washington,
in Fairfax county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Potomac river,
15 m. below Washington, B.C., reached by steamer from Wash-
ington and by electric railway from Alexandria, Virginia. The
mansion-house, which is the centre of interest, stands on a
Muff overlooking the river. The house is built of wood, but the
siding is of wide thick boards so panelled as to give the appear-
ance of cut and dressed stonework. The rooms contain much
of the furniture which was in them when they were occupied
by General Washington and his family; and the furniture that had
been lost has been in part replaced by other furniture of historic
interest and of the style in use in Washington's day. In the
main hall hangs a glass casket containing the key to the Bastille
which Washington received from Lafayette in 1790. From
each end of the house a curved colonnade and a pavement lead
westerly to a row of out-buildings which partially enclose a
bowling green and spacious lawn with shaded drives and walks,
and beautiful gardens (with trees planted by Washington,
Franklin, Jefferson, Lafayette and others). A short distance
south-west of the mansion-house and between it and the wharf
is a plain brick tomb, which was built by Washington's
direction on a site chosen by himself, and contains the remains
of Washington and Mrs Washington (removed to this tomb
from the old family vault in 1831), and of about thirty relatives
members of the Washington, Blackburn, Corbin, Bushrod,
Lewis and Custis families.
The estate, originally called " Little Hunting Creek Planta-
tion," was devised in 1676 by John Washington (the first of
the family in America) to his son, Lawrence, who in turn devised
it to his daughter, Mildred, by whom (and her husband Roger
Gregory) it was deeded in 1726 to her brother Augustine (George
Washington's father). On Augustine's death (1743) it passed
to Lawrence (George's half-brother), who built in 1743 the villa
which forms the middle portion of the present mansion-house
and named the estate Mount Vernon, in honour of his former
commander, Admiral Edward Vernon (1684-1757)- Lawrence
left it (1752) to his widow Anne Fairfax (who in the same year
married George Lee) with the proviso that it should pass at her
death to George Washington, who meanwhile rented the estate,
gaining full possession at her death in 1761. In 1784-1785 he
enlarged the villa into the mansion-house with its present
dimensions by building an addition at each end, erected several
of the out-buildings, and adorned the grounds, all according
to his own plans and specifications. At General Washington's
death (1799) Mount Vernon passed to his widow; at her death
(1802) it passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, and at
Bushrod Washington's death (1829) to his nephew John Augus-
tine Washington, who devised it in 1832 to his widow, by whom
it was devised in 1835 to their son John A. Washington. This
last was authorized by his father's will to sell the estate to the
United States government, and in 1847 offered the property for
$100,000, but the offer was refused. In 1860 the mansion-house
and 200 acres of the original estate, fast falling into decay, were
bought for $200,000 (much of which had been raised through
the efforts of Edward Everett) by the Mount Vernon Ladies'
Association of the Union. This association under its charter
(1856) bound itself to restore the estate as far as possible to the
condition in which it was in the lifetime of Washington and to
keep it sacred to his memory, and Virginia agreed to exempt it
from taxation as long as these terms were fulfilled.
See B. J. Lossing, The Home of Washington: or Mount Vernon
and its Associations (Hartford, 1870).
MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful,
O. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth, maurnan, to be
anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root
seen in Gr. tiipifivo., sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die), the
expression of grief or sorrow particularly for the dead; more
specifically the outward or conventional signs of such grief.
The public exhibition of this grief for the dead has taken
various forms among different races and in different ages, from
shaving of the head, or allowing the beard and hair to grow,
from disfiguring the face and uttering loud wailing cries, to the
wearing of clothes of a particular colour, now among Western
races usually black, and to the purely conventional custom of
using black-edged note-paper, cards, &c. (See further FUNERAL
RITES.) '
MOUSE, in its original sense probably the name of the semi-
domesticated house-mouse (Mus musculus), the type of the
genus Mus and of the family Muridae. Zoologically, there is no
distinction between mice and rats; these names being employed
respectively for most or all of the smaller and larger " mouse-
like " and " rat-like " representatives of the Muridae, whether
they belong to the genus Mus or not. It is true indeed that in
zoological nomenclature some of these are distinguished as
" voles " (see VOLE), but this is not in accord with popular
usage, where such creatures come under the designation either
of water-rats or field-mice. The distinctive characters of the
typical mice (and rats), i.e. those included in the genus Mus,
are dealt with in the article RODENTIA. With the exception of
Madagascar, the genus Mus ranges over practically the whole
of the Old World, having indigenous representatives even in
Australasia; while the house-mouse, with man's involuntary
aid, has succeeded in establishing itself throughout the civilized
world. The following is a brief notice of the species of true
mice (that is to say, those generally included in the genus M us)
inhabiting the British Isles. These are three in number. M .
musculus, the house-mouse, originally a native of Central Asia,
has spread to all the inhabited parts of the globe. M . sylvalicus,
the wood or long-tailed field-mouse, is a species common in many
parts of England, often taking to barns and out-houses for
shelter during the winter. It is of about the same size and pro-
portions as M . musculus, but of a bright reddish-grey colour,
with a pure white belly. M. minulus, the harvest-mouse, is the
smallest of the European mice, seldom exceeding 2^ or 3 in. in
length; and of a yellowish-red colour, with comparatively short
ears and tail. It lives entirely away from houses, commonly
taking up its abode in wheat or hay fields, where it builds a
round grass nest about the size of a cricket-ball, in which it
brings up its young. Its range extends from England to Japan.
In regard to the first it is noteworthy that house-mice isolated
on a small sandbank near Dublin have developed a special
colouring of their own; also that distinct local varieties,
M . musculus muralis and M . m. faeroensis, inhabit respectively
St Kilda and the Faeroes. In Central Asia there exists a wild
mouse (M. baclrianus) , and likewise a second species (M. nvagneri) ,
with the habits of a house-mouse, both of which are closely
allied to M. musculus; while there is a third kind (M. gentilis),
also nearly related, in the deserts of North Africa. According
to Major G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton it is probable that M.
baclrianus and M . musculus are respectively desert and house
modifications descended from some Central Asian ancestor
more or less nearly allied to M. wagneri. As regards the other
two British species, it must suffice to say that there are several
local races of each; M us syhaticus being represented by several in
the British Isles, although there is but one British representative
of M. minulus. It may be added that by some naturalists both M .
sylvaticus and M. minutus are separated from Mus as Micromys.
See G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, " Note on the Harvest-Mice of
the Palaearctic Region," Annals and Magazine of Nat. ^History
(April 1899) ; " On the Species of the genus Mus inhabiting M
Kilda," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1899); "On Geographical and
Individual Variation in Mus sylvaticus and its Allies, op. ctt.
(iqoo)-W E Clarke, " On Forms of Mus musculus, with Description
of a New Subspecies from the Faeroe Islands," Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc.
(Edinburgh, 1904), vol. xv. (K. L - )
944
MOUSE-BIRDMOUTH
MOUSE-BIRD (Du. Muisvogel), the name by which in
Cape Colony and Natal the members of the genus Colius of
M. J. Brisson are known probably from their singular habit
of creeping along the boughs of trees with the whole tarsus
applied to the branch. By the earlier systematists, Colius
was placed among the Fringillidae; but the investigations of
J. Murie and A. H. Garrod on its internal structure showed that
it was not a true Passerine, and it is now placed in a separate
family, Coliidae, amongst Coraciiform birds, near the trogons
and swifts (q.v.). The Coliidae are small birds, with a rather
Mouse-Bird.
finch-like bill, a more or less crested head, a very long tail, and
generally of a dun or slate-coloured plumage that sometimes
brightens into blue or is pleasingly diversified with white or
chestnut. They feed almost wholly on fruits, but occasionally
take insects, in quest of which they pass in bands of fifteen or
twenty from tree to tree. Seven species are believed to exist,
all belonging to the Ethiopian region (of which the Family is
one of the most characteristic), and ranging from Abyssinia
southwards. Three species inhabit Cape Colony. (A. N.)
MOUSSORGSKY, MODESTE PETROVICH (1835-1881),
Russian composer, was born at Karevo, government of Pskov,
in March 1835, and entered the army at an early age. He came
of a musical family, and was himself a talented amateur, and
an acquaintance with Balakirev and Dargomijsky led him to
more serious study of composition, so that in 1857 he left the
army and devoted himself to music, though this step entailed
his earning his living as a government clerk and a prolonged
period of poverty. His greatest opera, Boris Godounov, based
on Pushkin's drama, was produced in St Petersburg in 1874,
and on it his reputation stands as one of the finest creative
composers in the ranks of the modern Russian school. He also
wrote a number of songs and orchestral works, of a realistic
national type. In later life he suffered much from ill-health,
and died in St Petersburg on the i6th (z8th) of March 1881.
MOUSTACHE, or MUSTACHIO, the hair worn unshaven on
the upper lip (see BEARD). The spelling " moustache," now
the most common in English usage, is the French form of Ital.
mustachio, an adaptation of a Doric dialectical ^iiara^, upper lip,
also hair on the lip; this is generally taken to be a variant
of /idora, jaws, mouth, connected with na.qa.aQai, to chew;
cf. " mastic," chewing-gum, and " masticate," to chew.
MOUSTERIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist
G. de Mortillet to the second epoch of the Quaternary Age, and
to the earliest in his system of cave-chronology. It is so named
from a cave (Le Moustier), on the right bank of the Vezere, an
affluent of the Dordogne, above Les Eyzies and Tayac, which
has yielded typical palaeolithic implements. The epoch was
characterized by cold wet climate, by the supposed existence
of Man of the Olom type, that is, nearly as dolichocephalous as
the Neanderthal type, but with superciliary ridges flat, and
frontal bones high, and by the occurrence of the musk-ox, the
horse, the cave-bear, Rhinoceros tichorhinus and the mammoth.
The typical implements are flint points or spear-heads, left
smooth and flat on one side, as struck from the cave, pointed
and edged from the other side; a scraper treated in the same
way, but with edge rather upon the side than at the end, as in
the succeeding Solutrian and Madelenian epochs. Relics of
the Mousterian age have been also found in Belgium, southern
Germany, Bohemia and southern England, some of the " finds "
including human remains.
MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. The mouth (A.S.
m&V), in anatomy, is an oval cavity at the beginning of the
alimentary canal in which the food is masticated. The opening
is situated between the lips, and at rest its width reaches to
the first premolar tooth on each side.
The lips (A.S. lippa) are fleshy folds, surrounding the opening
of the mouth, and are formed, from without inward, by skin,
superficial fascia, orbicularis oris muscle, submucous tissue,
containing numerous labial glands about the size of a small pea,
and mucous membrane. In the deeper part of each lip lies the
coronary artery, while in the mid-line is a reflection of the
mucous membrane on to the gum forming the fraenum labii.
The cheeks (A..S..ceace) form the sides of the mouth and are
continuous with the lips, with which their structure is almost
identical save that the buccinator muscle replaces the orbicularis
oris and the buccal glands the labial. In the subcutaneous
fascia is a distinct mass of fat, specially large in the infant,
which is known as the sucking pad. On the buccal surface of
the cheek, opposite the second upper molar tooth, is the papilla
which marks the opening of the parotid duct, while, just behind,
are four or five molar glands, larger than the buccal, the ducts
of which open opposite the last molar tooth. The mucous
membrane of the cheek, like that of the rest of the mouth, is of
the stratified squamous variety (see EPITHELIAL TISSUES) and
is reflected on to the gums.
The gums (A.S. gdma) consist of mucous membrane connected
by thick fibrous tissue to the periosteum of the jaws. Round
the base of the. crown of each tooth the membrane rises up into
a little collar.
The vestibule of the mouth is the space between the lips and
cheeks superficially and the gums and teeth deeply. It commu-
nicates with the true cavity of the mouth by the clefts between
the teeth and by the space behind the last molar teeth.
The roof of the mouth is concave transversely and antero-
posteriorly, and is formed by the hard and soft palate. The hard
palate consists of mucous membrane continuous with that of
the gums and bound to the periosteum of the palatine processes
of the maxillae and palate bones by firm fibrous tissue. In the
mid-line is a slight ridge, the palatine raphe, which ends in
front in a little eminence called the palatine papilla, marking
the position of the anterior palatine canal. From the anterior
part of the raphe five or six transverse ridges or rugae of the
mucous membrane run outward. (For a description of the soft
palate see PHARYNX.)
The floor of the mouth can only be seen when the tongue is
raised, then the reflection of the mucous membrane from the
gums to it is exposed. In the mid-line is a prominent fold
called the fraenum linguae, and on each side of this a stiblingua
papilla, on to the summit of which the duct of the submaxillary
gland opens. Running outward and backward from this is a
ridge called the plica sublingualis, which marks the upper edge
of the sublingual gland, and on to which most of the ducts of
that gland open. (For a description of the TONGUE and the
TEETH see special articles on those structures.)
The salivary glands are the parotid, submaxillary and sub-
lingual, though the small scattered glands such as the labial,
buccal, molar, lingual, &c., probably have a similar function.
The parotid gland (Gr. irapd beside, oCs ear), is the largest of these
glands, and is situated between the ear and the ramus of the man-
dible. In a transverse section through the head about the level of
MOUTH
945
the mouth the gland looks more or less triangular, its outer wall or
base being bounded by the parotid fascia, its anterior by the jaw,
and its posterior by the mastoid process and sterno mastoid muscle!
Where the anterior and posterior walls meet to form the apex is
the styloid process. Above the gland reaches to the zygoma, and
below to the level of the angle of the jaw, where a strong process
of the deep cervical fascia, called the stylo-mandibular ligament,
separates it from the submaxillary gland; indeed the parotid is
often described as lying in a bag formed by deep cervical fascia. The
outline of the gland is obscured by several processes, one of which, the
facial lobe, runs forward, superficial to the masseter muscle, accom-
panying the duct. A separate part of this is called the soda paro-
tidis ; another, known as the pterygoid lobe, passes forward, deep to
the ramus of the jaw, to the space between the two pterygoid muscles.
A third wraps round the front of the styloid process and may be
(\
Stcnson's duct
Orifice of duct
Parotid gland
Masseter (cut)
Mucous membrane
(cut)
Deep process of
submaxillary gland
Mylohyoid muscle
(cut)
Submaxillary gland
Lower border of,
mandible
Mylohyoid muscle
Anterior belly of
digastric'
Hyoid bone
>uct of Bartholin (rare)
Wharton's duct
Duct of sublingual gland
Sublingual gland
From A. Birmingham Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.
FIG. i. THE SALIVARY GLANDS AND THEIR DUCTS.
The greater portion of the body of the mandible has been removed
to expose the sublingual and the deeper parts of the submaxillary
glands. Four ducts of the sublinguai gland are shown opening
on the floor of the mouth over the gland, a fifth is shown opening
into the anterior end of Wharton's duct. The course of Wharton's
duct is shown by a dotted line.
termed the pre-slyloid lobe, while a fourth, the post-styloid, insinu-
ates itself behind that process. The upper part of the prestyloid
lobe sometimes reaches the back part of the glenoid cavity, and
is then called the glenoid lobe. All these processes, however, are
very variable, and depend a good deal on the position of the head
and neck. The facial nerve, the temporo-maxillary vein, and the
termination of the external carotid artery, among other structures,
are embedded in the gland. The parotid duct (Stensen's duct)
crosses the upper part of the masseter and then pierces the buccinator
on its way to the mouth; it is about 2 in. long. Its position is
described in the article on ANATOMY (Superficial and Artistic),
and its opening in the earlier part of this article.
The submaxillary gland lies deep to the posterior half of the body
of the lower jaw; it is about the size of a walnut, and has an ex-
ternal, internal and inferior surface. The external surface rests
against the submaxillary fossa in the jaw, the internal is in contact
with the mylohyoid and hyoglossus muscles, while the inferior is
subcutaneous. The whole gland is enclosed in a sac of deep cervical
fascia, while a process, from which the duct arises, passes deep to
the mylohyoid. The facial artery is embedded in the upper part
of the gland. The submaxillary duct (Wharton's duct) runs forward
to the sublingual papilla already mentioned.
The subl-'nguai gland is placed further forward than the sub-
maxillary; it is like an almond in shape though larger; its outer
flattened surface rests against the sublingual fossa in the lower
jaw, while the inner one is in contact with the genio-hyoglossus
muscle, the submaxillary duct and the lingual nerve. Its upper
edge forms the sublingual fold (plica sublingualis) in the mucous
membrane of the mouth, and along this its ducts, which are small
and numerous, open ; these are sometimes called the ducts of Rivini,
but the term " sublingual ducts " is simpler and more expressive.
Occasionally an anterior sublingual duct (duct of Bartholin) opens
with or into the submaxillary duct.
Embryology^
The fore-gut (see ALIMENTARY CANAL) at first ends blindly,
ventral to the region of the hind brain, while in front of it is the
overhanging fore-brain. When the heart develops, ventral to the
fore-gut, it also projects forward toward the fore-brain, so that a
transverse cleft, without any lateral boundaries and lined by ecto-
derm, is left between these two structures. This is the stomato-
daeum or primitive mouth, the ectoderm of which rests against
the entoderm of the fore-gut to form the bucco-pharyngeal membrane,
and so separates the two chambers. The position of this membrane
does not correspond to the fauces or hinder limits of the adult
mouth, but is much more oblique, so that the front part of the
roof of the pharynx is formed by stomatodaeum while the greater
part of the floor of the permanent mouth is fore-gut. During the
third week the membrane disappears, and it is probable that to
its early atrophy is due the fact that no traces of it can be seen in
the adult. Growing down from the region of the fore-brain is the
fronto-nasal process, which forms the nose and the middle piece of
the upper lip, while the lateral parts of the mouth are closed in by
two processes, on each side of which the lower or mandibular
process rapidly meets its fellow in the mid-line to form the lower
jaw and lip, thus separating the heart from the mouth cavity.
The upper or maxillary process grows inward more slowly, but at
last joins with the fronto-nasal process, and in the adult the lines
of union are seen on each side as ridges of skin which run down
from the nostril to the margin of the lip, and enclose that slightly
depressed vertical gutter to which the term philtrum is given.
Besides forming the philtrum the fronto-nasal process is responsible
for that part of the roof of the mouth which corresponds to the
premaxillary bones, an area marked out by lines drawn on each
side from between the lateral incisor and canine teeth to the pala-
tine papilla. At first the cavities of the mouth and nose are one,
but they are later divided by the palatal processes, which grow in
like shelves from the maxillary processes and meet in the mid-line.
The submaxillary and sublingual salivary glands develop as solid
outgrowths of the buccal epithelium which are canalized later,
while the parotid according to Hammar (Archiv. f. mikr. Anat.
LXI., 1902) appears first as a groove. The parotid is ectodermal
in origin, all the others entodermal.
For further details and literature see Quain's Anal. vol. i. (London,
1908) ; J. P. McMurrich Development of the Human Body (London,
1907) ; O. Hertwig, Handbuch der Enlwickelungslehre Th. 12., (Jena).
Comparative Anatomy.
In the acrania (amphioxus) the mouth is developed on the left
side and gradually shifts to the mid-line; later an extra chamber,
the oral hood, is formed in front of it, the external opening of
which is provided with bristle-like cirrhi, so that in the adult
the mouth is merely an aperture in the velum or membrane which
separates the oral hood from the pharynx.
In the cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) the mouth is a suctorial
organ, and resembles a funnel, the narrow end of which opens into
the pharynx. It is always open and is provided with horny teeth
and a tongue. At this low stage of the vertebrate scale no jaws
have yet appeared, but in the larval lamprey (ammocoetes) an
oral hood, resembling that of amphioxus, is present. In the fishes
jaws are present and the mouth can be closed at will. In the
elasmohranchs (sharks and rays) the opening is crescentic and
situated well on the ventral surface of the head, but in other fishes
it is at the anterior end of the body. Until the dipnoi (mud fish)
are reached there is no communicaticn between the mouth and
the nose, but in these fishes the internal or posterior nares open
into the front part of the roof of the mouth, thus adapting them to
air-breathing. In the Amphibia the mouth has usually an enormous
gape, and the position of the posterior nares resembles that of the
dipnoi. It will be noticed that at this stage of phylogeny the con-
dition resembles that of the ontogeny of man before the palatal
processes appear. The premaxillary part of the fronto-nasal
process separates the nasal cavity from the mouth in front, but
behind that the cavity is the rudiment of the mouth and nose which
no palate has yet appeared to separate. In Reptiles the hard
palate appears, and henceforward the digestive and respiratory
tracts only form one passage in the pharynx. In mammals definite
lips provided with muscles first appear, though the Monotremes
have such specialized mouths that lips are not found in that order.
Many monkeys have the vestibule enlarged to form the cheek
pouches. (F. G. P.)
Surgery of the Mouth.
In surgical operations upon the interior of the mouth which
are likely to be accompanied with much bleeding, it is much the
94 6
MOUTHPIECE
custom now to have the patient lying upon his back, with the
head hanging over the end of the table, so that the blood may
sink into the dome of the pharynx and escape by the nostrils,
instead of running the risk of finding its way into the windpipe
and lungs. (See CLEFT PALATE.)
Mumps. Inflammation of the parotid gland is apt to occur
as an epidemic, children being chiefly attacked. The disease,
which is highly infectious, is called mumps, and is associated
with much swelling below and in front of the ear, or ears. There
is stiffness of the jaw and there is a difficulty in swallowing.
There is slight local tenderness, and the temperature may, per-
haps, run up a degree or two. For the sake of others, the child
should be kept away from school for three or four weeks.
Salivary Calculus. Sometimes a deposit of phosphate and
carbonate of h'me slowly takes place from the saliva, and gives
rise to the formation of a small concretion in the duct of one of
the salivary glands. When the concretion blocks the duct,
so that the saliva is unable to find its way into the mouth, a
fluid swelling forms behind the blockage, giving rise to incon-
venience and unsightliness. The swelling is at its greatest
during a meal, when the secretion of the saliva is necessarily
rapid; subsequently it disappears, recurring, however, at the
next meal-time. In many cases the patient is conscious of the
fact of there being a hard, movable " kernel," the size, perhaps,
of a barleycorn, a cherry-stone or even of a small almond, in
the course of the duct. In the removal of the calculus every
endeavour should be made to effect its escape into the mouth,
as, if the skin were incised for its extraction, the wound might
refuse to heal, a salivary fistula resulting. (E. O.*)
MOUTHPIECE (Fr. embouchure; Ger. Mundstuck; Ital.
bocchino), in music, that part of a wind instrument into which
the performer directs his breath in order to induce the regular
series of vibrations to which musical sounds are due. The
mouthpiece is either taken into the mouth or held to the lips;
by an extension of the meaning of the word, mouthpiece is also
applied to the corresponding part of an organ-pipe through
which the compressed wind is blown, and containing the sharp
edge known as " lip," or the reed necessary for the production
of sound. The quality of a musical tone is due primarily to the
form or method of vibration by means of which sound-waves
of a distinctive character are generated, each consisting of a
pulse or half- wave of compression and of a pulse of rarefaction;
the variety in the quality of tone, or " timbre," obtainable in
various wind instruments is in a great measure due to the form
and construction of the mouthpiece, taken in combination with
the form of the column of air within the tube and consequently
of the bore of the latter. The principal functions of the mouth-
piece are (i) to facilitate the production of the natural harmonic
scale of the instrument; (2) to assist in correcting errors in
pitch as the ear directs; (3) to enable the performer to obtain
the dynamic variations whereby he translates his emotional
interpretation of the music into sound. Mouthpieces, therefore,
serve as a means of classifying wind instruments. They fall
into the following divisions:
1. The syrinx or pan-pipe mouthpiece consists merely of the
open end of the tube across (not into) which the player directs
his breath in a current which impinges obliquely against the
sharp edge of the pipe, producing the. series of shocks or pulses
required in the air stream from his lips; this in turn, when
in a state of vibration, serves to generate the sound-waves
within the pipe. This principle was embodied in the nay, or
long oblique flute of the ancient Egyptians, which was probably
the first mouthpiece discovered and put into practical use by
prehistoric man. A modification of this principle has been
applied to the transverse flute (q.v.), in which the air stream or
exciting current is directed across a lateral hole in the head
joint of the instrument.
2. The whistle mouthpiece is based on that of the flute with
this modification, that the air current, instead of being com-
pressed by the lips of the performer and then directed through
ambient air to break against the sharp edge of the lateral hole,
is compressed mechanically in passing through a narrow channel
so constructed within the mouthpiece that the stream of air
impinges with force against the sharp edge of a lip cut into the
pipe below the channel. The principle of the whistle mouth-
piece has been applied with slight modifications to a variety
of instruments such as the recorder (q.v.) family in England
(Fr. flute d bee, flute douce, flute anglaise; Ger. Schnabelflote,
Plockflote; Ital. flauto dolce, in which the channel assumes the
form of a beak, the flageolet (q.v.), the penny whistle, &c. All
these whistle or fipple pipes have at all times enjoyed great
popularity owing to the ease with which they can be played. 1
The flute or flue-work of an organ is the result of the adapta-
tion of the same principle to both open and stopped pipes (fig. i).
Compressed air is fed in at an even pressure
through the foot AB, and passing through
the slit or channel EC, impinges with force
against the lip D, producing the requisite
series of pulsations in the pipe FF. By this
elimination of the human element in the
organ, all possibility of communicating the
emotion of the performer becomes impossible.
With a rigid mouthpiece any increase in wind
pressure would affect the pitch, causing the
note to become unsteady or to jump to the
harmonics; the result could in no case be a
crescendo.
3. Reed Mouthpieces. There are three
kinds of reed mouthpieces: the double, the
single or beating, and the free reed. The
function of the reed, a term originally applied
to part of a stalk of the Arundo donax or
saliva, but now extended to any vibrating
tongue of wood or metal, is to break up an
exciting current of air, otherwise flowing in an
uninterrupted even stream, into regular beats
or pulses, corresponding with the beats or
vibrations of the reed. Reeds proper or
wooden vibrators, being flexible, are com-
pelled to vibrate synchronously with the
column of air within the tube and to ac-
commodate their frequency of vibration to
the length of the tube as it varies according
to the lateral holes which remain open. 2
A. The double reed is the most primitive and
probably the oldest of the reed mouthpieces; it
was used by the ancient Egyptians. 3 A straw FIG. I. Diagram
flattened at one end and inserted into a pipe of a flue-pipe,
having at the mouthpiece end the same diameter
as the straw contains all the rudimentary features of the double-
reed mouthpiece common to the members of the oboe family, i.e.
cor anglais, bassoon, contra-fagotto, to the sarrusophone, and to
the chaunter of the bagpipe. The earliest Greek aulos (q.v.) was
probably played by means of a double reed, since the mouthpiece
was known as ffO-yoj, signifying a pair of like things. The oboe
reed (fig. 2) is made from two pieces of reed stalk, flattened and
thinned at the end and bound together with waxed thread, thus
forming a tube with a constriction in the middle, above which the
section is oval and below circular.
A double-reed mouthpiece may be enclosed in an air-chamber
or reservoir, as in the 16th-century cromorne (q.v.), in the chaunter
of the bagpipe (q.i.), in the reeds of organ-pipes and in certain
instruments popular in France during the I7th century known as
" hautbois de Poitpu." In all of these the air-chamber is supplied
with compressed air by the mouth of the performer, whose lips do
not come into contact with the reed, a method which makes the
production of harmonics impossible, and thus restricts the natural
scale. As soon as the practice of over-blowing, i.e. the production
of harmonics by increased pressure of breath accompanied by a
proportional tension of the lips, became known, the air-chamber
1 See Rev. F. W. Galpin, " The Whistles and Reed Instruments
of the American Indians of the North-West Coast," Proc. Musical
Assoc. (1903-1904), p. 115, with illustrations.
2 See Victor Manillon, Elements d'acoustique musicale (Paris,
1873), PP- 167 and 83.
3 A case excavated in Egypt was found to contain two pipes,
and in addition five pieces of reed without bore or holes, and three
pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed mouthpieces. See
Victor Loret, " Les Flfltes dgyptiennes antiques," Journal anatique
(Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 119, 200, 201 (note), 207, 21 1 and 217.
From V. Mahillon,
Elements d'acftu-
stiifue, by permission
of C. Mahillon.
MOVERS MOW AT
947
of the oboe was discarded and the reed taken directly into the
mouth. It is certain that the ancient Greeks obtained the full
compass of the aulos by overblowing, since the
process by which a modern performer on the oboe
or clarinet obtains the harmonics is described by
Aristotle 1 and others. 2
The vibrating length of the reed is controlled
by taking the latter more or less deeply into the
mouth and by varying the pressure of the lips
upon it; the shorter the free end the higher the
pitch of the note or harmonic obtained. The
action of the lips on the reed is imitated to
some extent in reed organ-pipes by means of
a tuning-wire, with the difference that, the lips
being mobile, different notes can be obtained
from the same pipe, whereas in the organ each
reed is adapted to its own pipe and gives one
note only.
B. The beating- or single-reed mouthpiece, also
known as the clarinet mouthpiece, is likewise of
great antiquity ; the principle is the same as that
of the modern Egyptian arghoul (q.v.), which has
been traced once at least in the hieroglyphics and
in a fresco from the tombs at Saqqara. 3 The
mouthpiece of the arghoul is the primitive form
of beating-reed known popularly in rural dis-
ri tricts as a " squeaker." A lateral slit is made in
Rudall Carte & Co. a P' ece .f ree d an d a little tongue is detached
by slitting the reed back from the slit towards
FIG. 2. Oboe a knot. The breath causes the reed-tongue to
double- reed close and open the aperture at regular intervals,
mouthpiece. and the exciting agent here acts by means of
a series of concussions. The metal vibrator
known as the beating-reed of organ reed-pipes is similarly con-
structed, except that the tongue is a separate piece of metal fixed
by means of nuts over an aperture, the vibrating length being regu-
lated by means of a tuning-wire (see FREE REED VIBRATOR). The
clarinet mouthpiece (fig. 3) has the appearance of a beak with the
point bevelled and thinned at the edge to
| correspond with the end of the reed, shaped
like a spatula. The underpart of the mouth-
piece is flattened in order to form a table for
the support of the reed, which is adjusted
thereon with great nicety by means of a
ligature or metal band fastened by screws.
A longitudinal aperture I in. long and $ in.
wide, communicating with the bore, is cut in
the table and covered by the reed, so that
the only opening is at the point, where for
the distance of $ to \ in. the reed is thinned
and the table curves backwards, leaving a
gap of about I mm. between itself and the
reed-tongue, (for the Bi> clarinet). The curve
FIG. 3. Clarinet of the table and the dimensions of the gap
Mouthpiece. are therefore of considerable importance,
a, The mouthpiece, The reed is set in vibration by the breath
the position of the f the performer, and being flexible it beats
bore inside being against the table, alternately opening and
indicated by dot- closing the gap, and producing, as already
mentioned above, a series of concussions in
harmony with the vibrations of the air-
column within the tube, according to the
length determined by the opening of the
lateral holes and keys.
C. The free-reed, illustrated under FREE REED VIBRATOR, is
similar in construction to the beating-reed, but the metal vibrator
is cut slightly smaller than the aperture, through which it passes
freely, alternately opening and closing it without concussion and
with complete elasticity. The main difference in practice between
these two outwardly similar reeds is a very important one. The
reed being free remains uncontrolled, and increased pressure of
wind therefore produces not an harmonic overtone but a crescendo.
The principal use of the free-reed is in the harmonium (q.v.) and in
the reed-work of organs on the continent of Europe. In English
organs the beating-reed is almost universal. The free-reed is
further used in the Chinese cheng (q.v.), through which it became
known in Europe in the l8th century, and in the accordion,
concertina and mouth-organ, under which headings its acoustic
properties are more fully discussed.
4. Cup-Mouthpieces. Brass wind instruments are played by
means of cup or funnel-shaped mouthpieces, generally made of
1 See De audih. p. 8040.
2 Porphyrius (ed. Wallis), pp. 249 and 252.
3 See Victor Loret, L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons (Paris, 1889),
illustrated on pp. 139 and 143. The author gives no information
as to this fresco except that it is in the Musee Guimet; it is probably
identical with the second of the mural paintings described on p. 190
of the Petit guide illustre du Musee Guimet (Paris, 1890).
ted lines.
b, The single-
beating-reed.
silver. The principal feature of the cup is the shape of the
aperture in the bottom, where it communicates with the bore
of the tube (known as the " gruin " or " throat "), and its dis-
tance from the rim. The shallower the cup the more suitable
it is for producing the higher harmonics. The lips of the per-
former rest lightly but firmly against the rim of the mouth-
piece, vibrating like double reeds from the force of the breath
and communicating these vibrations in the form of pulses to the
breath as it issues from them in a stream. This stream or
exciting current passes into the cup ready to generate sound-
waves in the air column contained within the main tube. If,
as in the trumpet and in a lesser degree in the trombone, the
curve of the bottom of the cup terminates at the hole in an abrupt
angle, the quality of the tone developed is brilliant and blaring,
being broken up by the sharp edge of the throat. In the horn,
which has a funnel-shaped mouthpiece, the timbre is in com-
plete contrast when the instrument is properly played, 4 being
elastic, sonorous and very mellow, qualities which may be attri-
buted to the absence of angle or bottom to the cup, the sides
gradually sloping and converging insensibly into the bore of the
tube. (K. S.)
MOVERS, FRANZ KARL (1806-1856), German Roman
Catholic divine and Orientalist, was born at Koesfeld in West-
phalia, on the 1 7th of July 1806. He studied theology and
Oriental languages at Miinster, was parish priest at Berkum
near Bonn from 1833 to 1839, and professor of Old Testament
theology in the Catholic faculty at Breslau from 1839 to his
death on the 28th of September 1856. His elaborate works,
Die Phonizier (1841-1850) and Phonizische Texte, erklart (1845-
1847), attained a high reputation. Of his other writings two
biblical studies were of some importance, his Kritische Unter-
suchungen iiber die alttestamenlliche Chronik (1834), and his
Latin essay on the two recensions of the text of Jeremiah, De
utriusque recensionis valiciniorum Jeremiae . . .indole et origine
(1837)-
MOW. (i)_ To cut down standing hay or corn with a scythe
or with machinery drawn by a horse or mechanical power (see.
REAPING). The word in O.Eng. is mawan. a verb common to the
West German languages, cf. Du. maaien, Ger. mdhen; the root
is also seen in " meadow," Gr. &/jtav and Lat. metere, to reap,
cut, cf. messis, harvest. (2) A stack or rick of hay, corn, and
sometimes also of beans, peas or other crops. The word in O.Eng.
is muga, mtiha, and is cognate with Swedish and Norwegian
muga, heap, cf. Swedish allmoge, crowd of people, Danish almuc.
" Mow" is chiefly dialectal in England, where it is a common
name, e.g. the Barley Mow, on the sign-boards of country inns.
From these two words must be distinguished (3) " mow," a
grimace, now obsolete or purely literary, and generally found in
combination with " mop," cf. " mopping and mowing " in King
Lear, iv. 1. 64. This is the same word as the modern Fr. move,
pout, which is of obscure origin.
MOWAT, SIR OLIVER (1820-1903), Canadian judge and
statesman (Q.C. 1856, LL.D. 1872, K.C.M.G. 1892, G.C.M.G.
1897), was the son of John Mowat, who fought in the Peninsular
War under Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke cf Wellington).
Born at Kingston, Ontario, on the 22nd of July, 1820, he
was educated by private tuition and in 1836 began the study
of law under Mr (afterwards the Rt Hon. Sir) John A. Macdonald.
Called to the bar in 1841, he soon became a leading Chancery
counsel and in 1856 " took silk." He entered parliament in
1858 as a Liberal and in 1863 became postmaster-general. He
took a prominent part in the proceedings of the Quebec Confer-
ence of 1864, which settled the terms of the Confederation of
the British North American provinces, and in the same year
was appointed vice-chancellor of Upper Canada. Eight years
afterwards (1872) the Hon. Edward Blake resigned the premier-
ship of the province of Ontario, and Mowat was called' to fill
the vacant post. He continued to be premier of Ontario until
the I3th of July 1896. Assisted by able colleagues and holding
always a strong majority in the house, he gave to Ontario a
4 The horn may be so played, by forcing the breath in a certain
manner, that its timbre approximates to that of the trumpet.
948
MOWBRAY MOXON
body of laws many of which have been copied by other provinces
of the dominion and by several states of the American Union.
In eight important cases which he argued before the Judicial
Committee of H.M. Privy Council, he established, as against the
contention of Sir John A. Macdonald, the proposition that the
provincial legislatures were co-ordinate with and not subordinate
to the parliament of Canada. To weaken his influence the
Conservatives at Ottawa attempted to extend the boundaries
of Manitoba, thereby reducing the area of Ontario; but Mr
Mowat again appealed to the Judicial Committee and was again
successful. According to Sir John A. Macdonald, Ontario con-
tained under the " Quebec Act " only 116,782 sq. m.; but
Mr Mowat gave it an area of 260,862 sq. m. When he
returned home after this great victory he received an ovation
unparalleled in the history of any Canadian statesman. One
of his prominent characteristics was his loyalty to Britain.
Between 1886 and 1896 Canadian trade was depressed, and
men were leaving the country in thousands for the United
States. Dr Goldwin Smith and other prominent men advocated
commercial union with the United States, viz. that the two
countries should maintain a uniform tariff against the rest of
the world, with free trade as between themselves. Sir Oliver
Mowat saw in this " veiled annexation," and by letters, speeches
and pamphlets he crushed the movement so completely as to
make his party more imperialist than the Conservatives had
ever been. In July 1896 he was called to the senate of Canada
and made minister of justice. In November 1897 he was
appointed lieutenant-governor of his native province, and this
office he held until he died at Government House, Toronto, on-
the i gth of April 1903.
See C. R. W. Biggar, Sir Oliver Mowat, a Biographical Sketch
(Toronto, 1905). (C. R. W. B.)
MOWBRAY, the name of an Anglo-Norman baronial house,
derived from Montbray (Manche) in Normandy south of St Lo.
It was founded at the Conquest by Geoffrey (de Montbray),
bishop of Coutances. His brother's son Robert, who rebelled
with him against William Rufus on the Conqueror's death,
was made, after their reconciliation, earl of Northumberland,
as his uncle's heir but was forfeited and imprisoned for life
on rebelling again in 1095. A sister of Bishop Geoffrey was
mother by Roger d'Aubigny (of Aubigny in the Cotentin) of
two sons, Nigel and William, who were ardent supporters of
Henry I., and were rewarded by him with great estates in
England. William was made king's butler, and was father of
William d'Aubigny (" de Albini "), first earl of Arundel (see
ARUNDEL); Nigel was rewarded with the escheated fief of
Geoffrey de la Guerche, of which Melton (Mowbray) was the
head, and with forfeited lands in Yorkshire. Nigel married, by
dispensation, the wife of his cousin, the imprisoned earl, but
afterwards divorced her, and by another wife was father of a
son Roger, who took the name of Mowbray.
Roger, a great lord with a hundred knights' fees, was captured
with King Stephen at the battle of Lincoln, joined the rebellion
against Henry II. (1173), founded abbeys, and went on crusade.
His grandson William, a leader in the rising against King John,
was one of the 25 barons of the Great Charter, as was his
brother Roger, and was captured fighting against Henry III.
at the rout of Lincoln (1217). His grandson Roger (1266-1298),
who was summoned to parliament by Edward I., was father of
John (1286-1322), a warrior and warden of the Scottish March,
who, joining in Thomas of Lancaster's revolt, was captured at
Boroughbridge and hanged. His wife, a Braose heiress, added
Gower in South Wales and the Bramber lordship in Sussex to
the great possessions of his house. Their son John (d. 1361)
was father, by a daughter of Henry earl of Lancaster, of John,
Lord Mowbray (c. 1328-1368), whose fortunate alliance with the
heiress of Lord Segrave, by the heiress of Edward I.'s son Thomas,
earl of Norfolk and marshal of England, crowned the fortunes of
his race. In addition to a vast accession to their lands, the
earldom of Nottingham and the marshalship of England were
bestowed on them by Richard II., and the dukedom of Norfolk
followed (see NORFOLK, THOMAS MOWBRAY, ist duke of).
The ist duke left two sons, of whom Thomas the elder was
only recognized as earl marshal. Beheaded for joining in
Scrope's conspiracy against Henry IV. (1405), he was succeeded
by his brother John, who was restored to the dukedom of
Norfolk in 1424. His son John, the third duke, was father of
John, 4th and last duke, who was created earl of Warrenne and
Surrey in his father's lifetime (1451). At his death (1475) his
vast inheritance devolved on his only child Anne, who was
married as an infant to Edward IV.'s younger son Richard
(created duke of Norfolk and earl of Nottingham and Warrenne),
but died in 1481.
The next heirs of the Mowbrays were then the Howards and
the Berkeleys, representing the two daughters of the first duke.
Between them were divided the estates of the house, the Mow-
bray dukedom of Norfolk and earldom of Surrey being also
revived for the Howards (1483), and the earldom of Nottingham
(1483) and earl marshalship (1485) for the Berkeleys. Both
families assumed the baronies of Mowbray and Segrave, but
Henry Howard was summoned in his. father's lifetime (1640) as
Lord Mowbray, which was deemed a recognition of the Howards'
right; their co-heirs, from 1777, were the Lords Stourton and the
Lords Petre, and in 1878 Lord Stourton was summoned as Lord
Mowbray and Segrave. The former dignity is claimed as the
premier barony, though De Ros ranks before it. Lord Stourton's
son claimed, but unsuccessfully, in 1901-1906 the earldom of
Norfolk (1312), also through the Mowbrays. Of the Mowbray
estates the castle and lordship of Bramber is still vested in the
dukes of Norfolk. The heraldic badge of the house was a
mulberry-tree. Q. H. R.)
MOWBRAY, HARRY SIDDONS (1858- ), American
artist, was born of English parents at Alexandria, Egypt, on
the 5th of August 1858. Left an orphan, he was taken to
America by an uncle, who settled at North Adams, Mass. After
a year at the United States Military Academy at West Point,
he went to Paris and entered the atelier of Leon Bonnat, his
first picture, " Aladdin," bringing him to public notice. He was
made a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1891.
Subsequently he was best known for his decorative work,
especially " The Transmission of the Law," Appellate Court
House; ceiling for the residence of F. W. Vanderbilt; and the
ceiling and walls of the library of the University Club all
in New York. This last was executed in Rome, where, in
1903, he was made director of the American Academy.
MOWBRAY, ROBERT (d. 1125), a Norman who was appointed
earl of Northumberland between 1080 and 1082. In 1088 he
and his uncle Geoffrey, bishop of Coutances, sided with Robert,
duke of Normandy, against William Rufus, but they were
pardoned at the close of the rebellion. In 1091 Mowbray
defeated Malcolm Canmore of Scotland, who had invaded
England, and in 1093 surprised and slew this king near Alnwick;
soon after this event he succeeded to his uncle's vast estates.
In 1095 he led a rebellion which had for its object the transference
of the crown from the sons of the Conqueror to Stephen of
Aumale. Rufus marched against the earl in person, and Mow-
bray shut himself up in Bamborough Castle, but he was captured
by treachery, escaped, and was captured again. He was then
deprived of his possessions and kept a prisoner for the rest of his
life, nearly thirty years.
See E. A. Freeman, William Rufus, especially Appendices C. C. F. F.
(Oxford, 1882).
MOXON, EDWARD (1801-1858), British poet and publisher,
was born at Wakefield in 1801. In 1826 he published a volume
of verse, entitled The Prospect, and other Poems, which was
received with some favour. In 1830 Moxon was started by
Samuel Rogers as a London publisher in New Bond Street.
The first volume he issued was Charles Lamb's Album Verses.
Removing to Dover Street, Piccadilly, Moxon published an
illustrated edition of Rogers's Italy, 10,000 being spent upon
the illustrations. Wordsworth entrusted him with the publi-
cation of his works from 1835 onwards, and in 1839 he issued
the first complete edition of Shelley's poems. Some passages
in Queen Mab were the cause of a charge of blasphemy being
MOXOS MOZART
949
made against Moxon in 1841. The case was tried before Lord
Denman. Serjeant Talfourd defended Moxon, but the jury
returned a verdict of guilty, and the offensive passages were for
a time eliminated. In 1840 he published Browning's Sordello;
and in succeeding years works by Lord Houghton, Tom Hood,
Barry Cornwall, Lord Lytton, Browning and Tennyson
appeared. Edward Moxon died on the 3rd of June 1858, his
business being continued by Mr J. B. Payne and Mr Arthur
Moxon, who in 1865 published Swinburne's Atalanta in Calydon;
but in 1871 it was taken over by Messrs Ward, Lock & Tyler.
MOXOS, Mojos, MOHOS, a tribe of South American Indians
living around the head-waters of the Madeira river, northern
Bolivia, particularly on both banks of the Mamore. They
submitted to Inca domination, but in 1564 gallantly repulsed the
Spaniards. A century later, however, the Jesuits were welcomed,
and the Moxos became devout Catholics. They number some
30,000.
MOZAMBIQUE [Sao Sebastiao de Mozambique], a town of
Portuguese East Africa, seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric
in the province of Goa, in 15 4' S., 40 44' E. The town occupies
the whole of a small coral island at the mouth of Mossoril
Bay. The name Mozambique, used first to designate the island,
was also given to the town and extended to the whole of the
Portuguese possessions on the east coast of Africa. There are
three forts, of which the principal, St Sebastian, at the northern
extremity of the island was built in 1510 entirely of stone
brought from Portugal. It is quadrangular, and has bastioned
walls nearly 70 ft. high. In it are mounted some modern guns.
The harbour is small, but deep enough to admit vessels drawing
25 feet.
The inhabitants, who number about 7000, consist chiefly of
Mahommedan negroes of mixed descent speaking a dialect of
the Makwa language. There are Parsee, Banyan, Goanese
and Arab traders, and about 300 Europeans, besides half-caste
Portuguese. The annual average value of the imports for
the three years 1904-1906 was 97,035, of the exports 71,636.
The import trade is chiefly with Great Britain and India, the
articles in chief demand being cotton, coloured shawls and
hardware. The exports are chiefly groundnuts, rubber of
inferior quality, sesamum and other oil seeds, tortoise-shell
and ebony. Germany has a large share of the exports.
Mozambique was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
There was then a flourishing Arab town on the island, of which
no trace exists. The history of the Portuguese town is closely
identified with that of the province, for which see PORTUGUESE
EAST AFRICA. The commercial and political importance of
Mozambique has been eclipsed by Lourenco Marques.
MOZARAB [Spanish Mozdrabe, a corruption of the Arabic
Mustarib, coll. Mustariba], a general term for persons not Arab
by race who have assimilated themselves to the Arabs. It was
applied by the Moslems in Spain to the Christian communities
existing among them, in Cordova, Seville, Toledo and other
large cities, in the exercise of their own laws and religion. The
ancient liturgy used by the Christians of Toledo is commonly
known as Mozarabic.
MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS 1 (1756-1791), German
composer, was born at Salzburg on the 27th of January 1756.
He was educated by his father, Leopold Mozart, a violinist
of high repute in the service of the archbishop of Salzburg.
When only three years old he shared the harpsichord lessons
of his sister Maria, five years his senior. A year later he played
minuets, and composed little pieces, some of which are still
preserved in Maria's music-book. When five years old he
performed in public for the first time, in the hall of the university.
In 1762 Leopold Mozart took Wolfgang and Maria on a musical
tour, during the course of which they played before most of
the sovereigns of Germany. The little "Wolferl's" 2 charming
appearance and disposition endeared him to every one; and so
innocent and natural were his manners that at Vienna he sprang
1 In the baptismal register his name stands, Joannes Chrysostomus
Wolfgangus Theophilus (Lat. Amadeus, Ger. Gottlieb).
2 The German diminutive of Wolfgang.
upon the empress's lap and kissed her. The emperor Francis I.
sat by his side while he played, and called him his " little magi-
cian." When he slipped one day on the polished floor the arch-
duchess Marie Antoinette, afterwards queen of France, lifted
him up, whereupon he said, " You are very kind; when I grow
up I will marry you." Yet, in spite of the petting he received
at court, he remained as gentle and docile as ever, and so
amenable to parental authority that he used to say, " Next after
God comes my father." In 1763 the whole family started
again. Wolferl now sang, composed, and played on the harpsi-
chord, the organ and the violin, winning golden opinions every-
where. At every court he visited he was loaded with caresses
and presents; but the journeys were expensive, and the family
terribly poor. In Paris they lodged at the Bavarian embassy,
giving performances on a grand scale both there and at Versailles,
where Wolferl's organ-playing was even more admired than
his performance on the harpsichord. Here, also, he published
his first compositions two sets of sonatas for the harpsichord
and violin.
On the roth of April 1764 Leopold Mozart brought his family
to England, engaging a lodging in Cecil Court, St Martin's
Lane, whence he afterwards removed to Frith Street, Soho.
On the 27th of April and the igih of May Wolferl played before
the royal family with immense success, accompanying the queen
in a song and playing at sight anything that the king set before
him. He now made his first attempt at the composition of a
symphony; published a third set of sonatas, dedicated to the
queen; and wrote an anthem for four voices entitled God is our
Refuge, for presentation to the British Museum. 3 On the i7th
of September 1765 the family left England for the Hague, where
they remained some time, and where in March 1766 the young
composer made his first attempt at an oratorio, commanding
in Holland a success as great as that he had already attained
in London, and astonishing his hearers at Haarlem by performing
on what was at that time the largest organ in the world. In
September 1767 he paid a second visit to Vienna, and at the
suggestion of the emperor Joseph II. composed an opera buffa,
La Finta semplice, which, though acknowledged by the company
for which it was written to be " an incomparable work," was
suppressed by a miserable cabal. The archbishop of Salzburg
hearing of this commanded a representation of the rejected
work in his palace, and appointed the young composer his
" maestro di capella." The office, however, was merely an
honorary one, and, since it did not involve compulsory residence,
Leopold Mozart determined to complete his son's education
in Italy, to which country he himself accompanied him in
December 1769.
Wolfgang, now nearly fourteen years old, was already an
accomplished musician, needing experience rather than instruc-
tion, and gaining it every day. At Milan he received a commis-
sion to write an opera for the following Christmas. Arriving
in Rome on the Wednesday in Holy Week, he went at once
to the Sistine Chapel to hear the celebrated Miserere of Gregorio
Allegri, which, on returning to his hotel, he wrote down from
memory note for note a feat which created an immense sensa-
tion, for at that time the singers were forbidden to transcribe
the music on pain of excommunication. Returning to Rome
towards the end of June, he was invested by the pope with the
order of " The Golden Spur," of which he was made a cavaliere, 4
an honour which he prized the more highly because, not many
years before, it had been conferred upon Gluck. In July he
paid a second visit to Bologna, when the Accademia Filarmonica,
after subjecting him to a severe examination, admitted him to
the rank of " compositore," notwithstanding a statute restricting
this preferment to candidates of at least twenty years old. The
exercise which gained him this distinction is a four-part composi-
tion (Kochel's Catalogue, No. 86) in strict counterpoint on the
antiphon Quaerite primum, written in the severe ecclesiastical
style of the i6th century and abounding in points of ingenious
imitation and device.
' The original autograph is numbered " Select Case C, 21. d."
4 Auratae militiae eques.
95
MOZART
In October 1770 Wolfgang and his father returned to Milan
for the completion and production of the new opera. The
libretto, entitled Mitridate, Re di Ponto, was furnished by an
obscure poet from Turin, to the great disappointment of the
young maestro, who had hoped to set a drama by Metastasio.
The progress of the work was interrupted from time to time
by the miserable intrigues which seem inseparable from the lyric
stage, exacerbated in this particular case by the jealousy of the
resident professors, who refused to believe either that an Italian
opera could be written by a native of Germany, or that a boy of
fourteen could manage the orchestra of La Scala, at that time
the largest in Europe. Fortunately the detractors were effec-
tively silenced at the first full rehearsal; and on the 26th of
December Wolfgang took his seat at the harpsichord and directed
his work amidst a storm of genuine applause. The success of
the piece was unprecedented. It had a continuous run of
twenty nights, and delighted even the most captious critics.
Wolfgang's triumph was now complete. After playing with
his usual success in Turin, Verona, Venice, Padua and other
Italian cities, he returned with his father to Salzburg in March
1771, commissioned to compose a grand dramatic serenata for
the approaching marriage of the archduke Ferdinand, and an
opera for La Scala, to be performed during the season of 1773.
The wedding took place at Milan on the 2ist of October; and
the serenata, Ascanio in Alba, was produced with an effect which
completely eclipsed the new opera of Hasse, Ruggiero, composed
for the same festivity. Hasse generously uttered the often-
quoted prophecy, "This boy will cause us all to be forgotten." 1
During the absence of Wolfgang and his father the good
archbishop of Salzburg died; and in the spring of the year 1772
Hieronymus, count of Colioredo, was elected in his stead, to
the horror cf all who were acquainted with his real character.
The Mozart family did their best to propitiate their new lord,
for whose installation Wolfgang, after his return from Milan,
composed an opera, // Sogno di Scipione; but the newly-elected
prelate had no taste for art, and was utterly incapable of appre-
ciating the charm of any intellectual pursuit whatever. For
a time, however, things went on smoothly. In October
the father and son once more visited Milan for the preparation
and production of the new opera, Lucio Silla, which was produced
at Christmas with a success quite equal to that of Mitridate, and
ran between twenty and thirty nights.
la the meantime Wolfgang continued to produce new works
with incredible rapidity. In 1775 he composed an opera for
Munich, La Finta giardiniera, produced on the i3th of January.
In the following March he set to music Metastasio's dramatic
cantata, // Re pastore. Concertos, masses, symphonies, sonatas
and other important works, both vocal and instrumental,
followed each other without a pause. And this fertility of
invention, instead of exhausting his genius, seemed only to
stimulate it to still more indefatigable exertions. But the
pecuniary return was so inconsiderable that in 1777 Leopold
Mozart asked the archbishop for leave of absence for the purpose
of making a professional tour. This was refused on the ground
of the prelate's dislike to " that system of begging." Wolfgang
then requested permission to resign his appointment, which was
only an honorary one, for the purpose of making the tour with
his mother. The archbishop was furious; but the plan was
carried out at last, and on the 23rd of September the mother
and son started for Munich. The results were not encouraging.
Leopold hoped that his son, now twenty-one years old, might
obtain some profitable court appointment; but in this he was
disappointed. And, worse still, poor Wolfgang fell in love at
Mannheim with Aloysia Weber, a promising young vocalist,
whose father, the prompter of the theatre (uncle of the great
composer Weber), was very nearly penniless. On hearing of this
Leopold ordered his wife and son to start instantly for Paris,
where they arrived on the 23rd of March 1778. Wolfgang's
usual success, however, seemed on this occasion to have deserted
him. His reception was a cold one; and, to add to his misery,
his mother fell seriously ill and died on the 3rd of July. Reduced
1 " Questo ragazzo ci fard dimenticar tulti."
almost to despair by this new trouble, he left Paris in September,
rested for a while on his way home in Mannheim and Munich,
was received by Aloysia Weber with coldness almost amounting
to contempt, and in June 1779 returned to Salzburg, hoping
against hope that he might make some better terms with the
archbishop, who relented so far as to attach a salary of 500
florins (about 50) to his " concertmeister's " appointment,
with leave of absence in case he should be engaged to write an
opera elsewhere.
Two years later the desired opportunity presented itself.
He was engaged to compose an opera for Munich for the carnival
of 1781. The libretto was furnished by the abbate Varesco,
court chaplain at Salzburg. On the 2gth of January 1781 the
work was produced under the title of Idomeneo, re di Creta,
with triumphant success, and thenceforth Mozart's position as
an artist was assured; for this was not only the finest work he
had ever written but incontestably the finest opera that had
ever yet been placed upon the stage in any age or country.
And now the archbishop's character exhibited itself in its
true colours. Art for its own sake he utterly disdained; but it
flattered his vanity to retain a famous artist in his service with
the power of insulting him at will. On hearing of the success
of Idomeneo he instantly summoned the composer to Vienna,
where he was spending the season. Mozart lost not a moment
in presenting himself, but he soon found his position intolerable.
That he should be condemned to dine with his patron's servants
was the fault of the age, but the open disrespect with which
the lowest menials treated him was due to the archbishop's
example. His salary was reduced from 500 to 400 florins, he
was left to pay his own travelling expenses, and he was not
permitted to add to his means by giving a concert on his own
account or to play anywhere but at the archiepiscopal palace.
Archbishop Hieronymus was hated at court, and most of all by
the emperor Joseph, who, on retiring to Laxenburg for the
summer, did not place his name on the list of invited guests.
This offended him so deeply that he left Vienna in disgust. The
household were sent on to Salzburg, but Mozart was left to
find lodgings at his own expense. Thereupon he sent in his
resignation; and for this act of contumacy was insulted by the
archbishop in terms too vulgar for translation. He persevered,
however, in his resolution, taking lodgings in a house rented by
his old friends the Webers, and vainly hoping for pupils, since
Vienna at this season was perfectly empty. Happily he had
a sincere though not a generous well-wisher in the emperor,
and a firm friend in the archduke Maximilian. By the emperor's
command he wrote a German opera, Die Entfuhrung aus dent
Serail, which on the i6th of July 1782 was received with acclama-
tion, and not long afterwards was performed with equal success
at Prague. This great work raised the national " Singspiel "
to a level commensurate with that which Idomeneo had already
attained for the Italian " opera seria."
The next great event in Mozart's life was not what one would
have wished for him. Though Aloysia Weber had long since
rejected him, his renewed intimacy with the family led to an
imprudent marriage with her younger sister, Constance, a
woman neither his equal in intellect nor his superior in prudence.
The wedding took place at St Stephen's on the i6th of August
1782. By the end of the year the thriftless pair were deeply in
debt. Mozart composed incessantly, played at numberless
concerts, and was in greater favour than ever at court and with
the nobility; but to the last day of his life his purse was empty.
He had, however, many kind friends, not the least affectionate
of whom was the veteran Haydn, who was sincerely attached
to him. With Gluck he was on terms of courteous intercourse
only. Salieri detested him, and made no secret of his dislike.
Mozart's next dramatic venture was a German singspiel in one
act, Der Schauspieldirektor, produced at Schonbrunn, on the 7th
of February 1786. Not quite three months later, on the ist of
May, he produced his marvellous Le Nozze di Figaro, the libretto
for which was adapted from Beaumarchais by the abbe da
Ponte. The reception of this magnificent work was enthusiastic.
But Vienna was a hotbed of intrigue. Everything that could
MOZART
be done by jealous plotters to mar the composer's success was
done, and that so effectively that Mozart declared he would
never bring out another opera in the city which treated him so
meanly. Fortunately, Figaro, like Die Entfiihrung, was repeated
with brilliant success at Prague. Mozart went there to hear it,
and received a commission to write an opera for the next season,
with a fee of 100 ducats. Da Ponte furnished a libretto, founded
on Tirso de Molina's tale, El Convidado de piedra, and entitled
// Don Giovanni. By the 28th of October 1787 the whole was
ready with the exception of the overture, not a note of which
was written. This circumstance has led to the idea that it was
composed in haste, but it is certain that Mozart knew it all by
heart and transcribed it during the night from memory, while
his wife told fairy tales to keep him awake.
The opera was produced on the zpth of October with extra-
ordinary effect, and the overture, though played without
rehearsal, was as successful as the rest of the music. 1 Yet,
when reproduced in Vienna, Don Giovanni pleased less than
Salieri's comparatively worthless To-rare.
On returning to Vienna Mozart was appointed kammer-
compositor to the emperor, with a salary of 800 gulden (80).
In April 1789 he accompanied Prince Lichnowski to Berlin,
where King Frederick William II. offered him the post of
" kapellmeister " with a salary of 3000 thalers (450). Though
most unwilling to quit the emperor's service, he informed him
of the offer and requested leave to resign his appointment in
Vienna. " Are you going to desert me, then? " asked the
emperor; and Mozart, wounded by the reproach, remained, to
starve. The emperor now commissioned Mozart to compose
another Italian opera, which was produced on the 26th of
January 1790 under the title of Cosi fan lutte. Though the
libretto by Da Ponte was too stupid for criticism, the music
was delicious, and the opera would probably have had a long
run but for the emperor's death on the 2oth of February. In
March 1791 Mozart consented to write a German opera upon
an entirely new plan for Schikaneder, the manager of the little
theatre in the Wieden suburb. The piece was to be addressed
especially to the Freemasons, and to contain ceaseless allusions
both in the words and music to the secrets of the brotherhood.
Deeply interested in the affairs of a body of which he was himself
a member, Mozart excelled himself in this new work, which took
shape as Die Zauberflote. He was rewarded for his labours by a
brilliant artistic success, but Schikaneder alone reaped the
financial benefit of the speculation.
Before the completion of Die Zauberflote a stranger called on
Mozart, requesting him to compose a Requiem and offering to
pay for it in advance. He began the work under the influence
of superstitious fear, believing that the messenger had been sent
from the other world to forewarn him of his own approaching
death. Meanwhile he received a commission to compose an
opera, La Clemenza di Tito, for the coronation of the emperor
Leopold II. at Prague. He worked incessantly and far beyond
his strength. The coronation took place on the 6th of September,
and its splendours threw the opera very much into the shade.
Die Zauberflote was produced on the 3Oth of September and had
a splendid run. But the Requiem still remained unfinished;
the stranger therefore made another appointment, paying a
further sum in advance. Mozart worked at it unremittingly,
hoping to make it his greatest work. In the Requiem he sur-
passed himself, but he was not permitted to finish it. When the
stranger called the third time the composer was no more. The
score of the Requiem was reverently completed by Siissmayer,
whose task may have been simplified by instructions received
from Mozart on his deathbed. It is now known that the work
was commissioned by Count Walsegg, who wished to perform it
as his own.
Mozart died on the sth of December 1791, apparently from
typhus fever, though he believed himself poisoned. His funeral
was a disgrace to the court, the emperor, the public, society
itself. On the afternoon of the 6th his body was hurried to a
1 Michael Kelly, in his Reminiscences, has left a delightful account
of the circumstances.
pauper's grave; and because it rained, Van Swieten, Siissmayer,
and three other " friends " turned back and left him to be carried
to his last long home alone. (W. S. R.)
Mozart's work falls conveniently into three periods, though
O. Jahn makes out, more accurately, five. Our first period may
be said, in sober seriousness, to begin at the age of five and to
merge into the second somewhere about the age of sixteen or
seventeen. It was fortunate that the infancy of the sonata-
forms (q.v.) coincided with the infancy of Mozart; for while this
coincidence gave his earliest attempts a marvellous resemblance
to the work of the fully-grown masters of the time, it secured for
his mental activity a healthy and normal relation to the musical
world which infant prodigies can never attain in a modern
artistic environment. The little pieces composed by Mozart
in his fifth and sixth years are a fascinating study in the un-
swerving progress made by a child who masters every step, not
by some miraculous intuition that enables him to dispense with
learning, but by a hardly less miraculous directness of thought
that prevents him from either making the same mistake twice or
exactly repeating a form once mastered. The violin sonatas
written in London and Paris at the age of seven in no way fall
below the accepted standards of the period, while they already
show that variety of invention and experiment which, by the
time he was twelve, caused some sober-minded critics to regard
him as a dangerous person. His studies in the severer contra-
puntal forms speedily gave him the greatest technical mastery
of choral music attained since Bach; and more than one stray
piece of church music, or movement from a mass or litany,
written before he was fifteen, deserves to take rank as a true
masterpiece of which the date is immaterial. At the age of
fifteen we see a loss of freshness, especially in the numerous
operas which show at its worst that hopeless condition of operatic
art from which only Gluck's most drastic reforms could rescue it.
Fortunately, Mozart had at fifteen acquired more than enough
technique to rest upon; and thus the growing boy could keep his
spirits up, continuing his public successes and indulging his easy
sense of mastery, without putting a strain upon his brain which
nature need revenge then or afterwards.
Lucio Silla, though loaded with conventional bravura arias,
nevertheless shows him approaching the age of seventeen with
clear signs of a man's power, and in higher qualities than mere
variety and fancy. Some of its recitatives and choruses strike
a solemn dramatic note hitherto undreamt of in stage music,
except by Gluck. La Finla giardiniera first gave Mozart
scope for the exercise of his wonderful stage-craft and power of
characterization. Though it has not kept the stage, yet it marks
the beginning of Mozart's true operatic career, just as the Masses
in F and D, written in the same year, mark the close of his
first really representative period as a composer of church music.
It is, however, difficult to draw such lines definitely; for there is
no period of Mozart's career in which he did not practise all art-
forms at once; and the difficulty of drawing inferences as to the
relative importance of different forms in his intellectual develop-
ment is increased by his invariable mastery, which seems to
depend neither on method nor on inspiration. Most of the
pianoforte sonatas and many of the best-known violin sonatas
belong to his early manhood. To the same period also belong
those unfortunate masses which, together with several spurious
works, were at one time so popular, and have since been accepted
as evidence that he had not the depth of feeling and earnestness
necessary for church music. Idomeneo and Die Entfiihrung are
currently regarded as quite early works, but they are later than
any of the masses except the great unfinished work in C minor,
and there is some really great church music of his later period in
the shape of stray pieces, litanies and vespers (i.e. collections
of psalms sung at evening service) which is almost totally
neglected, and which shows a consistent solemnity and richness
of style no less in keeping with Mozart's new artistic develop-
ments than worthy of the glories of Handel and Bach.
Idomeneo is the only opera of Mozart which unmistakably
shows the influence of Gluck; because, with the exception of La
Clemenza di Tito, it is the only opera seria by which Mozart is
952
MOZART
known; and only a serious opera on a classical subject could
furnish occasion for Gluck's phraseology and range of feeling to
appear at all. How profoundly and independently Mozart seizes
Gluck's method and style may best be seen by comparing the
oracle scenes in Idomeneo and Alceste. In the management of
the chorus, however, Mozart has, as was to be expected,
incomparably the advantage. He has all, or rather more than
all, Gluck's power for portraying panic and managing, by the
motion of his music, the flight of a crowd; but he also has an
inexhaustible harmonic and contrapuntal invention which lay
beyond Gluck's scope.
The problems of comic opera presented a far more fruitful field.
In Die Entfuhrung he speedily showed a dramatic grasp for which
opera seria, in spite of all the influence of Gluck, gave him no
scope. He had a wonderful feeling for character, and did not
imagine, like many French and other disseminators of musical-
dramatic ideas (including, in moments of weakness, even Gluck
himself), that the expression of character in music was a mere
matter of harping on special types of phrase. His melodic
invention was clearly and subtly characteristic without man-
nerism. It is of hardly minor importance that his own literary
sense was far higher than that of many a writer of ostensibly
superior general culture; and that Osmin, the most living figure
in Die Entfuhrung, is Mozart's creation, words and all.
After Die Entfuhrung, Mozart's record is a series of master-
pieces, accompanied, but not interrupted, by a running commen-
tary of pieces d 'occasion. With rare exceptions, everything he
writes illustrates the perfect solution of an art-problem, and he
often achieves an artistic triumph with the most eccentric
materials. The modern organist can find since Bach no grander
piece in his repertory than the two fantasias which Mozart wrote
for the barrel of a musical clock. Shortly before his death he
wrote a beautiful adagio and rondo for the glass harmonica, to
which he devised the curious but eminently natural accompani-
ment of flute, oboe, viola and violoncello. And when at an
earlier period it occurred to him to write some processional music
for two flutes, five trumpets and four drums, the result, although
not artistically important, might well have seemed to indicate
long experience in handling the combination. His work in the
larger instrumental forms is further discussed in the articles
SONATA FORMS and INSTRUMENTATION. While Mozart's treat-
ment of form has often been attacked as conventional, and his
range of thought despised as childish, his instrumentation and
general sense of euphony are at the present day more un-
reservedly admired by the most progressive propagandists than
anything else in classical art.
Mozart's later operas, from Figaro onwards, represent the
nearest approach to a perfect arc-form attainable in pre-Wagner-
ian opera. What he might have attained in serious opera had
he been spared to see the solemn triumphs the French operatic
stage realized in the austere sincerity of Cherubini and Mehul
it is impossible to guess. But we cannot doubt that a Mozart
of yet riper experience than we have known would have given
tragic opera a history in which Fidelia did not stand in lonely
splendour. For Mozart, however, serious opera was an Italian
art form, only temporarily rescued from the tyranny of bravura
singers by Gluck. After Idomeneo he handled it only once, at
the very close of his career, and then, as if to seal its fate, in a
piece d'occasion with an impossibly dull and unsympathetic
libretto (La Clemenza di Tito). For comedy, however, his
harmonic and rhythmic range was perfectly adapted; and in
Figaro he had the advantage of a libretto which was already a
finished literary product of consummate stagecraft before it
ever became an opera. The perpetual surprises of its absurdly
complex intrigues impose no real strain, for no one attempts to
follow them; but they keep every character on the stage in a
state of excitement which is so heightened and differentiated by
the music that, while Beaumarchais's Mariage de Figaro has its
modest but definite place in literature, Mozart's Figaro is, with
all its lightness of touch, one of the most ideal classics in all art.
The subject is not edifying; but Mozart does not analyse it from
that point of view. His characters are irresponsible, mischievous
and fairy-like. Theirs is the world described by Lamb ".the
Utopia of gallantry, where pleasure is duty and the manners
perfect freedom."
In Don Giovanni the matter is less clear. Mozart rose, not
only in the music of the ghostly statue, but also in the music of
Donna Anna and Donna Elvira, to heights that can only be called
sublime; yet he never lost sight of the true methods of that
comedy of gallantry to which Don Giovanni stands in some sense
as a grotesque tragic finale. It is the business of an artistic
intellect to grasp the artistic possibility of a world in which the
" Utopia of gallantry " is at war with a full-blooded and incipi-
ently moral humanity until the critical moment determines, not
the breaking up of the artistic unity, but the right conclusion of
the story. If it is absurd to treat Donna Anna and Donna Elvira
as Wagnerian heroines, and so to complain of the inadequacy and
conventionality of much of their utterances and attitudes; so,
also, is it no less absurd to regard them as " secretly rather
gratified than otherwise to be on Don Giovanni's list." Donna
Elvira has suffered more cruelly from stolidly tragic singers and
no less stolidly flippant critics than she ever suffered from Don
Giovanni himself. She comes upon the stage expressing herself
in thoroughly conventional music, and we are told that the
formulas of Italian opera are inadequate for the expression of
her sorrows. Look at the sforzando in the second violins at the
words Ah se rilrovo I'empio. Mozart is depicting a young girl
facing a position she does not in the least understand; expressing
herself in stereotyped phrases as much from inexperience of their
meaning as from lack of anything that may better say what she
really feels. What Mozart's music with exquisite humour and
simplicity expresses is as yet nothing more serious than the wish
to scratch Don Giovanni's eyes out; as soon as his character is
revealed to her in Leporello's comic aria of the " catalogue," she
determines that others at all events shall not suffer as she has
suffered; and from that moment her character steadily develops
in seriousness and dignity. She is not all strength, and Don
Giovanni fools her to the top of her bent ; but nevertheless Mozart
realizes, on hints of which the librettist was hardly conscious, a
consistent scheme of development as dramatic as it is in keeping
with the most sublime possibilities of comic opera. Yet it is a
common practice to insert Elvira's last confession of weakness,
the aria Mi tradi, immediately after Leporello's catalogue
aria! Perhaps the first place where an intelligent tradition of
Mozart as a comic genius of the highest type has been restored is
Munich, where the standard set under the conductorship of
Richard Strauss will not soon be forgotten.
In Cost fan tutte Mozart's struggles with an absurd libretto
show even clearer evidence of the accuracy and power of his
genius than when he is working under conditions where success
is possible. Space forbids our dwelling further on this subject,
nor can we do more than glance at his last great opera, Die
Zauberflote. Beethoven thought it his greatest work; for the
simple literal-minded sincerity with which Beethoven regarded
the question of operatic libretto made Figaro frivolous and Don
Giovanni scandalous in his sight. Mozart's very serious interest
in freemasonry, which in its solemn ritual furnished an edifying
contrast to the frivolity and uncongeniality of the existing state of
church music, inspired him with the most sublime ideas hitherto
brought upon the operatic stage. He was further stimulated by
the feeling that freemasonry was to some extent a persecuted
institution; and the circumstance that his librettist was a skilful
stage manager secured for him that variety of action and effect-
iveness of entry and exit, compared with which an intelligible
plot is of almost negligible importance as a source of inspiration
to the classical composer, or even as a means of retaining popular
favour. Thus Die Zauberflote is an achievement unique in opera;
combining as it does the farcical gorgeousness of a pantomime
with the solemnity of a ritual and the contemporary interest of a
political satire.
From the solemnity of masonic ritual there is but one step to
that most pathetic of unfinished monuments, Mozart's Requiem.
The finished portions of this work contain the most sublime and
perfect church music between Bach and the Missa solemnis of
MOZDOK MTSENSK
953
Beethoven. The unauthentic portions, supplied by Sussmayer,
are so well designed that even their comparative slightness of
material hardly militates against the suggestion that he may have
had some inkling of Mozart's intentions. In particular, the
return of the first number at the words Lux aeterna, which
enables Siissmayer to end with ten pages of authentic Mozart, is
splendidly placed (though Mozart is reported to have contem-
plated an independent final number) ; while the latter part of the
Lacrimosa, though not in Mozart's handwriting, must surely
have been dictated by him. The instrumentation of the in-
complete numbers is based for the most part on highly authentic
evidence, though there are doubtful points; but that of the
supplied numbers, especially the Benedictus, is far below the
intellectual level of their design. In this, his last work, as in
many wonderful polyphonic experiments immediately before it,
Mozart showed unmistakable signs of the growth of a new style,
which would undoubtedly have had an influence even more
powerful on the history of music as being embodied in works
surpassing his ripest known achievements as these surpass the
marvellous productions of his childhood. Nevertheless, what
he has given us is unique, and the intelligent love of Mozart's
work is a liberal education in the meaning of art.
Mozart's extant works (as catalogued by Kochel in 626 items,
beginning with minuets written at the age of four and ending with
the Requiem) comprise 20 masses (including the Requiem and the
great unfinished Mass in C minor); 8 sets of vesperae and litanies;
40 smaller Latin pieces of church music; 6 cantatas and oratorio
works, of which the greatest, Davidde penitente, is adapted from
the C minor Mass; 17 " organ sonatas (i.e. little movements for
organ and an organ-loft band, for use in church) ; 23 operas (includ-
ing fragments and operettas) ; 66 arias and other pieces for insertion
into operas or for concert use; 41 songs with pianoforte accompani-
ment; 23 canons (mostly rounds); 17 pianoforte sonatas; 5 fantasias
and a Handelian suite (unfinished) ; 22 smaller pianoforte pieces ;
36 cadenzas to his own pianoforte concertos; II works for piano-
forte d quatre mains; 45 sonatas, including fragments and variations,
for pianoforte and violin; 8 pianoforte trios; 2 pianoforte quartets
and I quintet for pianoforte and wind; 2 duets for violin and viola;
2 string trios; 29 string quartets; 2 quartets for flute and strings;
1 quartet for oboe and strings; 9 string quintets-, of which I is for
the singular combination of I violin, 2 violas, violoncello and horn,
and another is the famous clarinet quintet; 49 symphonies; 33
cassations, serenades and divertimenti, many for the oddest or-
chestral or solo combinations; 27 smaller orchestral and other
pieces, also often for strange combinations of surprising beauty;
29 sets of orchestral dances; 6 violin concertos (the 6th is either
quite spurious or extremely corrupt) and 4 single violin movements;
2 double concertos (one for 2 violins, the other for violin and viola) ;
10 concertos and concert pieces for various wind instruments
(flute, horn, bassoon, clarinet, flute and harp); 27 pianoforte con-
certos (including one for 2 and one for 3 pianofortes) and a concert
rondo. Then there is an enormous number of fragments, many of
them peculiarly promising, as if Mozart was full of ideas that were
in advance of even his mastery of form; there is, for example, a
magnificent and comparatively early opening tutti for a double
concerto for pianoforte and violin, and a very large string quartet
movement in A (probably a finale), which breaks off at an exciting
moment at the beginning of its development.
No composer's reputation has suffered more from forgeries and
false attributions than Mozart's and the tale begun during the
lifetime of his widow is not yet ended at the present day. The
concertante for 4 wind instruments which recently went triumph-
antly round the orchestral societies of Europe as a long-lost work
written during Mozart's visit to Paris (though it is not for the same
instruments) is not so bad as the notorious forged masses, but it
is, to any one acquainted with Mozart's style at any period of his
career, almost as obviously spurious. Mozart often wrote without
thought, but never, even when he was six years old, without
mastery; and there is much genuine work that is as dull as this
concertante, but none that is obviously constructed by a fool.
A panegyric of the concertante has been inserted in the latest
(posthumous) editions of Jahn's biography, which it is very difficult
to believe would have met with that great scholar's approval.
On the other hand, twelve recently discovered divertimenti for
2 clarinets and bassoon are delightful little works which, with all
their slightness, only Mozart, and Mozart in full maturity, could
have written. A seventh violin concerto appeared in November
1907, and, though inferior to the earlier ones, is undoubtedly
genuine, every detail and quality of its organization being exactly
in keeping with Mozart's progress in 1777, its alleged date.
Many genuine works are known in spurious forms; thus the
motet SpUndente te Deus is an unauthorized arrangement of a chorus
from Konig Thames, and most of the flute-music mentioned in the
article Flute in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.) consists of spurious
arrangements, while several important genuine works are ignored.
(D. F. T.)
MOZDOK, a town of Russia, in Caucasia, and in the province *
of Terek, on the left bank of the river Terek, 605 ft. above sea-
level, in 43 41' N. and 44 39' E., 50 m. N. of Vladikavkaz.
The population, 8760 in 1863, numbered 14,583 in 1897, and
consisted of Kabardians, Chechens, Ossetes, Georgians and
Armenians. Built in 1763 by the prince of Kabardia, Mozdok
soon became an important point in the Russian advance towards
the Caucasus, and was fortified. In 1840 it was attacked by the
Circassian patriot Shamyl and 5000 mountaineers. The melons
and water-melons of Mozdok are widely famed; and vine-growing
and silkworm breeding prosper.
MOZLEY, JAMES BOWLING (1813-1878), English theologian,
was born at Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, on the isthof September
1813, and was educated at Oriel College, Oxford. He was elected
to a fellowship at Magdalen in 1840. He took an active part in
the Oxford movement, but could no more follow Newman into
the Roman communion " than fly." He was joint editor of
the Christian Remembrancer, but withdrew from the position
because of his substantial agreement with the famous Gorham
decision. He was one of the earliest supporters of the Guardian.
In 1856 he became vicar of Shoreham, in 1869 canon of Wor-
cester, and in 1871 regius professor of divinity at Oxford. He
died at Shoreham on the 4th of January 1878.
He wrote A Treatise on the Augustinian Doctrine of Predestination
(1855); The Primitive Doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration (1856);
A Review of the Baptismal Controversy (1862); Subscription to the
Articles: a Letter (1863); Lectures on Miracles, being the Bampton
Lectures for 1865; and Ruling Ideas in Early Ages and their relation
to the Old Testament Faith (1877). Essays, Historical and Theo-
logical, appeared in 1878 (2 vols.), with a biographical preface by his
sister Anne, who also edited some of his tetters (1884).
MOZLEY, THOMAS (1806-1893), English divine and writer,
was born at Gainsborough in 1806, the son of a bookseller and
publisher in that town. From Charterhouse school he pro-
ceeded to Oriel College, Oxford, where he became the pupil, and
subsequently the intimate friend, of John Henry Newman. In
1831 he was ordained, and became, in 1836, rector of Cholderton,
Wiltshire. He was, from its beginning, a strong supporter
of the Tractarian movement, and after contributing for some
time to the British Critic, the chief organ of the movement,
succeeded Newman as editor in 1841. In 1843 he was on the
point of joining the Roman Catholic Church. Newman, however,
strongly advised him to take two years to reflect, and long before
that period had elapsed Mozley had determined to remain an
Anglican. In 1844 he began to write leading articles for The
Times, and continued to do so regularly for many years. In
1847 he resigned his country living and settled in London, but in
1868 accepted the living of Plymtree, Devonshire. From 1876-
1880 he was rural dean of Ottery St Mary's, Devon. He resigned
his living in 1880, and removed to Cheltenham, where he died on
the 1 7th of June 1893.
He was the author of Reminiscences, chiefly of Oriel, and the
Oxford Movement, published in 1882.
MPONGWE (PONGOS), a settled Bantu people of the Gabun,
West Africa, constantly confused with the Mpangwe or Fang
(q.v.). The Mpongwe, who call themselves Ayogo or " the Wise,"
have a rich collection of national songs, myths and traditions,
and the tribal elders know the " Hidden Words," a kind of secret
language of unknown origin. Their language, a Bantu dialect,
has been the means of communication between the tribes of the
interior and the Europeans. The family organization is intricate
and very similar to the Roman patria potestas; wives, children
and slaves being all subservient to the father, who alone is really
free. They practise the poison ordeal, and reverence vague
and malignant spirits who require propitiation by offerings and
ceremonies. The ghosts of the dead are especially feared.
MTSENSK (popularly Amchensk], a town of Russia, in the
government of Orel, on the navigable Zusha River, 1 7 m. from
its confluence with the Oka, and on the Moscow & Kursk rail-
way, 32 m. N.E. of the city of Orel. Pop. (1900), 9390. It is
954
mentioned in the Russian chronicles as early as 1147.
to 1530 it was under the rule of Lithuania; in the latter year it
was taken by Russia, and became one of her chief strongholds
against the raids of the Tatars. It is now an important centre
for trade in grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, tobacco and spirits.
MTSKHET, a decayed town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the
government of Tiflis, 13 m. by rail N.N.W. of the city of Tiflis,
at the confluence of the Aragva with the Kura, at an altitude of
1515 ft. Pop. (1897), 1221. One of the oldest places in Georgia,
it was the capital of that country until supplanted by Tiflis
in the last year of the sth century A.D. The most ancient seat of
the Georgian kings was the castle of Arma-tsikhe, Armasis, or
Harmozica, crowning a hill opposite to Mtskhet. The most
memorable relic of the latter is the cathedral, said to have been
originally founded in the 4th century, though the existing
building dates from the isth century and was restored in the
i8th. In the graveyard attached to this convent graves
have been opened which yielded objects of the Iron and Stone
ages, and others of the era of the Roman emperor Augustus.
MUBARRAD, or MOBARRAD [Abu-1 'Abbas Mahommed ibn
Yazld ul-Azdi] (c. 826-898)., Arabian grammarian, was born in
Basja, and became the leader of the Basran grammarians against
the Kufan school. His judgment, however, was independent,
as is shown by his attack on some points in the grammar of Siba-
waihi, the greatest writer of his own school. He died at Bagdad.
His main work is the grammatical one known as the Kamil
(Perfect), which has been edited by W. Wright (Leipzig, 1864 seq.),
and published at Constantinople (1869) and Cairo (1891). Two
or three other works exist in MS.; cf. C. Brockelmann, Gesch. der
arabischen Litteratur, i. 109 (Weimar, 1898). (G. W. T.)
MUCH WENLOCK, a market town in the municipal borough
of Wenlock (q.v.), and the Ludlow parliamentary division of
Shropshire, England, 163 m. N.W. from London on the Great
Western railway. It lies at the north end of Wenlock Edge, a
range running south-west from the Severn valley. A priory
was founded here as a nunnery by St Milburg, granddaughter of
Penda, about 680, and after being destroyed by the Danes was
refounded by Leofric in 1017. Afterwards it was remodelled by
Roger de Montgomery for Cluniac monks. There are beautiful
remains of the priory church, chiefly Early English; but there is a
chapter-house of ornate Norman work. The prior's house, still
inhabited, is a remarkable specimen of i sth-century work, adjoin-
ing and incorporating remains in earlier styles. The parish
church of Holy Trinity, close to the ruins, is of mixed styles from
Norman onwards. There is a picturesque half-timbered guild-
hall ( 1 589) . Trade is mainly agricultural, but there are limestone
quarries in the neighbourhood. Wenlock received the grant of
a market from Henry III. in 1224. It was incorporated by
Edward IV. in 1448, when it also received the privilege of
returning members to parliament, but in 1885 it ceased to have
separate representation.
MUCIANUS, LICINIUS, Roman general and statesman, lived
during the ist century A.D. His name shows that he had passed
by adoption from the Mucian to the Licinian gens. About A.D. 55
he was sent by Claudius, who had become suspicious of his inti-
macy with Messallina, to Armenia with Domitius Corbulo. Under
Nero he regained the imperial favour. After the death of Galba
(69), Mucianus and Vespasian (who was at the time in Judaea)
both swore allegiance to Otho, but when the civil war broke out
Mucianus persuaded Vespasian to take up arms against Vitellius,
who had seized the throne. It was agreed that Vespasian should
stay behind to settle affairs in the East, while Mucianus made his
way through Asia Minor and Thrace to attack Vitellius. He
reached Rome the day after the death of Vitellius, and found
Domitian, Vespasian's son, at the head of affairs, but until the
arrival of Vespasian the real master of Rome was Mucianus.
But he never wavered in his allegiance to Vespasian, whose
favour he retained in spite of his arrogance. As no mention is
made of Mucianus during the reigns of Titus or Domitian, he
probably died during the reign of Vespasian. He was a clever
writer and historian. He made a collection of the speeches and
letters of the Romans of the older republican period, probably
MTSKHET M UCKERS
including a corpus of proceedings of the senate (Ada senates),
and was the author of a work, chiefly dealing with the natural
history and geography of the East, which is often quoted by
Pliny as an authority, especially for fabulous statements.
See monograph by L. Brunn (Leipzig, 1870).
MUCIC ACID, C 6 H 10 O 8 or HOOC-(CHOH) 4 -COOH, is obtained
by the oxidation of milk, sugar, dulcite, galactose, quercite and
most varieties of gum by nitric acid. It forms a crystalline
powder which melts at 213 C. It is insoluble in alcohol, and
nearly insoluble in cold water. When heated with pyridine to
140 C., it is converted into allomucic acid. When digested with
fuming hydrochloric acid for some time it is converted into aa'
furfurane dicarboxylic acid (see FURFURANE); while on heating
with barium sulphide it is transformed into a thiophene car-
boxylic acid (see THIOPHENE). The ammonium salt yields on
dry distillation carbon dioxide, ammonia, pyrrol and other
substances. The acid when fused with caustic alkalies yields
oxalic acid.
MUCILAGE (from Late Lat. mucilago, a mouldy juice, from
mucere, to be mouldy), a term which denotes a viscid or glutinous
mixture of water and any gummy vegetable substance (see GUM).
Mucilages are useful in medicine as vehicles for various insoluble
and other drugs, and in the arts as thickeners (in calico-printing,
dyeing, &c.) . The British pharmacopoeia contains the mucilages
of acacia and tragacanth.
MUCKERS (Ger. Muckern, i.e. canting bigots, hypocrites), the
nickname given to the followers of the teaching of Johann
Heinrich Schonherr (1770-1826) and Johann Wilhelm Ebel (1784-
1861). Schonherr, the son of a non-commissioned officer at
Memel in Prussia, was educated at the university of Konigsberg,
where at that time the theological faculty, under the influence
of Kantian idealism, was strongly rationalist in tendency. The
lad, who was miserably poor, was dissatisfied with a philosophy
which stopped short of an explanation of the " thing in itself,"
and, having been reared in the strictest orthodoxy, he set to
work to develop, with the aid of the Bible, a philosophy of his
own. In the end he believed himself to have reached ultimate
knowledge, and became the prophet of a dualistic theosophy 1 so
closely analogous to Gnosticism that it might have been taken
for a deliberate revival, had not Schonherr's lack of education
precluded any such idea. Among his converts was Ebel, who
from 1810 onwards gained a great reputation in Konigsberg as
an earnest preacher of the orthodox doctrines of sin, grace and
redemption, and in 1816 was appointed "archdeacon," i.e.
principal pastor, at the old church in Konigsberg. In the pulpit
he was orthodox; but he gathered about him a select circle of the
initiated, to whom in private he taught Schonherr's doctrines.
Schonherr himself sank into the background, and eventually
died in 1826. But Ebel continued his teaching, and was joined
in 1827 by Heinrich Diestel, also a Lutheran pastor of Konigsberg.
They became father confessors to a wide circle of silly fashionable
people in the Prussian capital. In view of their peculiar teaching
as to " the purification of the flesh," which involved the minute
regulation of the intercourse of married people, scandal was
1 Schonherr distinguished two primal powers or principles one
male and active, the other female and passive having both person-
ality and volition; he called them Light and Darkness, Fire and
Water. They moved freely in the void, and from their ultimate
contact God and the world sprang into being. Evil came into
existence owing to the fall of Lucifer, a Light-being created by God,
who in revenge lent his aid to the powers of Darkness. Sin came
with the Fall of Man; and this infection, inherited with the blood,
necessitated redemption in order to restore the harmony of the primal
powers. This was the work of Christ, who descended into a world
the inhabitants of which are divided into children of Light and chil-
dren of Darkness. The power of the Holy Ghost, emanating from
Christ, perfects the higher natures in whom Christ's " law of right-
eousness " is represented and who to a certain extent share in his
being; it becomes their duty to obtain control over the lower natures
so as to struggle against the powers of Darkness in them -powers
which can be overcome by prayer, fasting and self-mortification
generally. The end was near and the triumph of the Light
assured. Anti-christ (Napoleon) had already appeared, and when
Christ came he would find no faith on the earth (Luke xviii. 8)
because faith would be swallowed up in knowledge.
MUCUNA MUFTI
955
inevitable. Matters came to a head in 1835, when Count
Finckenstein, himself formerly an initiate, denounced the two
pastors and accused them of immorality. Diestel wrote two
violent tirades against the count, who brought an action for
slander and won it. The evidence taken in the case was then laid
before the consistory, and proceedings followed which became
famous as the " Kom'gsberger Religionsprozess " (1835-1841),'
ending in sentences of deprivation on both Ebel and Diestel.
The charges of actual immorality were dismissed; but there is no
doubt that some of their followers established practices akin to
those of the Agapemone and the Perfectionists. Some of them
migrated to Brazil, where in 1874 at Porto Alegre a company of
them came into collision with the military.
See J. I. Mombert, Faith Victorious (London, 1882); Hepworth
Dixon, Spiritual Wives (1868); and, more especially, the article
on Schonherr, by P. Tschackert, in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie
(3rd. ed., Leipzig, 1906), xvii. 676.
MUCUNA, a genus of twining plants, belonging to the natural
order Leguminosae, and natives of the tropics. M. prurient is
popularly known as cowhage or cowitch, a corruption of the Hindu
Kiwach. It is a tall annual climber with large dark purple pea-
like flowers, and golden-brown velvety pods recalling those of the
sweet pea, the hairs or bristles on which often raise blisters on
the skin. It is common in the tropical regions of India, Africa
and America, and the hairs on the pod have long been used in
medicine as a vermifuge.
MUDANIA (anc. Apamea Myrlea), a town of Asia Minor, on
the south coast of the Sea of Marmora, and the port of Brusa. It
is connected with Brusa by a railway and a carriage road, and
with Constantinople by steamers. Olive oil is produced. Pop.,
5900, of which two-thirds are Greeks.
MUDHOL, a native state of India in the southern division
of Bombay. Area, 368 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 63,001; revenue,
20,000. It was a Mahratta principality dating from Mahom-
medan rule before the rise of Sivaji. The family name of the
chief is Ghorpade. The town of Mudhol stands on the left bank
of the Ghatprabha; pop. (1901), 8359.
MUDIE, CHARLES EDWARD (1818-1890), English publisher
and founder of Mudie's Lending Library, was born at Chelsea
on the i8th of October 1818, the son of a secondhand bookseller
and newsagent. In 1840 he established a stationery and book-
selling business in Bloomsbury, London. He was the first
publisher of James Russell Lowell's poems in England, and of
Emerson's Man Thinking. In 1842 he began to lend books.
This department proved so successful that in 1852 he moved his
" Select Library " to larger premises in New Oxford Street,
London. In 1860 these premises were substantially enlarged,
and branches of the business established, and in 1864 " Mudie's "
was converted into a limited company. Mudie himself died on
the 28th of October 1890.
MUFF, an article of outdoor apparel, open at either end, for
holding the hands in and keeping them warm, generally made of
fur, but also of velvet, silk, &c. Muffs are now only used in
England by women, but in the i7th and i8th centuries were
fashionable for men. In Roman times the place of the glove was
taken by long sleeves (manicae) reaching to the hand, and in
winter special sleeves of fur were worn (cf. Cic. Phil. ii. n, 26).
In Medieval Latin we find the word mujjulae, defined by Du
Cange (Gloss., s.v.) as chirolhecae pellitae et hibernae. He quotes
from a cartulary of the year 817, of the issuing to monks of sheep-
skin coverings to be used during the winter. These may have
been, as the Roman certainly were, separate coverings for each
hand, although the cartulary cited also distinguishes the glove
for summer from the muffulae for winter wear. The O. Fr. moufle
meant a thick glove or mitten, and from this the Du. mof,
Walloon mouffe, and thence Eng. " muff," are probably derived.
From the Fr. moufle have come the various uses, verbal and
substantival, of " muffle," viz. to wrap round for protection, for
deadening sound &c., and for a chamber or receptacle in a
furnace to protect objects from contact with fire while exposed to
heat. The slang use of " muff " for a clumsy, awkward person
is of late origin. It appears in the middle of the igth century.
1 The contemptuous designation Muckern dates from this time.
MUFFLING, FRIEDRICH KARL FERDINAND, FREIHERR
VON, called WEISS (1775-1851), Prussian general field marshal,
was born on the i2th of June 1775, and entered the Prussian
army in 1790. In 1799 he contributed to a military dictionary
edited by Lieutenant W. von Leipziger, and in the winter of
1802-1803, being then a subaltern, he was appointed to the
newly-formed general staff as "quartermaster-lieutenant." He
had already done survey work, and was now charged with survey
duties under the astronomer F. X. von Zach (1754-1832). In
1805, when in view of a war with France the army was placed on a
war footing, Muffling was promoted captain and assigned to the
general staffs, successively, of General von Wartensleben, Prince
Hohenlohe and Blucher. In 1806 he served under Hohenlohe,
the duke of Saxe- Weimar, and BlUcher, and was included in the
capitulation of the latter's corps at Rattkau, after which he
entered the civil service of the duke of Weimar. He rejoined the
army on the outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, and was
placed on the headquarters staff of the army of Silesia. His
business qualities and common sense were greatly valued,
though the temperamental differences between Muffling and
Gneisenau often led to friction, especially as the former was in a
measure the representative of the antiquated " topographical "
school of strategists, to whom (rightly in the main) the disaster
of Jena was attributed. In the interval between the first
occupation of Paris and the Hundred Days, Muffling served as
chief of the staff to the Russian general Barclay de Tolly and to
General Kleist von Nollendorf. He was Prussian commissioner
at the duke of Wellington's headquarters in the Waterloo cam-
paign, and was involved in the various controversies which
centred round the events of the i6th of June 1815. After the
final fall of Napoleon he served on the staff of the army of
occupation in France and was for some months military governor
of Paris. He spent a part of his time on the Rhine in survey
work, and was employed by Frederick William III. in various
diplomatic missions. In 1821 he became chief of the general
staff at Berlin, and though he has been accused of indulging his
taste for topographical work at the expense of training for war,
his work was not wasted, for he gave an excellent organization
to the general staff, and executed elaborate and useful surveys.
In 1829 he visited Constantinople and St Petersburg in connexion
with negotiations for peace between Russia and Turkey. He took
a prominent part in the military and civil history of Prussia, and
from 1838-1847 was governor of Berlin. Failing health compelled
his retirement in the latter year, and he died on the i6th of
January 1851, at his estate of Ringhofen near Berlin.
Under the initials of C(arl) yon W(eiss), he wrote various important
works on military art and history: Operations plan der preuss-sdchs.
Armee 1806 (Weimar, 1807); marginalia on the archduke Charles's
Grundsatze der hoheren Kriegskunst fur die Generale der oeslerr.
Armee, and on Riihle von Lilienstern's Bericht iiber die Vorgange
bei der Hohenloheschen Armee 1806; Die preussisch-russische Kam- ,
pagne bis zum Waffenstillstande 1813 (Berlin, 1813); Geschichte der
Armeen unter Wellington und Blucher 1815 (Stuttgart, 1817); Zur
Kriegsgesch. der Jahre 1813-1814: die Feldzuge der schiesischen
Armee von der Beendigung des Waffenstillstandes bis zur Eroberung
von Paris (Berlin, 1 824) ; Betrachtungen iiber die grossen Operationen
und Schlachten 1813-1815 (Berlin, 1825); Napoleons Strategie 1813
(Berlin, 1827) ; and an essay on the Roman roads on the lower Rhine
(Berlin, 1834). Muffling was also the inventor of a system of hachur-
ing for maps. His reminiscences, Aus meinem Leben, were published
at Berlin in 1851.
MUFTI, 2 a consulting canon-lawyer in Islam, who, upon
application, gives fatwas (Jetvas) or legal opinions on points of
canon law (see MAHOMMEDAN LAW). These are asked and given
in strictly impersonal form, but the cadi, or judge, then appliesi
them to the case and decides in accordance with them. In
theory, any learned man whose opinion is respected and whose
advice is sought can give fatwas. But generally in a Muslim
state there are muftis specifically appointed by the government,
one for each school of canon law in each place. Each of these
renders opinions in accordance with the law-books of his school;
1 The use of the word for plain or civilian clothes worn instead
of uniform is originally Anglo-Indian. It may have been suggested
by the loose flowing robes of the stage " mufti," and thus implied
any easy dress worn by an officer when out of uniform.
956
MUGGLETON MUHLENBERG, J. P. G.
he has no scope for free interpretation ; everything is fixed there
and he must follow the precedents of the elders. In Turkey
there is a chief mufti, called the Sheikh al-Islam, whose office
was created by the Ottoman sultan, Mahommed II., in 1453
after the capture of Constantinople. He is, in a sense, the heac
of the ecclesiastical side of the state, that controlled by canon
law; while the grand vizier is at the head of secular matters
Although his powers are delegated by the sultan-caliph, and he is
appointed and can be dismissed by him, yet in his fatwa-issuing
power he is independent. The sultan may dismiss him before
he has a chance to issue a fatwa; but if he once issues it the result
is legally automatic, even though it means the deposition of the
sultan himself. Thus it was by a fatwa of the Sheikh al-Islam
that the sultan Abdul Hamid was deposed.
See Juynboll, De mohammedaansche Wet., 40 sqq.; De Slane's
trans, of Ibn Khaldun's Prolegomenes, I. Ixxviii. 447 seq. ; Turkey
in Europe, by "Odysseus," 131 seq.; Young, Corps de droit ottoman
I. x., 285, 289. (D. B. MA.)
MUGGLETON, LODOWICKE (1600-1698), English sectarian
was born in Bishopsgate Street, London. His father was a
farrier, but he himself was bred to be a tailor. In 1651 he began
to have revelations, and to proclaim himself and his cousin John
Reeve, whose journeyman he was, as the two witnesses mentionec
in Rev. xi. 3. In 1652 they put out their " commission book '
under the title The Transcendent Spirituall Treatise. An
exposition of their doctrines was published in 1656 under the
title of The Divine Looking-Glass. Among other views (besides
the doctrine of the divine mission of the authors) this work taught
that the distinction of the three persons in the Trinity is merely
nominal, that God has a real human body, and that He left
Elijah as His vicegerent in heaven when He Himself descended
to die on the cross. Muggleton's opinions gained some notable
adherents, but also called forth much opposition. In 1653 he
was imprisoned for blasphemy, and twice (1660 and 1670) his
own followers temporarily repudiated him. His attack on the
Quakers drew forth William Penn's book, The New Witnesses
proved old Heretics (1672). In 1677 Muggleton was tried at the
Old Bailey, convicted of blasphemy, and fined 500. Reeve died
in 1658, but Muggleton survived till 1698.
His collected works, including the posthumous A els of the Witnesses,
were published in 1756; and in 1832 some sixty Muggletonians
subscribed to bring out a new edition of The Works of J. Reeve and
L. Muggleton (in 3 vols. 4to). Even as late as 1846 The Divine
Looking-Glass was reprinted by members of the then almost extinct
sect. See A. Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars (1888).
MUGWUMP, in American political slang, a name applied to
any independent voter, and especially to those independents in
the Republican party who refused to support James G. Blaine,
when nominated by that party for the presidency in 1884; as
since adopted in England it usually means one who stays neutral
and votes for no party. Originally " mugwump " (mogkiomp)
was a North American Indian word, in the Massachusett dialect
of the Algonquian, meaning " great man " (mogki, great; omp,
man); and in New England it was used of self -conceited
politicians.
MUHAMRAH (MOHAMMERAH) , a town of Persia, in the province
of Arabistan, in 30 26' N., 48 n' E., on the Hafar canal,
which joins the Karun with the Shatt el Arab, and flows into the
latter 40 m. above its mouth at Fao and about 20 m. below
Basra. It has post and telegraph offices, and a population of
about 5000. With the opening of the Karun river, as far as
Ahvaz, to international navigation in 1889, Muhamrah acquired
greater importance, and its customs, which until then were leased
to the governor for 1500 per annum, rose considerably, and paid
8000 until taken over by the central customs department under
Belgian officials in 1902. It is estimated that the value of the
imports and exports into and from Muhamrah, excluding specie,
is about 300,000 per annum, paying customs amounting to
about 18,000. Until 1847, when it definitely became Persian
territory in accordance with art. ii. of the treaty of Erzerum,
Muhamrah was alternately claimed and occupied by Persia and
Turkey, its ruler, an Arab sheikh, helping either power as he
found it convenient. Since then the governor of the town and
adjoining district has been a sheikh of the K'ab or Chaab Arabs,
a powerful tribe of the Shi'ah branch of Islam. At the close of
the Anglo-Persian campaign in 1857 Muhamrah was taken by a
British force.
MUHLBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the
left bank of the Elbe, 8 m. below Riesa. Pop. (1905), 3380.
It carries on a considerable trade by water in timber and corn.
Miihlberg is famous for the victory gained here, on the 24th of
April 1547, by the emperor Charles V. over the elector of Saxony,
John Frederick.
See Lenz. Die Schlacht bei Miihlberg (Gotha, 1879) ; and Bertram,
Chronik der Stadt Miihlberg (Torgau, 1864).
MUHLENBERG, HENRY MELCHIOR (1711-1787), German-
American Lutheran clergyman, was born in Einbeck, Hanover,
on the 6th of September 1711. When he was twelve years old
his father, a member of the city council, died. The son entered
the university of Gottingen in 1735, and his work among the
poor of Gottingen led to the establishment of the present orphan
house there. In 1738 he went to Halle to finish his theological
studies; he was a devoted worker in the Franckesche Stiftung,
which later served as a partial model for his great-grandson's
community at St Johnland, Long Island. He was deacon at Gross-
hennersdorf, in Upper Lusatia, in 1739-1741. In 1742, in reply
to a call from the Lutheran churches of Pennsylvania, he went
to Philadelphia, and was joined from time to time, especially in
1745, by students from Halle. Muhlenberg occupied himself more
particularly with the congregation at New Providence (now
Trappe), though he was practically overseer of all the Lutheran
churches from New York to Maryland. In 1 748 he organized the
first Lutheran synod in America. Muhlenberg married in 1745
Anna Maria Weiser, daughter of J. Conrad Weiser,"a well-known
Indian interpreter, and herself said to have had Indian blood in
her veins; by her he had eleven children. Throughout the War
of Independence he and his sons (see below) were prominent
patriots. He died at Trappe on the 7th of October 1787. The
importance of his work in organizing and building up the Ameri-
can Lutheran Church, of which he has been called the Patriarch,
can hardly be exaggerated; but his example in preaching in
English as well as in German was, unfortunately for the growth
of the Lutheran Church, not followed by his immediate successors.
He had no sympathy with the Old Lutherans and their strict
orthodoxy on the contrary he was friendly with the Reformed
congregations, and with George Whitefield and the Tennents:
See Life and Times by William J. Mann (Philadelphia, 1887).
MUHLENBERG, JOHN PETER GABRIEL (1746-1807),
American preacher and soldier, son of H. M. Muhlenberg (q.v.),
was born at Trappe, Pennsylvania, on the ist of October 1746.
With his two brothers he was educated in Germany. He entered
the Lutheran ministry, had charge of churches at New German-
town and Bedminster, New Jersey, and after 1772 of a church in
Woodstock, Virginia, and there in 1775 raised the 8th Virginia
(German) regiment, of which he was made colonel; in February
1777 he became a brigadier-general in the Continental Army; and
in September 1783 was breveted major-general. He took part
in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown and Monmouth, and
at Yorktown commanded the first brigade of light infantry.
After the war he removed to Pennsylvania. He was a member
of the Virginia convention of 1776, was vice-president of the
supreme-executive council of Pennsylvania in 1787-1788, and
was a representative in Congress in 1789-1791, in 1793-1795,
and in 1799-1801. In 1801 he was elected as a Democratic-
Republican to the United States Senate, but immediately
esigned to become supervisor of revenue for the district of
Pennsylvania. He became collector of the port of Philadelphia in
1803. He was a friend of Thomas Jefferson and of James Monroe.
See Life by Henry A. Muhlenburg (Philadelphia, 1849).
His brother, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS CONRAD MUHLENBERG
,1750-1801), became his father's assistant in Philadelphia in
1770; was pastor of the Christ (or Swamp) German Lutheran
Church of New York City from 1773 to 1776; and in 1777-1779
was assistant to his father at New Hanover. In 1779-1780 he was
MUHLENBERG, W. A. MUIR, J.
a member of the Continental Congress, in 1780-1783 of the Penn-
sylvania general assembly (then consisting of only one house),
and in 1780-1790 of the state constitutional convention. He
was president of the Pennsylvania convention which ratified the
federal constitution, and was a member in 1789-1797 of the
national House of Representatives, of which he was speaker in
1780-1791 and 1793-1795. On the 29th of April 1796, as chair-
man of the committee of the whole, he cast the deciding vote
for the laws necessary to carry out Jay's treaty.
Another brother, GOTTHILF HENRY ERNEST MUHLENBERG
( I 7S3- 1 8is), was a prominent Lutheran clergyman, and was
pastor of a church in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, from 1779 to his
death; but he is best known as a botanist, and published Calalogus
plantarum Americae septentrionalis (1813) and Descriptio uberior
graminum et plantarum calamariarum Americae septentrionalis
indignarum et circurum (1817).
See John M. Maisch, G. H. E. Muhlenberg als Botaniker (1886).
Gotthilf's son, HENRY AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG ( 1782-1844),
was pastor of a Lutheran Church in Reading, Pennsylvania, in
1802-1828, was a Democratic representative in Congress in 1829-
1838, and was United States minister to Austria in 1838-1840.
MUHLENBERG, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1796-1877),
American philanthropist and Protestant Episcopal clergyman,
great-grandson of H. M. Muhlenberg and grandson of F. A. C.
Muhlenberg, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
i6th of September 1796. 'He graduated at the university of
Pennsylvania in 1815. In 1817 he was ordained a deacon in the
Protestant Episcopal Church, and became assistant to Bishop
William White (1748-1836) in the rectorship of Christ Church,
St Peter's and St James's, Philadelphia. In 1820 he was ordained
priest and until 1826 was rector of St James's Church, Lancaster,
Pennsylvania. Largely owing to his efforts, Lancaster was the
second public school district created in the state. His interest
in church music and hymnody prompted his pamphlet of 1821,
A Plea for Christian Hymns; he drew up for the use of his own
parish a collection of Church Poetry (1823); and in 1823 he was
appointed by the General Convention a member of the committee
on psalms and hymns, whose collection, approved in 1826, con-
tained several of Muhlenberg's own compositions, including " I
would not live alway," " Shout the glad tidings," and " Saviour,
who thy flock art feeding." From 1826 to 1845 he was rector
of St George's, Flushing, Long Island, where in 1827 he became
head of the Flushing Institute, probably the first Protestant
Episcopal " church school " in the United States. He founded
a St Paul's College, to include the institute, but the panic of 1837
and the refusal of a charter by the state legislature brought it to
an end; and the property was sold a few years after Muhlenberg
left Flushing. The methods of this institute were however
copied widely; church schools sprang up everywhere; and St
Paul's School, Concord, New Hampshire, and the Groton School
in Massachusetts were established in accordance with his ideas.
In 1845 he removed to New York City, where in 1846 he became
rector of the Church of the Holy Communion, a " free " church
built by his sister, Mrs Mary A. Rogers. Here Muhlenberg
founded the first American order of Protestant Episcopal
deaconesses, the Sisterhood of the Church of the Holy Com-
munion, begun in 1845 and formally organized in 1852. The
work of the sisterhood led to Muhlenberg's establishment of St
Luke's Hospital (opened in 1858), for which his congregation
made offerings each St Luke's Day after 1846. In 1866 he founded
on Long Island the Church Industrial Community of St Johnland.
He bought 535 acres (mostly wooded), with a shore front of 15 m.
on Long Island Sound, near King's Park, 45 m. from New
York City, to be a home for the aged and for young children,
especially cripples. 1 The plan was not reformatory nor purely
1 The Society of St Johnland, incorporated in 1870, has a chapel,
the Church of the Testimony of Jesus ( 1 869) , St John's Inn, the home
for old men (also built in 1869), Sunset Cottage, a home for twelve
aged couples, Muhlenberg House for old women, the Fabbri Home,
the Sunbeam Cottage (given by Mr and Mrs Cornelius Vanderbilt
in 1881) Lawrence House, for babies, a library and village hall, a
kindergarten, a school house, and the " mansion," Dr Muhlenberg's
home at St Johnland and later the home of Sister Anne Ayres, his
biographer, during her superintendence of the society.
957
charitable, and a moderate rent was charged for the cottages.
In the St Johnland cemetery is the grave of Dr Muhlenberg, who
died on the 8th of April 1877 in St Luke's Hospital, New York
City. His ideal of the church was that it was missionary and
evangelical as well as catholic with formal government and ritual;
hence he called himself an " evangelical Catholic " and wrote the
Evangelical Catholic Papers, which were collected and published
by Anne Ayres in 1875-1877.
See Anne Ayres, Life and Work of William Augustus Muhlenberg
(New York, 1880), and W. W. Newton, Dr Muhlenberg (Boston,
1890), in the " American Religious Leaders " series.
MUHLHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Thuringia,
on the right bank of the Unstrut, 25 m. N.W. of Gotha by rail.
Pop. (1905), 34,359. It consists of a new and an old town,
surrounded by five suburbs, and has numerous old churches and
towers. The most interesting churches are those of St Mary and
of St Blasius, dating respectively from the I4th and the i2th
century; the town-hall is also a fine medieval structure. The
chief industries are the spinning and weaving of woollen and
cotton. Other manufactures include needles, machinery, cigars,
soap, hosiery, furniture and shoes. There are also establish-
ments for dyeing, tanning, lime-burning, iron-making, brewing
and the preparation of liqueurs.
Miihlhausen is one of the oldest towns in Thuringia, and
is said to have been fortified in 925. Its early importance is
shown by the grant of privileges made to it by the German King
Henry I., and by the diet held here in 1135. During the
Reformation period Miihlhausen became notorious as one of the
chief seats of the Anabaptists. Thomas Mttnzer, one of their
leaders, was captured in the vicinity and executed in the town.
Internal dissensions and injuries received during the Thirty
Years' War and the Seven Years' War afterwards reduced
Miihlhausen to unimportance. In 1802 it lost its independence
and passed to Prussia, in 1807 it was attached to the kingdom of
Westphalia, but in 181 5 it again became Prussian. The Teutonic
Order established itself at Miihlhausen in 1 200.
See E. Heydenreich, Aus der Geschichte der Reichsstadt Miihl-
hausen (Halle, 1900); Nebelsieck, Reformationsgescfcchte der Stadt
Miihlhausen (Magdeburg, 1905); Herquet, Urkundenbuch der
ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Muhlhausen (Halle, 1874); F. Stephan,
Verfassungsgeschichte der Reichsstadt Muhlhausen (Sondershausen,
1886) ; Jordan, Chronik der Stadt Muhlhausen (Muhlhausen, 1900-
1906); and Fiihrer durch Muhlhausen und Umgegend (1901).
MUIR, JOHN (1810-1882), Scottish Orientalist, was born on
the 5th of February 1810 in Glasgow, where his father, William
Muir (d. 1821), was a merchant. He was educated at the
grammar school of Irvine, the university of Glasgow, and the
East India Company's College at Haileybury. He went to India
in 1829, and served with distinction in various offices, as assistant
secretary to the board of revenue, Allahabad, as collector
at Azimgarh, as principal of the Victoria College, Benares, and
as civil and session judge at Fatehpur. He encouraged the study
of Sanskrit, and furthered schemes for the enlightenment and
amelioration of the Hindus. In 1853 he retired and settled in
Edinburgh, where he continued his Indian labours. In 1862 he
endowed the chair of Sanskrit in the university of Edinburgh,
and was the main agent in founding the Shaw fellowship in moral
philosophy. He was a D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Edinburgh
and Ph.D. of Bonn, and was one of the first to receive the
distinction of C.I.E. He died on the 7th of March 1882.
In 1858 appeared vol. i. of his Original Sanskrit Texts (2nd ed.,
1868) ; it was on the origin of caste, an inquiry intended to show that
it did not exist in the Vedic age. Vol. ii. (ist ed., 1860; 2nd, 1871)
was concerned with the origin and racial affinities of the Hindus,
exhibiting all the then available evidences of their connexion, their
linguistic, social and political kinship, with the other branches of
the Indo-European stock. Vol. iii. (ist ed., 1861; 2nd, 1868) was on
the Vedas, a full inquiry as to the ideas of their origin, authority
and inspiration held both by the Vedic and later Indian writers.
Vol. iv. (ist ed., 1863 ; 2nd, 1873) was a comparison of the Vedic with
the later representations of the principal Indian deities, an exhibition
of the process by which three gods hardly known to the Vedic
hymns became the deities of the former Hindu Trimurti. Vol. v,
(1870) was on the Vedic mythology. Dr Muir was also the author
of a volume of Metrical Translations from the Sanskrit, an anonymous
work on Inspiration, several works in Sanskrit, and many essays in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society and elsewhere.
958
MUIR, SIR W. MULBERRY
MUIR, SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905), Scottish Orientalist,
brother cf the preceding, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of
April 1819. He was educated at Kilmarnock Academy, at
Glasgow and Edinburgh Universities, and at Haileybury College,
and in 1837 entered the Bengal Civil Service. He served as
secretary to the governor of the North- West Provinces, and as a
member of the Agra revenue board, and during the Mutiny he
was in charge of the intelligence department there. In 1865 he
was made foreign secretary to the Indian Government. In 1867
he was knighted (K.C.S.I.), and in 1868 he became lieutenant-
governor of the North- We^t Provinces. In 1874 he was appointed
financial member of the Council, and retired in 1876, when he
became a member of the Council of India in London. He had
always taken an interest in educational matters, and it was
chiefly through his exertions that the central college at Allaha-
bad, known as Muir's College, was built and endowed. In 1885
he was elected principal of Edinburgh University in succession
to Sir Alexander Grant, and held the post till 1903, when he
retired. Sir William Muir was a profound Arabic scholar, and
made a careful study of the history of the time of Mahomet and
the early caliphate. His chief books are a Life oj Mahomet and,
History oj Islam to the Era of the Hegira; Annals of the Early
Caliphate; The Caliphate, an abridgment and continuation of the
Annals, which brings the record down to the fall of the caliphate
on the onset of the Mongols; The Koran: its Composition and
Teaching; and The Mohammedan Controversy, a reprint of five
essays published at intervals between 1885 and 1887. In 1881
he delivered the Rede lecture at Cambridge on The Early Cali-
phate and Rise of Islam. He married in 1840 Elizabeth Huntly
Wemyss (d. 1897), and had five sons and six daughters; four of
his sons served in India, and one of them, Colonel A. N. Muir
(d. 1899), was acting resident in Nepal.
MUKADDASI ' [the appellation of Shams ad Din Abu Abdallah
Mahommed ibn Ahmad] (fl. 967-985), Arabian traveller, author
of a Description of the Lands of Islam which is the most original
and among the most important of Arabic geographies of the
middle ages. His family name was Al Bashari. His paternal
grandfather was an architect who constructed many public
works in Palestine, especially at Acre, and his mother's family
was opulent. His maternal grandfather, a man of artistic and
literary tastes, migrated to Jerusalem from Jurjan province in
Persia, near the frontier of Khorasan. His descriptions rest on
extensive travels through a long series of years. His first
pilgrimage was made at the age of twenty (in A.H. 3s6 = A.D. 967),
but his book was not published till A.H. 375 (A.D. 985-986), when
he was forty years old.
The two MSS. (at Berlin and Constantinople) represent a later
recension (A.H. 378). The book became known in Europe through
the copy brought from India by Sprenger, and was edited by Pro-
fessor M. J. de Goeje as the third part of his Bibliotheca Ceograph-
orum Arabicorum (Leiden, 1877). See also the English translation
(unfinished) by G. S. A. Ranking and R. F. Azoo, in Bibliotheca
Indica, New Series, Nos. 899, 952, 1001 (Bengal Asiatic Society,
1897-1901); Mukaddasi's Syrian chapter has been separately
translated and edited in English by Guy le Strange (London, Pales-
tine Pilgrims Text Society, 1886); in German by J.Gildemeister
in Zeitschrijt des deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, vol. vii. (1884).
MUKDEN (Chinese Shengking), the capital of Manchuria, on
the Hun-ho, no m. N.E. of Niuchwang, in 41 51' N., 123 38'
E., with a population of 250,000. It is a centre for trade and
also for missionary enterprise. It was formerly the headquarters
of the Manchu dynasty, and their tombs lie within its confines.
Mukden is a fine town, with splendid walls, about a mile long
each way. The suburbs extend a considerable distance from the
city and are surrounded by mud walls. In the centre of the town
stands a small palace surrounded by an inner wall and roofed with
yellow tiles. The boots and pack of Nurhachu, the founder of
the present Chinese dynasty, who was a pedlar, are preserved
there. Nurhachu's son, the emperor T'ien-tsung (1627-1636),
built temples to heaven and earth in the neighbourhood of the
city in imitation of those at Peking. These are much dilapidated.
Four or five miles to the east of the town stands the Fu-ling or
" happy tomb," where the remains of Nurhachu rest, the outer
1 Al Mukaddasi = " the Jerusalemite."
gates of which are adorned with a green majolica representation
of an imperial dragon. The Emperor K'ien lung (1726-1796)
wrote a poem on Mukden, which was translated into French by
Pere Amiot and attracted the attention of Voltaire. During the
Russo-Japanese War in 1905 some of the heaviest fighting took
place before Mukden, what is known as the " battle of Mukden "
covering operations from the igth of February till the Japanese
occupied Mukden on the loth of March and the Russians
retreated northward on the i2th.
MUKOISHU (Magodoxo), a seaport of Italian Somaliland, East
Africa, in 2 i' N., 45 24' E. It is built on the sandy coast
which separates the Webi Shebeli fron the sea. The harbour
is open. Mukdishu, formerly extensive, is largely in ruins; it
consists of two villages, Hamarhwin to the south and Shingani
to the north. There are some houses in the Moorish style and a
mosque among the ruins bears date 636 A.H. (i.e. A.D. 1238).
Between the two settlements is the governor's palace and north
of the town is a massive square tower built by the Portuguese in
the 1 6th century. The population, about 5000, is mainly com-
posed of descendants of negro slaves known as Abesh. There are
also Somali, Arab and Hindu settlers. Mukdishu is mentioned
by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an '' immense "
city. This was in the early part of the i4th century. It was a
flourishing port and had many fine mosques when captured by
the Portuguese (about 1510). Under Portugal the place fell into
decay. It passed in the i7th century info the possession of the
imams of Muscat, but in the i8th century became practically
independent. It was reconquered by Seyyid Said c. 1830, and
on the division of his dominions fell to Zanzibar. In 1892 it was
transferred to Italy (see SOMALILAND, Italian). The name of the
town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar,
whence the name of the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier
points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's descrip-
tion of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the
land of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar.
MULA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia; on
the left bank of the Mula, a small right-hand tributary of the
Segura, periodically liable to destructive floods. Pop. (1900),
12,731. The Sierra Espufia rises on the south to a height of
nearly 5200 ft. Mula has a small trade in agricultural produce,
wine and olive oil. About 4 m. east are two groups of houses
known as the Banos de Mula, with warm sulphurous springs of
considerable local repute.
MULATTO (Span, and Port, mulato, diminutive of mulo, Lat.
mulus, a mule, used as denoting a hybrid origin), a person one of
whose parents is of a white race and the other a negro. In Latin
America such half-breeds are sometimes called mestizos.
MULBERRY 2 (botanically Morus; nat. ord. Moraceae), a
genus of about ten species growing in the temperate regions
of the northern hemisphere and in the mountains of the tropics.
They are deciduous trees or shrubs with alternate, toothed,
often three-lobed leaves and unisexual flowers in catkin-like
inflorescences.
The black mulberry (Morus nigra), a native of western Asia,
spread westwards in cultivation at an early period; it was
cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, and in northern Europe
by the 9th and loth centuries. Up to the I5th century it
was extensively grown in Italy for rearing silkworms, but has
since been superseded by M. alba. It is now mainly cultivated
for its oblong purplish-black compound fruit the so-called
sorosis, formed from the whole female inflorescence in which
the perianth leaves of the single flowers have become fleshy
which is wholesome and palatable if eaten fresh before acetous
fermentation has set in. The mulberry succeeds as a standard
in the warmer parts of England, especially in sheltered
situations, but in the north of England and the less favoured
parts of Scotland it requires the assistance of a wall. The
standard trees require no other pruning or training than an
occasional thinning out of the branches, and are generally
planted on lawns, to prevent the fruit being damaged when it
2 Mulberry stands for mvrberry or morberry, i.e. morus and
" berry," cf. Ger. maulbeere, O.H.G. mulberi, murberi.
MULDE MULE
falls. The tree succeeds best in a rich, deep, and somewhat
moist loam, but grows well in any good garden ground. It
is usually propagated either by cuttings or layers, which latter,
if made from the older branches of the tree, come sooner into
bearing. Cuttings planted in the spring should consist of
well-ripened shoots of the preceding year, with a joint of two-
year-old wood at their base, or if planted in autumn should
have the shoots well matured, and furnished with a heel of
two-year-old wood. The branches and even stout limbs are
sometimes employed as cuttings instead of the younger shoots,
especially when the object is to obtain a bearing tree quickly.
959
Mulberry (Morus nigra) Shoot bearing Fruit.
1, Catkin of male flowers: f nat. 3, Cluster of female flowers.
size. 4, Two female flowers.
2, A male flower.
The branch should be planted deeply in autumn in good soil,
and if necessary supported in an upright position by a stake.
The most common mode of propagation, however, is by layering
the young branches. The mulberry may be grown in pots, and
gently forwarded in an orchard house, and under these con-
ditions the fruit acquires a richness of flavour unknown in the
fruit ripened out of doors. If cultivated in this way it requires
abundance of water while the fruit is swelling, and also frequent
dressings of artificial fertilizers.
The white mulberry (M. alba), so called from its nearly
white fruit, is the one mainly employed in sericulture. It is
a native of China and has been cultivated from the earliest
times in Asia and since the I2th century in Europe, especially
in the Mediterranean region. There are many varieties, among
which the Philippine mulberry (var. muUicaulis) is perhaps
most highly esteemed. The Indian species, M. indica (not to
be confounded with Morinda citrijolia, a rubiaceous tree,
sometimes also called Indian mulberry), is also cultivated for
the same purpose.
M. rubra, the North American red mulberry, is the largest of
the genus, often reaching a height of 70 ft. It produces dark red
berries much inferior in flavour, however, to those of M . nigra.
Broussonetia papyrifera, a member of a closely allied genus,
is the paper mulberry, a native of Burma, China and Polynesia,
and widely cultivated in Japan, where the bark is used for
paper-making. The Tapa-cloth of the South Sea Islands is also
made from it. The plant is a shrub or small tree with large
mulberry-like lobed or entire hairy leaves. Several forms are
cultivated, differing chiefly in the shape of the leaves.
MULDE, a river of Germany, a left-bank tributary of the
Elbe. It is formed by the confluence, just below Kolditz,
of the Zwickauer Mulde, which rising in the Vogtland of Saxony
passes Zwickau, Glauchau and Rochlitz, and the Freiberger
Mulde. which, rising in the Bohemian Erzgebirge, touches
Freiberg, Dobeln and Leisnig. The united river flows north
to Grimma and thence past Wurzen, Eilenburg and Bitterfeld
to Dessau, where it joins the Elbe. The total length of the
united river is 75 m.
MULE (Lat. mulus), a term not unfrequently applied to
the produce of any two creatures of different species, and
synonymous with hybrid, but in its ordinary acceptation em-
ployed to designate the offspring or " cross " between the equine
and asinine species. There are two kinds of mule the Mule
proper (Equus asinus, var. 7; Mulus; FT. Mulct or Grand mulct;
Ger. Grosser Maulesel), which is the hybrid produce of a male
ass with a mare, and the Hinny (Equus asinus, var. 5; Hinnus;
Fr. Bardot or Petit mulct; Ger. Kleiner Maulesel), the offspring
of the stallion and female ass. The mule is the more valuable
of the two, and to its production the attention of breeders is
entirely directed.
In its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow
hoofs, short mane, absence of chestnuts (horny growths) inside
the hocks, and tail destitute of hair at the root the mule is
asinine; while in height and body, shape of neck and croup,
uniformity of coat, and in teeth it is equine. It has the voice
neither of the ass nor of the horse, but emits a feeble hoarse
noise. The most common colour of the mule is a brown or
bay-brown bay, or bright bay, or piebald being rare; a chestnut
tint is sometimes noticed. It possesses the sobriety, patience,
endurance and sure-footedness of the ass, and the vigour,
strength and courage of the horse. As a beast of burden it is
preferable to the horse, being less impatient under the pressure
of heavy weights, while the skin being harder and less sensitive
renders it more capable of resisting sun and rain.
The mule has been in use from early times; the inhabitants
of Mysia and Paphlagonia are said to have been the first breeders.
With the Greeks and Romans, the latter especially, the mule
was valued, being employed to draw carriages and carry loads.
In modern times it has been largely used for military transport.
The principal mule countries in Europe are the south of
France, Spain, Portugal and Italy, where they are used for pack
and draught. The French mules are most numerous on the
borders of the Pyrenees, in Gascony, and in Poitou. In Spain
mules are used in the Catalan provinces, in the* mountainous
districts of Andalusia, and in the province of Alicante. Good
draught-mules are bred in La Mancha and in the districts on
the slopes of the Pyrenees, where they are employed to carry
loads. But in Spain, Italy, and some other countries they are
also extensively used in carriages; in Spain particularly, where
large, fine mules are bred for this purpose, a pair of these animals
will often cost more than a pair of horses. The mules of Asia
Minor, Syria, Cyprus, Egypt and Algeria, as well as those of
the district between the Tigris and the Persian frontier and
in North China, are good. In the Punjab provinces of British
India many excellent mules are bred, breeding being promoted
by the government. Good mules are reared in North and South
America, the principal districts for breeding them in the United
States being Texas, Missouri, Mississippi; Tennessee, Alabama,
Georgia, Arkansas and Kentucky. The Kentucky mules
are well shaped and showy, being derived from nearly
thoroughbred mares known as Kentucky trotters, while those
reared in Missouri are hardy. The Mexican mule, bred by a
male ass out of a mustang mare, is also a hardy, strong and
useful animal.
France is perhaps the most important mule-raising country
in Europe, four centres being more particularly devoted to this
kind of industry: Poitou, the mountainous districts of central
France, the Pyrenees and Dauphine. The mules of these
different parts differ chiefly in height; those of Poitou are large,
powerful, and long in the body, and are mainly exported to the
departments of Languedoc and Provence, as well as to Spain,
Italy and America; those of Dauphine are of medium height,
with a short, thick body; while those of the centre and the
Pyrenees are lighter and smaller, but more active.
Mule-breeding in Poitou is supposed to date from the time of
Philip V. of Spain, when the particular breeds of horses and
960
MULGRAVE, EARLDOM OF MULL
asses were imported into that region and Gascony. But there
is evidence to show that as early as the loth century the mules
of Poitou were of excellent quality.
MULGRAVE, EARLDOM OF, a title dating from 1626, when
Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Baron Sheffield of Butterwicke, was
created earl of Mulgrave. He was succeeded by his grandson
Edmund, the 2nd earl, who was one of the nine true peers who
sat in Oliver Cromwell's House of Lords. Edmund's son John,
3rd earl, was created marquess of Normanby in 1694, and duke
of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703; but on the death of his
son, the 2nd duke, without heirs in 1735, the titles became extinct.
The 2nd duke devised the estates of the Sheffield family to his
mother Catherine, a natural daughter of James II., who had
married as her first husband the 3rd earl of Annesley, by whom
she had a daughter Catherine, who married William Phipps
and had a son Constantine Phipps. The latter succeeded to the
estate of Mulgrave in Yorkshire in 1743 on the death of his
grandmother, and in 1767 he was created Baron Mulgrave of
New Ross in the peerage of Ireland. His son was created a
peer of Great Britain in 1790 with the title of Baron Mulgrave
of Mulgrave; and the latter's brother Henry, the next in succes-
sion, who was secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1805 and
held other high government offices, was created Viscount
Normanby and earl of Mulgrave in 1812. The 2nd earl of this
creation, who like his father held several high cabinet offices,
was advanced in the peerage at the coronation of Queen Victoria,
being created marquess of Normanby in 1838.
MULHAUSEN (Fr. Mulhouse), a town of Germany, in Upper
Alsace, on the 111, an affluent of the Rhine, and the Rhine-
Rhone canal, about 56 m. S. of Strassburg and 21 m. N.W. of
Basel by rail. The old town, surrounded by arms of the 111,
has narrow and irregular streets, while to the south, on the canal,
lie the handsome villas and promenades of the new town. Most
of the older buildings have made way for factories, so that the
town-hall, dating from 1551, is an almost solitary witness to
the town's medieval prosperity. The most important interest
of Miilhausen centres in the making of cotton goods. This
industry was introduced in 1746, and has since prospered in
the hands of several wealthy families which are closely connected
by intermarriage, and lend each other support. A large pro-
portion of the inhabitants of the town and the neighbourhood
is engaged in woollen and other textile manufactures, the
products of which are exported to all parts of the world. The
manufactures of machinery, especially locomotives and railway
plant, chemicals, and hardware are also important. A note-
worthy feature is the attention paid by the manufacturers to
the well-being of their workpeople. In 1853, Johann Heinrich
Dollfus (1800-1887), mayor of the town, founded the " artisans'
town " (cite ouvriere) to the north-east of the old town, consisting
of about 1 200 model dwellings with public bath-, wash- and bake-
houses, and library. The houses were let on a system by which
the occupant became the owner after the payment of a certain
number of instalments. Of recent years, however, the opera-
tives have moved into the suburbs, leaving the model houses
of the " artisans' town " to small tradesmen. A " societe indus-
trielle" for the encouragement of original disco vejry and invention
among the workmen has existed since 1825, and there are various
benevolent societies. Miilhausen carries on an active trade
in grain, wine, colonial produce and timber, which is facilitated
by its river harbour. After the annexation of Alsace to Germany
in 1871 the French sympathies of the inhabitants were shown
by the extraordinary decrease in their number. The population
has since increased, amounting in 1905 to 94,514, of whom
about two-thirds are Roman Catholics.
Mentioned as early as 717, Miilhausen was raised to the rank
of a free town of the empire in 1198, and received very extensive
privileges from Rudolph of Hapsburg in 1273. It suffered
considerably in the various wars of the middle ages, but generally
managed to maintain its independence. In 1466 it formed an
alliance with the Swiss, and this became a permanent union in
1515. By the peace of Westphalia (1648) it was recognized
as an independent ally of the Swiss League. In 1797 it sought
incorporation with France from motives of commercial policy,
and in 1871 it passed to Germany.
See A. Metzger, La Republique de Mulhouse 717-1798 (Basel, 1884) ;
Schall, Das Arbeiterquartier von Miilhausen (Berlin, 1877); Herkner,
Die ober-elsiissische Baumwollindustrie und ihre Arbeiter (Strassburg,
1887) ; and E. Tournier, Miilhausen im 16. Jahrhunderl (Illyach, 1894).
MULHEIM-AM-RHEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 2 m. below
Cologne, of which it is practically a suburb, and on the main
lines of railway Cologne-Diisseldorf and Cologne-Elberfeld.
Pop. (1905), 50,807. There are important manufactures of silk,
ribbons, velvet, sailcloth, tobacco, vinegar, yarn and chemicals,
in addition to rolling-mills, boiler works, telegraph works,
breweries, tanneries and a ship-building yard. Mulheim also
carries on a brisk trade by rail and river.
Of ancient foundation, Mulheim received municipal rights
in 1322. Its industrial prosperity is in great part due to the
influx of Protestants expelled from Cologne at the beginning
of the 1 7th century. In 1784 the town suffered severely from
an inundation caused by the rapid breaking-up of the ice on the
Upper Rhine.
MULHEIM-AN-DER-RUHR, a town of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, on the Ruhr, an affluent of the Rhine,
about 7 m. W. from Essen and at the intersection of several
railways. Pop. (1905), 93,598. It has a parish church dating
from the I2th century. Like most of the towns in this district,
Mulheim finds its chief industry in iron-working, and contains
numerous blast-furnaces, rolling-mills, foundries and engine-
works; it also carries on manufactures of leather, wool, cotton,
calico, tobacco, paper, beer, and other miscellaneous goods.
An enormous traffic, by river and rail, is carried on in coal, and
there is also a considerable trade in timber and colonial produce.
In the neighbourhood are important sandstone quarries, glass-
work's, and a carpet manufactory. Mulheim was formerly
included in the duchy of Berg, and became a town in 1 508. In
1815 it passed to Prussia.
MULJI, KURSENDAS (1832-1875), Indian journalist and
social reformer, was born on the 25th of July 1832, of a family
belonging to the Bhatia or trading caste of western India. Being
repudiated by his family on account of his views on widow
remarriage, he became a vernacular schoolmaster, and started
a weekly paper in Gujarati called The Satya Prakash. In
this he attacked the immoralities of the Maharajas or hereditary
high priests of the Vallabhacharya sect of Vaishnavism to which
the Bhatias belong. In a suit for libel brought against him
in the High Court at Bombay in 1862, he won a victory on the
main issue. After a visit to England on business in connexion
with the cotton trade, which was not successful and brought on
him excommunication from his caste, he was appointed in 1874
to administer a native state in Kathiawar during the minority
of the chief; and there he died in August 1875.
See History of the Sect of Maharajas or Wallabhacharyas of Western
India (1865).
MULL, the largest island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4334. It is bounded on the W. and S.
by the Atlantic, on the N. and N.E. by the Sound of Mull, and
on the E. and S.E. by the Firth of Lome. It has an area of
about 367 sq. m., its greatest length being 27 m. and its greatest
breadth 20 m. The coast is much indented, the principal sea-
lochs being Loch Mingary, Loch Cuan, Loch Tua, Loch-na-Keal,
Loch Scridain, Loch Buy, Loch Spelve and Loch Don. Among
several freshwater lakes Loch Frisa, Loch Ba and Loch Uisg
are the chief. The principal mountains are Ben More (3185 ft.),
Ben Buy (2354 ft.) and Ben Creach (2289 ft.). In the basaltic
cliffs near Carsaig are numerous arches and caverns. The
prevailing rocks are igneous (generally basaltic, gabbro in the
mountains in the south-east, granite in the Ross). The valleys
are filled up with lava flows and volcanic ashes of Miocene
age. At a few places there are gneissose rocks, chalk, sandstone,
lias and quartz porphyry. Sheep and cattle are raised, and
barley, oats and potatoes grown. Owing to the damp climate
the island is better suited for grazing than for cultivation.
MULL MULLER, G.
961
Granite and freestone are quarried. Ben More deer forest
and the excellent fishing and shooting attract many sportsmen.
There are several ancient castles, the principal being those of
Duart and Aros. Close to the former is a lighthouse erected
in memory of William Black, the novelist (d. 1898). About
midway between Mull and Lismore is the Lady Rock, visible
at low water, on which, in 1523, Lachlan Maclean of Duart
exposed his wife, a daughter of the second earl of Argyll, expect-
ing that she would be drowned by the flowing tide. She was,
however, saved by her clansfolk and her husband was afterwards
slain by her brother. Joanna Baillie (1762-1851) made the
incident the leading theme of her drama of The Family Legend.
TOBERMORY (" the Well of Mary," so called from a spring of
local celebrity) is the only town (pop. 1175). It is placed on a
pretty bay, the houses standing on tree-clad heights. It was
founded in 1788 as a station for fishing-boats, and the herring
fishery is still of some consequence. It has regular communica-
tion by steamer with Stornoway, Oban and Glasgow. Off the
north-western shore of Mull, separated by a narrow strait, lies
the isle of ULVA, 4^ m. long and 2\ m. broad, whose inhabitants
are mostly engaged in fishing and kelp-gathering. Close to Ulva,
and practically one with it at low tide, is the isle of GOMETRA,
about i j m. long and 2 m. broad, the people of which are chiefly
occupied with fishing. LITTLE COLONSAY lies about 2 m. south
of Ulva. Farther west is the small group of the TRESHNISH
ISLES.
MULL, (i) A soft plain muslin exported largely from England
to India, &c., and used also in some qualities for summer dresses
in the home trade. The name is an abbreviation of the Hindu
mulmul. (2) A word, derived from the same root as seen in
" meal " and " mill," meaning that which is ground or reduced
in other ways to powder or small particles. Thus a snuff-box
is in Scotland called a " mull," from the early machines in which
the tobacco was ground. Large snuff-mulls, which remained
stationary on a table, as opposed to the small portable boxes,
often took the form of a ram's head ornamented in silver.
Possibly from the ground or grated spices with which ale or wine
is flavoured when heated, comes the expression " mulled," as
applied to such a beverage. The colloquial expression " to
make a mull," i.e. to muddle or make a failure of something,
also perhaps connected with " to mull," to reduce to powder.
(3) The Scots word " mull," meaning a promontory or headland,
as the Mull of Galloway, the Mull of Kintyre, represents the
Gaelic maol, cf. Icelandic muli in the same sense; this may be
the same as mull, snout, cf. Ger. Maid.
MULLAH (Arabic maula, a term which originally expresses
the legal bond connecting a former owner with his manumitted
slave, both patron and client being called maula, and thus
suggests the idea of patronage), in Mahommedan countries,
a learned man, a teacher, a doctor of the law, In India the
term is applied to the man who reads the Koran, and also to a
Mussulman schoolmaster. In countries like Afghanistan the
mullahs exert an influence over the populace which sometimes
rivals that of the amir himself, and they have been responsible
for many disturbances in Kabul. Among the democratic tribes
of the north-west frontier of India they almost take the place
of a secular chief. In the Indian frontier risings of 1897-98 the
" mad mullah " of Swat led the attack upon the Malakand,
while the Hadda mullah was largely responsible for the risings
amongst the Mohmands, Afridis and Orakzais. The leader of
the risings in Somaliland in 1899-1910 was similarly known
as the " mad mullah."
MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825-1896), German
botanist and explorer, was born at Rostock on the 3oth of June
1825, and was educated, after the early death of his parents, in
Schleswig. He studied the flora of Schleswig and Holstein
from 1840 to 1847, when he emigrated to South Australia and
travelled through the colony from 1848 to 1852, discovering
and describing a large number of plants previously unknown.
In 1852 he was appointed government botanist for Victoria,
and examined its flora, and especially the Alpine vegetation
of Australia, which was previously unknown. Then, as phyto-
18
graphic naturalist, he joined the expedition sent out under
Augustus Gregory by the duke of Newcastle, secretary of state
for the colonies. He explored the river Victoria and other
portions of North Australia, was one of the four who reached
Termination Lake in 1856, and accompanied Gregory's expedi-
tion overland to Moreton Bay. From 1857 to 1873 he was
director of the Botanical Gardens, Melbourne, and not only
introduced many plants into Victoria, but made the excellent
qualities of the blue gum tree (Eucalyptus globulus) known all
over the world, and succeeded in introducing it into the south
of Europe, North and South Africa, California, and the extra-
tropical portions of South America. For these services he
was decorated by many foreign countries, including France,
Spain, Denmark and Portugal; was created K.C.M.G. in 1879,
baron of the kingdom of Wiirtemberg in 1871, and F.R.S.
in 1 86 1. He published eleven volumes of Fragmenta phyto-
graphica Australiae (1862-1881), two volumes of the Plants of
Victoria (1860-1865), and other books on the Eucalyptus, Myopo-
raceae, Acacias, and Salsolaceae, all profusely illustrated. He
also co-operated in the production of G. Bentham's Flora
Auslraliensis. He took a leading part in promoting Australian
exploration, especially the Burke and Wills expedition, which
was the first to cross the continent, and in the various attempts
to unravel the mystery which attended the fate of his fellow-
countryman Ludwig Leichhardt (1813-1848). He died at
Melbourne on the 9th of October 1896.
MULLER, FRIEDRJCH (1740-1825), German poet, dramatist
and painter, usually known as Maler (i.e. painter) Miiller, was
born at Kreuznach on the I3th of January 1749. He studied
painting at Zweibrucken, and in 1774-1775 settled in Mannheim,
where in 1777 he was appointed court painter. In 1778 he was
enabled by a public subscription to visit Italy, which remained
his home for the rest of his life. In 1780 he became a Roman
Catholic. He was unfavourably influenced by the study of
Italian models, and gradually gave up painting and devoted
himself to the study of the history of art; his services as
cicerone were especially in demand among German visitors to
Rome. Before he left Mannheim he had tried his hand at
literature, under the influence of the Sturm und Drang move-
ment. A lyric drama, Niobe (1778), attracted little attention;
but Fausts Leben dramatisiert (1778) appealed to the turbulent
spirit of the time, and Colo und Genoveva (begun in 1776, but
not published till 1811) was an excellent imitation of Goethe's
Golz von Berlichingen. He struck out a more independent
path in his idylls, notably Die Schafschur (1775) and Das
Nusskernen (1811), in which, emancipating himself from the
artificiality of Gessner, he reproduced scenes not without a
touch of satire from the German peasant-life of his day. He
died at Rome on the 23rd of April 1825.
Maler Muller's Werke appeared in 3 vols. (1811-1825); in 1868
H. Hettner published two volumes of Dichtungen von Maler Mutter,
which contain most of his writings. Gedichte von Maler Friedrich
Mutter; eine Nachlese zu dessen Werken appeared in 1873, and his
Fausts Leben was reprinted by B. Seuffert in 1 88 1. See A. Sauer,
" Sturmer und Dranger," vol. iii. (Kurschner's Deutsche National-
literatur, vol. 81, 1883); and B. Seuffert, Maler Mutter (1877).
MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898), English preacher and
philanthropist, was born near Halberstadt, Germany, on the
27th of September 1805, the son of an exciseman. He sub-
sequently became a naturalized British subject. Educated in
Germany, he resolved in 1826 to devote himself to missionary
work, and in 1828 went to London to prepare for an appointment
offered him by the Society for promoting Christianity among
the Jews. In 1830 however he gave up the idea of missionary
work, and became minister of a small congregation at Teign-
mouth, Devonshire. He contended that the temporal as well
as the spiritual needs of life could be supplied by prayer, and on
this principle abolished pew rents and refused to take a fixed
salary. After two years at Teignmouth, Miiller removed to
Bristol, where he spent the rest of his life. He devoted himself
particularly to the care of orphan children. He began by taking
a few under his charge, but in course of time their number
increased to 2000, settled in five large houses erected for the
962
MULLER, J. P. MULLER, J.
purpose at Ashley Down, near Bristol. The money required
for the carrying on of this work was voluntarily contributed,
mainly as a result of the wide circulation of Muller's narrative
The Lord's Dealings with George Mutter. When he was over
seventy he started on a preaching mission, which lasted nearly
seventeen years and included Europe, America, India, Australia
and China. He died at Bristol on the loth of March 1898.
See A. T. Pierson, George Miiller of Bristol (1899).
MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (1801-1858), German physi-
ologist and comparative anatomist, was born at Coblenz on
the i4th of July 1801. In 1819 he entered Bonn University,
where he became privatdocent in 1824, extraordinary professor
of physiology in 1826, and ordinary professor in 1830. In
1883 he removed to the university of Berlin, where he filled
the chair of anatomy and physiology with great distinction
until his death on the 28th of April 1858. Muller made numerous
researches in various departments of physiology, and in particular
he extended knowledge as to the mechanism of voice, speech
and hearing, and as to the chemical and physical properties
of lymph, chyle and blood. The appearance of his Handbuch der
Physiologie des Menschen between 1833 and 1840 (translated
into English by Dr William Baly, and published in London
in 1842) marked the beginning of a new period in the study
of physiology. In it, for the first time, the results of human
and comparative anatomy, as well as of chemistry and other
departments of physical science, were brought to bear on the
investigation of physiological problems. The most important
portion of the work was that dealing with nervous action and
the mechanism of the senses. Here he stated the principle,
not before recognized, that the kind of sensation following
stimulation of a sensory nerve does not depend on the mode of
stimulation but upon the nature of the sense-organ. Thus light,
pressure, or mechanical stimulation acting on the retina and
optic nerve invariably produces luminous impressions. This he
termed the law of the specific energy of sense substances. In the
later part of his life he chiefly devoted himself to comparative
anatomy. Fishes and marine invertebrata were his favourite
subjects. Muller numbered such distinguished physiologists as
H. von Helmholtz, E. Du Bois Reymond and K. F. W. Ludwig
among his pupils.
In addition to his Handbuch der Physiologie, his publications in-
clude Zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Gesichtssinns (1826); Ober
die phantastischen Gesichtserscheinungen (1826); Bildungsgeschichte
der Genitalien (1830), in which he traced the development of the
Miillerian duct; De glandularum secernentium structure, (1830);
Vergleichende Anatomie der Myxinoiden (1834-1843); Systematische
Beschreibung der Plagiostomen (1841) with F. G. J. Henle; System
der Asteriden (1842) with F. H. Troschel; and Horae ichthyologicae
(1845-1849) with the same. After the death of J. F. Meckel (1781-
1833) he edited the Archiv fur Anatomie und Physiologie.
MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809), Swiss historian,
was born on the 3rd of January 1752 at Neunkirch, near
Schaffhausen, where his father was pastor. In 1760 the family
removed to Schaffhausen. In his youth his maternal grand-
father, Schoop (d. 1757), roused in him an interest in the
history of his country. At the age of eight he is said to have
written a history of Schaffhausen, and at eleven he knew the
names and dates of all the kings of the four great monarchies.
His ardour for historical studies was further stimulated by
Schlozer, when Muller went (1769) to the university of Gottingen,
nominally to study theology. In July 1771 he undertook a
sketch of Swiss history (no detailed history of Switzerland having
so far been written) for a publisher of Halle, but his theological
studies and the preparation of a Latin dissertation on the Bellum
cimbricum (publ. in 1772) prevented much progress. In April
1772 he passed his theological examination, and soon after
became professor pf Greek at the Collegium Humanitatis.
Early in 1774, on the advice of his friend Charles Victor de
Bonstetten, he gave up this post and became tutor in the Tronchin
family at Geneva. But in 1775 he resigned this position also,
and passed his time with various friends in Geneva and Vaud,
engaged in carrying his historical scheme Into effect. Having
accumulated much material, he began the actual composition
of his work in the spring of 1776, and the printing in the summer
of 1777. But difficulties arose with the censor, and matters
came to a standstill. In 1778-1779 Muller delivered a brilliant
set of lectures on general history, which were not published
till 1839 under the title of Vierundzuianzig Biicher aUgemeiner
Geschichte. In 1780 the first volume (extending to 1388) of
his Geschichten der Schweizer appeared, nominally at Boston
(to avoid the censor), though really at Bern; and it was well
received. In 1781 he published at Berlin, in French, his Essais
historiques. He was on his way back to Switzerland when the
landgrave of Hesse Cassel named him professor of history. He
stayed at Cassel till 1 783, publishing in 1 782 his Reisen der Papste,
a book wherein certain leanings towards Romanism are visible.
On his return to Geneva (1783) he accepted the post of reader
to the brother of his old patron, Tronchin, and occupied himself
with remodelling his published work of 1780. In order to im-
prove his financial position, he accepted early in 1786 the post
of librarian to the elector-archbishop of Mainz, who bestowed
many important offices upon him and obtained his elevation
to nobility from the emperor in 1791. In June 1786 he issued
vol. i. (reaching to 1412) and two years later vol. ii. (to 1436) of
the definitive form of his Swiss history, which was received with
great praise. In 1787 he issued an important political tract,
Zur Darstellung des Fiirstenbundes. But in October 1792 Mainz
was taken by the French, so that Muller had to seek for another
post. In February 1793 he entered the service of the emperor
as an imperial aulic councillor. At Vienna he spent many
years, becoming chief librarian of the imperial library in 1800,
and in 1795 he issued vol. iii. (to 1443) of his Swiss history. In
1804 he became historiographer, war councillor, and member
of the Academy at Berlin. In 1805 vol. iv. (to 1475) appeared.
But in 1806 he became strongly inclined towards Napoleon, by
whom he was received in audience (Nov. 1806), and from whom
he accepted (end of 1807) the office of secretary of state for the
kingdom of Westphalia, exchanging this position early in 1808
for the posts of privy councillor and general director of public
instruction. At the end of 1808 he published vol. v. (to 1489)
of his great work. He died at Cassel on the 29th of May 1809.
His Swiss History now possesses a literary value only, but it
was an excellent work in every way for the i8th century.
Muller's works were published under the care of his brother at
Tubingen, in 27 vols. (1810-1819), and re-issued, in 40 vols., at
Stuttgart (1831-1835). The Swiss History was re-issued at Leipzig
and Zurich, in 15 vols. (1824-1853), with continuations by Glutz-
Blozheim (to 1517), Hottinger (to 1531), Vulliemin (to 1712), and
Monnard (to 1815). A French translation of the German edition
(as above) appeared, in 18 vols., at Paris and Geneva (1837-1851).
See the biographies by Heeren (1809), Doring (1835) and Monnard
(1839); also in G. v. Wyss's Geschichte der Historiographie in der
Schweiz (Zurich, 1895), pp. 305-311, and in the Festschrift der Stadt
Schaffhausen (Schaffhausen, 1891), pt. v. pp. 83-99. F. Schwarz's
pamphlet, /. von Miiller und seine Schweizer geschichte (Bale, 1884),
traces the genesis of the History. Muller's letters to Fiisslin (1771-
1807) were issued at Zurich (1812), and those to Ch. Bonnet, &c.,
at Stuttgart (1835). Those addressed to him by various friends
were published by Maurer-Constant, in 6 vols. (Schaffhausen, 1839-
1840); and those written to him (1789-1809) by his brother, J. G.
Muller, appeared, under the editorship of E. Haug, at Frauenfeld, in
2 vols. (1891-1892). (W. A. B. C.)
MULLER, JULIUS (1801-1878), German Protestant theo-
logian, was born at Brieg on the loth of April 1801. He studied
at Breslau, Gottingen and Berlin, first law, then theology;
and in 1839 became professor ordinarius of theology at Halle
(1839). In 1848 he helped to found the Deutsch-evang. Kirchen-
tag, and two years later founded and edited (1850-1861), with
Neandcr and K. I. Nitzsch,the Deutsche Zeitschrift fur christliche
Wissenschaft und christliches Leben. He died at Halle on the
27th of September 1878. A disciple of Neander and friend
of Richard Rothe, Muller bitterly opposed the philosophy of
Hegel and the criticism of F. C. Baur. His book, fiber den
Gegensatz des Protestantismus und des Catholicismus (1833),
called forth a reply from Baur, and he was one of those who
attacked D. Strauss's Life of Jesus. In 1846 he had been deputed
to attend the General Evangelical Synod at Berlin. Here he
supported the Consensus-Union, and afterwards defended
MULLER, K. O. MULLER, W. J.
9 6 3
himself in the pamphlets Die ersle Generalsynode der evang.
Landeskirche Preussens (1847) and Die evangelische Union,
ihr Wesen und goltliches Recht (1854). His chief work, however,
was Die christliche Lehre der Siinde (2 vols., 1839; 5th ed., 1867;
Eng. trans, from 5th ed.), in which he carried scholasticism so far
as "to revive the ancient Gnostic theory of the fall of man
before all time, a theory which found no favour amongst his
theological friends " (Otto Pfleiderer).
Mullet's other works include Dogmat. Abhandlungen (1870), and
Das christliche Leben (3rd ed., 1847). See M. Kahler, Julius Mutter
(1878); L. Schultze, Julius Mutter (1879) and Julius Mutter als
Ethiker (1895).
MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840), German scholar,
was born at Brieg in Silesia on the 28th of August 1797. He
was educated partly in Breslau, partly in Berlin, where his
enthusiasm for the study of Greek literature, art and history
was fostered by the influence of Bockh. In 1817, after the
publication of his first work, Aegineticorum liber, he received
an appointment at the MagdaleneUm in Breslau, and in 1819
he was made adjunct professor of ancient literature in the
university of Gottingen, his subject being the archaeology and
history of ancient art. His aim was to form a vivid conception
of Greek life as a whole; and his books and lectures marked an
epoch in the development of Hellenic studies. Miiller's position
at Gottingen being rendered unpleasant by the political troubles
which followed the accession of Ernest Augustus (duke of Cumber-
land) to the throne of Hanover in 1837, he applied for permission
to travel; and in 1839 he left Germany. In April of the following
year he reached Greece, having spent the winter in Italy. He
investigated the remains of ancient Athens, visited many places
of interest in Peloponnesus, and finally went to Delphi, where
he began excavations. He was attacked by intermittent fever,
of which he died at Athens on the ist of August 1840.
Among his historical works the foremost place belongs to his
Geschichten hellenischer Stamme und Stiidte: Orchomenos und die
Minyer (1820), and Die Dorier (1824; Eng. trans, by H. Tufnell
and Cornewall Lewis, 1830, including the essay Uber die Make-
donier, on the settlements, origin and early history of the
Macedonians). He introduced a new standard of accuracy in
the cartography of ancient Greece. In 1828 he published Die
Etrusker, a treatise on Etruscan antiquities. His Prolegomena
zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mylhologie (1825; Eng. trans.,
J. Leitch, 1844), in which he avoided the extreme views of
G. F. Creuzer and C. A. Lobeck, prepared the way for the
scientific investigation of myths; while the study of ancient
art was promoted by his Handbuch der Archaologie der
Kunst (1830; Eng. trans., J. Leitch, 1847), and Denkmaler der
alien Kunst (1832), which he wrote in association with
C. Osterley. In 1840 appeared in England his History of
the Literature of Ancient Greece; the original German work from
which it had been translated being issued in Germany in 1841
(4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882). Chapters i.-xxii. were translated
by Sir George Cornewall Lewis; chapters xxiii.-xxxvi. by J. W.
Donaldson, who carried the work down to the taking of Constan-
tinople by the Turks. It is still one of the best books on the
subject. Mttller also published an admirable translation of the
Eumenides of Aeschylus with introductory essays (1833), and
new editions of Varro (1833) and Festus (1839).
See memoir of his life by his brother Eduard, prefixed to the post-
humous edition of K. O. Miiller's Kleine deutsche Schriften (1847) ;
F. Lucke, Erinnerungen an K. 0. Mutter (Gottingen, 1841); F.
Ranke, K. O. Mutter, ein Lebensbild (Berlin, 1870); C. Bursian,
Ceschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883), ii. 1007
1028; C. Dilthey, Otfried Mutter (Gottingen, 1898); E. Curtius,
Altertum und Gegenwart; and J. W. Donaldson's essay On the Life
and Writings of Karl Otfried Mutter in vol. i. of the English transla-
tion of the history of Greek literature. A biography composed
from his letters was published by O. and E. Kern, K. O. Mutter,
Lebensbild in Briefen an seine Eltern (1908); see also J. E. Sandys,
Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), 213-216.
MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898), German scholar, was born
at Merseburg in Prussian Saxony on the xyth of March 1836.
Having studied at Berlin and Halle, he resided for five years in
Holland, where he collected the materials for his Geschichte
der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869). Unable
to obtain a university appointment in Germany, he accepted
(1870) the professorship of Latin at the Imperial Historico-
Philological Institute in St Petersburg. There he died on the
24th of April 1898. Miiller was a disciple of the methods of
Bentley and Lachmann. His De re metrica poetarum latinorum
(1861; 2nd ed., 1894) represents a landmark in the investigation
of the metrical system of the Roman poets (the dramatists
excepted), and his Metrik der Griechen und Rb'mer ( 2nd ed.,
1885) is an excellent treatise in a small compass (Eng. trans,
by S. B. Plainer, Boston, Mass., 1892).
His other chief publications were: C. Lucili saturarum reliquiae
(1872), including the fragments of Accius and Sueius; Leben und
Werke des Gaius Lucilius (1876; suppt. Luciliana, 1884); text of
Horace (1869; 3rd ed., 1897); Quintus Horatius Flaccus, eine litterar-
historische Biographic (1880) ; Quintus Ennius (1884), an introduction
to the study of Roman poetry; Q. Enni carminum reliquiae (1884);
Livi Andronici el Cn. Naevi fabularum reliquiae (1885); Der saturn-
ische Vers und seine Denkmaler (1885) ; Noni Marcdli compendiosa
doctrina (1888); De Tacumi fabulis (1889); De Accii fabulis dis-
putatio (1890).
MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827), German lyric poet, was
born at Dessau on the 7th of October 1794, the son of a shoe-
maker. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native
town and at the university of Berlin, where he devoted himself
to philological and historical studies. In 1813-1814 he took part,
as a volunteer, in the national rising against Napoleon. In
1817 he visited Italy, and in 1820 published his impressions in
Rom, Romer und Romerinnen. In 1818 he was appointed
teacher of classics in the Dessau school, and in 1820 librarian
to the ducal library. He died at Dessau on the 3Oth of September
1827. Miiller's earliest lyrics are contained in a volume of
poems, Bundesbluten, by several friends, which was published
in 1816. His literary reputation was made by the Gedichte
aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines reisenden W aldhornisten
(2 vols., 1821-1824), andtheLieder der Griechen (1821-1824). The
latter collection was Germany's chief tribute of sympathy to the
Greeks in their struggle against the Turkish yoke, a theme which
inspired many poets of the time. Two volumes of N eugriechische
Volkslieder, and Lyrische Reisen und epigrammatische Spazier-
gdnge, followed in 1825 and 1827. Miiller also wrote a book on
the Homerische Vorschule (1824; 2nd. ed., 1836), translated
Marlowe's Faustus, and edited a Bibliothek der Dichtungen des 17.
Jahrhunderts (1822-1827; 10 vols.). His poetic genius was
kindred to that of the composer Schubert, who set many of his
lyrics to music.
Wilhelm Miiller's Gedichte were first collected in 1837 (4th ed.,
1858); edited by his son, F. Max Miiller (1868); there are also
numerous more recent editions, notably one in Reclam's Universal-
bibliothek (1894); critical edition by J. T. Hatfield (1906). Miiller's
Vermischte Schriften were edited with a biography by G. Schwab
(3 vols., 1830). See F. Max Miiller's article in the Attgemeine
deutsche Biographie; O. Franck, " Zur Biographic des Dichters W.
Mtiller " (Mitteilungen des Vereins fur anhaltische Geschichte, 1887);
J. T. Hatfield, " W. Miillers unveroffentlichtes Tagebuch und seine
ungedruckten Briefe " (Deutsche Rundschau, 1902).
MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845), English landscape
and figure painter, was born at Bristol on the 28th of June
1812, his father, a Prussian, being curator of the museum. He
first studied painting under J. B. Pyne. His early subjects
deal mainly with the scenery of Gloucestershire and Wales, and
he learned much from his study of Claude, Ruysdael, and earlier
landscape-painters. In 1833 he figured for the first time in
the Royal Academy with his " Destruction of Old London
Bridge Morning," and next year he made a tour through
France, Switzerland and Italy. Four years later he visited
Athens, extending his travels to Egypt, and in the sketches
executed during this period and the paintings produced from
them his power and individuality are apparent. Shortly after his
return he left Bristol and settled in London, where he exhibited
regularly. In 1840 he again visited France, where he executed
a series of sketches of Renaissance architecture, twenty-five
of which were lithographed and published in 1841, in a folio
entitled The Age of Francis I. of France. In 1843 he accom-
panied, at his own request and his own charges, the government
9 6 4
MULLET MULLION
expedition to Lycia, where he made a number of masterly
sketches. He died at Bristol on the 8th of September 1845.
The print room of the British Museum possesses, through the
bequest of Mr John Henderson, a rich collection of Muller's sketches.
A biography by N. Neal Solly was published in 1875.
MULLET, the name of two different kinds of fishes, distin-
guished as red mullets and grey mullets.
Red mullets (genus Mullus, the name given by the ancient
Romans) are marine fishes, with two short dorsal fins remote
from each other: the first is composed of feeble spines, the
second of branched rays; the anal fin is similar to the second
dorsal. The body is covered with large thin scales. The form
of the head is peculiar; its anterior profile slopes downwards to
the small mouth, which has very small and feeble teeth, and from
which two cylindrical barbels are suspended. These organs of
touch are generally laid backwards and hidden in a groove
between the branches of the lower jaw, but can be erected and
called into action independently. About forty different species
of red mullets are known, chiefly from the tropical and sub-
tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific ocean. In European waters
two forms are known which have received different specific
names, Mullus surmuletus and Mullus barbatus. The former
in addition to the general red colour has three to five bright
yellow bands along the sides from head to tail; these are absent
in the other form. It has been proved that this is not a sexual
difference, the two forms are varieties or species. The striped
form is usually found on the coasts of England, where the plain
form is rare or absent. In the Mediterranean both kinds occur,
but it is probable that the striped form, which is larger, is more
common in the Atlantic and the plain form in Mediterranean and
southern waters.
Red mullets do not attain any considerable size, the largest
of the tropical species weighing only two or three pounds.
They are ground-feeders, evidently using their barbels in dis-
covering their food, which consists of Crustacea, worms, and,
in the larger species, of small fishes; that they feed on putrid
flesh is not borne out by the evidence drawn from their feeble
jaws and dentition, but it is probable that they are attracted
to a decomposing body by the presence of the small crustaceans
which feast upon it. Although the colours of these fishes are
brilliant, they are simple and evanescent; only a few of the
tropical species exhibit ornamentations in the form of black spots
or bands. In many, as also in the European species, red colour
prevails, and its preservation after death is considered to enhance
the fitness of the fish for the table, and consequently its market
value. To produce the intensity of this red colour, fishermen
scale the red mullet immediately before its death, a process by
which the red pigment cells or chromatophores are excited to ex-
pand; fishes which are allowed to die in the water show little red,
and therefore red mullets caught by the trawl are less valuable
than those obtained in a trammel-net, by which the majority are
secured alive. All the species are esteemed as food; but none
equals the European species, which was held in exaggerated
esteem by the gourmands of Rome. They exhibited the living
fish and allowed them to die at the table immediately before
they were consigned to the cook; they kept them in large
reservoirs until they were wanted, and paid fabulous prices for
fishes somewhat above the average size. Little is known about
the habits of red mullets; during winter they retire into deep
water, late in spring and during summer they approach the
coasts and enter even brackish water, but the state of their
sexual organs shows that they do not come towards the shore
to breed. At Naples they spawn from May to August, and their
ova are buoyant and transparent. In June, July and August
the young are about an inch long, and already furnished with
the two barbels.
The grey mullets form a widely different and distinct family,
Mugilidae. They are not exclusively marine, but enter brackish
water, live always close to the shore, and some of the tropical
forms inhabit the pure fresh water of streams and rivulets,
without, however, penetrating far inland. Their body is
elegantly formed, wedge-shaped, and covered with scales of
moderate size, firmly adherent to the skin. The two short
dorsal fins are remote from each other, and the anterior is
composed of four stiff spines. The anal fin is similar to the
second dorsal; the caudal fin strong and bilobed. The form
of the snout is peculiar; the mouth narrow, transverse in the
true Mugil, and without, or with but feeble, teeth. About
seventy different species are known, from almost every coast
of the temperate and tropical zones; they swim in small schools
and are abundant wherever they occur. Two species are
found on the British coasts Mugil capita and Mugil chelo,
the first being the more common. Some of the fresh-water
grey mullets of the tropics, especially those of the West Indian
and Indo-Pacific islands, have the mouth more lateral or have
distinct though minute teeth; they therefore have been formed
into separate genera, Agonostoma and Myxus.
Grey mullets, at least some of the species, grow to a weight
of 10 or 12 Ib; but the fish which usually come into the market
rarely exceed half that weight. Those in which distinct
teeth are developed feed principally on small aquaticfanimals,
whilst the diet of those without teeth consists of animalcules
or minute organic substances mixed with the mud or sand
which they swallow in large quantities; also confervoid growths
to which small shells adhere are freely taken. To prevent
the gills from being clogged by sand or mud, a peculiar apparatus
separates these organs from the pharynx. Each branchial
arch is provided on each side, in its whole length, with a series
of closely-set gill-rakers, each series fitting into the series of
the adjoining arch; they constitute together a sieve permitting
the passage of the water, while retaining other substances in
the cavity destined for mastication. The structure of the
intestinal tract is also adapted to the diet of these fishes. One
portion of the stomach is globular and surrounded by a thick
mass of muscles, the cavity being small and coated with a
tough epithelium. This structure reminds us of the stomach of
birds, in which it also serves for the trituration of hard sub-
stances. The intestine itself is six or seven times as long as
the fish. Grey mullets are plainly coloured, generally greenish
on the upper parts and more or less silvery on the side. They
are wholesome food, well flavoured when taken out of clean
water. In the fish-farms of western Italy grey mullets are
among the principal fish cultivated. (J. T. C.)
MULLIGATAWNY, the name, derived from the Tamil
milagu-tannir (i.e. pepper water), given to a favourite hot
East Indian soup, made with curry-powder and otherwise
highly seasoned, and served usually with rice.
MULLINGAR, a market-town, and the county town of county
Westmeath, Ireland, near the river Brosna and on the Royal
canal, 50 m. W. by N. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 4500. It is a
junction on the Midland Great Western railway where the
branch for Longford, Sligo and Cavan leaves the main line.
The principal churches are the parish church (1813) with tower
and spire, and the Roman Catholic cathedral for the diocese
of Meath. Tanning, brewing, and the manufacture of coarse
woollens are carried on, and the town is the centre for the agri-
cultural trade of the district. Mullingar was one of the ancient
palatinate towns, but its present appearance is modern. It
possessed an Augustine convent founded in 1227, and a
Dominican convent founded in 1239, but both were dissolved
by Elizabeth. The town was the headquarters of William III.
before the siege of Athlone. It formerly returned two members
to parliament, but was disfranchised at the Union in 1800.
Mullingar is a centre for the trout-fishing in the Westmeath
loughs, being in proximity to Loughs Ennell and Owel.
MULLION (corrupted from " munnion "; this is derived from
Fr. moignon, stump), in architecture, the English term for the
perpendicular pieces of stone, sometimes like columns, some-
times like slender piers, which divide the bays or lights of
windows or screen work from each other; equivalents are Fr.
meneau, Ital. regolo, Ger. Fenstorpfoste. H. Wedgwood (Diet,
of Eng. Elym.) points out that the mullion is " the stump of the
division before it breaks out into the tracery of the window."
In all styles, in less important work, the mullions are often
MULLNER MULT AN
9 6 5
simply plain chamfered, and more commonly have a flat hollow
on each side. In larger buildings there is often a bead or bowtel
on the edge, and often a single small column with a capital; these
are more frequent in foreign work than in English. Instead
of the bowtel they often finish with a sort of double ogee. As
tracery grew richer, the windows were divided by a larger order
of mullion, between which came a lesser or subordinate set of
mullipns, which ran into each other.
MULLNER, AMANDUS GOTTFRIED ADOLF (1774-1829),
German dramatic poet, nephew of Gottfried August Burger,
(g.v.), was born at Langendorf near Weissenfels on the i8th of
October 1774. After studying law at Leipzig he established
himself as advocate at Weissenfels and made his debut as an
author with the novel Incest, oder der Schutzgeist von Avignon
(1799). He next wrote a few comedies for an amateur theatre
in Weissenfels; these were followed by more pretentious pieces:
Der angolische Kater (1809) and Der Blitz (1814, publ. 1818),
after French models. With his tragedies, however, Der neun-
und-zwanzigste Februar (1812), and especially Die Sckuld (1813;
publ. 1816), Miillner became the representative of the so-called
Schicksakdramatiker, and for several years " fate-tragedies "
on the model of Die Schuld dominated the German stage. His
later plays, Konig Yngurd (1817) and Die Albaneserin (1820),
were less important. Notwithstanding his literary success,
Milliner did not neglect his profession, and was given the title
of Hofrat; he also edited various journals, and had a reputation
as a vigorous if somewhat acrimonious critic. He died at
Weissenfels on the nth of June 1829.
Milliner's Vermischte Schriften appeared in 2 vols. (1824-1826);
his Dramatische Werke in 8 vols. (1828; 2nd ed., 1832). In 1830 four
supplementary volumes were published containing mainly criticism.
See F. K. J. Schiltz, Milliners Leben, Charakter und Geist (1830);
J. Minor, Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Hauptvertretern (1883),
and the same author's volume, " Das Schicksalsdrama " (1884), in
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 151.
MULOCK, SIR WILLIAM ^843- ), Canadian statesman
and jurist, was born at Bond Head, Ontario, on the ipth of
January 1843, the son of T. H. Mulock, M.D. From 1882 to
1905 he was a prominent member of the Liberal party in the
Federal house; postmaster-general from 1896 to 1905, and
minister of labour from 1900 to 1905. He introduced many
improvements into the Canadian postal service, and in 1898
in face of much opposition induced the Inter-Imperial Postal
Conference to adopt the principle of penny postage within
the British Empire. In 1905 he resigned office, and was
appointed chief justice of the exchequer division of the High
Court of the province of Ontario. From 1881 to 1900 he was
vice-chancellor of the university of Toronto, and was largely
responsible for the success of the movement leading to the
federation between that body and the Victoria University
(Methodist).
MULREADY, WILLIAM (1786-1863), English subject painter,
was born at Ennis, Co. Clare, on the 3oth of April 1786.
When he was about five years old his father, a leather-breeches
maker by trade, removed to London, where the son received a
tolerable education, chiefly under Catholic priests. He was
fond of reading, and fonder still of drawing. 1 When eleven
years old Mulready was employed by an artist named Graham
as the model for a figure in his picture of " Solomon Blessed
by his Father David." The painter's interest in the lad did
much to confirm his artistic proclivities; and, having studied
at home for two years, Mulready applied for advice to Banks
the sculptor, who sent him to a drawing school and permitted
him to work in his own studio. In 1800 he was admitted a
student of the Academy, and two years later he gained the
silver palette of the Society of Arts. About this time he was
associated with John Varley, the eccentric water-colour painter
and drawing-master, whom he assisted in the tuition of his
pupils, who included Cox, Fielding, Linnell, William Hunt, and
1 Some reproductions of his early attempts in this direction are
given, along with details of his life, in a scarce volume for the young,
entitled The Looking-Glass, written by William Godwin under the
nom de plume of Theophilus Marcliffe, and published in 1805.
Turner of Oxford. At eighteen he married a sister of Varley 's,
and at twenty-four he was the father of four sons. The marriage
was unhappy, and the pair separated before many years. He
" tried his hand at everything," as he said, " from a miniature
to a panorama." He painted portraits, taught drawing, and
up till 1809 designed illustrations to a series of children's penny
books. His first pictures were classical and religious subjects
of no great merit, and the early works which he sent to the
Academy were mainly landscapes; but he soon discovered his
special aptitude for genre-painting, and in 1809 produced the
"Carpenter's Shop," and in 1811 the "Barber's Shop," pictures
influenced by the example of Wilkie and the Dutch painters.
In 1813 he exhibited his " Punch," a more original and sponta-
neous work, which brought the artist into notice, and two years
later his " Idle Boys " procured his election as associate. Next
year he received full academic honours, and the election was
justified by the " Fight Interrupted " which he then exhibited.
It was followed by the "Wolf and the Lamb" (1820), the
" Convalescent "(1822), "Interior of an English Cottage "(1828),
" Dogs of Two Minds " (1830), the " Seven Ages " (1838), and
in 1839 and 1840 by the " Sonnet and First Love," two of the
most perfect and poetical of the artist's works. In 1840 he
designed an aOegorically covered postal envelope (the " Mulready
envelope," soon discontinued 2 ) for Rowland Hill, and a set of
illustrations to The Vicar of Wakefield, which were succeeded
by his paintings of the " Whistonian Controversy " (1844),
" Choosing the Wedding Gown " (1846), and " Sophia and
Burchell Haymaking " (1849). His later works, like the
"Bathers" (1849), "Mother teaching her Children" (1859),
and the " Toy Seller " (1862), show declining powers, mainly
attributable to failing health. The last evening of his life was
spent at a meeting of the Academy, of which, for nearly fifty
years, he had been a most active and efficient member. He
died of heart disease on the 7th of July 1863.
MULTAN, or MOOLTAN, a city, district and division of British
India, in the Punjab. The city is 4 m. from the left bank of
the Chenab, near the ancient confluence of the Ravi with that
river. It has a station on the North-Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 87,394. The city is enclosed on three sides by a wall,
but open towards the south, where the dry bed of the old Ravi
intervenes between the houses and citadel. Large and irregular
suburbs have grown up outside the wall since the annexation
in 1849. Within the city proper, narrow and tortuous streets,
often ending in culs de sac, fill almost the whole space; but one
broad bazaar runs from end to end. The principal buildings
include the shrines of two Mahommedan saints and the remains
of an ancient Hindu temple. The cantonments form the head-
quarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern army.
Multan has manufactures of carpets, silk and cotton goods,
shoes, glazed pottery and enamel work, and an annual horse
fair. It is moreover one of the most important trade-centres in
the Punjab. It is a station of the Church Missionary Society.
The DISTRICT OF MULTAN occupies the lower angle of the
Bari Doab, or tract between the Sutlej and the Chenab, with an
extension across the Ravi. Area, 6107 sq. m. The population
in 1901 was 710,626, showing an increase of 11-7% in the pre-
ceding decade, due to the extension of irrigation. The principal
crops are wheat, millets, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton and indigo.
There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. Indigo
is made only by native processes. Irrigation is largely con-
ducted by inundation channels from the boundary rivers, but
the centre of the district is barren. The district is traversed
by the main line of the North-Western railway from Lahore,
2 " Considerable diversion was created in the city to-day JMay I,
1840] by the appearance of the new penny-post devices for
envelopes, half-sheet letters, and bits of sticking-plaster for dabbing
on to letters. . . . [The elephants on the Mulready cover] are
symbolic of the lightness and rapidity with which Mr Rowland
Hill's penny-post is to be carried on. ... Withal the citizens are
rude enough to believe that these graphic embellishments will not
go down at the price of is. 3d. per dozen for the envelopes, . . . and
of is. id. per dozen for the . . sticking-plaster." This banter
is from the money article of an eminent daily paper.
9 66
MULTIPLEPOINDING MUMMIUS
which crosses the Sutlej by the Empress Bridge opposite Baha-
walpur. It is also entered by the branch from Lyallpur to
Khanewal junction, crossing the Ravi.
The early Arab geographers mention Multan as forming part
of the kingdom of Sind, which was conquered for the caliphate
by Mahommed bin Kasim in the middle of the 8th century. On
the dismemberment of the Mogul Empire in the middle of the
i8th century, Multan fell to the Afghans, who held it with
difficulty against the Sikhs. At length, in 1818, Ranjit Singh
after a long siege carried the capital by storm; and in 1821 he
made over the administration of Multan with five neighbouring
districts to Sawan Mai, who raised the province to a state of
prosperity by excavating canals and inducing new inhabitants
to settle. After the establishment of the council of regency
of Lahore, difficulties arose between Mulraj, son and successor
of Sawan Mai, and the British officials, which led to his rebellion,
and culminated in the second war and the annexation of the
whole of the Punjab. The city of Multan, after a stubborn
defence, was carried by storm in January 1849. The district
at once passed under direct British rule, and order was not
disturbed even during the Mutiny.
The DIVISION OF MULTAN is the south-western division of the
Punjab. It was abolished in 1884, but reconstituted in 1901.
Its area is 29,516 sq. m. and its population in 1901 was 3,014,675.
It includes the six districts of Mianwali, Jhang, Lyallpur,
Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan.
MULTIPLEPOINDING, in Scots law, the technical term for a
form of action by which conflicting claims to the same fund
or property are determined. The action is brought either by
the holder or by a claimant in his name. All who have any
claims in the fund or property in question are ordered to appear
and give in their claims; the court then prefers them according
to their respective rights, and the holder of the fund or pro-
perty in dispute on payment or delivery is absolved from any
further claim in regard to it. It corresponds to the process
of inter-pleader in English law.
MULTITUBERCULATA, a group of extinct mammals,
mostly of small size, whose remains are met with in strata
ranging from the Trias to the Eocene, both in Europe and in
North America. They are mostly known by their lower jaws,
and take their name from the fact that the grinding teeth (fig. 2,
m. i and 2; and fig. 3 a. b. c.) bear two or three longitudinal
rows of tubercles, or are provided with tubercles round the
edges. From this feature these otherwise unknown animals
are believed to be related to the existing egg-laying mammals
(duck-billed platypus and spiny ant-eater), constituting the order
Monotremata, and are therefore provisionally placed near that
group. The largest representative of the Multituberculata is
Polymastodon from the Lower Eocene of New Mexico; the
same beds also yield the smaller Ptilodus; while from corre-
sponding strata at Rheims, in France, has been obtained the
nearly allied Neoplagiaulax. The latter takes its name from
its resemblance to Plagiaulax (figs, i and 2) from the Purbeck
FIG. I. Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax becclesi, from the Purbeck
Strata of Swanage (|).
strata of Swanage, Dorsetshire, which was one of the first-
known members of the group. These have cutting teeth in
front and multituberculate molars behind. Allodon and Ctena-
codon represent the group in the Cretaceous of North America;
and the English Purbeck genus Bolodon, in which all the cheek-
teeth are multituberculate, also belongs here. Stereognathus
(fig. 3) is another English Upper Oolitic type. Single teeth from
the Rhaetic of England and Wurttemberg described as Microlestes
apparently indicate the earliest member of the group. A skull
from the Upper Triassic Karoo beds of South Africa described as
Trilylodon longaevus, which has multituberculate molar teeth,
was also at first placed in this group, but has been subsequently
regarded as a reptile, although Dr R. Broom considers that the
a t
Fig. 2. Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax FIG. 3. Fragment of Jaw of
minor, from Swanage \. p. 1-4 Stereognathus oolithicus in
premolars ; m, i and 2 molars. matrix J. a b c, molars.
original determination is correct. Possibly a fore-limb from the
same formation described as Theriodesmus phylarchus indicates
a similar or allied animal. Not improbably Trilylodon indicates
a direct link between the multituberculate mammals and the
anomodont reptiles of the Permian and Trias. (R. L.*)
MUMMERS, bands of men and women in medieval and later
England and elsewhere, who, during periods of public festivity,
particularly at Christmas, dressed in fantastic clothes and
wearing masks or disguised as animals, serenaded the people
outside their houses or joined in the revels within. In a more
restricted sense the term is applied to the actors in the old
English rural folk-plays of St George, &c.; and "mumming"
thus becomes a contemptuous synonym for any form of stage-
playing. The origin of the word mummer (older spelling
" mommer," Fr. momeur) is not satisfactorily explained; but
the verb " to mum" means both to mutter and to be silent,
and " mummer " apparently comes from one or both of these
senses. Mumming seems to have been a survival of the Roman
custom of masquerading during the annual orgies of the Satur-
nalia. " The disguisyng and mummyng that is used in Christe-
mase tyme," Langley writes in his synopsis of Polydore Virgil,
" in the Northe partes came out of the feasts of Pallas, that were
done with visars and painted visages, named Quinqatria of the
Romaynes." Aubanus, writing of mumming in Germany, says
that " in the Saturnalia there were frequent and luxurious feast-
ings amongst friends, presents were mutually sent, and changes of
dress made: that Christians have adopted the same customs,
which continue to be used from the Nativity to the Epiphany:
that exchanges of dress too, as of old among the Romans, are
common, and neighbours by mutual invitation visit each other
in the manner which the Germans call mummery." Christmas
was the grand season for mumming in England. Some were
disguised as bears, others as unicorns, or wore deer's hide and
antler's or ram's horns. Mumming led to such outrages that
Henry VIII. issued a proclamation declaring the wearing of
a mask or disguise a misdemeanour. Stow gives an
account of an elaborate mummery held in 1377 by the London
citizens to amuse the son of the Black Prince, then living at
Kennington (Survey, 1603, p. 97). In Scotland, where mumming
still exists at Christmas, Hogmanay, New Year's Day and
Handsel Monday, mummers are called " guisards." They usually
present on these four nights a rude drama called Galatian, which,
in various versions, is common throughout the Lowlands of
Scotland (see Chambers's Popular Rhymes, p. 170).
MUMMIUS, LUCIUS (2nd century B.C.), surnamed Achaicus,
Roman statesman and general. Consul in 146 B.C. Mummius
was appointed to take command of the Achaean War, and having
obtained an easy victory over the incapable Diaeus, entered
Corinth unopposed. All the men, women, and children were put
to the sword, the statues, paintings and works of art were
seized and shipped to Rome, and then the place was reduced to
ashes. The apparently needless cruelty of Mummius in Corinth,
by no means characteristic of him, is explained by Mommsen as
due to the instructions of the senate, prompted by the mercantile
party, which was eager to get rid of a dangerous commercial
rival. According to Polybius, his inability to resist the pressure
MUMMY
967
of those around him was responsible for it. In the subsequent
settlement of affairs, Mummius exhibited considerable adminis-
trative powers and a high degree of justice and integrity,
which gained him the respect of the inhabitants. He specially
abstained from offending their religious susceptibilities. On
his return to Rome he was honoured with a triumph. In 142
he was censor with the younger Scipio Af ricanus, whose severity
frequently brought him into collision with his more lenient
colleague. Mummius was the first novus homo of plebeian
origin who received a distinctive cognomen for military services.
His indifference to works of art and ignorance of their value is
shown by his well-known remark to those who contracted for
the shipment of the treasures of Corinth to Rome, that " if they
lost or damaged them, they would have to replace them."
For the theatrical pageants exhibited by him he erected a
theatre with improved acoustical conditions and seats after the
Greek model, thus marking a distinct advance in the construction
of places of entertainment.
His brother, SPURIUS MUMMIUS, a man of greater refinement
and intellectual powers, accompanied Lucius as his legate to
Achaea, whence he sent letters to his friends at Rome, describing
his experiences in humorous verse. These letters, which were
still popular a hundred years later, were the first example of a
distinct class of Roman poetry the poetic epistle. Both he
and his brother are alluded to by Cicero as mediocre orators,
whose style was simple and old-fashioned, although Lucius, as
a Stoic, was more concise.
MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt), a dead
body, as preserved by the ancient Egyptian method of embalm-
ing. The preservative climate of Upper Egypt and the belief
of the Egyptians in life after death must be the causes which
led them to take unusual care for preserving the bodies of their
dead. In prehistoric times in Egypt the dead were laid in the
graves on mats in the crouching position common in the burials
of primitive peoples, and were supplied with jars of food, flint
instruments, &c. Perhaps the attempt was already made to
preserve the bodies by drying or otherwise. In a few instances,
such bodies, probably more than five thousand years old, have
been found with skin and hair well preserved though dried and
shrunken; usually everything but the bones has decayed. With
the advent of the Dynasties the bodies of some of the principal
people are found lying extended at full length. By the time of
the Vlth Dynasty it was usual to lay the corpse on its left side
in the attitude of sleep, and a wooden coffin was often provided
upon which were inscribed magic formulae that had already
been employed for ages in ritual. In the Middle Kingdom
necropolis of Beni Hasan, Garstang found many intact inter-
ments in coffins, and in one case the body was well preserved.
Several were accompanied by boxes divided into four compart-
ments and inscribed with the names of the four deities who
represented the internal organs of the body. This indicates
that the custom of taking out these organs and wrapping them
separately was already in vogue in the most lavish form of
burial. But the parcels, examined by an expert, contained no
trace of organic remains, proving how much the Egyptians
depended on magic imitations and make-believe. It was not
until the New Kingdom that the processes of embalming reached
a high degree of elaboration. Later still, in the last millennium
B.C., it seems that even the bodies of the poor were pickled.
The embalmers were accustomed to keep the corpse in all for
seventy days before burial (cf. Gen. 1. 3; Herod, ii. 86),
to be soaked, wrapped in linen bandages, and put in the coffin.
This is confirmed by the monuments as far back as the age of
Rameses II. (c. 13003.0.) and may be conjectured to have been
established still earlier.
The Egyptians did not stop at the mummification of the human
body; sacred animals, birds, reptiles, fishes, and even insects
were treated in a similar way, and the meat offerings deposited
with the wealthy dead were likewise "preserved." Vast
cemeteries of animals which belonged to the revered species
have been discovered; more especially may be mentioned that
of the cats at Bubastis, the remains of which, charred by some
great fire, until recently filled numberless chambers of crude
brick in the ruins at Zagazig. In the hawk cemeteries birds
were pickled and buried in long bundles, forming sometimes
an assortment that is not without incongruities from the
naturalist's point of view. From a few of these bundles may
be extracted not only numbers of raptorial birds, large and small,
including owls, but also the hawk-like cuckoo, the shrike, and
even the swallow. The larger animals were represented in
mummies by the head and a selection of the bones. Bones of
bulls and male calves, especially crania, were collected and
formed into huge ox-like mummies.
What the Egyptians really thought of mummification can
only be partially guessed. Custom, changing in some degree
from century to century, governed their practice, and no doubt
was regulated by the priests. At first the luxury of mummifi-
cation was reserved for the king, who was identified with Osiris
and was buried with an abundance of ritual and magic words.
But the king required his courtiers, and his courtiers in turn
needed their servants in permanent attendance. Partly in
consequence of this, the deification of the king, with all its
concomitants, was gradually extended through the ranks of the
noble and wealthy until it came within the reach of the humblest,
and even animals shared the honour of deification after death.
Finally, in a papyrus of the Roman age, the word "god" is
practically denned as "buried," i.e. with due rites. Beliefs
regarding the gods and life after death were self-contradictory
and variable, but none interfered with the custom of preserving
the body. It was always the prayer that the soul (bai) should
be able to revisit the corpse (khat), and some inscriptions show
an expectation of the body itself being revivified, " the mouth
speaking," "the legs walking," and everything conforming
with its previous terrestrial life. At the same time the ko
("life," "activity," and almost "ghost,") which clung to the
neighbourhood of the tomb and enjoyed the ghosts of offerings
in ghostly fashion, had some of the independent enterprise
which the bai possessed in abundance. The mummified corpse
as a divine thing not the mere khat was called the sahu (an
old word meaning "noble") or ikh, which in the latter period
meant a spirit or demon. As the corpse was found generally
to disappear and decay in spite of preservative magic, especially
in the early ages, various substitutes were resorted to; statues
and statuettes were thought efficacious, but, apart from their
costliness, even these were subject to decay or destruction by
violence, and in the absence of anything more substantial the
Egyptians doubtless reflected that magic words alone in the
last resort made everything right.
Under the Old Kingdom the attendance on and services for
a dead magnate the sacrifices and libations at his tomb were
left, together with endowments, to a staff of priests, called
"servants of the ko(ka)," whose offices were hereditary. This
system led to disputes and neglect, and was so unworkable
that we find in the texts of the Middle Kingdom the whole
responsibility put upon one well-endowed "ko-servant," who
passed on his office to a single heir. How these things were
managed during the New Kingdom we do not know. In the
last thousand years B.C. the life of the Egyptians consisted
largely in every kind of religious and superstitious observances.
Papyri of the Ptolemaic age or somewhat earlier afford much
information about the people of the necropolis. In this age the
choachytae, as the Greeks called them ("libation priests," or
"shrine-openers" in Egyptian), belonged to an inferior grade
of the priesthood, equivalent to the pastophori of the deities,
and were organized in gilds for the different cemeteries. A
single choachyte would have an interest, not always the sole
interest, in a large number of mummies, and these interests
could be disposed of by will or contract, bought and sold. The
taricheutae, or embalmers, had no permanent interest in the
mummies they prepared.
Thanks to the great care expended on the preservation of the
royal dead, although the mummies of all the other kings have
disappeared, a wonderful series of the Theban kings and queens
of the New Kingdom from the XVIIth Dynasty to the XXIst
9 68
MUMPS
Dynasty has come down to us. It comprises some of the most
notable figures in Egyptian history Ahmosi (Amasis) I., who
freed Egypt from the Hyksos, Tethmosis I. and III., the con-
querors of Syria and makers of the empire, Amenophis III.,
the great builder, whose likeness is preserved in the colossi of
Memnon, probably also his son, Amenophis IV. (Akhenaton),
the heretic king, and Seti (Sethos) I. and his son Rameses II.
The mummy of Seti I. is in the finest possible preservation,
but others, after being brutally plundered, were rewrapped
by the piety of later generations.
In Lower Egypt practically all the mummies have perished ; but
in Upper Egypt, as they were put out of reach of the inundation,
the cemeteries, in spite of rifling and burning, yield immense
numbers of preserved bodies and skeletons; attention has from
time to time been directed to the scientific examination of these
in order to ascertain race, cause of death, traces of accident or
disease, and the surgical or medical processes which they had
undergone during life, &c. This department of research has
been greatly developed by Dr Elliott Smith in Cairo. He has
examined not only the more recently found of the royal mum-
mies, but also multitudes of skeletons, &c., which have been
brought from the official excavations of the government and
from other work. His researches, in particular instances,
prove their high importance for the history of disease, for
characterization of the races inhabiting Egypt, and in other
ways. The cemeteries just south of the First Cataract on a
first examination reveal a prehistoric race of Egyptian type, a
group of male negro mercenaries, a group of male prisoners
executed by hanging during the New Kingdom, while from a
necropolis of Christian foreigners of about the 6th century
comes the first instance of gout in an ancient body from Egypt.
Among the prehistoric people are many female skeletons with a
fractured right ulna sustained in warding off blows, and some
of these women had died while still wearing splints. Circum-
cision is traceable on all the male bodies which are in a state
to show its effects. The royal mummies furnish evidence of
age at death as well as of health and physical character. A series
of forty-four mummies of priests and priestesses of the XXIst
Dynasty furnished the material for an important monograph.
Earlier, the processes of mummification produced a skeleton
merely clothed in a dry and shrunken skin. At this time,
however, the flesh was replaced by a stuffing of sawdust, sand,
or other lasting material, introduced with great skill through a
few incisions and apertures, so that the natural forms were
completely restored. The heart was left in place, but the liver,
lungs, stomach and intestines were pickled and wrapped
separately and then restored to the body cavity. Later, the
form was reproduced by elaborate external wrappings of the
different parts of the body before the final swathing; later
still, in the Ptolemaic age, by coarse padding with plenty of
linen and pitch. The XXIst Dynasty marks the highest level
of the art. The Christians of the early centuries, looking for
corporeal resurrection, avoided the incisions, extraction of
organs, &c., practised by their pagan forefathers, and buried
the body entire after pickling it in salt. Their stricter leaders,
however, objected to a custom which so easily led to the worship
of relics and the continuance of pagan observances; and with
the advent of Islam embalming fell into disuse.
Outside Egypt mummification was practised amongst the
ancient Peruvians, who took advantage of the desiccating
atmosphere and salt soil of their caves for preserving the dead
in good condition without any embalming process. Among
the Guanches of the Canary Islands, however, the Egyptian
methods of emptying the body and padding he skin were closely
paralleled.
A word may be added about the use of mummy in medicine.
The name, as has been pointed out above, is derived from the
Persian mumiai, meaning pitch or asphalt, which substance
occurs frequently in the prescriptions of the Greek and Roman
medical writers. Medieval physicians in the East conceived
the happy idea that the highest virtue would exist in that which
had been already employed by the Egyptian priests in preserving
the human body. Thus the bituminous and fatty matters
found about the mummies and their wrappings were employed
as a sovereign remedy, particularly for wounds and contusions,
and a brisk trade began in these " exudations " of mummies.
This led further to the medicinal use of fragments of the
mummies themselves; and, finally, the starting-point was lost
sight of, so that the dried or prepared flesh of criminals
became one of the standard forms of mummy in the pharma-
copoeia. It was not till the i8th century that the importance
of mummy in all its forms waned, and in some of the least
progressive quarters of central Europe it survived even to the
middle of the ipth.
See T. J. Pettigrew, A History of Egyptian Mummies (London,
1834) ; G. Elliott Smith, A Contribution to the Study of Mummification
in Egypt (Cairo, 1906); The Archaeological Survey of Nubia Bulletins
(Cairo, 1908 seq.); Dr Lortet and M. C. Gaillard, La Faune momifiee
de I'ancienne Egypte (Lyons, 1905); A. Wiedemann, " Mumie als
Heilmittel," in Zeitschrift des Vereins fur rheinische und westfdlische
Volkskunde (1906). (F. LL. G.)
MUMPS (syn. Cynanche parotidaea, parotitis; also, " The
Branks "), a specific infectious disease characterized by inflam-
matory swelling of the parotid and other salivary glands, fre-
quently occurring as an epidemic, and affecting mostly young
persons. The name " mumps " (O. Eng. " to mump," meaning to
sulk) originated, no doubt, in the patient's appearance. The
disease generally sets in with symptoms of a cold or catarrh
accompanied with slight febrile disturbance; but soon the
nature of the ailment is announced by the occurrence of swelling
and stiffening in the region of the parotid gland in front of the
ear. The swelling speedily increases in size and spreads down-
wards towards the neck and under the jaw, involving the
numerous glands in that locality. The effect is to produce
much disfigurement, which becomes still greater should the
inflammation spread, as often happens, to the glands on the
other side of the face and neck. Pain is present in the swollen
parts, but it is seldom severe, nor is there much redness or
any tendency to suppuration. There is, however, considerable
interference with the acts of mastication and swallowing. After
continuing for four or five days the swelling and otht r symptoms
abate, and the parts are soon restored to their normal condition.
During the period of convalescence there occasionally occur
some swelling and tenderness m other glands, such as the
testicles in males (orchitis), and the mammae or ovaries (oopher-
itis) in females, and possibly involvement of the pancreas, but
these are of short duration and usually of no serious significance.
Mumps is in general a mild disease, and requires little treatment
beyond a gentle laxative, the application of warm fomentations
to the swollen and painful parts, the use of soft food, and rest.
END OF EIGHTEENTH VOLUME
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